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was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting; although his neck was thick and somewhat short, and his belly rather prominent; but the symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led one to expect.''
The Roman tradition of realistic personal portraiture was in complete eclipse at this time, where individual traits were submerged in [[icon]]ic typecastings. Charlemagne, as an ideal ruler, ought to be portrayed in the corresponding fashion, any contemporary would have assumed. The images of enthroned Charlemagne, God's representative on Earth, bear more connections to the icons of [[Christ]] in majesty than to modern (or antique) conceptions of portraiture. Charlemagne in later imagery (as in the [[Dürer]] portrait) is often portrayed with flowing blond hair, due to a misunderstanding of Einhard, who describes Charlemagne as having ''canitie pulchra'', or "beautiful white hair", which has been rendered as blonde or fair in many translations. The [[Latin]] word for blond is ''flavus'', and ''rutilo'', meaning ''auburn'', is the word [[Tacitus]] uses for the Germans' hair.
===Dress===
Charlemagne wore the traditional, inconspicuous, and distinctly non-aristocratic costume of the Frankish people, described by Einhard thus:
:''He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Frank, dress-next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet, and he protected his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skins.''
He accessorised too, wearing a blue cloak and always carrying a sword with him. The typical sword was of a [[gold]]en or [[silver]] hilt. However, he wore fancy jewelled swords to banquets or ambassadorial receptions. Nevertheless:
:''He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman tunic, chlamys, and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope Hadrian, the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's successor.''
He could rise to the occasion when necessary. On great feast days, he wore embroidery and jewels on his clothing and shoes. He had a golden buckle for his cloak on such occasions and would appear with his great [[diadem]], but he despised such apparel, according to Einhard, and usually dressed as the common people.
==Life==
Much of what is known of Charlemagne's life comes from his biographer, [[Einhard]], who wrote a ''Vita Caroli Magni'' (or ''Vita Karoli Magni''), the ''Life of Charlemagne''.
===Early life===
Charlemagne was the eldest child of Pippin the Short ([[714]] – [[24 September]] 768, reigned from 751) and his wife [[Bertrada of Laon]] ([[720]] – [[12 July]] [[783]]), daughter of [[Caribert of Laon]] and [[Bertrada of Cologne]]. The reliable records name only [[Carloman, son of Pippin III|Carloman]] and [[Gisela]] as his younger siblings. Later accounts, however, indicate that [[Redburga]], wife of King [[Egbert of Wessex]], might have been his sister (or sister-in-law or niece), and the legendary material makes him [[Roland]]'s maternal nephew through [[Lady Bertha]].
Einhard says of the early life of Charles:
:''It would be folly, I think, to write a word concerning Charles' birth and infancy, or even his boyhood, for nothing has ever been written on the subject, and there is no one alive now who can give information on it. Accordingly, I determined to pass that by as unknown, and to proceed at once to treat of his character, his deed, and such other facts of his life as are worth telling and setting forth, and shall first give an account of his deed at home and abroad, then of his character and pursuits, and lastly of his administration and death, omitting nothing worth knowing or necessary to know.''
This article follows that general format.
On the death of Pippin, the kingdom of the Franks was divided—following tradition—between Charlemagne and Carloman. Charles took the outer parts of the kingdom, bordering on the sea, namely [[Neustria]], western [[Aquitaine]], and the northern parts of [[Austrasia]], while Carloman retained the inner parts: southern Austrasia, [[Septimania]], eastern Aquitaine, [[Burgundy]], [[Provence]], and [[Swabia]], lands bordering on [[Italy]]. Perhaps Pippin regarded Charlemagne as the better warrior, but Carloman may have regarded himself as the more deserving son, being the son, not of a mayor of the palace, but of a king.
===Joint rule===
On [[9 October]], immediately after the funeral of their father, both the kings withdrew from [[Saint Denis]] to be proclaimed by their nobles and consecrated by their bishops, Charlemagne in [[Noyon]] and Carloman in [[Soissons]].
The first event of his reign was the rising of the Aquitainians and [[Gascon]]s, in [[769]], in that territory split between the two kings. Pippin had killed in war the last [[duke of Aquitaine]], [[Waifer of Aquitaine|Waifer]]. Now, one [[Hunald of Aquitaine|Hunold]]—perhaps the same Hunold who was father to Waifer, but perhaps someone else—led the Aquitainians as far north as [[Angoulême]]. Charlemagne met Carloman, but Carloman refused to participate and returned to Burgundy. Charlemagne went on the warpath, leading an army to [[Bordeaux]], where he set up a camp at Fronsac. Hunold was forced to flee to the court of Duke [[Lop II of Gascony|Lupus II of Gascony]]. Lupus, fearing Charlemagne, turned Hunold over in exchange for peace. He was put in a monastery. Aquitaine was finally fully subdued by the Franks.
The brothers maintained not-so-friendly, not-so-hateful relations with the assistance of their mother Bertrada, but Charlemagne signed a treaty with Duke [[Tassilo III of Bavaria]] and married [[Gerperga]], daughter of King [[Desiderius]] of the [[Lombards]], in order to surround Carloman with his own allies. Though [[Pope Stephen III]] first opposed the marriage with the Lombard princess, he would have little to fear of a Frankish-Lombard alliance in a few months.
Charlemagne repudiated his wife and quickly married another, a Swabian named [[Hildegard of Savoy|Hildegard]]. The repudiated Gerperga returned to her father's court at [[Pavia]]. The Lombard's wrath was now aroused and he would gladly have allied with Carloman to defeat Charles. But before war could break out, Carloman died on [[5 December]] [[771]]. Carloman's wife [[Gerberga]] (perhaps a daughter of Desiderius herself) fled to Desiderius' court with her sons for protection. This action is usually considered either a sign of Charlemagne's enmity or Gerberga's confusion.
===Conquest of Lombardy===
[[Image:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|The Frankish king Charlemagne was a devout Catholic who maintained a close relationship with the papacy throughout his life. In [[772]], when [[Pope Hadrian I]] was threatened by invaders, the king rushed to Rome to provide assistance. Shown here, the pope asks Charlemagne for help at a meeting near Rome.]]
At the succession of Pope [[Hadrian I]] in 772, he demanded the return of certain cities in the former [[exarchate of Ravenna]] as in accordance with a promise of Desiderius' succession. Desiderius instead took over certain papal cities and invaded the [[Pentapolis]], heading for [[Rome]]. Hadrian sent embassies to Charlemagne in [[Autumn]] requesting he enforce the policies of his father, Pippin. Desiderius sent his own embassies denying the pope's charges. The embassies both met at [[Thionville]] and Charlemagne upheld the pope's side. Charlemagne promptly demanded what the pope had demanded and Desiderius promptly swore never to comply. The invasion was not short in coming. Charlemagne and his uncle [[Bernhard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]] crossed the [[Alps]] in [[773]] and chased the Lombards back to [[battle of Pavia (773)|Pavia, which they then besieged]]. Charlemagne temporarily left the siege to deal with [[Adelchis, son of Desiderius]], who was raising an army at [[Verona]]. The young prince was chased to the [[Adriatic]] littoral and he fled to [[Constantinople]] to plead for assistance from [[Constantine V|Constantine V Copronymus]], who was waging war with the [[Bulgars]].
The siege lasted until the [[spring]] of 774, when Charlemagne visited the pope in Rome. There he confirmed his father's grants of land, with some later chronicles claiming—falsely—that he also expanded them, granting [[Tuscany]], [[Emilia]], [[Venice]], and [[Corsica]]. The pope granted him the title ''[[patrician]]''. He then returned to Pavia, where the Lombards were on the verge of surrendering.
In return for their lives, the Lombards surrendered and opened the gates in early [[summer]]. Desiderius was sent to the [[abbey]] of [[Corbie]] and his son Adelchis died in Constantinople a patrician. Charles, unusually, had himself crowned with the [[Iron Crown of Lombardy|Iron Crown]] and made the magnates of Lombardy do homage to him at Pavia. Only Duke [[Arechis II of Benevento]] refused to submit and proclaimed independence. Charlemagne was now master of Italy as king of the Lombards. He left Italy with a garrison in Pavia and few Frankish counts in place that very year.
There was still instability, however, in Italy. In [[776]], Dukes [[Hrodgaud]] of [[Friuli]] and [[Gisulf of Spoleto]] rebelled. Charlemagne whisked back from [[Saxony]] and defeated the duke of Friuli in battle. The duke was slain. The duke of Spoleto signed a treaty. Their co-conspirator, Arechis, was not subdued and Adelchis, their candidate in [[Byzantium]], never left that city. Northern Italy was now faithfully his.
===Saxon campaigns===
Charlemagne was engaged in almost constant battle throughout his |
as the recognition of separate species has occurred relatively recently.
Although hybrids between different animal genera are usually impossible, in 1978 at [[Chester Zoo]], an Asian elephant cow gave birth to a hybrid calf sired by an African elephant bull (the old terms are used here as this pre-dates current classifications). The pair had mated several times, but pregnancy was believed to be impossible. "Motty", the resulting hybrid male calf, had an African elephant's cheek, ears (large with pointed lobes) and legs (longer and slimmer), but the toenail numbers, (5 front, 4 hind) and the single trunk finger of an Asian elephant. The wrinkled trunk was like an African elephant. The forehead was sloping with one dome and two smaller domes behind it. The body was African in type, but had an Asian-type centre hump and an African-type rear hump. Sadly the calf died of infection 12 days later. It is preserved as a mounted specimen at the British Natural History Museum, London. There are unconfirmed rumours of three other hybrid elephants born in zoos or circuses, all are said to have been deformed and did not survive.
===Diet===
[[Image:Baby_elephants3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Female [[African]] Elephant with calf, in [[Kenya]].]]
Elephants are [[herbivore]]s, spending 16 hours a day collecting plant food. Their diet is at least 50% grasses, supplemented with leaves, twigs, bark, roots, and small amounts of fruits, seeds and flowers. Because elephants only digest 40% of what they eat, they have to make up for their digestive system's lack of efficiency in volume. An adult elephant can consume 300 to 600 pounds (140 to 270 kg) of food a day. 60% of that food leaves the elephant's body undigested.
===Social behavior===
Elephants live in a very structured social order. The social lives of male and female elephants are very different. the females spend their entire lives in tightly knit family groups made up of mothers, daughters, sisters, and aunts. These groups are led by the eldest female, or matriarch. Adult males, on the other hand, live mostly solitary lives.
The social circle of the female elephant does not end with the small family unit. In addition to encountering the local males that live on the fringes of one or more groups, the female's life also involves interaction with other families, clans, and subpopulations. Most immediate family groups range from five to fifteen adults, as well as a number of immature males and females. When a group gets too big, a few of the elder daughters will break off and form their own small group. They remain very aware of which local herds are relatives and which are not.
The life of the adult male is very different. As he gets older, he begins to spend more time at the edge of the herd, gradually going off on his own for hours or days at a time. Eventually, days become weeks, and somewhere around the age of fourteen, the mature male, or bull, sets out from his natal group for good. While males do live primarily solitary, lives, they will occasionally form loose associations with other males. These groups are called bachelor herds. The males spend much more time than the females fighting for dominance with each other. Only the most dominant males will be permitted to breed with cycling females. The less dominant ones must wait their turn. It is usually the older bulls, forty to fifty years old, that do most of the breeding. The dominance battles between males can look very fierce, but typically they inflict very little injury. Most of the bouts are in the form of aggressive displays and bluffs. Ordinarily, the smaller, younger, and less confident animal will back off before any real damage can be done. However, during the breeding season, the battles can get extremely aggressive, and the occasional elephant is injured. During this season, known as musth, a bull will fight with almost any other male it encounters, and it will spend most of its time hovering around the female herds, trying to find a receptive mate.
===Reproduction===
*Females (cows) reach sexual maturity at around 9-12 years of age and become pregnant for the first time, on average, around age 13. They can reproduce until ages 55-60.
*Females give birth at intervals of about every 5 years.
*An elephant's [[gestation]] period lasts about 22 months (630-660 days), the longest gestation period of any mammal, after which one calf typically is born. Twins are rare.
*Labor ranges in length from 5 minutes to 60 hours. The average length of labor is 11 hours.
*At birth, calves weigh around 90-115 kilograms (200-250 pounds), and they gain 1 kilogram (2-2.5 pounds) a day.
*In the wild, the mother is accompanied by other adult females (aunts) that protect the young.
*In the wild, baby elephants are raised and nurtured by the whole family group, practically from the moment they are born.
===Motherhood and calf rearing===
*The first sound a newborn calf usually makes is a sneezing or snorting sound to clear its [[nasal passages]] of [[fluids]]. (In the first few minutes after a captive birth, the keepers must monitor the calf closely for the first sound or movement. Whichever happens first, the mother typically responds to her new baby with surprise and excitement.)
*With the help of its mother, a newborn calf usually struggles to its feet within 30 minutes of birth. For support, it will often lean on its mother's legs.
*A newborn calf usually stands within one hour and is strong enough to follow its mother in a slow-moving herd within a few days.
*Unlike most mammals, female elephants have a single pair of [[mammary glands]] located just behind the front legs. When born, a calf is about 3 feet (90 cm) high, just tall enough to reach its mother's nipples.
*A calf suckles with its mouth, not its trunk, which has no [[muscle tone]]. To clear the way to its mouth so it can suckle, the calf will flop its trunk onto its forehead.
*A newborn calf suckles for only a few minutes at a time but will suckle many times per day, consuming up to 11 litres (3 gallons) of milk in a single day.
*A calf may nurse for up to 2 years of age or older. Complete [[weaning]] depends on the disposition of the mother, the amount of available milk, and the arrival of another calf.
*Newborn calves learn primarily by observing adults, not from natural [[instinct]]. For example, a calf learns how to use its trunk by watching older elephants using their trunks.
*It takes several months for a calf to control the use of its trunk. This can be observed as the calf trips over its trunk or as the trunk wiggles like a rubbery object when the calf shakes its head.
==Usefulness to the environment==
Elephants' foraging activities help to maintain the areas in which they live:
*By pulling down trees to eat leaves, breaking branches, and pulling out roots they create clearings in which new young trees and other vegetation grow to provide future nutrition for elephants and other organisms.
*Elephants make pathways through the environment that are used by other animals to access areas normally out of reach. The pathways have been used by several generations of elephants, and today people are converting many of them to paved roads.
*During the dry season elephants use their tusks to dig into [[dry river beds]] to reach underground sources of water. These newly dug water holes may become the only source of [[water]] in the area.
*Elephants are a species upon which many other organisms depend. For example, [[termites]] eat elephant feces and often begin construction of termite mounds under piles of feces.
==Threat of extinction==
The threat to the African elephant presented by the ivory trade is unique to the species. Another threat to elephant's survival in general is the ongoing cultivation of their habitats with increasing risk of conflicts of interest with human cohabitants. Lacking the massive tusks of its African cousins, the Asian elephant's demise can be attributed mostly to loss of its habitat.
As larger patches of forest disappear, the ecosystem is affected in profound ways. The trees are responsible for anchoring soil and absorbing water runoff. Floods and massive erosion are common results of deforestation. Elephants need massive tracts of land because, much like the slash-and-burn farmers, they are used to crashing through the forest, tearing down trees and shrubs for food and then cycling back later on, when the area has regrown. As forests are reduced to small pockets, elephants become part of the problem, quickly destroying all the vegetation in an area, eliminating all their resources.
Larger, long-lived, slow-breeding animals, like the elephant, are more susceptible to overhunting, than other animals. They cannot hide, and it takes many years for an elephant to grow and reproduce. An elephant needs an average of three hundred pounds of vegetation a day to survive. As large predators are hunted, the local small grazer populations (the elephant's food competitors) find themselves on the rise. The increased number of herbivores ravage the local trees, shrubs, and grasses.
===National Parks===
Africa's first official reserve eventually became one of the world's most famous and successful national parks. [[Kruger National Park]] in South Africa first became a reserve against great opposition in 1898 (then Sabi Reserve). It was deproclaimed and reproclaimed several times before it was renamed and granted national park status in 1926. It was to be the first of many.
Of course, there were many problems in establishing these reserves. For example, elephants range through a wide tract of land with little regard for national borders. however, when most parks were created, the boundaries were drawn at the man-made borders of individual countries. Once a fence was erected, many animals found themselves cut off from their winter feeding grounds or spring breeding areas. Some animals died as a result, while some, like the ele |
lling interest in the [[Milwaukee Road]], merging it into its system on [[January 1]], [[1986]]. In 1987 most of CPR's trackage in the [[Great Lakes]] region, including much of the original Soo Line, were spun off into a new railway, the [[Wisconsin Central]], which was subsequently purchased by [[Canadian National Railway|CN]]. Influenced by the [[Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] of 1989 which liberalized [[trade]] between the two nations, the CPR's expansion continued during the early 1990s: CP Rail gained full control of the Soo Line in 1990, and bought the [[Delaware and Hudson Railroad]] in 1991. These two acquisitions gave CP Rail routes to the major American cities of Chicago (via the Soo Line) and New York City (via the D&H).
During the next few years CP Rail downsized its route, and several Canadian [[branch line]]s, including all of its lines east of [[Montreal]] (including the entire line to the port of Saint John), were either sold to [[short line railroad|short line]]s or abandoned. Both CP Rail and CN attempted unsuccessfully to buy out the eastern assets of the other, so as to permit further rationalization.
Finally, in 1996, reflecting the increased importance of western traffic to the railway, CP Rail moved its head office to [[Calgary]] from [[Montreal]] and changed its name back to Canadian Pacific Railway. A new [[subsidiary]] company, the [[St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway]], was created to operate its money-losing lines in eastern [[North America]], covering [[Quebec]], Southern and [[Eastern Ontario]], trackage rights to [[Chicago, Illinois]], as well as the [[Delaware and Hudson Railway]] in the [[U.S. Northeast]]. However, the new subsidiary, threatened with being sold off and free to innovate, quickly spun off losing track to short lines, instituted scheduled freight service, and produced an unexpected turn-around in profitability. After only four years, CPR revised its opinion and the StL&H formally reamalgamated with its parent on [[January 1]], [[2001]].
In 2001, the CPR's parent company, [[Canadian Pacific Limited]], spun out its five subsidiaries, including the CPR, into independent companies.
On [[October 31]] [[2005]], CPR announced that [[Fred Green (CP)|Fred Green]] will succeed [[Robert J. Ritchie]] as president of the railroad effective [[November 1]]. Ritchie will continue as CEO of the corporation.
==Freight trains==
[[Image:Carlb-brockville-cptrain.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An old CPR [[caboose]] on display at [[Brockville, Ontario]]]]
Over half of the Canadian Pacific Railway's freight traffic is in [[coal]], grain, and [[intermodal freight transport|intermodal]] freight. It also ships automotive parts and automobiles, [[sulfur]], [[fertilizer]]s, other [[chemical]]s, forest products, and other types of commodities. The busiest part of its railway network is along its main line between [[Calgary]] and [[Vancouver]].
Since 1970, coal has become a major commodity hauled by CP Rail. Coal is shipped in [[unit train]]s from coal mines in the mountains, most notably [[Sparwood, British Columbia]] to terminals at [[Roberts Bank, British Columbia|Roberts Bank]] and [[North Vancouver, British Columbia|North Vancouver]], from where it is then shipped to [[Japan]]. The CPR hauls over 34 million tons of coal to the west coast each year.
Grain is hauled by the CPR from the prairies to ports at [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]] (the former [[Fort William, Ontario|Fort William]]) and [[Vancouver]], where it is then shipped overseas. Grain has always been a significant commodity hauled by the CPR; between 1905 and 1909, the CPR double-tracked its section of track between [[Fort William]] and [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] to facilitate grain shipments. For several decades this was the only long stretch of double track mainline outside of urban areas on the CPR.
In 1952, the CPR became the first [[North American]] railway to introduce intermodal or "piggyback" freight service, where truck trailers are carried on [[flat car]]s. In 1999, the CPR introduced a short-haul intermodal service between Montreal and [[Detroit]], called ''Expressway''.
==Passenger trains==
Until the end of [[World War II]], the train was the primary mode of long-distance transportation in [[Canada]]. Among the many types of people who rode CPR trains were new immigrants heading for the prairies, troops heading to war (especially during the two World Wars) and upper class tourists. To encourage tourism, the CPR built several hotels. It also custom-built many of its [[passenger car]]s at its Angus Shops so as to be able to meet the demands of the upper class.
After [[World War II]], passenger traffic declined as automobiles and aeroplanes became more common, but the CPR continued to innovate in an attempt to keep ridership up. On [[November 9]], [[1953]], the CPR introduced [[Budd Rail Diesel Car]]s, called "Dayliners" by the CPR, on some of its branch lines. On [[April 24]], [[1955]], the CPR introduced a new luxury transcontinental passenger train, ''The Canadian''. The train provided service between [[Vancouver]] and [[Toronto]] or [[Montreal]] (east of [[Sudbury, Ontario|Sudbury]], the train was in two sections). The train was pulled by [[diesel locomotives]], and used new, streamlined, stainless steel rolling stock.
Starting in the 1960s, however, the railway started to discontinue much of its passenger service, particularly on its branch lines. For example, passenger service ended on its line through southern [[British Columbia]] and [[Crowsnest Pass]] in January 1964, and on its [[Quebec Central]] in April 1967, and the transcontinental train ''The Dominion'' was dropped in January 1966. On [[October 29]], [[1978]], CP Rail transferred its passenger services to [[VIA Rail]], a new federal Crown corporation that was now responsible for intercity passenger services in Canada.
In addition to inter-city passenger services, the CPR also provided [[commuter rail]] services in Montreal. CP Rail introduced Canada's first bi-level passenger cars here in 1970. On [[October 1]], [[1982]], the [[Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission]] (MUCTC) assumed responsibility for the commuter services previously provided by CP Rail.
==Special trains==
===Silk trains===
Between the 1890s and the 1940s, the CPR transported raw [[silk]] cocoons from [[Vancouver]], where they had been shipped to from the [[Orient]], to silk mills in [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]]. A silk train could carry several million dollars worth of silk, so they had their own armed guards. To avoid train robberies and so minimise insurance costs, they travelled quickly and stopped only to change locomotives and crews, which was often done in under five minutes. The silk trains had superior rights over all other trains; even passenger trains would be put in sidings to make the silk trains' trip faster. At the end of [[World War II]], the invention of [[nylon]] made silk less valuable so the silk trains died out.
===Funeral trains===
[[Image:Johnamacdonaldfuneraltrain.jpg|thumb|Funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald]]
Funeral trains would carry the remains of important people, such as prime ministers. As the train would pass, mourners would be at certain spots to show respect. Two of the CPR's funeral trains are particularly well-known. On [[June 10]], [[1891]], the funeral train of [[Prime Minister]] [[Sir John A. Macdonald]] ran from Ottawa to [[Kingston, Ontario]]. The train consisted of five heavily draped passenger cars and was pulled by [[4-4-0]] No. 283. On [[September 14]], [[1915]], the funeral train of former CPR president [[Sir William Cornelius Van Horne]] ran from Montreal to [[Joliet, Illinois]], pulled by [[4-6-2]] No. 2213.
[[Image:Royaltrain-hopebc.jpg|thumb|125px|left|King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at [[Hope, British Columbia]]]]
===Royal trains===
The CPR ran a number of trains that transported members of the royal family when they visited Canada. These trains transported royalty through Canada's beautiful scenery, forests, small towns and enabled people to see and greet them. Their trains were elegantly decorated; some had amenities such as a post office and barber shop. The CPR's most notable royal train was also the last one it would run, in 1939.
In 1939 the CPR had the honour of giving [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Queen Elizabeth]] a rail tour of Canada, from Quebec City to Vancouver. This was the first visit to Canada by a reigning Monarch. The steam locomotive used to pull the train was numbered 2850, a Hudson ([[4-6-4]]) built by [[Montreal Locomotive Works]]. Specially painted in silver and blue, the locomotive ran 3,224 miles (5189 km) across Canada, through 25 changes of crew, without engine failure. The King, somewhat of a [[railbuff]], rode in the cab when possible. After the tour, King George gave the CPR permission to use the term "[[Royal Hudson]]" for these locomotives and to display Royal Crowns on their running boards. This applied only to the semi-streamlined locomotives (2820-2864), not the "standard" Hudsons (2800-2819).
===School cars===
Between 1926 and the early 1960s the CPR ran a school car to reach people who lived in Northern Ontario, far from [[school]]s. A teacher would travel in a specially designed car to remote areas and would stay to teach in one area for two to three days, then leave for another area. Each car had a blackboard and a few sets of chairs and desks. They also contained miniature libraries. These school cars were useful in spreading education and literacy.
===Holiday Train===
Starting in 1999, the CPR ran a Holiday Train along its main line during the months of November and December. The train celebrates the Christmas season and collects donations for community [[food bank]]s. The holiday train also provides publicity for the C |
Game Boy Advance]] and the reconciliation between Squaresoft and Nintendo, the WonderSwan Color and its successor, the [[Swan Crystal]] quickly lost its [[competitive advantage]].
===2000s===
====Game Boy Advance====
[[Image:93 phull.jpg|245px|right|thumb|The Game Boy Advance SP was a revision of the original Game Boy Advance]]
{{main|Game Boy Advance}}
In [[2001 in video gaming|2001]], Nintendo revealed the Game Boy Advance, which added two shoulder buttons, a larger screen, and more computing power. The design was further revised about two years later when the [[Game Boy Advance SP]], a compact "clamshell" (folding open and closed, like a briefcase) version, was released. It also had a frontlit color display and rechargeable battery. Despite its smaller size, the screen remained the same size as that of the [[Game Boy Advance]]. The GBA also introduced the concept of "connectivity", using the Game Boy as a controller for the [[Nintendo GameCube]]. A handful of games use this feature, most notably ''[[Final Fantasy: Crystal Chronicles]], ''[[Sonic Adventure 2: Battle]]'' and ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker]]''. As of 2005, there are three Game Boy Advance models: [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Game Boy Advance SP]], and [[Game Boy Micro]].The GBA,GBASP, and the Game Boy Micro had sold more than 70.04 million units sold worldwide so far.
====Gamepark 32====
[[Image:Gp32-flu.jpg|140px|right|thumb|GP32]]
{{main|GP32}}
The original GP32 was released in 2001 by the Korean company Gampark a few months after the launch of the Game Boy Advance. It featured a 32-bit CPU, 133 MHz processor, MP3 and Divx player, and e-book reader. The GP32 was redesigned in 2003. A front-lit screen was added and the new version was called GP32 FLU (Front Light Unit). In the summer of 2004 another redesign was made and this time a back-lit screen was added. It was called the GP32 BLU and it was the first redesign of the system officially released outside Korea (in Europe). While not a commercial success, it gained a cult following of developers and more [[Geek|technically-adept]] users. It was superceded by the [[GP2X]].<!--Only 30,000 units were sold and it ended up being used mainly as a platform for user-made applications and emulators of other systems.
Can we get a source for sales numbers before uncommenting the above? -->
====Nokia N-Gage====
[[Image:Nokia N-Gage.jpg|140px|right|thumb|N-gage]]
{{main|N-gage}}
In [[2003]], the [[Nokia]] N-Gage was released. It was designed as a combination mp3 player, cellphone, PDA, radio, and gaming device. The system received a lot of criticism on its physical design and layout, including its vertically oriented screen and requirement of removing the battery to change game cartridges. The most well known of these was "sidetalking", or the resultant effect of placing the phone speaker and receiver on an edge of the device instead of one of the flat sides. The N-Gage QD was later released to revise the design.
====Tapwave Zodiac====
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tapzodiac.jpg|right|thumb|Tapwave Zodiac]] -->
{{main|Tapwave Zodiac}}
In [[2004]], Tapwave released the Zodiac. It was designed to be a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]-handheld game console hybrid. It supported photos, movies, music, [[Internet]], and documents. It has the standard stuff any [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] comes with. Palm OS 5 hardware is compatible with the Zodiac. Two versions are available, differing in memory and looks. The Tapwave Zodiac was killed off in July of 2005.
====Nintendo DS====
{{main|Nintendo DS}}
[[Image:Nintendo ds touch.jpg|thumb|275px|The Nintendo DS has two screens (one of which is a touchscreen), a microphone and wireless networking.]]
The Nintendo DS was released in [[November]], [[2004]]. Among its new features was the incorporation of two screens, as well as a [[touchpad|touch screen]] and wireless connectivity with other devices. The Nintendo DS comes with Dual screens using LCD screening. The two LCD screens offer one of the most groundbreaking gameplay advances ever developed.
The lower screen allows touch sensitivity which helps create an interactive environment for the gamer. The Nintendo DS comes with a stylus that is used on the touch screen and features a microphone port. The console also features online capabilities with the [[Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection]], the Local Wireless network can support 16 players. It also features Picto-Chat, which is a way to draw and communicate with other DS users. The DS has a separate port for the loading of [[Game Boy Advance]] games in singleplayer. The Nintendo DS has sold more than 14 million units worldwide in just over a year {{ref|dssales}} and reigns over all rivals, including the Sony PSP, in sales.
====Sony PSP====
{{main|PlayStation Portable}}
[[Image:Official psp01.jpg|thumb|200px|The PlayStation Portable can play music, movies, games, view JPEG pictures and browse on the web wirelessly.]]
[[Sony]]'s PlayStation Portable was first revealed at [[E³]] [[2004 in video gaming|2004]], and was released in Japan and North America in late [[2004 in video gaming|2004]] and early [[2005 in video gaming|2005]], respectively. Like previous competitors to the Game Boy, the PSP is also considerably superior in both processing power and screen quality, but inferior in battery life, price, and durability. Unlike previous competitors (except possibly the peripheral-happy [[Game Gear]]), the PSP includes several unusual features beyond gaming. The Sony PSP ultimately is more powerful than the Nintendo DS, but it is unable to top Nintendo's handheld dominance in software support or sales.
The PSP, as well as several other handhelds in this generation, is designed with an emphasis on [[convergence]], partially to help differentiate themselves from Nintendo's game-focused offerings. Sony, for example, has trumpeted the PSP's ability to play movies and music from the system's [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]] disks, or stored on a [[Memory Stick]]. Some of the games for the PSP, such as ''[[Wipeout Pure]]'', can use the PSP's web features to download new content. The PSP isn't the only converged game system; [[Nokia]]'s [[N-Gage]] (and its redesigned successor, the [[N-Gage QD]]), the [[Tapwave Zodiac]], and the Tiger Telematics [[Gizmondo]] include such unusual features as [[GSM]] [[cell phone]] functionality, [[GPRS]] cellular data networking, [[GPS]] receivers, [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] functionality, built-in [[digital camera]]s, and so on. To a lesser extent, the DS's unusual, albeit game-oriented, features or the movie-playing [[Play-Yan]] accessory for the DS and GBA SP could be seen as part of this trend.
It remains to be seen if this trend towards convergence is unique to this generation, or if it survives into the next.
====Tiger Telematics Gizmondo====
{{main|Gizmondo}}
Tiger's Gizmondo came out in the UK during [[March]] [[2005]] and it was released in the [[USA]] during [[October]] [[2005]]. It is designed to play music, movies, and games, have a camera for taking and storing photos, and have GPS funtions. It also has [[Internet]] capabilities. It will have a phone for sending text, multimedia, and email and voice calls will come via a [[Bluetooth]] headset.
====Gamepark Holdings GP2X====
{{main|GP2X}}
[[Image:GP2X.jpg|thumb|200px|The GP2X plays games and homebrew apps and also suports a wide range of audio, video and picture formats.]]
Released in November 2005, the GP2X is a handheld game console that uses the [[Linux]] operating system and is designed to support videos, music, photos, and games in an open architecture allowing any user to develop software for the device. Expandability for future upgrades (new media formats, features, operating system, etc) has been made possible by flash upgradable firmware.
The GP2X natively supports codecs and formats such as [[DivX]], [[XviD]], [[MP3]] and [[Vorbis|Ogg Vorbis]], but because the player is based on the open-source media player named mplayer, it will be easily possible to add other codecs unsupported at the launch. It is also expected to be able to emulate games for many systems, including the [[NES]], [[SMS]], [[PC Engine]], [[SNES]], and [[Sega Genesis]]. Since GP2X units were sent to some developers before the official commercial launch, there are projects of some emulators, like a [[Neo Geo CD]] emulator ported to GP2X by a Korean developer.
== List of handheld game consoles, notable features, and industry firsts ==
{{main|Comparison of handheld gaming consoles}}
<!-- Manufacturer [[Handheld]] (YEAR) - Firsts or connections to previous handhelds) -->
* Milton Bradley [[Microvision]] (1979)
* Nintendo [[Game & Watch]] (1980 - 1991) - Predecessor to Game Boy; is technically a [[handheld electronic game]]
* [[Atari Cosmos]] (unreleased, developed in 1979)
* [[Entex Adventure Vision]] (1982) First to have a monitor
* [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer]] - (1984) - Japanese only; not a success
* Nintendo [[Game Boy]] (1989) - First international commercial success
* [[Atari Lynx]] (1989) - First backlit screen
* [[NEC TurboExpress]] (1990, Japan; 1991, North America) - Played [[huCard]] ([[PC Engine]]/[[TurboGrafx-16]]) games, first console/handheld intercompatibility
* [[Sega Game Gear]] (1991) - Architecturally similar to [[Sega Master System]], notable accessory firsts include a [[TV tuner]]
* [[Supervision (handheld game console)|Supervision]] (1992)
* [[Sega Mega Jet]] (1992) - no screen, made for [[Japan Air Lines]]
* [[Nintendo Virtual Boy]] (1994) - Monochromatic (red only) 3D goggle set, only semi-portable; first [[3D computer graphics|3D]] portable
* [[Sega Nomad]] (1995) - Played normal [[Sega Genesis]] cartridges, albeit at lower resolution
* SNK [[Neo Geo Pocket]] (1996) - Unrelated to [[Neo Geo]] consoles or arcade systems save for name
* [[Game Boy Pocket]] (1996) - Slimmer redesign of Game Boy
* Tiger [[ |
ory:African-American singers|Benson, George]]
[[Category:American composers|Benson, George]]
[[Category:American jazz singers|Benson, George]]
[[Category:American singer-guitarists|Benson, George]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Benson, George]]
[[Category:Jehovah's Witnesses people]]
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Benson, George]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Benson, George
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American singer-guitarist
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 22]] [[1943]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[de:George Benson]]
[[fr:George Benson]]
[[nl:George Benson]]
[[pl:George Benson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grigory Barenblatt</title>
<id>12946</id>
<revision>
<id>38238216</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T01:42:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GIB-portrait.v.jpg|thumb|right| Grigory Barenblatt]]
'''Grigory Isaakovich Barenblatt''' (born [[July 10]], [[1927]]) is a [[Russians|Russian]] [[mathematician]]. He graduated in [[1950]] from [[Moscow State University|University of Moscow]], Department of Mechanics and Mathematics. He received his Ph.D. in [[1953]] from University of Moscow under the supervision of [[A. N. Kolmogorov]]. He also received a D.Sc. from University of Moscow in [[1957]]. He is a Professor in Residence at the Department of Mathematics of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and Mathematician at Department of Mathematics, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]. He was [[G. I. Taylor]] Professor of [[Fluid Mechanics]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] from [[1992]] to [[1994]] and he has been Emeritus G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics since then.
His areas of research are:
# [[Fracture mechanics]]
# The theory of [[fluid]] and [[gas]] [[flow]]s in [[porosity|porous media]]
# The [[mechanics]] of a non-classical deformable [[solid]]s
# [[Turbulence]]
# [[Self-similarity|Self-similarities]], [[nonlinear wave]]s and [[intermediate asymptotics]].
He usually publishes the result of his studies in the [http://www3.oup.co.uk/qjmamj/ Quarterly Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics].
His awards and honors include:
* [[1975]] &ndash; Foreign Honorary Member, American [[Academy of Arts & Sciences]]
* [[1984]] &ndash; Foreign Member, Danish Center of Applied Mathematics & Mechanics
* [[1988]] &ndash; Foreign Member, Polish Society of Theoretical & Applied Mechanics
* [[1989]] &ndash; Doctor of Technology Honoris Causa at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
* [[1992]] &ndash; Foreign Associate, U.S. [[National Academy of Engineering]]
* [[1993]] &ndash; Fellow, [[Cambridge Philosophical Society]]
* [[1993]] &ndash; Member, Academia Europaea
* [[1994]] &ndash; Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; (since 1999, Honorary Fellow)
* [[1995]] &ndash; Lagrange Medal, Accademia Nazzionale dei Lincei
* [[1995]] &ndash; Modesto Panetti Prize and Medal
* [[1997]] &ndash; Foreign Associate, U.S. [[National Academy of Sciences]]
* [[1999]] &ndash; [[G. I. Taylor]] Medal, U.S. Society of Engineering Science
* [[1999]] &ndash; [[J. C. Maxwell]] Medal and Prize, International Congress for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
* [[2000]] &ndash; Foreign Member, [[Royal Society of London]]
* [[2005]] &ndash; [[Timoshenko Medal]], [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]], "for seminal contributions to nearly every area of solid and fluid mechanics, including fracture mechanics, turbulence, stratified flows, flames, flow in porous media, and the theory and application of intermediate asymptotics."
[[Category:1927 births|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:Living people|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:Russian mathematicians|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:21st century mathematicians|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Barenblatt, Grigory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical tense</title>
<id>12947</id>
<revision>
<id>41885916</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:28:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Supalognon</username>
<id>350076</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Grammatical '''tense''' is a way [[language]]s express the time at which an event described by a sentence occurs. In [[English language|English]], this is a property of a [[verb]] form, and expresses only time-related information.
Tense, along with [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical voice|voice]] and [[grammatical person|person]], are three ways in which verb forms are frequently characterized, in languages where those categories apply. There are languages (mostly [[isolating language]]s, like [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) where tense is not expressed anywhere in the verb or any auxiliaries, but only as adverbs of time, when needed for comprehension; and there are also languages (such as [[Russian language|Russian]]) where tense is not deemed very important and emphasis is instead placed on [[grammatical aspect|aspect]].
The exact number of tenses in a language is often a matter of some debate, since many languages include the state of certainty of the information, the frequency of the event, whether it is ongoing or finished, and even whether the information was directly experienced or gleaned from hearsay, as moods or tenses of a verb. Some grammarians consider these to be separate tenses, and some do not.
Tenses cannot be easily mapped from one language into another. While all languages have a "default" tense with a name usually translated as "present tense" (or "simple present"), the actual meaning of this tense may vary considerably. For example, the simple present tense in Spanish is often employed for continuous actions, where English would use a continuous phrase ("be doing"), and the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] present tense is actually best described as "non-past tense" because it's used also for future events.
==Compound tenses==
The more complex tenses in [[Indo-European]] languages are formed by combining a particular tense of the verb with certain [[auxiliary verb|verbal auxiliaries]], the most common of which are various forms of "be", various forms of "have", and modal auxiliaries such as English ''will''. Romance and Germanic languages often add "to hold", "to stand", "to go", or "to come" as auxiliary verbs. For example, Italian uses ''stare'' ("stand") with the present participle to indicate the present continuous. Portuguese uses ''ter'' ("have") with the past participle for the perfect tense. Swedish uses ''kommer att'' ("come to") for the simple future, and Spanish ''ir a'' ("go to") for the same. These constructions are often known as complex tenses or compound tenses (a more accurate technical term is [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] tenses).
Examples of some generally-recognized [[Indo-European]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] tenses using the verb "to go" are shown in the table below.
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center">
<tr align="center">
<td width="10%">'''tense'''</td>
<td width="10%">[[Germanic language|Germanic]]: [[English language|English]]:<br> '''''to go''''' </td>
<td width="10%">[[Romance language|Romance]]: [[Italian language|Italian]]:<br> '''''andare''''' </td>
<td width="10%">[[Germanic language|Germanic]]: [[Swedish language|Swedish]]:<br> '''''att g&aring;''''' </td>
<td width="10%">[[Finno-ugric|Finno-ugric]]: [[Finnish language|Finnish]]:<br> '''''menn&auml;''''' </td>
<td width="50%">'''notes'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>simple [[Present tense|present]]</td>
<td>''I go.''</td>
<td>''Vado.''</td>
<td>''Jag g&aring;r.''</td>
<td>''Menen.''</td>
<td>In most languages this is used for most present indicative uses. In English, it's used mainly to express habit or ability ("I play the guitar"). </td></tr>
<tr><td>present [[Progressive tense|continuous]]</td>
<td>''I am going.''</td>
<td>''Sto andando.''</td>
<td>''Jag g&aring;r.''</td>
<td>''Olen menossa.''</td>
<td>This form is prevalent in English to express current action, but is absent or rarer in other Indo-European languages, which prefer the simple present tense. Continuous is more an [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] than a tense and is included here only because of its prevalence in English to substitute for the Simple Present.</td></tr>
<tr><td>simple past ([[Preterite|preterite]], [[Imperfect tense|imperfect]])</td>
<td>''I went.''</td>
<td>''Andai.''</td>
<td>''Jag gick.''</td>
<td>''Menin.''</td>
<td>In English (unlike in some languages with [[aorist]] tenses), this implies that the action took place in the past and that it is ''not'' taking place now.</td>
<tr><td>simple [[Future tense|future]]</td>
<td>''I will go.''</td>
<td>''Andr&ograve;.''</td>
<td>''Jag ska g&aring;.''</td>
<td>''Menen.''</td>
<td>This can be used to express intention, prediction, and other senses. In Finnish, the future tense i |
ew.
''Man a Machine'' by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge. [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his [[rational ethics]].
[[Denis Diderot|Diderot]] proved the [[dynamic philosophé]], presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.
Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d'Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.
With ''Man a Machine'', La Mettrie opposed [[René Descartes|Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and Isaac Newton, with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.
He agreed with the idea of Locke that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.
To La Mettrie, the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working. La Mettrie's [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.
However, La Mettrie left many questions unanswered.
[[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]]. He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all ([[Bellum omnium contra omnes]]). His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world. Helvetius created his [[Rational Ethics]] (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain. He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number, this being best achieved by universal education and an enlightened legislation.
[[Denis Diderot|Diderot]]'s dynamic nature told him that things do not just change; things change for the better. This novelist, art critic and editor of the most famous product of [[the Enlightenment]], [[Encyclopédie|The Great Encyclopedia]], saw nature as a totality of creative changes. Each of these changes reverberates through all of nature to maintain a constant newness. This view agreed with Diderot's idea of progress that concurred with Helvetius elimination of errors, but proposed that we should also expand and create new institutions. Diderot's [[psychology]] differed slightly from [[John Locke|Locke]]s as he saw the mind as active, forming general ideas then using those ideas to create more knowledge and ideas.
The Baron d'Holbach's [[System of Nature]] applied the [[Mechanistic Materialism]] to the whole of nature and proposed that [[consciousness]] has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts. d'Holbach thought it to be human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d'Holbach's notion of progress.
The Marquis de Concorcet's [[Sketch of Intellectual Progress]] popularized progress as a natural law and sketched the key to such progress to be the advancement of [[science]] and its application to [[government]] and [[social order]]. The first philosophé to call for [[gender equity]], Condorcet also stated that [[history]] was moving towards a goal which would be the outcome of the application of [[reason]], a sort of scientific [[utopia]].
Finally, the Physiocrats seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[France|French]] [[Economics|economy]]. To them, the problems of the [[Economics|economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]] that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land. They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered. The manufacturing class supported society with their goods. The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[Economics|economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations. They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].
[[Category:Philosophical movements]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February</title>
<id>10845</id>
<revision>
<id>42000762</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:32:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthonyken0109</username>
<id>906087</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{FebruaryCalendar}}
{{wiktionary}}
'''February''' is the [[second (disambiguation)|second]] [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. It is the shortest Gregorian month and the only month with the length of 28 or 29 days. The month has 29 days in [[leap years]], when the year number is divisible by four (except for years that are divisible by 100 and not by 400). In other years the month has 28 days. Leap year birthdays are usually held on the 28th when it's not leap year.
February begins, astronomically speaking, with the sun in the constellation of [[Capricornus]] and ends with the sun in the constellation of [[Aquarius]].
Astrologically speaking, February begins with the sun in the sign of [[Aquarius]] and ends in the sign of [[Pisces]].
February was probably named for the [[Roman Mythology|Roman god]] [[Februus]], the god of purification or the [[Roman Mythology|Roman god]] [[Juno Februata]] the goddess of passion. [[January]] and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered [[winter]] a monthless period. This change was made by [[Numa Pompilius]] about 700 BC in order to bring the calendar in line with a standard lunar year. Numa's Februarius contained 29 days (30 in a leap year). [[Augustus]] is alleged to have removed one day from February and added it to [[August]], (renamed from [[Sextilis]] to honor himself), so that [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[July]] would not contain more days. However there is little historical evidence to support this claim.
[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry f%C3%A9vrier.jpg|right|thumb|February, from the ''Très riches heures du duc de Berry'']]
February was nominally the last month of the Roman calendar, as the year originally began in [[March]]. At certain intervals Roman priests inserted an intercalary month, [[Mercedonius]], after February to realign the year with the [[season|seasons]].
Historical names for February include the [[Anglo-Saxon]] terms Solmoneth (mud month) and Kale-monath (named for cabbage) as well as [[Charlemagne]]'s designation Hornung. In [[Japanese calendar|old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''Kisaragi'' (&#22914;&#26376;, &#32121;&#26356;&#26376; or &#34915;&#26356;&#26376;). It is sometimes also called ''Mumetsuki'' (&#26757;&#35211;&#26376;) or ''Konometsuki'' (&#26408;&#30446;&#26376;). In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the month is called ''helmikuu'', meaning "month of the pearl".
February is recognized as [[Black History Month]] in the United States and Canada.
"February" is pronounced without the first r, as "Febuary", by many speakers. This is probably [[elision]], or an [[analogy|analogical]] change influenced by "January".
==Events in February==
*[[Black History Month]]
*[[Groundhog Day]] ([[February 2]])
*[[Mardi Gras]] (Sometime between [[February 3]] to [[March 9]] in non-leap years or [[February 4]] to [[March 9]] in leap years)
*[[Ash Wednesday]] (Sometime between [[February 4]] to [[March 10]])
*The [[Super Bowl]]
*[[NFL]] [[Pro Bowl]]
*[[NBA All-Star game]]
*[[Daytona 500]]
*[[Westminster Dog Show]]
*[[St. Valentine's Day]] ([[February 14]])
*[[Presidents' Day]] (3rd Monday of February), or Washington's Birthday ([[February 20]])
*Lincoln's Birthday ([[February 12]])
*Darwin Day celebration
*[[Constitution Day]] ([[Mexico]]) ([[February 5]])
*Carnaval (Celebrated before [[Lent]])
*American Heart Month
*[[Library]] Lovers Month
*National Condom Month
*National Wildbird Feeding Month
*The Great Backyard Bird Count
*National Hot Breakfast Month
*[[Imbolc]] [[February 2]]
*National Engineers Week (last full week of February)
==Trivia==
*February begins on the same day of the week as [[March]] and [[November]] in a [[common year]], and on the same day of the week as [[August]] in a [[leap year]].
*On a few occasions in history, February has had [[February 30|30 days]].
*February in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[August]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.
==See also==
*[[Historical anniversaries]]
==External links==
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_160.html The Straight Dope: How come February has only 28 days?]
{{months}}
[[Category:Months]]
[[ilo:Febrero]]
[[af:Februarie]]
[[ang:Solmōnaþ]]
[[ar:فبراير]]
[[an:Frebero]]
[[ast:Febreru]]
[[bg:Февруари]]
[[be:Люты]]
[[bs:Februar]]
[[br:C'hwevrer]]
[[ca:Febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero]]
[[cv:Нарăс]]
[[cs:Únor]]
[[cy:Chwefror]]
[[da:Februar]]
[[de:Februar]]
[[et:Veebruar]]
[[el:Φεβρουάριος]]
[[es:Febrero]]
[[eo:Februaro]]
[[eu:Otsail]]
[[fa:فوریه]]
[[fo:Februar]]
[[fr:Février]]
[[fy:Febrewaris]]
[[fur:Fevrâr]]
[[ga:Feabhra]]
[[gl:Febreiro]]
[[ko:2월]]
[[hr:Veljača]]
[[io:Februaro]]
[[id:Februari]]
[[ia:Februario]]
[[ie:Februar]]
[[is:Febrúar]]
[[it:Febbraio]]
[[he:פברואר]]
[[jv:Februari]]
[[kn:ಫೆಬ್ರವರಿ]]
[[ka:თებერვალი] |
. (These don't translate well into English.)
This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 US presidential election]],
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).
Note that this example is somewhat artificial, since the customary word for 'president' is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'', which is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi''.
The conditional forms are [[nonce words]], but their regular derivation ensures they are readily understood, even if rarely needed. No European language has conditional participles; in English, words like ''prezidunto'' must be expressed periphrastically.
Likewise, some Esperantists have proposed a tenseless partiple, though only for active-participle role. The element ''-ento'' is not officially a participle or even a separate morpheme, but it is very common and is sometimes regarded as a suffix. It frequently occurs in words for occupations where one would not wish to specify tense, such as ''prezidento'' or ''studento'' (student). Since there is often a verb derived from the same Latin root, in these cases ''prezidi'' (to preside) and ''studi'' (to study), this ''-ento'' has occasionally been proposed as a tense-neutral active participle by analogy with the temporal participles ''-anto, -into, -onto''.
However, even if the participial paradigm were to be extended in this way, it would be asymmetric in that there can be no direct passive counterpart to *''-ento'' because the expected ''-eto'' already exists as the diminutive suffix. The nearest equivalent is the [[middle voice]] suffix ''-iĝi,'' which is commonly used as a generic passive. Unlike the active case, where a few new nouns like ''prezidento'' were sufficient to avoid making the language overly specific, a need for a neutral passive participle was felt in the verbs. For example, there was heated debate for several decades as to whether "I was born in 19xx" should be ''mi estis naskita'' (I had been born) or ''mi estis naskata'' (literally 'I was being born'), with the French and Germans generally holding opposite opinions deriving from usage in their native languages. Today, people sidestep the issue with the temporally neutral ''mi naskiĝis'' (I was born).
== Negatives ==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Esperanto grammar#Correlatives|correlatives]]. Only one negative word is allowed per clause:
: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.
''*Mi ne faris nenion ajn'' (I didn't do nothing) is considered nonsensical.
The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates, with the default position being before the verb:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't me who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)
The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.
== Questions ==
''Main article: [[Interrogatives in Esperanto]]''
"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative (''ki-'') [[Esperanto grammar#Correlatives|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:
:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''
Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):
:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)
Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:
:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''&mdash; Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''&mdash; Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''&mdash; Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''&mdash; Malĝuste, mi iris'' (No, I did go)
Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.
== Conjunctions ==
Basic Esperanto [[conjunction]]s are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:
:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)
However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from Don Harlow:
:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)
==Interjections==
Since [[interjection]]s have no part-of-speech suffix, they may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).
== Word formation ==
:''Main article:'' '''[[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]'''
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.
==Numbers==
===Numerals===
The cardinal [[numerals]] are:
:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)
These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j'', just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''
===Higher numbers===
As in other languages, there are several systems for numbers above a million. A ''[[billion]]'' in the US and Russia is different from a ''billion'' in France and Germany (10<sup>9</sup> ''vs'' 10<sup>12</sup>; that is, a thousand million ''vs'' a million million), and Esperanto ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous. However, there is an additional unambiguous system:
:10<sup>6</sup>: ''miliono''
:10<sup>9</sup>: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:10<sup>12</sup>: ''duiliono''
:10<sup>15</sup>: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:10<sup>18</sup>: ''triiliono''
:10<sup>21</sup>: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''
Note that these are not numerals but nouns, and behave as such.
An additional unambiguous system is provided by the international set of metric prefixes, and occasionally the nonce numerals ''meg'' (miliono) and ''gig'' (miliardo) are derived from them.
===Compound numbers and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a'', quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o'', multiples with ''-obl-'', fractions with ''-on-'', collectives with ''-op-'', and repetitions with the root ''-foj-''.
:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score)
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)
The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently the [[logogram]] @ is not used (except in email addresses, of course),
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave them three apples each).
Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn'', so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.
|
r people to come to Christ."{{ref|dembski_morris}}
The two leading intelligent design proponents, Phillip Johnson and William Dembski, cite the Bible's [[Book of John]] as the foundation of intelligent design.{{ref|dembski_logos_john}}{{ref|johnson_john1}} Barbara Forrest contends that such statements reveal that leading proponents see intelligent design as essentially religious in nature, as opposed to a scientific concept that has implications with which their personal religious beliefs happen to coincide.{{ref|forrest_dembski_johnson_def}}
==Intelligent design controversy==
A key strategy of the intelligent design movement is in convincing the general public that there is a debate among scientists about whether life evolved, seeking to convince the public, politicians, and cultural leaders that schools should "[[teach the controversy]]."{{ref|Seattle}} However, there is no such controversy; the scientific consensus is that life evolved.{{ref|nabt_statement}}
The intelligent design controversy centers on three issues:
#Whether the definition of science is broad enough to allow for theories of origins which incorporate the acts of an intelligent designer
#Whether the evidence supports such theories
#Whether the teaching of such theories is appropriate and legal in public education
[[Natural science]] uses the [[scientific method]] to create ''[[a posteriori]]'' knowledge based on observation alone (sometimes called [[empiricism|empirical science]]). Intelligent design proponents seek to change this definition{{ref|forrest_redef}} by eliminating "[[methodology|methodological]] [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]]" from science{{ref|johnson_reason_balance}} and replacing it with what the leader of the intelligent design movement, [[Phillip E. Johnson]], calls "[[theistic realism]]",{{ref|johnson_theistic_realism}} and what critics call "methodological supernaturalism," which means belief in a transcendent, non-natural dimension of reality inhabited by a transcendent, non-natural deity. Intelligent design proponents argue that naturalistic explanations fail to explain certain phenomena, and that supernatural explanations provide a very simple and intuitive{{ref|id_intuitive}} explanation for the origins of life and the universe. Proponents say that evidence exists in the forms of [[irreducible complexity]] and [[specified complexity]] that cannot be explained by natural processes.
Supporters also hold that religious neutrality requires the teaching of both evolution and intelligent design in schools, saying that teaching only evolution unfairly discriminates against those holding creationist beliefs. [[teach the controversy|Teaching both]], intelligent design supporters argue, allows for the possibility of religious belief, without causing the state to actually promote such beliefs. Many intelligent design followers believe that "[[Scientism]]" is itself a religion that promotes [[secularism]] and [[materialism]] in an attempt to erase [[theism]] from public life, and view their work in the promotion of intelligent design as a way to return religion to a central role in education and other public spheres. Some allege that this larger debate is often the subtext for arguments made over intelligent design, though others note that intelligent design serves as an effective proxy for the religious beliefs of prominent intelligent design proponents in their efforts to advance their religious point of view within society.{{ref|belz_est}}{{ref|johnsone_reality_of_god}}{{ref|buell_hearn}}
According to critics, intelligent design has not presented a credible scientific case, and is an attempt to teach religion in public schools, which the [[United States Constitution]] forbids under the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment|Establishment Clause]]. They allege that intelligent design has substituted public support for scientific research.{{ref|giberson_bigbang}} Furthermore, if one were to take the proponents of "equal time for all theories" at their word, there would be no logical limit to the number of potential "theories" to be taught in the public school system, including admittedly silly ones like the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]] "theory." There are innumerable mutually-incompatible supernatural explanations for complexity, and intelligent design does not provide a mechanism for discriminating among them. Furthermore, intelligent design is neither observable nor repeatable, which critics argue violates the scientific requirement of [[falsifiability]]. Indeed, intelligent design proponent [[Michael Behe]] concedes "You can't prove intelligent design by experiment."{{ref|behe_time}}
Even though evolution theory does not explain [[abiogenesis]], the generation of life from nonliving matter, intelligent design proponents cannot ''infer'' that an intelligent designer is behind the part of the process that is not understood scientifically, since they have not shown that anything supernatural has occurred. The inference that an intelligent designer (a god or an alien life force){{ref|dembski_aliens}} created life on Earth has been compared to the ''[[a priori]]'' claim that aliens helped the ancient Egyptians build the pyramids.{{ref|pyramids_comp}}{{ref|dembski_goblins_built_pyramids}} In both cases, the effect of this outside intelligence is not repeatable, observable, or falsifiable, and it violates [[Occam's Razor]]. From a strictly [[empiricism|empirical]] standpoint, one may list what is known about Egyptian construction techniques, but must admit ignorance about exactly how the Egyptians built the pyramids. <!--paraphrasing [http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/22/mooney-c.html]: "intelligent design advocates don't always articulate precisely what sort of intelligence they think is the designer, but God &ndash; defined in a very nebulous way &ndash; generally out-polls ''extraterrestrials'' as the leading candidate."-->
Many religious people do not condone the teaching of what is considered unscientific or questionable material, and support [[theistic evolution]] which does not conflict with scientific theories. An example is [[Christoph Cardinal Schönborn|Cardinal Schönborn]] who sees "purpose and design in the natural world" yet has "no difficulty... with the theory of evolution [within] the borders of scientific theory".
===Can intelligent design be defined as science?===
The [[scientific method]] is based on an approach known as [[methodological naturalism]] to study and explain the natural world, without assuming the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural. Intelligent design proponents have often said that their position is not only scientific, but that it is even more scientific than evolution, and want a redefinition of science to allow "non-naturalistic theories such as intelligent design".{{ref|science_redef}} This presents a [[demarcation problem]], which in the [[philosophy of science]] is about how and where to draw the lines around science. For a theory to qualify as scientific it must be:
:* '''Consistent''' (internally and externally)
:* '''Parsimonious''' (sparing in proposed entities or explanations, see [[Occam's Razor]])
:* '''Useful''' (describes and explains observed phenomena)
:* '''Empirically testable & falsifiable''' (see [[Falsifiability]])
:* '''Based upon multiple observations,''' often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments
:* '''Correctable & dynamic''' (changes are made as new data are discovered)
:* '''Progressive''' (achieves all that previous theories have and more)
:* '''Provisional''' or tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty)
For any theory, hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer criteria that are met, the less scientific it is; and if it meets only a couple or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. Typical objections to defining intelligent design as science are that it lacks consistency,{{ref|id_consistency}} violates the principle of parsimony,{{ref|id_parsimony}} is not falsifiable,{{ref|id_not_falsifiable}} is not empirically testable,{{ref|id_testable}} and is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive.{{ref|id_correctable}}
In light of its apparent failure to adhere to scientific standards, in September 2005 38 [[Nobel_prize|Nobel laureates]] issued a statement saying "intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent."{{ref|nobellaureates_id}} And in October 2005 a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers issued a statement saying "intelligent design is not science" and called on "all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory."{{ref|au_scientists}}
Intelligent design critics also say that the intelligent design doctrine does not meet the criteria for scientific evidence used by most courts, the [[Daubert Standard]]. The Daubert Standard governs which evidence can be considered scientific in United States federal courts and most state courts. The four [[Daubert Standard|Daubert criteria]] are:
:* The theoretical underpinnings of the methods must yield testable predictions by means of which the theory could be falsified.
:* The methods should preferably be published in a [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] journal.
:* There should be a known rate of [[error]] that can be used in evaluating the results.
:* The methods should be generally accepted within the relevant scientific community.
In deciding ''[[Kitzmiller v. |
l society of New York City resulted in diverse musical influences finding their way into hip hop music.
Elements of the style and techniques of rapping originate with the [[griot|griots]] of West Africa; traveling singers and poets had musical styles that contained elements of what would later evolve into hip hop music. Some griot traditions came to the United States, the UK and the Caribbean with the passage of African [[slavery|slave]]s to the [[New World]]. Other notable influences are the spoken word sections of records by [[soul music|soul]] and [[funk music|funk]] musicians such as [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and [[Isaac Hayes]].
One of the many influences for both hip hop culture and music is the [[Jamaica]]n [[musical genre|style]] called [[dub music|dub]], which arose as a sub-genre of [[Reggae]] in the [[1960s]]. Dub music saw producers such as [[King Tubby]] creating instrumental versions of popular reggae records for the purpose of clubs and [[Sound system]]s; they had discovered that dancers often responded better to the extended, isolated beats of the records, often featuring intense [[percussion instrument|percussion]] and heavy bass lines. Soon, the [[MC]]s that hosted the dances began speaking over the instrumental records, and the skills of MCs such as [[U-Roy]], [[Dr. Alimontado]] and [[Dillinger]] saw them become popular performers in their own right. This tradition continues in contemporary [[Dancehall]] music. In [[1967]], Jamaican immigrants brought dub to [[New York City]] and began playing it at parties in community centers, roller rinks and on the streets.
Another significant influence is [[blues]] music, particularly its [[call and response]] aspect. This survived into the tradition of "toasting", another aspect of the oral tradition intrinsic to hip hop music. This became most pronounced in the tradition of MC battles, begun in the early 1980's.
==Origins==
:''Main article: [[History of hip hop]]''
[[Image:DJKoolHerc.jpg|frame|right|[[Kool DJ Herc|DJ Kool Herc]]]]
[[Kool DJ Herc|DJ Kool Herc]], a Jamaican immigrant, was one of the most popular DJs in New York during the [[1970s]], and played at many neighborhood [[block party|block parties]] in the Bronx. After his first gig on Sedgwick Ave. in the Bronx in [[1973]], Herc quickly switched from using [[reggae]] records to [[funk]], [[rock music]] and [[disco]], as he found that the New York audience did not particularly like reggae. Herc and other DJs found that dancers often preferred the percussive breaks of the records, and began extending them using an audio mixer and two records. Within a highly competitive atmosphere, Herc's friends and competitors quickly developed other mixing techniques in order to keep audiences excited.
As in Jamaica, these events were often hosted by a performer who spoke while the music played; these were originally called ''MCs'' (''Masters of Ceremonies'') and, later, ''rappers''. Early rappers focused on introducing themselves, the DJ and others in the audience, although they quickly progressed to including improvisation and a simple four-count beat, along with a simple chorus. Later MCs added more complex and often humorous lyrics, and incorporated sexual themes. Although it had yet to be recorded, hip hop music steadily grew in popularity, and by the end of the 1970s was beginning to become a major artistic force which had spread throughout the United States. During the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], hip hop gradually became mainstream in the United States, a transition usually considered to have been completed in [[1992]] By the end of the decade, the culture had spread worldwide.
==Hip hop music==
:''Main articles: [[Hip hop music]] and [[History of hip hop music]]
Hip hop music, distinguishable by its emphasis on rhythm and frequent inclusion of [[rapping]], arose from the mixing of Jamaican and American music by the immigrant [[DJ Kool Herc]] in his block parties which started as early as 1970. [[Rapping]] is the hip hop equivalent of the [[toasting]] which could be found in Jamaican [[dub music]] at the same time. Herc would play the [[funk]] records that his audience demanded, but he invented the hip hop beat by isolating the "breaks" (the part in the song with only drums) from the rest of the song. While an entire culture grew out of this music, the music itself developed with years, leading to a [[golden age hip hop|golden age]] from 1986 to 1993.
===MCing===
:''Main articles: [[Master of Ceremonies]] and [[Rapping]]
The most visible role in hip hop culture today is that of the MC&mdash; the master of ceremonies. The MC entertains the crowd with their rapping (the rhythmic delivery of rhymes). With its roots in Jamaican [[toasting]], rapping has developed significantly since its introduction to hip-hop culture by [[Kool DJ Herc]] and [[DJ Hollywood]] in the early 70's. The first true MC in hip hop culture was [[Coke La Rock]]. Rapping and MCing have developed throughout the years, due to the achievements of pioneers such as [[Melle Mel]], [[Kool Moe Dee]], [[Schooly D]], [[Run DMC]], and [[Rakim]].
One of the most important aspects of MCing is the concept of the [[MC battle]]. Battling is when two MC's engage in a rapping competition against each other, a practice dating back to hip hop's earliest years. The purpose of battling is for each MC to try to diminish their opponent's lyrical skills, subject matter, or even personal qualities; and also to gain the favor of the crowd or audience. The level of crowd impression with a particular lyricist is determined by various forms of lyrical delivery, skill, insults and their ability to "move the crowd". The crowd's reactions determine the victor, thus giving the triumphant lyricist recognition.
Most "true" battles occur in various underground hip hop clubs and events, although many occur in settings as informal as a street corner. These events are usually fixed contests. More well-known battle MCs may go public with a battle on the [[radio]] or produce a "diss" record and call out their potential opponent. Most public battles are publicity events used to gain exposure and acquire more [[fan (aficionado)|fans]].
While less common than rap battles (in which only MCs participate), DJ battles, breakdancing battles, and beatboxing battles are also conducted. As in rap battling, audience response and participation (and, occasionally, panel judging) are used as the metric by which a victor is selected.
===DJing===
:''Main article: [[Disc jockey|DJing]]
While hip hop did not invent DJing, it has extended its boundaries and techniques. The first hip hop DJ was [[Kool DJ Herc]], who created hip hop through the isolation of "breaks" (the parts of albums that focused solely on the beat). In addition to developing Herc's techniques, DJ's [[Grandmaster Flash]], [[Grand Wizard Theodore]], and [[Grandmaster Caz]] made further innovations with the introduction of [[scratching]].
Traditionally, a DJ will use two [[turntables]] simultaneously. These are connected to a [[DJ mixer]], an [[amplifier]], [[speakers]], and various other pieces of electronic music equipment. The DJ will then perform various tricks between the two [[albums]] currently in rotation using the above listed methods. The result is a unique sound created by the seemingly combined [[sound]] of two separate [[songs]] into one song. A DJ should not be confused with a [[record producer|producer]] of a music track (though there is considerable overlap between the two roles).
In the early years of hip hop, the DJ's were the stars, but their limelight has been taken by MC's since 1978, thanks largely to [[Melle Mel]] of Grandmaster Flash's crew, the [[Furious Five]]. However, a number of DJ's have gained stardom nonetheless in recent years. Famous DJ's include [[Grandmaster Flash]], [[Mr. Magic]], [[DJ Jazzy Jeff]], [[DJ Scratch]] from [[EPMD]], [[DJ Premier]] from [[Gang Starr]],[[Scott La Rock|DJ Scott La Rock]] from [[Boogie Down Productions]], [[DJ Muggs]] from [[Cypress Hill]], [[Jam Master Jay]] from [[Run-DMC]], [[Eric B.]], [[Funkmaster Flex]], [[Tony Touch]], [[DJ Clue]], [[Q-bert (DJ)|DJ Q-Bert]]. The underground movement of [[turntablism]] has also emerged to focus on the skills of the DJ.
==Beatboxing==
:''Main article: [[Beatboxing]]
Beatboxing, invented by [[Doug E. Fresh]], considered by many to be the "fifth element" of hip hop, is the [[vocal percussion]] of hip hop culture. It is primarily concerned with the art of creating beats, rhythms, and melodies using the human mouth. The term 'beatboxing' is derived from the mimicry of the first generation of drum machines, then known as beatboxes.
The art form enjoyed a strong presence in the '80s with artists like the [[Fat Boys]] and [[Biz Markie]] showing their beatboxing skills. Beatboxing declined in popularity along with breakdancing in the late 80s, and almost slipped even deeper than the underground. Beatboxing has been enjoying a resurgence since the late '90s, marked by the release of "Make the Music 2000." by [[Rahzel]] of [[The Roots]] (known for even singing while beatboxing) The [[Internet]] has greatly aided the rebirth of modern beatboxing&mdash;on a global level never seen before&mdash;with thousands of beatboxers from over a dozen countries interacting on the UK's Humanbeatbox.com.
Beatboxing has also recently branched beyond its traditional scope (mimicry of "beat boxes" to create hip hop beats) to several new stand alone forms. It is now widely practiced as a form of human Drum & Bass, a style of heavy electronic music. The range of sounds that can be reproduced by the human vocal chords are staggering to many unfamiliar with this musical practice.
==Graffiti art==
[[Image:Taki183.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Graffiti art]]
:''Main articles: [[Graffiti]] and [[Types of graffi |
de:Abdu'l Baha]]
[[eo:'Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[nl:Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[no:Abdul-Baha]]
[[fi:`Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[sv:Abdul-Baha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambrose of Alexandria</title>
<id>3020</id>
<revision>
<id>30496668</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-07T18:56:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dimadick</username>
<id>24198</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose of Alexandria''' (died about [[250]] AD) was a friend of [[Origen]].
Attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, he visited his school about [[212]], and was converted by Origen from the [[heresy]] of the [[Valentinius|Valentinians]] to the orthodox faith ([[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], ''Church History,'' VI. xviii. 1).
He was a sufferer during the persecution under [[Maximinus Thrax]] in [[235]] ([[Eusebius of Caesarea]], ''Church History'', VI. xxviii.), and is last mentioned in Origen's ''Contra Celsum, '' which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose.
He was wealthy and provided his teacher with books for his studies and secretaries to lighten the labor of composition (Eusbius, ''Church History, '' VI. xxiii. 1-2; [[Jerome]], ''De vir. ill.'', lvi.).
Origen often speaks of him in terms of affection as a man of education and literary and scholarly tastes. All of his works written after [[218]] are dedicated to Ambrose.
[[Category:250 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aviemore</title>
<id>3021</id>
<revision>
<id>38763722</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T14:11:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Racooon</username>
<id>843259</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aviemore'''{{mn|afgh|1}} ([[Scottish Gaelic]]: <I>An Aghaidh Mhòr</I>) is a [[tourist]] resort in the [[Highlands]] of [[Scotland]]. It is in the area known as [[Badenoch and Strathspey]], within the [[Highland council area|Highland Council Area]]. It is in the [[traditional counties of Scotland|traditional county]] of [[Morayshire]] and was in the [[Postal counties of the United Kingdom|postal county]] of [[Inverness-shire]].
The town is popular for [[skiing]] and other [[winter sports]], and for [[hill-walking]] in the [[Cairngorm Mountains]]. Situated within the [[Cairngorms National Park]], '''Aviemore''' is one of the largest towns in the park, with a population of 2,397 as of the last [[census]].
It is the first [[skiing resort]] to be established in Scotland and is also notable for being near the freely grazing [[reindeer]] herd at Glen More, the only one in the [[United Kingdom]].
Though the resort has... variable quality of snow and weather conditions, it is well worth a trip for a weekend or so.
The village was transformed in the [[1960s]] by large developments for the tourist industry, and pavements which were designed by [[John Poulson]], later to be the centre of a bribery scandal.
Aviemore lies on the B9152 (the "old" [[A9 road]] since the main road from [[Inverness]] to [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] was rebuilt further west in the 1980s). It has a [[railway station]] on the [[Highland Main Line]] and is also the southern terminus of the [[Strathspey Railway]], a [[heritage railway]], currently being extended to '''[[Grantown-on-Spey]]'''.
== Footnote ==
*{{mnb|afgh|1}} [[Ordnance Survey]] {{gbmapping|NH895123}}.
==External links==
*[http://www.visitaviemore.com/ Visit Aviemore]
*[http://www.aviemore.co.uk/services.htm Cairngorms chamber of commerce] Local services in Aviemore.
[[Category:Towns in Highland]]
[[Category:Ski resorts in Scotland]]
{{Inverness-geo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autonomous building</title>
<id>3022</id>
<revision>
<id>42072663</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.171.255.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cooling */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''autonomous building''' is a building designed to be operated independently from [[infrastructure|infrastructural]] support services such as the [[electric power]] grid, municipal water systems, [[sewage treatment]] systems, [[storm drain]]s, communication services, and (in some cases) public roads.
Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and cost efficiencies. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of [[green building]], not independence per se; (see below.) Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services, and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks.
The process of going off-grid may bring intangible benefits, such as an examination of personal responsibility, a conscious decision about one's relationship to society, and the psychological virtues of independence.{{fact}}
Most of the research and publication of autonomous building is about residential homes. In the [[1990s]] architects such as [[William McDonough]] and [[Ken Yeang]] applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production. One major bank building ([[ING Group|ING]]'s [[Amsterdam]] headquarters) in the [[Netherlands]] was constructed to be autonomous, and artistic as well.
British architects [[Brenda and Robert Vale]] have said that, as of 2002, "It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a 'house with no bills', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste... These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a "house with no bills" for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller."
== Theory ==
As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements. The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food. A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages.
Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted. Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources. Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs.
Autonomous buildings are usually energy-efficient in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid. But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation.
An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly. The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible [[green building]]. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of [[sustainability]] through the use of renewable resources, producing no more [[greenhouse gases]] than they consume, and other measures.
== History ==
Autonomous building is an idea of western civilization in the 20th century. Inhabitants of cabins, huts and yurts through most of history were off-grid whether they liked it or not.
In the [[1930s]] through the [[1950s]], [[Buckminster Fuller]]'s three prototype [[Dymaxion house]]s adopted many techniques to reduce resource use, such as a "fogger" shower head to reduce water use, a packaging toilet, and a vacuum turbine for electric power. While not designed as autonomous per se, Fuller's concern with sustainable and efficient design is congruent with the goal of autonomy, and showed that it was theoretically possible. One of the three prototype Dymaxion houses that Fuller produced was made part of the conventional Graham family residence in [[Wichita, Kansas]], and has now been reconstructed at the [[Henry Ford Museum]].
In the [[1970s]], a group of activists and engineers calling themselves the [[New Alchemists]] believed the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation. The New Alchemists were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects. Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of "bioshelter" projects, the most famous of which was the [[Ark Bioshelter]] community for [[Prince Edward Island]]. They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints. The Ark used wind based water pumping and electricity, and was self-contained in food production. It had living quarters for people, [[fish farming|fish]] tanks raising [[Tilapia]] for [[protein]], a [[greenhouse]] watered with fish water and a closed loop sewage reclamation system that recycled human waste into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks. As of 2004, the successor organization to the New Alchemists still had a web page up as the
[http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/index.htm Green Center]. The PEI Ark has been abandoned and partially renovated several times.
The [[1990s]] saw the development of [[Earthships]], similar in intent to the Ark project, but organized as a for-profit venture, with construction details kept as proprietary information. The building material is [[tire]]s filled with [[soil|earth]]. This makes a wall that has large amounts of thermal mass (see [[earth sheltering]]). Berms |
''Homo'' genus==
In modern taxonomy, ''Homo sapiens'' is the only extant [[species]] of its genus, ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''. Likewise, the ongoing study of the origins of ''Homo sapiens'' often demonstrates that there were other ''Homo'' species, all of which are now extinct. While some of these other species might have been ancestors of ''H. sapiens'', many were likely our 'cousins', having speciated away from our ancestral line. There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups should count as separate species and which as subspecies of another species. In some cases this is due to the paucity of fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the ''Homo'' genus.
The word ''homo'' is [[Latin]] for 'person', chosen originally by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in his classification system. It is often translated as 'man', although this can lead to confusion, given that the English word 'man' can be generic like ''homo'', but can also specifically refer to males. Latin for 'man' in the gender-specific sense is ''vir'', [[cognate]] with "''vir''ile" and "''wer''ewolf". The word 'human' is from ''humanus'', the adjectival form of ''homo''.
===''Homo habilis''===
''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]'' lived from about 2.4 to 1.5 million years ago (MYA). ''H. habilis'', the first species of the genus ''Homo'', evolved in South and East Africa in the late [[Pliocene]] or early [[Pleistocene]], 2.5&ndash;2 MYA, when it diverged from the Australopithecines. ''H. habilis'' had smaller [[molars]] and larger [[brain]]s than the Australopithecines, and made [[tools]] from [[Rock (geology)|stone]] and perhaps animal [[bones]]. One of the first known hominids, it was nicknamed 'handy man' by its discoverer, [[Louis Leakey]].
===''Homo erectus''===
''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' (including ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'') lived from about 1.8 MYA (or from about 1.25 MYA excluding ''ergaster'') to 0.07 MYA. In the Early Pleistocene, 1.5&ndash;1 MYA, in Africa, [[Asia]], and [[Europe]], presumably, ''[[Homo habilis]]'' evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]''. A famous example of ''Homo erectus'' is [[Peking Man]]; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term ''Homo ergaster'' for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserving ''H. erectus'' only for those fossils found in the Asian region and meeting certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from ergaster. They may have used [[fire]] to [[cooking|cook]] their [[meat]].
===''Homo ergaster'' ===
''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'' lived from about 1.8 to about 1.25 MYA. Also proposed as ''[[Homo erectus|Homo erectus ergaster]]''
===''Homo heidelbergensis''===
''[[Homo heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'' ([[Heidelberg]] Man) lived from about 800 thousand years ago (TYA) to about 300 TYA. Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens heidelbergensis'' and ''Homo sapiens paleohungaricus''.
=== ''Homo sapiens idaltu''===
''[[Homo sapiens idaltu|H. sapiens idaltu]]'' lived from about 160 TYA (proposed subspecies). Is the oldest anatomically modern human known.
===''Homo floresiensis''===
''[[Homo floresiensis|H. floresiensis]]'', which lived to about 12 TYA (announced 28 [[October]] [[2004]] in the science journal ''[[Nature_(journal)|Nature]]''), has been nicknamed ''[[hobbit]]'' for its small size, probably a result of [[Island dwarfing]]. H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age, being by far the most recent species of Homo that does not lie along the direct evolutionary path of modern humans.
===''Homo neanderthalensis''===
''[[Homo neanderthalensis|H. neanderthalensis]]'' lived from about 250 to 30 TYA. Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens neanderthalensis''. There is ongoing debate over whether the '[[Neanderthal Man]]' was a separate species, ''Homo neanderthalensis'', or a subspecies of ''H. sapiens''. While the debate remains unsettled, the prevailing view of evidence, collected by examining [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[Y chromosome|Y-chromosomal]] [[DNA]], currently indicates that little or no gene flow occurred between ''H. neanderthalensis'' and ''H. sapiens'', and, therefore, the two were separate species. In [[1997]], Dr. Mark Stoneking, then an associate professor of anthropology at [[Pennsylvania State University]], stated: "These results [based on [[mitochondria]]l DNA extracted from Neanderthal bone] indicate that Neanderthals did not contribute mitochondrial DNA to modern humans&hellip; Neanderthals are not our ancestors."&sup2; Subsequent investigation of a second source of Neanderthal DNA confirmed these findings.&sup3; However, supporters of the [[multiregional hypothesis]] point to recent studies indicating non-African nuclear DNA heritage dating to one MYA, as well as apparent hybrid fossils found in [[Portugal]] and elsewhere, in rebuttal to the prevailing view.
===''Homo sapiens''===
''[[Human|H. sapiens]]'' has lived from about 200 TYA to the present. Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle [[Pleistocene]], around 250,000 years ago, the trend in cranial expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from ''H. erectus'' to ''[[Human|H. sapiens]]''. The direct evidence suggests there was a [[Migration (human)|migration]] of ''H. erectus'' out of Africa, then a further speciation of ''H. sapiens'' from ''H. erectus'' in Africa (there is little evidence that this speciation occurred elsewhere). Then a [[out of Africa hypothesis|subsequent migration]] within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed ''H. erectus''. However, the current evidence does not ''preclude'' multiregional speciation, either. This is a hotly debated area in [[paleoanthropology]]. Sapiens means wise or intelligent. Current research establishes that human beings are highly genetically homogenous, meaning that the DNA of individual Homo Sapiens is more alike than usual for most species, a result of our relatively recent evolution. Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances. Such small groups are initially highly inbred, allowing the relatively rapid transmission of traits favorable to the new environment. These adapted traits are a very small component of the Homo Sapiens genome and include such outward "racial" characteristics as skin color and nose form in addition to internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently in high altitudes.
==Notable human evolution researchers==
* [[Henry McHenry]]
* [[Svante Paabo]]
* [[Jeffrey H. Schwartz]]
* [[Erik Trinkaus]]
* [[Milford H. Wolpoff]]
==Additional notes==
The validity of evolution and the origins of humanity have often been a subject of great political and religious controversy (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]] and [[Hybrid-origin]]).
The classification of humans and their relatives has changed considerably over time (see [[Ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|History of hominoid taxonomy]]).
Speculation about the future evolution of humans is often explored in [[science fiction]] as continued [[speciation]] of humans as they fill various [[ecological niche|ecological niches]] (see [[adaptive radiation]]
and [[Co-evolution]]).
==References ==
<references/>
*Wolfgang Enard et al. "Molecular evolution of [[FOXP2]], a gene involved in speech and language." ''Nature'', Vol 418 ([[22 August]] [[2002]]) p. 870.
*[http://www.psu.edu/ur/NEWS/news/Neandertal.html DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors]
*Ovchinnikov, et al. "Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the Northern [[Caucasus]]." ''Nature'' 404, 490 (2000).
==See also==
{| border=0 cellpadding=0
|- valign=top
|
* [[Aquatic ape hypothesis]]
* [[Archaeogenetics]]
* [[Dual inheritance theory]]
* [[Evolutionary medicine]]
* [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]
* [[Evolutionary psychology]]
* [[FOXP2]]
* [[Graphical timeline of human evolution]]
|
* [[Human behavioral ecology]]
* [[Mitochondrial Eve]] (African Eve theory)
* [[Multi-regional origin]]
* [[Origin belief]]
* [[Physical anthropology]]
* [[Single origin hypothesis]]
* [[Timeline of human evolution]]
|}
==External links==
* [http://www.becominghuman.org/ Becoming Human] - Provided by the Institute of Human Origins.
* [http://www.evolution-of-man.info/combined.htm Evolution of Man]
* [http://www.imperial.ac.uk/P3487.htm The human immune system may limit future evolution]
* [http://www.human-evolution.org Human evolution and the future]
* [http://www.andaman.org/book/chapter34/text34.htm Relations of the Homo sapiens]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/species.html Hominid Species] at talkorigins.org
* [http://www.psu.edu/ur/NEWS/news/Neandertal.html DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/neanderthals/ Neanderthals on Trial] Nova Online - Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.
* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html Tree of evolution of Man's fossil ancestors]
* [http://www.evolutionpages.com/FOXP2_language.htm FOXP2 and the Evolution of Language]
* [https://www5.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html Atlas of the Human Journey] (National Geographic)
* [http://info.anu.edu.au/mac/Newsletters_and_Journals/ANU_Reporter/_pdf/vol_29_no_01/dogs.html Theory suggets greater role for man's best friend]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/AAT Waterside adaptations in the genus Homo]
* [http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c720126/humanethologie/ws/medicus/block1/inhalt.html Theory of Human Sciences (Documents No. |
stitution and an oath of fidelity to the British king. Under the treaty the state was not to be called a republic but a "[[Free State|free state]]" and it was only to include twenty-six southern and western counties of Ireland. The remaining six northeastern counties were to remain part of the United Kingdom as [[Northern Ireland]]. Also, [[Treaty ports (Ireland)|several strategic ports]] were to remain occupied by the [[Royal Navy]].
Nonetheless, [[Michael Collins]], the republican leader who had led the Irish negotiating team, argued that the treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire and develop, but the freedom to achieve freedom". Events were eventually to prove him right, as the Free State later evolved into an independent republic. However, Anti-Treaty militants in 1922 believed that the Treaty would never deliver full Irish independence.
===Split in the Nationalist movement===
The split over the Treaty was deeply personal. The protagonists on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their lethal disagreement over the Treaty all the more bitter. [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] felt that [[Éamon de Valera]] had sent him to negotiate the Treaty because he knew that the British would not concede an independent Irish republic and wanted Collins to take the blame for the compromise settlement. He therefore felt deeply betrayed when De Valera refused to stand by the agreement he had negotiated with [[David Lloyd George]] and [[Winston Churchill]]. [[Image:Flyingcolumn westcork-DB668.JPG|300px|thumb|The IRA West Cork [[Flying Column]] during the War of Independence. Most of the IRA units in Munster were against the Treaty</small>]]
[[Dáil Éireann (1919-1922)|Dáil Éireann]] (the parliament of the Irish Republic) narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 in December 1921. Following the Treaty's ratification, a '''Provisional Government''', headed by Michael Collins and [[Arthur Griffith]] was set up to transfer power from the British adminstration to the [[Irish Free State]].
Upon the Treaty's ratification [[Eamon de Valera]] resigned as [[President of the Irish Republic|President of the Republic]] and led the anti-treaty wing of [[Sinn Féin]] out of the Dáil. He challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the Treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the [[Irish Republic]]. De Valera then attempted to promote a compromise, in which the new Irish Free State would have "external association" with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] rather than membership of it. More seriously, the majority of the [[Irish Republican Army]] officers were also against the Treaty and in March 1922, their Army Convention repudiated the authority of the [[Dail]] to accept the Treaty. The anti-treaty IRA formed their own '''Army Executive''', which they recognised as the real government of the country.
However, both sides wanted to avoid civil war. Collins established an "army re-unification committee" to re-unite the IRA and organised an election pact with De Valera's anti-treaty political followers to jointly fight the [[Irish Treaty Election, 1922|Free State's first election in 1922]] and form a coalition government afterwards. He also tried to reach a compromise with anti-treaty IRA leaders by agreeing to republican type constitution (with no mention of the British monarchy) for the new state. IRA leaders such as [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]] were prepared to accept this compromise. However, the proposal for a republican constitution was vetoed by the British as being contrary to the terms of the treaty and they threatened to impose an economic blockade on Free State unless the treaty was fully implemented. Collins reluctantly agreed. This completely undermined the electoral pact between the pro and anti treaty factions, who went into the [[Irish general election, 1922]] on June 18th as hostile parties, both calling themselves [[Sinn Fein]]. The Pro Treaty Sinn Fein party won the election with 239,193 votes to 133,864 for anti-Treaty Sinn Fein. A further 247,226 people voted for other parties, all of whom supported the Treaty. The election showed that the Irish electorate supported the Treaty and the foundation of the [[Irish Free State]] but De Valera, his political followers and most of the IRA continued to oppose it. De Valera is quoted as saying, "the majority have no right to do wrong".
Meanwhile under the leadership of Michael Collins and [[Arthur Griffith]], the pro-treaty Provisional Government set about establishing the Irish Free State, an organised national army to replace the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and a new police force. However, since it was envisaged that the new army would be built around the IRA, anti-treaty IRA units were allowed to take over British barracks and take their arms. In practice, this meant that by the summer of 1922, the Provisional government of the Free State controlled only [[Dublin]] and some other areas like [[Longford]] where the IRA units supported the Treaty.
Fighting would ultimately break out when the Provisional government tried to assert its authority over well armed and intransigent anti-treaty IRA units around the country -particularly a hardline group in [[Dublin]].
==Course of the war==
===Dublin fighting===
[[image:fourcourtsquays.JPG|thumb|left|300px|The Four Courts along the River Liffey quayside. The building was occupied by Anti Treaty forces during the civil war, whom the Free State army subsequently bombarded into surrender. The building was badly damaged but was fully restored after the war]]
In April 1922, 200 anti-treaty IRA militants led by [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], occupied the [[Four Courts]] in [[Dublin]], resulting in a tense stand-off. These Anti-Treaty Republicans wanted to spark a new armed confrontation with the British, which they hoped would unite the two factions of the IRA against their common enemy. However, for those who were determined to make the Free State into a viable, self-governing Irish state, this was an act of rebellion that would have to be put down ''by them'' rather than the British. [[Arthur Griffith]] was in favour of using force against these men immediately, but Michael Collins wanted at all costs to avoid civil war and left the Four Courts garrison alone until late June 1922. His hand was forced by British pressure.
Ironically, the British lost patience as result of an action ordered by Collins. He had [[Henry Hughes Wilson]], a retired British General assassinated in [[London]] on the 22nd of June because of his role in attacks on Catholics in [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Winston Churchill]] assumed that the anti-treaty IRA were responsable for the killing and warned Collins that he would use British troops to attack the Four Courts unless the Free State took action. The final straw for the Free State government came on the 27th of June, when the Fourt Courts republican garrison kidnaped JJ "Ginger" O'Connell, a general in the new [[Irish Army|Free State Army]]. Collins made a final attempt to persuade the men holding the Four Courts to leave it before violence broke out. They refused and Collins decided to end the stand-off, under a British threat of imminent re-occupation, by the bombarding the Four Courts garrison into surrender. Collins was then appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Free State Army. This attack was not the opening shots of the war as skirmishes had taken place between pro and anti treaty IRA factions throughout the country when the British were handing over barracks. However this represented the 'point of no return' when all out war was ''ipso facto'' declared and the Civil War officially began.
[[Image:4courtsbomb.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Four Courts under bombardment by Free State Troops in 1922]]
Michael Collins had accepted a British offer of [[artillery]] for use by the new Free State Army. The anti-treaty forces in the Four Courts, who possessed only small arms, surrendered after two days of bombardment and the storming of the building by Free State troops (28th-30th of June 1922). In the chaos of the moment, the [[Irish Public Records Office]], which had been used as an ammunition store by the Four Courts garrison, was the centre of a huge explosion, blowing to pieces one thousand years of Irish state and religious archives. Several anti-Treaty leaders, notably [[Ernie O'Malley]] escaped from captivity to continue fighting elsewhere. Pitched battles continued in Dublin until [[July 5]], as anti-Treaty IRA units from the Dublin Brigade led by [[Oscar Traynor]] occupied [[O'Connell Street]] - provoking a week's more street fighting. The republicans held out in a "block" of buildings until artillery was brought up, under the cover of armoured cars, to bombard them at point blank range. Oscar Traynor and most of his men made their escape when the buildings they were holding caught fire. Among the Republican casualties was Republican leader [[Cathal Brugha]], who stayed behind in the Granville hotel after Traynor and most other IRA men had left. He was shot dead when he left the burning building alone to confront the Free State troops. Cathal Brugha was the last casualty in the battle for Dublin which had cost both sides sixty-five killed and twenty-eight wounded. In addition, the Free State took over 500 Republican prisoners. The civilian casualties are thought to have numbered well over 250.
[[Image:cathalbrugha.JPG|thumb|left|Cathal Brugha, Anti-Treaty leader killed during the fighting on Dublin's O'Connell St]] When the fighting in Dublin died down, the Free State Government was left firmly in control of the Irish capital and the anti-treaty forces dispersed around the country, mainly to the south and west.[[Image:Oconnell-street-fighting-1.jpg|thumb|rig |
hmed]] the Second (the Ottoman Sultan at the time) let the Orthodox Patriarchy continue to conduct their own affairs, having stated that they did not want to join the [[Roman Catholic Church|Vatican]].
==Constantinople in popular culture==
*Constantinople appears as a dusty faded capital, shorn of its glories, in [[William Butler Yeats]]' [[1926]] poem [[Sailing to Byzantium]].
*Constantinople's change of name was the theme for a song by [[The Four Lads]] later covered by [[They Might Be Giants]] entitled [[Istanbul (Not Constantinople)]] [http://www.lyricsdepot.com/they-might-be-giants/istanbul-not-constantinople.html]. "Constantinople" was also the title of the opening track of [[The Residents]]' [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Duck Stab/Buster & Glen|Duck Stab!]]'', released in [[1978]].
* Constantinople under Justinian is the scene of "A Flame in Byzantium" by Chelsea Quinn Yarbro released in 1987.
==Further reading==
*Jonathan Phillips, ''The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople'', Pimlico, 2005. ISBN 1844130800
*Steven Runciman, ''The Fall of Constantinople, 1453'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1990. ISBN 0521398320
*Philip Mansell, ''Constantinople: City of the World's Desire''
==Notes==
<!--Footnote3 style doesnt work on this page for some reason. If you "upgrade" please be sure it works correctly before saving.-->
*{{fnb|1}}'''Constantinople''' is derived from the Greek Κωνσταντινούπολη. Other names for the city:
**[[Turkish language|Turkish]] name: İstanbul.
**[[Modern Greek]] name: Κωνσταντινούπολη, older name: Κωνσταντινούπολις (Konstantinoupolis; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]])
**[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name: Constantinopolis;
**[[Azeri Latin]] name: Konstantinopolis
**[[Latin]] name: Constantinopolis, [[Nova Roma]]
**[[Arabic language|Arabic]] name: قسطنطينية (''Kostantiniyya'')
**[[Armenian language|Armenian]] name: Konstaninopolis / Gonstantinobolis
**[[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] [[Varangian]] name: Miklagård, from [[Old Norse]] Miklagarð (''mikill'' + ''garð'' = "big city" or "grand city").
**The [[Angles]] and [[Saxons]] called the city "[[Micklegard]]," meaning "Great Fortress."
**Jews often called it "Costa," a shortening of its offcial name.
**[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] name: Konstantiniyye.
**[[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] name: [[Tsargrad]] (Царьград).
**Stamboul (used by British and other diplomatic corps in "The City")
**The'' [[Sublime Porte]]'' — the Ottoman Foreign Ministry, so-called for its gate-location within the [[Topkapi]] and often used as a synonym for "Constantinople" in European diplomatic notes (the same way ''[[Whitehall]]'' would be used in the case of the [[Foreign Office of thew United Kingdom|British Foreign Office]], or ''No. 10 [[Downing Steet]]'' to refer to the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister's Office]])
*{{fnb|2}} Source for quote: Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, ed T Preger I 105 (see A A Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, 1952, vol I p 188).
==See also==
* [[İstanbul]]
* [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]
* [[Golden Horn]]
* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Bucoleon]]
* [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]]
* [[University of Constantinople]]
* the [[Bosporus]]
==External links==
*[http://www.sephardicstudies.org/istanbul.html Info on the name change] from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/research/rgouster Welcome to Constantinople], documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople, compiled by Robert Ousterhout, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/3*.html#1 Constantinople], from ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', by [[J.B. Bury]]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04301a.htm History of Constantinople] from the "New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia."
*[http://www.byzantium1200.com/ Byzantium 1200], A project aimed at creating computer reconstructions of the Byzantine Monuments located in Istanbul, Turkey as of year 1200 AD.
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Roman colonies]]
[[ca:Constantinoble]]
[[cs:Konstantinopol]]
[[cy:Caergystennin]]
[[da:Konstantinopel]]
[[de:Konstantinopel]]
[[et:Konstantinoopol]]
[[el:Κωνσταντινούπολη]]
[[es:Constantinopla]]
[[eo:Konstantinopolo]]
[[fa:کنستانتینوپول]]
[[fr:Constantinople]]
[[he:קונסטנטינופול]]
[[ka:კონსტანტინეპოლი]]
[[ko:콘스탄티노폴리스]]
[[io:Konstantinopolo]]
[[id:Konstantinopel]]
[[it:Costantinopoli]]
[[la:Constantinopolis]]
[[hu:Konstantinápoly]]
[[nl:Constantinopel]]
[[ja:コンスタンティノポリス]]
[[no:Konstantinopel]]
[[nn:Konstantinopel]]
[[pl:Konstantynopol]]
[[pt:Constantinopla]]
[[ro:Constantinopol]]
[[ru:Константинополь]]
[[sr:Константинопољ]]
[[sv:Konstantinopel]]
[[tr:Konstantinopolis]]
[[uk:Константинополь]]
[[zh:君士坦丁堡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbus</title>
<id>5647</id>
<revision>
<id>39430716</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:14:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.240.254.231</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Columbus''' is a [[latin]]ized version of the [[Italian language|Italian]] [[surname]] [[Colombo]], which means [[Dove]]. The name was originally given to dove keepers.
The name Columbus can refer to the following people:
* '''[[Christopher Columbus]]''', trader and explorer
* [[Realdo Colombo]], anatomist and surgeon from the 16th century
* [[Chris Columbus]], an [[United States|American]] film maker
There are many places in the [[United States]] named '''Columbus''':
* '''[[Columbus, Ohio]]''' (also the state capital of Ohio) is the best known and largest "Columbus" in the United States
* [[Columbus, Arkansas]]
* [[Columbus, Georgia]]
* [[Columbus, Illinois]]
* [[Columbus, Indiana]]
* [[Columbus, Kansas]]
* [[Columbus, Kentucky]]
* [[Columbus, Mississippi]]
* [[Columbus, Montana]]
* [[Columbus, Nebraska]]
* [[Columbus, New Jersey]]
* [[Columbus, New Mexico]]
* [[Columbus, New York]]
* [[Columbus, North Carolina]]
* [[Columbus, North Dakota]]
* [[Columbus, Texas]]
* [[Columbus, Wisconsin]]
* [[Columbus (town), Wisconsin]]
* [[Columbus Air Force Base]]
* [[Columbus City, Iowa]]
* [[Columbus Grove, Ohio]]
* [[Columbus Junction, Iowa]]
* [[Columbus Township, Illinois]]
* [[Columbus Township, Indiana]]
* [[Columbus Township, Iowa]]
* [[Columbus Township, Luce County, Michigan]]
* [[Columbus Township, St. Clair County, Michigan]]
* [[Columbus Township, Minnesota]]
* [[Columbus Township, Missouri]]
* [[Columbus Township, Nebraska]]
* [[Columbus Township, North Carolina]]
* [[Columbus Township, Pennsylvania]]
== See also==
* [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]], the European module for the [[International Space Station]]
* [[Knights of Columbus]]
* [[Columbus tubing|Columbus]], Italian manufacturer of bicycle and motorsport tubing
* [[Columbus Day]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Columbus]]
[[de:Columbus]]
[[fr:Columbus]]
[[ko:콜럼버스]]
[[he:קולומבוס (פירושונים)]]
[[la:Columbus]]
[[nl:Columbus]]
[[nds:Columbus]]
[[ja:コロンブス]]
[[sv:Columbus (olika betydelser)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cornwall</title>
<id>5648</id>
<revision>
<id>41805236</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:41:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aroberts</username>
<id>218063</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Food */ a few changes, but lots more work needed here.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{| class="toccolours" style="border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="300"
|+ <big>'''Cornwall'''</big><br />'''Kernow'''
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2 |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="padding-top: 0.5em;"
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of Cornwall.svg|115px]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Cornwall_Crest.jpg|75px]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | <small>([[Saint Piran's Flag|St Piran's Flag]])</small>
| align="center" width="140px" | <small>(Cornwall County Council Coat of Arms)</small>
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | <small>''[[Motto]]: Onen hag oll<br />([[Cornish language|Cornish]]: One and all)''</small>
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;" | [[Image:EnglandCornwall.png|English Counties]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" | Geography
|-
! width="45%" | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] and (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! Region
| [[South West England]]
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- Admin. council<br />- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 40th]]<br />517,500<br />145 / km&sup2;<br />[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 24th]]<br />515,300
|
|-
! Admin HQ
| [[Truro]]
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-CON
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 15
|-
! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| UKK30
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;" " | Demograph |
e abrupta]]''
*''[[Agave acicularis]]''
*''[[Agave acklinicola]]''
*''[[Agave affinis]]''
[[Image:Agave lechuguilla0.jpg|thumb|right|''Agave lecheguilla'']]
*''Agave × ajoensis'' = ''Agave schottii'' var. ''schottii'' × ''Agave deserti'' var. ''simplex''
*''[[Agave aktites]]''
*''[[Agave albescens]]''
*''[[Agave albomarginata]]''
*''[[Agave alibertii]]''
*''[[Agave aloides]]''
*''[[Agave amaniensis]]''
*''[[Agave americana]]'' L. &ndash; American Agave, American Century Plant, Century Plant, Maguey americano
**''Agave americana'' var. ''americana''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''expansa''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''latifolia''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''marginata''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''medio-picta''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''oaxacensis''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''striata''
**''Agave americana'' ssp. ''protamericana''
[[Image:Agave tequilana0.jpg|thumb|right|Tequila Agave (''Agave tequilana'')]]
*''[[Agave angustiarum]]''
*''[[Agave angustifolia]]'' Haw. &ndash; Century plant, Maguey espad n
*''[[Agave angustissima]]''
*''[[Agave anomala]]''
*''[[Agave antillarum]]''
**''Agave antillarum'' var. ''grammontensis''
*''[[Agave applanata]]''
*''[[Agave arizonica]]'' Gentry & J.H. Weber &ndash; Arizona Agave, Arizona Century Plant
*''[[Agave arubensis]]''
*''[[Agave aspera]]''
*''[[Agave asperrima]]'' Jacobi &ndash; Maguey spero, Rough Century Plant
*''[[Agave attenuata]]'' &ndash; Swan's Neck Agave, Dragon Tree Agave, Foxtail Agave
*''[[Agave aurea]]''
[[Image:Agaveespinho1.jpg|thumb|right|''Agave horrida'']]
*''[[Agave avellanidens]]''
*''[[Agave bahamana]]''
*''[[Agave bakeri]]''
*''[[Agave banlan]]''
*''[[Agave barbadensis]]''
*''[[Agave baxteri]]''
*''[[Agave bergeri]]''
*''[[Agave bernhardi]]''
*''[[Agave boldinghiana]]''
*''[[Agave bollii]]''
*''[[Agave botterii]] ''
*''[[Agave bouchei]]''
*''[[Agave bourgaei]]''
*''[[Agave bovicornuta]]'' &ndash; Cowhorn Agave
*''[[Agave braceana]]''
*''[[Agave brachystachys]]''
*''[[Agave bracteosa]]'' &ndash; Squid Agave
*''[[Agave brandegeei]]''
*''[[Agave brauniana]]''
*''[[Agave breedlovei]]''
*''[[Agave brevipetala]]''
*''[[Agave breviscapa]]''
*''[[Agave brevispina]]''
*''[[Agave brittonia]]''
*''[[Agave bromeliaefolia]]''
*''[[Agave brunnea]]''
*''[[Agave bulbifera]]''
*''[[Agave cacozela]]''
*''[[Agave cajalbanensis]]''
*''[[Agave calderoni]]''
*''[[Agave calodonta]]''
*''[[Agave campanulata]]''
*''[[Agave cantala]]'' Roxb. &ndash; cantala, Maguey de la India (supplies Manila-Maquey fiber)
*''[[Agave capensis]]''
[[Image:Agave1web.jpg|thumb|right|agave]]
*''[[Agave carchariodonta]]''
*''[[Agave caribaea]]''
*''[[Agave caribiicola]]''
*''[[Agave carminis]]''
*''[[Agave caroli-schmidtii]]''
*''[[Agave celsii]]''
*''[[Agave cernua]]''
*''[[Agave cerulata]]''
**''Agave cerulata'' ssp. ''subcerulata''
*''[[Agave chiapensis]]'' (syn. ''Agave polyacantha'')
*''[[Agave chihuahuana]]''
*''[[Agave chinensis]]''
*''[[Agave chisosensis]]''
*''[[Agave chloracantha]]''
*''[[Agave chrysantha]]'' Peebles &ndash; Golden Flowered Agave, Golden Flower Century Plant
*''[[Agave chrysoglossa]]''
*''[[Agave coccinea]]''
*''[[Agave cocui]]''
*''[[Agave coespitosa]]''
*''[[Agave colimana]]''
*''[[Agave collina]]''
*''[[Agave colorata]]'' &ndash; Mescal ceniza
*''[[Agave compacta]]''
*''[[Agave complicata]]''
*''[[Agave compluviata]]''
*''[[Agave concinna]]''
*''[[Agave congesta]]''
*''[[Agave conjuncta]]''
*''[[Agave connochaetodon]]''
*''[[Agave consociata]]''
*''[[Agave convallis]]''
*''[[Agave corderoyi]]''
*''[[Agave costaricana]]''
*''[[Agave cucullata]]''
*''[[Agave cundinamarcensis]]''
*''[[Agave cupreata]]''
*''[[Agave dasyliriodes]]''
*''[[Agave datylio]]''
*''[[Agave davilloni]]''
*''[[Agave de-meesteriana]]''
*''[[Agave dealbata]]''
*''[[Agave deamiana]]''
*''[[Agave debilis]]''
*''[[Agave decaisneana]]''
*''[[Agave decipiens]]'' Baker &ndash; False Sisal
*''[[Agave delamateri]]'' W.C. Hodgson & L. Slauson
*''[[Agave densiflora]]''
*''[[Agave dentiens]]''
*''[[Agave deserti]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Desert Century Plant, Desert Agave, Maguey de Desierto
**''Agave deserti'' ssp. ''simplex''
*''[[Agave desmettiana]]'' Jacobi &ndash; Dwarf Century Plant, Smooth Agave (syn. ''A. miradorensis'')
*''[[Agave diacantha]]''
*''[[Agave difformis]]''
*''[[Agave disceptata]]''
*''[[Agave disjuncta]]''
*''[[Agave dissimulans]]''
*''[[Agave donnell-smithii]]''
*''[[Agave durangensis]]''
*''[[Agave dussiana]]''
*''[[Agave eborispina]]''
*''[[Agave eduardi]]''
*''[[Agave eggersiana]]'' Trel. &ndash; Eggers' Century Plant, St. Croix Agave
*''[[Agave ehrenbergii]]''
*''[[Agave eichlami]]''
*''[[Agave ekmani]]''
*''[[Agave elizae]]''
*''[[Agave ellemeetiana]]''
*''[[Agave endlichiana]]''
*''[[Agave engelmanni]]''
*''[[Agave entea]]''
*''[[Agave erosa]]''
*''[[Agave evadens]]''
*''[[Agave excelsa]]''
*''[[Agave expatriata]]''
*''[[Agave falcata]]''
**''Agave falcata'' var. ''espadina''
**''Agave falcata'' var. ''microcarpa''
*''[[Agave felgeri]]'' &ndash; Mescalito
*''[[Agave felina]]''
*''[[Agave fenzliana]]''
*''[[Agave ferdinandi-regis]]''
*''[[Agave filifera]]'' &ndash; Thread-leaf Agave
**''Agave filifera'' subsp. ''microceps''
*''[[Agave flaccida]]''
*''[[Agave flaccifolia]]''
*''[[Agave flavovirens]]''
*''[[Agave flexispina]]''
*''[[Agave fortiflora]]''
*''[[Agave fourcroydes]]'' Lemaire &ndash; Henequen, Maguey Henequen, Mexican Sisal (supplies henequen fiber)
**''Agave fourcroydes var. espiculata''
*''[[Agave fragrantissima]]''
*''[[Agave franceschiana]]''
*''[[Agave franzosini]]''
*''[[Agave friderici]]''
*''[[Agave funifera]]''
*''[[Agave funkiana]]'' &ndash; Ixtle de Jaumave (syn. ''Agave lophanta'')
*''[[Agave galeottei]]''
*''[[Agave garciae-mendozae]]''
*''[[Agave geminiflora]]''
**''Agave geminiflora'' var. ''filifera''
*''[[Agave gentryi]]''
*''[[Agave ghiesbrechtii]]''
*''[[Agave glabra]]''
*''[[Agave glaucescens]]''
*''[[Agave goeppertiana]]''
*''[[Agave glomeruliflora]]'' (Engelm.) Berger &ndash; Chisos Mountain Century Plant, Maguey del Bravo
*''[[Agave gracilipes]]'' Trel. &ndash; Maguey de pastizal, Slimfoot Century Plant
*''[[Agave gracilis]]''
*''[[Agave grandibracteata]]''
*''[[Agave granulosa]]''
*''[[Agave grenadina]]''
*''[[Agave grijalvensis]]''
*''[[Agave grisea]]''
*''[[Agave guadalajarana]]'' &ndash; Maguey chato
*''[[Agave guatemalensis]]''
*''[[Agave guedeneyri]]''
*''[[Agave guiengola]]''
*''[[Agave gutierreziana]]''
*''[[Agave guttata]]''
*''[[Agave gypsophila]]''
*''[[Agave hanburii]]''
*''[[Agave harrisii]]''
*''[[Agave hartmani]]''
*''[[Agave haseloffii]]''
*''[[Agave hauniensis]]''
*''[[Agave havardiana]]'' Trel. &ndash; Havard's Century Plant, Chisos Agave, Maguey de Havard
*''[[Agave haynaldi]]''
*''[[Agave henriquesii]]''
*''[[Agave hexapetala]]''
*''[[Agave hiemiflora]]''
*''[[Agave hookeri]]''
*''[[Agave horizontalis]]''
*''[[Agave horrida]]''
*''[[Agave houghii]]''
*''[[Agave huachucaensis]]''
*''[[Agave huehueteca]]''
*''[[Agave humboldtiana]]''
*''[[Agave hurteri]]''
*''[[Agave impressa]]''
*''[[Agave inaequidens]]''
*''[[Agave inaguensis]]''
*''[[Agave indagatorum]]''
*''[[Agave ingens]]''
*''[[Agave inopinabilis]]''
*''[[Agave integrifolia]]''
*''[[Agave intermixta]]''
*''[[Agave intrepida]]''
*''[[Agave isthmensis]]''
*''[[Agave jaiboli]]''
*''[[Agave jarucoensis]]''
*''[[Agave karatto]]''
*''[[Agave kellermaniana]]''
*''[[Agave kerchovei]]''
*''[[Agave kewensis]]''
*''[[Agave kirchneriana]]''
*''[[Agave lagunae]]''
*''[[Agave langlassei]]''
*''[[Agave laticincta]]''
*''[[Agave latifolia]]''
*''[[Agave laurentiana]]''
*''[[Agave laxa]]''
*''[[Agave laxifolia]]''
*''[[Agave lecheguilla]]'' Torr. &ndash; Agave lechuguilla, Lecheguilla, Lechuguilla, Maguey lechuguilla (syn. ''Agave heteracantha'')
*''[[Agave lemairei]]''
*''[[Agave lempana]]''
*''[[Agave lespinassei]]''
*''[[Agave lindleyi]]''
*''[[Agave littaeaoides]]''
*''[[Agave longipes]]''
*''[[Agave longisepala]]''
*''[[Agave lophantha]]'' Schiede &ndash; Maguey mezortillo, Thorncrest Century Plant
*''[[Agave lurida]]''
*''[[Agave macrantha]]''
*''[[Agave macroculmis]]'' (= ''Agave gentryi'') &ndash; Hardy Century Plant
*''[[Agave maculata]]''
*''[[Agave madagascariensis]]''
*''[[Agave mapisaga]]''
*''[[Agave margaritae]]''
*''[[Agave marmorata]]''
*''[[Agave martiana]]''
*''[[Agave maximiliana]]''
*''[[Agave maximowicziana]]''
*''[[Agave mayoensis]]''
*''[[Agave mckelveyana]]'' Gentry &ndash; Mckelvey Agave, McKelvey's Century Plant
*''[[Agave medioxima]]''
*''[[Agave megalacantha]]''
*''[[Agave melanacantha]]''
*''[[Agave melliflua]]''
*''[[Agave mexicana]]''
*''[[Agave micracantha]]''
*''[[Agave millspaughii]]''
*''[[Agave minarum]]''
*''[[Agave mirabilis]]''
*''[[Agave missionum]]'' Trel. &ndash; Corita
*''[[Agave mitis]]''
*''[[Agave monostachya]]''
*''[[Agave montana]]''
*''[[Agave montserratensis]]''
*''[[Agave moranii]]''
*''[[Agave morrisii]]''
*''[[Agave muilmanni]]''
*''[[Agave mulfordiana]]''
*''[[Agave multifilifera]]''
*''[[Agave multiflora]]''
*''[[Agave multilineata]]''
*''[[Agave murpheyi]]'' F. Gibson &ndash; Maguey Bandeado, Murphey Agave, Murphey's Century Plant, Hohokam Agave
*''[[Agave nashii]]''
*''[[Agave nayaritensis]]''
*''[[Agave neglecta]]'' Small &ndash; Wild Century Plant
*''[[Agave nelsoni]]''
*''[[Agave nevadensis]]''
*''[[Agave nevidis]]''
*''[[Agave newberyi]]''
*''[[Agave nickelsi]]''
*''[[Agave nissoni]]''
*''[[Agave nizandensis]]'' &ndash; Dwarf Octopus Agave
*''[[Agave noli-tangere]]''
*''[[Agave obducta]]''
*''[[Agave oblongata]]''
*''[[Agave obscura]]''
*''[[Agave ocahui]]''
**''Agave ocahui'' var. ''longifolia''
*''[[Agave offoyana]]''
*''[[Agave oligophylla]]''
*''[[Agave oliverana]]''
*''[[Agave opacidens]]''
*''[[Agave orcuttiana]]''
*''[[Agave ornithobroma]]'' &ndash; Maguey pajarito
*''[[Agave oroensis]]''
*''[[Agave ovatifolia]]''
*''[[Agave oweni]]''
*''[[Agave pachyacantha]]''
*''[[Agave pachycentra]]''
*''[ |
American children (about 70 percent) internalize the [[hypodescent]] rule by about age ten. And they can confabulate a rationalization for [[hypodescent]] by early adulthood.<sup>[[#3|3]]</sup> Although the number and meaning of "racial" categories and of the traits that delineate them vary dramatically among cultures, children learn their own culture's rules and categories shortly after learning to walk. Clearly, the cognitive system employed is as adaptable to culture, and yet is as hard-wired in the brain, as is language itself.
A series of experiments conducted by [[Robert Kurzban]], subsequently confirmed by [[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]] show why this is. Sex, age, and "otherness" are the three fundamental attributes that the mind encodes in an automatic and mandatory manner. For example, long after all memory has been lost of the occupation, name, clothing, or hair of a stranger to which one was briefly exposed, one can recall that the individual was "a White woman" or a "Black male child." But age and sex are independent of culture. "Otherness" is not. Kurzban and later investigators demonstrated that the ability to recall a stranger's "otherness" actually detects a culture's social coalitions or alliances. Over the past hundred millennia or so, humans have become adept at detecting competing social groups. The discrimination of facial features enables a child to identify whether a stranger is genetically related (a member of the child's extended family). This ability is strongly selected because one is less likely to be killed and devoured by a relative than by a member of an opposing group. Recall that we (genus ''Homo'') evolved as hunting apes for two million years before our brains expanded five-fold in the past 120 millennia (species ''sapiens''). One must take the long view when studying adaptive cognition.
Skin tone, hair kinkiness, and the like are the clues with which Americans (and, to a lesser extent other Europeans, especially British) identify a stranger's "otherness" and so determine whether a stranger "looks black" to them. But other cultures use clues that are unrelated to the U.S. endogamous color line: height, hair-length, clothing, facial features (such as hooked nose versus straight nose or the shape of the eye), even a person's smell (which relates to diet). This point is easily misunderstood and has even been reported as suggesting that humans are hard-wired to recognize "race." The fact is that in no culture does the need/ability to recall a stranger's "otherness" correlate with Americans' unique perception of "race," unless you stretch the meaning of "race" to denote simply "otherness." In the United States, for example, where the term "race" is applied to differentiate those of Asian ancestry, subjects quickly forget whether the stranger was [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Native American]], [[Hindu]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Italian people|Italian]], or [[Pakistani]]. But Americans (only) do not forget on which side of the U.S. endogamous color line he seemed to be. In short, it is easily demonstrated within minutes that subjects notice and subconsciously remember even the most apparently insignificant differences in facial features if they happen to correlate with "otherness." On the other hand, even glaring facial differences, such as skin-tone darkness, are quickly forgotten if they are irrelevant to "otherness." In short, "who looks black" is answered differently by different people; but ultimately, it is white people who DECIDE who is white, and by doing so, DECIDE who is nonwhite. Therfore, logically speaking, it is white people who DECIDE who is black.
==Footnotes==
#<small id="1">Pier M. Larson, [http://backintyme.com/rawdata/larson01.pdf Reconsidering Trauma, Identity, and the African Diaspora: Enslavement and Historical Memory in Nineteenth-Century Highland Madagascar], ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62.
#<small id="2">This section was adapted from Chapter 3 of Frank W. Sweet, ''Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule'' (Palm Coast FL: Backintyme, 2005) ISBN 0939479230, which contains the citations and references. An abridged version, with endnotes is available online at [http://backintyme.com/Essay040717.htm The Perception of "Racial" Traits].
#<small id="3">The term ''hypodescent'' was coined by the late University of Florida anthropologist, Marvin Harris in ''Patterns of Race in the Americas'' (Westport CT, 1964), page 37. It means that, to the extent that blood fraction influences perceived U.S. endogamous group membership, the dividing line is not 50-50. Even a slight fraction of known Black ancestry usually consigns an English-speaking American to the Black group. This contrasts with other New World countries where one is categorized by preponderance of appearance&mdash;you are White if you look mostly White. The original experiments on childhood internalization of the "race" notion are reported in Lawrence A. Hirschfeld,[http://backintyme.com/rawdata/hirschfeld02.pdf "The Inheritability of Identity: Children’s Understanding of the Cultural Biology of Race,"] ''Child Development'', 66 (no. 5, October 1995), 1418-37.
==See also==
*[[African diaspora]]
*[[Colored]] people in the [[United States]]
*[[Coloured]] people of [[South Africa]]
*[[Creole peoples]]
*[[Race]]
*[[Race and Intelligence]]
*[[Racial segregation]]
*[[Negrito]]
*[[Negro]]
*[[Nilotic]]
*[[White (people)]]
*[[Negroid]]
<noinclude></noinclude>===Groups===
*[[African American]]
*[[Afro-Brazilian]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]]
*[[Afro-Ecuadorian]]
*[[Afro-German]]
*[[Afro-Irish]]
*[[Afro-Latin American]]
*[[Afro-Mexican]]
*[[Afro-Peruvian]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]]
*[[African American culture]]
*[[African American music]]
*[[Black British]]
*[[African Caribbean]]
*[[Black Canadian]]
*[[Siddi]]
*[[Dalit]]
*[[Black People]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/home.html PBS Africans in America series]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0009/feature3/zoom3.html National Geographic pictures of the Rana Tharu of Nepal]
*[http://www.jphpk.gov.my/English/May04%2012.htm Sheedi people of India and Pakistan]
*[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/people/siddi.htm Siddi people of India]
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4271003 Black Iraqis and African heritage in an Islamic State.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1077982.stm India's Lost Africans] BBC News of African oriented people in east India and Pakistan
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0607_wiregullah.html Gullah culture of South Carolina.]
===Historical links===
[[Category:African American culture]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups]]
[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[fr:race noire]]
[[he:שחורים]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bubonic plague</title>
<id>4746</id>
<revision>
<id>42151075</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.190.217.176</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Infection/transportation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Plague |
ICD10 = A20 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|020}} |
}}
[[image:Doktorschnabel 430px.jpg|thumb|250px|"[[Der Doctor Schnabel von Rom]]" (English: "The Doctor Beak of Rome") engraving by [[Paul Fürst]] (after J Columbina). The beak is a primitive [[gas mask]], stuffed with substances (such as [[spices]] and [[herbs]]) thought to ward off the plague.]]
==Types==
[[ICD-10]] codes are provided below.
* (A20.0) bubonic plague [[infectious disease]] that is believed to have caused several [[epidemic]]s or [[pandemic]]s throughout history. The disease is caused by the bacterium ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''. Bubonic plague is the most common form of plague, and is characterized by swollen, tender, inflamed [[Lymph node|lymph gland]]s (called '''buboes''').
* (A20.7) '''Septicemic plague''' occurs when plague [[bacterium|bacteria]] multiply in the [[blood]].
* (A20.2) '''Pneumonic plague''' occurs when the [[lung]]s are infected.
== Infection/transportation ==
Bubonic plague is primarily a disease of [[rodent]]s, particularly [[marmot]]s (in which the most virulent strains of plague are primarily found), but also [[Black Rat]]s, [[prairie dog]]s, [[chipmunk]]s, [[squirrel]]s and other similar large rodents. [[Human]] infection most often occurs when a person is [[bite|bitten]] by a [[rat flea]] (''Xenopsylla cheopsis'') that has fed on an infected rodent. The bacillus multiplies in the stomach of the flea, blocking it. When the flea next bites a [[mammal]], blood consumed by the flea is regurgitated along with the bacillus into the bloodstream of the bitten animal. Any serious outbreak of plague is started by other disease outbreaks in the rodent population. During these outbreaks, infected fleas that have lost their normal hosts seek other sources of blood.
In [[1894]], bacteriologists [[Alexandre Emile John Yersin|Alexandre Yersin]] and [[Shibasaburo Kitasato]] independently isolated the responsible bacterium and Yersin further determined that rodents were the likely common mode of transmission. The disease is caused by the [[bacteria]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''.
== Symptoms and treatment ==
The disease becomes evident 2&ndash;7 days after the infection. Initial symptoms are chills, fever, diarrhea, headaches, and the formation of buboes. The buboes are formed by the infection of the [[lymph nodes]], which swell and become prominent. If unchecked, the bacteria infects the bloodstream (septicemic p |
for the AMD64. Intel started using the set starting with the [[Xeon]] Nocona core in 2004, introducing it to the desktop market with the [[Pentium 4]] Prescott 2M in early 2005.
==See also==
* [[x86]]
* [[Wintel]]
* [[IA-64]]
* [[AMD64]] (a/k/a "x86-64" or "x86")
* [[EM64T]]
* [[List of AMD microprocessors]]
* [[List of Intel microprocessors]]
* [[IA-4]]
* [[IA-8]]
* [[IA-16]]
* [[Intel P6]]
* [[NetBurst]]
* [[Intel Next Generation Microarchitecture]]
==External links==
* [http://www.intel.com/design/pentium4/manuals/index_new.htm Free IA-32 documentation], provided by INTEL
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<page>
<title>Internalism and externalism</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-06T10:14:51Z</timestamp>
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<username>Rldoan</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">Recently '''internalism''' and '''externalism''' have become part of the standard jargon of [[philosophy|philosophical]] discourse, and have become central to certain important debates.
== Moral philosophy ==
In contemporary moral philosophy, internalism is the view that moral beliefs function as a motivating factor. That is, the internalist believes that there is an internal connection between her belief that "X ought to be done" and her motivation to do X. In the same way, an externalist would argue that there is no essential internal connection between moral beliefs and motives, i.e. there's no essential reason that the belief "X is wrong" leads to a desire not to do X. It is likely that this use of these terms comes from W.D. Falk's paper ''Ought and motivation'' (1948).
== Epistemology ==
In contemporary epistemology internalism about justification is the idea that everything necessary to provide justification for a belief is immediately available in consciousness. Externalism in this context is the view that there are factors other than those which are internal to the believer which can affect the justificatory status of a belief. One strand of externalism is loosely called the [[causal theory of knowledge]], and [[reliabilism]] is sometimes considered to be another strand. It is important to distinguish internalism about justification from internalism about knowledge. An internalist about knowledge will likely hold that the conditions that distinguish mere true belief from knowledge are similarly internal to the individual's perspective or grounded in the subject's mental states. Whereas internalism about justification is a widely endorsed view, there are few defenders of internalism about knowledge thanks in no small part to Gettier and Gettier-like examples (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettier_problem) that suggest that there is more to knowledge than just justified true belief. In a short but widely discussed paper published in 1963, Gettier produced examples that seemed to show that owing to an accidental connection between an individual's evidence or reasons and the truth of her belief, someone could be justified in believing something true but nevertheless be ignorant.
One line of argument in favor of externalism begins with the observation that if what justified our beliefs failed to significantly eliminate the risk of error, then it does not seem that knowledge would be attainable as it would appear that when our beliefs did happen to be correct, this would really be a matter of good fortune. While many will agree with this last claim, the argument seems inconclusive. Setting aside sceptical concerns about the possession of knowledge, Gettier cases have suggested the need to distinguish justification from warrant where warrant is understood as that which distinguishes justified true belief from knowledge by eliminating the kind of accidentality often present in Gettier-type cases. Even if something must significantly reduce the risk of error, it is not clear why justification is what must fill the bill.
One of the more popular arguments from internalism begins with the observation, perhaps first due to Stewart Cohen, that when we imagine subjects completely cut off from their surroundings (thanks to a malicious Cartesian demon, perhaps) we do not think that in cutting these individuals off from their surroundings, these subjects cease to be rational in taking things to be as they appear. The 'new evil demon' argument for internalism (and against externalism) begins with the observation that individuals like us on the inside will be as justified as we are in believing what we believe. As it is part of the story that these individual's beliefs are not produced by reliable mechanisms or backed by veridical perceptual experiences, the claim that the justification of our beliefs depends upon such things appears to be seriously challenged. Externalists have offered a variety of responses but none appear to have won the hearts and minds of the epistemological community.
== Semantics ==
[[Semantic externalism]] comes in two flavours, depending on whether meaning is construed cognitively or linguistically. On a cognitive construal, externalism is the thesis that what concepts (or contents) are available to a thinker is determined by her environment, or her relation to her environment. On a linguistic construal, externalism is the thesis that the meaning of a word is environmentally determined. Likewise, one can construe semantic internalism in two ways, as a denial of either of these two theses.
See also:
*[[Linguistic turn]] and [[cognitive turn]] for more about the two construals of meaning.
*[[Twin Earth thought experiment]]
*[[Swamp man]] thought experiment
== Philosophy of mind ==
Within the context of the philosophy of mind, externalism is the theory that the contents of mental states are dependent on their relationship to the external world. Some mental states, such as believing that water is wet, and fearing that the Queen has been insulted, have contents which we can capture using 'that' clauses. The content externalist often appeals to observations which are found as early as [[Hilary Putnam]]'s seminal 'The Meaning of 'Meaning'' that we can easily imagine pairs of individuals that are microphysical duplicates embedded in different surroundings who use the same words but mean different things when using them. For example, suppose that Ike and Tina's mothers are identical twins and that Ike and Tina are raised in isolation from one another in indistinguishable environments. When Ike says 'I want my mommy', he expresses a want that is satisfied only if he is brought to his mommy. If we brought Tina's mommy, Ike might not notice the difference, but he doesn't get what he wants. It seems that what he wants and what he says when he says 'I want my mommy' will be different from what Tina wants and what she says she wants when she says 'I want my mommy'. Externalists say that if we assume that competent speakers know what they think and say what they think, the difference in what these two speakers mean will correspond to a difference in the minds of the two speakers that is not (necessarily) reflected by an internal difference in the internal make up of the speakers or thinkers. They urge us to move from externalism about meaning of the sort Putnam defended to externalism about contentful states of mind. The example offered pertains to singular terms but it has been extended to cover kind terms as well such as terms for kinds of substances (e.g., 'water') and for kinds of artifacts (e.g., 'espresso maker'). There is no general agreement amongst content externalists as to the scope of the thesis.
Critics of the view have questioned the original thought experiments saying that the lessons that Putnam and later writers such as [[Tyler Burge]] have urged us to draw can be resisted. [[Frank Jackson]] and [[John Searle]], for example, have defended internalist accounts of thought content according to which the contents of our thoughts are fixed by descriptions that pick out the individuals and kinds that our thoughts intuitively pertain to the sorts of things that we take them to. In the Ike/Tina example, one might agree that Ike's thoughts pertain to Ike's mother and that Tina's thoughts pertain to Tina's but insist that this is because Ike thinks of that woman as his mother and we can capture this by saying that he thinks of her as 'the mother of the speaker'. This descriptive phrase will pick out one unique woman. Externalists have claimed that this is implausible as we would have to ascribe Ike knowledge he wouldn't seem to need in order to successfully refer to his mother or think about his mother.
Critics have also claimed that content externalists are committed to epistemological absurdities. Suppose that a speaker can have the concept of water we do only if the speaker lives in a world that contains H2O. It seems this speaker could know apriori that she thinks that water is wet. This is the thesis of privileged access. It also seems that she could know on the basis of simple thought experiments that she can only think that water is wet if she lives in a world that contains water. What would prevent her from putting these together and coming to know apriori that the world contains water? If we should say that no one could possibly know whether water exists apriori, it seems either we cannot know content externalism to be true on the basis of thought experiments or we cannot know what we are thinking without first looking into the world to see what it is like.
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[[pt |
sed for daylight [[strategic bombing]]s of German industrial targets during [[World War II]] as part of the United States [[Eighth Air Force]].
== Development ==
The prototype B-17 first flew on [[July 28]] [[1935 in aviation|1935]] as the [[Boeing]] Model 299, with Boeing chief test pilot Les Tower at the controls. During a demonstration later that year at [[Wright Field]] in [[Dayton, Ohio]], Model 299 competed with the [[B-18 Bolo|Douglas DB-1]] and [[Glenn L. Martin Company|Martin]] Model 146. While the Boeing design was obviously superior, Army officials were daunted by the much greater expense per aircraft. The Army ordered the Douglas B-18 Bolo as it was less expensive than the Boeing Model 299. Development continued on the Boeing Model 299. October 30th of 1935 the Army Air Corps test pilot Ployer Hill took the Model 299 on a second evaluation flight. The flyers forgot to disengage the plane's "gust lock"--a device that holds the bomber's movable control surfaces in place while the plane was parked on the ground--and the aircraft took off, entered a steep climb, stalled, nosed over, and crashed. [http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b2-13a.htm].
In January of [[1936 in aviation|1936]], the Air Corps ordered thirteen YB-17s with a number of significant changes from the Model 299, most notably that of the engines to more powerful Wright R-1820-39 Cyclones, next to 99 B-18s (successor of the DB-1).
The first B-17 went into service in [[1938 in aviation|1938]]. By [[December 7]] [[1941 in aviation|1941]], few B-17s were in use by the Army. Following the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], production was quickly accelerated. The aircraft served in every [[World War II]] combat zone. Production ended in May [[1945 in aviation|1945]] after 12,700 aircraft had been built.
[[Image:B-17_Flying_Fortresses.jpg|thumb|right|200px|B-17 Flying Fortresses over Eastern Europe during World War II]]
== Operational history ==
The name "Flying Fortress" was coined by Richard Williams, a reporter for the ''Seattle Times'' who gave this name to the Model 299 when it was rolled out showing off its [[machine gun]] installations. Boeing was quick to see the value of the title and had it trademarked for use. Among the combat aircrews that flew bombers in World War II, noted aviation writer [[Martin Caidin]] reported that the B-17 was referred to as the "Queen of the Bombers."
The first use of the B-17 (the B-17C) as the '''Fortress I''' in service with the RAF was against [[Wilhelmshaven]] on [[8 July]] 1941. By September the RAF had lost 8 to combat or accidents. They had also uncovered problems with flying it at high altitudes (about 30,000 ft).
Before the advent of long-range [[fighter]] escorts, B-17's had only their [[machine guns]] to rely on for defense for the bombing runs over Europe. To address this problem, the United States developed a rigid [[box formation]] where all the B-17's could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns, making a formation of the bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters. However, the use of this formation meant that individual planes could not engage in [[evasive maneuvers]]: they had to always fly in a straight line which made them vulnerable to the German [[antiaircraft]] [[88mm gun]].
The plane's extreme durability, and powerful defensive arcs led the Luftwaffe to develop a number of innovative (and costly) methods of combating the bomber. Late in the war, the Me-262 was to see the most (proportional) success against B-17's. However this success did not come from gun to gun combat. While the Me-262 could fly extremely fast, it had to slow down to accurately aim its guns. This endangered the fighter from the B-17's many guns. Instead Me-262's would engage at long distances firing masses of rockets at the B-17 formations. While this tactic was successful, there were too many B-17's and too few [[Me-262]]'s to make a real difference. The actual number of B-17's lost to Me-262's using this tactic was low.
The B-17 was noted for its ability to take battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home. It reportedly was much easier to fly than its contemporaries, and its toughness more than compensated for its shorter range and lighter bomb load when compared to the Consolidated [[B-24 Liberator]] or the British [[Avro Lancaster]] heavy bombers. Stories from veterans abound of B-17's returning to base with the tail having been destroyed, with only a single engine functioning or even with large portions of the wings having been clipped by flak.
The design went through eight major changes over the course of its production, culminating in what some consider the definitive type, the B-17G, differing from its immediate predecessor by the addition of a chin [[turret]] with two 0.50 calibre (12.7 mm) [[machine gun]]s under the nose. This eliminated the aeroplane's main defensive weakness of head on attacks.
== Variants/Design stages ==
{{main|B-17 Flying Fortress variants}}
The B-17 went through several iterations in each of its design stages and variants. Of the thirteen YB-17s ordered for service testing, only one was actually used. Experiments on this plane led to the use of a turbo-supercharger, which would become standard on the B-17 line. When this aircraft was finished with testing, it was redesignated the B-17A, and was the first plane to enter service under the B-17 designation.
As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon it. To improve performance, the original design was altered to include larger flaps. Most significantly, with the 'E' version the fuselage was extended by 10 feet, a much larger vertical fin and rudder were incorporated into the original design, a gunner's position in the tail and an improved nose were added. The engines were upgraded to more powerful versions several times. Similarly, the gun stations were altered on numerous occasions to enhance their effectiveness.
By the time the B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to thirteen, the designs of the gun stations were finalised, and other adjustments were complete. In this the G model incorporated all changes made in its predecessor, the B-17F. The B-17G is generally considered the defining version of the B-17. Some 8680 were built, Many were converted for other missions, such as cargo hauling, engine testing and [[reconnaissance aircraft|reconnaissance]].
[[Image:B-17dorsalview.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Top view of a B-17H in flight.<br>''<small>From the Maxwell Air Force Base website ([http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/afhra/wwwroot/photo_galleries/aaf_wwii_vol_vi/Captions/196_17H.htm original image]).''</small>]]
Two versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations. These were the [[XB-38 Flying Fortress|XB-38]] and the [[YB-40 Flying Fortress|YB-40]]. The former was an engine test bed for [[Allison V-1710]] liquid-cooled engines, to test the engine should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable. The YB-40 was a modification of the standard B-17 used before the [[P-51 Mustang]] became available. Since no fighters had the range to escort the B-17, a heavily armed modification was used instead with an additional power turret in the radio room, a chin turret (which went on to become standard with the B-17G) and twin .50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns in the waist positions. The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds making the YB-40 well over 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) heavier than a fully loaded B-17F. Unfortunately, the YB-40s with their numerous heavy modifications had trouble keeping the pace with empty bombers. The project was abandoned with the advent of the P-51 Mustang and was phased out in July of 1943.
Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls, loaded with 12,000 lb (5443 kg) of high explosives, dubbed 'BQ-7 [[Operation Aphrodite|Aphrodite]] missiles,' and used against [[U-boat]] pens and bomb-resistant [[fortification]]s. Because few (if any) BQ-7s hit their target, the Aphrodite project was scrapped in early [[1945 in aviation|1945]]. [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher2/b17_14.html History of the BQ-7] During and after World War II, a number of weapons were tested and used operationally on B-17's. Some of these weapons included razons (radio guided), glide bombs, and JB-2 Thunderbugs - the equivalent of the German [[V-1]] Buzz Bomb.
[[Image:B-17formation.jpg|thumb|250px|right|American B-17s flew in elaborate formations to concentrate defensive machine gun fire.]]
== Units Using the B-17 ==
{{main|List of units using the B-17 Flying Fortress}}
The B-17 was a versatile aircraft, and it served in dozens of units in theatres of combat throughout World War II. Its main use was in [[European Theatre of World War II|Europe]], where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft available did not hamper it as much as in the [[Pacific Theater of Operations|Pacific Theatre]]. Only five B-17 groups operated in the Pacific, all converting to other types by 1943. Thirty-two groups were stationed in Europe, twenty-six in England and six in Italy.
It was also used by the [[Royal Air Force]], though mainly in roles other than those for which it had been designed. The first B-17s, -C and -D models &mdash; known to the RAF as "Fortress I"s &mdash; used by the Royal Air Force had been unsuccessful, and despite its overwhelming success in American hands, the British were reluctant to use the B-17 for its original mission profile of heavy bombing. They regarded the B-17 as uneconomical, due to its larger crew and relatively small bomb load. Instead, they used them for patrol bombing, and later equipped a number of them with sophisticated radio-countermeasures equipment, where they served in some of the first [[electronic countermeasures]] |
ut the state of the [[Natural environment|environment]] in the leading Danish newspaper ''[[Politiken]]'', which according to him "resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers."<ref>[http://www.lomborg.com/biograph.htm Bjorn Lomborg Biography], www.lomborg.com. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', a [[controversial book]] whose main thesis is that most of the most-publicized claims and dire predictions of [[environmentalist]]s are exaggerated.
He has in this context claimed to have been a supporter of [[Greenpeace]]. When challenged that Greenpeace had no record of him ever being a member or supporter, he stated that he had given money to Greenpeace collectors. Greenpeace has no card carrying membership.
== Copenhagen Consensus ==
:''Main article: [[Copenhagen Consensus]]''
In [[2002]], Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus, which sought to establish priorities for advancing [[world|global]] welfare using methodologies based on the theory of [[welfare economics]]. A panel of prominent [[economics|economists]] was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems. The project was funded largely by the Danish government, and co-sponsored by ''[[The Economist]]''. A book summarizing the conclusions, ''[[Global Crises, Global Solutions]]'', edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by [[Cambridge University Press]].
== Later activities ==
In March 2002, the newly elected center-right [[prime minister]] appointed Lomborg to run Denmark's new [[Environmental Assessment Institute]] (EAI).
On [[June 22]] [[2004]], Lomborg announced his decision to resign from his post at the EAI to go back to the University of Aarhus, stating that his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector; he left the University on [[February 1]], [[2005]].
== Recognitions and awards ==
In November 2001, Lomborg was selected "Global Leader for Tomorrow" by the [[World Economic Forum]].
In June 2002, [[BusinessWeek]] named Lomborg one of the "50 Stars of Europe" ([[June 17]]), in the category of Agenda Setters. The magazine credentialed him as "statistician" and noted, "No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn [sic] Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core."<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/@@*f80dYcQmsnuwBwA/magazine/content/02_24/b3787628.htm The Stars of Europe - Agenda Setters - Bjorn Lomborg]. BusinessWeek Online, 17-Jun-2002. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
Lomborg was selected as one of ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' magazine's 100 most influential people of 2004.
== Accusations of scientific dishonesty ==
After the publication of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', Lomborg was accused of scientific misconduct. Several environmental scientists brought a total of three complaints against Lomborg to the [[Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty]] (DCSD), a body under Denmark's [[Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation]]. The charges claimed that ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' contained deliberately misleading data and flawed conclusions. Due to the similarity of the complaints, the DCSD decided to proceed on the three cases under one investigation.
On [[January 6]], [[2003]] the DCSD reached a decision in the complaints. The ruling was a mixed message, finding that the book was scientifically dishonest, but Lomborg himself not guilty by virtue of lack of expertise in the fields in question.<ref>[http://forsk.dk/pls/portal/url/ITEM/EF36913D939B7142E030E00A8201731A The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty: 2003 Annual Report]. Retrieved 26-Nov-2005.</ref> Specifically, they cited ''TSE'' for:
#Fabrication of data;
#Selective discarding of unwanted results (selective citation);
#Deliberately [[bias (statistics)|misleading use of statistical methods]];
#Distorted interpretation of conclusions;
#[[Plagiarism]];
#Deliberate misinterpretation of others' results.
The wording of the ruling left no doubt that the DCSD, while not finding Lomborg guilty, was not exonerating him either:
:''Objectively speaking, the publication of the work under consideration is deemed to fall within the concept of scientific dishonesty. ... In view of the subjective requirements made in terms of intent or gross negligence, however, Bjørn Lomborg's publication cannot fall within the bounds of this characterization. Conversely, the publication is deemed clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice.''
On [[February 13]], [[2003]], Lomborg filed a complaint with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation against the DCSD's decision.
On [[December 17]], [[2003]], the Ministry found that the DCSD had made a number of procedural errors, including:
* The DCSD did not use a precise standard for deciding "good scientific practice" in the social sciences;
* The DCSD's definition of "objective scientific dishonesty" was not clear about whether "distortion of statistical data" had to be deliberate or not;
* The DCSD had not properly documented that ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' was a scientific publication on which they had the right to intervene in the first place;
* The DCSD did not provide specific statements on actual errors.
The Ministry remitted the case to the DCSD, which invalidated the previous findings of scientific dishonesty in regard to the book. The Minstry also instructed the DCSD to decide whether to reinvestigate.
On [[March 12]], [[2004]], the Committee formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that they had already found Lomborg not guilty. This effectively closed the case. <ref name="BBC DCSD 2">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3340305.stm "Lomborg celebrates ministry ruling"]. BBC News, 22-Dec-2003. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref> Two days later a complaint was issued by [[Kåre Fog]], a [[freelance]] [[ecology|ecologist]] who maintains an anti-Lomborg website. Fog reports that this complaint was rejected on 27th Dec. 2004.<ref>[http://www.lomborg-errors.dk/lomborgstory14.htm ]. www.lomborg-errors.dk. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
The DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a [[petition]]<ref>[http://www.math.ku.dk/~dlando/indsamling.htm "Underskriftsindsamling i protest mod afgørelsen om Bjørn Lomborg fra - Udvalgene Vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed"]. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref> among Danish academics. 308 scientists, many of them from the social sciences, criticised the DCSD's methods in the case. A Dutch science-based [[think tank]], [[Heidelberg Appeal Nederland|Heidelberg Appeal the Netherlands]], published a report in which they claim that 25 out of 27 accusations against Lomborg to be unsubstantiated or not to the point.<ref>Rörsch, Arthur, et al. [http://www.stichting-han.nl/Commentaren/algemeen/2.critical%20concideration1.doc "A Critical Consideration of the Verdict of the Danish Committee on Scientific Dishonesty on the Book by Bjorn Lomborg 'The Skeptical Environmentalist'"]. Heidelberg Appeal the Netherlands, 4-April-2003. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
In reaction to the pro-Lomborg petition, another group of Danish scientists collected signatures in support of the DCSD. The 640 signatures in this second petition came almost exclusively from the medical and [[natural science]]s, and included [[Jens Christian Skou]] (a [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]] for chemistry), former university [[rector]] [[Kjeld Møllgård]], and professor [[Poul Harremoës]] from the [[Technical University of Denmark]].<ref>[http://www.ulnits.dk/biologi/frame298.htm "Verden ifølge Lomborg - eller den moderne udgave af "Kejserens Nye Klæder": Han har jo ikke noget på..."]. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
== Discussions in the media ==
Since the release of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the [[media]], where his scientific qualifications and integrity were attacked and defended from time to time. The verdict of the Danish Committees for Scientific Dishonesty fuelled this debate and brought it into the spotlight of international [[mass media]]. By the end of 2003, ''The Skeptikcal Environmentalist'' had been translated into 12 languages, and Lomborg had become an international celebrity, with frequent appearances in radio, TV and print media around the world.<ref name="BBC DCSD 2"/>
* ''[[Scientific American]]'' published strong criticism of Lomborg's book. Lomborg rebutted on his own [[website]], quoting the article at such length that ''Scientific American'' threatened to sue for copyright infringement. Lomborg eventually removed the rebuttal from his website; it was later published in [[PDF]] format on ''Scientific American'''s site.<ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00000B96-9517-1CDA-B4A8809EC588EEDF "Bjørn Lomborg’s comments to the 11-page critique in January 2002 Scientific American (SA)"]. Scientific American; rebuttal last upated 16-Feb-2002. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref> The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal.<ref>Rennie, John. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00040A72-A95C-1CDA-B4A8809EC588EEDF "A Response to Lomborg's Rebuttal"]. ''Scientific American'', 15-April-2002. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.</ref>
* ''[[The Economist]]'' defended Lomborg, claiming that the panel of experts that had criticised Lomborg in ''Scientific American'' was both biased and not actually countering Lomborg's book. ''The Economist'' argued that the panel's opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg's respon |
World]]'' (1975) and ''[[Music for Airports|Ambient 1/Music for Airports]]'' (1978). Since then, he has produced dozens of albums (many with similarly-minded collaborators such as [[Harold Budd]] and [[Robert Fripp]]) which have demonstrated his unique approach to music. He has also occasionally returned to the [[popular music|pop song]] format.
His production credits include some of the most respected albums by [[Talking Heads]] and [[U2]].
Contrary to popular belief, Brian Eno did not produce [[David Bowie]]'s popular [[Berlin Trilogy]] (''[[Low (album)|Low]]'', ''[["Heroes"]]'', and ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]''). He performed and co-wrote tracks on all three albums, but they were produced by Bowie and [[Tony Visconti]]. He did, however, co-produce Bowie's 1995 ''[[1.OUTSIDE| 1. Outside]]''.
Eno has pursued several artistic ventures parallel to his music career, including visual [[art installation]]s, a regular [[newspaper column|column]] in the [[newspaper]] ''[[The Observer]]'' and, with artist [[Peter Schmidt]], [[Oblique Strategies]], a deck of cards recommending various artistic strategies.
==Education and early musical career==
Eno was educated at the [[Ipswich Art School]] and the [[Winchester School of Art]], graduating from the latter in 1969. While at art school, he developed an interest in using [[tape recorder]]s as musical instruments, and he experimented with his first (sometimes [[improvisation|improvisational]]) bands.
===Roxy Music===
Eno started his professional musical career in [[London]], co-founding the highly-successful [[Glam Rock|glam]]/[[Art rock|art-rock]] band [[Roxy Music]], working with them from 1971 to 1973. As a self-professed "non-musician", at the band's early live shows Eno was to be found not on stage, but behind the [[mixing console|mixing desk]], where his efforts went way beyond the usual balancing of the volume levels: he would process the instrument sounds through his [[VCS3]] synthesizer, tape recorders and other electronic devices, frequently singing backing vocals as well. Eno soon graduated to join the rest of Roxy on stage however, where his bizarre costumes contributed to a large part of the band's visual appeal. Public interest in Eno fuelled a rivalry between him and Roxy's leader, [[Bryan Ferry]], who sacked him from the band on completion of the tour for their second album, while expecting Eno to keep his share of the band's considerable debts.
===Solo work===
Eno embarked on a solo career almost immediately. Between [[1973]] and [[1977]] he created four influential solo albums of electronically inflected pop songs &ndash; ''[[Here Come the Warm Jets]]'', ''[[Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy)]]'', ''[[Another Green World]]'' and ''[[Before and After Science]]''. ''Tiger Mountain'' contains the galloping "Third Uncle", one of Eno's best-known songs. Critic Dave Thompson writes that the song is "a near punk attack of riffing guitars and clattering percussion, "Third Uncle" could, in other hands, be a [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] anthem, albeit one whose lyrical content would tongue-tie the most slavish [[air guitar]]ist."[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=33:0l2zefuk5gf1]
During this period, he also toured with [[Phil Manzanera]] in the band [[801 (band)|801]], a "supergroup" that played more or less mutated selections from albums by Eno, Manzanera, and [[Quiet Sun (band)|Quiet Sun]], as well as covers of classic songs by [[The Beatles]] and [[The Kinks]].
He was a prominent member of the performance art-classical orchestra the [[Portsmouth Sinfonia]] - having started playing with them in 1972. In 1973 he produced the orchestra's first album ''The Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics'' (released in March 1974) and in 1974 he produced the live album ''Hallellujah! The Portsmouth Sinfonia Live At The Royal Albert Hall'' of their infamous May 1974 concert (released in October 1974.) In addition to producing both albums, Eno perfomed in the orchestra on both recordings - playing the clarinet. Eno also deployed the orchestra's famously dissonant string section on his second solo album ''[[Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy)]]''. The orchestra at this time included other musicians whose solo work he would subsequently release on his Obscure label including [[Gavin Bryars]] and [[Michael Nyman]].
Eno continued his career by producing a larger number of highly eclectic and increasingly [[ambient music|ambient]] [[electronic music|electronic]] and acoustic albums. He is widely cited as coining the term "ambient music," low-volume music designed to modify one's perception of a surrounding environment, producing his ''Ambient'' series (''[[Music for Airports]]'', ''[[The Plateaux of Mirror]]'', ''[[Day of Radiance]]'' and ''[[On Land]]''). Eno describes himself as a "non-musician" and coined the term "treatments" to describe his modification of the sound of musical instruments, and to separate his role from that of the traditional instrumentalist. His skill at using "The Studio as a Compositional Tool" (the title of an essay by Eno) led in part to his career as a producer. His methods were recognized at the time (mid-70s) as unique, so much so that on [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]]'s ''[[The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway]]'', he is credited with "Enossification."
Eno started the Obscure label in Britain in 1975 to release works by less-known composers. The first group of three releases included his own composition, ''[[Discreet Music]]'', and the now-famous ''The Sinking of the Titanic'' by [[Gavin Bryars]]. The second side of ''Discreet Music'' consisted of several versions of [[Pachelbel's canon]] to which various algorithmic transformations have been applied, rendering it almost unrecognizable. Side 1 consisted of a [[tape loop]] system for generating music from relative sparse input. These tapes had previously been used as backgrounds in some of his collaborations with [[Robert Fripp]] of [[King Crimson]], most notably ''[[No Pussyfooting]]''. This methodology (coined ''Frippertronics'') was later used by Robert Fripp, among other artists, on future albums. Only ten Obscure albums were released, including works by John Adams, [[Michael Nyman]], and [[John Cage]]. At this time he was also affiliating with artists in the [[Fluxus|Fluxus movement]].
In 1979/80 he collaborated with [[David Byrne (musician)|David Byrne]], of [[Talking Heads]], on [[My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (album)|''My Life in the Bush of Ghosts'']], which was built around [[sampling (music)|sampling]] recordings and radio broadcasts from around the world. Eno collaborated with [[David Bowie]] as a writer and musician on Bowie's influential "Berlin trilogy" of albums, ''[[Low (album)|Low]], [["Heroes"]]'' and ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'', on Bowie's later album ''[[1.OUTSIDE|1. Outside]]'', and on the song "I'm Afraid of Americans". Eno has also collaborated with [[John Cale]], former member of [[Velvet Underground]], on his trilogy ''[[Fear (John Cale album)|Fear]]'', ''[[Slow Dazzle]]'' and ''[[Helen of Troy]]'', [[Robert Wyatt]] on his ''Shleep'' CD, with [[Jon Hassell]], with the German duo [[Cluster (band)|Cluster]], with composer [[Harold Budd]] and others. In 1992, Eno released his take on 'club electronica' titled ''[[Nerve Net]]''.
In 2004, [[Robert Fripp|Fripp]] and Eno recorded another [[Ambient music|ambient]] collaboration album: ''[[The Equatorial Stars]]''.
Eno returned in June of 2005 with ''[[Another Day on Earth]]'', his first major album since ''[[Wrong Way Up]]'' (with [[John Cale]]) to prominently feature vocals. The album is different from his 70's solo work, as musical production has changed since then, as is evident in its semi-electronic production.
==Producing records and other projects==
From the very beginning of his solo career in 1973, Eno has been much in demand as a [[record producer|producer]]. His lengthly string of producer credits includes albums for [[Talking Heads]], [[U2]], [[Devo]], [[Ultravox]] and [[James (band)|James]]. He also produced part of the 1993 album ''[[When I Was a Boy]]'' by [[Jane Siberry]]. This album is widely regarded as a masterpiece and is, in the opinion of many, Siberry's finest hour. He won the best producer award at the [[1994]] and [[1996]] [[Brit Awards|BRIT awards]].
Despite being a self-professed "non-musician", Eno has contributed to recordings by a huge number of artists as varied as [[Nico]], [[Robert Calvert]], [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[Edikanfo]], and [[Zvuki Mu]], in various capacities such as use of his studio/synthesizer/electronic treatments, vocals, guitar, bass guitar, and even just as being 'Eno'. In 1984, he composed and performed the "Prophecy Theme" for the [[David Lynch]] film ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'', the rest of the film's score performed by the group [[Toto (band)|Toto]]. Eno produced and performance art singer [[Laurie Anderson]]'s [[Bright Red]] and also composed there. The work is avant-guarde spoken word with haunting and magnifying sounds. Eno played on David Byrne's musical score for ''[[The Catherine Wheel]]'', a project commissioned by [[Twyla Tharp]] to accompany her Broadway dance project of the same name.
He collaborated on the development of [http://www.sseyo.com SSEYO]'s [http://www.sseyo.com/products/koanpro/ Koan] [[generative music]] system, which he used to create his hybrid album ''[http://www.sseyo.com/products/koancontent/genmus1.html Generative Music 1]''.
Brian Eno 1996:
<blockquote>"Some very basic forms of generative music have existed for a long time, but as marginal curiosities. Wind chimes are an example, but the only compositional control you have over the music they produce is in the original choice of notes that the chimes will sound. Recentl |
] or other models of physics.
===Observation===
[[Image:Black hole jet diagram.jpg|right|350px|thumb|Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk]]
In theory, no object beyond the event horizon of a black hole can ever escape, including light. However, black holes can be inductively detected from observation of phenomena near them, such as [[gravitational lensing]], [[galactic jets]], and stars that appear to be in orbit around space where there is no visible matter.
The most conspicuous effects are believed to come from matter accreting onto a black hole, which is predicted to collect into an extremely hot and fast-spinning [[accretion disk]]. The internal viscosity of the disk causes it to become extremely hot, and emit large amounts of [[X-ray]] and [[ultraviolet]] radiation. This process is extremely efficient and can convert about 50% of the [[rest mass]] energy of an object into radiation, as opposed to nuclear fusion which can only convert a few percent of the mass to energy. Other observed effects, are narrow [[relativistic jet|jets]] of particles at relativistic speeds heading along the disk's axis.
However, accretion disks, jets, and orbiting objects are found not only around black holes, but also around other objects such as [[neutron star]]s and [[white dwarf]]s; and the dynamics of bodies near these non-black hole attractors is largely similar to that of bodies around black holes. It is currently a very complex and active field of research involving [[magnetic field]]s and [[plasma physics]] to disentangle what is going on. Hence, for the most part, observations of accretion disks and orbital motions merely indicate that there is a compact object of a certain mass, and says very little about the nature of that object. The identification of an object as a black hole requires the further assumption that no other object (or bound system of objects) could be so massive and compact. Most astrophysicists accept that this is the case, since according to general relativity, any concentration of matter of sufficient density must necessarily collapse into a black hole.
One important observable difference between black holes and other compact massive objects is that any infalling matter will eventually collide with the latter at relativistic speeds, leading to emission as the kinetic energy of the matter is thermalised. In addition [[thermonuclear]] "burning" may occur on the surface as material builds up. These processes produce irregular intense flares of [[X-rays]] and other hard radiation. Thus the lack of such flare-ups around a compact concentration of mass is taken as evidence that the object is a black hole, with no surface onto which matter can collect.
===Have we found them?===
[[Image:Cygnus-X-1.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Location of the X-ray source Cygnus X-1 which is likely to be a black hole|Location of the X-ray source [[Cygnus X-1]] which is widely accepted to be a 10 solar mass black hole orbiting a blue giant star]]
There is now a great deal of indirect astronomical observational evidence for black holes in two mass ranges:
*[[stellar black hole| stellar mass black holes]] with masses of a typical [[star]] (4&ndash;15 times the mass of our Sun), and
*[[supermassive black hole]]s with masses ranging from of order <math>10^5</math> to <math>10^{10}</math> solar masses.
Additionally, there is some evidence for [[intermediate-mass black hole]]s (IMBHs), those with masses of a few hundred to a few thousand times that of the Sun. These black holes may be responsible for the emission from [[Ultra Luminous X-ray Sources]] (ULX's).
Candidates for stellar-mass black holes were identified mainly by the presence of accretion disks of the right size and speed, without the irregular flare-ups that are expected from disks around other compact objects. Stellar-mass black holes may be involved in [[gamma ray burst]]s (GRBs), although observations of GRBs in association with [[Supernova|supernovae]] or other objects that are not black holes [http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/universe/plasma_univ.html] [http://www.wkap.nl/prod/b/0-7923-3784-0] have reduced the possibility of a link.
[[Image:Black Hole Merger.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An artist depiction of two black holes merging.]]
Candidates for more massive black holes were first provided by the [[active galactic nuclei]] and [[quasar]]s, discovered by [[radioastronomy|radioastronomers]] in the 1960s. The efficient conversion of mass into energy by friction in the accretion disk of a black hole seems to be the only explanation for the copious amounts of energy generated by such objects. Indeed the introduction of this theory in the 1970s removed a major objection to the belief that quasars were distant galaxies &mdash; namely, that no physical mechanism could generate that much energy.
From observations in the 1980s of motions of stars around the galactic centre, it is now believed that such supermassive black holes exist in the centre of most galaxies, including our own [[Milky Way]]. [[Sagittarius_A%2A|Sagittarius A*]] is now generally agreed to be the location of a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way galaxy. The orbits of stars within a few [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] of Sagittarius A* rule out any object other than a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way assuming the current standard laws of physics are correct.
[[Image:M87_jet.jpg|left|thumb|The jet emitted by the galaxy [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]] in this image is thought to be caused by a [[supermassive black hole]] at the galaxy's centre]]
The current picture is that all galaxies may have a supermassive black hole in their centre, and that this black hole accretes gas and dust in the middle of the galaxies generating huge amounts of radiation &mdash; until all the nearby mass has been swallowed and the process shuts off. This picture also nicely explains why there are no nearby [[quasar]]s.
Although the details are still not clear, it seems that the growth of the black hole is intimately related to the growth of the spheroidal component &mdash; an [[elliptical galaxy]], or the [[bulge]] of a [[spiral galaxy]] &mdash; in which it lives.
In 2002, the Hubble Telescope has identified evidence indicating that intermediate size black holes exist in [[globular clusters]] named M15 and G1. The evidence for the black holes stemmed from the orbital velocity of the stars in the globular clusters; however, a group of [[neutron star]]s could cause similar observations.
===Recent discoveries===
In 2004, astronomers found 31 candidate supermassive black holes from searching obscured [[quasar]]s. The lead scientist said that there are from two to five times as many supermassive black holes as previously predicted. [http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/6/1]
In June 2004 astronomers found a super-massive black hole, [[Q0906+6930]], at the centre of a distant [[galaxy]] about 12.7 billion light years away. This observation indicated rapid creation of super-massive black holes in the early universe. [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/heavy_blazar_040628.html].
In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of the first [[intermediate-mass black hole]] in our Galaxy, orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*. This medium black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars, possibly the remnant of a massive star cluster that has been stripped down by the Galactic Centre [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041108//full/041108-2.html#B2 (Nature News)] [http://edpsciences.nao.ac.jp/articles/aa/abs/2004/31/aa0147-03/aa0147-03.html (original article)]. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.
In February 2005, a [[blue giant]] [[star]] [[SDSS J090745.0+24507]] was found to be leaving the [[Milky Way]] at twice the escape velocity (0.0022 of the speed of light). The path of the star can be traced back to the galactic core. The high velocity of this star supports the hypothesis of a super-massive black hole in the centre of the galaxy.
The formation of [[micro black hole]]s on Earth in [[particle accelerators]] has been tentatively reported, (see, for example, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4357613.stm]) but not yet confirmed. So far there are no observed candidates for [[primordial black hole|primordial black holes]].
==Features and theories==
Black holes require the [[general relativity|general relativistic]] concept of a curved [[spacetime]]: their most striking properties rely on a distortion of the geometry of the space surrounding them.
===Event horizon===
The "surface" of a black hole is the so-called ''[[event horizon]],'' an imaginary surface surrounding the mass of the black hole. [[Stephen Hawking]] proved that the topology of the event horizon of a non-spinning black hole is a sphere. At the event horizon, the [[escape velocity]] is equal to the speed of light. Thus, anything inside the event horizon, including a [[photon]], is prevented from escaping across the event horizon by the extremely strong gravitational field. Particles from outside this region can fall in, cross the event horizon, and will never be able to leave.
Since external observers cannot probe the interior of a black hole, according to classical general relativity, black holes can be entirely characterised according to three parameters: [[mass]], [[angular momentum]], and [[electric charge]]. This principle is summarised by the saying, coined by [[John Wheeler]], "[[no hair theorem|black holes have no hair]]".
===Space-time distortion and frame of reference===
Objects in a gravitational field experience a slowing down of [[time]], called [[time dilation]]. This phenomenon has been verified experimentally in the [[Scout rocket experiment]] of 1976 [http://hyperp |
Modern practitioners often use the systems in combination to understand what is happening with the patient.
Because traditional Chinese medicine predates the more invasive medical testing used in [[Conventional medicine|conventional Western medicine]], TCM requires skill in a range of diagnostic systems not commonly used outside of TCM. Much of this diagnostic skill involves developing the abilities to observe subtle appearances; to observe that which is right in front of us, but escapes the observation of most people.
===Diagnostic techniques===
* Palpation of the patient's [[radial artery]] [[pulse]] in six positions
* Observation of the appearance of the patient's [[tongue]]
* Observation of the patient's [[face]]
* Palpation of the patient's body (especially the [[abdomen]]) for tenderness
* Observation of the sound of the patient's [[human voice|voice]]
* Observation of the surface of the [[ear]]
* Observation of the [[vein]] on the [[index finger]] on small children
* Comparisons of the relative warmth or coolness of different parts of the body
* Anything else that can be observed without instruments and without harming the patient
==TCM treatment techniques==
The traditional treatment in Chinese medicine consists of six major methods:
#[[Tui na]](推拿)
#[[Acupuncture]](針疚)
#[[Acupoint therapy]]
#[[Moxibustion]](艾炙)
#[[Cupping]](拔罐)
#[[Herbology]](中药)
#[[Physical culture]] related to breathing and circulation [[exercise]]s like [[qigong]] (氣功) or [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] (太極拳) and other [[Chinese martial arts]]. ''Die-da'' or ''Tieh Ta'' (跌打): practitioners who specialize in healing [[Physical trauma|trauma]] injury such as bone fractures, sprains, bruises etc. Some of these specialists may also use or recommend other disciplines of Chinese medical therapies (or Western medicine in modern times) if serious injury is involved. These practices are also seen as health maintenance regimes as well as interventions.
Traditional Chinese medicine uses herbs and other drugs as the last resort to fight health problems. This conforms to its basic belief: a human body has a sophisticated system to find illness, allocate resources and energy and heal the problems by itself. The goal of external efforts should carefully focus on assisting the normal self-healing function of human body, not interfering with it. There is a Chinese saying which reflects the same idea: "Any medicine has 30% poison ingredients."
The modern practice of traditional Chinese medicine is increasingly incorporating techniques and theories of Western medicine in its [[praxis]].
Other specialties include:
*[[Nutrition]] or [[food therapy]]
*[[Gua Sha]] or coin-rubbing (刮痧)
*[[Auriculotherapy]](耳燭療法)
== TCM and science ==
=== The question of efficacy ===
Most [[scientific research]] in the West about TCM has focused on [[acupuncture]]. The National Institutes of Health [http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm Consensus Statement on Acupuncture] summarizes research on the efficacy of acupuncture as follows:
<blockquote>
...promising results have emerged, for example, efficacy of acupuncture in
adult post-operative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting and in
postoperative dental pain. There are other situations such as addiction,
stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow,
fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel
syndrome, and asthma for which acupuncture may be useful as an adjunct
treatment or an acceptable alternative or be included in a comprehensive
management program. Further research is likely to uncover additional areas
where acupuncture interventions will be useful.
</blockquote>
Much less work in the West has been done on Chinese herbal medicines, which comprises much of TCM in China. It is clear, however, that many if not most of these medicines do have powerful biochemical effects. An example is the herb [[ephedra]] which was introduced into the West as a stimulant, and later banned in the United States after deaths were attributed to its use. A less controversial example is [[artemisinin]], derived from a herb long-used used in TCM, and now used worldwide to treat multi-drug resistant strains of falciparum [[malaria]]. In the West, many Chinese medicines have been marketed as [[herbal supplement]]s and there has been considerable controversy over the regulatory status of these substances.
TCM practitioners have no philosophical objections to scientific studies on the effectiveness of treatments. The main barrier to the adoption of Chinese herbal medicines into Western practice is economic. It requires a large amount of expertise and money to conduct, for example, a double-blind drug trial, making it a large venture to test even one of the thousands of compounds used by TCM. Because these compounds cannot be patented and owned exclusively, there is a distinct disincentive to sponsor such expensive protocols. Some important western medical drugs have come from Chinese herbs like [[Ephedrine]].
There are also great [[a priori]] doubts about the efficacy of many TCM treatments that appear to have their basis in [[magical thinking]], e.g. plants with heart-shaped leaves will help the heart, ground bones of [[tiger]] give a person energy because tigers are energetic animals and so on. To researchers, this is a very small base to start serious research on.
===Purported mechanism of action===
The basic mechanism of TCM is akin to treating the body as a [[black box]], recording and classifying changes and observations of the patient using a traditional philosophy. In contrast to many [[alternative medicine|alternative and complementary medicine]]s such as [[homeopathy]], practically all techniques of TCM have explanations for why they may be more effective than a [[placebo]], which Western medicine can find plausible. Most doctors of Western medicine would not find implausible claims that [[qigong]] preserves health by encouraging relaxation and movement, that [[acupuncture]] relieves pain by stimulating the production of [[neurotransmitter]]s, or that Chinese [[herbology|herbal]] medicines may contain powerful [[biochemical]] agents. However, the causative mechanisms of healing often traditionally claimed to be at work in TCM techniques such as "manipulation of [[qi]]" as in the case of qigong and accupuncture, are often not recognized as scientifically valid or even possible.
===Safety of Chinese medicines===
Accupressure and accupuncture are largely accepted to be safe from results gain through medical studies. However, there is always the possiblity of nerve damage or infection in the latter treatment if the practitioner are not experienced or does not follow sanitation guidelines.
Chinese herbal medicines, in certain cases, involve risk of [[poison]]ing or [[allergy|allergic]] reactions. Cases of acute and chronic poisoning due to treatment through ingested Chinese medicines are relatively common in [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Taiwan]], with numerous deaths occurring each year. For example, the Chinese herb ''má huáng'' &mdash; known commonly in the west by its Latin name [[Ephedra]] &mdash; is currently banned by the [[FDA]]. Although an effective [[bronchiole|bronchial]] dilator for the treatment of [[asthma]] in some cases, its active constituent [[ephedrine]] has an elevating effect on heart rate and blood pressure and has been linked to deaths. Although some of these cases can be attributed to practitioners who participate in [[quackery]] or people who self-medicate, poisonings are also caused by certified herbalists and doctors of Chinese medicine.
Furthermore, potentially toxic and [[carcinogenic]] compounds such as [[arsenic]] and [[cinnabar]] are sometimes prescribed as part of a medicinal mixture or used on the basis of "''using poison to cure poison''". Unprocessed herbals are sometimes adulterated with chemicals that may alter the intended effect of a herbal preparation or prescription. Much of these can be prevented with more empirical studies of Chinese herbals and tighter regulation regarding the growing, processing, and prescription of various herbals.
== The relationship between TCM and Western medicine==
Within China, there has been a great deal of cooperation between TCM
practitioners and Western medicine, especially in the field of [[ethnomedicine]]. Chinese herbal medicine includes many compounds which are unused by Western medicine, and there is great interest in those compounds as well as the theories which TCM practitioners use to determine which compound to prescribe. For their part, advanced TCM practitioners in China are interested in statistical and experimental techniques which can better distinguish medicines that work from those that do not. One result of this collaboration has been the creation of peer reviewed scientific journals and medical databases on traditional Chinese medicine.
The relationship between TCM and Western medicine in the West is more contentious. While more and more medical schools are including classes on alternative medicine in their curricula, older Western doctors and scientists are far more likely than their Chinese counterparts to skeptically view TCM as archaic pseudoscience and superstition. This skepticism can come from a number of sources. For one, TCM in the West tends to be advocated either by Chinese immigrants or by those that have lost faith in [[conventional medicine]]. Many people in the West have a stereotype of the East as mystical and unscientific, which attracts those in the West who have lost hope in science and repels those who believe in scientific explanations. There have also been experiences in the West with unscrupulous or well-meaning but improperly-trained "TCM practitioners" who have done people more harm than good in many instances.
As an example of the different roles of TCM in China and the W |
x scope. Like the G3, it can kill in two shots, but is less accurate. Both guns' accuracy was increased in 1.6, leading to "auto sniper noob" complaints.
Oddly, the Counter-Terrorists' SIG 550 Sniper is actually closely related to the Terrorists' SIG-552, with the 550 Sniper and 552 being derivatives of the 550 assault rifle.
==M249/Minimi==
''Alternate name: ES M249 Para''
The [[Fabrique Nationale]] [[M249]] 5.56 PARA is the only [[machine gun]] and the most expensive item in the game. It costs $5750 and is fed by 100-round belts that require several seconds to reload. It has far more rounds in a single magazine than any other gun in the game and works well at providing covering fire and at clearing out rooms. The M249 is hard to control in fully automatic, though contrary to popular belief, it is actually fairly accurate when used in single or burst fire. Damage is similar to the M4. It has been in CS since Beta 1.0.
==Miscellaneous==
; Kevlar armor/helmet: [[Kevlar]] body armor costs $650 and offers some protection from bullets and HE grenades. Players can also buy kevlar armor with a helmet for $1000 that saves players from one-shot kills to the head by most weapons - though sniper rifles, the AK-47 and the Desert Eagle are still able to penetrate the helmet with a direct hit. It is to be noted that 5.7x28mm SS190 ammunition (used in the Five-seveN and P90) is designed to pierce Kevlar in real life, but doesn't in CS.
; Flashbang grenade: [[Hand grenade#Stun grenades|Flashbang]] grenades cost $200 and a player can carry two of them. Players near or facing a detonating flashbang grenade will have their screen turn white (in ''CS:S'', sound will also turn off, to be replaced by a high pitched ringing in the ears) for several seconds if the player is close enough to the point of activation, providing a moment for attackers to overtake the disoriented players. Players on public servers often use flashbangs inappropriately, "flashing" their own team either intentionally or because of inexperience, often called "teamflashing".
; HE grenade: The [[high explosive]] (HE) grenade costs $300 and a player can only carry one at a time. HE grenades typically do about 1-92 points of damage to un-armored opponents at the point of explosion and 1-50 points of damage to armored opponents. Great for softening enemies, finishing off wounded or scaring ambushers. A much frowned-upon tactic called "nade spamming" is to stand in a buy zone and throw grenades at any place the enemy may come from, then buy a new grenade and throw it again. The result is a rain of grenades that doesn't stop until the player runs out of money to buy the grenades, or the buy time ends. When friendly-fire is off, the grenade can still injure or kill you if mis-thrown, but it won't injure your teammates. HE grenades were added in Beta 4.0. In Condition Zero and CS:Source the power of the grenade has increased, but is, in contrast, no longer effective through walls and other objects, and cannot be thrown as far.
; Smoke grenade: The [[Hand grenade#Smoke grenades|smoke grenade]] costs $300 and a player can only carry one at a time. Smoke creates a distraction and can provide cover in the vicinity. The smoke grenade was added in Beta 6.5. In CS Source, the smoke grenade was notably improved by making its smoke more dense and with a much faster smoke dispersion. It is also used to increase the 'lag' in the game, causing other players to be unable to act quickly.
; Defuse kit: The defuse kit is for the Counter-Terrorists on bomb-defusal maps and costs $200. It halves the time required to defuse the bomb (5 seconds instead of the usual 10). The ability to purchase defuse kits was added in Beta 5.0. During Beta 4.0, when the defusion scenario was added to the game, three Counter-Terrorist players would spawn with defuse kits, picked randomly, similar to how the C4 spawns on a random Terrorist player.
; Night vision goggles: [[Night vision goggles]] (NVG) cost $1250. They allow the wearer to see in total darkness. Taking NVG on and off makes a distinct sound that your enemies can hear. In normal light, the goggles can make things difficult to see. The goggles are relatively expensive for their worth, as there are few maps with areas dark enough to warrant the use of NVG. NVG was added in Beta 2.0, later removed, and then re-added in Beta 6.0.
; Tactical shield: The tactical shield is for the Counter-Terrorists only and costs $2200. When deployed, the player is invulnerable to attacks from the front (except for shots to the feet - but the front is completely protected while crouching), but suffers a movement penalty and cannot shoot. When not deployed it hangs off to the side offering less protection, but allows you to shoot. This item can only be used with pistols (except for the dual berettas). The tactical shield was added in version 1.6 but removed for ''Counter Strike: Source'', as it is often used by players to become almost invulnerable when hiding in hard-to-reach spaces. There were also many bugs with the shield that would allow players to use a rifle or SMG with it. Skilled shielders in 1.6 also often attempt to distract enemy snipers by activating the shield and charging their positions with their invulnerability; allowing friendly snipers to pick off the enemy snipers. These players typically earn themselves the title "shield noob" or "shield-whore". Notably, most bots will not even attempt to fire at a shielded player, despite their feet being still visible and vulnerable. Other than the AWM and auto-snipers, the shield is the most banned item from many ''Counter-Strike 1.6'' servers. The best way to use these is to wait for one's attacker to run out of ammo and reload. Then, while they are reloading, shoot them with a pre-aimed headshot.
==Weapons' weight==
Unlike ''Half-Life'', players' movement speeds in ''Counter-Strike'' are affected by the choice of weapon currently used. Knives and grenades are considered the lightest, followed by pistols, shotguns, submachine guns, rifles and finally the very heavy machine gun, with some exceptions, notably the Scout, which is the lightest. To take advantage of this variation, as well as the fact that weapons kept in reserve do not contribute to the total weight, players wishing to [[Rush (computer gaming)|rush]] often switch to the knife or grenade.
The full list, from lightest to heaviest, is as follows:
* Schmidt Scout, odd considering it is heavier than the knife or most pistols
* Combat knife, grenades
* H&K USP .45 Pistol, Glock 18 Select Fire
* FN Five-seveN
* Desert Eagle, SiG P228, Dual Berettas
* Benelli M3 Super 90 shotgun, Benelli XM1014 shotgun
* Ingram MAC-10, Steyr TMP
* H&K MP5 Navy
* FN P90, H&K UMP 45
* AK-47, M4A1
* Steyr AUG, Sig SG-552
* H&K G3/SG-1 Sniper, Sig SG-550 Sniper, AI Artic Warfare Magnum
* FN M249 PARA
==See also==
* [[Counter-Strike maps|''Counter-Strike'' maps]]
* [[Counter-Strike culture|''Counter-Strike'' culture]]
* [[List of firearms in first person shooters]]
* [[America's Army equipment]]
* [[Cheating in online games]]
* [[Cheating in Counter-Strike|Cheating in ''Counter-Strike'']]
* ''[[Half-Life]]''
* ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]''
* ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]''
* [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]]
* [[List of Half-Life mods|List of ''Half-Life'' mods]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mapcentralnetwork.com/ MapCentral Network] &mdash; A long-running community for Counter-Strike, Half-Life, and many other popular games.
* [http://www.mapcentralnetwork.com/forum/ MapCentral Network Forums] &mdash; Forums for the MapCentral Network
* [http://www.bosskey.net/cs/weapons.html Counter-Strike weapons]
* [http://www.bosskey.net/cs/equipment.html Counter-Strike equipment]
* [http://www.csnation.net/view.php/csinfo/weapons.csn Counter-Strike Weapon and equipment information, including the 1.6 additions]
* [http://www.counter-strike-dl.com Counter Strike DL - CS Skins and CS Source Skins] includes a number of models known as "skins" that can be downloaded. These typically improve the visual appearance of weapons, equipment and players to more closely mimick their real-life counterparts. Other than offering more realistic sprites and models, these "skins" do not affect gameplay.
[[Category:Counter-Strike]]
[[pt:Equipamentos do Counter-Strike]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centillion</title>
<id>7498</id>
<revision>
<id>41089403</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T23:55:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cevlakohn</username>
<id>59619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* North American system */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The number '''centillion''' refers to different quantities based on locality of usage. The number itself has no real usage outside of mathematics. The total number of [[atom|atoms]] (or even [[subatomic particle|subatomic particles]]) in the entire [[universe]] does not even come near to either definition of a centillion.
==North American system==
* In [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[United States|U.S.]] usage, one centillion is [[1 E303|10<sup>303</sup>]].
* While [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] traditionally employed the European usage, they have recently largely switched to the U.S. version.
10<sup>303</sup> is a thousand times more than a [[novemnonagintillion]].
10<sup>303</sup> is a thousandth of a [[centuntillion]].
10<sup>303</sup> is a [[quinquagintilliard]], or a thousand [[quinquagintillion]], in the European system.
It is believed to be the largest number with an conventional name, and the second largest named number after [[googolplex]], discounting such curiosities as [[millillion]] which, though not officially accepted, are legitemately coined and |
tead of [[crystal]]lizing, the syrupy solution turns into a soft glass - i.e. it vitrifies. Vitrification of water is promoted by rapid cooling, and can be achieved without cryoprotectants by an extremely rapid drop in temperature (millions of degrees per second). The rate that is required to attain glasy state in pure water was considered to be impossible until recently (Phys Rev Lett. 2005 Dec 2;95(23):235702).
One of the most important early workers on the theory of cryopreservation was [[James Lovelock]] of [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]] fame. Dr. Lovelock's work suggested that damage to red [[blood]] cells during freezing was due to [[osmosis|osmotic]] stresses. Lovelock in early 1950s had also suggested that increasing salt concentrations in a cell as it dehydrates to lose water to the external ice might cause damages to the cell (Mazur, 1970, Cryobiology: The freezing of biological systems. Science, 168:939).
[[Water bear]]s (or ''[[tardigrada]]''), microscopic multicellular organisms, can survive [[freezing]] at low temperatures by replacing most of their internal water with the [[sugar]] [[trehalose]]. Sugars and other solutes that do not easily crystallize have the effect of limiting the stresses that damage [[cell (biology)|cell]] [[biological membrane|membrane]]s. Trehalose is a sugar that does not readily crystallize. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects. Some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at high concentrations.
Two conditions usually required to allow vitrification are an increase in the viscosity and a depression of the freezing temperature. Many solutes do both, but larger molecules generally have larger effect, particularly on viscosity. Rapid cooling also promotes vitrification.
In artificial cryopreservation, the solute must penetrate the cell membrane in order to achieve increased viscosity and depressed freezing temperature inside the cell. Sugars do not readily permeate through the membrane. Those solutes that do, such as dimethylsulfoxide, a common cryoprotectant, are often toxic in high concentration. One of the difficult compromises faced in artificial cryopreservation is limiting the damage produced by the cryoprotectant itself.
Nevertheless, suitable combinations of cryoprotectants and regimes of rapid cooling and rinsing during warming often allow the successful cryopreservation of biological materials, particularly cell suspensions or thin tissue samples. Examples include:
*[[Semen]] (which can be used successfully almost indefinitely after cryopreservation),
*[[Blood]] (special cells for transfusion, or [[stem cell]]s)
*Tissue samples like [[tumor]]s and [[Histology|histological cross sections]]
* human eggs (oocyte)
* "[Human] [[embryos]] that are 2, 4 or 8 cells when frozen ... pregnancies have been reported from embryos stored for 9 years. ... Many studies have evaluated the children born from frozen embryos (“frosties”). The result has uniformly been positive with no increase in birth defects or development abnormalities." [http://www.givf.com/embryov.cfm]
In general, cryopreservation is easier for thin samples because these can be cooled more quickly and so require lower doses of toxic cryoprotectants. The goal of cryopreserving human livers and hearts for storage and transplant is still some distance away.
*Freezing of human remains, either the entire body or just the head is known as [[cryonics]]. This is in a different category from the cryopreservation examples described above because, while many cryopreserved cell suspensions or thin tissue samples have been warmed and successfully used, this is not the case for frozen heads or bodies. Proponents of cryonics hope that future technology will be able to undo the damage done during freezing.
==External links==
* [http://www.ivf.com/freezing.html www.ivf.com/freezing.html] <-- human egg (oocyte) -->
* [http://www.societyforcryobiology.org/ www.societyforcryobiology.org]
* [http://www.sltb.info/ www.sltb.info]
* [http://www.carleton.ca/~kbstorey www.carleton.ca/~kbstorey]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/cryoblurb.html Cellular cryobiology and anhydrobiology]
[[Category:Cryobiology]]
[[fa:سرماداری]]
[[he:הקפאה קריוגנית]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cary Elwes</title>
<id>7179</id>
<revision>
<id>39431735</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:22:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] removing category reposted in violation of [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2005_August_19#Category:Roman_Catholic_actors|CFD]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CaryElwes.jpg|right|thumb|Cary Elwes in ''The Princess Bride'']]
'''Cary Elwes''' (born '''Ivan Simon Cary Elwes''' in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] on [[October 26]], [[1962]]) is a [[Great Britain|British]] [[actor]], best known for his performances in ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'', ''[[Glory]]'', ''[[Saw (film)|Saw]]'', and ''[[Robin Hood: Men in Tights]]''.
Elwes (pronounced "El-wez") attended [[Harrow School]] in [[England]], and [[Sarah Lawrence College]] in [[Yonkers, New York]], where he studied, among other acting-related subjects, German Expressionist Film.
Elwes descends from a staunchly [[Roman Catholic]] [[Recusancy|recusant]] family on his father's side (originally known as the "Cary-Elwes" family, but now many branches of the family are now simply known as "Elwes") which includes noted British [[monk]]s and [[bishop]]s, such as Abbott [[Columba Cary-Elwes]], Archbishop [[Dudley Cary-Elwes]] and Father [[Luke Cary-Elwes]]. His artist father, [[Dominick Elwes]], had moved in the circles of high society (and been friends with [[Lord Lucan]] and [[Lady Annabel Goldsmith]] to whom he was also related) before he took his own life in [[1975]].
His mother, [[interior designer]] [[Tessa Kennedy]], also a Catholic, eloped with his father in [[1957]] as a teenager to great [[scandal]]. She is of [[Anglo-Irish]] and [[Serbia|Serbo]]-[[Croatia|Croatian]] extraction. She is married to [[Jew]]ish-American [[Hollywood]] executive [[Elliott Kastner]] (see [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0440990/]).
Elwes became engaged to the [[photographer]] Lisa Marie Kurbikoff in 1997 in [[Paris]]. The wedding took place in 2001 in [[California]].
Elwes has 2 brothers, [[Cassian Elwes|Cassian]] and [[Damian Elwes|Damian]], who are also involved in the entertainment industry.
Elwes filed a lawsuit in August 2005 against his management firm and the producers of ''Saw''. He alleged that he was promised "a minimum of one percent of the producers' net profits" and did not receive the full amount as promised [http://www.theage.com.au/news/film/not-everyone-happy-with-their-cut-from-saw/2005/08/20/1124435169494.html].
==Partial filmography==
*''[[Pope John Paul II (movie)|Pope John Paul II]]'' (TV) ([[2005]] - [[Karol Wojtyła]])
* ''[[The Cat Returns]]'' (voice) [[2005]]
* ''[[Porco Rosso]]'' (voice) [[2005]]
* ''[[Ella Enchanted]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Saw (movie)|Saw]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[American Crime]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Comic Book Villains]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[The Cat's Meow]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Shadow of the Vampire]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Cradle Will Rock]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Quest for Camelot]]'' (voice) ([[1998]])
* ''[[The Pentagon Wars]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Kiss the Girls]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[The Informant]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Liar Liar]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Twister (movie)|Twister]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Whisper of the Heart]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[The Jungle Book (1994 movie)|The Jungle Book]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Chase]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Robin Hood: Men in Tights]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[The Crush]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Leather Jackets]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Hot Shots!]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Days of Thunder]]'' ([[1990]])
* ''[[Glory (movie)|Glory]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[Lady Jane (movie)|Lady Jane]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''[[Another Country (play)|Another Country]]'' ([[1984]])
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000144|name=Cary Elwes}}
*Elwes's wife, {{imdb name|id=0475623|name=Lisa Marie Kurbikoff}}
[[Category:1962 births|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Living people|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on CSI|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:English actors|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Film actors|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Elwes, Cary]]
[[de:Cary Elwes]]
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[[ja:ケイリー・エルウィス]]
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[[sv:Cary Elwes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chris Sarandon</title>
<id>7180</id>
<revision>
<id>38168037</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T17:43:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:csarandon.jpg|thumb|150px|Chris Sarandon]]
'''Chris Sarandon''' (born [[July 24]], [[1942]]) is an [[United States|American]] actor. He was married to the actress [[Susan Sarandon]] who he met as a student at [[The Catholic University of America]], who retained her married name after their divorce. He has appeared in a large number of smaller budget genre films and distinguishes himself in most of his roles due to his intensity and dedication to the craft of acting. He is currently married to Joanna Hall Gleason and has a 21-year-old daughter, Stephanie.
==Selected work==
===Filmography===
*''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' - Prince Humperdinck
*''[[Child's Play]]'' - Detective Mike Norris
*''[[Dog Day Afternoon]]''
*''[[The Sentinel (movie)|The Sentinel]]''
*''[[Fright Night]]'' - Jerry Dand |
ical Equations], containing a list of ordinary differential equations with their solutions.
[[Category:Differential calculus]]
[[Category:Ordinary differential equations|*]]
[[ca:Equació diferencial ordinària]]
[[de:Gewöhnliche Differentialgleichung]]
[[ja:&#24120;&#24494;&#20998;&#26041;&#31243;&#24335;]]
[[it:Equazione differenziale ordinaria]]
[[pt:Equação diferencial ordinária]]
[[ro:Ecua&#355;ie diferen&#355;ial&#259; ordinar&#259;]]
[[sv:Ordinär differentialekvation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Descartes</title>
<id>8298</id>
<revision>
<id>40315019</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T19:35:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freakofnurture</username>
<id>77511</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{R from surname}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[René Descartes]] {{R from surname}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domenico Alberti</title>
<id>8299</id>
<revision>
<id>32937717</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T01:08:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Domenico Alberti''' (around [[1710]] - [[1740]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[singer]], [[harpsichord]]ist and [[composer]] whose works bridge the [[Baroque Music|Baroque]] and [[Classical Music Era|Classical]] periods.
Alberti was born in [[Venice]] and studied [[music]] with [[Antonio Lotti]]. He wrote [[opera]]s, [[song]]s and [[sonata (music)|sonatas]] for [[keyboard instrument]]s, for which he is best known today. These sonatas frequently employ a particular kind of [[arpeggio|arpeggiated]] [[accompaniment]] in the left hand which is now known as the ''[[Alberti bass]]''. It consists of regular broken [[chord (music)|chord]]s, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again. This pattern is repeated. Today, Alberti is seen as a very minor composer, and none of his works are played or recorded with any regularity, but Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and became an important element in much keyboard music of the [[Classical music era]].
In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer. He often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord. Little is known of his life, but he was [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to [[Spain]] in [[1736]], when the famous [[castrato]] singer [[Farinelli]] heard him sing there. Farinelli was said to be impressed, even though Alberti was an amateur.
Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed. It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived. They all have two movements, each in [[binary form]].
It is probable that [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s first [[violin sonata]]s, written at the age of seven, were modelled on Alberti, although Mozart's examples are generally considered superior.
Alberti died in 1740 in [[Rome]].
[[Category:1710 births|Alberti]]
[[Category:1740 deaths|Alberti]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Classical era composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Alberti]]
[[da:Domenico Alberti]]
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[[fi:Domenico Alberti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doris Day</title>
<id>8300</id>
<revision>
<id>41782854</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:44:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BRG</username>
<id>10857</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Songs */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doris Day.jpg|thumb|Doris Day]]
'''Doris Day''' (born [[April 3]] [[1924]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer]], [[Actor|actress]], and animal welfare advocate. A vivacious blonde with a wholesome image, she was one of the most prolific actresses of the 1950s and 1960s. Able to sing, dance, and play comedy and dramatic roles, she was an all-rounded star whose persona permeated many popular and diverse movies.
== Biography ==
Day was born '''Doris Mary Ann von Kappelhoff''' in [[Evanston, Ohio|Evanston]], [[Ohio]] to [[Germany|German]] immigrants. The second of two children, she was named "Doris" after silent movie actress Doris Kenyon, whom her mother liked. Her family was [[Roman Catholic]], despite her parents' divorce. She later embraced [[Christian Science]].
Day started out as a dancer, winning a contract that enabled her to travel to [[Hollywood, California]] with her partner, Jerry Doherty, in 1936, but turned to singing when she injured her leg in an auto accident in 1937. She sang with the [[big band]]s of [[Barney Rapp]], [[Bob Crosby]], and [[Les Brown (bandleader)|Les Brown]], before setting out on her own in the late 1940s. It was Barney Rapp who convinced her that "Kappelhoff" was too awkward a name and suggested "Day" after the song "Day after Day" that was part of her repertoire. She never really liked the name Doris Day, thinking it sounded too much like a stripper; this was ironic, since she eventually became associated with a nearly opposite image of wholesomeness and innocence.
With Brown, she charted twelve [[popular music]] hits, among them her first two # 1's: "[[Sentimental Journey (song)|Sentimental Journey]]" and "[[My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time]]". "Sentimental Journey" earned her a flood of letters from [[World War II]] [[G.I.|GI]]s. She admitted coming to hate singing "Journey", but never tired of reading the letters. On her own, she had more # 1's, including "Secret Love".
Day acted in many films, in most of which she sang. Day began her film career in musicals, starting in [[1948]] as a peppy, [[Betty Hutton]]esque persona. Her first film was ''Romance on the High Seas''; in her audition she beat out over one hundred actresses, some of whom were established figures. Early publicity saddled her with such unflattering nicknames as "The Tomboy with a Voice" and "The Golden Tonsil". She continued to make saccharine and somewhat low-level musicals such as ''Starlift'', ''By the Light of the Silvery Moon'', and ''Tea for Two'' for [[Warner Brothers]] until the cycle exhausted itself. [[1953]] found Doris as pistol packin' ''Calamity Jane'' in what has become one of Hollywood's most enduring musicals, winning the Oscar for Best Song for "Secret Love". In [[1955]], she received some of the best notices of her career for her portrayal of singer [[Ruth Etting]] in ''[[Love Me or Leave Me (movie)|Love Me or Leave Me]]'', co-starring [[James Cagney]]. She continued to be paired with some of Hollywood's biggest male stars, including [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]], [[Cary Grant]], [[David Niven]], and [[Clark Gable]].
In Alfred Hitchcock's The Man Who Knew Too Much, she sang "Whatever Will Be (Que Será, Será)", which won an Oscar. According to [[Jay Livingston]] (who wrote the song with [[Ray Evans]]) Day preferred another song used briefly in the film, "We'll Love Again", and skipped the recording for "Que Será, Será". When the studio pushed her, she relented, but after recording the number in one take she reportedly told a friend of Livingston's, "That's the last time you'll ever hear that song." "Que Será, Será" (French for "What Will Be, Will Be") became her signature song, used in her later film ''Please Don't Eat the Daisies'' and as the theme song for her television show, and was covered by [[Sly & the Family Stone]] in [[1973]].
[[Image:PillowTalk.jpg|thumb|right|with Rock Hudson in ''Pillow Talk'' (1959)]]
In 1959 Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with the hugely popular ''[[Pillow Talk]]'' co-starring [[Rock Hudson]], who became a lifelong friend. The film received positive reviews and was a box office favourite. It also brought a nomination for an [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] for Day. She and Hudson made two more films together. Many of her 1960s films ignored her singing abilities and painted her as a good-hearted woman with a strong will, a hint of naïveté, and the purest virtue this side of a nun. Times as well as attitudes changed, but Day's films did not. Critics, comics and pundits attacked Day as "the world's oldest virgin" and audiences began to shy away from her repetitive, gimmicky roles. Day herself found many of her mid-late 1960s films to be of very poor quality (her least favorite was ''Caprice'', co-starring [[Richard Harris (actor)|Richard Harris]]) and did them only at the insistence of her third husband, Marty Melcher. One of the roles he turned down for her was '''Mrs. Robinson''' in ''[[The Graduate]]'' (a role that went to [[Anne Bancroft]]). Later, in her published memoirs co-authored by [[A.E. Hotchener]], Doris says that she herself rejected the part on moral grounds.
Doris, and the showbiz community, were shocked to discover when Melcher died that he had either squandered Doris's hard-earned fortune, or hid it with his business partner Jerry Rosenthal. To this day, no one is completely sure which is the case. Either way, Doris was left penniless. Doris sued Rosenthal and won the largest civil judgment up until that time in California, over $20,000,000 (USD). How much Doris actually collected is not certain. According to Doris's as-told-to autobiography by A.E. Hotchener, the usually athletic, healthy Melcher had an enlarged heart, but possibly willed himself to die rather than face Doris with the truth. An |
ustralian [[New Vogue (dance)|New Vogue]] is danced both competitively and socially. In competition there are 15 recognised New Vogue dances, which are performed by the competitors in sequence. Internationally, the [[Blackpool Dance Festival]], hosted annually at [[Blackpool]], [[England]], is considered the most prestigious event a dancesport competitior can attend.
==Medal examinations==
[[medal examinations (dance)|Medal examinations]] enable dancers' abilities to be recognized according to conventional standards. In medal exams, each dancer performs two or more dances in a certain genre (e.g., International Standard) in front of a judge. In North America, examination levels include Bronze, Silver, and Gold. Each level (i.e. Bronze, Silver, Gold) may be further subdivided into either two or four separate sections.
== Other dances sometimes classified as "ballroom" ==
All dances that are danced competitively are also danced in social settings. Some of the more popular social dances include [[Nightclub Dance]]s such as [[Lindy Hop]], [[West Coast Swing]], and [[Hustle (dance)|Hustle]]. A number are proudly called [[Street dance]]s. Nightclub dances are danced differently in different places, and club/street styles differ from the styles taught in ballroom studios.
In Europe, [[Latin Swing]] dances include [[Tango Argentino]], [[Mambo]], Lindy Hop, [[Swing Boogie]] (sometimes also known as [[Nostalgic Boogie]]), and [[Disco Fox]].
[[Country and Western dance]]s are danced both competitively and socially at Country & Western bars, clubs, and ballrooms. There is also a [[Rock 'n' Roll]] dance variant accepted as a social dance.
A related category is regional social dances. One example is the subcategory of [[Cajun dance]]s that originated in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], with branches reaching both coasts of the [[United States]].
== Rogers and Astaire ==
The on-screen dance pairing of [[Fred Astaire]] and [[Ginger Rogers]] greatly influenced ballroom dancing. Although both [[actor]]s had independent projects and careers (Astaire had many other partners and Rogers won an [[Academy Award]] for a dramatic role), their filmed dance sequences have reached iconic status. Much of their work portrayed social dance, although their performances were highly choreographed (often by Astaire or [[Hermes Pan (choreographer)|Hermes Pan]]), meticuously staged, and continually rehearsed. Ballroom dance historians note their portrayal of early 20th-century dancers [[Vernon and Irene Castle]].
Their work has greatly influenced the American-style ballroom syllabus. [[Ballroom glossary#American Smooth|American Smooth]] style was influenced greatly by the work of franchises such as [[Arthur Murray]] and [[Fred Astaire Dance Studios]] where 'Fred & Ginger' classes and workshops remain popular.
== Classic ballroom ==
Classic and [[vintage dance]] societies are dedicated to the performance and preservation of ballroom dances of the past. These companies perform at special events attired in traditional dance [[costume]]. Some instructors specialize in the dances of one place or time, or in [[fad dance]]s: short-lived, time-specific dances that may be associated with the music or style of an era (such as [[The Twist]]) or a particular song (such as [[YMCA (song)|YMCA]] or [[Macarena (song)|La Macarena]]).
== Elements of Competition ==
In competition ballroom dancers are judged by multifarious criteria such as connection, frame, posture, speed, proper body alignment, proper usage of weight/ankles/feet, and grooming. Judging in a performance-oriented sport is inevitably subjective in nature, and controversy and complaints by competitors over judging placements are not uncommon. The scorekeepers--called [[scrutineers]]--will tally the total number recalls accumulated by each couple through each round until the finals, when the [[Skating system]] is used to place each couple by ordinals, typically 1-6, though the number of couples in the final can vary.
== Dance groupings ==
:'''International Standard'''
:[[Slow Waltz]] - [[Tango (dance)|Tango]] - [[Viennese Waltz]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Quickstep]]
:'''International Latin'''
:[[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha cha]] - [[Samba (dance)|Samba]] - [[Rumba]] - [[Paso Doble]] - [[Jive (dance)|Jive]]
:'''American Smooth'''
:[[Waltz]] - [[Tango (dance)|Tango]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Viennese Waltz]]
:'''American Rhythm'''
:[[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha]] - [[Rumba]] - [[East Coast Swing]] - [[Bolero]] - [[Mambo]]
:'''Theater Arts'''
:'''Nightclub'''
:[[Nightclub Two-step]] - [[Hustle (dance)|Hustle]] - [[Modern Jive]] / [[LeRoc]] / [[Ceroc]] - and the whole swing variety: [[West Coast Swing]] / [[East Coast Swing]] / [[Lindy Hop]] / [[Carolina Shag]] / [[Collegiate Shag]] / [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]]
:'''Latin nightclub'''
: [[Salsa (dance)|Salsa]] - [[Merengue (dance)|Merengue]] - [[Cumbia]] - [[Bachata]] - [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha]]
: '''Country/Western'''
:[[Polka]] - [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha]] - [[Two-step]] - [[Waltz]]...
:also referred to as "Country and Western" or C/W:
:[[Polka|C/W Polka]] - [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|C/W Cha-cha]] - [[Two-step|C/W Two-step]] - [[Waltz|C/W Waltz]]...
: '''Cajun dances'''
:[[Cajun One Step]] - [[Two Step|Cajun Two Step]] - [[Zydeco]] - [[Waltz|Cajun Waltz]] - [[Cajun Jitterbug]]
:'''Other'''
:[[Tango (dance)|Argentine tango]]
:[[Polka]]
:[[Peabody (dance)|Peabody]]
== Dancesport world champions ==
*[[Dancesport World Champions (standard)|Standard World Champions]]
*[[Dancesport World Champions (latin)|Latin World Champions]]
*[[Dancesport World Champions (smooth)|Smooth World Champions]]
*[[Dancesport World Champions (rhythm)|Rhythm World Champions]]
==See also==
*[[Dance in film]]
*[[An American Ballroom Companion]], [[Library of Congress]] resource
*[[List of ballroom and social dance albums]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dancescape.com DanceScape, Social & Competitive Dance Lifestyle, Culture & Entertainment News]
*[http://www.dancescape.com/mydancefriends DanceScape Global Dance Forums - Chat with Dance Addicts Around the World]
*[http://www.globaldancedirectory.com Global Dance Directory]
*[http://www.dancescape.TV DanceScape.TV]
*[http://www.idsf.net International DanceSport Federation]
*[http://www.usabda.org U.S. Amateur Ballroom Dance Association]
*[http://www.dancesport.ca Canadian Amateur DanceSport Association]
*[http://www.universitydancesport.com/ Inter Varsity Dancesport Competitions and Forum]
*[http://www.dansplaza.com/ Danceplaza, The world's leading DanceSport plaza]
[[Category:Social dance]]
[[Category:Ballroom dance|*]]
[[de:Gesellschaftstanz]]
[[de:Standardtanz]]
[[es:Baile de salón]]
[[nl:Stijldans]]
[[pl:Taniec towarzyski]]
[[pt:Dança de salão]]
[[ru:Бальные танцы]]
[[sl:Standardni plesi]]
[[sv:Pardans]]
[[zh:社交舞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Birth of a Nation</title>
<id>3333</id>
<revision>
<id>42108360</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:55:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bozoid</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = The Birth of a Nation |
image = Birth-of-a-nation-poster-color.jpg|
director = [[D.W. Griffith]] |
writer = [[Thomas Dixon (minister)|Thomas F. Dixon Jr.]] |
starring = [[Lilian Gish]]|
producer = D.W. Griffith |
distributor = |
released = [[February 8]], [[1915]] ([[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]) |
runtime = 190 min (125 min video version) |
language = Silent |
budget = $110,000 USD (est.) |
imdb_id = 0004972 |
}}
'''''The Birth of a Nation''''' was the most popular film of the silent era. Its innovative techniques made it an important silent film. However, the film glorified slavery, provided historical justification for [[segregation]] and [[disfranchisement]] of [[African American]] people. The message embedded in the film was that [[Reconstruction]] was an unqualified disaster, that African Americans could never be integrated into white society as equals, and that the violent actions of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] were justified because they were necessary to reestablish legitimate and honest government. [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm]
The film is highly controversial but also an influential and innovative [[silent film]] directed by [[D.W. Griffith]], based on [[Thomas Dixon (minister)|Thomas Dixon]]'s novels ''[[The Clansman]]'' (also a play) and ''[[The Leopard's Spots]]''. It was released in [[1915]] and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language. The film premiered on [[February 8]], [[1915]] in [[Los Angeles, California]] under the title ''The Clansman'', but was retitled at its world premiere in [[New York]] three months later.
The title was changed from ''The Clansman'' to ''The Birth of a Nation'' to reflect the filmmakers' belief that before the [[American Civil War]], the [[United States]] was a loose coalition of states antagonistic toward each other, and that the Northern victory over the breakaway states in the [[Southern United States|South]] finally bound the states under one national authority.{{ref|1}} The film's controversy is in its premise that the [[Ku Klux Klan]] arose to restore order to the post-war South, as it was "endangered" by "uncontrollable" [[African American]] denizens and their allies, [[abolitionists]], [[mulatto]]s and [[Carpetbagger|carpetbagging]] [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] politicians from the North. ''The Birth of a Nation'' has been linked to the second emergence of the Ku Klux Klan, which was revived the year of the film's release after a period of virtual non-exis |
the Christians, and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent. The religious zeal fomented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against the Jews as against the Muslims, though attempts were made by bishops during the [[First crusade]] and the papacy during the [[Second Crusade]] to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]], and formed the turning-point in the medieval history of the Jews.
[[Image:FirstCrusade.jpg|thumb|left|1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable
by [[Judenhut]]) being massacred by Crusaders]]
=== The expulsions from England, France, Germany, and Spain ===
''Only a few expulsions of the Jews are described in this section, for a more extended list see [[History of anti-Semitism]], and also the [[History of the Jews in England]], [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]], and [[History of the Jews in France|France]].''
The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for [[ransom]], was utilized to enrich the French crown during [[12th century|12th]]-[[14th century|14th]] centuries. The most notable such expulsions were: from [[Paris]] by [[Philip Augustus of France|Philip Augustus]] in 1182, from the entirety of France by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1254, by [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]] in 1322, by [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] in 1359, by [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]] in 1394.
To finance his war to conquer [[Wales]], [[Edward I of England]] taxed the Jewish moneylenders. When the Jews could no longer pay, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, the Jews saw Edward abolish their "privilege" to lend money, choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a [[Yellow badge|yellow patch]]. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested, over 300 of them taken to the [[Tower of London]] and executed, while others killed in their homes. The complete banishment of all Jews from the country in 1290 led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of Jews from England for three and a half centuries, until 1655, when [[Oliver Cromwell]] reversed the policy.
In 1492, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile]] issued ''General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews'' from [[Spain]] (''see also [[Spanish Inquisition]]'') and many [[Sephardi]] Jews fled to the [[Ottoman Empire]], some to the [[Land of Israel]].
In 1744, [[Frederick II of Prussia]] limited [[Breslau]] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other [[Prussia]]n cities. In 1750 he issued ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting [[Simon Dubnow]]). In the same year, Archduchess of [[Austria]] [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on condition that Jews pay for readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution".
=== Anti-Judaism and the Reformation ===
[[Image:1543 On the Jews and Their Lies by Martin Luther.jpg|thumb|180px|Luther's 1543 pamphlet ''On the Jews and Their Lies'']]
{{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}}
[[Martin Luther]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]] and an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his book ''On the Jews and their Lies'', which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriating them, and providing detailed recommendation for a [[pogrom]] against them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion. According to [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]], it "may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust." (''A History of the Jews'', 1987, p.242)
In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord" (Weimar edition, Vol. 51, p. 195). Still, Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism.
''See also [[Martin Luther and Antisemitism]]''
===Anti-Semitism in 19th and 20th century Catholicism===
Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial anti-Semitism. [[Pope Pius VII]] (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish [[Ghetto]] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were [[Napoleon and the Jews|released by Napoleon]], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the papacy of [[Pope Pius IX]] (1846-1878), the last Pope to rule Rome. Additionally, official organizations such as the Jesuits banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian [[David Kertzer]], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book ''The Popes Against the Jews'' that in the 19th and 20th century the [[Roman Catholic Church]] adhered to a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]], for example, criticized Kertzer in the [[Weekly Standard]] for using evidence selectively. The [[Second Vatican Council]], the [[Nostra Aetate]] document, and the efforts of [[Pope John Paul II]] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however.
=== Passion plays ===
[[Passion play]]s, dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of [[Jesus]], have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during [[Lent]]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for [[deicide|the death of Jesus]] in a [[polemic]]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to [[crucifixion]] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks -- or [[pogrom]]s -- on Europe's Jewish communities".[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/04/10/in_poland_new_passion_plays_on_old_hatreds/] [[Time Magazine]] in its article ''[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101030901-477956,00.html The Problem With Passion]'' explains that "such passages (are) highly subject to interpretation". Although modern scholars interpret the "blood on our children" (Matthew 27: 25) as "a specific group's oath of responsibility" some audiences have historically interpreted it as "an assumption of eternal, racial guilt". This last interpretation has often incited violence against Jews; according to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], "Passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the Jews, who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for Jesus' death".[http://www.adl.org/ADL_Opinions/Interfaith/oped_2004012_pbp.htm] The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', in its article ''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0710/p11s01-lire.html?entryBottomStory Capturing the Passion]'' explains that "[h]istorically, productions have reflected negative images of Jews and the long-time church teaching that the Jewish people were collectively responsible for Jesus' death. Violence against Jews as 'Christ-killers' often flared in their wake." ''[[Christianity Today]]'' in ''[http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/2004/feb20.html Why some Jews fear (Mel Gibson's) The Passion (of the Christ)]'' observed that "Outbreaks of Christian anti-Semitism related to the Passion narrative have been...numerous and destructive."
In 2003 and 2004 some compared [[Mel Gibson]]'s recent film ''The Passion of the Christ'' to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed; an analysis of that topic is in the article on [[The Passion of the Christ]]. Despite such fears, there have been no publicized anti-Semitic incidents directly attributable to the movie's influence.
==Racial anti-Semitism ==
Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a g |
ame]]
'''Alicante''' ([[Spanish language|Castillian Spanish]]) or '''Alacant''' ([[Catalan language|Valencian Catalan]]) is the capital of the province of [[Alicante (province)|Alicante]] and of the [[comarca]] of the [[Alacantí]], in the southern part of the [[Valencia (autonomous community)|Valencian community]], [[Spain]], a historic [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] port. The population of the city of Alicante proper was 319,380, estimated [[as of 2005]], of the entire urban area, 427,217. Population of the [[metropolitan area]] (including satellite towns) was 711,215 as of 2005 estimates, ranking as the eighth-largest metropolitan area of Spain.
[[Image:Alicante_Spain_townhall.jpg|thumb|left|200px|City Hall.]]
Alicante is one of the fastest-growing cities in Spain. Its economy is based upon tourism in the beaches from [[Costa Blanca]] coast, [[wine]] production, services and administration. It exports wine, olive oil, and fruit, and has light industries, including food-processing, leather, textiles, and pottery. ''[[turrón|turrones]]'' (''torrons'' in Catalan) &mdash;a honey and almond [[nougat]]&mdash;is a food specialty of Alicante.
[[Image:Alicante_Spain_marina.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Marine of Alicante.]]
The city has regular [[ferry]] services to the [[Balearic Islands]], and an international airport is nearby. It is strongly fortified, with a spacious harbor. Amongst the most notable features of the city is its [[castle]], the "Castillo de Santa Barbara", which sits high above the city upon a cliff. The most important festival, the ''[[Bonfires of Saint John]]'', takes place at the time of the [[summer solstice]], and they are declared of international touristic interest. Another well-known festival is ''[[Moros y Cristianos]]'' in any quarter of the city, such as Altozano or Saint Blase.
The city is the headquarters of the [[Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market]].
[[Image:Alicante_Spain_-_the_city_and_the_sea.jpg|thumb|right|400px|View over Alicante and the [[Mediterranean]].]]
==Population==
The population of *[http://www.alicante-spain.com Alicante] in 2005 was 325,797 inhabitants, 711,215 in the metropolitan area "Alicante-[[Elx]]". About 15% of the population is foreign, mostly those from [[Argentina]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Colombia]].
==History==
[[Image:Skyline de Alicante.JPG|thumb|right|400px|The Mediterranean]]
Alicante was founded in [[324 BC]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], who named it ''Akra Leuke'' (White Peak). In [[201 BC]] it was captured by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] who called it ''Lucentum'', and [[Hannibal]] is said to have unloaded his famous [[war elephant]]s here. Between [[718]] and [[1249]], the city was ruled by the [[Moors]]. In [[1265]] it was retaken by [[Alfonso X of Castile]] and incorporated into the kingdom of [[Castile]]. In [[1304]] it was incorporated into the kingdom of Valencia, in the [[Aragon]] Crown.
The city was besieged by the [[France|French]] in [[1709]] and [[1812]], and later by the Federalists of [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]] in [[1873]]. In the [[Spanish Civil War]], Alicante was bombed by Italian aircraft, and was one of the last cities to fall to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]. In Alicante, the Falangist [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]] was executed in November 1936.
In 1982 and 1997 heavy rain caused severe flooding and some loss of life.
==Famous citizens==
*[[Carlos Arniches]] (1866-1943), novelist
*[[Gabriel Miró]] (1879-1930), novelist
*[[Antonio Gades]] (1936-2004), Flamenco dancer
*[[Juan Escarré]] (*1969), field hockey player
*[[Belen Rueda]], actress
*[[Miriam Blasco]], judoka olympic winner
*[[Isabel Fernandez]], judoka olympic winner
*[[Vanessa Romero]], model an actress
*[[Maria Jurado]], model and actress
==External links==
* [http://www.mulliganbirdie.com/ Alicante Info]
* [http://www.alicante-ayto.es/ Official website of Alicante]
* [http://www.ua.es/ University of Alicante]
* [http://www.fogueres.net/ Bonfires of Saint John]
* [http://www.aena.es/csee/Satellite?pagename=Estandar%2FPage%2FAeropuerto&c=Page&MO=0&SMO=-1&SiteName=ALC%26cid%3D1049437849176 Alicante Airport]
* [http://www.alicante-spain.com Alicante Information], from a local citizen
* [http://www.gocostablanca.com/cities/alicante/tourist-guide-to-alicante Alicante City Guide]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Valencia]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Spain]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Spain]]
[[ar:أليكانته]]
[[ca:Alacant]]
[[de:Alicante]]
[[es:Alicante]]
[[eo:Alakanto]]
[[fr:Alicante]]
[[it:Alicante]]
[[ja:アリカンテ]]
[[la:Lucentum]]
[[nl:Alicante (stad)]]
[[no:Alicante]]
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[[sv:Alicante (stad)]]
[[zh:阿利坎特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 4</title>
<id>2418</id>
<revision>
<id>41908002</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:10:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mr Chuckles</username>
<id>999422</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41902301 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=4}}
|}
'''August 4''' is the 216th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (217th in [[leap year]]s), with 149 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1265]] - The [[Battle of Evesham]] of the [[Second Barons' War]] is fought in [[Worcestershire]], with the army of future King [[Edward I of England]] defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] and killing de Montfort and many of his allies. This is sometimes considered the death of [[chivalry]] in [[England]].
*[[1578]] - [[Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir]] - Moroccans defeat Portuguese. King [[Sebastian of Portugal]] is defeated and killed in North Africa, leaving his elderly uncle, [[Henry of Portugal|Cardinal Henry]], as his heir. This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal.
*[[1693]] - Date traditionally ascribed to [[Dom Perignon (person)|Dom Perignon's]] invention of [[Champagne (beverage)|Champagne]].
*[[1704]] - During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] an Anglo-Dutch force seizes the rock of [[Gibraltar]].
*[[1735]] - [[Freedom of the press]]: [[New York Weekly Journal]] writer [[John Peter Zenger]] is acquitted of seditious [[libel]] against the royal governor of [[New York]], on the basis that what he published was true.
*[[1753]] - [[George Washington]], then a young Virginia planter, becomes a [[Master Mason]], the highest basic rank in the secret fraternity of [[Freemasonry]].
*[[1789]] - The feudal system is abolished in France.
*[[1790]] - A newly passed [[tariff]] act creates the ''[[Revenue Cutter Service]]'' (the forerunner of the [[United States Coast Guard]]).
*[[1821]] - Atkinson & Alexander publish the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' for the first time as a weekly [[newspaper]].
*[[1824]] - [[Battle of Cos]] fought between [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] and [[Greeks]].
*[[1854]] - The [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] is established as the official flag to be flown from [[Japan|Japanese]] ships.
*[[1873]] - [[Indian Wars]]: While protecting a [[railroad]] survey party in [[Montana]], the [[United States 7th Cavalry]], under Lieutenant Colonel [[George Armstrong Custer]], clash for the first time with the [[Sioux]] (near the [[Tongue River (Montana)|Tongue River]]; only one man on each side is killed).
*[[1892]] - The family of [[Lizzie Borden]] is found murdered in their [[Fall River, Massachusetts]] home.
*[[1902]] - [[Greenwich foot tunnel]] under the River [[Thames]] opens.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany]] invaded [[Belgium]]; in response, the [[United Kingdom]] declares war on Germany. The [[United States]] proclaims neutrality.
*[[1944]] - [[Holocaust]]: A tip from a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] informer leads the [[Gestapo]] to a sealed-off area in an [[Amsterdam]] warehouse where they find [[Jew]]ish diarist [[Anne Frank]] and her family.
*[[1947]] - The [[Supreme Court of Japan]] is established.
*[[1964]] - [[American civil rights movement]]: [[Civil rights]] workers [[Michael Schwerner]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[James Chaney]] are found dead in [[Mississippi]] after disappearing on [[June 21]].
*1964 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States]] destroyers [[USS Maddox (DD-731)|USS ''Maddox'']] and [[USS Turner Joy (DD-951)|USS ''C. Turner Joy'']] are allegedly attacked in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]]. Air support from the carrier [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']] sinks two, possibly three [[North Vietnam]]ese gunboats. Years later, the claim of NVA attack was revealed to be false.
*[[1969]] - Vietnam War: At the apartment of [[France|French]] intermediary [[Jean Sainteny]] in [[Paris]], US representative [[Henry Kissinger]] and North Vietnamese representative [[Xuan Thuy]] begin secret peace negotiations. The negotiations will eventually fail.
*[[1975]] - The [[Japanese Red Army]] takes more than 50 hostages at the AIA building housing several embassies in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. The hostages included the [[United States|U.S.]] consul and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] charge d'affaires. The gunmen win the release of five imprisoned comrades and fly with them to [[Libya]].
*[[1977]] - US President [[Jimmy Carter]] signs legislation creating the [[United States Department of Energy]].
*[[1983]] - [[Thomas Sankara]] becomes president of [[Upper Volta]].
*1983 - [[New York Yankees|New York Yankee]] [[outfielder]] [[Dave Winfield]] accidentally killed a [[seagull]] during a [[baseball]] game and was charged by police for his "act of cruelty to animals". His [[manager (baseball)|manager]] [[Billy Martin]] quipped, "It's the first time he's hit the [[List of baseball jargon|cutoff man]]."
*[[1984]] - The [[Africa]]n republic [[Upper Volta]] |
on this day: Johnson had been suffering from typhoid fever and drank whiskey before the ceremony. He gave a rambling, incoherent speech and had to be led away. Lincoln forgave him for this transgression. He became President of the United States on [[April 15]] [[1865]], upon the death of Lincoln. He was the first Vice President to succeed to the U.S. Presidency upon the assassination of a President and the third to succeed upon the death of a President.
Johnson had an ambiguous party status. The National Union party vanished after the 1864 election but he did not identify with either party while president--though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. Asked why he did not become a Democrat in July 1868 he said "It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic party. Why don't they join me?" [Trefouse p 339]
===Policies===
The Johnson Administration negotiated the [[Alaska purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from Russia on [[April 9]] [[1867]] for $7,200,000.
===Impeachment===
Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about [[Reconstruction]]: the manner in which the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a very quick restoration of all rights and privileges of other states. However, "Congressional Reconstruction", enforced by repeated acts passed over Johnson's [[veto]], provided for provisional state governments run by the military and ensuring the local passage of [[civil rights]] laws and otherwise imposing the will of the United States Congress &mdash; which was run by the North. Johnson's public criticisms of Congress provoked much talk of impeachment over the months.
[[Image:3a05488v.jpg|250px|thumb|''Harper's Weekly'' illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the [[United States Senate]].]]
On [[February 21]], [[1868]], Johnson notified Congress that he had removed [[Edwin Stanton]] as Secretary of War, and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General [[Lorenzo Thomas]]. This violated the [[Tenure of Office Act]], a law enacted by Congress on [[March 2]], [[1867]], over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton. Johnson had vetoed the Act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The Act said, "...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified," thus removing the President's previous unlimited power to remove any of his Cabinet members at will. Years later in the case ''[[Myers v. United States]]'' in 1926, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that such laws were indeed unconstitutional.
The Senate and House entered into hot debate. Thomas attempted to move into the War office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House passed a resolution to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors", specifically, for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act and thus violating the law of the land, which he had sworn an oath to enforce.
[[Image:AJohnsonimpeach.jpg|thumb|left||The 1868 Impeachment Resolution]]
On [[March 5]], [[1868]] a court of impeachment was constituted in the Senate to hear charges against the President. [[William M. Evarts]] served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current Secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the President who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the Act had already run its course.
There were three votes in the Senate: one on [[May 16]], [[1868]] for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on [[May 26]] for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned ''[[sine die]]''. On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted "Guilty" and nineteen "Not Guilty". As the [[United States Constitution]] requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted.
A single changed vote would have sufficed to return a "Guilty" verdict. The decisive vote had been that of a young [[Radical Republican]] named [[Edmund G. Ross]]. Despite monumental pressure from fellow Radicals prior to the first vote, and dire warnings that a vote for acquittal would end his political career, Ross stood up at the appropriate moment and quietly announced "not guilty," effectively ending the impeachment trial.
Johnson was the first President to be impeached, and the only one until [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton]] on [[December 19]], [[1998]]. Both presidents were acquitted.
===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''Andrew Johnson'''||align="left"|1865–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|''None''||align="left"|&nbsp;
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[William H. Seward]]'''||align="left"|1865–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Hugh McCulloch]]'''||align="left"|1865–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]'''||align="left"|1865–1868
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John M. Schofield]]'''||align="left"|1868–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[James Speed]]'''||align="left"|1865–1866
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Henry Stanberry]]'''||align="left"|1866–1868
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William M. Evarts]]'''||align="left"|1868–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[William Dennison]]'''||align="left"|1865–1866
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Alexander Randall]]'''||align="left"|1866–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Gideon Welles]]'''||align="left"|1865–1869
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[John P. Usher]]'''||align="left"|1865
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James Harlan (senator)|James Harlan]]'''||align="left"|1865–1866
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Orville H. Browning]]'''||align="left"|1866–1869
|}
<br clear="all">
===States admitted to the Union===
* [[Nebraska]]: 1867
==Post-Presidency==
[[Image:Pres_andrew_johnson.jpg|thumb|right|230px|President Andrew Johnson]]
Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. He eventually succeeded and was elected as a Democrat to the Senate and served from [[March 4]], [[1875]], until his death near [[Elizabethton, Tennessee]], on [[July 31]], [[1875]]. He is the only President to serve in the Senate after his presidency. Interment was in the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery, [[Greeneville, Tennessee]].
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1864]]
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]
==References==
* Howard K. Beale, ''The Critical Year. A Study of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1930).
* Michael Les Benedict, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1999).
* Albert E. Castel, ''The Presidency of Andrew Johnson '' (1979).
* D. M. DeWitt, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1903).
* Eric L. McKitrick, ''Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1961).
* L. P. Stryker, ''Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage'' (1929).
* Hans L. Trefousse, ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989).
===Primary sources===
* Newspaper clippings, 1865–1869: http://www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com/
* Series of [[Harper's Weekly]] articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial: [http://www.andrewjohnson.com/09ImpeachmentAndAcquittal/ImpeachmentAndAcquittal.htm]
* Johnson's [[obituary]], from the [[New York Times]]: http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/Presidents/aj2/aj2obit.html
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Johnson | name=Andrew Johnson}}
* [http://jbw1291-essays.wikispaces.org/The+Andrew+Johnson+Administration The Andrew Johnson Administration]
* [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/impeach/articles.html Articles of Impeachment]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj17.html White House Biography]
* [http://www.mlwh.org/inside.asp?ID=91&subjectID=2 Mr. Lincoln's White House: Andrew Johnson]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=548 Andrew Johnson on Find-A-Grave]
<br clear=both>
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[[Category:Alumni of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge|Ray, John]]
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[[Category:Bryologists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:English botanists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Naturalists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Paleobotanists|Ray, John]]
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[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Ray, John]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>John F. Kennedy</title>
<id>15598</id>
<revision>
<id>42101476</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:08:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Harro5</username>
<id>211795</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.64.225.232|69.64.225.232]] ([[User talk:69.64.225.232|talk]]) to last version by Pollinator</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[John Kennedy (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox_President | name=President John Fitzgerald Kennedy
| nationality=american
| image=JFKofficial.jpg
| order=35th President
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1961]]
| term_end=[[November 22]], [[1963]]
| predecessor=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| successor=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| birth_date=[[May 29]], [[1917]]
| birth_place=[[Brookline, Massachusetts]]
| death_date=[[November 22]], [[1963]]
| death_place=[[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]]
| spouse=[[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| buried=[[Arlington National Cemetery]]
}}
'''John Fitzgerald Kennedy''' ([[May 29]], [[1917]] &ndash; [[November 22]], [[1963]]), often referred to as '''John F. Kennedy''', '''JFK''', or '''Jack Kennedy''', was the 35th [[President of the United States]]. He served from 1961 until [[John F. Kennedy assassination|his assassination]] in 1963. A member of the prominent [[Kennedy family|Kennedy political family]], he is considered an icon of [[American liberalism]]. During [[World War II]], he served as a naval lieutenant in the Pacific theatre and was cited for exceptional bravery for the rescue of his men. Kennedy is the youngest person ever to have been elected president of the United States, at the age of 43. ([[Theodore Roosevelt]] was the youngest ever to ''serve'' as President of the United States, as he succeeded to the presidency at age 42, following President [[William McKinley|McKinley's]] assassination.)
Major events during his presidency included the failed [[Bay of Pigs invasion]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the failed prevention of the Israeli nuclear weapons program, the failed prevention of the Chinese nuclear weapons program, the building of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Space Race]], early events of the [[Vietnam War]], and the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]. In [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|rankings of U.S. presidents]], historians usually grade Kennedy above average, but among the general public he is often regarded as among the greatest presidents.
Kennedy is also the first and only [[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] ever to become President, the first president to serve who was born in the [[20th century]], the last to die while still in office, the last [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] from the [[Northern United States|North]] to be elected, and the last to be elected while serving in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]].
Kennedy died the youngest of any U.S. president, at 46 years and 177 days, when he was assassinated on [[November 22]], [[1963]]. The assassination is often considered a defining moment in U.S. history because of its traumatic impact on the entire nation, its impact on the political history of the ensuing decades, and because of Kennedy's elevation as an [[icon]] for a new generation of Americans and American aspirations.
==Early Life==
Kennedy was born in [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.]] and [[Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy|Rose Fitzgerald]].
Years later, it would be revealed that Kennedy had been diagnosed as a young man with [[Addison's Disease]], a rare endocrine disorder. This and other medical disorders were kept from the press, and the public, throughout Kennedy's life.
Kennedy attended [[Edward Devotion School]] for four years ([[Kindergarten]] in [[1922]] to Third Grade [http://www.jfklibrary.org/fa_edward_devotion_school.html]) and then [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Connecticut]], one of the country's most elite private boarding schools, from which he graduated in 1935. That fall (Sept 25, 1935) he sailed from New York to London with his parents and his sister [[Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington|Kathleen]]. There he enrolled at the [[London School of Economics]] with the intention of studying for a year ([[political economy]] under the tutelage of Professor [[Harold Laski]]) but an illness hospitalized him shortly after his enrollment. His father insisted he return to the US. Jack sailed from London for New York on Oct 26, 1935. Later that fall of 1935, he enrolled in [[Princeton University]], but was forced to leave after contracting [[jaundice]]. The next fall, he began attending [[Harvard College]]. Kennedy traveled to [[Europe]] twice during his years at Harvard, visiting the [[United Kingdom]], while his father was serving as [[Ambassador]] to the [[Court of St. James's]]. In 1937, Kennedy was prescribed [[steroid]]s to control his [[colitis]], which only heightened his medical problems causing him to develop [[osteoporosis]] of the lower [[lumbar spine]] [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1276266].
In 1940 Kennedy wrote his honors thesis, entitled "[[Why England Slept]]" on the British portion of the [[Munich Agreement]]. He initially intended for the thesis to be for college only, but his dad encouraged him to publish the book. He graduated ''[[Latin honors|cum laude]]'' from Harvard with a degree in [[international affairs]] in June 1940. His thesis was published in 1940 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24144268] and became a [[best-seller]].
==Military service==
In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]], but was rejected, mainly because of his troublesome back. However, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] accepted him in September of that year with the influence of the director of the [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI), a former naval [[attaché]] to Ambassador Joseph Kennedy. As an [[Ensign (rank)|ensign]], he served in the office that supplied bulletins and briefing information for the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]. It was during this assignment that the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] occurred. It was also during this time that he began a romantic relationship with [[Inga Arvad]], a suspected [[Nazi]] spy. The relationship ended, however, when Kennedy was transferred to the ONI field office in [[South Carolina]]. He attended the Naval Reserve Officers Training School and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in [[Panama]] and eventually the [[Pacific theater]]. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of [[lieutenant]], commanding a [[patrol torpedo boat]] (''PT boat'').[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-2.htm]
[[Image:JFKPT109.jpg|thumb|right|200px|John on his navy patrol boat, [[PT 109]].]]
On [[August 2]], [[1943]], Kennedy's boat, the ''[[PT-109]]'', was taking part in a night-time military raid near [[New Georgia]] (near the [[Solomon Islands]]) when it was rammed by a [[Japan]]ese [[destroyer]]. Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already troubled back. Still, Kennedy somehow towed a wounded man three miles through the ocean, arriving on an island where his crew was subsequently rescued. Kennedy said that he blacked out for periods of time during the ordeal. For these actions, Kennedy received the [[Navy and Marine Corps Medal]], awarded for heroism not involving conflict with the enemy under the following citation:
:For heroism the rescue of 3 men following the ramming and sinking of his motor torpedo boat while attempting a torpedo attack on a Japanese destroyer in the Solomon Islands area on the night of Aug 12, 1943. Lt. KENNEDY, Capt. of the boat, directed the rescue of the crew and personally rescued 3 men, one of whom was seriously injured. During the following 6 days, he succeeded in getting his crew ashore, and after swimming many hours attempting to secure aid and food, finally effected the rescue of the men. His courage, endurance and excellent leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
Kennedy's other decorations from the Second World War include the [[Purple Heart]], [[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]], and the [[World War II Victory Medal]]. He was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before Japan surrendered.
In May 2002, a [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] expedition found what is believed to be the wreckage of the ''[[PT-109]]'' in the Solomon Islands [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html].
==Early political career==
[[Image:JFKSENATE.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A young Senator Kennedy in 1953.]]
After World War II, Kennedy entered politics (partly to fill the void of his popular brother, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.]], on whom his family had pinned many of their hopes but who was killed in the war). In 1946, [[United States House of Rep |
ive. Similarly, aluminium bicycle frames can be optimally designed so as to provide rigidity where required, yet have flexibility in terms of absorbing the shock of bumps from the road and not transmitting them to the rider.
The strength and durability of aluminium varies widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of the particular manufacturing process; for this reason, it has from time to time gained a bad reputation. For instance, a high frequency of failure in many early aluminium bicycle frames in the [[1970]]s resulted in just such a poor reputation; with a moment's reflection, however, the widespread use of aluminium components in the [[aerospace]] and automotive high performance industries, where huge stresses are undergone with vanishingly small failure rates, proves that properly built aluminium bicycle components should not be unusually unreliable, and this has subsequently proved to be the case.
Similarly, use of aluminium in automotive applications, particularly in engine parts which must survive in difficult conditions, has benefited from development over time. An [[Audi]] engineer commented about the V12 engine, producing over 500 horsepower (370 kW), of an [[Auto Union#The Auto Union racing cars |Auto Union race car]] of the [[1930s]] which was recently restored by the Audi factory, that the aluminium alloy of which the engine was constructed would today be used only for lawn furniture and the like. Even the aluminium [[cylinder head]]s and [[crankcase]] of the [[Corvair]], built as recently as the [[1960s]], earned a reputation for failure and stripping of [[thread]]s in holes, even as large as [[spark plug]] holes, which is not seen in current aluminium cylinder heads.
Often, aluminium's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, as opposed to steels, will melt without first turning red. Forming operations where a [[blow torch]] is used therefore requires some expertise since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium also will accumulate internal stresses and strains under conditions of overheating; while not immediately obvious, the tendency of the metal to "creep" under sustained stresses results in delayed distortions, for instance the commonly observed warping or cracking of aluminium automobile cylinder heads after an engine is overheated, sometimes as long as years later, or the tendency of welded aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses accumulated during the welding process. For this reason, many uses of aluminium in the aerospace industry avoid heat altogether by joining parts using [[adhesive]]s; this was also used for some of the early aluminium bicycle frames in the 1970s, with unfortunate results when the aluminium tubing corroded slightly, loosening the bond of the adhesive and leading to failure of the frame. Stresses from overheating aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling, in effect [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] the stresses; this can also result, however, in the part becoming distorted as a result of these stresses, so that such heat-treating of welded bicycle frames, for instance, results in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. If the misalignment is not too severe, once cooled they can be bent back into alignment with no negative consequences; of course, if the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), this will require enormous force.
====Household wiring====
Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared to [[copper]] at the time, aluminium was introduced for household electrical wiring to a large degree in the United States in the 1960s. Unfortunately, many of the wiring fixtures at the time were not designed to accept aluminium wire. More specifically:
* The greater [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] of aluminium, causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal [[screw]] connection, eventually loosening the connection.
* Pure aluminium has a tendency to "creep" under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again producing a degree of looseness in an initially tight connection.
* [[Galvanic cell#Galvanic corrosion|Galvanic corrosion]] from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection.
In combination, these properties caused connections between electrical fixtures and aluminium wiring to overheat which resulted in several fires. As a result, aluminium household wiring has become unpopular, and in many jurisdictions it is not permitted in very small sizes in new construction. However, aluminium wiring can be safely used with fixtures whose connections are designed to avoid loosening and overheating. Older fixtures of this type are marked "Al/Cu", and newer ones are marked "CO/ALR". Otherwise, aluminium wiring can be terminated by [[crimp (metalworking)|crimping]] it to a short "[[pigtail]]" of copper wire, which can be treated as any other copper wire. A properly done crimp, requiring high pressure produced by the proper tool, is tight enough not only to eliminate any thermal expansion of the aluminium, but also to exclude any atmospheric oxygen and thus prevent corrosion between dissimilar metals. New alloys are used for aluminium building wire today in combination with aluminium terminations. Connections made with these standard industry products are as safe and reliable as copper connections.
:''See also'':[[Aluminium wire]]
==History==
The ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] used salts of this metal as dyeing [[mordant]]s and as astringents for dressing wounds, and [[alum]] is still used as a [[styptic]]. Further [[Joseph Needham]] suggested finds in 1974 showed the ancient Chinese used aluminium (''see "notes" linked above''). In 1761 [[Guyton de Morveau]] suggested calling the base alum 'alumine'. In 1808, [[Humphry Davy]] identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he named (''see [[#Spelling|Spelling]] section'').
[[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] is generally credited with isolating aluminium ([[Latin]] ''alumen'', [[alum]]) in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. However, the metal had been produced for the first time two years earlier in an impure form by the Danish physicist and chemist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]. Therefore almanacs and chemistry sites often list Ørsted as the discoverer of aluminium.[http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/al.html#isotopes] Still it would further be P. Berthier who discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. The Frenchman [[Henri Saint-Claire Deville]] improved Wöhler's method in 1846 and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium.
The American [[Charles Martin Hall]] of [[Oberlin, OH]] applied for a [[patent]] (400655) in 1886 for an electrolytic process to extract aluminium using the same technique that was independently being developed by the Frenchman [[Paul Héroult]] in Europe. The invention of the [[Hall-Heroult process|Hall-Héroult process]] in 1886 made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper, and is now the principal method in common use throughout the world. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity Aluminium directly. Upon approval of his patent in 1889, Hall, with the financial backing of [[Alfred E. Hunt]] of [[Pittsburgh, PA]], started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, renamed to Aluminum Company of America in 1907, later shortened to [[Alcoa]].
[[Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|right|The statue known as ''Eros'' in [[Piccadilly Circus]] London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium.]] Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the [[Washington Monument]], at a time when one [[ounce]] cost twice the daily wages of a common worker in the project. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9511/Binczewski-9511.html]
Germany became the world leader in aluminium production soon after [[Adolf Hitler]] seized power. By 1942, however, new hydroelectric power projects such as the [[Grand Coulee Dam]] gave the United States something Nazi Germany could not hope to compete with, namely the capability of producing enough aluminium to manufacture sixty thousand warplanes in four years. [http://www.phpsolvent.com/wordpress/?page_id=341]
==Natural occurrence==
Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5% to 8.1%), it is very rare in its free form and was once considered a [[precious metal]] more valuable than [[gold]]. [[Napoleon III of France]] had a set of aluminium plates reserved for his finest guests. Others had to make do with gold ones. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.
Aluminium was, when it was first discovered, extremely difficult to separate from its ore. Aluminium is among the most difficult metals on Earth to refine, despite the fact that it is one of the planet's most common. The reason is that aluminium is oxidised very rapidly and that its oxide is an extremely stable compound that, unlike rust on iron, does not flake off. The very reason for which aluminium is used in many applications is why it is so hard to produce.
Recovery of this metal from scrap (via [[recycling]]) has become an important component of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves simply melting the metal, which is far less expensive than creating it from ore. Refining aluminium requires enormous amounts of [[electricity]]; recycling it requires only 5% of the energy to produce it. A common practice since the |
[[Ground ball fly ball ratio]] - number of ground balls divided by number of fly balls
* GIDP - [[Double play|Ground into Double play]] - number of ground balls hit that became double plays
* GS = [[grand slam (baseball)|Grand Slam]] - a [[home run]] with the bases loaded, resulting in four runs scoring, and four [[Run batted in | RBI]] credited to the batter.
* H - [[Hit (baseball)|Hit]] - times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without error by the defense
* HBP - [[Hit by pitch]] - times touched by a pitch and awarded first base as a result
* HR - [[Home run]] - hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* LOB - [[Left on base]] - number of runners not out nor scored at the end of an innning.
* OBP - [[On base percentage]] - times reached base (H + BB + HBP) divided by at bats plus walks plus hit by pitch plus sacrifice flies (AB + BB + HBP + SF).
* OPS - [[On-base plus slugging]] - on-base percentage plus slugging percentage
* PA - [[Plate appearance]] - number of completed batting appearances no matter the result
* RBI - [[Run batted in]] - number of runners who scored due to a batters's action, except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
* SAC - [[Sacrifice bunt]] - number of times bunts advanced other runners (someitmes called ''sacrifice hit'' or SH)
* SF - [[Sacrifice fly]] - number of fly ball outs which allow another runner to score
* SLG - [[Slugging percentage]] - total bases divided by at-bats
* SO - [[Strike out]] (also abbreviated ''K'') - number of times that strike three is taken or swung at and missed, or bunted foul
* TB - [[Total bases]] - one for each single, two for each double, three for each triple, and four for each home run
* TOB - [[Times on base]] - times reaching base as a result of hits, walks and hit by pitches
===Baserunning statistics===
* CS - [[Caught stealing]] - times tagged out when attempting to steal a base or when picked off
* SB - [[Stolen base]] - number of bases advanced other than on batted balls, walks, or hits by pitch.
* R - [[Run (baseball)|Run]] - times reached home base legally and safely
===Pitching statistics===
* AVG - [[Opponents batting average]] - hits allowed divided by at-bats faced
* BB - [[Base on balls]] (also called a "walk") - times pitching four balls, allowing runner to advance to first base
* BB/9 - [[Walks|Base on balls]] times nine divided by innings pitched
* BS - [[Blown save]] - number of times entering the game in a [[save (baseball statistics)|save]] situation, and being charged the run which ties the game.
* CG - [[Complete game]] - number of games where player was the only pitcher for his team
* dERA - [[Defense-Independent ERA]] - a measure of a pitcher's effectiveness that doesn't include balls hit within the field of play
* ER - [[Earned run]] - number of runs that did not occur as a result of errors or passed balls
* ERA - [[Earned run average]] - earned runs times innings in a game (usually nine) divided by innings pitched
* GIR - [[Games in relief]] - number of games pitched where player was not the starting pitcher for his team
* GF - [[Games finished]] - number of games pitched where player was the final pitcher for his team
* GP - [[Games pitched]] - number of games in which the player pitched
* G/F - [[Ground ball fly ball ratio]] - ground balls allowed divided by fly balls allowed
* GS - [[Games started]] - number of games pitched where player was the first pitcher for his team
* H/9 - [[Hits per nine innings]] - hits allowed times nine divided by innings pitched
* HA - [[Hits Allowed]] - total hits allowed
* HB - [[Hit by pitch|Hit batsman]] - times hit a batter with pitch, allowing runner to advance to first base
* HLD (or H) - [[Hold (baseball statistics)|Hold]] - number of games entered in a save situation, left in save situation, recorded at least one out, and not having surrendered the lead
* HRA - [[Home runs allowed]] - total home runs allowed
* IBB - [[Intentional base on balls]]
* IRA - [[Inherited runs allowed]] - number of runners allowed to score who were on base when pitcher enters the game
* IP - [[Innings pitched]] - number of outs recorded while pitching divided by three
* L - [[Win (baseball)|Loss]] - number of games where pitcher was pitching while the opposing team took the lead and went on to win
* R/9 - [[Runs per nine innings]] - number of runs allowed times nine divided by innings pitched
* SHO - [[Shutout]] - number of complete games having allowed zero runs
* SO - [[Strikeout]] (also abbreviated ''K'') - number of batters who received strike three
* SO/9 - [[Strikeouts per nine innings]] - strikeouts times nine divided by innings pitched
* SO/BB - [[Strikeout-to-walk ratio]] - number of strikeouts divided by number of base on balls
* SV - [[Save (sport)|Save]] - number of close games finished where the pitcher's team won
* TBF - [[Total batters faced]] - opponent's total plate appearances
* W - [[Win (baseball)|Win]] - number of games where pitcher was pitching while his team took the lead and went on to win (also related: '''winning percentage''')
* W+S - [[Relief wins plus saves]] - wins plus saves
* WHIP - [[Walks plus hits per inning pitched]] - bases on balls plus hits divided by innings pitched
* W/9 - [[Walks per nine innings]] - bases on balls times nine divided by innings pitched
* WP - [[Wild pitch]]es - charged when a pitch is too high, low, or wide of home plate for the catcher to field, thereby allowing one or more runners to advance or score
'''See also'''
*[[Pitch (baseball)|List of pitches]]
===Fielding statistics===
* A - [[Assist (baseball statistics)|Assists]] - number of outs recorded on a play where a fielder touched the ball, except if such touching is the putout
* CS - [[Caught stealing]] - number of times a runner was thrown out by the catcher while attempting to advance on a pitch
* DP - [[Double plays]] - one for each double play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist.
* E - [[Error (baseball statistics)|Errors]] - number of times a fielder fails to make a play he should have made with common effort, and the offense benefits as a result
* FP - [[Fielding percentage]] - total plays (chances minus errors) divided by the number of total chances
* INN - [[Innings]] - number of innings that a player is at one certain position
* PB - [[Passed ball]] - error charged to the catcher that occurs when the ball is dropped and one or more runners advance
* PO - [[Putout]] - number of times the fielder tags, forces, or appeals a runner and he is called out as a result
* RF - [[Range factor]] - ([putouts + assists]*9)/innings played. Used to determine the amount of field that the player can cover
* SB - [[Stolen base]]s - number of times a runner advanced on the pitch without being thrown out by the catcher
* TC - [[Total chances]] - assists plus putouts plus errors
* TP - [[triple play (baseball)|Triple play]] - one for each triple play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist
===General statistics===
* G - [[Games played]] - number of games where the player played, in whole or in part
* WW - "Wasn't Watching" - used by non-official scorekeepers when their attention is distracted from the game - said to have been invented by [[Phil Rizzuto]]
==See also==
* [[Triple crown (baseball)|Triple Crown in Major League Baseball]]
* [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award]] winners
* [[Cy Young Award]] winners
* [[MLB Rookie of the Year Award]] winners
* [[Gold Glove Award]] winners
==Other terminology==
* [[Ball (baseball statistics)|Ball]]
* [[Strike (baseball statistics)|Strike]]
* [[Strike zone]]
[[da:Baseballstatistikker]]
[[Category:Baseball]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earned Run Average</title>
<id>3798</id>
<revision>
<id>15902113</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-10T17:24:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wapcaplet</username>
<id>6264</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Earned run average]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Earned run average]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Batting average</title>
<id>3799</id>
<revision>
<id>35534250</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T12:55:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>tighten</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Batting average''' is a [[statistic]] in both [[baseball]] and [[cricket]] measuring the performance of [[hitter|baseball hitters]] and [[batsman|cricket batsmen]], respectively. The two statistics are related, in that baseball averages are directly descended from the concept of cricket averages.
The term ''batting average'' is also used in non-sporting contexts to represent various statistical measures of performance.
==Cricket==
[[Image:CricketBattingAverageHistogram.gif|frame|right|International cricket career batting averages (Jan 2004). Note [[Donald Bradman|Bradman]]'s Test average of 99.94.]]
In cricket, a player's '''batting average''' is the total number of [[run (cricket)|runs]] he has scored divided by the number of times he has been [[dismissal (cricket)|out]]. Since the number of runs a player scores and how often he gets out are primarily measures of his own playing ability, and largely independent of his team mates, batting average is a good statistic for describing an individual player's skill as a batsman. The number is also simple to interpret intuitively, being approximately the average number of runs the batsman scores per innings. Batting average has been used to gauge cricket players' relative skills since the [[18th century]].
Most players have batting averages in the range 10 to 50:
*Between 30 and 50 is typical for specialist [[batsman|batsmen]].
*[[All-roun |
It takes on intellectual issues, and it is marked by concern with dreams, the imagination and mystery."
Richard Zenith calls Pessoa-himself '[Pessoa's] most intellectual and analytic poetic persona.' Like Álvaro de Campos, Pessoa-himself was afflicted with an acute identity crisis. Pessoa-himself has been described as indecisive and doubt plagued, as restless. Like Campos he can be melancholic, weary, resigned. The strength of Pessoa-himself's poetry rests in his ability to suggest a sense of loss; of sorrow for what can never be.
A constant theme in Pessoa's poetry is Tedio, or Tedium. The dictionary defines this word simply as 'a condition of being tedious; tediousness or boredom.' This definition does not sufficiently encompass the peculiar brand of tedium experienced by Pessoa-himself. His is more than simple boredom: it is a world weariness and disgust with life; a sense of the finality of failure; of the impossibility of having anything to want.
'The impossibility of having anything to want': this is Tedio for Pessoa-himself. It is one thing to have nothing to do or want, but to be deprived even of this...is tedium. Kierkegaard tells how if asked to choose between the two; between a perpetual state of boredom, or eternal bodily pain; he would choose--eternal bodily pain. Pessoa-himself, I believe, would undoubtedly concur with the melancholy Dane.
== Message ==
''Mensagem'' ([[Message]]) is a very unusual 20th century book: it is a symbolist epic made up of 44 short poems organized in three parts or Cycles: The first called "Brasão" (Coat-of-Arms) relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields and charges in the Portuguese coat-of-arms. The first two poems ("The castles" and "The escutcheons") draw inspiration from the material and spiritual natures of Portugal. Each of the remaining poems associates to each charge a historical personality. Ultimately they all lead to the Goldean Age of Discovery.
The second Part, called "Mar Português" (Portuguese Sea) refers the country's Age of Portuguese Exploration and to its sea-borne Empire that ended with the death of King Sebastian at El-Ksar el-Kebir (in 1578). Pessoa brings the reader to the present as if he had woken up from a dream of the past, to fall in a dream of the future: he sees King Sebastian returning and still bent on accomplishing an Universal Empire, like King Arthur heading for Avalon...
The third Cycle, called "O Encoberto" ("The Hidden One"), is the most disturbing. It refers to Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and the Fifth Empire. After the Age of Force, (Vis), and Taedium (Otium) will come Science (understanding) through a reawakening of "The Hidden One", or "King Sebastian". The Hidden One represents the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and the accomplishment of Portugal.
One of the most famous quotes from ''Mensagem'' is the first verse from ''O Infante'' (belonging to the second Part), which is ''Deus quer, o homem sonha, a obra nasce'' (which translates roughly to "God wants, man dreams, the deed is born").
== Literary essays ==
In 1912, Fernando Pessoa wrote a set of essays later collected under the designation ''The New Portuguese Poetry'' for the literary journal [[A Águia]], (The Eagle), founded in [[Oporto]] in December 1910. The first series of two articles engage the issue 'The new Portuguese poetry viewed sociologically' (nos. 4 and 5 ); the second series of three articles is entitled 'The psychological aspect of the new Portuguese poetry' (nos. 9,11 and 12). The articles disclose him as a connoisseur of modern European literature and an expert of recent literary trends. On the other hand, he does not care too much for methodology of analysis and problems of history of ideas. He states his confidence that Portugal would soon produce a great poet -a 'super-Camoens' as he calls him – pledged to make an important contribution for European culture, and indeed, for humanity.
== Philosophical essays ==
The philosophical notes of young Fernando Pessoa, mostly written between 1905 and 1912, illustrate his debt to the history of [[Philosophy]] more through commentators than through a first-hand protracted reading of the Classics, ancient or modern. The issues he engages with pertain to every philosophical discipline and are dealt with a large profusion of concepts, creating a vast semantic spectrum in texts whose length oscillates between half a dozen lines and half a dozen pages and whose density of analysis is extremely variable; simple paraphrasis, expression of assumptions and original speculation.
Pessoa sorted the philosophical systems thus:
1)Relative Spiritualism and relative Materialism privilege “Spirit “or “Matter “as the main pole that organizes data around Experience. 2) Absolute Spiritualist and Absolute Materialist "deny all objective reality to one of the elements of Experience". 3) The materialistic [[Pantheism]] of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and the spiritualizing Pantheism of [[Nicolas Malebranche|Malebranche]], “admit that experience is a double manifestation of any thing that in its essence has no matter neither spirit". 4) Considering both elements as an illusory manifestation", of a transcendent and true and alone realities, there is [[Transcendentalism]], inclined into matter with [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], or into spirit, a position where [[Henri Bergson|Bergson]] could be emplaced. 5) A terminal system “the limited and summit of metaphysics” would not radicalize - as poles of experience one of the singled categories - matter, relative, absolute, real, illusory, spirit. Instead, matching all categories, it takes contradiction as “the essence of the universe” and defends that “an affirmation is so more true insofar the more contradiction involves". The transcendent must be conceived beyond categories. There ''is one only and eternal example of it. It is that cathedral of thought -the philosophy of [[Hegel]].''
Such [[Pantheist Transcendentalism]] is used by Pessoa to define the project that “encompasses and exceeds all systems "; to characterize the new poetry of [[Saudosismo]] where the “typical contradiction of this system“ occurs; to inquire what are the social and politic results of its adoption as the leading cultural paradigm; and, at last, he hints that metaphysics and religiosity strive “to find in everything a beyond".
==Sexuality==
Some literary critics and analysts of Pessoa's work have suggested that Pessoa may have been [[gay]]. However, the evidence for this is largely circumstantial — some of his "English Poems" was [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]], and he reportedly broke off his engagement to Ophelia Queiroz by telling her "My destiny belongs to a different law, whose existence some do not even suspect."
However, there is no clearly documented evidence of Pessoa's sexual preference, and his use of heteronyms makes it difficult to verify whether the gay subtext in some of his work documents his own experience or that of a character.
Whatever was is sexual orientation, he was mainly assexual, like him, as Bernardo Soares, seems to state in the "Book of Disquiet".
== Selected works ==
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0141183047 Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith]
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0802136273 Fernando Pessoa & Co: Selected Poems]
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0802139140 The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa]
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415969611 A Centenary Pessoa]
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0872863425 Poems of Fernando Pessoa, tr. Honig & Brown]
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/2850255386 Fernando Pessoa (Pocket Archives Series): Photographs]
== Selected links ==
===Portuguese===
*[http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/escritores/pessoa.htm Instituto Camoes: Fernando Pessoa]
*[http://www.casafernandopessoa.com Casa Fernando Pessoa]
*[http://www.secrel.com.br/jpoesia/pessoa.html Jornal de Poesia]
*[http://pwp.netcabo.pt/netmendo/pessoa.htm As Coerências]
*[http://omj.no.sapo.pt O Major Reformado]
===English===
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/pessoa.htm Kirjasto Biography]
*[http://pwp.netcabo.pt/netmendo/pessoa.htm The Philosopher-Poet]
*[http://omj.no.sapo.pt/index%20English.htm The Retired Major]
===Spanish===
*[http://www.fpessoa.com.ar Poesias Coligidas de Fernando Pessoa]
== Selected critical essays ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/bio.html George Monteiro: Biography]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/gray.html John Gray: Assault on Authorship]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/bloom.html Harold Bloom: Fernando Pessoa]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/griffin.html Jonathan Griffin: Introduction]
* [http://pwp.netcabo.pt/netmendo/pessoa.htm Mendo Castro Henriques: The Philosopher-Poet]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/seabra.html Jose Augusto Seabra: Overview]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/letter.html Fernando Pessoa: Origin of Heteronyms]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/wood.html Michael Wood: Mod & Great]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/hollander.html John Hollander: Quadrophenia]
== Criticism ==
<b>English:</b>
<b>Books:</b>
* Ironic Multiplicity: Fernando's "Pessoas" Suspended in Kierkegaardian Irony / Hale, Michelle Pulsipher., 2004
* Atlantic Poets: Fernando Pessoa's turn in Anglo-American Modernism / Santos, Maria Irene Ramalho Sousa., 2003
* Pessoa's Alberto Caeiro. Publication: [Dartmouth, Mass.] : Center for Portuguese Studies and Culture, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth., 2000
* Modernism's Gambit: Poetry Problems and Chess Stratagems in Fernando Pessoa and Jorge Luis Borges / Peña, Karen Patricia., 2000
* An Introducti |
element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Fm''' and [[atomic number]] 100. A highly [[radioactive]] [[metal]]lic [[transuranic]] element of the [[actinide]] series, fermium is made by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and is named after nuclear physicist [[Enrico Fermi]].
== Notable characteristics ==
Only small amounts of fermium have ever been produced or isolated. Thus relatively little is known about its chemical properties. Only the (III) [[oxidation state]] of the element appears to exist in aqueous solution. Fermium-254 and heavier [[isotope]]s can be synthesized by intense [[neutron]] bombardment of lighter elements (especially [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]). During this, successive [[neutron capture]]s mixed with [[beta decay]]s build the fermium isotope. The intense neutron bombardment conditions needed to create fermium exist in [[thermonuclear explosion]]s and can be replicated in the laboratory (such as in the [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] at [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]). The synthesis of element 102 ([[nobelium]]) was confirmed when fermium-250 was chemically identified. There are no known uses of fermium outside of basic research. Fermium is the eighth [[transuranic element]].
== History ==
Fermium (after [[Enrico Fermi]]) was first [[discovery of the chemical elements | discovered]] by a team led by [[Albert Ghiorso]] in [[1952]]. The team found fermium-255 in the debris of the first [[hydrogen bomb]] explosion (see [[Operation Ivy]]). That isotope was created when uranium-238 combined with 17 neutrons in the intense temperature and pressure of the explosion (eight beta decays also occurred to create the element). The work was overseen by the [[University of California Radiation Laboratory]], [[Argonne National Laboratory]], and [[Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]].
All these findings were kept secret until [[1955]] due to [[Cold War]] tensions, however. In late [[1953]] and early [[1954]] a team from the [[Nobel Institute of Physics]] in [[Stockholm]] bombarded a [[uranium]]-238 target with [[oxygen]]-16 ions, producing an [[alpha emission|alpha-emitter]] with an [[atomic weight]] of ~250 and with 100 [[proton]]s (in other words, element 100-250). The Nobel team did not claim discovery but the isotope they produced was later positively identified as fermium-250.
== Isotopes ==
17 [[radioisotope]]s
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/100.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Fermium]
*''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele100.html It's Elemental -Fermium]
*"Fermium" is the name of a song by [[Autechre]], appearing on their 2005 album [[Untilted]].
== External links ==
{{Commons|Fermium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fm/index.html WebElements.com - Fermium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
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<page>
<title>Frédéric Chopin</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Chopin}}
[[Image:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Frédéric François Chopin as portrayed by [[Eugène Delacroix]] in [[1838]]. Originally this painting was part of a larger double portrait showing both Chopin and [[George Sand]].]]
'''Frédéric François Chopin''' ({{IPA2|fʁedeʁik fʁɑ̃swa ʃɔpɛ̃}}), ([[March 1]] [[1810]]&nbsp;&ndash;&nbsp;[[October 17]], [[1849]]) is one of the most famous, influential and admired [[composer]]s for the [[piano]], and [[Poland]]'s most significant composer. He was born '''Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin''', of [[France|French]] and [[Polish]] parentage in the village of [[Żelazowa Wola]], Poland. In Warsaw he was hailed as a child prodigy for his keyboard and composition skill. He left for [[Paris]] at the age of 20, having already composed his two piano concertos, and never returned to Poland. In Paris, he made a career as a performer and teacher as well as a composer, and adopted the [[French language|French]] variant of his name, "Frédéric-François". In 1836 he met the French writer [[George Sand]], with whom he had a relationship for nine years until 1847. After suffering from poor health for much of his life, his condition forced him to give up performing and teaching shortly before he died.
Chopin's compositions, which are almost exclusively for the [[piano]], include the [[Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Minor (Chopin)|''Funeral March'' piano sonata]] and the twenty-four [[étude|études]] and are widely considered to be amongst the pinnacles of the piano repertoire. Although some of his music is among the most technically demanding for the instrument, Chopin's style emphasizes poetry, nuance, and expressive depth rather than mere technical display. He is often cited as one of the mainstays of [[Romanticism]] in [[nineteenth-century]] [[European classical music|classical music]].
==Biography==
Chopin was born in [[Żelazowa Wola]] in central [[Poland]] near [[Sochaczew]], in the region of [[Masovia]], which was part of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. He was born to [[Mikołaj Chopin|Mikołaj (Nicolas) Chopin]], a [[France|Frenchman]] of distant [[Polish]] ancestry who adopted Poland as his homeland when he moved there in 1787, and married [[Tekla Justyna Krzyzanowska]], a Pole.
According to the composer's family, Chopin was born on [[March 1]], [[1810]], and he always celebrated his birthday on this day. His baptismal certificate lists his date of birth as [[February 22]], but it is believed this was an error on the part of the priest (the certificate was written on 23 April, almost eight weeks after the birth).
===Formative years===
[[Image:Chopin-scheffer.jpg|thumb|left|Frédéric François Chopin, by Ary Scheffer]]The family moved to Warsaw in October 1810. The young Chopin's musical talent was apparent early on, and in Warsaw he gained a reputation as a "second [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]". At the age of 7 he was already the author of two [[polonaise]]s (in G minor and B-flat major), the first being published in the engraving workshop of Father Cybulski, director of the School of Organists and one of the few music publishers in Poland. The [[child prodigy|prodigy]] was featured in the [[Warsaw]] newspapers, and "little Chopin" became the attraction at receptions given in the aristocratic salons of the capital. He also began giving public charity concerts. At one concert, he is said to have been asked what he thought the audience liked best. 7-year-old Chopin replied, "My [shirt] collar." He performed his first piano concert at age 8. His first professional piano lessons, given to him by the violinist [[Wojciech Zywny]] (born [[1756]] in [[Bohemia]]), lasted from [[1816]] to [[1822]]. Chopin later spoke highly of Zywny, although Chopin's skills soon surpassed those of his teacher.
The further development of Chopin's talent was supervised by [[Wilhelm Würfel]] (born [[1791]] in [[Bohemia]]). This renowned pianist, a professor at the [[Warsaw]] Conservatory, gave Chopin valuable (although irregular) lessons in playing [[organ (music)|organ]], and possibly piano. From 1823 to 1826, Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum, where his father was a professor. In the autumn of 1826, Chopin began studying [[music theory]], [[figured bass]], and [[musical composition|composition]] with the composer [[Józef Elsner]] (born [[1769]] in [[Silesia]]) at the Warsaw Conservatory. Chopin's contact with Elsner may date to as early as 1822, and it is certain that Elsner was giving Chopin informal guidance by 1823.
In 1829 in Warsaw, Chopin heard [[Niccolò Paganini]] play, and he also met the German pianist and composer [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. It was also back in 1829 that Chopin met his first love, a singing student named Constantia Gladkowska. This inspired Chopin to put the melody of the human voice into his works. Chopin also paid his first visit to [[Vienna]] in that year, where he gave two piano performances and received mixed notices, including many very favourable reviews and others that criticised the small tone he produced from the piano.
In Warsaw in December he performed the premiere of his [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin)|Piano Concerto in F minor]] at the Merchants' Club. He gave the first performance of his other piano concerto, [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin)|in E minor]] at the National Theatre on [[17 March]] [[1830]]. He visited Vienna again in 1830, playing his two piano concertos.
In Vienna, he learned about the [[November Uprising]] and decided not to return to Poland. He stayed in Vienna for a few more months before visiting Munich and Stuttgart (where he learned of Poland's occupation by the Russian army), and arrived in [[Paris]] early in October. He had already composed a body of important compositions, including his two piano concertos and some of his etudes Op. 10.
===Career in Paris===
In Paris Chopin was introduced to some of the foremost pianists of the day, including [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner]], [[Ferdinand Hiller]] and [[Franz Liszt]], and he formed personal friendships with the composers [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Felix Mendelss |
hly 92 [[metre|nm]].
With the [[Bohr Model]], the energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately. This is done by modeling the electron as revolving around the proton, much like the earth revolving around the sun. Except the sun holds earth in orbit with the force of [[gravity]], but the proton holds the electron in orbit with the force of [[electromagnetism]]. Another difference between the Earth-Sun system and the electron-proton system is that, in this model, due to [[quantum mechanics]] the electron is allowed to only be at very specific distances from the proton. Modeling the hydrogen atom in this fashion yields the correct energy levels and spectrum.
The electronic [[ground state]] [[energy level]] is split into [[fine structure]] levels because of magnetic effects due to the [[quantum mechanical]] spin of the electron and proton. The energy of the atom when the proton and electron spins are aligned is <math>5.9\times 10^{-6}</math> eV higher than when they are not aligned. The transition from the upper to lower levels can occur through emission of a photon through a [[magnetic dipole]] transition. A photon of this energy has a frequency of 1420.4 MHz and a wavelength of 21.1 cm. Astronomers observe this radiation with radio telescopes in order to map the distribution of hydrogen in the Galaxy.
==Occurrence==
[[Image:Triangulum.nebula.full.jpg|thumb|250px|[[NGC 604]], a giant H&nbsp;II region in the [[Triangulum Galaxy]].]]
Hydrogen is the most [[Natural abundance|abundant]] element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by [[mass]] and over 90% by number of [[atom]]s. {{ref|education.jlab.org}} This element is found in great abundance in [[star]]s and gas giant planets. However, it is very rare in the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere (1 [[part per million|ppm]] by volume). Its scarcity is due to the fact that hydrogen is the lightest gas, allowing it to escape Earth's gravity. When [[chemical compound|compounds]] are included, though, hydrogen is the tenth most abundant element on Earth. The most common source for this element on Earth is [[water]], which is composed two parts hydrogen to one part [[oxygen]] (H<sub>2</sub>O). Other sources include most forms of organic matter including [[coal]], [[natural gas]], and other [[fossil fuel]]s. [[Methane]] ([[carbon|C]]H<sub>4</sub>) is an increasingly important source of hydrogen.
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] state whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the [[solar wind]] they interact with the Earth's [[magnetosphere]] giving rise to [[Birkeland current]]s and the [[aurora]].
Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways: [[steam]] on heated [[carbon]], [[hydrocarbon]] decomposition with heat, reaction of a strong base in an [[aqueous solution]] with [[aluminium]], water [[electrolysis]], or displacement from [[acid]]s with certain [[metal]]s. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the [[steam reforming]] of [[natural gas]]. At high temperatures (700&ndash;1100 °C), steam reacts with methane to yield [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen.
:[[methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]] → [[carbon monoxide|CO]] + 3 H<sub>2</sub>
Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the carbon monoxide through the [[Water gas shift reaction]]:
:[[carbon monoxide|CO]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]] → [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] + H<sub>2</sub>
==Compounds==
The lightest of all gases, hydrogen combines with most other elements to form compounds. Hydrogen has an [[electronegativity]] of 2.2, so it forms compounds where it is the more nonmetallic and where it is the more metallic element. The former are called [[hydride]]s, where hydrogen either exists as H<sup>-</sup> ions or just as a solute within the other element (as in [[palladium hydride]]). The latter tend to be [[covalent bond|covalent]], since the H<sup>+</sup> ion would be a bare nucleus and so has a strong tendency to pull electrons to itself. These both form acids. Thus even in an [[acid]]ic solution one sees ions like [[hydronium]] (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>) as the protons latch on to something. Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the [[H Three Plus|H<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>]] ion.
Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form [[water]], H<sub>2</sub>O, and releases significant amounts of energy in doing so, burning [[explosion|explosively]] in air. Deuterium oxide, or D<sub>2</sub>O, is commonly referred to as [[heavy water]]. Hydrogen also forms a vast array of compounds with [[carbon]]. Because of their association with living things, these compounds are called [[organic compound]]s, and the study of the properties of these compounds is called [[organic chemistry]].
[[Image:Liquid hydrogen bubblechamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|First tracks observed in Liquid hydrogen bubble chamber.]]
==Forms==
Under normal conditions, hydrogen gas is a mix of two different kinds of
[[molecule]]s which differ from one another by the
relative [[Spin (physics)|spin]] of the [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]].{{ref|uigi.com}} These two forms are
known as ortho- and para-hydrogen (this is different from [[isotope]]s, see
below). In ortho-hydrogen the nuclear spins are parallel and form a triplet,
while in para they are antiparallel and form a singlet. At [[standard temperature and pressure|standard condition]]s hydrogen is composed of about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form (the so-called "normal" form). The equilibrium ratio of these two forms depends on temperature, but since the ortho form has higher energy (is an [[excited state]]), it cannot be stable in its pure form. At low temperatures (around boiling point), the equilibrium state is comprised almost entirely of the para form.
The conversion process between the forms is slow, and if hydrogen is cooled down and condensed rapidly, it contains large quantities of the ortho form. It is important in preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen, since the ortho-para conversion produces more heat than the heat of its evaporation, and a lot of hydrogen can be lost by evaporation in this way during several days after liquefying. Therefore, some [[catalyst|catalysts]] of the ortho-para conversion process are used during hydrogen cooling. The two forms have also slightly different physical properties. For example, the melting and boiling points of parahydrogen are about 0.1 K lower than of the "normal" form.
==Isotopes==
:''Main Article: [[Isotopes of hydrogen]]''
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes.
(During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given names, but such names are no longer used, although one element, [[radon]], has a name that originally applied to only one of its isotopes.)
The symbols D and T (instead of <sup>2</sup>H and <sup>3</sup>H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, although this is not officially sanctioned. (The symbol P is already in use for [[phosphorus]] and is not available for protium.)
;<sup>1</sup>H
The most common isotope of hydrogen, this stable isotope has a [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] consisting of a single [[proton]]; hence the descriptive, although rarely used, name '''[[protium]]'''. The [[Spin (physics)|spin]] of a protium atom is 1/2+. {{ref|ie.lbl.gov}}
;<sup>2</sup>H
The other stable isotope is '''[[deuterium]]''', with an extra [[neutron]] in the nucleus. Deuterium comprises 0.0184%&ndash;0.0082% of all hydrogen ([[IUPAC]]); ratios of deuterium to protium are reported relative to the [[VSMOW]] standard reference water. The spin of a deuterium atom is 1+.
;<sup>3</sup>H
The third naturally occurring hydrogen isotope is the radioactive '''[[tritium]]'''. The tritium nucleus contains two neutrons in addition to the proton. It decays through [[beta decay]] and has a half-life of 12.32 [[years]]. Tritium occurs naturally due to cosmic rays interacting with atmospheric gases. Like ordinary hydrogen, tritium reacts with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form T<sub>2</sub>O. This radioactive "water" molecule constantly enters the Earth's seas and lakes in the form of slightly radioactive rain, but its half-life is short enough to prevent a buildup of hazardous radioactivity. The spin of a tritium atom is 1/2+.
;<sup>4</sup>H
'''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|Hydrogen-4]]''' was synthesized by bombarding tritium with fast-moving deuterium nuclei. It decays through [[neutron emission]] and has a half-life of 9.93696x10<sup>-23</sup> [[Second|seconds]]. The spin of a hydrogen-4 atom is 2-.
;<sup>5</sup>H
In 2001 scientists detected '''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|hydrogen-5]]''' by bombarding a hydrogen target with heavy ions. It decays through [[neutron emission]] and has a half-life of 8.01930x10<sup>-23</sup> [[Second|seconds]].
;<sup>6</sup>H
'''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|Hydrogen-6]]''' decays through triple [[neutron emission]] and has a half-life of 3.26500x10<sup>-22</sup> [[Second|seconds]].
;<sup>7</sup>H
In 2003 '''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|hydrogen-7]]''' was created ([http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/7/3/3 article]) at the RIKEN laboratory in Japan by colliding a high-energy beam of helium-8 atoms with a cryogenic hydrogen target and detecting tritons&mdash;the nuclei of tritium atoms&mdash;and neutr |
Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]]'s symposium in [[1969]]. A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents as [[James E. McDonald|McDonald]] and [[J. Allen Hynek|Hynek]] but also skeptics like astronomers [[William Hartmann]] and [[Donald Menzel|Menzel]]. The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from [[Edward Condon]]." (Westrum, pp. 37-38) With physicist [[Thornton Page]], Sagan edited the lectures and discussions given at the symposium; these were published in 1972 as ''UFO's: A Scientific Debate''
[[Jerome Clark]] writes that Sagan's perspective on UFO's irked Condon: "... though a skeptic, (Sagan) was too soft on UFOs for Condon's taste. In 1971, he considered blackballing Sagan from the prestigious [[Cosmos Club]]". (Clark, p. 603)
Some of Sagan's many books examine UFOs (as did one episode of ''Cosmos'') and he recognized a [[religion|religious]] undercurrent to the phenomenon. However, Westrum writes that "Sagan spent very little time researching UFOs ... he thought that little evidence existed to show that the UFO phenomenon represented alien spacecraft and that the motivation for interpreting UFO observations as spacecraft was emotional." (Westrum, 37)
It is sometimes noted that Sagan's generally hostile attitude to UFOs conflicted sharply with his views in a 1966 book he wrote with Russian astronomer and astrophysicist [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky|I.S. Shklovskii]], ''Intelligent Life in the Universe''. Here Sagan instead argued that technologically advanced alien civilizations were common and he considered it very probable that Earth had been visited many times in the past.
Yet only a few years later in ''UFO's: A Scientific Debate'', Sagan was now highly skeptical of interstellar visitation. As to the physical possibility of interstellar travel, Sagan brought up the proposed [[Bussard ramjet]] as an interstellar vehicle. While not terribly practical, Sagan thought such proposed propulsion systems were nevertheless important because they demonstrated that there were conceivable ways of accomplishing interstellar travel "without bumping into fundamental physical constraints. And this suggests that it is premature to say that interstellar space flight is out of the question." But to this Sagan added, "I believe the numbers work out in such a way that UFO's as interstellar vehicles is extremely unlikely, but I think it is an equally bad mistake to say that interstellar space flight is impossible."
Sagan was likewise inconsistent in his views on interstellar travel in his 1980 ''Cosmos'' series. When scoffing at UFOs, he maintained that the distance between stars was too great to make interstellar travel feasible for aliens. Yet in another episode, he said the stars would "beckon" to humanity, and then again described the Bussard ramjet as one way humans might do it.
==Legacy==
After a long and difficult fight with [[Myelodysplastic syndrome|myelodysplasia]], Sagan died at the age of 62, on [[December 20]] [[1996]], at the [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] in [[Seattle, Washington]]. Sagan was a significant figure, and his supporters credit his importance to his popularization of the natural sciences, opposing both restraints on science and reactionary applications of science, defending democratic traditions, resisting nationalism, defending [[humanism]], and arguing against geocentric and anthropocentric views.
The landing site of the unmanned [[Mars Pathfinder]] spacecraft was renamed the ''Carl Sagan Memorial Station'', in honor of Dr. Sagan on [[July 5]] [[1997]]. [[2709 Sagan|Asteroid 2709 Sagan]] is also named in his honor.
The 1997 movie, ''Contact'' (see above), based on Sagan's novel of the same name, and finished after his death, ends with the dedication "For Carl."
In an episode of [[Star Trek: Enterprise]] entitled "Terra Prime", a quick shot is shown of the relic rover [[Mars Pathfinder|Sojourner]], part of the Mars Pathfinder mission, placed by a historical marker at Carl Sagan Memorial Station on the Martian surface. The marker displays a quote from Sagan: "Whatever the reason you're on Mars, I'm glad you're there, and I wish I was with you."
In 2004, the electronic music group Sagan released the CD/DVD "Unseen Forces." The music was accompanied by a DVD which featured humorous music video format homages of many of the historical sketches from "Cosmos."
==Awards and medals==
* [[Apollo Achievement Award]] - [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]
* [[Chicken Little Award|Chicken Little]] Honorable Mention - 1991 - National Anxiety Center; a ''dubious achievement award'' from an organization which is skeptical about many pessimistic appraisals of the state of the environment
* Distinguished Public Service - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
* [[Emmy]] - Outstanding individual achievement - 1981 - PBS series ''Cosmos''
* Emmy - Outstanding Informational Series - 1981 - PBS series ''Cosmos''
* Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
* [[Helen Caldicott Leadership Award]] - Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament
* [[Homer Award]] - 1997 - ''Contact''
* Hugo Award - 1981 - ''Cosmos''
* [[Humanist of the Year]] - 1981 - awarded by the [[American Humanist Association]]
* [[In Praise of Reason Award]] - 1987 - [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]
* [[Isaac Asimov Award]] - 1994 - [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]
* [[John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award]] - [[American Astronautical Society]]
* [[John W. Campbell Memorial Award]] - 1974 - ''[[The Cosmic Connection]]''
* [[Klumpke-Roberts Award]] of the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] - 1974
* [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal]] - [[Soviet Cosmonauts Federation]]
* [[Locus Poll Award]] 1986 - ''[[Contact %28novel%29|Contact]]''
* [[Lowell Thomas Award]] - [[Explorers Club]] - 75th Anniversary
* [[Masursky Award]] - [[American Astronomical Society]]
* Peabody - 1980 - PBS series ''Cosmos''
* [[Public Welfare Medal]] - 1994 - [[National Academy of Sciences]]
* [[Pulitzer Prize|Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction]] - 1978 - ''[[The Dragons of Eden]]''
* [[SF Chronicle Award]] - 1998 - ''[[Contact %28film%29|Contact]]''
* [[Carl Sagan Memorial Award]] - Named in his honor
* Named 99th "[[Greatest American]]" on the [[June 5]] [[2005]] "Greatest American" show on the [[Discovery Channel]].
==Related books and media==
*Appelle, Stuart: "[[Urology]] and [[Academia]]: The UFO Phenomenon as a Scholarly Discipline" (pages 7-30 in ''UFOs and Abductions: Challenging the Borders of Knowledge'', David M. Jacobs, editor; University Press of Kansas, 2000; ISBN)
*Clark, Jeromne: ''The UFO Book'' (1998)
* Sagan, Carl and Jonathon Norton Leonard and editors of Life, ''[[Planets]]''. Time, Inc., 1966
* Sagan, Carl and [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii|I.S. Shklovskii]], ''[[Intelligent Life in the Universe]]''. Random House, 1966
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence]]''. MIT Press, 1973
* Sagan, Carl, et. al. ''[[Mars and the Mind of Man]]''. Harper & Row, 1973
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Other Worlds]]''. Bantam Books, 1975
* Sagan, Carl, et. al. ''[[Murmurs of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record]]''. Random House, 1977
* Sagan, Carl et. al. ''[[The Nuclear Winter: The World After Nuclear War]]''. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1985
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Contact %28novel%29|Contact]]''. Simon and Schuster, 1985; Reissued August 1997 by Doubleday Books, ISBN 1568654243, 352 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Richard Turco, ''[[A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race]]''. Random House, 1990
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[The Dragons of Eden|The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence]]''. Ballantine Books, December 1989, ISBN 0345346297, 288 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science]]''. Ballantine Books, October [[1993]], ISBN 0345336895, 416 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, ''[[Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors: A Search for Who We Are]]''. Ballantine Books, October 1993, ISBN 0345384725, 528 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, ''[[Comet]]''. Ballantine Books, February 1997, ISBN 0345412222, 496 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space]]''. Ballantine Books, September 1997, ISBN 0345376595, 384 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, ''[[Billions & Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium]]''. Ballantine Books, June 1998, ISBN 0345379187, 320 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[The Demon-Haunted World|The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark]]''. Ballantine Books, March 1997, ISBN 0345409469, 480 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Jerome Agel, ''[[Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective]]''. Cambridge University Press, [[January 15]] [[2000]], ISBN 0521783038, 301 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''. Random House, [[May 7]] [[2002]], ISBN 0375508325, 384 pgs
*Westrum, Ron, "Limited Access: Six Natural Scientists and the UFO Phenomenon" (pages 30-55 in Jacobs)
* Zemeckis, Robert, ''[[Contact %28film%29|Contact]]''. Warner Studios, 1997, [http://us.imdb.com/Title?0118884 IMDB]
* Davidson, Keay, ''[[Carl Sagan: A Life]]''. John Wiley & Sons, [[August 31]] [[2000]], ISBN 0471395366, 560 pgs
* Head, Tom (editor), ''[[Conversations with Carl Sagan]]''. University Press of Mississippi, 2005, ISBN 1578067367, 170 pgs
==References==
# {{note|biographical}}{{note label|biographical|1|a}} For biographical information see '''''[[Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos]]'' |
ning a divorce. In her book ''[[Living History]]'', Clinton explains that love is the reason she stays with President Clinton. "[N]o one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does. Even after all these years, he is still the most interesting, energizing and fully alive person I have ever met. Bill and I started a conversation in the spring of 1971, and more than thirty years later we're still talking[http://www.advisorteam.com/newsletter/200503_hillarybill.html]."
===Husband's health scare===
When President Clinton required immediate [[heart surgery]] in October of [[2004]], Clinton, who was then the junior senator of New York, cancelled her public schedule to be at his side at the [[Columbia University Medical Center]] of [[New York Presbyterian Hospital]].
==The 2000 Senate race==
When long-time New York Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] announced his retirement, prominent Democratic politicians and advisors, including [[Charles Rangel|Charlie Rangel]], urged Clinton to run for the New York Senate seat in the [[U.S. Senate election, 2000|U.S. Senate, 2000, elections]]. When Clinton chose to run, she became the first [[First Lady of the United States]] to be a candidate for elected office. She was initially expected to face [[New York City]]'s Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]], but Giuliani withdrew after being diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] and after developments in his personal life attracted negative publicity. Instead, Clinton faced a lesser-known candidate, [[Rick Lazio]], who was a [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] representing [[Suffolk County, New York|Suffolk County]] on [[Long Island]]. The contest drew considerable national attention and both candidates were well-funded. By the end of the race, Democrat Clinton and Republicans Lazio and Giuliani had spent a combined $78 million [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/11/07/senate.ny/].
===Strategy===
While Clinton had a solid base of support in [[New York City]], candidates and observers expected the race to be decided in upstate New York where 45% of New York's voters live. During the campaign, Clinton vowed to improve the economic picture in upstate New York, promising that her plan would deliver 200,000 New York jobs over six years. Her plan included specific tax credits with the purpose of rewarding job creation and encouraging business investment, especially in the high-tech sector. She called for targeted personal tax cuts for college tuition and long-term care [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/11/07/senate.ny/]. Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state, in a "listening tour" of small-group settings. During the race, she spent considerable time in traditionally Republican upstate regions.
===Carpetbagging===
Clinton faced charges of [[carpetbagging]] since she had never resided in the state. Her supporters pointed out that the state was receptive to national leaders, like [[Robert F. Kennedy]] who was elected in 1964 despite similar accusations. After she decided to run, the Clintons purchased a home in [[Chappaqua, New York|Chappaqua]], New York. The Republican effort to make carpetbagging a major issue failed, according to exit polls that showed more than two-thirds of the voters dismissed the issue as unimportant.
===Results===
Clinton won the election on [[November 7]], [[2000]] with 55% of the vote to Lazio's 43% [http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2000/2000senate.htm#NY]. This 12% margin was smaller than Gore's 25% margin over Bush in the state Presidential contest. However, Clinton's 12% margin was larger than [[Charles Schumer]]'s 10% margin in his initial [[1998]] election to New York's other Senate seat. The victory of a Democrat in the Senate election was not assured, because in recent decades the Republicans had won about half the elections for governor and senator.
==United States Senator==
[[Image:ClintonSenate.jpg|right|thumb|On January 3, 2001, Hillary Clinton is sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as President Clinton and [[Chelsea Clinton]] look on.]]
When Clinton joined the Senate, she was widely reported to have kept a low public profile and learned the ways of the institution while building relationships with senators from both sides of the aisle, thus countering her polarizing celebrity. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0310/p01s01-uspo.html]
[http://www.opinionjournal.com/wsj/?id=90000397]
[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556529/Hillary_Clinton.html] [http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/InTheNews/archives2003a.html] [http://www.press.org/abouttheclub/record/2000-01record/record-07-26-01.html] Indeed when [[Elizabeth Dole]] (R-[[North Carolina]]) joined the Senate in [[2003]] in somewhat similar circumstances, she modeled her initial approach after Clinton's, as did the nationally visible [[Barack Obama]] (D-[[Illinois]]) in [[2005]]. [http://obama.senate.gov/news/050928-barack_obama_steps_carefully_into_the_spotlight/]
===Committees===
Senator Clinton sits on four Senate Committees with a total of eight subcommittee assignments: the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services|Senate Committee on Armed Services]] with three subcommittee assignments, on Airland, on Emerging Threats and Capabilities, and on Readiness and Management Support; the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works|Senate Environment and Public Works Committee]] with three subcommittee assignments on Clean Air, Wetlands, Private Property, and Nuclear Safety, on Fisheries, Wildlife, and Water and on Superfund, Waste Control, and Risk Assessment; the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions|Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Committee]], with two subcommittee assignments, on Aging and on Children and Families; and the Senate Special Committee on Aging.
===Initatives===
Senator Clinton has made [[homeland security]] one of her top issues following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in downtown [[New York City]], especially regarding obtaining funding for recovery from the attacks and for improving security capabilities in the New York City area. She was audibly booed by some in an audience of New York firefighters and police officers during her on-stage appearance at [[The Concert for New York City]] on [[October 20]], [[2001]]. [http://www.post-gazette.com/forum/20011029edhil29p3.asp] Senator Clinton worked with Senator Schumer to secure $21.4 billion in funding to assist clean up and recovery, to provide health tracking for first responders and volunteers at [[Ground Zero]], and to create grants for redevelopment. In [[2005]], Clinton issued two studies that examined the disbursement of federal homeland security funds to local communities and first responders.
Clinton has used her membership on the Armed Services Committee to take a strong position in favor of U.S. military action in [[Afghanistan]] – with the additional benefit that it greatly improved the lives of women in that country, who had suffered terribly under the rule of the [[Taliban]] [http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,185643,00.html] – and a somewhat weaker position regarding action in [[Iraq]] (her vote in support of initial military action against Iraq was criticized for being equivocal). Senator Clinton has visited U.S. forces (such as the [[Fort Drum, New York|Fort Drum]], New York-based [[U.S. 10th Mountain Division|10th Mountain Division]]) in both countries. In February 2005 she stated that much of Iraq was functioning well, elections in Iraq had succeeded, and that the insurgency there was failing [http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory?id=515943]. In July [[2005]] she co-introduced legislation to increase the size of the regular [[United States Army]] by 80,000 soldiers. [http://www.buffalonews.com/editorial/20050714/1063239.asp] By late 2005, with domestic debate intensifying over whether and when the U.S. should remove its forces from Iraq, Clinton stated that immediate withdrawal would be "a big mistake", leading to Iraq becoming "a failed state", but that the Bush administration's open-ended commitment to stay in Iraq was also misguided, as it gives Iraqis "an open-ended invitation not to take care of themselves." [http://www.billingsgazette.com/index.php?id=1&display=rednews/2005/11/21/build/nation/39-clinton-iraq.inc]
This centrist and somewhat vague stance caused frustration among the Democratic party's anti-war activists [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/11/AR2005121100846.html], who have even occasionally protested outside Clinton fundraisers.[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,172574,00.html]
===Other Issues===
Senator Clinton also became a national advocate for retaining and improving health and other benefits for veterans. By the end of 2005, her standing among the military community was much higher than it had been during her days as First Lady. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10313850/site/newsweek/]
Senator Clinton was a vocal opponent of the [[Bush Administration]]'s [[tax cuts]].
[[Image:Clinton Frist Health Policy.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Senators Clinton and Frist announce the Health Technology to Enhance Quality (Health TEQ) Act.]]
Clinton has pressed for education, labor, and technology infrastructure programs to assist economic development in upstate New York and similar regions.
For example, in 2003, Clinton solicited offshoring firm [[Tata Consultancy Services]] to set up shop in economically beleaguered [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], New York [http://www.tata.com/tcs/releases/20030310.htm]. In [[2004]], Clinton [http://washingtontimes.com/upi-breaking/20040429-070356-1811r.htm co-founded and became the co-chair] of the U.S. Senate India Caucus with the encouragement and aid of the [http://www.usinpac.com USINPAC] [[Political Action |
of the European Parliament|MEP]]s from the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Poland]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] founded a new [[European Parliament]] group called ''[[Independence and Democracy]]'' from the old [[Europe of Democracies and Diversities|EDD]] group. The main goals of this group are to reject the [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe]] and to oppose further [[European integration]]. Some delegations within the group, notably the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]], advocate the complete withdrawal of their country from the EU.
The group's leaders are [[Nigel Farage]] of UKIP (10 MEPs), [[Jens Peter Bonde]] of Denmark, and [[Maciej Giertych]] of the [[League of Polish Families|League of Polish Families (Liga Polskich Rodzin, LPR)]] (10 MEPs).
The right-wing [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] Group is also eurosceptic as are some parties within the left-wing Confederal Group of the [[European United Left - Nordic Green Left]] and the [[European Greens - European Free Alliance]]. The UK's largely eurosceptic [[Conservative Party]] are part of the [[European People's Party and European Democrats]] which has mainly a euro-federalist agenda.
==Terminology==
The appropriate use of the term ''eurosceptic'' is sometimes disputed by those on both sides of the pro-/anti-EU debate. Eurosceptics who feel that their position should emphasise a desire for greater national and parliamentary independence over specific criticisms of the EU sometimes argue that the positive-sounding antonym ''pro-European'' contrasts with the more negative ''eurosceptic'', giving a rhetorical advantage to those who advocate European integration.
In order to avoid this, ''euro-realist'' has been coined as an alternative. However, in recent years this term has sometimes come to denote a milder form of euroscepticism, according to which it is not necessarily in countries' interests to withdraw from the EU or disband it completely, but rather to modify its structure to some extent.
Other synonyms that are sometimes encountered include ''euro-critic'' and the much more pejorative ''europhobe''. The simple adjective ''anti-EU'' can also be used.
Many eurosceptics dissaprove of the term pro-Europeans to denote their opponents. They maintain that their pro-democracy ideology is more 'pro-Europe' than the federalist position. They prefer to call their opponents 'europhiles' or euro-fantics and their philosophy as pro-EU, federalist, integrationist or euro-centralist.
It should be noted that there are at least two types of eurosceptic. These are the 'withdrawalists' who advocate leaving the EU and the 'reformists' who wish the EU to be wholly transformed. Both of these types of eurosceptic may be found on the right and left of the political spectrum. A third type of eurosceptic would be those that want the EU to be dismantled and replaced by new geo-political arrangements.
==Criticism of the European Union by non-Europeans==
As the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] declares the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] to belong to the [[British overseas territory]] the [[Argentina|Argentinian]] parliament adopted a resolution declining the treaty{{citationneeded}}. The [[Rio Group]] supports the Argentinian resolution.
==Defence of Euroscepticism==
Many holding eurosceptic views would say that they are not "anti-Europe" or "anti-EU" [[per se]], but that they take a more practical, realistic and objective view of the purposes of the EU and the lengths to which they feel they and their EU member state should be involved. Holders of so-called "pro-European" views are frequently viewed by eurosceptics as being too idealistic, academic and theoretical in their ideas of what is desirable and practical with regards to cooperation amongst nation states. A more extreme view occasionally expressed against "pro-European" politicians is that they are playing a game to get their name into history books: it is more statesmanlike to "build a European nation" than not to, but the reality (so such eurosceptic views hold) is that they are effecting change for changes sake and not for any purpose of furthering the common good and/or doing what electorates want.
== See also ==
* [[Europatriotism]]
==External links==
The debate on the political future (and present) of Europe is extremely passionate.
===Studies of public opinion===
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/publications/booklets/eu_documentation/05/txt_en.htm Euroscepticism statistics from the European Commission]
*[http://www.intstudies.cam.ac.uk/people/students/info/hobolt_paper.pdf Europe and the Ballot:Voting Behaviour in Referendums on European Integration]
===Eurosceptic sites===
*[http://www.democracymovement.org.uk The Democracy Movement]
*[http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
*[http://www.sovereignty.org.uk Sovereignty]
*[http://www.e-f.org.uk The European Foundation]
*[http://www.euro-skeptic.org/ Euro-skeptic Web Resource]
*[http://www.independenceuk.org.uk UK Independence Party]
*[http://www.bullen.demon.co.uk/acml1.htm Anti-Common Market League]
*[http://www.silentmajority.co.uk/eurorealist/ Eurorealist]
*[http://www.brugesgroup.com/ Bruges Group]
===Specific criticisms of the EU===
*[http://www.thirdway.org/files/reviews/eurorasp.html Criticism of EU 'propaganda']
*[http://www.eubusiness.com/imported/2003/04/106910 Problems with CAP]
===Euroscepticism rebuttals===
*[http://www.cec.org.uk/press/myths/index.htm The European Commission's Press Office in London]
*[http://europa.eu.int/abc/index_en.htm Benefits of European Union membership]
===Other useful sites===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2001/uk_and_europe/default.stm BBC NEWS Ever closer union? The UK and Europe]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4618_131/ai_95688577 New Statesman essay on the sources of British euroscepticism]
*[http://www.alba.org.uk/referenda/eecref.html Outcome of the 1975 referendum in Scotland and the rest of the UK]
[[Category:European Union]]
[[Category:Euroscepticism|*]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Political neologisms]]
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[[es:Euroescepticismo]]
[[he:יורופוביה]]
[[pl:Eurosceptycyzm]]
[[sv:Euroskepticism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ermeland</title>
<id>10038</id>
<revision>
<id>15907881</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Warmia]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ermland</title>
<id>10039</id>
<revision>
<id>15907882</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-06T08:53:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JHK</username>
<id>29</id>
</contributor>
<comment>oops -- it is Warmia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Warmia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Article Numbering</title>
<id>10041</id>
<revision>
<id>35246742</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T07:24:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JT GS1US</username>
<id>791364</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[European Article Number]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EAN</title>
<id>10042</id>
<revision>
<id>38280214</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T07:44:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''EAN''' may refer to:
* [[European Article Number]], see [[Global Trade Item Number]]
* [[EAN International]], see [[GS1]]
* [[European Access Network]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:EAN]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Estimator</title>
<id>10043</id>
<revision>
<id>38327886</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T17:00:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mathbot</username>
<id>234358</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Robot-assisted spelling. See [[User:Mathbot/Logged misspellings]] for changes.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|estimation theory}}
In [[statistics]], an '''estimator''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of the known sample data that is used to estimate an unknown population [[parameter]]; an ''estimate'' is the result from the actual application of the function to a particular [[set]] of data. Many different estimators are possible for any given parameter. Some criterion is used to choose between the estimators, although it is often the case that a criterion cannot be used to clearly pick one estimator over another.
To estimate a parameter of interest (e.g., a population mean, a binomial proportion, a difference between two population means, or a ratio of two population standard deviation), the usual procedure is as follows:
'''1- '''Select a random sample from the population of interest.
'''2- '''Calculate the point estimate of the parameter.
'''3- '''Calculate a measure of its variability, often a [[confidence interval]].
'''4- '''Associate with this estimate a measure of variability.
There are two types of estimators: [[point estimator]]s and [[interval estimator]]s.
== Point estimators ==
For a point estimator <math>\widehat{\theta}</math> of parameter <math>\theta</math>,
# The ''[[errors and residuals in statistics|error]]'' of <math>\widehat{\theta}</math> is <math>\widehat{\theta} - \theta</math>
# The ''[[bias (statistics)|bias]]'' of <math>\widehat{\theta}</math> is defined as <math>B(\widehat{\theta}) = \operatorname{E}(\widehat{\theta}) - \theta.& |
The mines were in a neglected state, caused by careless operations dating back at least to the time of the final fall of Louisbourg.
In 1820, the colony of Cape Breton Island was merged for the second time with Nova Scotia; this being present-day peninsular Nova Scotia. This development is one of the factors which led to large-scale industrial development in the Sydney Coal Field of eastern Cape Breton County (see [[Industrial history of Cape Breton Island]]). By the late 19th century, as a result of the faster shipping, expanding fishery and industrialization of the island, exchanges of people between the island of [[Newfoundland]] and Cape Breton increased beginning a cultural exchange that continues to this day.
During the first half of the [[19th century]], Cape Breton Island experienced an influx of [[Highland Scots]] numbering approximately 50,000; a result of the [[Highland Clearances]]. Today the descendants of the Highland Scots dominate Cape Breton Island's culture, particularly in rural communities. To this day [[Canadian Gaelic|Gaelic]] is still the first language of a number of elderly Cape Bretonners. A campaign by the provincial government during the 19th and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries aimed to eradicate the use of Gaelic among school children. The growing influence of English-dominated media from outside the Scottish communities saw the use of this language erode quickly during the [[20th century]].
Tourism promotions beginning in the [[1950s]] recognized the importance of the Scottish culture to the province (although it wasn't dominant throughout Nova Scotia), and the provincial government started encouraging the use of Gaelic once again. The establishment of funding for the [[Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts]] and formal Gaelic language [[instruction]] in public schools are intended to address the near-loss of this culture to English [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]].
The turn of the [[20th century]] saw Cape Breton Island at the forefront of scientific achievement with the now-famous activities launched by inventors [[Alexander Graham Bell]] and [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
Following his successful invention of the [[telephone]] and relatively wealthy, Bell acquired land near [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]] in [[1885]], largely due to surroundings reminiscent of his early years in [[Scotland]]. He established a summer estate complete with research laboratories, working with deaf people - including [[Helen Keller]] - and continued to invent. Baddeck would be the site of his experiments with [[hydrofoil]] technologies as well as the [[Aerial Experiment Association]], financed by his wife, which saw the first powered flight in the [[British Empire]] when the [[AEA Silver Dart|AEA ''Silver Dart'']] took off from the ice-covered waters of [[Bras d'Or Lake]]. Bell also built the forerunner to the [[iron lung]] and he experimented with genetically modified sheep.
Marconi's contributions to Cape Breton Island were somewhat less than Bell's as he merely used the island's geography to his advantage in transmitting the first trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] [[radio]] message from a station constructed at Table Head in [[Glace Bay, Nova Scotia|Glace Bay]] to a receiving station at [[Poldhu]] in [[Cornwall]], [[England]].
==Geography==
The island measures 10,311 km<sup>2</sup> in area (3,981 square [[mile|miles]]), making it the 75th largest island in the [[world]], and is composed mainly of [[rock (geology)|rocky]] [[shore]]s, rolling [[farm]]land, [[glacier|glacial]] [[valley]]s, barren [[headlands and bays|headlands]], [[mountain]]s, [[woods]] and [[plateau]]s. Geological evidence suggests that at least part of Cape Breton Island was originally joined with present-day [[Scotland]] and [[Norway]], now separated by millions of years of [[Continental drift|continental drift]].
Cape Breton's landscape is dominated by the [[Bras d'Or Lake]] system which the island wraps around, [[Boularderie Island]], the [[Strait of Canso]], and the [[Cape Breton Highlands]], which are considered a continuation of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian]] chain. Principal [[freshwater]] features are [[Lake Ainslie]], the [[Margaree River]] system, and the [[Mira River]]. Innumerable smaller [[river]]s and [[stream]]s drain into the Bras d'Or Lake [[estuary]] and onto the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Atlantic coasts. Cape Breton Island is divided into four counties: [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton]], [[Inverness County, Nova Scotia|Inverness]], [[Richmond County, Nova Scotia|Richmond]], and [[Victoria County, Nova Scotia|Victoria]].
Cape Breton Island is now joined to the mainland by the [[Canso Causeway]], completed in [[1955]], enabling direct [[road]] and [[rail transport|rail]] [[traffic]] to and from the island, but constraining [[marine traffic]] to pass through the [[Canso Canal]] at the eastern end of the [[causeway]].
==Demographics==
The five main cultures are [[Scotland|Scottish]], [[Mi'kmaq]], [[Acadian]], [[Ireland|Irish]], and [[England|English]], with respective languages [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]], [[French language|French]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[English language|English]]. English is now the primary spoken language, though Mi'kmaq, Gaelic and Acadian French are still heard.
Later [[migration]]s of [[Black Canadian|black]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]], [[Italians]], and [[Eastern Europe]]ans enriched the eastern part of the island around Industrial Cape Breton. Cape Breton has been seeing a population exodus in recent years.
According to the Census of Canada, the population of Cape Breton Island in 2001 was 147,454, a -6.8% decline from 158,260 in 1996.
'''Racial Composition'''
*95.0% Caucasian
*3.6% Indian (Canadian First Nations)
*0.7% [[Black]]
*0.1% [[Arab]]
'''Religious Groups'''
*95.8% [[Christian]]
Small [[Jewish]] and [[Sikh]] populations exist on the island.
==Economy==
[[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] on the east coast of the island has traditionally been the main port, with various facilities in a large sheltered natural harbour. The [[Marine Atlantic]] terminal at [[North Sydney, Nova Scotia|North Sydney]] is where some of Canada's largest ferries have daily departures year-round to [[Channel-Port aux Basques, Newfoundland and Labrador|Channel&ndash;Port aux Basques]] and seasonally to [[Argentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Argentia]] on the island of [[Newfoundland]].
[[Point Edward, Nova Scotia|Point Edward]] on the west side of Sydney Harbour is the location of Sydport, a former [[Canadian Navy|navy]] base now converted to commercial use, as well as the [[Canadian Coast Guard College]]. Petroleum, general cargo, bulk coal, and cruise ship facilities are also located in Sydney Harbour.
Glace Bay is the second largest community in population and was the island's main coal mining center until its last mine ceased operation in the 1980s. Glace Bay served as the hub of the Sydney & Louisbourg Railway and also as a major fishing port. At one time Glace Bay was known as the largest town in Canada.
[[Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia|Port Hawkesbury]] has risen to prominence since the completion of the Canso Causeway and [[Canso Canal]] created an artificial deep-water port, allowing extensive petrochemical, pulp and paper, and gypsum handling facilities to be established. The [[St. Peters Canal]] is no longer used by commercial shipping on Cape Breton Island but is an important waterway for recreational vessels.
The Strait of Canso is completely navigable to [[St. Lawrence Seaway|seaway]]-max vessels, and Port Hawkesbury is open to the deepest-draught vessels on the world's oceans. Large marine vessels may also enter Bras d'Or Lake through the Great Bras d'Or channel whereas small craft have the additional use of the Little Bras d'Or channel or [[St. Peters Canal]].
The primary east-west road on the island is [[Nova Scotia Highway 105]], the [[Trans-Canada Highway]], although the [[Nova Scotia Highway 104]] expressway is scheduled to be extended from Port Hawkesbury along the south side of Bras d'Or Lake to the Sydney area and will likely see the Trans-Canada designation switched to this route when completed. [[Nova Scotia Highway 125]] is an important arterial route around Sydney Harbour in the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality]]. [[Nova Scotia Highway 4]], as well as the [[Cabot Trail]], are important secondary roads. Railway connections between the port of Sydney to [[Canadian National Railway]] in [[Truro, Nova Scotia|Truro]] are maintained by the [[Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway]].
The industrial Cape Breton area faces several challenges with the closure of the [[Cape Breton Development Corporation]]'s (DEVCO) [[coal mine|coal mines]] by [[2001]] and the [[Sydney Steel Corporation]]'s (SYSCO) [[steel mill]]. In recent years a federal agency Enterprise Cape Breton Corporation has been attempting to diversify the area economy by investing in tourism developments, [[call centre|call centres]], and small businesses.
While the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] is in transition from an industrial to a service-based economy, the rest of Cape Breton Island outside of the industrial area surrounding Sydney has been more stable, with a mixture of fishing, forestry, small-scale agriculture, and tourism.
Tourism in particular has grown throughout the post-[[World War II|Second World War]] era, especially the growth in vehicle-based touring, which was furthered by the creation of the [[Cabot Trail]] scenic drive. The scenery of the island is rivalled in northeastern North America only by [[Newfoundland]] and Cape Breton Island tourism marketing places a heavy emphasis on its [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Gaels|Gaelic]] heritage through events such as the Celtic Colours Festival, held each [[October]], as well as promotions through |
, brother of [[King David]] (''Sanh.'' 5a; ''Ket.'' 62b). His father, [[Aibo]], was a brother of [[Chiyya]], who lived in [[Palestine]], and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah I. From his associations in the house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at [[Sepphoris]], Rab acquired such an extraordinary knowledge of traditional lore as to make him its foremost exponent in his native land. While Judah I was still living, Rab, having been duly ordained as teacher—though not without certain restrictions (''Sanh.'' l.c.)—returned to [[Babylonia]], where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.
==Beginning of the Talmudic Age==
In the annals of the Babylonian schools the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the [[Seleucid]]an and the 219th year of the [[common era]]. As the scene of his activity, Rab first chose [[Nehardea]], where the [[exilarch]] appointed him ''[[agoranomos]]'', or market-master, and Rabbi [[Shela]] made him lecturer (''amora'') of his college (''Yer. B. B.'' v. 15a; ''Yoma,'' 20b). Then he removed to [[Sura]], on the [[Euphrates]], where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rab lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel, another disciple of Judah I, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rab that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rab's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries.
==Rab as Teacher==
The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rab. That method takes the ''Mishnah'' of Judah ha-Nasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other ''tannaitic'' traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rab's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the [[Babylonian Talmud]]. His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rab. In the Babylonian schools, Rab was rightly referred to as "our great master." Rab also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of [[marriage]] and [[divorce]], and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of [[ritual observance]].
==Ethical Teaching==
Rab, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in (''Ḥul.'' 110a). Special attention was given by him to the [[liturgy]] of the [[synagogue]]. He is reputed to be the author of one of the finest compositions in the Hebrew prayerbook, the ''[[Musaf]]'' service of the [[Rosh Hashanah|New Year]]. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the [[Hebrew language]] in a natural, expressive, and classical manner (''Yer. R. H.'' i. 57a). The many [[homiletic]] and [[ethical]] (haggadistic) sayings recorded of him show similar ability. As a haggadist Rab is surpassed by none of the Babylonian ''Amoraim''. He is the only one of the Babylonian teachers whose haggadistic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The [[Palestinian Talmud]] has preserved a large number of his halakic and haggadistic utterances; and the Palestinian ''[[Midrashim]]'' also contain many of his ''haggadot''. Rab delivered homiletic discourses, both in the college (''bet hamidrash'') and in the synagogues. He especially loved to treat in his homilies of the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the ''[[Haggadah]]'', are his creations. His ''Haggadah'' is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these utterances may be quoted here: (''Shab.'' 10b)
*"The commandments of the [[Torah]] were only given to purify men's morals" (''Gen. R.'' xliv.).
*"Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber" (''Shab.'' 64b).
*"It is well that people busy themselves with the study of the Law and the performance of charitable deeds, even when not entirely disinterested; for the habit of right-doing will finally make the intention pure" (''Pes.'' 50b).
*"Man will be called to account for having deprived himself of the good things which the world offered" (''Yer. Ḳid.'' end).
*"Whosoever hath not pity upon his fellow man is no child of [[Abraham]]" (''Beẓah,'' 32b).
*"It is better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than publicly to put to shame one's fellow creature" (''B. M.'' 59a).
*"One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'" (''Ḳid.'' 41a).
*"A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of [[Joseph]] shows what evil results may follow therefrom".
==Rab reproves Extreme Asceticism==
Rab loved the ''Book of Ecclesiasticus'' ([[Sirach]]), and warned his disciple [[Hamnuna]] against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting advice contained therein—that, considering the transitoriness of human life ('' 'Er.'' 54a), one should not despise the good things of this world. To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: (''Ber.'' 17a)
:"There is naught on earth to compare with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence".
Rab also devoted much attention to [[mystical]] and [[transcendental]] speculations which the rabbis connect with the Biblical account of creation (''Gen.'' i., ''Ma'aseh Bereshit''), the vision of the mysterious chariot of God (''Ezek.'' i., ''Ma'aseh Merkabah''), and the [[Divine Name]]. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction (''Ḥag.'' 12a, ''Ḳid.'' 71a).
==Status in Life==
Concerning the social position and the personal history of Rab we are not informed. That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture (''Ḥul.'' 105a). That he was highly respected by the [[Gentile]]s as well as by the Jews of Babylonia is proved by the friendship which existed between him and the last [[Parthia]]n king, [[Artaban]] ('' 'Ab. Zarah,'' 10b). He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban (226) and the downfall of the [[Arsacid]] dynasty, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of [[Ardeshir]], founder of the [[Sassanian]] dynasty, although [[Samuel of Nehardea]] probably did so. Rab became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch. Her sons, Mar Ukba and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rab had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the ''Talmud'', the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. The latter did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rab's disciple Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch (''resh galuta,'' ''Ḥul.'' 92a).
Rab died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism (''Shab.'' 110a, ''M. Ḳ.'' 24a).
{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abba 'Arika}}
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<page>
<title>Abbahu</title>
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<comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page Roman ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''' 'Abbahu''', the name of an ''[['amora]]'' who flourished c. 279-320 in [[Eretz Yisrael]]. 'Abbahu encouraged the study of [[Greek language|Greek]] by [[Jew]]s. He was famous as a collector of traditional lore, and is very often cited in the ''[[Talmud]]''.
==Knowledge of Greek Literature==
A celebrated Palestinian '' 'amora'' of the third amoraic generation (about 279-320), sometimes cited as R. Abbahu of [[Caesarea]] (Ḳisrin). His [[rabbinic]] education was acquired mainly at [[Tiberias]], in the academy presided over by R. Johanan, with whom his relations were almost those of a son (''Yer. Ber.'' ii. 4b; ''Giṭ.'' 44b; ''B. B.'' 39a). He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias, even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean Academy (''Yer. Shab.'' viii. 11a; ''Yer. Pes.'' x. 37c). He was an authority on weights and measures ('' |
nd [[Ibn Sina]]'s medical encyclopedia, which was a standard reference work for centuries. Also notable are works of universal history (or sociology) from [[Asharite]]s, [[al-Tabri]], [[Masudi|al-Masudi]], [[Ibn Rustah]], [[al-Athir]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]], whose [[The Muqadimmah|Muqadimmah]] contains cautions regarding trust in written records that remain wholly applicable today. These scholars had an incalculable influence on methods of research and editing, due in part to the Islamic practice of [[isnad]] which emphasized fidelity to written record, checking sources, and skeptical inquiry.
The [[Chinese emperor]] [[Cheng-Zu]] of the [[Ming Dynasty]] oversaw the compilation of the [[Yongle Encyclopedia]], one of the largest encyclopedias in history, which was completed in 1408 and comprised over 11,000 handwritten volumes, of which only about 400 now survive. In the succeeding dynasty, emperor [[Qianlong]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]] personally composed 40,000 poems as part of a 4.7 million page library in 4 divisions, including thousands of essays. It is instructive to compare his title for this knowledge, ''Watching the waves in a Sacred Sea'' to a Western-style title for all knowledge. Encyclopedic works, both in imitation of Chinese encyclopedias and as independent works of their own origin, have been known to exist in Japan since the ninth century C.E.
These works were all hand copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it (with some exceptions in medicine).
==Encyclopedias from the 18th to early 20th century ==
The beginnings of the modern idea of the general-purpose, widely distributed printed encyclopedia precede the 18th-century [[encyclopedist]]s. However, Chambers' ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences]],'' and the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and the ''[[Brockhaus encyclopedia|Conversations-Lexikon]]'' were the first to realize the form we would recognize today, with a comprehensive scope of topics, discussed in depth and organized in an accessible, systematic method.
The term encyclopaedia was coined by fifteenth century humanists who misread copies of their texts of Pliny and Quintilian, and combined the two Greek words ''enkuklios paideia'' into one word.
The English physician and philosopher Sir [[Thomas Browne]] specifically employed the word ''encyclopaedia'' as early as 1646 in the preface to the reader to describe his ''[[Pseudodoxia Epidemica]]'' or ''Vulgar Errors'', a series of refutations of common errors of his age. Browne structured his encyclopaedia upon the time-honoured schemata of the Renaissance, the so-called 'scale of creation' which ascends a hierarchical ladder via the mineral, vegetable, animal, human, planetary and cosmological worlds. Browne's compendium went through no less than five editions, each revised and augmented, the last edition appearing in 1672. ''Pseudodoxia Epidemica'' found itself upon the bookshelves of many educated European readers for throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it was translated into the [[France|French]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Germany|German]] languages as well as [[Latin]].
[[John Harris]] is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English ''[[Lexicon technicum]].'' Organized alphabetically, it sought to not merely to explain the terms used in the arts and sciences, but the arts and sciences themselves. [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710. Its emphasis was on science and, at about 1200 pages, its scope was more that of an encyclopedic dictionary than a true encyclopedia. Harris himself considered it a dictionary; the work is one of the first technical dictionaries in any language.
[[Ephraim Chambers]] published his ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]]'' in 1728. In included a broad scope of subjects, used an alphabetic arrangement, relied on many different contributors and included the innovation of cross-referencing other sections within articles. Chambers has been referred to as the father of the modern encyclopedia for this two-volume work.
A French translation of Chambers' work inspired the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', perhaps the most famous early encyclopedia, notable for its scope, the quality of some contributions, and its political and cultural impact in the years leading up to the [[French revolution]]. The ''Encyclopédie'' was edited by [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] and [[Denis Diderot]] and published in 17 volumes of articles, issued from 1751 to 1765, and 11 volumes of illustrations, issued from 1762 to 1772. Five volumes of supplementary material and a two volume index, supervised by other editors, were issued from 1776 to 1780 by [[Charles Joseph Panckoucke]].
The ''Encyclopédie'' in turn inspired the venerable ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]],'' which had a modest beginning in Scotland: the first edition, issued between 1768 and 1771, had just three hastily completed volumes - A-B, C-L, and M-Z - with a total of 2,391 pages. By 1797, when the third edition was completed, it had been expanded to 18 volumes addressing a full range of topics, with articles contributed by a range of authorities on their subjects.
The ''[[Brockhaus encyclopedia|Conversations-Lexikon]]'' was published in [[Leipzig]] from 1796 to 1808, in 6 volumes. Paralleling other 18th century encyclopedias, the scope was expanded beyond that of earlier publications, in an effort to become comprehensive. But the work was intended not for scientific use, but to give the results of research and discovery in a simple and popular form without extended details. This format, a contrast to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', was widely imitated by later 19th century encyclopedias in Britain, the United States, France, Spain, Italy and other countries. Of the influential late 18th century and early 19th century encyclopedias, the ''Conversations-Lexikon'' is perhaps most similar in form to today's encyclopedias.
The early years of the [[19th century]] saw a flowering of encyclopedia publishing in the United Kingdom, Europe and America. In England ''[[Rees's Cyclopaedia]]'' (1802–1819) contains an enormous amount in information about the industrial and scientific revolutions of the time. A feature of these publications is the high-quality illustrations made by engravers like [[Wilson Lowry]] of art work supplied by specialist draftsmen like [[John Farey, Jr.]] Encyclopaedias were published in [[Scotland]], as a result of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], for education there was of a higher standard than in the rest of the [[United Kingdom]].
The 17-volume ''[[Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle]]'' and its supplements were published in [[France]] from 1866 to 1890.
''Encyclopædia Britannica'' appeared in various editions throughout the century, and the growth of [[popular education]] and the [[Mechanics Institutes]], spearheaded by the [[Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge]] led to the production of the ''[[Penny Cyclopaedia]]'', as its title suggests issued in weekly numbers at a penny each like a [[newspaper]].
In the early 20th century, the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' reached its eleventh edition, and inexpensive encyclopedias such as ''[[Harmsworth's Encyclopaedia]]'' and ''[[Everyman's Encyclopaedia]]'' were common.
==Modern encyclopedias==
In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of several large populist encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans. The best known of these were [[World Book]] and [[Funk and Wagnalls]].
The second half of the [[20th century]] also saw the publication of several encyclopedias that were notable for synthesizing important topics in specific fields, often though new works authored by significant researchers. Such encyclopedias included '''''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy''''' (first published in 1967 and now in its second edition), and '''''Elsevier's Handbooks In Economics'''''[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/S04.cws_home/books] series.
By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on [[CD-ROM|CD-ROMs]] for use with personal computers. [[Microsoft]]'s ''[[Encarta]]'' was a landmark example, as it had no print version. Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images. Similar encyclopedias were also being published [[online]], and made available by subscription.
Traditional encyclopedias are written by a number of employed text [[writer|writers]], usually people with an [[academic degree]], but the interactive nature of the Internet allowed for the creation of projects such as [[Everything2]], [[Open Site]], and [[Wikipedia]] which allowed anyone to add, improve, or vandalize content. By late 2005, Wikipedia produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with contents licensed under the [[copyleft]] [[GNU Free Documentation License]]. However Wikipedia's articles are not necessarily peer reviewed and many of those articles are of a trivial nature. Legitimate concerns have been raised as to the accuracy of information generated through open source projects generally.
Encyclopedias are essentially derivative from what has gone before, and particularly in the 19th century, [[copyright infringement]] was common among encyclopedia editors. However, modern encyclopedias are not merely larger compendia, including all that came before them. To make space for modern topics, valuable material of historic use regularly had to be discarded, at least before the advent of digital encyclopedias. Moreover, the opinions and worldviews of a particular generation can be observed in the encyclopedic writing of the time. For these reasons, old encyclopedias ar |
f|etym}} (or '''regular [[hexahedron]]''') is a [[dimension|three-dimensional]] [[Platonic solid]] composed of six [[square (geometry)|square]] faces, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube is a special kind of square [[prism (geometry)|prism]], of rectangular [[parallelepiped]] and of 3-sided [[trapezohedron]], and is [[dual polyhedron|dual]] to the [[octahedron]]. Thus it has [[octahedral symmetry]].
__TOC__
== Cartesian coordinates ==
[[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a cube centered at the origin and edge length 2 are
: (±1,±1,±1)
while the interior of the same consists of all points (x<sub>0</sub>, x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>) with -1 < x<sub>i</sub> < 1.
== Area and volume ==
The [[area (mathematics)|area]] ''A'' and [[volume]] ''V'' of a cube of edge length ''a'' are:
:<math>A=6a^2</math>
:<math>V=a^3</math>
A cube construction has the largest volume among [[cuboid]]s (rectangular boxes) with a given [[surface area]] (e.g., paper, cardboard, sheet metal, etc.). Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same total linear size (length + width + height).
== Geometric relations ==
The cube is unique among the Platonic solids for being able to tile space regularly. It is also unique among the Platonic solids in having faces with an even number of sides and, consequently, it is the only member of that group that is a [[zonohedron]].
[[image:hexahedron flat.png|thumb|100px|left|A [[Net (polyhedron)|net]] of a cube]]
[[Image:Dice.jpg|left|thumb|150px|The familiar six-sided [[dice|die]] is cube shaped]]
{{-}}
== Higher dimensions ==
[[Image:Expo_67_cubes_in_a_room.jpg|thumb|450|Room of cubes at Expo 67]]
In the four-dimensional [[Euclidean space]], the analogue of a cube has a special name &mdash; a [[tesseract]] or [[hypercube]].
The analog of the cube in the ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space is called '''''n''-dimensional cube''', or simply '''cube''', if it does not lead to a confusion. The name [[measure polytope]] is also used.
==Related polyhedra==
The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular [[tetrahedron]]. These two together form a regular [[polyhedral compound|compound]], the [[stella octangula]]. The intersection of the two forms a regular [[octahedron]]. The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to those of a cube which map each tetrahedron to itself; the other symmetries of the cube map the two to each other.
One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of 1/3 of that of the cube. The remaining space consists of four equal irregular polyhedra with a volume of 1/6 of that of the cube, each.
The [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube is the [[cuboctahedron]]. If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with 6 [[octagon]]al faces and 8 triangular ones. In particular we can get regular octagons ([[truncated cube]]). The [[rhombicuboctahedron]] is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount.
A cube can be inscribed in a [[dodecahedron]] so that each vertex of the cube is a vertex of the dodecahedron and each edge is a diagonal of one of the dodecahedron's faces; taking all such cubes gives rise to the regular [[polyhedral compound|compound]] of five cubes.
[[Image:Stella octangula.png|thumb|150px|left|The tetrahedra in the cube ([[stella octangula]])]]
[[Image:Cuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|170px|left|The [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube ([[cuboctahedron]])]]
[[Image:Truncatedhexahedron.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Truncated cube]]]]
[[Image:Rhombicuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Rhombicuboctahedron]]]]
{{-}}
The figures shown have the same symmetries as the cube (see [[octahedral symmetry]]).
==Note==
#{{note|etym}} English ''cube'' from Old French < Latin ''cubus''< Greek ''kubos'', "a cube, a die, vertebra". In turn from [[PIE]] ''*keu(b)-'', "to bend, turn".
==See also==
*[[Unit cube]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/hexahedron.html Spinning Hexahedron]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra]
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra]
[[Category:Platonic solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[Category:Prismatoid polyhedra]]
[[Category:Volume]]
[[Category:Zonohedra]]
[[ar:مكعب]]
[[ca:Cub]]
[[da:Terning]]
[[de:Würfel (Geometrie)]]
[[et:Kuup]]
[[es:Hexaedro]]
[[eo:Kubo (geometrio)]]
[[fr:Cube]]
[[ko:정육면체]]
[[he:קובייה]]
[[nl:Kubus]]
[[ja:正六面体]]
[[no:Terning]]
[[pl:Sześcian (geometria)]]
[[ru:Куб]]
[[simple:Cube]]
[[sl:Kocka]]
[[sv:Kub (geometri)]]
[[vi:Hình khối]]
[[zh:立方體]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Regional rail</title>
<id>6286</id>
<revision>
<id>41458932</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T13:57:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For a treatment specific to [[North America]], see [[Commuter rail in North America]].''
[[Image:Connex Train Melbourne.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Connex]] commuter train stands at a platform in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].]]
'''Regional rail''' or '''commuter rail''' usually provide a [[rail transport|rail service]] between a [[central business district]] and [[suburbs]] or other locations that draw large numbers of people on a daily basis. The [[train]]s providing such services may be termed '''commuter trains'''. The development of commuter rail services has become popular today, with the increased public awareness of congestion, dependence on fossil fuels, and other environmental issues, as well as the rising costs of owning and operating automobiles.
==Characteristics==
Commuter trains are usually optimized for maximum passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and [[luggage]] space, though they seldom have all the amenities of long-distance trains. The general range of commuter trains varies between 15 and 180 km (9 and 111 miles), with operating speeds from 55 to 175 km/h (30 to 110 mph). Passenger coaches are either single- or [[double-level]], with a capacity of 80 - 110 passengers for single-level cars and 145 - 170 for double-level cars.
==Defining aspects==
In general, commuter trains are built to ''heavy rail'' standards, differing from [[light rail]] or [[rapid transit]] systems by:
*being larger;
*having (in most cases) a lower frequency of service;
*having scheduled services (i.e. trains run at specific hours rather than at specific intervals);
*serving lower-density areas, typically by connecting suburbs to the city centre;
*sharing track or [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] with intercity or [[freight]] trains
Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] can drastically reduce system construction costs. However, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays.
Generally such trains run on the local [[standard gauge]] track. Some broader [[Rail gauge|gauge]]s include 1520/1524 mm ([[Russia]] and countries of the former [[Russian Empire]]), 1600 mm ([[Ireland]], [[Brazil]], and parts of [[Australia]]), 1668 mm ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), 1676 mm ([[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[Argentina]]). Light rail systems may run on a narrower gauge. [[Narrow gauge]] trains generally run on either 1067 mm (3 ft 6 in) track or on metre gauge (39.37 inches). Examples of narrow-gauge systems are found in [[Japan]], [[Switzerland]] and [[India]], and in the [[Brisbane]] ([[CityTrain]]) and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] systems in [[Australia]]. Ireland uses standard gauge as a "narrow gauge" for its [[Luas]] tram system. The world's largest commuter railway, the [[East Japan Railway Company]], uses [[narrow gauge]] track for all commuter trains.
In some cases, hybrids between a train and a [[metro]] have been created. They run underground in the dense city centres and on ordinary outdoor tracks in lower-density areas. Examples include the [[Madrid]] [[Cercanias|Cercanías]] network, in [[Dublin]] the [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit]], the [[Paris]] [[RER]], lines 6-8 of the [[Barcelona Metro]], the [[S-Bahn]] systems of [[Berlin]], [[Hamburg]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Munich]], [[Stuttgart]], and [[Zürich]], the suburban railway ([[HÉV]]) in [[Budapest]], [[MetroValparaíso]] in [[Valparaíso]] ([[Chile]]) and the rail systems of [[Sydney]] ([[CityRail]]) and [[Melbourne]]. In [[Hong Kong]], [[East Rail]] provides a [[metro]]-like service in terms of capacity of its cars (over 300 each), more standees and few seats, and high frequencies, except sharing some of its track with inter-city service.
In some European countries the distinction between commuter trains and long-distance / intercity trains is very hard to make, because of the relatively short distances involved. For example, so called "intercity" trains in [[Belgium]] and [[the Netherlands]] carry many commuters and their equipment, range and speeds are similar to those of commuter trains in some larger countries.
In the United States and Canada, regional passenger rail service is performed by [[commuter railroads]], which are usually governmental or quasi-governmental agencies.
==Traffic types==
Commonly they are based on [[diesel multiple units]] (DMUs), which are self-propelled, bidirectional, articulated passenger rail cars with [[diesel engines]], electric [[generator (device)|generator]]s and [[electric motor]]s located below the passenger compartment (strictly speaking, these are diesel-electric multiple units, or DEMUs). In some areas with electrified rail, most notably Japan, [[electric multiple units]] (EMUs) are used. Electric and diesel-powered |
enocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between [[January 1]] and [[December 31]], [[1994]].
So far, the ICTR has finished nineteen trials and convicted twenty five accused persons. Another twenty five persons are still on trial. Nineteen are awaiting trial in detention. Ten are still at large. The first trial, of [[Jean-Michel Akayesu]], began in 1997. [[Jean Kambanda]], interim Prime Minister, plead guilty.{{ref|rwanda}}
==Genocide as a crime under domestic law==
===Belgium===
In [[1993]] [[Belgium]] had adopted [[universal jurisdiction]] , allowing prosecution of genocide, committed by anybody in the world. The practice was widely applauded by many [[human rights]] groups, because it made legal action possible to perpetrators who did not have a direct link with Belgium, and who's victimes were not Belgian citizens or residents. Ten years later in [[2003]], Belgium repealed the law on universal jurisdiction. However, some cases which had already started continued. These incuded those concerning the Rwandan genocide, and complaints filed against the Chadian ex-President [[Hissène Habré]]. {{ref|Belgium}}
===France===
In December 2005 despite attempts by the French Defence Ministry to stop him, Jacques Baillet the prosecutor at the army tribunal, has begun an investigation into the role of the French army during the genocide in Rwanda. The 2,500 member French peace keeping force, that was sent to Rwanda in 1994 by [[François Mitterrand]] who was the French President at the time, is accused not only of not stopping the genocide, but of actively participating in it. The allegations of participation are brought by two witnesses who the prosecutor thinks are credible enough to warrant an inquiry. Aurea Mukakalisa says she saw Hutu militia enter a camp set up by the French army and designated Tutsis who were forced to leave the camp by French soldiers. She says that she saw militia kill the Tutsis who left the camp and that some Tutsis were killed by French soldiers. A second witness Innocent Gisanura says that French soldiers remained in their vehicles and did not intervene in the killing of Tutsis by members of the Hutu militia in the [[Biserero]] forests.{{ref|times051226}}
===Netherlands===
Dutch law restricts prosecutions for genocide to its nationals. On [[December 23]] [[2005]] a Dutch court ruled in a case brought against Frans van Anraat for supplying chemicals to Iraq, that "[it] thinks and considers legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the requirement under the genocide conventions as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion that these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy the Kurdish population of Iraq." and because he supplied the chemicals before [[16 March]] 1988, the date of the [[Halabja poison gas attack]], he is guilty of a war crime but not guilty of complicity in genocide.{{ref|indi_051224}}{{ref|cbc_051223}}
===Spain===
Under Spanish law, judges have the right to try foreigners suspected of genocidal acts that have taken place outside Spain. In June 2003 Spanish Judge Baltazar Garzon jailed [[Ricardo Miguel Cavallo]], (also known as Miguel Angel Cavallo), a former [[Argentina|Argentine]] naval officer, extradited from Mexico to Spain pending his trial on charges of genocide and terrorism relating to the years of Argentina's military dictatorship.{{ref|NYT_30062003}} {{ref|bbc_26092005}}
On [[11 January]] [[2006]] it was reported that the Spanish High Court will investigate whether seven former Chinese officials, including the former President of China [[Jiang Zemin]] and former Prime Minister [[Li Peng]] participated in a genocide in [[Tibet]]. This investigation follows a Spanish Constitutional Court ([[26 September]] [[2005]]) ruling that Spanish courts could try genocide cases even if they did not involve Spanish nationals. {{ref|spain_jan11}}
===United Kingdom===
The United Kingdom has incorporated the [[International Criminal Court Act 2001|International Criminal Court Act]] into domestic law. It is not retroactive so it only applies to events after May 2001 and genocide charges can only be filed against British nationals and residents. According to Peter Carter [[Queen's Counsel|QC]], chairman of the [[Bar council#Bar Councils in the United Kingdom|Bar's]] human rights committee{{ref|bhrc}} "It means that British mercenaries who support regimes that commit war crimes can expect prosecution".{{ref label|indi_051224|5|a}}
==Genocide in history==
''Main article: [[Genocides in history]]''
Genocide appears to be a regular and widespread event in the history of civilization. The phrase "never again" often used in relation to genocide has been contradicted up to the present day.
Determining which historical events constitute genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. Furthermore, in nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have fiercely disputed the interpretation and details of the event, often to the point of promoting wildly different versions of the facts. An accusation of genocide is certainly not taken lightly and will almost always be controversial. [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|Revisionist attempts]] to deny genocides is, in some countries, penally repressed.
==Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it==
According to President of [http://www.genocidewatch.org/eightstages.htm Genocide Watch] [[Gregory Stanton]], genocide develops in eight stages that are "predictable but not inexorable":
{| class="wikitable"
! Stage
! Characteristics
! Preventive measures
|-
! 1.<br>Classification
| People are divided into "us and them".
| "The main preventive measure at this early stage is to develop universalistic institutions that [[Racial integration|transcend]]... divisions."
|-
! 2.<br>Symbolization
| "When combined with hatred, symbols may be forced upon unwilling members of [[pariah]] groups..."
| "To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be legally forbidden… as can [[hate speech]]".
|-
! 3.<br>Dehumanization
| "Dehumanization overcomes the normal human revulsion against murder."
| "Hate propaganda should be banned, [[hate crime]]s and atrocities should be promptly punished."
|-
! 4.<br>Organization
| "Genocide is always organized... Special army units or [[militia]]s are often trained and armed..."
| "To combat this stage, membership in these militias should be outlawed."
|-
! 5.<br>Polarization
| "Hate groups broadcast polarizing [[propaganda]]..."
| "Prevention may mean security protection for moderate leaders or assistance to [[human rights]] groups..."
|-
! 6.<br>Identification
| "Victims are identified and separated out because of their ethnic or religious identity..."
| "At this stage, a ''Genocide Alert'' must be called..."
|-
! 7.<br>Extermination
| "It is "extermination" to the killers because they do not believe their victims to be fully human."
| "At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming armed intervention can stop genocide. Real safe areas or refugee escape corridors should be established with heavily armed international protection."
|-
! 8.<br>Denial
| "The perpetrators... deny that they committed any crimes..."
| "The response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts."
|}
==See also==
*[[Autogenocide]]
*[[Crime against humanity]]
*[[Cultural genocide]]
*[[Historical revisionism (negationism)|Revisionist attempts to deny specific genocides]]
*[[International Criminal Court]] (since 2002)
*[[Democide]]
*[[International Association of Genocide Scholars]]
*[[Mass murder]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]
*[[War crime]]
==Bibliography==
* [[Frank Chalk]] and [[Kurt Jonassohn]], <cite>The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies</cite>, Yale University Press, 1990
* [[Israel W. Charny]], <cite>Encyclopedia of Genocide</cite>, ABC-Clio Inc, 720 pages, ISBN 0874369282 (December 1, 1999)
* [[Barbara Harff]], <cite>Early Warning of Communal Conflict and Genocide: Linking Empirical Research to International Responses</cite>, Westview Press, August 2003, paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0813398401
* [[Samantha Power]], <cite>A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide</cite> Harper Perennial (2003) paperback, 656 pages ISBN 0060541644
* [[R.J. Rummel]], <cite>Death By Government</cite>, Transaction Publishers, 496 pages, ISBN 1560009276 (March 1997)
* [[Lyal S. Sunga]], <cite>The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation </cite>, Kluwer (1997) 508 p. (ISBN: 9041104720)
* [[Lyal S. Sunga]], <cite>Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff </cite>(1992) 252 p. (ISBN: 0792314530)
* [[Samuel Totten]], [[William S. Parsons]], and [[Israel W. Charny]], <cite> Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, 2nd edition</cite>, Routledge, 2004
* [[Benjamin A. Valentino]], <cite>Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century</cite>, Cornell University Press, 2004
==Notes==
<!--wikipedia:footnote-->
<!-------------------Coining of the term genocide------------>
#{{note|AxisRule1944-1}} Raphael Lemkin, [http://www.preventgenocide.org/lemkin/AxisRule1944-1.htm Axis Rule in Occupied Europe] (Wash., D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944), p. 79.
<!-------------------------Rummel------------------------------------------ |
s]]
*[[1992]] - An all-star concert in memory of [[Queen (band)|Queen]] frontman [[Freddie Mercury]] is held at [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[London]].
*[[1997]] - The [[San Diego Padres]] face the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in the first [[Major League Baseball]] game ever played in [[Hawaii]].
*[[1998]] - An [[Air France]] [[Boeing 727]]-200 crashes into mountain after takeoff from [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], killing 53.
*[[1998]] - [[Germany|German]] terrorist group [[Red Army Faction]] announces their dissolution after 28 years.
*[[1999]] - [[Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold]] kill 12 students and a teacher before turning their guns on themselves in the [[Columbine High School massacre]].
*[[2001]] - [[Anti-globalization]] marches and a "People's Summit" are held to protest the [[Quebec City Summit of the Americas]], a [[Free Trade Area of the Americas|FTAA]] summit in [[Quebec City, Quebec]].
*[[2002]] - The [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]-based [[Network Against Prohibition]] holds its first Community Smoke-In for [[Human Rights]] in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Australia]]. Police arrest five activists.
*[[2004]] - Severe [[thunderstorm]]s strike [[Chicagoland]], [[United States|USA]]. An F3 [[tornado]] touches down in [[Utica, Illinois]], claiming eight lives.
*[[2004]] - In [[Iraq]], 12 mortars are fired on [[Abu Ghraib Prison]] by insurgents, killing 22 detainees and wounding 92.
==Births==
*[[570]] - [[Muhammad]], Founder of Islam (d. [[632]])
*[[702]] - [[Jafar Sadiq]], Muslim scholar (d. [[765]])
*[[1494]] - [[Johannes Agricola]], German protestant reformer (d. [[1566]])
*[[1586]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1617]])
*[[1633]] - [[Emperor Go-Komyo of Japan]] (d. [[1654]])
*[[1650]] - [[William Bedloe]], English informer (d. [[1680]])
*[[1668]] - [[Yuri Troubetzkoy]], Governor of Belgorod (d. [[1739]])
*[[1718]] - [[David Brainerd]], American missionary (d. [[1747]])
*[[1723]] - [[Cornelius Harnett]], American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1781]])
*[[1745]] - [[Philippe Pinel]], French physician (d. [[1826]])
*[[1808]] - Emperor [[Napoleon III of France]] (d. [[1873]])
*[[1818]] - [[Heinrich Göbel]], German-born inventor (d. [[1893]])
*[[1871]] - [[Slavoljub Eduard Penkala]], Croatian inventor, (d. [[1922]])
*[[1879]] - [[Paul Poiret]], French couturier (d. [[1944]])
*[[1882]] - [[Holland Smith]], U.S. General (d. [[1967]])
*[[1889]] - [[Albert Jean Amateau]], Turkish-born businessman and social activist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1889]] - [[Adolf Hitler]], Austrian-born German dictator (d. [[1945]])
*[[1893]] - [[Harold Lloyd]], American actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1893]] - [[Joan Miró]], Catalan painter (d. [[1983]])
*[[1895]] - [[Emile Christian]], American musician (d. [[1973]])
*[[1896]] - [[Wop May]], Canadian aviator (d. [[1952]])
*[[1904]] - [[Bruce Cabot]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1908]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American musician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1914]] - [[Betty Lou Gerson]], American actress (d. [[1999]])
*[[1915]] - [[Joseph Wolpe]], South African-born psychotherapist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1918]] - [[Edward L. Beach]], American naval officer, author (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Kai Siegbahn]], Swedish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1920]] - [[John Paul Stevens]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice
*[[1923]] - [[Mother Angelica]], American nun and broadcaster
*[[1925]] - [[Tito Puente]], American musician (d. [[2000]])
*1925 - [[Ernie Stautner]], German-born American football player (d. [[2006]])
*[[1927]] - [[Karl Alexander Müller]], Swiss physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1928]] - [[Gerald S. Hawkins]], English astronomer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1939]] - [[Peter S. Beagle]], American author
*[[1939]] - [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]], [[Prime Minister of Norway]]
*[[1940]] - [[George Takei]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Ryan O'Neal]], American actor
*[[1943]] - [[John Eliot Gardiner]], English conductor
*[[1943]] - [[Edie Sedgwick]], American actress (d. [[1971]])
*[[1945]] - [[Steve Spurrier]], American football player and coach
*[[1947]] - [[Björn Skifs]], Swedish singer ([[Blue Swede]])
*[[1949]] - [[Massimo D'Alema]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]]
*[[1949]] - [[Jessica Lange]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Veronica Cartwright]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Aleksandr Lebed]], Russian general, politician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1951]] - [[Luther Vandross]], American singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1961]] - [[Don Mattingly]], baseball player
*[[1963]] - [[Izhar Cohen]],illustrator
*[[1964]] - [[Crispin Glover]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Andy Serkis]], English actor
*[[1964]] - [[Rosalynn Sumners]], American figure skater
*[[1967]] - [[Raymond van Barneveld]], Dutch darts player
*[[1967]] - [[Mike Portnoy]], American musician
*[[1971]] - [[Carla Geurts]], Dutch swimmer
*[[1972]] - [[Carmen Electra]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Joey Lawrence]], American actor
*1976 - [[Shay Given]], Irish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Jasmin Wagner]], German singer
*[[2000]] - [[Funny Cide]], dual classic winner racehorse
==Deaths==
*[[1176]] - [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]], English soldier (b. [[1130]])
*[[1314]] - [[Pope Clement V]] (b. [[1264]])
*[[1521]] - [[Zhengde]], Emperor of China (b. [[1491]])
*[[1534]] - [[Elizabeth Barton]], English nun (executed)
*[[1558]] - [[Johannes Bugenhagen]], German reformer (b. [[1485]])
*[[1643]] - [[Christoph Demantius]], German composer (b. [[1567]])
*[[1703]] - [[Lancelot Addison]], English royal chaplain (b. [[1632]])
*[[1765]] - [[Abigail Williams]], American accuser in the Salem witch trials (b. [[1674]])
*[[1769]] - [[Chief Pontiac|Pontiac]], Chief of the Ottawa
*[[1831]] - [[John Abernethy (surgeon)|John Abernethy]], English surgeon (b. [[1764]])
*[[1873]] - [[William Tite]], English architect (b. [[1798]])
*[[1899]] - [[Joseph Wolf]], German artist (b. [[1820]])
*[[1912]] - [[Bram Stoker]], Irish author (b. [[1847]])
*[[1918]] - [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1850]])
*[[1932]] - [[Giuseppe Peano]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1858]])
*[[1947]] - King [[Christian X of Denmark]] (b. [[1870]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ivanoe Bonomi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (b. [[1873]])
*[[1982]] - [[Archibald MacLeish]], American poet and [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1892]])
*[[1984]] - [[Hristo Prodanov]], Bulgarian mountaineer (b. [[1943]])
*[[1991]] - [[Steve Marriott]], British musician and actor (b. [[1945]])
*[[1991]] - [[Don Siegel]], American film director (b. [[1912]])
*[[1992]] - [[Benny Hill]], British comedian (b. [[1924]])
*[[1993]] - [[Cantinflas]], Mexican comedian and actor (b. [[1911]])
*[[1996]] - [[Christopher Robin Milne]], son of [[A.A. Milne]] (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - [[List of victims of the Columbine High School massacre|Victims]] of the [[Columbine High School massacre]]
*[[1999]] - [[Richard Rood|Rick Rude]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1958]])
*[[1999]] - [[Señor Wences]], Spanish ventriloquist and comedian (b. [[1896]])
*[[2001]] - [[Giuseppe Sinopoli]], Italian conductor and composer (b. [[1946]])
*[[2002]] - [[Alan Dale (singer)|Alan Dale]], American singer (b. [[1925]])
*[[2003]] - [[Ruth Hale (playwright and actress)|Ruth Hale]], American playwright and actress (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Bernard Katz]], German-born biophysicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1911]])
*[[2005]] - [[Fumio Niwa]], Japanese novelist (b. [[1904]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[2003]], [[2014]] - [[Easter Sunday]]
*April 20 (4/20) is associated with '''[[420 (drug culture)]]'''
*[[Astrology]]: First day of sun sign [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/20 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 19]] - [[April 21]] - [[March 20]] - [[May 20]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:20 April]]
[[ar:20 ابريل]]
[[an:20 d'abril]]
[[ast:20 d'abril]]
[[bg:20 април]]
[[be:20 красавіка]]
[[bs:20. april]]
[[ca:20 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 20]]
[[cv:Ака, 20]]
[[co:20 d'aprile]]
[[cs:20. duben]]
[[cy:20 Ebrill]]
[[da:20. april]]
[[de:20. April]]
[[et:20. aprill]]
[[el:20 Απριλίου]]
[[es:20 de abril]]
[[eo:20-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 20]]
[[fa:۲۰ آوریل]]
[[fo:20. apríl]]
[[fr:20 avril]]
[[fy:20 april]]
[[ga:20 Aibreán]]
[[gl:20 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 20일]]
[[hr:20. travnja]]
[[io:20 di aprilo]]
[[id:20 April]]
[[ia:20 de april]]
[[ie:20 april]]
[[is:20. apríl]]
[[it:20 aprile]]
[[he:20 באפריל]]
[[jv:20 April]]
[[ka:20 აპრილი]]
[[csb:20 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:20'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 20]]
[[lb:20. Abrëll]]
[[li:20 april]]
[[hu:Április 20]]
[[mk:20 април]]
[[ms:20 April]]
[[nap:20 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:20 april]]
[[ja:4月20日]]
[[no:20. april]]
[[nn:20. april]]
[[oc:20 d'abril]]
[[pl:20 kwietnia]]
[[pt:20 de Abril]]
[[ro:20 aprilie]]
[[ru:20 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 20.]]
[[sco:20 Aprile]]
[[sq:20 Prill]]
[[scn:20 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 20]]
[[sk:20. apríl]]
[[sl:20. april]]
[[sr:20. април]]
[[fi:20. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:20 april]]
[[tl:Abril 20]]
[[tt:20. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 20]]
[[th:20 เมษายน]]
[[vi:20 tháng 4]]
[[tr:20 Nisan]]
[[uk:20 квітня]]
[[ur:20 اپریل]]
[[wa:20 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 20]]
[[zh:4月20日]]
[[pam:Abril 20]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 19</title>
<id>2196</id>
<revision>
<id>41937595</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.85.44.169</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
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'''[[April 19]]''' is the 109th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (110th in [[leap year]]s). There are 256 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1012]] - Martyrdom of St [[Alphege]] in [[Greenwich, London]].
*[[1529]] - At the [[Diet of Speyer]], a gr |
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[[Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|75px|]]<br><small>Flag of the<br>Habsburg empire</small>
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'''After the 1867 Compromise''' (<small>Black-yellow flag was kept as Imperial Flag<small>)
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<HR>
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[[Official language]]s
</TD><TD>
In Cisleithenia, [[German language|German]] and minority tounges.
In Hungary, [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Latin]].
</TD></TR>
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<TD NOWRAP>[[Established church]]
</TD><TD>
[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
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[[Capital]]<br>&amp; Largest
City
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[[Vienna]]<br>pop. 1,675,000
(1907)
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[[Head of state]]
</TD><TD>
[[Habsburg|Emperor of Austria]],<br>[[King of Hungary]],<br>[[King of Bohemia]], etc.
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[[Area]]
</TD><TD>
680,887 km² (1907)
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[[Population]]
</TD><TD>
48,592,000 (1907)
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[[Currency]]
</TD><TD>
[[Rhine guilder]]; <br>[[Austro-Hungarian Krone|Corona]] (from [[1892]])
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<TD NOWRAP>
[[National anthem]]
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[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser|Volkshymne (People's Anthem)]]
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[[List of extinct states|Existed]]
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[[1867]]-[[1918]]
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</TABLE>
'''Austria-Hungary''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Österreich-Ungarn'', [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia'', [[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Rakousko-Uhersko'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Rakúsko-Uhorsko'', [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Austro-Ugarska''), also known as the '''Dual Monarchy''' or '''[[K.u.K.]] Monarchy''', was a dual-monarchic union state ([[1867]] - [[1918]]) in [[Central Europe]].
It replaced the [[Austrian Empire]] ([[1806]] - [[1867]]) on the same territory and originated in a [[Ausgleich|compromise]] between the ruling [[Habsburg]] dynasty and the Hungarians in order to maintain the state. As a multi-national [[empire]] in an era of [[nationalism|national]] awakening, it found its political life dominated by disputes among the eleven principal national groups. Its economic and social life was marked by a rapid economic growth through the age of [[industrialization]] and social modernization through many liberal and democratic reforms.
The [[Habsburg]] dynasty ruled as [[Emperors of Austria]] over the western and northern half of the country and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed some degree of self-government and representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The federation bore the full name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the [[Lands of the Holy Crown of St. Stephen|Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen]]".
Capital of the union state was [[Vienna]].
==The lands of the Empire==
Many texts refer to the non-Hungarian ("Austrian") half part of Austria-Hungary as [[Cisleithania]] -- because most of its territory lay west (or to "this" side, from an Austrian perspective) of the [[Leitha]] river (although Galicia to the north-east also counted as "Austrian"). This region (consisting of more than simply [[Austria]]) strictly speaking had no collective official name prior to 1915, and hence official sources referred to the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". (The Imperial Council (''[[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]]'') functioned as Cisleithania's parliament.) Similarly, the [[Transleithania]]n ("Hungarian") half also consisted of more than simply Hungary, and bore the official designation of the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen" -- a reference to the [[saint|canonised]] first [[Christianity|Christian]] king of Hungary.
The "Kingdoms and Lands" of the Cisleithanian half of the Empire:
* the Kingdom of [[Bohemia]]; see [[Czech lands: 1867-1918]]
* the Kingdom of [[Dalmatia]]
* the Kingdom of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia and Lodomeria]]
* the Archduchy of [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]] (as [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lower Austria]])
* the Duchy of [[Bukowina]]
* the Duchy of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]]
* the Duchy of [[Carniola]]
* the Duchy of [[Salzburg]]
* the Duchy of [[Upper Silesia]] and [[Lower Silesia]]
* the Duchy of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]]
* the Margravate of [[Moravia]]; see [[Czech lands: 1867-1918]]
* the Princely County of [[Tyrol]] (including the Land of [[Vorarlberg]]),
* the [[Austrian Littoral]] (''Küstenland'', including the Princely County of [[Gorizia and Gradisca]], the City of [[Trieste]] and the Margravate of [[Istria]]).
The "Lands" of the Transleithanian half of the Empire:
* the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]- including [[Transylvania]] and [[Vojvodina]]
* the Kingdom of [[Croatia]] and [[Slavonia]]
* the City of [[Rijeka|Fiume]].
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia-Herzegovina]] formed a separate part of the Empire, jointly administered by both halves.
==Creation of Austria-Hungary &mdash; the Compromise of 1867==
The ''[[Ausgleich]]'' ("Compromise"; kiegyezés in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) of February 1867 which inaugurated the Empire's dualist structure in place of the former unitary Austrian Empire ([[1804]]-1867) originated at a time when Austria had declined in strength and in power -- both in the [[Italy | Italian]] peninsula (as a result of the [[Austro-Sardinian War]] of [[1859]]) and in greater Germany (culminating in the [[Austro-Prussian War]] of [[1866]]). Other factors in the constitutional changes included continued Hungarian dissatisfaction with rule from Vienna, and increasing national consciousness on the part of other nationalities of the Austrian Empire. Hungarian dissatisfaction grew partially from Austria's suppression, with [[Russia]]n support, of the [[Revolution of 1848|Hungarian liberal revolution]] of [[1848]] &ndash; [[1849]]. However, dissatisfaction with Austrian rule had grown for many years within Hungary, and had many causes.
In an effort to shore up support for the monarchy, Emperor [[Franz Joseph of Austria | Franz Joseph]] began negotiations for a compromise with the [[Magyars | Magyar]] nobility to ensure their support. Some members of the government, such as Austrian prime minister [[Richard von Belcredi|Count Belcredi]], advised the Emperor to make a more comprehensive constitutional deal with all of the nationalities that would have created a federal structure. Belcredi worried that an accommodation with the Magyar interests would alienate the other nationalities. However, Franz Joseph was unable to ignore the power of the Magyar nobility, and they would not accept anything less than dualism between themselves and the traditional Austrian élites.
In particular, Hungarian leaders demanded and received the Emperor's coronation as King of Hungary as a re-affirmation of Hungary's historic privileges, and the establishment of a separate parliament at [[Budapest]] with the powers to enact laws for the historic lands of the Hungarian crown (the lands of [[Stephen I of Hungary | St Stephen]]), though on a basis which would preserve the political dominance of Hungarian minority (more specifically of the country's nobility and educated élite) and the exclusion from effective power of the country's large [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] populations.
==Governmental structure==
Three distinct elements ruled Austria-Hungary:
# the Hungarian government
# the “Austrian” or Cisleithanian government
# a unified administration under the monarch
Hungary and Austria maintained separate [[parliament]]s, each with its own [[prime minister]]. Linking/co-ordinating the two fell to a government under a monarch, wielding power absolute in theory but limited in practice. The monarch’s common government had responsibility for the [[Austro-Hungarian Army|army]], for the [[Austro-Hungarian Navy|navy]], for foreign policy, and for the [[customs union]].
Within Cisleithania and Hungary certain regions, such as Galicia and Croatia, but not the Slovak lands, enjoyed special status with their own unique governmental structures.
A common Ministerial Council ruled the common government: it comprised the three ministers for the joint responsibilities (joint finance, military, and foreign policy), the two prime ministers, some Archdukes and the monarch. Two delegations of representatives, one each from the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, met separately and voted on the expenditures of the Common Ministerial Council, giving the two governments influence in the common administration. However, the ministers ultimately answered only to the monarch, and he had the final decision on matters of foreign and military policy.
Overlapping responsibilities between the joint ministries and the ministries of the two halves caused friction and inefficiencies. The armed forces suffered particularly from overlap. Although the unified government determined overall military direction, the Austrian and Hungarian governments each remained in charge of "the quota of recruits, legislation concerning [[compulsory military service]], transfer and provision o |
i:31. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:31 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 31]]
[[tt:31. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 31]]
[[th:31 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:31 tháng 12]]
[[tr:31 Aralık]]
[[uk:31 грудня]]
[[wa:31 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 31]]
[[zh:12月31日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 31]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deng Xiaoping</title>
<id>8205</id>
<revision>
<id>41776245</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:47:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WDai</username>
<id>927729</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DengXiaopingPortrait.jpg|thumb|200px|Deng Xiaoping]]
'''Deng Xiaoping''' {{Audio|zh-Deng_Xiaoping.ogg|listen}} ({{zh-stpw |t=&#37159;&#23567;&#24179; |s=&#37011;&#23567;&#24179; |p=D&#232;ng Xi&#462;op&#237;ng |w=Teng Hsiao-p'ing}}; [[August 22]], [[1904]]&ndash;[[February 19]], [[1997]]) was a leader in the [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC) who served as the ''[[de facto]]'' ruler of the [[People's Republic of China]] from the late [[1970s]] to the early [[1990s]]. He pioneered "[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]" and [[Chinese economic reform]], and [[Maoists]] accuse him of returning the country to [[capitalism]].
Deng formed the core of the "[[Generations of Chinese leadership|second generation]]" CPC leadership. Under his tutelage, China developed one of the fastest growing [[Economy of the People's Republic of China|economies]] in the world while keeping the Communist Party in tight overall control.
==Background==
Deng, a [[Hakka]], was born to Deng Xixian (&#37159;&#24076;&#36066; / &#37011;&#24076;&#36132;) in Paifang Village in Xiexing township, [[Guang'an]] County, [[Sichuan Province]]. He was educated in [[France]], as were many notable Asian revolutionaries (such as [[Ho Chi Minh]] and [[Zhou Enlai]]), where he discovered [[Marxism-Leninism]] as well as a passion for [[croissant|croissants]].
Deng married 3 times. His first wife, Zhang Xiyuan, one of his schoolmates from [[Moscow]], died when she was 24, a few days after giving birth to Deng's first child, a baby girl, who also died. His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after he came under political attack in 1933.
His third wife, [[Zhuo Lin]], was the daughter of an industrialist in [[Yunnan]] Province. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and a year later married Deng in front of Mao's cave dwelling in [[Yan'an]]. They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, [[Deng Nan]], Deng Rong) and two sons ([[Deng Pufang]], Deng Zhifang).
==Early career==
In the summer of 1920, Deng Xiaoping graduated from the [[Chongqing]] Preparatory School. He and 80 schoolmates, participating in a work-study program for Chinese students, boarded a ship for [[France]] (traveling steerage) and in October arrived in [[Marseilles]]. Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students, had just turned 16. He spent most of his time in France working, first at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel plant in central France, then later as a fitter in the [[Renault]] factory in the Paris suburb of [[Billancourt]], as a fireman on a locomotive and as a kitchen helper in restaurants. He barely earned enough to survive. He also briefly attended middle schools in [[Bayeux]] and [[Chatillon]].
In France, under the influence of his seniors ([[Zhao Shiyan]], [[Zhou Enlai]] and others), Deng began to study [[Marxism]] and do political propaganda work. In 1922 he joined the Communist Party of Chinese Youth in Europe. In the second half of 1924 he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe. During 1926 Deng studied at [[Moscow]] in the then-[[USSR]]. He returned to China in early 1927.
In 1929 Deng led the [[Baise Uprising]] in [[Guangxi]] province against the [[KMT]] government. The uprising soon failed and Deng went to the Central Soviet Area in [[Jiangxi]] province.
He was a veteran of the [[Long March]], during which Deng served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. While acting as political commissar for [[Liu Bocheng]], he organized several important military campaigns during the war with [[Japan]] and during the [[Chinese Civil War|Civil War]] against the [[Kuomintang]]. In late November 1949, Deng led the final assault on KMT forces under the direct command of [[Chiang Kai-shek]] in his native Sichuan. The city of [[Chongqing]] fell to the PLA on [[December 1]] and Deng was immediately appointed mayor and political commissar. (Chiang Kai-shek, who had moved his headquarters to Chongqing in mid-November fled to the provincial capital of [[Chengdu]]. This last mainland Chinese city to be held by the KMT fell [[December 10]] and Chiang fled to Taiwan on the same day.)
==Ascension and Purges==
As an old fellow combatant and supporter of [[Mao Zedong]], Deng was named by Mao to several important posts in the new government, including General Secretary of the Communist Party, soon after the formation of the [[People's Republic of China]].
[[Image:destroy_liu-deng.jpg|thumb|280px|Chinese poster saying: "Thoroughly pulverize the Liu-Deng counter-revolutionary line!", 1967]]
After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his [[Anti-Rightist Movement|Anti-Rightist Campaign]] of [[1957]], Deng became [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]] and ran the country's daily affairs with then [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]] [[Liu Shaoqi]]. Amid growing disenchantment with Mao's [[Great Leap Forward]], Deng and Liu gained influence within the CPC. They embarked on [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] that bolstered their prestige among the party apparatus and the national populace. Deng and Liu advocated more pragmatic policies, as opposed to Mao's radicalist ideas.
Mao grew apprehensive that the prestige Deng and Liu gained from these efforts could lead to himself being reduced to a mere figurehead. For this amongst other reasons, Mao launched the [[Cultural Revolution]] in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his offices. He was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker. While there Deng spent his spare time writing. He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than Liu Shaoqi.
When Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] fell ill from cancer, Deng became Zhou's choice for a successor, and Zhou was able to convince Mao to bring Deng Xiaoping back into politics in [[1974]] as First Deputy Premier, in practice running daily affairs. However, the Cultural Revolution was not yet over, and a radicalist political group known as the [[Gang of Four]] competed for power within the Communist Party. The Gang saw Deng as their greatest challenge to success. After Zhou's death in January 1976, Deng lost firm support in the party, and after delivering Zhou's official eulogy at the state funeral, was purged once again. Deng was forced to give up all posts by the Gang of Four.
==Reemergence of Deng==
The diminutive and aging Deng gradually emerged as the de-facto leader of the world's most populous nation in the few years following Mao's death in 1976. Deng was also one of only a handful of peasant revolutionaries to lead China, a group that includes [[Mao Zedong]] and the founders of the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] and [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] dynasties.
By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the Chinese Communist Party, Deng was able to outmaneuver Mao's anointed successor [[Hua Guofeng]], who had previously pardoned him, and then oust Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980-1981.
In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua, who is still alive, to retain membership in the Central Committee until [[November]] [[2002]], to quietly retire, and helped to set a precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm.
Deng then repudiated the [[Cultural Revolution]] and launched the "[[Beijing Spring]]," which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period. Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolishment of the class background system. Under this system, the CPC put up employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class, its removal therefore effectively allowed Chinese [[capitalists]] to join the Communist Party.
Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents. By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time. Deng also received a great deal of popular support.
As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CPC, Hua was replaced by [[Zhao Ziyang]] as premier in [[1980]], and by [[Hu Yaobang]] as party chief in [[1981]]. Deng remained the most influential CPC cadre, although after [[1987]] his only official posts were as chairman of the state and Communist Party Central Military Commissions.
Originally, the [[president of the People's Republic of China|president]] was conceived of as a figurehead head of state, with actual state power resting in the hands of the [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]] and the party chief, both offices being conceived of as held by separate people in order to prevent a [[cult of personality]] from forming (as it did in the case of Mao); the party would develop policy, whereas the state would execute it. Ironically, Deng held none of these top posts.
==Opening up==
[[Image:Brzezinski with Deng Xiaoping.jpg|thumb|Deng Xiaoping meeting with [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], national security advisor to President Carter, in 1979]]
Under Deng's direction, relations with the West improved m |
></table>
===Professional business and technical colleges and universities===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[AIB College of Business]]
*[[Allen College of Nursing]]
*[[Des Moines University]]
*[[Hamilton College (Iowa)|Hamilton College]]
*[[Kaplan College]]
*[[Mercy College of Health Sciences]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Palmer College of Chiropractic]]
*[[St. Luke's College of Nursing and Health Sciences]]
*[[Vatterott College]]
</td></tr></table>
== Law and government ==
{| align="right"
|-
| [[Image:wiki_iowa.jpg|thumb|350px|Iowan stamp]]
|-
| [[Image:Iauds.jpg|thumb|right|Current sample [[Iowa]] [[license plate]]]]
|}
The state [[capital]] is [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]. The current Governor is [[Tom Vilsack]] (Democrat) and the two U.S. Senators:
*[[Chuck Grassley]] (R)
*[[Tom Harkin]] (D)
The five U.S. Congressmen:
*[[Jim Leach]] (R)
*[[Jim Nussle]] (R)
*[[Steve King]] (R)
*[[Tom Latham]] (R)
*[[Leonard Boswell]] (D)
The '''Code of Iowa''' contains the [[statutory law]]s of the State of Iowa. The [[Iowa Legislative Service Bureau]] is a non-partisan governmental agency that is responsible for organizing, updating and publishing the Iowa Code. The Iowa Code is republished in full in odd years (i.e., 1999, 2001, 2003, etc..) and is supplemented in even years.
Iowa has a liberal populist tradition but now is fairly evenly divided between the two major political parties. The state supported Democrats in the presidential contests from 1988 through 2000. It was one of only two states that supported Democrat Al Gore that switched to supporting George W. Bush in 2004. President Bush narrowly won the state's 7 electoral votes by a margin of 0.7 percentage points with 49.9% of the vote. Democratic strength is concentrated in the eastern region of the state and in Des Moines.
Iowa is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].
:''See [[List of Governors of Iowa]], [[Iowa General Assembly]], and [[Iowa State Capitol]]''
===Iowa Presidential caucus===
The state gets considerable attention every four years because of its first in the nation presidential [[Iowa caucus|caucus]], a gathering of voters to select delegates to the state convention. Along with the [[New Hampshire primary]] a week later, it has become the starting gun for choosing the two major-party candidates for president. The caucus, held in January of the election year, involves people gathering in homes or public places and choosing their candidate, rather than casting secret ballots, as is done in a [[Presidential primary|primary]] [[election]]. The national and international media give Iowa (and New Hampshire) about half of all the attention accorded the national candidate selection process, which gives the voters enormous leverage. Some candidates decide to skip the Iowa caucus, especially those who oppose ethanol subsidies, and use their resources in other early states such as New Hampshire and South Carolina. Those who enter the caucus expend enormous effort to reach voters in each of Iowa's 99 counties.
===U.S. senators from Iowa===
[[List of United States Senators]] who have represented Iowa:
{| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|+ Seat 1
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Senator !! Took Office !! Left Office !! Party
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Chuck Grassley]] || [[1981]] || present || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[John Culver]] || [[1975]] || [[1981]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Harold E. Hughes]] || [[1969]] || [[1975]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] || [[1945]] || [[1969]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Guy M. Gillette]] || [[1936]] || [[1945]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Richard Louis Murphy]] || [[1933]] || [[1936]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Smith W. Brookhart]] || [[1927]] || [[1933]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[David W. Stewart]] || [[1926]] || [[1927]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Albert B. Cummins]] || [[1908]] || [[1926]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[William B. Allison]] || [[1873]] || [[1908]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[James Harlan (Iowa Senator)|James Harlan]] || [[1867]] || [[1873]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] || [[1865]] || [[1867]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[James Harlan (Iowa Senator)|James Harlan]] || [[1855]] || [[1865]] || [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]] and<BR />[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Augustus C. Dodge]] || [[1848]] || [[1855]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|}
[[Image:Iowa capitol.jpg|thumb|250px|Capitol in [[2003]] after regilding]]
{| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|+ Seat 2
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Senator !! Took Office !! Left Office !! Party
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Tom Harkin]] || [[1985]] || present || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Roger Jepsen]] || [[1979]] || [[1985]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Dick Clark (Senator)|Dick Clark]] || [[1973]] || [[1979]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Jack R. Miller]] || [[1961]] || [[1973]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Thomas E. Martin]] || [[1955]] || [[1961]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Guy M. Gillette]] || [[1949]] || [[1955]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[George A. Wilson]] || [[1943]] || [[1949]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Clyde L. Herring]] || [[1937]] || [[1943]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[L.J. Dickinson]] || [[1931]] || [[1937]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Daniel F. Steck]] || [[1926]] || [[1931]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Smith W. Brookhart]] || [[1922]] || [[1926]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Charles A. Rawson]] || [[1922]] || [[1922]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[William S. Kenyon]] || [[1911]] || [[1922]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[Lafayette Young]] || [[1910]] || [[1911]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Jonathan P. Dolliver]] || [[1900]] || [[1910]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[John H. Gear]] || [[1895]] || [[1900]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[James F. Wilson]] || [[1883]] || [[1895]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[James W. McDill]] || [[1881]] || [[1883]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] || [[1877]] || [[1881]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[George G. Wright]] || [[1871]] || [[1877]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[James B. Howell]] || [[1870]] || [[1871]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#FFE8E8"
| [[James W. Grimes]] || [[1859]] || [[1869]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor="#DDEEFF"
| [[George W. Jones]] || [[1848]] || [[1859]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|}
== Professional sports teams ==
The [[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball teams]] are:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Iowa Cubs]] (AAA, [[Pacific Coast League]])
*[[Cedar Rapids Kernels]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Burlington Bees]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Clarinda A's]] (collegiate summer)
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Clinton LumberKings]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Swing of the Quad Cities]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Waterloo Bucks]] (collegiate summer)
*[[Sioux City Explorers]] ([[Northern League]], independent)
</td></tr></table>
The [[minor league hockey|Minor League hockey teams]] are:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Iowa Stars]]
*[[Cedar Rapids RoughRiders]]
*[[Waterloo Blackhawks]]
*[[Omaha Lancers]] (located in Council Bluffs)
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Des Moines Buccaneers]]
*[[Sioux City Musketeers]]
*[[Quad City Mallards]]
</td></tr></table>
The [[United Soccer Leagues|Minor League soccer teams]] are:
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Des Moines Menace]] ([[USL Premier Development League]]; amateur)
</td><td valign=top>
</td></tr></table>
== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Iowa}}
*http://www.iowa.gov/
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/iowacentric Iowa News.]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/19000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.legis.state.ia.us/IACODE Iowa Code online at Iowa General Assembly]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/iowa Iowa Newspaper |
ace="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/People</title>
<id>3581</id>
<revision>
<id>15901902</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Government</title>
<id>3582</id>
<revision>
<id>15901903</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:11:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of Bhutan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Bhutan</title>
<id>3583</id>
<revision>
<id>38746867</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T10:05:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.62.121.40</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* */ +es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
The economy of [[Bhutan]], one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on [[agriculture]] and [[forestry]], which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of [[gross domestic product|GDP]]. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on [[India]]n migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in such areas as industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
In 2004, Bhutan became the first country in the world to ban smoking and the selling of Tobacco.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
7% (1999 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
38%
<br>''industry:''
37%
<br>''services:''
25% (1998)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
9% (1998)
'''Labor force:'''
NA
<br>''note:''
massive lack of skilled labor
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%
'''Unemployment rate:'''
NA%
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$146 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.)
<br>''note:''
the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
'''Industries:'''
cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
9.3% (1996 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
1,788 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
0.39%
<br>''hydro:''
99.61%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
345 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
1,339 GWh
<br>''note:''
exports electricity to India (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
21 GWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
'''Exports:'''
$111 million (f.o.b., 1998)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
'''Exports - partners:'''
India 94%, Bangladesh
'''Imports:'''
$136 million (c.i.f., 1998)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
'''Imports - partners:'''
India 77%, [[Japan]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[United States]]
'''Debt - external:'''
$120 million (1998)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$73.8 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
'''Exchange rates:'''
ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]
==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
{{SAFTA}}
[[Category:Bhutan|Bhutan]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Bhutan]]
[[es:economía de Bután]]
[[fr:économie du Bhoutan]]
[[pt:Economia do Butão]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Communications</title>
<id>3584</id>
<revision>
<id>15901905</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:12:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Communications in Bhutan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Transportation</title>
<id>3585</id>
<revision>
<id>24815275</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T14:58:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Military</title>
<id>3586</id>
<revision>
<id>15901907</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:13:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Military of Bhutan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3587</id>
<revision>
<id>15901908</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T18:58:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Lhotshampa</title>
<id>3588</id>
<revision>
<id>15901909</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WojPob</username>
<id>34</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lhotshampa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Lhop</title>
<id>3589</id>
<revision>
<id>35889784</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T01:12:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Ethnic groups of Bhutan]] → [[Category:Ethnic groups in Bhutan]]. Requested change by [[User:Darwinek|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Lhop''' or '''Doya''' are a little-known tribe of southwest [[Bhutan]]. The Bhutanese believe them to be the [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] inhabitants of the country, although this claim has not be substantiated by anthropologists. The Lhop are found in the low valleys of [[Samtse]] and near [[Phuntsoling]] in the [[Duars]]. They are also known as the Lhops, Lhopu, or Lhokpu and speak a [[Tibeto-Burman]] language. They total approximately 1000 persons.
The dress of the Lhop resembles the [[Lepcha]], but they bear little similarity with the [[Bhutia]] in the North and the [[Toto (tribe)|Toto]] in the west. The Doya trace their descent [[matrilineality|matrilineally]], marry their [[cross cousin]]s, and embalm the deceased who are then placed in a foetal position on a circular sarcophagi above the ground. They follow a blend of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] mixed with [[animism]].
==See also==
*[[Sharchop]]
*[http://www.bagchee.com/BookDisplay.aspx?Bkid=B31019 ''Lhops (Doya) of Bhutan: An Ethnographic Account'' by B. Deben Sharman]
{{ethno-stub}}
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolivia/History</title>
<id>3590</id>
<revision>
<id>15901911</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-01T16:34:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bolivia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolivia/People</title>
<id>3591</id>
<revision>
<id>15901912</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bolivia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolivia/Geography</title>
<id>3592</id>
<revision>
<id>15901913</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:14:47Z</ti |
s of mail), and assign a time to the making of coats of mail and do good; surely I am seeing what you do."
In Surah Sa'd, chapter 38 ayahs 17-26, Allah says: "And remember Our servant Da'ud, the possessor of power; surely he was frequent in returning (to Allah). Surely We made the mountains to sing the glory (of Allah) in unison with him at the evening and the sunrise, And We strengthened his kingdom and We gave him wisdom and a clear judgment. And has there come to you the story of the litigants, when they made an entry into the private chamber by ascending over the walls? When they entered in upon Da'ud and he was frightened at them, they said: Fear not; two litigants, of whom one has acted wrongfully towards the other, therefore decide between us with justice, and do not act unjustly, and guide us to the right way. Surely this is my brother; he has ninety-nine ewes and I have a single ewe; but he said: Make it over to me, and he has prevailed against me in discourse. He said: Surely he has been unjust to you in demanding your ewe (to add) to his own ewes; and most surely most of the partners act wrongfully towards one another, save those who believe and do good, and very few are they; and Da'ud was sure that We had tried him, so he sought the protection of his Lord and he fell down bowing and turned time after time (to Him). Therefore We rectified for him this, and most surely he had a nearness to Us and an excellent resort. o Dawood ! surely We have made you a ruler in the land; so judge between men with justice and do not follow desire, lest it should lead you astray from the path of Allah; (as for) those who go astray from the path of Allah, they shall surely have a severe punishment because they forgot the day of reckoning."
==Historicity of David==
''See [[The Bible and history]] and [[dating the Bible]] for a more complete description of the general issues surrounding the Bible as a historical source.''
The [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) itself is a library of many ancient sources, and for that reason its books cannot be ''automatically'' discounted as historical sources without investigation into the particulars of the history being researched. In general, to conduct historical investigation of persons and events mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, one should first examine all relevant data. The first task, then, is to gather all relevant biblical texts along with the contents of whatever Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian inscriptions have some bearing on the subject, as well as inscriptions of the Hebrews and their nearer neighbors, such as the Phoenicians, Arameans, Moabites, and Ammonites. These and other ancient inscriptions certainly seem to have several points of agreement with biblical data, while disagreeing with the Bible on other points. Coming from the other direction, biblical data can also be used at certain points to support or critique extrabiblical inscriptions.
To begin at the oldest extant biblical texts, among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], the oldest scroll of a biblical book is that of Samuel (that is, 1 and 2 Samuel), which contains the biblical account of almost all of David's career. This scroll dates to about 225 BC, and in turn, it is generally acknowledged to be a copy of an earlier scroll, but it is impossible to tell how far back the "lineage" of these scrolls extends. The Hebrew Bible places David's reign from around 1010 until around 970 BC and the end of the reign of the last king of the Davidic dynasty at 587/586 BC; building on this basis, the first sentence of the New Testament asserts that Jesus is "the son of David" (Matthew 1:1). Thus the early sources are much closer to the purported events of David's lifetime than the present day, and yet they are still, as far as we can tell, centuries removed from that time. Some scholars of the twentieth and twenty-first century find oral tradition to be a means of conveying information that might have spanned the possible-to-likely gap between the purported events and the writings that assert them.
Turning to sources outside of the Bible, in the case of David, the [[Merneptah Stele]] dates to well before the period that the Bible assigns to the reign of David, and the records of the neo-Assyrian empire cover events well after the biblical reign of David, because the Assyrian conquerors did not arrive in Hebrew territory until then (see [[Assyria]]).
The famous [[Tel Dan Stele]] provides the only ''clear'' non-Biblical evidence of King David's existence and status as the founder of a Hebrew dynasty. Dated to the period from the mid-9th to mid-8th centuries BC and erected by a Aramean king (probably the king of Damascus) to record a victory over Israel, the text says ''inter alia'': "I killed [Achaz]yahu son of [Joram kin]g of the House of David." (The words and letters within square brackets have been supplied using biblical content.) While the reading has been questioned, it is accepted by a majority of scholars as confirming the existence in the 9th/8th centuries BC of a line of kings claiming descent from a dynasty founder named David.
A second stele, the Moabite Stone or [[Mesha Stele]], erected by a king of Moab in about 850 BC, has also been read as containing the phrase "house of David." Because the phrase that is read "house of [D]avid" appears in a place where the stone is partly broken (the square brackets around the first D indicate that the letter is supplied) and for other reasons, this claim is accepted by some scholars but is ignored or rejected by others. In 2005, an Israeli archaeologist working in the most ancient portion of Jerusalem, called the City of David, in [[East Jerusalem]] uncovered an [[alleged King David's Palace site]], but there is no reliable archaeological assessment currently available.
A third possible mention of King David is found in a standing monumental Egyptian inscription of Pharaoh Shoshenq I that is dated to 924 BC—only about forty-five years after David's death as calculated according to the books of Kings and Chronicles. David's name appears to be included within a place-name that appears among other place-names located in the territory ''later'' said to belong to the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. This particular place-name is ''Hadabiyat-Dawit'', translated by Kenneth Kitchen as "highland of David" or "heights of David," and it is located in the Negev region, where the Bible says that David hid as a fugitive from Saul for lengthy periods of time. On this inscription, see Egyptologist K. A. Kitchen's article, "A Possible Mention of David in the Late Tenth Century B.C.E., and Deity *Dod as Dead as the Dodo?" ''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'' 76 (1997): 29–44, especially 39–41.
Although at least one small portion of the Hebrew Bible has been discovered in a dig (a version of the benediction in Numbers 6:24–26 on a silver amulet recovered from a grave at Ketef-Hinnom, near Jerusalem), it must be observed that each book of the Bible, having been handed down for generations by recopying, rather than having been excavated, is an example of a received text, a ''textus receptus''. (So are the works of Homer, ca. 800 BC, the [[Iliad]] and the [[Odyssey]], and the works of [[Plato]], ca. 400 BC.) For this reason, the Biblical texts themselves need to be treated cautiously. They contain, for example, two different accounts that both seem to describe David's first meeting with Saul. In the first of these, Saul sends for David as one known for his skill on the lyre and makes him his armour-bearer, while in the second Saul first meets David when he defeats Goliath. Observations such as this serve to underline the likelihood that the narrative is drawn from numerous originally independent sources.
More fundamentally, the texts as they currently exist have been subject to revision and redaction over many centuries, notably during the reign of king [[Josiah]] of Judah at the end of the 7th century BC. Many scholars think that Josiah (or rather the priests of the temple in Jerusalem) put forward the picture of David and Solomon as rulers over a united and far-flung early Hebrew kingdom in order to provide a rationale for his own plans for the conquest of the former kingdom of Israel, which had been abandoned by the Assyrians as that empire collapsed. Other scholars—and archaeologists, most notably William G. Dever—point to the similar architecture of the massive, fortified gates of several cities built in what would have been the home territory of David's and Solomon's united kingdom of Israel as evidence that they were built by a powerful Hebrew king during the period that the Bible assigns to the reign of Solomon (compare 1 Kings 9:15-16). According to the Bible, David's realm for his first seven years as king was the territory of two Hebrew tribes in what later became the southern kingdom of Judah; after that, his realm came to include the territory of the ten Hebrew tribes in what later became the northern kingdom of Israel, and he transferred kingship over this united kingdom to Solomon. Dever describes the architecture of the cities' gates and other evidences as "convergences" consistent with the biblical portrayal, rather than as direct proofs of the historical accuracy of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament).
==Representation in art and literature==
===Art===
Famous sculptures of David include (in chronological order) those by:
* [[Donatello]] (ca. [[1430]] - [[1440]]) (see [[Donatello's David]])
* [[Andrea del Verrocchio]] ([[1476]])
* [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] ([[1504]]) (see [[Michelangelo's David]])
* [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]] ([[1624]]) (see [[David (Bernini)|Bernini's David]])
* [[Antonin Mercié]] ([[1873]])
===Literature===
[[Elmer Davis]]'s [[1928]] novel ''Giant Killer'' retells and embellishes th |
[[ar:23 أغسطس]]
[[an:23 d'agosto]]
[[ast:23 d'agostu]]
[[bg:23 август]]
[[be:23 жніўня]]
[[bs:23. august]]
[[ca:23 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 23]]
[[cv:Çурла, 23]]
[[co:23 d'aostu]]
[[cs:23. srpen]]
[[cy:23 Awst]]
[[da:23. august]]
[[de:23. August]]
[[et:23. august]]
[[el:23 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:23 de agosto]]
[[eo:23-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 23]]
[[fo:23. august]]
[[fr:23 août]]
[[fy:23 augustus]]
[[ga:23 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:23 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 23일]]
[[hr:23. kolovoza]]
[[io:23 di agosto]]
[[id:23 Agustus]]
[[ia:23 de augusto]]
[[ie:23 august]]
[[is:23. ágúst]]
[[it:23 agosto]]
[[he:23 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:23 Agustus]]
[[ka:23 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:23 zélnika]]
[[ku:23'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 23]]
[[lb:23. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 23]]
[[mk:23 август]]
[[ms:23 Ogos]]
[[nap:23 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:23 augustus]]
[[ja:8月23日]]
[[no:23. august]]
[[nn:23. august]]
[[oc:23 d'agost]]
[[pl:23 sierpnia]]
[[pt:23 de Agosto]]
[[ro:23 august]]
[[ru:23 августа]]
[[sco:23 August]]
[[sq:23 Gusht]]
[[scn:23 di austu]]
[[simple:August 23]]
[[sk:23. august]]
[[sl:23. avgust]]
[[sr:23. август]]
[[fi:23. elokuuta]]
[[sv:23 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 23]]
[[tt:23. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 23]]
[[th:23 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:23 tháng 8]]
[[tr:23 Ağustos]]
[[uk:23 серпня]]
[[wa:23 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 23]]
[[zh:8月23日]]
[[pam:Agostu 23]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 24</title>
<id>1629</id>
<revision>
<id>42102153</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:13:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Squideshi</username>
<id>202826</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=24}}
|}
'''[[August 24]]''' is the 236th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (237th in leap years), with 129 days remaining.
==Events==
* [[49 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]]'s general Gaius Curio is defeated in the [[Second Battle of the Bagradas River]] by the [[Numidians]] under Attius Varus and King Juba of [[Numidia]]. Curio is slain in battle.
* AD [[79]] - [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts. The cities of [[Pompeii]], [[Herculaneum]], and [[Stabiae]] are buried in volcanic ash.
* [[410]] - The [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] sack [[Rome]] for three days.
* [[1215]] - [[Pope Innocent III]] declares the [[Magna Carta]] invalid.
* [[1349]] - Six thousand Jews are killed in [[Mainz]] because they are blamed for the [[bubonic plague]].
* [[1391]] - Jews massacred in [[Palma de Mallorca]].
* [[1456]] - The printing of the [[Gutenberg Bible]] is completed.
* [[1511]] - [[Alfonso de Albuquerque]] of [[Portugal]] conquers the [[Sultanate of Malacca]].
* [[1572]] - [[Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre|Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]: On the orders of king [[Charles IX of France]], a massacre of [[Huguenot]]s (French [[Protestant]]s) begins.
* [[1608]] - The first official British representative to [[India]] lands in [[Surat]].
* [[1662]] - [[Act of Uniformity]] requires [[England]] to accept the [[Book of Common Prayer]].
* [[1682]] - [[William Penn]] receives the area that is now the state of [[Delaware]], and adds it to his colony of [[Pennsylvania]].
* [[1690]] - [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], [[India]] is founded.
* [[1814]] - British troops invade [[Washington, D.C.]] and burn down the [[White House]] and several other buildings.
* [[1816]] - The [[Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.]] is signed in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Missouri]].
* [[1821]] - The [[Treaty of Córdoba]] is signed in [[Córdoba, Veracruz|Córdoba]], now in [[Veracruz (state)|Veracruz]], [[Mexico]], concluding the [[Mexican War of Independence]] from [[Spain]].
* [[1831]] - [[Charles Darwin]] is asked to travel on [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']].
* [[1847]] - [[Charlotte Brontë]] finishes ''Jane Eyre''.
* [[1853]] - [[Potato chips]] are first prepared.
* [[1857]] - The [[Panic of 1857]] begins, setting off one of the most severe economic crises in U.S. history.
* [[1858]] - In [[Richmond, Virginia]], 90 blacks are arrested for learning.
* [[1891]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the motion picture camera.
* [[1909]] - Workers start pouring concrete for the [[Panama Canal]].
* [[1912]] - [[Alaska]] becomes a [[United States]] territory.
* [[1914]] - [[World War I]]: German troops capture [[Namur (city)|Namur]].
* [[1929]] - [[Turkey]] and [[Iran|Persia]] sign a friendship treaty.
* 1929 - [[Riots in Palestine of 1929]]: 18 Jews in Safed, 67 in Hebron, and 22 in Jerusalem killed by Arab Palestinians
* [[1931]] - [[France]] and the [[Soviet Union]] sign a neutrality/no attack treaty.
*[[1931]] - Resignation of the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Second Labour Government]]. Formation of the [[UK National Government]].
* [[1932]] - [[Amelia Earhart]] is the first woman to fly across the [[United States]] non-stop (from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]]).
* [[1936]] - The [[Australian Antarctic Territory]] is created.
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Battle of the East Solomon Islands]]. [[Japan]]ese [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[Ryuho]]'' is sunk.
* [[1944]] - World War II: French and Allied troops start the attack on [[Paris]].
* [[1949]] - The treaty creating [[NATO]] goes into effect.
* [[1950]] - [[Edith Sampson]] becomess the first black U.S. delegate to the [[UN]].
* [[1954]] - The [[Communist Control Act]] goes into effect. The [[American Communist Party]] is outlawed.
* [[1954]] - [[Getúlio Dornelles Vargas]], president of Brazil, commit suicide and is succeeded by [[João Café Filho]].
* [[1960]] - A temperature of &minus;88°C (&minus;127°F) is measured in [[Vostok, Antarctica|Vostok]], [[Antarctica]] &mdash; a world-record low.
* [[1963]] - The 200-metre freestyle is swum in less than 2 minutes for the first time by [[Don Schollander]] (1:58).
* [[1967]] - Led by [[Abbie Hoffman]], a group of [[hippies]] temporarily disrupt trading at the [[NYSE]] by throwing dollar bills from the viewing gallery, causing a cease in trading as the brokers scramble to grab them up.
* [[1968]] - [[France]] explodes its first [[hydrogen bomb]], thus becoming the world's fifth nuclear power.
* [[1971]] - [[Pink Floyd]] performs their most famous concert, in an abandoned Pompeii amphitheatre on the 1892nd anniversary of the infamous disappearance of Pompeii.
* [[1979]] - In [[Central Park]], [[New York]] a concert is given by [[The Cars]].
* [[1981]] - [[Mark David Chapman]] is sentenced to 20 years to life in prison for murdering [[John Lennon]].
* [[1989]] - [[Colombia]]n drug barons declare "total war" on the Colombian government.
* 1989 - [[Cincinnati Reds]] manager [[Pete Rose]] is banned from [[baseball]] for gambling by Commissioner [[A. Bartlett Giamatti]]
* 1989 - [[Voyager 2]] passes [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]].
* [[1990]] - A judge rules that [[Judas Priest]] are not responsible for the deaths of two youths who committed [[suicide]] after listening to the band's music.
* 1990 - [[Sinéad O'Connor]] refuses to perform at the Garden State Arts Plaza in [[Holmdel, New Jersey]] if "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" is played before her show, as is customary.
* [[1991]] - [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] resigns as head of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].
* 1991 - [[Ukraine]] declares itself independent from the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1992]] - Diplomatic relations are established between the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[South Korea]].
* 1992 - [[Hurricane Andrew]] hits [[South Florida]].
* [[1994]] - Initial accord between [[Israel]] and the [[PLO]] about partial self-rule of the [[Palestinian]]s on the [[West Bank]].
* [[1995]] - [[Windows 95]] is released.
* [[1998]] - The [[Netherlands]] is selected as the site for the trial of the two [[Libya]]n suspects of the 1988 PanAm bombing.
* [[2001]] - [[Air Transat Flight 236]] runs out of fuel over the Atlantic Ocean (en route to Lisbon from New York) and makes an emergency landing in the Azores.
* [[2004]] - Two airliners in [[Russia]], carrying a total of 89 passengers, crash within minutes of each other after flying out of [[Domodedovo International Airport]], near [[Moscow]], leaving no survivors. Authorities suspect suicide attacks by rebels from the breakaway republic of [[Chechnya]] to be the cause of the crashes.
==Births==
* [[1113]] - [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey Plantagenet]], Count of Anjou (b. [[1113]])
* [[1198]] - King [[Alexander II of Scotland]] (d. [[1249]])
* [[1358]] - King [[John I of Castile]] (d. [[1390]])
* [[1393]] - [[Arthur III, Duke of Brittany]] (d. [[1458]])
*[[1552]] - [[Lavinia Fontana]], Italian painter (d. [[1614]])
*[[1580]] - [[John Taylor (poet)|John Taylor]], English poet (d. [[1654]])
* [[1591]] - [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]], English poet (d. [[1674]])
* [[1635]] - [[Peder Griffenfeld]], Danish statesman (d. [[1699]])
* [[1669]] - [[Alessandro Marcello]], Italian composer (d. [[1747]])
* [[1759]] - [[William Wilberforce]], English campaigner against slavery (d. [[1833]])
* [[1772]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]] (1814-1840)
* [[1787]] - [[James Weddell]], Antarctica explorer (d. [[1834]])
* [[1817]] - [[Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy]], Russian writer (d. [[1875]])
* [[1837]] - [[Théodore Dubois]], French composer and teacher (d. [[1924]])
* [[1852]] - [[Deacon White]], baseball player (d. [[1919]])
* [[1863]] - [[Dragutin Lerman]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1918]])
* [[1865]] - King [[Ferdinand I of Romania]] (d. [[1927]])
* [[1880]] - [[Joshua Lionel Cowen]], American inventor and entrepreneur (d. [[1965]])
* [[1884]] - [[Earl Derr Biggers]], American author (d. [[1933]])
* [[1887]] - [[Harry Hooper]], baseball player (d. [[1974]])
* [[1890]] - [[Duke Kahanamoku]], Hawaiian swimmer and surfer (d. [[1968]])
* 1890 - [[Jean Rhys]], Dominican writer (d. [[1979]])
* [[1898]] - [[Malcolm Cowley]], American literary critic, writer, and edit |
independently using a [[white cane]], the [[international symbols|international symbol]] of blindness.
A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch sensation, swung in a low sweeping motion across the intended path of travel to detect obstacles. However, some visually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others require a support cane.
Each of these is painted white for maximum visibility, and to denote visual impairment on the part of the user. In addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the [[Traffic#Right of Way ("who goes first")|right-of-way]] be given to users of white canes or [[guide dogs]].
A small number of people, about one percent, employ [[guide dog]]s. These companions are trained to lead blind individuals around obstacles on the ground and overhead. Though highly intelligent, guide dogs neither interpret street signs nor determine when the team ought to cross a street. Visually impaired people who employ these animals must already be competent travelers.
===Reading and magnification===
Most blind and visually impaired people read print, either of a regular size or enlarged through the use of magnification devices. A variety of [[magnifying glass]]es, some of which are handheld while others rest on desktops, can make reading easier for those with decreased visual acuity.
The rest read [[Braille]] and [[Moon type]] or rely on talking books and readers. They use computers with special hardware such as scanners and [[refreshable Braille display]]s as well as software written specifically for the blind, like optical character recognition applications and screen reading software.
Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind, such as the [[National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]] in the United States, the [[National Library for the Blind]] or the [[Royal National Institute for the Blind|RNIB]] in the United Kingdom.
[[Closed-circuit television]]s, equipment that enlarge and contrast textual items, are a more [[high-tech]] alternative to traditional magnification devices. So too are modern [[web browser]]s, which can increase the size of text on some web pages through browser controls or through user-controlled [[style sheet]]s.
===Computers===
Access technology such as [[Freedom Scientific]]'s [[JAWS for Windows]] [[screen reading software]] enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications. Most legally blind people (70% of them across all ages, according to the [[Lighthouse for the Blind]]) do not use computers. Only a small fraction of this population, when compared to the sighted community, have [[Internet]] access. This bleak outlook is changing, however, as availability of assistive technology increases, accompanied by concerted efforts to insure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users, including the blind.
The movement towards greater [[web accessibility]] is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology, making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers.
Experimental approaches such as the [[seeingwithsound|seeing with sound]] project are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a [[camera]].
===Other aids===
People may use talking [[thermometer]]s, enlarged or marked oven dials, talking watches, talking clocks, talking [[weighing scale|scales]], talking [[calculator]]s, talking [[compass]]es and other talking equipment.
==Social attitudes towards blindness==
Historically, blind and visually impaired people have either been treated as if their lack of sight were an outward manifestation of some internal lack of reason, or as if they possessed extrasensory abilities. Stories such as ''[[The Cricket on the Hearth]]'' by [[Charles Dickens]] provided yet another view of blindness, wherein those affected by it were ignorant of their surroundings and easily deceived.
The authors of modern educational materials (see: [[blindness and education]] for further reading on that subject), as well as those treating [[blindness in literature]], have worked to paint a truer picture of blind people as three-dimensional individuals with a range of abilities, talents, and even character flaws. Certain individuals are gifted, and others licentious, but nothing definitive can be said of the blind as a class but that they cannot see well.
==See also==
*[[Accessibility]]
*[[Amaurosis]]
*[[Blind musicians]]
*[[Braille]]
*[[Color blindness]]
*[[Cortical blindness]]
*[[International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness]] - Global Blindness Prevention
*[[List of blind people]]
*[[List of eye diseases]]
*[[Low vision]]
*[[Night blindness]]
*[[Scotoma]]
*[[Snow blindness]]
*[[Visual loss]]
==External links==
*[http://www.accesswatch.info Access Watch: Blind users review accessibility of mainstream software]
*[http://www.question-mark.ca ?.Ca: A Comprehensive Directory of Blindness Information]
*[http://www.acb.org American Council of the Blind]
*[http://www.afb.org American Foundation for the Blind]
*[http://www.blindaccessjournal.com Blind Access Journal: Visual impairment in the real world]
*[http://www.v2020.org VISION 2020: The Right to Sight]
*[http://www.iapb.org International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB)]
*[http://www.braille.org International Braille Research Center]
*[http://www.growingstrong.org/bvi/resource.html Literature Bibliography and Resources List]
*[http://www.nbp.org National Braille Press]
*[http://www.nfb.org National Federation of the Blind: Civil rights and consumer advocacy]
*[http://www.nlb-online.org/ National Library for the Blind]
*[http://www.loc.gov/nls National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]
*[http://www.rfbd.org Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic]
*[http://www.rnib.org.uk/xpedio/groups/public/documents/code/InternetHome.hcsp Royal National Institute for the Blind]
*[http://www.ssc.mhie.ac.uk/ Scottish Sensory Centre]
*[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/ WHO Fact Sheet on Visual Impairment]
[[Category:Blindness|*]]
[[cs:Slepota]]
[[cy:Dallineb]]
[[de:Blindheit]]
[[es:Ceguera]]
[[eo:Blindeco]]
[[fr:Cécité]]
[[it:Cecità]]
[[he:עיוורון]]
[[nl:Blindheid]]
[[ja:失明]]
[[pl:Ślepota]]
[[pt:Cegueira]]
[[simple:Blindness]]
[[fi:Sokeus]]
[[zh:失明]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Beethoven (disambiguation)</title>
<id>3434</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-03T04:04:57Z</timestamp>
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<username>Moverton</username>
<id>82329</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Beethoven''' is the surname for:
* [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], an 18th century German music composer
* [[Johann van Beethoven]], father of Ludwig and husband to Magdalena Keverich van Beethoven
Others named for the famous composer:
* [[Beethoven Peninsula]], an ice-covered peninsula forming the southwest part of Alexander Island, close to the Antarctic Peninsula
* [[Beethoven (film)|''Beethoven'' (film)]], a 1992 film about a dog, or one of its sequels
{{disambig}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven)</title>
<id>3435</id>
<revision>
<id>38833317</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T23:05:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Beethoven's '''String Quartet No. 16''' in F major ([[Opus number|Opus]] 135) was written in [[1826]] and was the last substantial work he finished. Only the last movement of the [[String Quartet No. 13 (Beethoven)|Quartet Op. 130]], written as a replacement for the [[Große Fuge]], was written later. It was premiered by the Schuppanzigh Quartet in March [[1828]].
The work is on a smaller scale than his other late quartets. Under the introductory slow chords in the last movement Beethoven wrote in the manuscript "Muss es sein?" (Must it be?) to which he responds, with the faster main theme theme of the movement, "Es muss sein!" (It must be!)
It is in four [[movement (music)|movements]]:
# Allegretto
# Vivace
# Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo
# “Der schwer gefaßte Entschluß:” Grave — Allegro — Grave ma non troppo tratto — Allegro
==See also==
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]
*[[List of works by Beethoven]]
==External links==
*[http://www.umass.edu/fac/calendar/centerseries/programs/sec-11-8-2003.html Program notes to a performance of the quartet]
{{BeethovenStringQuartets}}
[[Category:String quartets by Ludwig van Beethoven|String quartet 16]]
[[fr:Quatuor à cordes n°16 (Beethoven)]]
[[ja:弦楽四重奏曲第16番 (ベートーヴェン)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:31:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akrubin</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125''' is the last complete symphony composed by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]. Completed in 1824, it includes part of the ode ''An die Freude'' ("[[Ode To Joy]]") by [[Friedrich Schiller]], as text sung by soloists and a chorus in the last movement. It is the first example of a major composer using the human voice on the same level with instruments in a symphony.
The symphony is one of the best known of all works of [[European classical music]], and is considered one of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s greatest masterpieces, composed whilst he was completely deaf. It plays a prominent cultural role in modern society. In particular, the music from the f |
fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.
===Data manipulation===
Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion.
Since digital data are collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert [[geographic data]] from one structure to another.
===Projections, coordinate systems and registration===
A property ownership [[map]] and a soils map might show data at different scales. Map information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with information gathered from other maps. Before the digital data can be analyzed, they may have to undergo other manipulations&mdash;projection and coordinate conversions, for example&mdash;that integrate them into a GIS.
The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy (e.g., North American Datum, 1983 - NAD83 - works well in North America, but not in Europe). See [[Datum]] for more information.
''Projection'' is a fundamental component of [[map making]]. A [[map projection|projection]] is a mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium&mdash;paper or a computer screen. Different projections are used for different types of maps because each projection particularly suits certain uses. For example, a projection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents will distort their relative sizes. See [[Map projection]] for more information.
Since much of the information in a GIS comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the processing power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from sources with different projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common projection and coordinate system.
<!-- TODO: move to data manipulation and Relating information. -->
===Spatial analysis with GIS===
====Data modeling====
It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with [[isopleth]] lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.
Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area.
Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.
====Topological modeling====
In the past years, were there any gas stations or factories operating next to the swamp? Any within two miles and uphill from the swamp? A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).
====Networks====
If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the same time, how long would it take for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland reserve? A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear network. Values such as slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into network modelling in order to represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately. Network modelling is commonly employed in [[transportation planning]], [[hydrology]] modelling, and [[infrastructure]] modelling.
====Cartographic modeling====
Digital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as (semi)automated process of making maps, so called Automated Cartography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS, whithin which it is equivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the GIS functionality is used. Cartographic products can be either in a digital or in a hardcopy format. Powerful analysis techniques with different data representation can produce high-quality maps whithin short time period.
{{sect-stub}}
====Vector overlay====
The combination of two separate spatial datasets (points, lines or polygons) to create a new output vector dataset. These overlays are similar to mathematical [[Venn diagram]] overlays. A [[union (set theory)|union]] overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An [[intersection (set theory)|intersect]] overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A [[symmetric difference]] overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.
Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one dataset that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset.
In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "map algebra," through a function that combines the values of each raster's [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]]. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.
====Spatial Statistics (Geostatistics)====
{{cleanup-section}}
Using geostatistics to predict fields from points. Point pattern analysis.
A way of looking at the statistical properties of spatial data. What makes it unique from other kinds of [[statistics]] is the use of [[graph theory]] and [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix algebra]] to reduce the number of parameters in the data being analyzed. This is necessary because it is actually the second-order properties of the GIS data that need analyzing.
When we measure any phenomena, our observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Whether our study is concerned with the nature of traffic patterns in an urban core, or with the analysis of weather patterns over the Pacific, there will always contain a variable or a degree of precision which escapes our measurement; this is determined directly by the scale and distribution of our data collection, or survey methods. In order to apply statistical relevance to spatial analysis, an 'average' must be determined so that points, or gradients, outside of any immediate measurement may be included as to their predicted behavior. Limitations in statistics and data collection mean that it is impossible to directly measure a contiuum without the inferential methods of analysis, of which, several forms of interpolation are used in order to predict the behavior of particles and locations not directly measured.
[[Image:Dem.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Digital Elevation Models (DEM) of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)]][[Interpolation]] is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the dataset. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points, are they abrupt or gradual. Finally there is whether a method is global, it uses the entire dataset to form the model, or local, an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.
Digital Elevation Models (DEM), Digital Terrain Models (DTM), Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN), Edge finding algorithms, Theissen Polygons, Fourier analysis, Weighted moving averages, Inverse Distance Weighted, Moving averages, Kriging, Spine, Trend surface analysis.
Regionalized variable theory
Spatial Autocorrelation Principle: Data collected at any position will have a greater similarity to, or influence on, those locations within its immediate vicinity.
{{sect-stub}}
====Geocoding====
Calculating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from stre |
worlds in literature and science fiction ==
''Main article: [[Parallel universe (fiction)]]''
The many-worlds interpretation (and the unrelated concept of [[possible worlds]]) have been associated to numerous themes in [[literature]], [[art]] and [[science fiction]].
Aside from violating fundamental principles of causality and relativity, these stories are extremely misleading since the [[information theory|information-theoretic]] structure of the path space of multiple universes (that is information flow between different paths) is very likely extraordinarily complex. Also see [[Michael Price]]'s [[FAQ]] referenced in the external links section below where these issues (and other similar ones) are dealt with more decisively.
Another kind of popular illustration of many worlds splittings, which does not involve information flow between paths, or information flow backwards in time considers alternate outcomes of historical events. From the point of view of quantum mechanics, these stories however are deficient for at least two reasons:
*There is nothing inherently quantum mechanical about branching descriptions of historical events. In fact, this kind of case-based analysis is a common planning technique and it can be analysed quantitatively by classical probability.
*The use of historical events complicates matters by introduction of an issue which is generally believed to be completely extraneous to quantum theory, namely the question of the nature of individual choice.
==Speculative implications of many worlds==
It has been controversially claimed that an interesting, but dangerous experiment would clearly differeniate between the many-worlds interpretation and other [[interpretations of quantum mechanics]]. It involves a [[quantum suicide]] machine and a physicist who cares enough about the issue to risk his own life. However, at best, this would only decide the issue for the brave physicist; bystanders would learn nothing.
The many-worlds interpretation has some similarity to [[modal realism]] in [[philosophy]], which is the view that the [[possible world]]s used to interpret modal claims actually exist.
==See also==
* [[multiverse]]
* [[quantum decoherence]]
* [[multiple histories]]
* [[many-minds interpretation]]
The following provide more speculative interpretations:
* [[quantum immortality]]
* [[holomovement]]
== External links==
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9703089 Against Many-Worlds Interpretations]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-everett/ Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-manyworlds/ Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics]
* [http://www.hedweb.com/manworld.htm Michael Price's Everett FAQ]
* [http://www.hep.upenn.edu/~max/everett.html Max Tegmark's web page]
* [http://timetravelportal.com/viewtopic.php?t=288 Many Worlds & Parallel Universes]
*[http://www.mth.kcl.ac.uk/~streater/lostcauses.html#XII Many Worlds is a "lost cause"] according to R. F. Streater
*[http://www.sankey.ws/qm.html The many worlds of quantum mechanics]
== References ==
* [[Jeffrey A. Barrett]], ''The Quantum Mechanics of Minds and Worlds'', Oxford University Press, 1999.
* [[Hugh Everett]], Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, ''Reviews of Modern Physics'' vol 29, (1957) pp 454-462.
* [[Christopher Fuchs]], Quantum Mechanics as Quantum Information (and only a little more), arXiv:quant-ph/0205039 v1, (2002)
* [[Bryce DeWitt]], [[R. Neill Graham]], eds, ''The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics'', Princeton Series in Physics, [[Princeton University Press]] (1973)
* [[Asher Peres]], ''Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods'', Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993.
* [[John Archibald Wheeler]], Assessment of Everett's "Relative State Formulation of Quantum Theory", ''Reviews of Modern Physics'', vol 29, (1957) pp 463-465
*[[David Deutsch]], ''The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes And Its Implications'', Penguin Books (August 1, 1998), ISBN 014027541X.
*[[David Deutsch]], Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the universal quantum computer, ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 400'', (1985) , pp. 97–117
*[[James Hartle]], Quantum Mechanics of Individual Systems, ''Amer. Jour. Phys.'', vol 36 (1968), # 8
[[Category:quantum measurement]]
[[de:Viele-Welten-Interpretation]]
[[ja:エヴェレットの多世界解釈]]
[[pt:Interpretação de muitos mundos]]
[[ru:Многомировая интерпретация]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Equations of State</title>
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<timestamp>2002-09-01T01:22:27Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Equation of state]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ergonomics</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:04:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>Rani Lueder</username>
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<comment>/* Resources */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Human factors}}
'''Ergonomics''' (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a [[system]], and the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance (definition adopted by the International Ergonomics Association in [[2000]]).
Ergonomists contribute to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of people (IEA, 2000).
==Domains==
The IEA divides ergonomics broadly into three domains:
'''Physical ergonomics''' deals with the human body's responses to [[physical]] and [[physiological]] loads. Relevant topics include manual materials handling, workstation layout, job demands, and risk factors such as [[repetition]], [[vibration]], [[force]] and awkward/static [[posture]] as they relate to musculoskeletal disorders (see [[repetitive strain injury]]).
'''[[Cognitive ergonomics]]''', also known as engineering psychology, concerns mental processes such as [[perception]], [[attention]], [[cognition]], motor control, and [[memory]] storage and retrieval as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. Relevant topics include mental workload, [[vigilance]], decision-making, skilled performance, human error, [[human-computer interaction]], and [[training]].
'''Organizational ergonomics''', or macroergonomics, is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include [[shift work]], scheduling, [[job satisfaction]], motivational theory, supervision, [[teamwork]], [[telework]] and [[ethics]].
==History==
Italian Bernardino Ramazinni ([[1633]]-[[1714]]) became the first physician to write about work-related injuries and illnesses in his [[1700]] publication, "De Morbis Artificum (Diseases of Workers)". Ramazinni was ostracized by his fellow doctors for visiting the workplaces of his patients in order to identify the causes of their disorders. The term ergonomics (from the Greek words ergon [work] and nomoi [natural laws]) first entered the modern lexicon when [[Wojciech Jastrzębowski]] used the word in his [[1857]] article Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody (adapted from a previous version of this page).
Later in the 19th century, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]] pioneered the "[[Scientific Management]]" method, an approach that sought the single best method to perform a job and its tasks. By incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the optimum shoveling rate was reached, Taylor tripled the amount of coal that workers could shovel in a day. Frank and Lilian [[Gilbreth]], in the early [[1900s]], expanded Taylor's methods to develop "Time and Motion Studies" that aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their pace of laying bricks from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.
[[World War II]] marked the advent of highly sophisticated machines and weaponry, creating previously unseen cognitive demands on operators in terms of decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination. It was observed that perfectly working aircraft, flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In [[1943]], [[Alphonse Chapanis]], a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that "pilot error" could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits.
In the decades following the war and leading to today, ergonomics has continued to flourish and diversify. The [[Space Age]] created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme [[G-force]]s. To what extent could these environments be tolerated and what effects would they have on the mind and body? The [[Information Age]] has spawned the field of [[human-computer interaction]] (HCI) while the growing demand for and competition among [[consumer goods]] and [[electronics]] has resulted in more companies heeding human factors in product design.
==Foundations==
Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including [[anthropometry]], [[biomechanics]], [[engineering]], [[kinesiology]], [[physiology]] and [[psychology]].
Typically, an ergonomist will have a BA or BS in Psychology, Industrial/Mechanical Engineering or Health Sciences, and usually a MA, MS or |
mocratie et le Progress or PCDP [Ali MROUDJAE]; Rassemblement National pour le Development or RND (party of the government) [Omar TAMOU, Abdoulhamid AFFRAITANE]
'''International organization participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[ACP countries|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[AFM]], [[African Union]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]] (signatory), [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[InOC]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[LAS]], [[NAM]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]] (signatory), [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WMO]]
'''Flag description:'''
four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent; the horizontal bands and the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mayotte (a territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros); the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam
:''See also :'' [[Comoros]]
{{Africa_in_topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Comoros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comoros/Economy</title>
<id>6004</id>
<revision>
<id>15904169</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-14T14:00:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Comoros]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Comoros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Comoros</title>
<id>6005</id>
<revision>
<id>29727327</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-30T20:43:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tedernst</username>
<id>3700</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
5,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
0 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
sparse system of [[microwave]] radio relay and HF radiotelephone communication stations
<br>''domestic:''
HF radiotelephone communications and microwave radio relay
<br>''international:''
HF radiotelephone communications to [[Madagascar]] and [[Réunion]]
'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
90,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
0 (1998)
'''Televisions:'''
1,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' KM
:''See also:'' [[Comoros]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Comoros</title>
<id>6006</id>
<revision>
<id>37831775</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T11:43:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in Comoros]] to [[Transport in Comoros]]: part of a series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
880 km
<br>''paved:''
673 km
<br>''unpaved:''
207 km (1996 est.)
'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Fomboni]], [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]], [[Moutsamoudou]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
4 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
4
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Comoros]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
{{Africa-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Comoros</title>
<id>6007</id>
<revision>
<id>35312885</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:17:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Comoros}}
In November 1975, [[Comoros]] became the 143d member of the [[United Nations]]. The new nation was defined as consisting of the entire archipelago, despite the fact that France maintains control over [[Mayotte]].
Comoros also is a member of the [[Organization of African Unity]], the [[Arab League]], the [[European Development Fund]], the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[Indian Ocean Commission]], and the [[African Development Bank]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
claims [[France|French]]-administered [[Mayotte]]
:''See also :'' [[Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Comoros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Comoros</title>
<id>6008</id>
<revision>
<id>15904173</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-06T10:05:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDC</username>
<id>181435</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The military resources of the [[Comoros]] consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. [[France]] maintains a small troop presence in Comoros at government request. France maintains a small maritime base and a foreign legion contingent on [[Mayotte]].
'''Military branches:'''
Comorian Security Force
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
136,914 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
81,477 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%
==References and Links==
*[[Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Militaries|Comoros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosmic microwave background</title>
<id>6009</id>
<revision>
<id>15904174</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-20T19:46:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AstroNomer</username>
<id>94</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic microwave background radiation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer worm</title>
<id>6010</id>
<revision>
<id>41635308</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:07:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.159.76.105</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer worm''' is a self-replicating [[computer program]], similar to a [[computer virus]]. A virus attaches itself to, and becomes part of, another executable program; however, a worm is self-contained and does not need to be part of another program to propagate itself. They are often designed to exploit the file [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]] capabilities found on many computers. The main difference between a [[computer virus]] and a worm is that a virus cannot propagate by itself whereas worms can. A worm uses a network to send copies of itself to other systems and it does so without any intervention. In general, worms harm the network and consume bandwidth, whereas viruses infect or corrupt files on a targeted computer. Viruses generally do not affect network performance, as their malicious activities are mostly confined within the target computer itself.
The name 'worm' was taken from ''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'', a 1970s [[science fiction]] novel by [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]. Researchers writing an early paper on experiments in distributed computing noted the similarities between their software and the program described by Brunner and adopted the name.
<!-- Who were they and what was the paper? -->
The first implementation of a worm was by two researchers at [[Xerox PARC]] in 1978. [http://www.parc.xerox.com/about/history/default.html] The authors, John Shoch and Jon Hupp, originally designed the worm to find idle processors on the network and assign them tasks, sharing the processing and so improving the whole network efficiency. [http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=190]
The first worm to attract wide attention, the [[Morris worm]], was written by [[Robert Tappan Morris]], who at the time was a graduate student at [[Cornell University]]. It was released on [[November 2]], [[1988]], and quickly infected a great number of computers on the [[Internet]] at the time. It propagated through a number of bugs in [[BSD]] [[Unix]] and its derivatives. Morris himself was convicted under the US Computer Crime and Abuse Act and received three years probation, 400 hours community service and a fine in excess of $10,000.
In addition to replication, a worm may be designed to do any number of things, such as delete files on a host system or send documents via [[e-mail]]. More recent worms may be multi-headed and carry other executables as a [[payload]]. However, even in the absence of such a payload, a worm can wreak havoc just with the network traffic generated by its reproduction. [[Mydoom]], for example, caused a noticeable worldwide Internet slowdown at the peak of its spread.
A common payload is for a worm to install a [[backdoor]] in the infected computer |
ce Girls, Spiller, Mariah Carey, Puff Daddy, Elvis Presley, Vengaboys and other bands and pop divas did not deserve to be considered house records.
During this time many individuals and particularly corporations realized that house music could be extremely lucrative and much of the 1990s saw the rise of sponsorship deals and other industry practices common in other genres.
To develop successful hit singles, some argued that the record industry developed "handbag house": throwaway pop songs with a retro disco beat. Underground house DJs were reluctant to play this style, so a new generation of DJs were created from record company staff, and new clubs like Miss Moneypenny's, [[Liverpool]]'s [[Cream (nightclub)|Cream]] (as opposed to the original underground night, [[C.R.E.A.M.]]) and the [[Ministry of Sound]] were opened to provide a venue for more commercial sounds.
By [[1996]] [[Pete Tong]] had a major role in the playlist of [[BBC Radio 1]], and every record he released seemed to be guaranteed airplay. Major record companies began to open "[[superclubs]]" promoting their own acts, forcing many independent clubs and labels out of business. These superclubs entered into sponsorship deals initially with fast food, soft drinks, and clothing companies and later with banks and insurance brokers. Flyers in clubs in [[Ibiza]] often sported many corporate logos.
===House in the new millennium===
Dance music arguably hit its peak at the turn of the millennium, especially in the UK. A number of reasons are seen for its decline in mainstream popularity during the [[2000s]]:
* Many people felt that club promoters had gone too far in what they were asking people to pay on a weekly basis to enter clubs. A prime example was on [[New Year's Eve]] at the turn of the Millennium. Some promoters had been asking upwards of £100 ($180) to attend clubs and various event venues across the country. A large number of club goers instead decided to stay away all together or go to local parties. Many in general grew tired with paying up to £20 ($35) on a weekly basis for poor quality club nights which had little variation from week to week and venue to venue.
* Older people that had been with the scene from the beginning started to move away. Many in their 30's started having families and settling down. Many younger people viewed Dance music as becoming increasingly outmoded with the same set of DJ's playing in Clubs and on the Radio year after year. This led to the term "Dad House" being applied.
* The [[democratization]] and mainstreaming of electronic music composing through ever-cheaper computer software made electronic music as whole less novel and more commonplace. This also affected its marketability, since most music marketing requires a high degree of novelty to drive sales and cultural interest.
* Many older clubbers who did have families remained active in the scene, and small-scale events organisers, invariably not tied to a venue, began to appear to cater to a group that was increasingly ostracised by younger clubbers, and unable to go clubbing more than once or twice a month. This scene subsequently has expanded and about half of those involved are under 30.
* A lot of the same music was being played on commercial dance shows, and in bars, supermarkets, and television advertisements. This along with a lack of invention in the mainstream left many people feeling increasingly bored with the music. This has inevitably led to the music being forced back underground to its roots.
* [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]], the drug of choice for many on the Dance scene during the late 80's and through out the 90's, started to lose its popularity to [[Cocaine]] and [[Ketamine]]. Both these drugs changed the nature and the atmosphere of the scene. In part this was due to the decreasing proportion of [[MDMA]] in Ecstasy, which was increasingly being cut with [[Amphetamines]], [[Ketamine]] as well as a generally greater amount of inert 'bulk' substances.
* The global rise of [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] during the late 90's as well as the re-emergence in the UK of a strong Rock and Indie scene drew many away from Dance Music.
* [[The Glade]], the UK's largest electronic dance festival, began in 2004 as an offshoot of the [[Glastonbury Festival]], featuring the UK's only dedicated Psytrance stage.
===House music today===
[[As of 2003]], a new generation of DJs and promoters, including [[James Zabiela]] and [[Mylo]], were emerging, determined to kickstart a more underground scene and there were signs of a renaissance in Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Detroit and other racially-mixed cities, as well as in Canada, Scandinavia, Scotland and Germany. For example, in 2004 the Montreal club [[Stereo nightclub|Stereo]], co-owned by House music legend David Morales and party aficionado Scott Lancaster, celebrated its sixth year in operation and in 2005 The Guvernment in Toronto with Mark Oliver is celebrating its 9th anniversary. Stereo, opened in 1998, was modeled after the seminal New York City club [[Paradise Garage]], focusing the experience on the quality of sound and lighting. The key to house music was re-invention. A willingness to steal or develop new styles and a low cost of entry encouraged innovation. The development of computers and the Internet play a critical role in this innovation. One need only to examine how house music has evolved over time to evaluate the effect computers and the Internet have had on house music and music in general.
In 2005 house music finds itself at a crossroads. The soulful black and Latin-influenced sound that enjoyed popularity in the late '90s and early '00s has lost momentum and has been alienated from almost all generic and [[hit music]] [[radio station]]s. Audiences all over the world are fragmenting into different camps based around the old-guard house sound and a darker, more synth-driven sound influenced by '80s retro sentiment. Opinions are split on the new music that's trending in. Some consider it directionalism, and others see it as an entirely new genre of music, having more to do with techno, electonica and EBM music than house.
Just recently, [[Richard Daley]], Mayor of Chicago proclaimed August 10, 2005 to be House Unity Day in Chicago last July 27, 2005 in celebration of House Music's 21st anniversary. DJ's like Frankie Knuckles, Marshall Jefferson, Paul Johnson and Mickey Oliver were cited among the many other DJ's who came together to celebrate the proclamation at the Summer Dance Series event organized by Chicago's Department of Cultural Affairs. DJ's such as DJ Chill X continues to keep house alive releasing classic house CD's at www.DJChillX.com to the many house lovers searching for the classic sounds.
[[Saturday Night Live]] has a recurring sketch featuring [[Kenan Thompson]] and [[Rachel Dratch]] as reviewers of house music. In a typical episode, several "performers," usually including the week's guest, will each sing a parodically bad song, and then be interviewed by the hosts. Dratch's comments are never interesting, a fact often pointed out by Thompson.
==Classic (genre-defining/-representing) house records==
*"I Feel Love" by [[Donna Summer]] ([[1977]])
*:Written by [[Giorgio Moroder]], featuring both the machine rhythms and erotic vocal sound bites in which one recognises a germination of house music -- the union of disco and electronic. Its bassline has been sampled on numerous electronic dance records.
*"[[Trans-Europe Express (album)|Trans-Europe Express]]" by [[Kraftwerk]] ([[1977]])
*:Played in New York discos in the late 70s, inspiring house, electro and techno DJs alike in the 80s, this track has made way for future house music and its techno off-spring.
*"[[Blue Monday (New Order song)|Blue Monday]]" by [[New Order]] (1983)
*:Frequently considered the missing link between disco of the [[1970s]] and house of the 1980s. Importantly, it bridges the gap between electronic dance music and UK indie music fans in the post-punk 1980s. Has been sampled, remixed and covered by electronic dance producers all over the world.
*"It's House" by [[Chip E.]] (1985)
*:Written by [[Chip E.]], features keyboard work by Joe Smooth, often considered as the definition of Chicago House Music.
*:The first self referential "house music" record. The simplistic referential lyrics go "It's House, It's House" in varying pitch, to a driving bassline and percussion.
*"Move Your Body (House Music Anthem)" by [[Marshall Jefferson]] (1987)
*:The second self referential "house music" record. The referential portion of the lyrics go: "Gotta have House Music all night long... With that House Music cant be wrong..."
*"Acid Trax" by [[Phuture]] (1986)
*:The first acid house song ever made. Made by DJ Pierre, Spanky J and Herbert in Chicago and gave birth to the whole acid house movement.
*"Sinful" by [[Pete Wylie]] (1986)
*:Anthemic indie number that presaged the indie-dance crossover that was to follow a number of years later. Available in both stomping "tribal mix" by Zeus B. Held and "the wickedest mix in town" by Bert Bevans. JBO cited this among their strongest influences (and rightly so). The tagline "It's sinful...It's tragic..." would be chanted in indie raves in the early 90s thanks to rerelease (Pete Wylie and the Farm) and remixes by the likes of Farley and Heller.
*"Theme from S'Express" by [[S'Express]] (1988)
*:An acid house classic. Obviously disco-influenced, combined with funky acid 303 baseline.
*"Release the Pressure" by [[Leftfield]] (1991)
*:The first group to truly mix house music with external influences such as dub and reggae. Also credited with the creation of progressive house music.
*"Dreamlover (Def Club Mix)" by [[Mariah Carey]] (1993)
*:This classic |
he telephone network is refurbished - currently 25% of lines connected to broadband-enabled exchanges cannot avail of broadband, due to bad line quality. The former state telecoms giant, [[Eircom]], is on the record as not keeping up with line degradation in their network maintenance. The mobile market has four providers - [[3 (telecommunications)|3 Ireland]], [[O2 Ireland]], [[Meteor Mobile Communications|Meteor]] and [[Vodafone Ireland]]. The electricity transmission system is run by the [[Electricity Supply Board]] and is available nationwide. The gas network is currently being expanded.
''See also: [[Transportation in Ireland]], [[Rail transport in Ireland]], [[Roads in Ireland]], [[Communications in Ireland]]''
==Natural resources==
[[Image:Killybegs harbour ireland.jpg|thumb|250px|Trawlers sit in [[Killybegs]] harbour, in [[County Donegal]], one of Ireland's biggest fishing ports. Over fishing has depleted Ireland's [[cod]] stocks in particular.]]
Ireland's main economic resource is its large fertile pastures. Most of Ireland, particularly the midland and southern regions are suitable for agriculture. Ireland also contains some forestry - mainly pine. Its coastline - once abundant in fish, particularly [[cod]] - has been overfished for several years and fish stocks have yet to recover. However Ireland's waterways remain plentiful in [[salmon]] and [[trout]]. As for mineral resources, the country has large quantities of [[lead]], [[gypsum]], [[limestone]] and [[zinc]], and smaller (unviable) quantities of [[copper]], [[silver]], [[gold]], [[barite]], and [[dolomite]]. In the midlands, Ireland has huge reserves of [[peat]] - however its economic usefulness as a fuel resource has diminished in recent years due to environmentalist calls for the protection of Irish [[bog|bogs]]. To the south of the country and to the west, Ireland has significant exploitable reserves of natural gas (current proven reserves of 9.911bn cubic metres).
==Energy==
The vast majority of Irish energy needs are met by fossil fuels. About 98% of the Republic of Ireland's final energy demand is produced by burning [[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[peat]], or [[natural gas]] [http://www.irish-energy.ie/content/content.asp?section_id=454]. This over reliance on fossil fuels - particularly oil - has left the Republic vulnerable to international price fluctuations - the state imports all of its oil needs. Renewable energy is increasing in the Republic - [[Airtricity]] and Hibernia Wind Energy (a subsidiary of the [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]])and many other companies are developing wind farms across the country. As of December [[2005]], there were fifty wind farms operational in the state, with a combined capacity of 500MW - generating enough energy for 300,000 homes, depending on wind conditions. In addition, a further 600MW of wind farms (40 more) have signed connection agreements to link to the power system at high voltage or low voltage, and up to 200MW of wind farms have received connection offers. This means that Ireland is on target to exceed its EU target of 13.2 per cent of electricity generated from renewable sources by 2010. In addition to wind farms, electricity is also generated at large scale hydro schemes on the Shannon, Erne, Liffey and Lee rivers, and at mini-hydro stations, as well as landfill gas generating plants in Cork and Dublin cities.
It has been stated that the Republic could eventually become an exporter of [[wind energy]]. [http://www.irish-energy.ie/home/index.asp]. However, a report by consultants Garrad Hassan estimated that when there were large quantities of wind power being generated in Ireland due to windy condition, it was also likely that there would be large quantities of wind being generated in Great Britain and therefore less demand for imports, because the same weather systems tend to affect both islands. More interconnection (links between Ireland and Britain), future technological breakthroughs in energy storage, flexible fossil fuel generation and controllability of wind output, will all play a part in the increasing integration of wind onto the Irish power system. Targets beyond the 13.2 per cent figure are currently being looked at.
===Statistics===
[[Image:Peat Lewis.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Peat]] once provided much of Ireland's energy needs]]
*'''Electricity production:''' 23,530 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Electricity production by source:''' ''fossil fuel: 94.12%, hydro: 4.63%, nuclear: 0%, other: 1.25% ([[As of 1998|1998]])''
*'''Electricity consumption:''' 21,630 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Electricity exports:''' 285 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Electricity imports:''' 38 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Oil consumption:''' 174,400 barrel (27,730 m³) per day ([[As of 2001|2001]] est.)
*'''Natural gas production:''' 815 million m³ ([[As of 2001|2001]] est.)
*'''Natural gas consumption:''' 4.199 km³ ([[As of 2001|2001]] est.)
*'''Natural gas proved reserves:''' 9.911 km³ (As of [[1 January]] [[2002]])
==Monetary system==
The national currency is the [[euro]] (Ireland is a member of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]]). The banking system is dominated by the [[Big Four]] - [[Allied Irish Banks|AIB Bank]], [[Bank of Ireland]], [[Ulster Bank]] and [[National Irish Bank]]. The banking system is generally quite expensive and uncompetitive. There is a large [[Credit Union]] movement within the country which offers an alternative to the banks. There is a stock exchange (the [[ISEQ]]) in [[Dublin]], however, due to its small size, many firms also maintain listings on either the [[AIM]], [[FTSE]] or [[NASDAQ]]. The insurance industry is poorly regulated and dominated by a handful of foreign players. Premiums are very high, particularly for motor insurance. Because Ireland is a member of the EMU, it cannot dictate its own [[interest rate|interest rates]], these are set by the [[ECB]]. At present the ECB has set a very low interest rate - to try and stimulate the German and French economies - however Ireland's economy is already growing at a very fast rate. This has led to increased house price inflation as many, especially young couples, take on large mortgages, and the wealthy buy investment properties. [[As of 2004]], average Irish house prices stand at €220,000 (this compares to IRE£9,000 (€11,430) in [[1973]]).
===Statistics===
*'''[[Reserves of foreign exchange]] & gold:''' $4.152 billion ([[As of 2003|2003]])
*'''Historic Exchange rates (Irish pounds per US$1:)''' 0.9865 (January 2000), 0.9374 (1999), 0.7014 (1998), 0.6588 (1997), 0.6248 (1996), 0.6235 (1995)
*'''Historic Exchange rates (Euro per US$1:)'''0.7819 ([[As of 2004|2004]])
==Economic makeup==
[[Image:Irish economy.png|thumb|300px|The chart displays the make up of Irish GDP]]
The Irish economy's secondary and tertiary sectors are of a similar size in fiscal terms however in terms of labour, the tertiary sector is far larger. Similarly in fiscal terms the primary sector appears small, however it still employs about 8% of the workforce.
===Primary sector===
The primary sector constitutes 5% of Irish GDP, and 8% of Irish employment. It is largely made up of [[cattle]] grazing, [[dairy]] production, [[fishing]] and [[tillage]] farming; particularly of [[turnips]], [[barley]], [[potatoes]], [[sugar beet]], and [[wheat]]. [[Forestry]] has become a sizeable part of the Irish Economy under the incentivisation of state body ''Coillte''. [[Zinc]] and [[Lead]] are mined in [[County Meath]] by ''Tara Mines''. Quarrying is generally only for the internal market. In recent years, [[natural gas]] exploration has become a significant contributor to the economy - there is gas off the south of [[County Cork]] and to the West of [[County Mayo]]. [[Peat]] exploitation in the midlands provided large employment and a valuable contribution to the energy needs of the country for much of the 20th century, however its significance has dwindled in recent years. Other natural resources include Gold deposits in the Wicklow Mountains, which however are at present not exploited due to their commercial unviability.
===Secondary sector===
The secondary sector constitutes 46% of Irish GDP &mdash; but only 29% of the labour force. Dominated for many years by textile companies like [[Fruit of the Loom]], the sector is now largely made up of high-tech/high value multi-nationals such as [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Intel]], [[Pfizer]] and [[IBM]]. The secondary sector in Ireland manufactures products such as [[computers]] (25% of Europe's computers are made in Ireland, the European Headquarters of [[Apple Computer]] are in [[Cork]] City), computer parts (Intel processors are made in Ireland), [[medication|drugs]] (much of Europe's supply of [[Viagra]] is made in Cork), [[confectionery]] ([[HB]], [[Jacobs]] and [[Cadbury-Schweppes]] all have significant Irish operations), [[beer]] (the [[Guinness]] and [[Smithwicks]], and [[Harp lager]] breweries are located in Ireland), high quality [[glass]] and [[crystal]] ([[Waterford Crystal]] is made in [[County Waterford]]), [[software]] (Ireland is the world's largest exporter of software - [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] and [[Microsoft]] both have large operations in Dublin) and [[machinery]]. The sector faces increasing competition from cheaper Eastern European countries such as [[Poland]] and many Asian countries such as [[China]], particularly in the lower skill areas such as [[confectionery]] manufacturing. The industrial production growth rate in [[As of 2003|2003]] was 6.7%.
[[Image:Newgrange ireland 280px.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Tourist sites such as [[Newgrange]], [[County Meath]] are vital to the Irish economy]]
===Tertiary sector===
The tertiary sector constitutes 49% of Irish GDP and 64% of Irish employment. The tertiary sector is by far the largest driver of modern Irish economic growth &mdash; the ''[[Celtic Tiger]]''. It is made up of several industries such as [[accountancy]], th |
hase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.''
'
----
<h3>Top priorities: really important features we still don't have</h3>
==== Search ====
* A 'power search' page. For example, a search for 'demon' will list all pages that use the word 'demonstrate' (case-insensitive substring match?). That's okay now, but as the wikipedia grows the lists of false matches will get longer and more searches will be affected by it. A power search would provide options for boolean expressions, exact-phrase, case-sensitivity, etc. --[[User:Atlas_2091]]
** I second that motion. Attempts to outsource
**:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]<nowiki>OddlyCapitalized</nowiki> links would be helped greatly by a case-sensitive search, so one does not, for instance, have to search through 149 pages with the word "liberal" looking for the ones that are printed
**:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]<nowiki>LiberaL</nowiki>. Of course, the point is moot if 0.92 will include tools to rename pages (and references to them) automatically. --KQ
** A regexp-like search option might be handy...
** I would like the search to return those pages more prominently whose title matches the search string. First give me the title matches, then the article body matches.
** Searches currently turn up only the exact phrase entered, which should probably be one option among many. For an example why, search for
**:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]<nowiki>"John A. MacDonald," "John A MacDonald," "John MacDonald," "John D Macdonald," and "John D. MacDonald."</nowiki>
* Since I have forgotten what happened in the far past (more than the time that shows up in recent changes) I want other ways to look for articles:
: Articles sorted by inverse date (show oldest first) - just so I can do a sanity check on things that might have been overlooked.
: Articles sorted by number of revisions (lowest first} - If it never got revised, it probably needs work unless Larry wrote it. :) -- [[User:mike dill]]
==== Interface ====
* Eventually, a feature to find non-linked mentions of pages could also be useful. --CliffordAdams
* Anchors (HTML standard) to jump around in a page! Often the text shouldn´t be split but retain its flow, and yet have some navigation and structure, e.g. "contents"
==== Report features and automation ====
* Similar to the [[What Google Likes]] page and the request above: a report for pages visited most often (aside from, say, the [[Recent Changes]] and HomePage pages and other usual suspects). (So busybodies like me can know frequently-visited areas possibly wanting improvement.)
* Generate and place on an automatically-generated R/O page a list of the most popular Wikipedia searches. This would encourage people to write articles specifically on those topics that people search for. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]
** This would probably be easiest to do outside of the wiki script by processing the server's logs.
* A script to autogenerate the [[What Google Likes]] page once a day or so
* There are several pages that have comments like "as of (date) we have NNN pages / MMM comma pages...". This information becomes stale pretty quickly. Would it be practical to provide a [[Wikipedia Statistics]] page that could be updated fairly often with things like page counts, web server stats, user stats, etc.? <small>--[[User:hornlo|loh]] (2001-06-21)</small>
==== Naming conventions ====
* Use of (at least) Latin1 characters in links and titles of pages. I can see this vexing the Anglo-American crowd, but it's truly annoying to spell your name in a faulty way, and even more so to spell historical persons wrong.
** This is already a feature of UseMod 0.92, which is currently in use by the international Wikipedias. When we get around to updating the software here as well, that will come along. --LDC
==== Wikipedia distribution etc. ====
* Since the text within Wikipedia is covered by the GNU FDL there is a requirement that it be available in the most "transparent" form. I would suggest that since the publically viewable form of is HTML but the underlying dataset is stored in the wiki source form it is currently not available in a transparent form. I guess that it is possible to gather this data by using the "edit" button of all the documents and culling the information from the text field, but again this is not very transparent. Even if you do this, you still have lost the version information which could be argued to be a fundamental part of the data. Is there a plan to provide a download format from which a new copy of the data in wikipedia can be generated? -[[User:Phillip2]]
**At present, no plan, but we would like to do this, of course.
** I also think this would be a nice service. -- BryceHarrington
----
= Solved =
* Missed searches - user searches that returned no results (from [[Wikipedia-L]])
* Articles sorted by size - so i know where the articles that need work are.
* Could we move the search box higher up the screen? It is hard to find right now.
** I second that, and propose that its placement be made a user preference: top, bottom, or both. --Gimbo
* Each Wikipedia page could and should have a Talk subpage why not making it default for every new page. [[User:Kpjas]]
** Seconded. I like the idea of making a default [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] on each (non-sub)page.
* Clicking the name of the article at the top of the page searches for occurrences of the page title on other pages, but it would be possibly more useful for that to point to a list of all the pages that ''link to'' the page in question. There doesn't seem to be any way to do that at present. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]
** This is likely to be added eventually, and may even become the default behavior of the page-title link. This was not much of a problem with the old WikiName links because those titles were automatically links. Now with "free links" there may be several pages that use a page title but do not link to it. --CliffordAdams
* We need a way to let ordinary folks ''upload'' files to the Wikipedia server--perhaps the uploads would first have to be hand-processed, to make sure they don't carry viruses and aren't too large. But eventually, it seems to me we're going to need something like this. (Perhaps it wouldn't have to be closely integrated with UseModWiki software, though. We could just link to a Wikipedia upload page, which would run our own unique software.) --[[User:LMS]]
** I'm quite surprised you don't have a file uploader, actually. I can send you the one used in the WorldForge website: http://www.worldforge.org/website/tools/upload_a_file. I'd be willing to collaborate on adapting this for Wikipedia if there is interest (I will need a similar tool for work soon). -- BryceHarrington
** TWiki has the notion of adding attachements to a page that can be referenced within that page. IMHO, something similar would be very useful for Wikipedia.
** Uploading images would be great to build an illustrated encyclopedia :-)
** Uploading files is only half of the problem. We need a way to refer to those files from within articles, that is a easy to use as [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]]. Right now they are fully-qualified URLs, which is a pain to type and also is non-transportable. (Renaming uploaded files would be handy also.) --[[User:Alan Millar]]
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Report features</title>
<id>11131</id>
<revision>
<id>15908896</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-09T22:30:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Texture</username>
<id>31280</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>user</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
<h3>Report features</h3>
* Automatically-generated NewTopics page
** Still considering this, but not for version 0.92. --CliffordAdams
* Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
** A good idea. The only quibble is that it requires opening every page to generate the report, but it shouldn't take any longer than the current search function.
** If wikipedia articles are stored in flat files, you could just approximate the length based on the file size, right?
* How's about an automatically generated Wikipedia Contributors page that lists contributors and the number of pages they created or changed? --SoniC
** Unfortunately, not all contributors use a username or have a single login. Also, not all of the requested information is kept permanently. --CliffordAdams
* It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages. There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to. It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no links, or only one link. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]
* I would like a page that is a top list of the most frequently linked-to non-existent page, more or less the opposite. [[User:Linus Tolke]]
* How about a feature that lists all places where the current page is linked fro |
which the constant light from its central sun has caused the plant life to grow to such size that all of the people on Pryan live atop the highest trees on a nearly rock-solid network of branches and leaves.
The [[Cthulhu Mythos]] stories of [[H. P. Lovecraft]] (''et al'') feature as a common theme a subterranean [[gateway]] or [[labyrinth]] that serves as the home of various [[Great Old One|Great Old Ones]].
A hollow Earth featured in the children's "[[Choose Your Own Adventure]]" novel ''The Underground Kingdom''.
[[Rudy Rucker]]'s novel ''The Hollow Earth'' appeared in 1990, and features Edgar Allan Poe and his ideas.
The novel ''[[Indiana Jones]] and the Hollow Earth'' by Max McCoy (1997) expands on the legend of Hitler's supposed escape to the Earth's interior.
[[Eoin Colfer]]'s ''[[Artemis Fowl]]'' series of novels has a population of [[fairy | fairies]] living inside the Earth, under the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]].
The [[Dungeons & Dragons]] role-playing game's [[Mystara]] campaign setting included a ''[[Mystara#The_Hollow_World | Hollow World]]'' expansion, which served as a nature preserve of sorts, where gods placed extinct creatures and civilizations.
The comics series ''Les Terres Creuses'' by Belgian comics writers Luc and [[François Schuiten]] features several hollow-earth settings.
The graphic novel series [[Bureau of Paranormal Research and Defense|BPRD]] by Mike Mignola, creator of [[Hellboy]], did a collection called "Hollow Earth", where the team journeys into great caverns inside the earth inhabited by Hyperborian people and fantastic machines, some emblazoned with a swastica. At the center is the city of the creatures and their leader.
The ''[[Transformers: Cybertron]]'' cartoon series features a character, Professor Lucy Suzuki, who believes in the Hollow Earth Theory.
The video game "Terranigma" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System features both a hollow earth and a normal earth.
The PC Role Playing game "Torin's Passage" features a depiction of a hollow earth (though technicaly the fictional planet is called "Strata") similar to the one described by Edmund Halley, with the surface world (called "The Lands Above" in the game) being the largest, while the worlds within it (four, known collectivly as "The Lands Below") become proggressivly smaller as the player, "Torin" descends into them from The Lands Above.
The band [[Bal-Sagoth]] have, on their new album ''[[The Chthonic Chronicles]]'', a song about the Hollow Earth called "Invocations Beyond the Outer-World Night".
The film Marebito has also references and theme of Hollow earth and the netherworld or subterranean realms.
== See also ==
* [[Agartha]]
* [[Cyrus Teed]]
* [[Dyson sphere]]
* [[Flat earth]]
* [[Neal Adams]]
* [[John Cleves Symmes Jr]]
* [[Nazi mysticism]]
* [[New Swabia]]
* [[Sherry Shriner]]
* [[Brinsley Le Poer Trench, 8th Earl of Clancarty]]
* [[Subterranean fiction]]
* [[Unidentified flying object]]
* [[Vril]]
==External links==
*''[http://www.hollowearththeory.com The Expanding Hollow Earth Theory] - Serious scientific evidence supporting the Hollow Earth Theory and the Expanding Earth Theory.
*''[http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/dgriffin/Research/PGEO_2025n05_382-397-Griffin.pdf '' Hollow and Habitable Within: Symmes's Theory of Earth's Internal Structure and Polar Geography''] - a scholarly article on Symmes's theory
*''[http://www.literature.org/authors/burroughs-edgar-rice/at-the-earths-core/ At the Earth's Core]'', by Edgar Rice Burroughs
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/cc/index.htm ''The Cellular Cosmogony''], by Koresh: full text of Cyrus Teed's book about the inside-out earth at www.sacred-texts.com
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/potp/index.htm ''The Phantom of the Poles''], by William Reed: full text at www.sacred-texts.com
*[http://www.crank.net/hollow.html Crank.net - Hollow Earth]: people who believe
*[http://www.crystalinks.com/hollowearth.html Hollow Earths]: a historical list of hollow-Earth proposals
*[http://unmuseum.mus.pa.us/hollow.htm Hollow Earths]: page illustrating several hollow-earth proposals with diagrams
*Stephen Wagner, [http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa011199.htm Nazis and the Hollow Earth], ''Paranormal.About.com'' (Jan. 11, 1999): (thinly sourced) discussion of rumors about the Nazis and hollow Earth ideas.
*[http://www.floridastateparks.org/koreshan/default.asp Koreshan State Historic Site], official web page.
*[http://koreshan.mwweb.org/ Unofficial Koreshan State Historic Site], unofficial web page.
*[http://faculty.mansfield.edu/skaspere/Restricted/koreshan.html American Communal Utopias and The Koreshan Unity: A Bibliography] Brief overview and great bibliography of works, if slightly dated.
*[http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/hollow/morrow.htm Turning the Universe Inside-Out: Ulysses Grant Morrow's Naples Experiment] Examination of the Naples Experiment, and why it failed, but also covers the major hollow earth theories and Koreshan beliefs.
*''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3007 The Smoky God]'', by Willis George Emerson. Complete novel
*[http://www.voyagehollowearth.com/ Voyage to our Hollow Earth], Journey to the North Pole and Beyond - 24 day Trip, June 26, 2006 - July 19, 2006. Expedition aboard the IceBreaker YAMAL
*[http://www.unmuseum.org/hollow.htm The Hollow Earth] - from [[The UnMuseum]]
*[http://thehollowearthinsider.com/ Hollow Earth Insider], "a dedicated worldwide group of Insiders researching, not only the Hollow Earth/Subterranean Mysteries, but also reports on the UFO/Alien connection and other earthly mysteries, the New World Order and other conspiracies"
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]
[[Category:UFOs]]
[[Category:Earth]]
[[de:Theorie der hohlen Erde]]
[[ko:지구공동설]]
[[ja:地球空洞説]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hamas</title>
<id>13913</id>
<revision>
<id>42156056</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:43:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.214.35.104</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Governing party should be noted up front</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{wikinews|Hamas wins Palestinian election}}
[[Image:HamasLogo.jpg|right|thumb|The Hamas emblem shows two crossed swords, the [[Dome of the Rock]] and a map of the land they claim as [[Palestine]] (present-day [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]).]]
'''Hamas''' is a [[Palestinian]] [[Islamist]] organization created in [[1987]]. In 2006, Hamas became the governing party of the Palestinian Authority, having won a majority of seats in [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|Palestinian legislative elections]]. Hamas is known throughout the world for carrying out [[suicide bombing|suicide bombings]] and other attacks against [[Israel]]is to further its goal of creating an "Islamic Republic of Palestine" which in what is now [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]], and the [[Gaza Strip]]. The group is listed as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization by [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[European Union]], [[Israel]], and the [[United States]], and is banned in [[Jordan]] <ref> {{note label|US|1|a}} [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/45394.htm US State Dept. list of terrorist groups] </ref>. Hamas has created an extensive network of [[social welfare]] programs throughout the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza]], partly explaining its popularity among Palestinians.
==Name==
''Hamas'' ({{lang-ar|حماس}}, [[acronym]] of '''Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya''', Arabic: حركة المقاومة الاسلامية, literally "Islamic Resistance Movement") is an abbreviation of '''Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] . The acronym corresponds to an Arabic word, meaning "enthusiasm, fire, ardor, fervor, zeal, fanaticism" (''The [[Hans Wehr]] [[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]'').
<!-- The following was added after quite a bit of discussion and arguing about wording on the Talk page. The majority felt that this was relevant enough to be included. So don't delete again. -->
Although the founders of the organization most likely were unaware of the coincidence, the related word "chamas" in Hebrew (phonetically the same as "Hamas" for Israelis) has very bad connotations to Jews and Israelis, as it is an old word for "violence, injustice, harsh wrong" ([[Oxford University Press]] Hebrew-English dictionary). The word is quite common in the [[Hebrew Bible]], such as in [[Genesis]] 6:11.
The military wing of Hamas, formed in [[1992]], is known as the [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam|Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades]] to commemorate Sheikh [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]], the father of modern Arab resistance, killed by the British in 1935. Armed Hamas cells also sometimes refer to themselves as "Students of Ayyash," "Students of the Engineer," or "Yahya Ayyash Units," (see Kushner, 2002, p. 160) to commemorate [[Yahya Ayyash]], an early Hamas bomb-maker assassinated in [[1996]] <ref> {{Citenews | title=Who are Hamas? | org=BBC News | date=January 26, 2006 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1654510.stm}} </ref> .
==Beliefs==
Founded in 1987, Hamas was the [[Gaza Strip]] branch of the Pan-Arab ([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]) [[Islamist]] [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement, which had been founded in Egypt. Hamas is ideologically opposed to the [[zionism|existence of Israel]] and has denounced the 1993 [[Oslo Accords]], the foundation of the failed peace process, as a "betrayal of God's will". However, in 2004, Hamas offered a 10 years truce, or ''[[hudna]]'', in exchange for several conditions including a complete withdrawal from the [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied territories]] (''[[Hamas#2004 - A 10-year Truce|See belo |
sent [[consumption]].
* In [[education]], C is an average [[Grade (education)|grade]].
* In [[electrical engineering]],
** ''C'' is the control grid bias power supply (originally a battery) of [[vacuum tube]] circuitry.
** ''C'' is the [[variable]] for [[capacitance]], and is used to label [[capacitor]]s on [[schematic]]s.
** C is a standard size of dry-cell [[battery (electricity)|battery]].
* In [[espionage]], C is the head of [[MI6]].
* In [[finance]], C is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[Citigroup]].
* In [[gold]], C is the abbreviation for [[Carat (purity)|Carat]].
* In [[hardware]], a [[C-clamp]] is a type of [[fastener]], so called because its shape resembles the capital&nbsp;C.
* In [[history]], c is an abbreviation for ''circa''. When used with years, it means about (e.g., "c. 1500" means around the year [[1500]]).
* In [[international relations]], C sometimes represents the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], C stands for [[Cuba]].
* In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], C is a series of sizes with an aspect ratio of roughly 70% width to height. This series is primarily used for [[envelope]]s.
* In [[mathematics]],
** C is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[twelve]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 13 or greater.
** [[Blackboard bold]] (double-struck capital C) <math>\mathbb{C}</math> (Unicode {{uplusfirst}}2102 "ℂ") denotes the set of all [[complex number]]s.
** C with indices denotes the number of [[combination]]s, a [[binomial coefficient]].
** [[Blackletter]] <math>\mathfrak c</math> (Unicode U+212D "ℭ") denotes the first [[beth number]]: the [[cardinality]] of the set of real numbers (the "continuum"), or of the [[power set]] of [[natural numbers]].
** ''C''<sup>''n''</sup> and ''C''<sup>&infin;</sup> are notions of [[smooth function|smooth functions]], meaning "continuously differentiable ''n'' times" and "infinitely differentiable", respectively.
* In [[metrology]], c is the symbol for the [[cup (unit)|cup]], a unit of measurement of volume, used in cooking recipes in several countries.
* In [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Ctrl]]-C, (in [[Mac OS]], Command-C) [[copy and paste|copies]] the selected text, image or sound and places it on the [[clipboard]].
* In [[music]], C is a [[note]]; see also [[Middle C]]
* In [[nutrition]], C is a [[vitamin]]; see [[Vitamin C]]
* In [[physics]],
** ''c'' is the [[speed of light|speed of light in vacuum]].
** ''c'' can also be used for the [[speed of sound]].
** c is the symbol of the charm [[quark]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], C stands for [[Prince Edward Island]].
* In [[publishing]], c with an enclosing circle, ©, denotes [[copyright]]
* In [[rail transport]], C is the [[UIC classification]] for the [[railroad]] [[locomotive]] [[wheel arrangement]] known as [[0-6-0]] in the [[Whyte notation]]; a locomotive with three powered axles (and thus six wheels) in which the axles are linked by gearing or [[side rod]]s.
* In [[Roman naming convention]], C is the abbreviation for the [[praenomen]] Gaius.
* In [[Roman numerals]], C denotes one [[100 (number)|hundred]] (''centum'' in [[Latin]]; there are also separate [[Unicode]] characters for this number, U+216D "Ⅽ" and U+217D "ⅽ").
* On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, C identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia]].
* In the [[SI]] system,
** c, [[centi]], is an [[SI prefix]] meaning 1/100.
** C is the symbol for [[coulomb]], the [[SI derived unit]] for [[electric charge]].
* In [[temperature]], °C is the symbol for degrees [[Celsius]] (there is also a separate [[Unicode]] character for this symbol, U+2103 "℃").
* In terminals under [[Unix]]-like operating systems, Ctrl-C sends the [[SIGINT (POSIX)|INT]] [[signal (computing)|signal]].
* As a [[timezone]], C is the military designation for UTC+3, also known as MSK or Moscow Time.
==See also==
*[[cedilla|Ç]], [[C-circumflex|&#264;]], [[Cent (currency)|¢]], [[Č]], [[Ć]]
*&#1057; : [[Es (Cyrillic)]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Channel Tunnel</title>
<id>5702</id>
<revision>
<id>42055477</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:20:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Corti</username>
<id>74856</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41969205 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chunnel_06.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Channel Tunnel. Drawing shows (left to right) a [[Eurotunnel Shuttle]], a vehicle in the service tunnel and a [[Eurostar]] highspeed passenger train.]]
[[Image:Channel_Tunnel_Terminal.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The British terminal at Cheriton, from the [[Pilgrims' Way]].]]
The '''Channel Tunnel''' or '''Euro Tunnel''', ([[French language|French]]: ''le ''' tunnel sous la Manche'''''; popularly nicknamed the '''Chunnel''' in [[English language|English]], although this has been largely abandoned in favour of '''the Channel Tunnel''') is a 50-km-long (31 imperial miles) [[rail transport|rail]] [[tunnel]] beneath the [[English Channel]] at the [[Straits of Dover]], connecting [[Cheriton, Kent|Cheriton]] in [[Kent]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Coquelles]] near [[Calais]] in northern [[France]]. A long-standing and hugely expensive project that saw several false starts, it was finally completed in 1994. It is the second-longest rail tunnel in the world, surpassed only by the [[Seikan Tunnel]] in [[Japan]]. It is operated by [[Eurotunnel|Eurotunnel]].
==Historical attempts or proposals for a tunnel==
A link between [[Great Britain]] and [[continental Europe]] had been proposed on many occasions.
* 1802 Albert Matthieu-Favier, a French engineer, put forward a proposal for a tunnel. Passengers would travel through the tunnel in horse-drawn coaches, the road would be lit by oil-lamps and a mid-tunnel island would have provided a fresh-air respite for the horses. The cost would have been one million pounds (about £64.4 million in 2004 [http://eh.net/hmit/ppowerbp/result.php?year_early=1802&use%5B%5D=CPI&pound71=1000000&shilling71=&pence71=&amount=1000000&year_source=1802&year_result=2004]).
* 1875 [[Peter W. Barlow|Peter William Barlow]], who had worked extensively on [[London Underground|the world's first underground railway]], suggested a floating steel tube across the Channel. The idea was rejected.
** French & British Parliamentary bills passed to build the tunnel. Insufficient funds raised and the concession ran out a year later.
* 1876 Extensive geological survey carried out; French sink two shafts.
* 1880 The [[South Eastern Railway]] (SER) arranges trial borings on the British side.
* 1881 Patented (Beaumont) boring machine drives a tunnel 897 yards (820 m) parallel to cliffs on the British side.
** Work begins by (SER) on Channel Tunnel; again insufficient funds. ''Submarine Continental Railway Company'' set up.
* 1882 Rival ''Channel Tunnel Company'' causes a rift in proceedings; adverse comments by media and an influential group (including [[Robert Browning]] and [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]]). Eventually work was halted by the Board of Trade because of military objections: the ease with which invaders could attack from the Continent was cited.
* 1922 Workers started boring a tunnel from Folkestone: after 400 ft (128 m) of tunnel had been completed, political objections again brought the project to an end.
It was not until the twentieth century that engineers came to believe that the necessary technical ability was available. After [[World War II]] the concept of the tunnel began to receive serious attention.
===Second tunnel===
[[As of 2005]], the British and French governments are investigating the possibility of a second tunnel through the Channel, as required in the original treaty, but the economic case for such a tunnel has not been made. The planning has not progressed past the feasibility stage.
==The current tunnel==
===Planning===
In 1957 le Tunnel sous la Manche Study Group was formed. It reported in 1960 and recommended two main railway tunnels and a smaller service tunnel. The project was launched in 1973 but folded due to financial problems in 1975 after the construction of a 250 metre test tunnel.
In 1984 the idea was relaunched with a joint [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] government request for proposals to build a privately-funded link. Of the four submissions received, the one most closely resembling the 1973 plan was chosen, and announced on [[20 January]] [[1986]]. The [[Fixed Link Treaty]] was signed by the two governments in [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]], [[Kent]] on [[12 February]] [[1986]] and ratified in 1987.
The planned route of the tunnel took it from [[Calais]] to [[Folkestone]] (a route rather longer than the shortest possible crossing) and the tunnel follows a single chalk [[stratum]], which meant the tunnel was deeper than the previous attempt. For much of its route the tunnel is nearly 40 m (130 ft) under the seafloor, with the southern section being deeper than the northern.
===Construction===
Digging the tunnel took 15,000 workers over seven years, with tunnelling operations conducted simultaneously from both ends. The prime contractor for |
and moved to [[Ceylon]] in 1887 and Adalbert Jackson died in 1892. Housman continued pursuing classical studies independently and published scholarly articles on such authors as [[Horace]], [[Propertius]], [[Ovid]], [[Aeschylus]], [[Euripides]] and [[Sophocles]]. He gradually acquired such a high reputation that in 1892 he was offered the professorship of Latin at [[University College London]], which he accepted.
Although Housman's sphere of responsibilities as professor included both [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], he put most of his energy in the study of Latin classics. His reputation in this field grew steadily, and in 1911 he took the [[Kennedy Professorship of Latin]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he remained for the rest of his life. It was unusual at the time for an [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] man such as Housman to be hired at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. During 1903–1930, he published his critical edition of [[Marcus Manilius|Manilius]]'s ''Astronomicon'' in five volumes. He also edited works of [[Juvenal]] (1905) and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] (1926). Many colleagues were afraid of his scathing critical attacks on those whom he found guilty of unscholarly sloppiness. To his students he appeared as a severe, reticent, remote authority. The only pleasures he allowed himself in his spare time were those of [[gastronomy]] which he also practised on frequent visits to France and Italy.
Housman always found his true vocation in classical studies and treated poetry as a secondary activity. He never spoke about his poetry in public until 1933 when he gave a lecture, "The Name and Nature of Poetry", in which he argued that poetry should appeal to emotions rather than intellect. He died two years later in Cambridge. His ashes are buried near St Laurence's Church, [[Ludlow]], Shropshire.
== Poetry ==
During his years in London, A E Housman completed his cycle of 63 poems, ''[[A Shropshire Lad]].''
After several publishers had turned it down, he published it at his own expense in 1896, much to the surprise of his colleagues and students.
At first the book sold slowly, but Housman's nostalgic depiction of brave English soldiers struck a chord with English readers and his poems became a lasting success.
Later, [[World War I]] had a further increasing effect on their popularity.
Several composers, [[Arthur Somervell]] first, found inspiration in the seeming folksong-like simplicity of the poems.
The most famous musical settings are by [[George Butterworth]] and [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], with others by [[Ivor Gurney]], [[John Ireland (composer)|John Ireland]] and [[Ernest John Moeran]].
Housman was surprised by the success of ''[[A Shropshire Lad]]'' because it, like all his poetry, is imbued with a deep pessimism and an obsession with all-pervasive death, with no place for the consolations of religion.
Set in a half-imaginative pastoral [[Shropshire]], "the land of lost content" (in fact Housman wrote most of the poems before ever visiting the place), the poems explore themes of fleetingness of love and decay of youth in a spare, uncomplicated style which many critics of the time found out of date compared with the exuberance of some Romantic poets.
Housman himself acknowledged the influence of the songs of [[William Shakespeare]], the Scottish Border Ballads and [[Heinrich Heine]], but specifically denied any influence of Greek and Latin classics in his poetry.
In the early 1920s, when Moses Jackson was dying in Canada, Housman wanted to assemble his best unpublished poems together so that Jackson could read them before his death.
These later poems, most of them written before 1910, show a greater variety of subject and form than those in ''A Shropshire Lad'' but also a certain lack of the kind of consistency found in the earlier poems.
He published them as his [[Last Poems]] (1922) because he thought that his poetic inspiration was running out and that he would not publish any more poems in his lifetime.
This proved true.
Housman's brother Laurence edited his posthumous poems which appeared in ''More Poems'' (1936) and ''Complete Poems'' (1939).
In these poems, Housman appears more candid about his [[homosexuality]] and [[atheism]] than in his lifetime, though the essay ''De Amicitia'', published by Laurence Housman in 1967, is even more revealing.
Housman also wrote a parodic ''Fragment of a Greek Tragedy'', in English, and humorous poems published posthumously under the title ''Unkind to Unicorns''.
Housman's most familiar poem is surely "When I was one-and-twenty," number XIII from ''A Shropshire Lad.''
The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations includes no fewer than fourteen of its sixteen lines:
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&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When I was one-and-twenty<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;I heard a wise man say,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"Give crowns and pounds and guineas<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But not your heart away;<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Give pearls away and rubies<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But keep your fancy free."<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;But I was one-and-twenty,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No use to talk to me.
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When I was one-and-twenty<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;I heard him say again,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"The heart out of the bosom<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Was never given in vain;<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'Tis paid with sighs a plenty<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And sold for endless rue."<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And I am two-and-twenty<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And oh, 'tis true, 'tis true.
This poem is, in fact, a good example of the style and melancholy tone of the whole collection.
Many of its poems dwell on mortality: "With rue my heart is laden/For golden friends I had,/For many a rose-lipt maiden/And many a lightfoot lad."
Poem XVII, "Is my team ploughing?," is a dialogue between a dead youth and a friend who has survived him.
The dead youth asks "Is my girl happy/That I thought hard to leave/And is she tired of weeping/As she lies down to eve?" The living replies "Ay, she lies down lightly/She lies not down to weep/Your girl is well contented/Be still, my lad, and sleep."
As the reader has begun to suspect, two stanzas later the living man acknowledges "I cheer a dead man's sweetheart/Never ask me whose."
Poem LXII, "Terence, this is stupid stuff," is a dialogue in which the poet, asked for "a tune to dance to" instead of his usual "moping melancholy" verse, offers (perhaps [[irony|ironically]]) the respite of drunkenness as a way to inure oneself to the pain of existence -- "Malt does more than Milton can/To justify God's ways to man" -- and pessimism as a longer-lasting immunization:
<!-- This HTML formatting is intended to achieve a) intended line indentation, b) use of the normal proportionally-spaced typeface, c) avoidance of blank lines which result from mixing colon-indentation of different levels. -->
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Therefore, since the world has still<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Much good, but much less good than ill,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And while the sun and moon endure<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Luck's a chance, but trouble's sure,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;I'd face it as a wise man would,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;And train for ill and not for good.
The uniform style and tone of ''A Shropshire Lad'' make it an easy target for parody, as in this example by [[Humbert Wolfe]]:
<!-- This HTML formatting is intended to achieve a) intended line indentation, b) use of the normal proportionally-spaced typeface, c) avoidance of blank lines which result from mixing colon-indentation of different levels. -->
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;When lads have done with labor<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in Shropshire, one will cry<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"Let's go and kill a neighbor,"<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;and t'other answers "Aye!"
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;So this one kills his cousins,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;and that one kills his dad;<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;and, as they hang by dozens<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;at Ludlow, lad by lad,
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;each of them one-and-twenty,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;all of them murderers,<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;the hangman mutters: "Plenty<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&a |
t least as large as the message to be transmitted. In light of this, and the practical difficulty of managing such long keys, modern cryptographic practice has discarded the notion of perfect secrecy as a requirement for encryption, and instead focuses on ''computational security''. Under this definition, the computational requirements of breaking an encrypted text must be infeasible for an attacker.
The [[preferred numbers]] commonly used as key sizes (in bits) are powers of two, potentially multiplied with a small odd integer.
==Brute force attack==
''Main article: [[Brute force attack]]''
Even if a cipher is unbreakable by exploiting structural weaknesses in the algorithm, it is possible to run through the entire space of keys in what is known as a ''brute force attack''. Since longer keys require more work to brute force search, a long enough key will require more work than is feasible. Thus, length of the key is important in resisting this type of attack.
A key of length ''n'' (bits) means that there are 2<sup>n</sup> possible keys. This number grows extremely rapidly as ''n'' increases. [[Moore's law]] suggests that computing power doubles roughly every 18 months, but even this doubling effect leaves the key lengths currently considered acceptable well out of reach. Large numbers like the 2<sup>128</sup> operations required to try all possible 128-bit keys will be [[Large numbers#Large numbers and computers|out of reach]] for all of mankind's conventional computing power for the foreseeable future.
==Symmetric algorithm key lengths==
US Government export policy has long [[Export of cryptography|restricted the 'strength' of cryptography]] which can be sent out of the country. For many years the limit was [[40-bit encryption|40 bits]]. Today, a key length of 40 bits offers little protection against even a casual attacker with a single PC. The restrictions have not been removed (it is still illegal to export some cryptographic products), but the limit was effectively raised to 128-bit key lengths in [[1999]]/[[2000]].
When the [[Data Encryption Standard]] cipher was released in [[1977]], a key length of 56 bits was thought to be sufficient (though there was speculation at the time that the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] has deliberately reduced the key size from the original value of 112 bits, in IBM's [[Lucifer (cipher)|Lucifer cipher]], or 64 bits, in one of the versions of what was adopted as DES) so as to limit the 'strength' of encryption available to non-US users. The NSA has major computing resources and a large budget; some thought that 56 bits was NSA-breakable in the late '70s. However, by the late 90s, it became clear that DES could be cracked in a few days' time-frame with custom-built hardware such as could be purchased by a large corporation. The book ''Cracking DES'' (O'Reilly and Associates) tells of the successful attempt to break 56-bit DES by a brute force attack mounted by a cyber civil rights group with limited resources; see [[EFF DES cracker]]. 56 bits is now considered insufficient length for symmetric algorithm keys, and may have been for some time. More technically and financially capable organizations were surely able to do the same long before the effort described in the book. [[Distributed.net]] and its volunteers broke a 64-bit RC5 key in several years, using about seventy thousand (mostly home) computers.
The [[NSA]]'s [[Skipjack (cipher)|Skipjack]] algorithm used in its [[Fortezza]] program employs 80 bit keys.
DES has been replaced in many applications by triple DES or [[3DES]], which has 112 bits of security with 168-bit keys.
The [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] published in [[2001]] uses a key size of (at minimum) 128 bits. It also can use keys up to 256 bits (a specification requirement for submissions to the [[AES contest]]). 128 bits is currently thought, by many observers, to be sufficient for the foreseeable future for symmetric algorithms of AES's quality. The U.S. Government requires 192 or 256-bit AES keys for TOP SECRET data.
In 2003 the U.S. National Institute for Standards and Technology, [[NIST]], proposed that 80-bit keys should be phased out by 2015. As of 2005, 80-bit keys are allowed to be used only until 2010.
==Asymmetric algorithm key lengths==
The effectiveness of [[public key cryptography|public key cryptosystems]] depends on the intractability (computational and theoretical) of certain mathematical problems such as [[integer factorization]]. These problems are time consuming to solve, but usually faster than trying all possible keys by brute force. Thus, asymmetric algorithm keys must be longer for equivalent resistance to attack than symmetric algorithm keys. As of [[2002]], a key length of 1024 bits was generally considered the minimum necessary for the [[RSA]] encryption algorithm.
As of [[2003]] [[RSA Security]] claims that 1024-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 80-bit symmetric keys, 2048-bit RSA keys to 112-bit symmetric keys and 3072-bit RSA keys to 128-bit symmetric keys. RSA claims that 1024-bit keys are sufficient until [[2010]] and that 2048-bit keys are sufficient until [[2030]]. An RSA key length of 3072 bits should be used if security is required beyond 2030. [[NIST]] key management guidelines further suggest that 15360-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 256-bit symmetric keys.
One of the asymmetric algorithm types, [[elliptic curve cryptography]], or ECC, appears to be secure with shorter keys than those needed by other asymmetric key algorithms. [[NIST]] guidelines state that ECC keys should twice the length of equivalent strength symmetric key algorithms. So, for example, a 224-bit ECC key would have roughly the same strength as a 112-bit symmetric key. These estimates assume no major breakthroughs in solving the underlying mathematical problems that ECC is based on. A message encrypted with an elliptic key algorithm using a 109-bit long key has been broken by brute force.
==References==
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-57/SP800-57-Part1.pdf ''Recomendation for Key Management &mdash; Part 1: general,''] NIST Special Publication 800-57. August, 2005
* Blaze, Matt; Diffie, Whitfield; Rivest, Ronald L.; et. al. "Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security". January, 1996
* Arjen K. Lenstra, Eric R. Verheul: Selecting Cryptographic Key Sizes. J. Cryptology 14(4): 255-293 (2001) &mdash; [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lenstra99selecting.html Citeseer link]
==External links==
* [http://www.keylength.com/ www.keylength.com: An online keylength calculator]
* [http://www.giac.org/practical/gsec/Lorraine_Williams_GSEC.pdf A discussion on the importance of key length] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]] file), available also in [[PostScript]] and other [[format]]s
* NIST [http://csrc.nist.gov/CryptoToolkit/ crypto toolkit]
* The [[FreeS/WAN]] project's [http://www.freeswan.org/freeswan_trees/freeswan-2.06/doc/politics.html#shortkeys discussion of key length]
* Burt Kaliski: [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2004 TWIRL and RSA key sizes] (May 2003)
[[Category:Key management]]
[[it:Dimensione chiave]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cognitive therapy</title>
<id>5750</id>
<revision>
<id>41777478</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:58:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Cognitive behavioral therapy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about cognitive therapy. For the behaviorist technique, see [[behavior modification]].''
{{psychology}}
{{split}}
'''Cognitive therapy''' or '''cognitive behavior therapy''' is a kind of [[psychotherapy]] used to treat [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[anxiety disorder]]s, [[phobia]]s, and other forms of [[psychological disorder|mental disorder]].
It involves recognizing unhelpful patterns of thinking and reacting, then modifying or replacing these with more realistic or helpful ones. Its practitioners hold that typically clinical depression is associated with (although not necessarily caused by) negatively biased thinking and [[irrationality|irrational thoughts]]. [[Cognition|Cognitive]] [[therapy]] is often used in conjunction with [[mood stabilizer|mood stabilizing]] medications to treat [[bipolar disorder]]. Its application in treating [[schizophrenia]] along with medication and family therapy is recognized by the [[National Institute for Clinical Excellence|NICE]] guidelines (see below) within the British NHS. According to the U.S.-based National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists:
:"There are several approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy, including [[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy]], Rational Behavior Therapy, Rational Living Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, and [[Dialectical behavior therapy|Dialectic Behavior Therapy]]." [http://www.nacbt.org/whatiscbt.htm].
A related approach, [[Cognitive analytic therapy|Cognitive Analytic Therapy]], can be regarded as a form of integrative therapy, integrating insights of both psychodynamic (especially Kleinian) therapy with a broad cognitive approach to therapy.
==The basics==
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel ([[emotion]]), and how we act (behaviour) all interact together. Specifically, our ''thoughts'' determine our feelings and our behaviour. Therefore negative thoughts can cause us distress and result in problems.
One example could be someone who, after making a mistake, thinks "I'm useless and can't do anything right." This impacts negatively on their mood and makes them feel [[Clinical depression|depressed]]; then they worsen the problem by reacting to avoid activities. As a result they reduce their chance of successful experienc |
aching one second round trip time. GPRS is typically prioritised lower than speech, and thus the quality of connection varies greatly.
In order to set up a GPRS connection, a user needs to specify [[Access Point Name]] (APN), user name and password, and very often an IP address, all provided by the network operator.
== See also ==
* [[CDMA]]
* [[EDGE]]
* [[UMTS]]
* [[GPRS Core Network]]
* [[IP_Multimedia_Subsystem|IP Multimedia Subsystem]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm/gprs.html Free GPRS Resources]
* [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/surveys/public/3q99issue/bettstetter.html Free online tutorial].
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/gprs/intro.shtml GSM World - Association Responsible for GSM and GPRS].
* [http://www.palowireless.com/gprs/ Palowireless GPRS Resource Center]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Telecom/gprs_attach_pdp_sequence_diagram.pdf GPRS Attach and PDP Context Activation Sequence Diagram].
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gprs/gprs_tutorial.php Free GPRS tutorial].
* [http://www.domainstandard.net/mobility/tips-cuttingcosts.php Tips for Cutting Down on GPRS Bills].
[[category: mobile telephony standards]]
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[[cs:General Packet Radio Service]]
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[[es:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[eo:GPRS]]
[[fr:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[it:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[lt:GPRS]]
[[nl:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[no:GPRS]]
[[pl:GPRS]]
[[pt:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[ru:GPRS]]
[[sr:ГПРС мрежа]]
[[fi:GPRS]]
[[sv:GPRS]]
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[[zh:GPRS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GPRS</title>
<id>12921</id>
<revision>
<id>15910570</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:28:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> General Packet Radio Service</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General Packet Radio Service]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnosis</title>
<id>12922</id>
<revision>
<id>41691944</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:23:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lawrence King</username>
<id>194161</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Influences on contemporary culture */ Removed reference to miniscule contemporary religious body (self-advertising)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|gnosis}}
The word '''gnosis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for [[knowledge]], &#947;&#957;&#974;&#963;&#953;&#962;) has several uses.
== Classical meanings ==
* Among the [[gnosticism|gnostics]], ''gnosis'' was first and foremost a matter of self acquaintance which was the goal of [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. Later, [[Valentinius]], more usually called Valentinus, taught that gnosis was the privileged "knowledge of the heart" or "[[insight]]" about the [[spirituality|spiritual]] nature of the [[universe|cosmos]], that brought about [[salvation]] to the ''pneumatics'' - people who ''believed'' they could achieve this insight.
* Among [[Heresy|heresiologist]]s ''gnosis'' denotes different [[Christianity|Christian]] belief systems of [[esotericism|esoteric]] nature, such as, first and foremost, [[Gnosticism]] and other [[dualism|dualist]] systems from the [[1st century|1st]] and [[2nd century|2nd]] centuries <small>A.D.</small>, but also [[Rosicrucian]]ism, Christian [[Kabbalah]] etc.
== Influences on contemporary culture ==
* ''Gnosis'' is the name of magazine [http://www.lumen.org/] published between [[1985]] and [[1999]] in [[California]] as a "Journal of the Western Inner Traditions" covering traditions of [[spirituality]] and [[mysticism]]. It was a project of the [[Lumen Foundation]].
* Among certain modern [[occult]] movements, esp. [[chaos magic]], ''gnosis'' refers to an altered state of awareness in which the will is "magickally" effective.
* In the movie series [[The Matrix]], one of the hovercraft is named Gnosis.
* Modern disciples of [[Aleister Crowley]] and his Doctrine of [[Thelema]] have also formed a number of Gnostic Religious Organizations. http://user.cyberlink.ch/~koenig/church.htm
== Intercultural associations ==
Gnosis has been associated and often cited as synonymous with terms from numerous cultures and religions:
* [[Enlightenment (Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] - [[Buddhism]]
* [[Moksha]] - [[Hinduism]]
* Kingdom of God - [[Christianity]]
* Body electric - [[Walt Whitman]]
* Rapture - [[Plato]] (in the sense of esctacy, not the Christian [[Rapture]])
* Irfan - [[Sufism]]
* Inner Light and Sound [[Sant Mat]]
== Video Game References ==
* In the hit game, "Baten Kaitos: Eternal Wings and the Lost Ocean" for the Nintendo Gamecube, Gnosis is the boss at the end of the "Passageway of Souls." Kalas and his friends head to the Isle of Mira, the Illusion Nation, to find the fourth End Magnus, "Bo." On the way to Mira, the ship on which the gang is traveling gets sucked into another dimension. They meet Mizuti and have to make it back to the real world. Mizuti guides them to the way to real world. As they are about to leave the other dimension Gnosis appears and a battle ensues.
* [[Gnosis (Xenosaga)|The Gnosis]] are mysterious alien attackers in the [[Xenosaga]] games for the Sony Playstation 2. The Gnosis have the ability to turn humans into salt by touching them.
* The term Gnosis is used in the collectable card game entitled "Rage", based off of the White Wolf Role-playing game "Werewolf: The Apocalypse".
*Though not featured, Gnosis is a hovership from [[Enter The Matrix]] and [[The Matrix series]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.gnosis.org/ The Gnosis Archive] - A source of primary texts.
* [http://www.starstuffs.com/articles/gnosis.html Gnosis and Shamanism Sacred Knowledge of ''Spiritual'' Knowing]
* [http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church]
* [http://ashejournal.com/index.php?id=22/ Ashe Journal]- Special Issue on Gnosticism: From Valentinus to Burroughs
* [http://www.freechurchofantioch.com Free Church of Antioch- An independent, sacramental, gnostic-theosophical ''Catholic'' church]
* [http://www.bagendpress.com Gnosis: Good News for the Third Millennium by Todd C. Settimo- a modern gospel (published by Bag End Press)]
* [http://www.gftaognosticaespiritual.org TAO, Gnosis teachings in spanish but we are coming with the english version
== Gnostic blogs ==
* [http://illuminism.blogspot.com/ Illuminism & Personal Reflections of Mar Didymos I, Patriarch of the Thomasine Church]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[de:gnosis]]
[[el:&#947;&#957;&#974;&#963;&#953;&#962;]]
[[pt:Gnose]]
[[fi:Gnosis]]
[[sv:gnosis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Georgian</title>
<id>12923</id>
<revision>
<id>38784818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T17:12:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Isotalo</username>
<id>505774</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Peoples and langauges come first.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Georgian''' may refer to:
*the [[Georgian people]]
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]], a [[South Caucasian languages|South Caucasian language]]
* the ''[[Georgian (train)|Georgian]]'' an American passenger train
* the [[Georgian period in British history]] between kings [[George I]] and [[George IV]], with the sub-period of [[Regency]] (the Regency of [[George IV]] as [[Prince of Wales]] during the madness of his father [[George III]])
*[[Georgian architecture]]
==See also==
*[[Georgia (disambiguation)]]
{{disambig}}
[[no:Georgisk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Georgian architecture</title>
<id>12924</id>
<revision>
<id>40301612</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T17:35:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[William Chambers]] to [[William Chambers (architect)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:57 The Close, Salisbury.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Georgian house in [[Salisbury]]]]
[[image:royal.crescent.aerial.bath.arp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Georgian architecture at [[Royal Crescent]], [[Bath]], seen from a [[hot air balloon]]. Notice the contrast between the architectural style of the public front and the private rear of this famous terrace]]
'''Georgian architecture''' is the name given in [[English (language)|English]]-speaking countries to the classic [[architectural style]]s current between about [[1720]] and [[1840]], named after the four [[British monarchy|British monarchs]] named George. The Georgian styles succeeded the English [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] of Sir [[Christopher Wren]], Sir [[John Vanbrugh]] and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]]. Among the first architects to promote the change in direction from baroque were [[Colen Campbell]] and the engravings in ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]'', [[Richard Boyle, 4th Earl of Cork|Lord Burlington]] and his proteg&eacute; [[William Kent]], [[Thomas Archer]] and the [[Venetian]] [[Giacomo Leoni]], who passed his career in England.
The styles that resulted fall within the broad categories of [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]]&mdash; and its whimsical alternatives, [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and [[Chinoiserie]] that were the English-speaking world's equivalent of European [[Rococo]] styles&mdash; and, from the mid-1760s, the range of [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] modes associated with the British architects [[Robert Adam]], Sir [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]], [[James Wyatt]], [[Henry Holland (architect)|Henry Holland]] and Sir [[John |
] thereby allowing the bulk of the German forces to escape northwards. He received the German surrender in Italy on [[29 April]] [[1945]].
Sir Harold Alexander was created '''Viscount Alexander of Tunis''', of Errigal in the County of Donegal, in [[1946]] for his leadership in North Africa and Italy. In December 1946 he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]] and was created '''Baron Rideau''', of Ottawa and of Castle Derg in the County of Tyrone, and '''Earl Alexander of Tunis''' in [[1952]].
==Governor General of Canada==
After the war Alexander was [[Governor General of Canada]] ([[1946]]-[[1952]]), and was a popular choice among the [[Canada|Canadian]] population. In addition to his military reputation, Alexander had a charismatic gift for making friends and communicating with people. This made him a popular and successful Governor General. He took his duties seriously &ndash; indeed, when he was asked to kick the opening ball in the [[1946]] [[Grey Cup]] final, he spent a number of early mornings practising.
He saw his role as a vital link between Canadians and their head of State, and was eager to convey that message wherever he went. He travelled Canada extensively, eventually logging more than 184,000 miles during his five years as Governor General.
On his first major visit to western Canada, he was presented on [[13 July]] [[1946]] with a [[totem pole]] made by [[Kwakiutl]] carver Mungo Martin, to mark his installation as an Honorary Chief of the Kwakiutl, the first white man to be so honoured. The totem pole remains a popular attraction on the front lawn of [[Rideau Hall]]. During a later visit in [[1950]], he was made Chief Eagle Head of the [[Blackfeet|Blackfoot]] Indians.
Alexander's term &mdash; the post-WWII years &mdash; was an era of change for Canada. The post-war economy boomed in Canada, and a new prosperity began. In Letters Patent of [[1947]], [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] gave the Governor General all of His Majesty's powers and authorities in respect of Canada. The document continues to be the source of the Governor General's powers today. In [[1949]], at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference, the decision was made to use the term "member of the Commonwealth" instead of "Dominion".
That same year, [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] entered [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], and Alexander visited the new province that summer. But by [[1950]], Canada was once again embroiled in war, as Canadian Forces fought in [[Korea]] against Communist [[North Korea]] and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Alexander visited the troops heading overseas to give them his personal encouragement.
Alexander hosted various dignitaries, including [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Princess Elizabeth]] and the [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Duke of Edinburgh]], who came to Canada for a Royal Tour in October [[1951]], less than two years before the Princess would become Queen Elizabeth II, [[Queen of Canada]]. Lord and Lady Alexander hosted a square dancing party which the Princess and the Duke attended. Alexander also travelled abroad on official trips, visiting [[Harry S. Truman|President Truman]] in the [[United States]] in [[1947]], and paying a State visit to [[Brazil]] in June [[1948]].
Generally, though, Lord and Lady Alexander led an informal lifestyle. He was an avid sportsman, enjoying [[fishing]], [[golf]], [[ice hockey]] and [[rugby football|rugby]]. Fond of the outdoors, he enjoyed attending the harvest of [[maple syrup]] in [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]], and personally supervised the tapping of the [[maple]] trees on the grounds of Rideau Hall. He was also a passionate painter, and in addition to setting up a studio for himself in the former dairy which still stands today at Rideau Hall, he organised art classes at the [[National Gallery of Canada]]. Lady Alexander became an expert weaver while in Canada, and had two looms in her study.
Alexander encouraged education in Canada. Many Canadian universities gave him honorary degrees, and he was also appointed an Honorary Doctor of Laws by [[Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Princeton University|Princeton]] Universities in the United States.
==Later career==
In early [[1952]], after his term was extended twice, Lord Alexander left the office of Governor General, after [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]], the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]], asked him to return to London to take the post of [[Minister of Defence]]. He was temporarily replaced by an administrator (Chief Justice [[Thibaudeau Rinfret]]) prior to the appointment of diplomat [[Vincent Massey]] as the new Governor General.
Lord Alexander served as Minister of Defence until [[1954]], at which point he retired from politics.
Canada remained a favourite second home of the Alexanders, and they returned often to visit family and friends.
Lord Alexander of Tunis died in 1969. His funeral was held on [[24 June]] [[1969]] at St Georges Chapel, [[Windsor Castle]], and his remains are buried in the churchyard of Ridge, near Tyttenhanger, his family's Hertfordshire home. Lady Alexander died in [[1977]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor General of Canada]] | before=[[Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone|The Earl of Athlone]] | after= Chief Justice The Right Honourable [[Thibaudeau Rinfret]] as administrator | years=1946&ndash;1952}}
{{succession box | title=[[Minister of Defence]] | before=[[Winston Churchill]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | years=1952&ndash;1954}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of the County of London]] | before=[[Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke|The Viscount Alanbrooke]] | after=Post abolished | years=1956&ndash;1965}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of Greater London]] | before=New post | after=[[Gerald Templer|Sir Gerald Templer]] | years=1965&ndash;1966}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}{{succession box | title=[[Earl Alexander of Tunis]] | before=New Creation | | years= | after=[[Shane Alexander, 2nd Earl Alexander of Tunis|Shane Alexander]]}}{{end box}}
==Reference==
''Some text adapted from [http://www.gg.ca http://www.gg.ca]''
{{CanGG}}
[[Category:1891 births|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:1969 deaths|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Governors General of Canada|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of St Michael and St George|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Old Harrovians|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Companions of the Star of India|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights of Justice of St John|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[cs:Harold Rupert Alexander]]
[[da:Harold Alexander]]
[[de:Harold Alexander]]
[[lv:Harolds Aleksanders]]
[[pl:Harold Alexander]]
[[sl:Harold Alexander]]
[[sv:Harold Alexander]]
[[uk:Александер Гаролд Руперт Леофрік Джордж I]]
[[zh:哈罗德·亚历山大]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hubbles law</title>
<id>14448</id>
<revision>
<id>15912003</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-05T18:25:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Hubble's law]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hubble's law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hubbles constant</title>
<id>14449</id>
<revision>
<id>15912004</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-13T06:43:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>-&gt; [[Hubble's law]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hubble's law]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hangul</title>
<id>14451</id>
<revision>
<id>42134834</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:24:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.75.212.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{korean name image| image=[[Image:Hangeul.png|center|290px|The word ''hangeul'' (Revised Romanisation) written in Hangul]]<br><font style="align:left">The word ''hangeul'' (Revised Romanisation) written in Hangul.</font> | hangul=한글 | hanja=(none) | rr=Han(-)geul | mr=Han'gŭl}}
'''Hangul''' is the native [[alphabet]] used to write the [[Korean language]], as opposed to the [[hanja]] system borrowed from [[China]]. For other [[Romanization|romanized]] spellings of "Hangul", please see [[#Names|Names]] below.
While hangul may appear [[logographic]] to the uninitiated, it is actually [[phonemic]], like most so-called "[[phonetic]]" writing systems. Each Hangul syllabic block consists of at least two of the 24 alphabetic letters (''[[#Jamo|jamo]]''): 14 [[consonant]]s and 10 [[v |
vince)|Ourense Province]]. The highest mountain is [[Trevinca]] ([[1 E3 m|2 100 m]]) on the eastern border with León and Zamora provinces ([[Castilla y León]]).
Although the region is filled with extensive natural areas, Galicia has had environmental problems in the modern age. Deforestation is a problem in many areas, as is the continual spread of the invasive eucalyptus tree, imported for the paper industry, which is causing imbalances in the indigenous ecosystem. Fauna, most notably the European wolf, have suffered from livestock owners and farmers. The native deer species have declined because of hunting and development. Recently, oil spills have become a major issue, especially with the [[Mar Egeo]] disaster in A Coruña and the infamous [[Prestige oil spill]] in 2002, a crude oil spill larger than the Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska. Other environmental issues include gas flushing by maritime traffic, pollution from fish hatcheries on the coast, overfishing, and the highest incidence of [[forest fire]]s in Spain, in spite of the wetter Galician climate.
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Galicia}}
Galicia is a land of economic contrast. While the western coast, with its major population centers, and its fishing and manufacturing industries is prosperous and increasing in population, the rural hinterland&mdash;the provinces of [[Ourense]] and [[Lugo]]&mdash;are economically dependent on traditional agriculture, based on small landholdings called ''minifundios''. However, the rise of tourism, sustainable forestry and organic and traditional agriculture are bringing other possibilities to the Galician economy without compromising the preservation of the natural resources and the local culture.
==Population==
Galicia's inhabitants are called "Galicians" (in Portuguese & Galician ''galegos''; in Spanish ''gallegos''). There was significant Galician emigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries to other parts of Spain and to Latin America. In fact, the city with the second greatest number of Galician people is [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]
,where immigration from Galicia was so massive that all Spaniards are now called ''gallegos''.
==Cuisine==
{{main|Galician cuisine}}
Galician cuisine often uses fish and shellfish. One of its dishes, [[Empanadas]], is a meat or fish pie. It has Celtic influence. [[Caldo Galego]] is a hearty soup whose main ingredients are potatoes and a local vegetable named [[Grelo]]. [[Centolla]] is the equivalent of King [[Crab]]. It is prepared by being boiled alive, having its main body opened like a shell, and then having its innards mixed vigorously. Centolla is served in water. It has a regional type of cheese, too: [[tetilla]]. It is triangularly shaped and is white, and takes the name from the similarity in shape to a woman's breast.
==Famous Galicians==
[[Image:Castelao.jpg|thumb|right|[[Castelao|Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao]] ([[Rianxo]], 1886 - [[Buenos Aires]], 1950)]]
*[[Galician literature|Literature (in Galician)]]:
** [[Rosalía de Castro]]
** [[Manuel Curros Enríquez]]
** [[Eduardo Pondal]]
** [[Castelao]]
** [[Celso Emilio Ferreiro]]
** [[Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín]]
*Literature (others):
** [[Camilo José Cela]] ([[Nobel Prize for Literature]], [[1989]])
** [[Emilia Pardo-Bazán]]
** [[Gonzalo Torrente Ballester]]
** [[Ramón del Valle-Inclán]]
** [[Ignacio Ramonet]]
*Photography:
** [[Manuel Ferrol]]
** [[Mariano Grueiro]]
** [[Xurxo Lobato]]
*Music:
** [[Carlos Núñez]]
** [[Luar na Lubre]]
** [[Milladoiro]]
** [[Manu Chao]]
*Film:
** [[Mariano Grueiro]]
*Artist:
** [[Castelao]]
*Architecture:
** [[Cesar Portela]]
** [[Mestre Mateo]]
*Design:
** [[Aduaneiros sem Fronteiras]]
*Politics:
** [[Fidel Castro]]
** [[Julián Besteiro]]
** [[Manuel Fraga]]
** [[Francisco Franco]]
** [[Pablo Iglesias]]
** [[Xosé Manuel Beiras]]
** [[Anxo Quintana]]
** [[Emilio Pérez Touriño]]
** [[Santiago Casares Quiroga]]
==Outstanding contemporary musicians and groups==
*[http://www.ofiadeiro.com O Fiadeiro] traditional dancing, singing and tunes, from [[Vigo]]
*[http://www.sondeseu.org/ SonDeSeu ] modern orchestra with traditional instruments (harps, hurdy-gurdies, tambourines, flutes, violins and bagpipes) and repertoire
*[http://www.mercedespeon.net/ Mercedes Peón] singer and musician who draws heavily upon tradition to produce very modern music
*[http://www.xosemanuelbudino.com/ Xosé Manuel Budiño] bagpiper who plays modern music with a traditional stroke
*[http://www.xistra.info/ Xistra de Coruxo] traditional group and association
*[http://www.xacarandaina.com Xacarandaina] traditional dancing, singing and tunes, from [[A Coruña]]
*[http://www.berroguetto.com/ Berrogüetto] group which manages a perfect, balanced, virtuoso combination of tradition and modernity
*[http://www.oscempes.com/ Os Cempés] traditional quintet from [[Trasancos]] with spicy and joyful lyrics and rhythm
*[http://www.quempallou.com/ Quempallou] traditional music full of joy and energy from [[O Morrazo]] e [[O Incio]]
*[http://www.ghastaspista.com/xiradela.php Xiradela] female singers and players of tambourine and traditional percussion from [[Arteixo]]
*[http://www.susanaseivane.com/ Susana Seivane] possible the best female bagpiper from [[Cambre]]
*[http://www.luarnalubre.com/ Luar na Lubre] wonderful traditional group
*[[Carlos Nuñez]] musician who plays the [[Galician gaita|gaita]], a kind of [[bagpipes]]
==Football Teams==
*[[Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña]] One of Spain's most successful football teams in recent years, from [[A Coruña]]
*[[Real Club Celta de Vigo]] from [[Vigo]]
*[[Racing de Ferrol]] Play in Spain's Segunda División, from [[Ferrol]]
==Holidays==
* [[Día das Letras Galegas]] ("Galician Literature Day") on [[May 17]]
* [[Día da Pátria Galega]] (Galicia&rsquo; Day) on [[July 25]]
{{listdev}}
==Political Parties==
* [[Galician People's Party|Partido Popular Galego]] (PPdeG) - Galician People's Party
* [[Socialist Party of Galicia|Partido Socialista de Galicia]]-[[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|PSOE]] (PSdeG-PSOE) - Socialist Party of Galicia-Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
* [[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]] (BNG) - Galician Nationalist Bloc
* [[Esquerda Unida]]-[[United Left (Spain)|Izquierda Unida]] (EU-IU) - United Left
==See also==
*[[Galician music]]
*[http://www.catoira.net Viking Festival]
==External links==
*[http://www.zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=10240506 Profiles of relevant English-language websites]
{{Template:Galician_cities}}
{{Spain}}
[[Category:Galicia (Spain)|*]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[ar:منطقة جليقية الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Galizia]]
[[ast:Galicia]]
[[bg:Галисия]]
[[ca:Galícia]]
[[cs:Galicie]]
[[cy:Galicia]]
[[de:Galicien]]
[[et:Galicia]]
[[es:Galicia]]
[[eo:Galegio]]
[[eu:Galizia]]
[[fa:گالیسیا]]
[[fr:Galice]]
[[gl:Galicia]]
[[ko:갈리시아 지방]]
[[hr:Galicija, Španjolska]]
[[ia:Gallecia]]
[[it:Galizia]]
[[kw:Galisi]]
[[hu:Galícia tartomány]]
[[mi:Karihia]]
[[nl:Galicië (Spanje)]]
[[ja:ガリシア]]
[[no:Galicia (Spania)]]
[[pl:Galicia]]
[[pt:Galiza]]
[[ro:Galicia]]
[[fi:Galicia]]
[[sv:Galicien]]
[[tl:Galiza]]
[[zh:加里西亚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gaelic languages</title>
<id>12838</id>
<revision>
<id>19847499</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-29T11:34:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angr</username>
<id>157842</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>REDIRECT [[Goidelic languages]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Goidelic languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gregory Rasputin</title>
<id>12840</id>
<revision>
<id>15910497</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-23T16:11:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gianfranco</username>
<id>918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Grigori Rasputin]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grigori Rasputin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>G protein</title>
<id>12841</id>
<revision>
<id>36823654</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T18:51:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.135.27.214</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''G-proteins,''' short for '''guanine nucleotide binding proteins,''' are a family of [[protein]]s involved in [[second messenger]] cascades. They are so called because of their signaling mechanism, which uses the exchange of [[guanosine diphosphate]] (GDP) for [[guanosine triphosphate]] (GTP) as a molecular "switch" to allow or inhibit [[biochemistry|biochemical]] reactions inside the [[cell (biology)|cell]]. [[Alfred Gilman]] and [[Martin Rodbell]] were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1994]] for their discovery and research on G-proteins.
[[Image:G-Protein.png|thumb|3D structure of a heterotrimeric G-protein]]
==General properties==
G-proteins belong to the larger grouping of [[GTPase]]s. "G-protein" usually refers to the membrane-associated heterotrimeric G-proteins, sometimes referred to as the ''"large" G-proteins''. These proteins are activated by [[G-protein coupled receptor]]s and are made up of alpha (&alpha;), beta (&beta;) and gamma (&gamma;) [[subunit]]s. There are also ''"small" G proteins'' or [[small GTPase]]s like [[ras]] that are monomeric and not membrane-associated, but also bind GTP and GDP and are involved in [[signal transduction]].
G-proteins are perhaps the most important signal transducing molecules in cells. In fact, diseases such as [[diabetes]], [[alcoholism]], and certain forms of pituitary [[cancer]], among many others, are thought to have some root in the malfunction of G-proteins, and thus a fundamental understanding of their function, signaling pathways, and protein interactions may lead to eventual treatments and possibly the creation of various preventive approaches.
==Receptor-acti |
e.]]
In ''Iliad'' i.590, Zeus threw Hephaestus from Olympus because he released his mother Hera who was suspended by a golden chain between earth and sky, after an argument she had with Zeus. Hephaestus fell for nine days and nights before landing on the [[island]] of [[Lemnos]] where he grew to be a master craftsman and was allowed back into Olympus when his ability and usefulness became known to the gods.
Hephaestus was quite ugly; he was crippled and misshapen at birth: in the vase-paintings, his feet are sometimes back-to-front. In art, Hephaestus was shown lame and bent over his anvil. He walked with the aid of a stick. Hera, mortified to have brought forth such grotesque offspring, promptly threw him from [[Mount Olympus]]. He fell, as he tells it himself in the ''Iliad'' (xviii.395) many days and nights and landed in the Ocean where he was brought up by the [[Oceanid]]s [[Thetis]] (mother of Achilles) and [[Eurynome]]. (Hephaetus’s physical appearance indicates [[Arsenicosis]], low levels of arsenic poisoning result in lameness and skin cancers. Arsenic was added to [[bronze]] to harden it and most smiths of the [[Bronze Age]] would have suffered from chronic workplace poisoning).
Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical golden throne which, when she sat on it, didn't allow her to leave it. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go but he repeatedly refused. [[Dionysus]] got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love, as his wife.
'''''The Tale of Hephaestus and Aphrodite'''''
Hephaestus, the god of fire, is one of the foremost gods who reign along side Zeus, the king of the gods, on Mount Olympus. According to ancient Greek mythology, Aphrodite was the wife of Hephaestus. In many instances, Hephaestus is described as ugly and disfigured. Furthermore, he is usually depicted in paintings and drawings crippled and bent over his anvil. Consequently, it seems peculiar that such a unattractive being would be wedded to the goddess of sexual desire. In one version of the myth, Hephaestus, being the most unfaltering of the gods, was given Aphrodite’s hand in marriage by Zeus in order to prevent conflict over her between the other gods. Another rendition of the myth states that Aphrodite was given to Hephaestus after releasing Hera from a magic throne. Hephaestus was thrown from Mount Olympus by Hera for his loathsome features and Hephaestus planned his revenge by trapping her in his this magic throne.
In either case, Hephaestus and Aphrodite had an arranged marriage and Aphrodite disliking the idea of being married to unsightly Hephaestus began an affair with [[Ares]], the god of war. Eventually, Hephaestus finds out about Aphrodite’s promiscuity from [[Helios]], the all-seeing Sun, and plans a trap for them during one of their trysts. While Aphrodite and Ares lay together in bed, Hephaestus ensnares them in an unbreakable, chain-link net and drags to Mount Olympus to show their shame in form of all the other gods and for retribution. However, the gods merely laughed at the sight of these naked lovers and simply let them go without punishment.
'''''Additional Information:'''''
The [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebans]] told that the union with Ares and Aphrodite produced [[Harmonia (Greek goddess)|Harmonia]], as lovely as a second Aphrodite. But of her union with Hephaestus, there was no issue, unless [[Virgil]] was serious when he said that [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] was their child (''[[Aeneid]]'' i.664). But in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Illiad]]'' the consort of Hephaestus is a lesser Aphrodite, [[Aglaea|Aglaia]] "the glorious," the youngest of the [[Graces]], and [[Hesiod]] agrees (''[[Theogony]]'' 945). Hephaestus fathered several children with mortals and immortals alike. One of those children was the robber [[Periphetes]]. With [[Thalia]], Hephaestus was sometimes considered the father of the [[Palici]].
Hephaestus was somehow connected with the archaic, pre-Greek [[Phrygia]]n and [[Thrace|Thracian]] mystery cult of the [[Kabeiroi]], who were also called the ''Hephaistoi'', "the Hephaestus-men," in Lemnos.
==See also==
*[[Vulcan_(mythology)|Vulcan]]
{{commons|Hephaestus}}
[[Category:Fire gods]]
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Smithing gods]]
[[bg:Хефест]]
[[ca:Hefest]]
[[da:Hefaistos]]
[[de:Hephaistos]]
[[el:Ήφαιστος (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Hefesto]]
[[eo:Hefesto]]
[[fr:Héphaïstos]]
[[ko:헤파이스토스]]
[[it:Efesto]]
[[he:הפיסטוס]]
[[lt:Hefaistas]]
[[lb:Hephaistos]]
[[nl:Hephaistos]]
[[ja:ヘパイストス]]
[[no:Hefaistos]]
[[pl:Hefajstos]]
[[pt:Hefesto]]
[[ru:Гефест]]
[[sr:Хефест]]
[[fi:Hefaistos]]
[[sv:Hefaistos]]
[[zh:赫斐斯托斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herman Charles Bosman</title>
<id>14389</id>
<revision>
<id>40602489</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:31:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reinyday</username>
<id>100726</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up -- see [[Wikipedia:Only make links that are relevant to the context]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Herman Charles Bosman''' ([[1905]] - [[October 14]] [[1951]]) was a [[South Africa|South African]] [[writer]] and [[journalist]] who became famous for capturing the rhythms of backveld [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] speech even though he wrote in [[English language|English]]. He is widely regarded as the greatest short story writer to come out of South Africa. Many of his stories have a sting in the tail.
He was born at Kuilsrivier, near [[Cape Town]]. While still young, his family moved to [[Johannesburg]] where he went to school at [[Jeppe High School for Boys]] in [[Kensington, Gauteng|Kensington]]. He was a contributor to the school magazine. When he was 16, he started writing amusing short stories for the national Sunday newspaper (the ''Sunday Times''). He attended the [[University of the Witwatersrand]] submitting various pieces to student&rsquo;s literary competitions.
Upon graduating, he accepted a [[teaching]] position in the [[Groot Marico]] district, in an Afrikaans language school. The area and the people inspired him and provided the background for his best stories; the ones about ''Oom Schalk Lourens'' and the ''Voorkamer'' sketches. (In Afrikaans, ''Oom'' is ''Uncle'' and a ''Voorkamer'' is literally the ''Front Room'').
During the school holidays in 1926, he returned to visit his family in Johannesburg. During an argument, he fired a rifle at his stepbrother and killed him.
He was sentenced to death and moved to [[Death row]] at the [[Pretoria]] Central Prison. He was reprieved and sentenced to ten years with hard labour. In 1930, he was released on [[parole]] after serving half his sentence. His experiences formed the basis for one of his best known books, ''Cold Stone Jug''.
He then started his own printing press company and was part of a literary set in Johannesburg, associating with [[poet]]s, journalists and writers. Needing a break, he then toured overseas for nine years, spending most of his time in [[London]]. The short stories that he wrote during this period formed the basis for another of his best-known books, ''Mafeking Road''.
At the start of the [[Second World War]], he returned to South Africa and worked as a journalist. He found the time to translate the [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]] into Afrikaans.
He lamented the fact that Johannesburg never respected its heritage; writing in ''The Standard Theatre'' "They will pull down the Standard Theatre like they have pulled down all the old buildings, theatres, gin-palaces, dosshouses, temples, shops, arcades, cafes and joints that were intimately associated with the mining-camp days of Johannesburg. Because I know Johannesburg. And I am satisfied that there is no other city in the world that is so anxious to shake off the memories of its early origins."
He married Ella Manson, and the couple were renowned for their [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] lifestyle and parties. His parties ended well after midnight with much witty conversation. After a [[housewarming party]] he was taken ill with severe chest pains and was taken to [[Edenvale, Gauteng|Edenvale]] Hospital. On admission he was asked, "Place of birth?" He replied, "Born Kuilsrivier - Died Edenvale Hospital." He was discharged and collapsed at home a few hours later. He died as he was being rushed to hospital. He is buried in Westpark Cemetery in Westdene, with a triangular headstone that reads "Die Skrywer, The Writer, Herman Charles Bosman, b 3.2.1905, d 14.10.1951 ."
After his death, the rights to his works were auctioned, and purchased by his last wife. Upon her death, those rights were passed to her son, who retains those rights.
Only three of his books were published during his lifetime; ''Mafeking Road'' published by Dassie, and ''Jacaranda in the Night'' and ''Cold Stone Jug'' published by APB.
His biography was written by Valerie Rosenberg and was called ''Sunflower to the sun'' ISBN 079811228X Human & Rousseau.
Because many of his stories were originally published in long-forgotten magazines and journals, there are a number of [[anthology|anthologies]] by different collators each containing a different selection. His original books have also been published many times by different publishers, although only in South Africa. Some of the [[ISBN]] numbers and publishers below may not be for the original edition.
==Books==
* Mafeking Road & Other Stories (1947) ISBN 0798139021 Human & Rousseau
* Rubaijat van Omar Khajjam (1948) Colin Reed-McDonald
* Cold Stone Jug (1949) ISBN 0798139811 Human & Rousseau
* Veld-trails and pavements (1949) with Carel Bredell Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel
* Cask of Jerepigo (1957) Central News Agency
* Unto dust (1963) edited by Lionel Abrahams ISBN 0798115017 An |
of time. Since we are assuming uniform [[circular motion]], let '''r'''(t) = R&middot;'''u'''<sub>r</sub>, where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and '''u'''<sub>r</sub> is the [[unit vector]] pointing from the origin to the point mass. In terms of Cartesian unit vectors:
:<math>u_r = cos(\theta)u_x + sin(\theta)u_y \, </math>
''Note: unlike in [[cartesian coordinates]] where the unit vectors are constants, in [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]] the direction of the unit vectors depend on the angle between the x_axis and the point being described; the angle &theta;.''
So we differentiate to find velocity:
:<math>v = R \frac {du_r}{dt} \, </math>
:<math>v = R \frac{d\theta}{dt} u_\theta \, </math>
:<math>v = R \omega u_\theta \, </math>
where &omega; is the angular velocity (just a short way of writing d&theta;/dt), '''u'''<sub>&theta;</sub> is the unit vector that is perpendicular to '''u'''<sub>r</sub> that points in the direction of increasing &theta;. In cartesian terms: '''u'''<sub>&theta;</sub> = -sin(&theta;) '''u'''<sub>x</sub> + cos(&theta;) '''u'''<sub>y</sub>
This result for the velocity is good because it matches our expectation that the velocity should be directed around the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be &omega;R. Differentiating again, we find that the acceleration, '''a''' is:
:<math>a = R \left( \frac {d\omega}{dt} u_\theta - \omega^2 u_r \right) \, </math>
Thus, the radial component of the acceleration is:
:<math>a_r = -\omega^2 R \, </math>
== See also ==
* [[Centrifugal force]]
* [[Circular motion]]
* [[Coriolis effect|Coriolis force]]
== References ==
* {{cite book
| author = Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W.
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers
| edition = 6th ed.
| publisher = Brooks/Cole
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0534408427
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Tipler, Paul
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
| edition = 5th ed.
| publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0716708094
}}
[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Mechanics]]
[[cs:Dostředivá síla]]
[[de:Zentripetalkraft]]
[[eo:Centrifuga forto]]
[[es:Fuerza centrípeta]]
[[fi:Sentripetaalivoima]]
[[it:Forza centripeta]]
[[ja:回転運動]]
[[ko:구심력]]
[[pl:Siła dośrodkowa]]
[[sl:Centripetalna sila]]
[[sv:Centripetalkraft]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commodore</title>
<id>7535</id>
<revision>
<id>40924319</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:35:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ugur Basak</username>
<id>298337</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Commodore''' has several meanings:
* [[Commodore (rank)]], a naval rank.
** the similar fictional rank of [[Commodore (Star Trek)]].
* [[Commodore International]], a computer company, manufacturers of:
** [[Commodore PET]].
** [[Commodore VIC-20]].
** [[Commodore 64]].
** [[Amiga]].
* Commodore Semiconductor Group, a microprocessor and calculator company formerly known as [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc.]]
* The senior officer of a [[yacht club]].
* [[Holden Commodore]], a car.
* [[Opel Commodore]], a car
* [[Consolidated Aircraft Commodore]], a [[flying boat]].
* ''[[The Commodore]]'', a Horatio Hornblower novel by C. S. Forester.
* ''The Commodore'', a novel in the [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] by Patrick O'Brian.
* [[Commodore Ballroom]], a nightclub in Vancouver, British Columbia.
* [[The Commodores]], a soul/funk band of the 1970s.
Some famous people are commonly referred to as Commodore:
* Commodore Perry is [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)]].
* Commodore Vanderbilt is [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]].
{{disambig}}
[[da:Commodore]]
[[de:Commodore]]
[[es:Commodore]]
[[fr:Commodore]]
[[nl:Commodore]]
[[nn:Commodore]]
[[tr:Commodore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Conditioning (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7536</id>
<revision>
<id>39683750</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T03:36:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* '''Conditioning''' in [[Psychology]] refers to one of two types of learning: [[Classical conditioning]] and [[Operant conditioning]].
* '''Conditioning''' is also an [[engineering]] term for putting something (for example, a communications link) into a particular condition.
* In [[mathematics]], the '''conditioning''' of a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] is expressed by its [[condition number]].
* In [[probability theory]], '''conditioning''' is the adoption of [[conditional probability|conditional probabilities]] based on observed events.
* '''Conditioning''' is also a term used in [[athletics]] for exercises designed to improve one's general [[fitness]].
[[de:Konditionierung]]
[[es:Condicionamiento]]
[[fr:Conditionnement]]
[[gl:Condicionamento]]
[[nl:Geconditioneerde reflex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Checksum</title>
<id>7538</id>
<revision>
<id>41377394</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:07:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eloy</username>
<id>522704</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about checksums calculated using addition. The term "checksum" is sometimes used in a more general sense to refer to any kind of [[redundancy check]]. Checksums on decimal numbers are discussed under [[check digit]].''
A '''checksum''' is a form of [[redundancy check]], a very simple measure for protecting the integrity of data by [[error detection|detecting errors]] in data that is sent through space ([[telecommunication]]s) or time ([[Computer storage|storage]]). It works by adding up the basic components of a message, typically the [[byte]]s, and storing the resulting value. Later, anyone can perform the same operation on the data, compare the result to the authentic checksum, and (assuming that the sums match) conclude that the message was probably not corrupted.
The simplest form of checksum, which simply adds up the bytes in the data, cannot detect a number of types of errors. In particular, such a checksum is not changed by:
* reordering of the bytes in the message
* inserting or deleting zero-valued bytes
* multiple errors that cancel out each other
More sophisticated types of redundancy check, including [[Fletcher's checksum]], [[Adler-32]], and [[cyclic redundancy check]]s (CRCs), are designed to address these weaknesses by considering not only the value of each byte but also its position. The cost of the ability to detect more types of error is the increased [[complexity]] of computing the checksum.
These types of redundancy check are useful in detecting ''accidental'' modification such as corruption to stored data or errors in a communication channel. However, they provide no security against a malicious agent as their simple [[mathematical structure]] makes them trivial to circumvent. To provide this level of integrity, the use of a [[cryptographic hash function]], such as [[SHA-256]], is necessary. (Collisions have been found in SHA-1, currently the most popular choice, but there is no evidence as of 2005 that SHA-256 suffers similar weaknesses.)
On [[Unix|UNIX]] there is a tool called "cksum" that generates both a 32 bit CRC and a byte count for any given input file.
==See also==
* [[Check digit]]
* [[Hamming code]]
* [[List of checksum algorithms]]
* [[Luhn algorithm]]
* [[Parity bit]]
==External links==
* [http://www.jonelo.de/java/jacksum/index.html Jacksum] (a free open source program with various message verification functions)
[[Category:Checksum algorithms|*]]
[[de:Prüfsumme]]
[[es:Suma de verificación]]
[[nl:Checksum]]
[[ja:チェックサム]]
[[pl:Suma kontrolna]]
[[fi:Tarkistussumma]]
[[is:Prófsumma]]
[[fr:Somme de contrôle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosmic Background Radiation</title>
<id>7539</id>
<revision>
<id>30556064</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-08T04:12:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joke137</username>
<id>184529</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic microwave background radiation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cultural evolution</title>
<id>7540</id>
<revision>
<id>19845546</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-29T10:46:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sociocultural evolution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>City University of New York</title>
<id>7541</id>
<revision>
<id>40964209</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:49:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Izzycat</username>
<id>69011</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cunylogo.jpg|right]]
The '''City University of New York''' (CUNY; [[acronym]] usually pronounced "kyoo-nee" or "coo-nee"), located in [[New York City]], is the largest urban university in the [[United States]], with more than 198,000 enrolled in degree programs, about 20,000 enrolled in non-degree programs and more than 200,000 enrolled in adult and continuing education courses at campuses in all five boroughs. It is the third-largest university system, in terms of enrollment, in the [[United States]], behind the [[State University of New York]] system and th |
(there are also special machines for pre-dealing on large tournaments), and placed into [[board (bridge)|bridge boards]]. At every subsequent table, each player pulls his cards from the board and counts them, ensuring that the deal wasn't corrupted. Unlike other trick-taking games, the players do not throw their cards to the middle of the table in each trick; instead, each player keeps his played card before himself, allowing the deal to be returned to the board unaltered.
=== The auction ===
To prepare for the play of the cards, the auction phase determines several things: the contract, which consists of the [[trump]] suit and the intended number of tricks; which partnership will play for the contract; and which of the players in that partnership will play the hand. In addition, doubling and redoubling may occur, which represents a "raising of the stakes" when the played hand is scored.
During the auction, each player makes a ''call'' at his turn, which consists of any one of the following:
* Pass
* Make a new bid
* Double or Redouble
The auction consists of each player making a call, starting with the dealer and continuing clockwise until three players in a row have passed after any bid. (The word "bid" is also often used informally in place of "call".)
A player may always ''pass'' when it is his or her turn.
A ''bid'' specifies how many tricks the bidder believes that he can take using his hand and his partner's hand, and with which suit as trump. Any bid starts with the assumption that the bidder can make at least six tricks, called ''book'', plus some additional number of tricks. So the bid includes a '''level''' (from one to seven, representing how many tricks beyond six the bidder thinks is makeable) and '''denomination''' (also called ''strain'', which is either a suit or "no trump"). For instance, "3 hearts" suggests that his partnership can make nine tricks (book plus three more) using hearts as the trump suit.
A player may bid at his turn as long as the bid is higher than the most recent bid. A bid is considered higher if it specifies either a higher level or the same level but with a higher-ranking suit. The order of denominations, from lowest to highest, is ''clubs'' (&clubs;), ''diamonds'' (<font color="red">&diams;</font>), hearts (<font color="red">&hearts;</font>), ''spades'' (&spades;), and ''no trump'' (NT). Thus, after a bid of 3<font color="red">&hearts;</font>, bids of 2&spades; or 3&clubs; are illegal, but 3&spades; or 4<font color="red">&diams;</font> are legal bids.
If the most recent bid was made by the opponents, the player may "double" that bid if his partner has not already done so. This essentially states that the player is so confident that the opponents cannot make their bid during play that the player is willing to double their score if they do (and the penalty if they don't). If the most recent bid was made by the player or the player's partner, and it has been doubled by an opponent but not yet redoubled by the player's partner, the player may "redouble".
The auction ends when either all four players pass initially (in which case the hand is not played or scored), or when three players pass in a row. The last bid becomes the ''contract,'' and its denomination determines whether there will be a trump suit, and if so, what it is. The pair that did not win the contract is called the ''defense.'' The pair that made the last bid is divided further: the player who first made a bid in the strain of the final contract becomes the ''declarer'' and his or her partner becomes the ''dummy.'' For example, suppose West is the dealer and the bidding goes:
{| class='wikitable'
| '''South'''
| '''West '''
| '''North '''
| '''East '''
|-
|
| pass
| 1<font color="red">&hearts;</font>
| pass
|-
| 1&spades;
| pass
| 2<font color="red">&diams;</font>
| double
|-
| 3&spades;
| pass
| 4&spades;
| pass
|-
| pass
| pass
|
|
|}
Then East and West would be the defenders, South would be the declarer (since South was the first to bid spades), North would be the dummy, and spades would be the trump suit.
=== The play of the hand ===
The play of the hand is similar to other trick-taking games. To summarize, the play consists of thirteen ''tricks,'' each trick consisting of one card played from each of the four hands. The first card played in a trick is called the ''lead,'' and each player plays a card sequentially around the table clockwise. Any card may be selected as the lead, but the remaining hands must ''follow suit,'' (meaning, they must play a card in the same suit as the lead) unless they have no more cards of that suit, in which case any card may be played. The hand that plays the highest card in the suit of the lead wins the trick, unless any of the cards are in the ''trump suit'', in which case the hand that plays the highest trump card wins the trick. (Aces are high in bridge, followed by Kings, then Queens, and so on: 2s are the lowest card in each suit.) The hand that wins each trick plays the lead card of the next trick, until all the cards are played.
The first lead, called the ''opening lead,'' is made by the opponent to the left of the declarer. After the opening lead is chosen, the dummy lays his entire hand face up on the table. The declarer is thereafter responsible for selecting cards to play from the dummy's hand when it is the dummy's turn, and from his own hand when it is his turn. The defenders each choose the cards to play out of their own hands. The player who is dummy has practically no rights and must not interfere with the play; (s)he may only play cards from the dummy hand at declarer's order (so that the declarer does not have to lean over the table).
In the end, the goal for each pair is to take as many tricks as possible together (it doesn't matter which player takes them). However, the level of the contract makes a more relevant specific target: the number (level) of the contract is the number of ''odd tricks'' the declarer must take, that is, the number of tricks beyond 6. Thus, the declarer is always attempting to take at least a majority of the tricks. In the example above, the declarer must manage to take 10 tricks—6 (assumed) + 4 (bid)—with spades as the trump suit, to ''make'' the contract. Success in this goal is rewarded by points in the scoring phase for the declarer's side. If the declarer fails to make the contract, the defenders are said to have ''set'' or ''defeated'' the contract, and are rewarded points for doing so.
=== Scoring ===
:''Main article: [[Bridge scoring]]''
When the declarer makes the contract, the declarer's side receives points for:
* The contract bid and made
* Overtricks (tricks taken over the contract level)
* Other bonuses
When the declarer fails to make the contract, the defending pair receives points for ''undertricks'' &ndash; the number of tricks by which declarer fell short of the goal.
Most bidding revolves around efforts to bid and make a ''game''. Because of the structure of bonuses, certain bid levels are given special significance. The most important level is ''game,'' which is any contract whose bid trick value is 100 or more points. Game level varies by the suit, since different suits are worth different amounts in scoring. The game level for no trump is 3 (9 tricks), the game level for hearts or spades (''major suits'') is 4 (10 tricks), and the game level for clubs or diamonds (''minor suits'') is 5 (11 tricks). ''Slam'' is any contract on level 6 or 7, and it is given very large bonuses.
There are two important variations in bridge scoring: [[rubber bridge|rubber scoring]] and duplicate scoring. They share most features, but differ how the total score is accumulated. In rubber bridge, points for each pair are tallied either "above the line" or "below the line". In duplicate bridge, all the points are accumulated and present a single score, expressed as a positive number (sum of trick points and bonus points) to the winning pair, and by implication, as a negative number to the opponents.
"Chicago" bridge is a form of friendly game which uses duplicate scoring, that is, a set consists of four deals with different vulnerabilities (whether a team has already made game), and every deal is scored as a single number.
In [[duplicate bridge]], the same hand is played unchanged across two or more tables and the results are compared using various methods. The differences are expressed in ''matchpoints'' or ''IMP''s. They are summed for every pair for every board they play, and the pair with highest total score becomes the winner of the tournament. Thus, even with bad cards, a pair can win the tournament if it has bid better and played better than the other players who played the same set of cards.
== Historical origins ==
A number of card games similar to [[whist]] can be traced all the way back to the early [[16th century]]. They were all [[trick-taking game]]s with a variety of minor variations. Whist became the dominant form, and enjoyed a loyal following for centuries.
The first game known as ''bridge'' was created by two innovations. The [[trump (cards)|trump]] suit was chosen by the dealer, or he could pass the choice to his partner; and the dealer then played both his own and his partner's hand, with the latter fully exposed. (According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the word ''bridge'' is the [[English language|English]] pronunciation of ''biritch'', an older name of the game of unknown [[Middle East]]ern origin; the oldest known rule book, from [[1886]], calls it [[wikisource:Biritch, or Russian Whist|"Biritch, or Russian Whist"]]. The OED reports speculation that th |
up the Northeast are [[Alagoas]], [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Maranhão]], [[Paraíba]], [[Pernambuco]], [[Piauí]], [[Rio Grande do Norte]], and [[Sergipe]]. The former federal territory of [[Fernando de Noronha]] was incorporated into Pernambuco State in [[1988]]. For planning or ecological purposes, Maranhão west of 44° W longitude, most of which until recently was covered with "pre-Amazon" forest (that is, transition from the cerrado or caatinga to tropical forest), is often included in the Amazon region.
The Northeast, with 1,561,178 square kilometers, covers 18.3% of the national territory. Its principal biome is the semiarid [[caatinga]] region, which is subject to prolonged periodic droughts. By the 1990s, this region utilized extensive irrigation. In an area known as the forest zone ([[zona da mata]]), the Atlantic Forest, now almost entirely gone, once stretched along the coastline as far north as [[Rio Grande do Norte]]. [[Sugar plantation]]s established there in [[colonial time]]s persisted for centuries. Between the mata and the sertão lies a transition zone called the [[agreste]], an area of mixed farming. In 1988-89, 46.3% of the region had been subjected to anthropic activity, ranging from a low of 10.8% in Maranhão to a high of 77.2% in Alagoas.
Because its high rates of natural increase offset heavy out-migration, the Northeast's large share of the country's total population declined only slightly during the twentieth century. In 1996 the region had 45 million inhabitants, 28% of Brazil's total population. The population is densest along the coast, where eight of the nine state capitals are located, but is also spread throughout the interior. The major cities are [[Salvador]], in Bahia; [[Recife]], in Pernambuco; and [[Fortaleza]], in Ceará. The region has the country's largest concentration of [[rural population]], and its living standards are the lowest in Brazil. In 1994 Piauí had the lowest per capita income in the region and the country, only US$835, while Sergipe had the highest average income in the region, with US$1,958.
===Southeast===
The Southeast consists of the four states of [[Espírito Santo]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]. Its total area of 927,286 square kilometers corresponds to 10.9% of the national territory. The region has the largest share of the country's population, 63 million in 1991, or 39% of the national total, primarily as a result of internal migration since the mid-nineteenth century until the 1980s. In addition to a dense urban network, it contains the megacities of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, which in 1991 had 18.7 million and 11.7 million inhabitants in their metropolitan areas, respectively. The region combines the highest living standards in Brazil with pockets of urban poverty. In 1994 São Paulo boasted an average income of US$4,666, while Minas Gerais reported only US$2,833.
Originally, the principal biome in the Southeast was the [[Atlantic Forest]], but by 1990 less than 10% of the original forest cover remained as a result of clearing for farming, ranching, and charcoal making. Anthropic activity had altered 79.5% of the region, ranging from 75% in Minas Gerais to 91.1% in Espírito Santo. The region has most of Brazil's [[industrial production]]. The state of São Paulo alone accounts for half of the country's industries. Agriculture, also very strong, has diversified and now uses modern technology.
===South===
The three states in the temperate South: [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]], and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]--cover 577,214 square kilometers, or 6.8% of the national territory. The population of the South in [[1991]] was 23.1 million, or 14% of the country's total. The region is almost as densely settled as the Southeast, but the population is more concentrated along the [[coast]]. The major cities are [[Curitiba]] and [[Porto Alegre]]. The inhabitants of the South enjoy relatively high living standards. Because of its industry and agriculture, Paraná had the highest average income in [[1994]], US$3,674, while Santa Catarina, a land of small farmers and small industries, had slightly less, US$3,405.
In addition to the [[Atlantic Forest]] and [[pine wood]]s, much of which were cleared in the [[post-World War II period]], the South contains [[pampa grassland]]s, similar to those of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]], in the extreme south. In [[1982]], 83.5% of the region had been altered by anthropic activity, with the highest level (89.7%) in Rio Grande do Sul, and the lowest (66.7%) in Santa Catarina. [[Agriculture]]--much of which, such as [[rice]] production, is carried out by small farmers--has high levels of productivity. There are also some important industries.
===Center-West===
The Center-West consists of the states of [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso]], and [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] (separated from Mato Grosso in [[1979]]), as well as the [[Federal District]], site of [[Brasília]], the national capital. Until [[1988]] Goiás State included the area that then became the state of [[Tocantins]] in the North.
The Center-West has 1,612,077 square kilometers and covers 18.9% of the national territory. Its main biome is the [[cerrado]], the tropical [[savanna]] in which natural grassland is partly covered with twisted shrubs and small trees. The cerrado was used for low-density [[cattle-raising]] in the past but is now also used for [[soybean]] production. There are [[gallery forest]]s along the rivers and streams and some larger areas of forest, most of which have been cleared for [[farming]] and [[livestock]]. In the north, the cerrado blends into tropical forest. It also includes the [[Pantanal]] [[wetland]]s in the west, known for their [[wildlife]], especially [[aquatic bird]]s and [[cayman]]s. In the early 1980s, 33.6% of the region had been altered by anthropic activities, with a low of 9.3% in Mato Grosso and a high of 72.9% in Goiás (not including Tocantins). In 1996 the Center-West region had 10.2 million inhabitants, or 6% of Brazil's total population. The average density is low, with concentrations in and around the cities of [[Brasília]], [[Goiânia]], [[Campo Grande]], and [[Cuiabá]]. Living standards are below the national average. In 1994 they were highest in the Federal District, with per capita income of US$7,089 (the highest in the nation), and lowest in Mato Grosso, with US$2,268.
==The Environment==
The [[environmentalism|environmental problem]] that attracted most international attention in Brazil in the 1980s was undoubtedly [[deforestation]] in the Amazon. Of all [[Latin America]]n countries, [[Brazil]] still has the largest portion (66%) of its territory covered by forests, but [[clearing]] and [[burning]] in the Amazon proceeded at alarming rates in the 1970s and 1980s. Most of the clearing resulted from the activities of ranchers, including large corporate operations, and a smaller portion resulted from [[slash and burn]] techniques used by small farmers.
Deforestation in the Amazon declined from levels averaging 22,000 square kilometers per year during the 1970-88 period to about 11,000 square kilometers per year between 1988 and 1991. There was controversy about the levels in the mid-1990s. Knowledgeable experts placed the level of accumulated deforestation at about 15% in 1996, as opposed to 12% in 1991. Although unseasonal [[rainfall]] patterns may explain some year-to-year variation, the basic cause for the decline in deforestation after 1987 was economic crisis. There was insufficient capital, credit, or incentive for large-scale clearing, as well as insufficient public investment to stimulate new migration. Migration to the Amazon also fell quickly in the late 1980s. More effective enforcement of government regulations and bad publicity for large offenders, both of which were associated with changes in public opinion about the environment, also played a part. Technical changes involved in the transition from horizontal expansion of agriculture to increasing productivity also accounted for decreasing rates of deforestation.
[[Desertification]], another important environmental problem in Brazil, only received international attention following the [[United Nations]] Conference on the Environment and Development, also known as the [[Earth Summit]], held in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in June [[1992]]. Desertification means that the soils and vegetation of drylands are severely degraded, not necessarily that land turns into desert. In the early 1990s, it became evident that the semiarid [[caatinga]] ecosystem of the Northeast was losing its natural vegetation through clearing and that the zone was therefore running the risk of becoming even more arid, as was occurring also in some other regions.
In areas where [[agriculture]] is more intense and developed, there are serious problems of [[soil erosion]], [[silt]]ation and [[sedimentation]] of streams and rivers, and [[pollution]] with [[pesticide]]s. In parts of the [[savanna]]s, where irrigated [[soybean]] production expanded in the 1980s, the [[water]] table has been affected. Expansion of pastures for [[cattle]] raising has reduced natural [[biodiversity]] in the savannas. Swine effluents constitute a serious environmental problem in Santa Catarina in the South.
In [[urban area]]s, at least in the largest cities, levels of [[air pollution]] and [[congestion]] are typical of, or worse than, those found in cities in [[developed countries]]. At the same time, however, basic environmental problems related to the lack of [[sanitation]], which developed countries solved long ago, persist in Brazil. These problems are sometimes worse in middle-sized and small cities than in large cities, which have more resources to deal with them. Environmental problems of cities and towns finally began to receive greater attention by society and the government in the 1990s.
According to many cr |
more times in the 1970s - a wild card in [[1971 NFL season|1971]] and three consecutive AFC East titles in [[1975 NFL season|1975]] [[1976 NFL season|through]] [[1977 NFL season|1977]] (led in these latter years by the NFL's best defensive line, known colloquially as the "Sack Pack"), but then endured nine consecutive losing seasons beginning in [[1978 NFL season|1978]]. In [[1981 NFL season|1981]], the defense was the main problem: The Colts allowed an NFL-record 533 points, and also set an all-time record for fewest sacks (13) and a modern record for fewest punt returns (12). The following year the offense collapsed: On [[November 28]], [[1982]], the Colts' offense did not cross mid-field in an entire game, played [[Ralph Wilson Stadium|at Buffalo]] against the [[Buffalo Bills|Bills]]; this would not happen again in an NFL game until [[2000 NFL season|2000]]. The Colts also finished 0-8-1 in 1982, only nine games having been played that year due to a 57-day players' strike.
===Relocation to Indianapolis===
By early 1984, team owner Robert Irsay threatened to move the team unless Baltimore city officials helped pay for a new stadium and other concessions. Despite numerous public announcements that he would not move the Colts out of Baltimore, and the [[Maryland]] legislature threatening to give the city of Baltimore the right to seize the team by [[eminent domain]], Irsay secretly negotiated with Indianapolis to move the team. The Indiana capital agreed to give the team a $12.5 million loan, a $4 million training complex, and the use of the [[RCA Dome|Hoosier Dome]] {{fn|1}}. After signing the agreement, [[Mayflower Transit]] trucks rolled into the team's training complex in the wee hours of [[March 28]]. Workers then packed and shipped the team's offices and equipment to Indianapolis.
The moved triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Baltimore and the Colts organization reached a settlement on [[March 1986]] in which all lawsuits regarding the relocation would be dismissed, and the Colts would endorse a new NFL team for Baltimore. {{fn|2}}
Several years later on [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-[[Cleveland Browns]] owner Art Modell announced his intention to move his Browns team to Baltimore. The decision also triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of both cities and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 9]], [[1996]]. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999, while the relocated club would technically be a new expansion team. However, the Irsay family refused to turn over the Baltimore Colts name, colors, and history. Therefore the new team was named the [[Baltimore Ravens]] after a fan vote.
When the Ravens began play in [[1996 NFL season|1996]], the NFL continued to regard the pre-1984 Baltimore Colts organization and Indianapolis Colts as one continuous entity, and the Ravens as a 1996 [[expansion team]]. However, almost all of the prominent former old-time Baltimore Colts players, who had disassociated themselves from the relocated Indianapolis team, started to attend the new Baltimore team's games and events. They, and most Baltimore fans who are still disgusted about the Colts' relocation, view the pre-1984 Colts organization and the Ravens as one continuous entity. In fact, the old Baltimore Colts [[marching band]] and [[fan club]] became part of the Ravens organization.
===The years in Indianapolis===
Since 1984, the Colts have had mixed success at best. They have appeared in the playoffs seven seasons since then, with their best advance to the AFC championship game in [[1995 NFL season|1995]], when they lost to the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 20-16, and in [[2003 NFL season|2003]], when they won the AFC South Division title, defeated the [[Denver Broncos]] in the wild-card playoff (41-10), and advanced to play the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in a divisional playoff, winning 38-31. In the AFC Championship game, they were decisively defeated 24-14 by the eventual Super Bowl champions, the [[New England Patriots]], with quarterback [[Peyton Manning]] throwing four interceptions, in a game which was widely criticized for its minimal officiating (only seven penalties were called during the entire game, six of them were pre-snap fouls).
===2004 season===
In the [[2004 NFL season|2004 season]], the Colts hoped to make another trip to the postseason. After losing in Week 1 to the defending champion [[New England Patriots]] 27-24 in Foxboro, they won four straight games before their week 6 bye. During that streak, they beat the [[Tennessee Titans]] in Nashville 31-17, won in the week 3 home opener against the [[Green Bay Packers]] 45-31, and then tied for the AFC South with a victory over the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] at Alltel Stadium 24-17. They won at home against the [[Oakland Raiders]] 35-14 but coming off of their bye week, the Colts lost the next 2 games. They lost the rematch against the Jaguars at home, 27-24, and lost to the revenge-hungry [[Kansas City Chiefs]], 45-35. Following these back-to-back defeats, the Colts began an 8-game winning streak. They won their next 2 home games, beating the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 31-28 & the [[Houston Texans]] 49-14. Then, they won their next 2 road games, beating the [[Chicago Bears]] 41-10 & the [[Detroit Lions]] 41-9. They returned home and got a series sweep over the Titans 51-24, which also marked the 4th game in a row in which the Colts won with 40+ points. It also marked the 5th game in a row in which they won with 30+ points. On a trip to Houston with a win, they achieved another series sweep. This time, over the Texans 23-14. With that victory, the Colts locked up the AFC South title for the second year in a row.
In their week 16 home game against the playoff-bound [[San Diego Chargers]], [[Peyton Manning]] was only a few touchdown passes away from breaking [[Dan Marino]]'s record of 48 TD passes in a single season. Trailing 31-16, [[Dominic Rhodes]] returned a kickoff 88 yards for a TD. With 4:47 left in regulation, Peyton Manning waived the punting team off, despite the fact that it was 4th & 4 on the Colts 25 yard-line. His gamble worked with a complete pass to [[Reggie Wayne]] for a first down. He then completed two more passes to tight end [[Dallas Clark]] & an 18-yard throw to Marvin Harrison. He finally broke Marino's record with TD Pass #49 to wide receiver [[Brandon Stokley]]. He completed a 2-point conversion to tie the game up at 31-31 and send it into overtime. Eventually, the Colts won 34-31 with a [[Mike Vanderjagt]] field goal and secured the #3 AFC seed in the playoffs.
Despite losing their last regular season game on the road to the Broncos, 33-14, the Colts managed to get payback in the AFC Wildcard round with their 49-24 victory at home. During that game, Manning threw 27 completed passes out of 33 tries for an astounding 457 yards, with 4 TDs and only 1 interception. [[Edgerrin James]] ran 18 times for 63 yards and a single touchdown (with his longest run being 11 yards).
Despite their big victory, the Colts lost to the eventual Super Bowl Champion Patriots for the second year in a row the next week in the divisional round, 20-3. This was the worst loss of the Colts' season, as one of the most prolific offenses during the season was consistently stopped by New England's defense. It was the first time all season that the Colts were unable to score a touchdown. In addition, the Colts defense struggled to stop the Patriots offense from executing 3 time-consuming drives that each lasted over 7 minutes and lead to 17 total points.
===2005 season===
Despite going 0-5 in the preseason, the Colts began the [[2005 NFL season|2005 Season]] with a 13-0 start. They were only the fourth team to do so, in the process became the season's last-remaining undefeated team in the NFL. Though their opponents had worked out how to defend against a Peyton Manning pass offense, which had been responsible for consistently high scores in 2004 and prior years, the Colts offense proved its versatility, more heavily emphasizing rushing. Though this has resulted in much lower scores in 2005, their improved defense has allowed the team to keep winning: It performed the remarkable feat of holding each of their first three opponents to under 10 points, and in their October 9 game against the [[San Francisco 49ers]], the Colts made up for a sub-par offensive performance with four interceptions, including one that resulted in a defensive touchdown.
Another factor that has contributed to the Colts' success is their use of the [[no-huddle offense]]. Instead of calling plays in a conventional huddle, quarterback Manning calls them at the line of scrimmage. The offense moves at a much quicker pace as a result and doesn't allow the opposing defense to substitute in fresh defenders. On November 7 the Colts got their eighth-straight victory, beating the two-time defending champion Patriots 40-21 on [[Monday Night Football]]. This marked the end of the Patriots' six-game win streak against the Colts, and Peyton Manning's first victory at New England against the [[Tom Brady]]-led Patriots. It was also the second time this year the Colts offense scored 40 or more points; the first was back on week 6 against the Rams.
On November 20, the Colts faced their first real challenge against the [[Carson Palmer]]-led [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]], in which the Colts won 45-37 and became the first team to go 10-0 since the [[1998 Denver Broncos]]. It also marked the third time this year they won with 40-plus points. The Colts then defeated the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], 26-7, on a [[Monday Night Football]] game on November 28, spoiling [[Ben Roethlisberger]]'s return from knee surgery and giving him his first road loss.
On Sunday, December 3, the Colts swept |
fic community rarely uses either of the words ''evolutionist'' or ''evolutionism.'' However in America, the [[National Center for Science Education]] does use the related term "anti-evolutionism" to label the organized political and religious movement that opposes the teaching of [[evolution]] in public schools. For example, the National Center for Science Education website is dedicated to "defending the teaching of evolution in public schools," and that website offers the "resource" of a page about "Dealing with Anti-Evolutionism." [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/6172_dealing_with_antievolutionism_1_9_2001.asp]
In contrast, the words ''evolutionist'' and ''evolutionism'' are widely used by [[creationists]] and others in the United States who are opposed to the [[theory of evolution]]; they use those two words to imply that the scientific community's attachment to the theory of evolution is a matter of [[religious faith]] and is just another [[-ism]], not a matter of scientific proof.
Furthermore, [[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth creationists]] sometimes use the term ''evolutionism'' to attack the [[Scientific method|empirical methods]] of science generally, such as attacking [[geology]] and [[astronomy]] which have concluded that the [[Age of the Earth|Earth]] and the [[Age of the Universe|Universe]] are billions of years older than the young-earth creationists believe.
Opponents of evolutionary theory may also use the words ''evolutionist'' and ''evolutionism'' to characterize the philosophical systems that they attack, such as [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]], [[Secular Humanism]], [[rationalism]], and [[materialism]]. Also the opponents of evolution argue that the ''evolutionist'' faith in ''evolutionism'' entices people into extremist political ideologies such as [[fascism]], [[communism]], and [[Marxism]]. Additionally, the opponents argue that the evolutionist's belief in evolution leads to disregard for the value of life, which disregard creationists perceive to be manifested in [[eugenics]], [[assisted suicide]], and [[abortion]]. The [[pun]] "[[evil]]-utionism" provides a convenient insult to make fun of those who accept evolution as the origin of human life.
In [[1994]], John Peloza, a [[High school]] [[biology]] [[teacher]] in [[California|California, U.S.A.]], sued his [[school board]] in [[federal court]], claiming that he was being forced to teach the "[[religion]]" of "evolutionism". The federal court dismissed the case, holding that Peloza's suit was "frivolous" and requiring Peloza to pay the school board's attorneys' fees and court costs. When Peloza appealed, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] overruled the claim of frivolity and the assignment of fees, but otherwise upheld the lower court's dismissal. Notably, the Court of Appeals held that evolution (as it was taught) said nothing about "how the universe was created" or "whether or not there is a divine Creator"; and moreover that "evolution" and "evolutionism" are not religions, so the state can teach them in public schools as long as it does not teach a "belief that the universe came into existence without a Creator." [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/peloza.html]
== See also ==
* [[Darwinism]]
* [[Evolution#Evolutionary_biology|List of evolutionary biologists]]
== References ==
* Carneiro, Robert, ''Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History'' ISBN 0813337666
* Review of ''[[William Buckland|Buckland's]] Bridgewater Treatise'', ''The Times'' Tuesday, Nov 15, 1836; pg. 3; Issue 16261; col E. ("annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance")
* Review of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' ''The Times'' Friday, Dec. 13, 1872; pg. 4; Issue 27559; col A. ("His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate . . . .")
* Ruse, Michael. 2003. "Is Evolution a Secular Religion?" Science 299:1523-1524 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/299/5612/1523] (concluding that [[evolutionary biology]] is NOT a [[religion]] in any sense but noting that several evolutionary biologists, such as [[Edward O. Wilson]], in their roles as citizens concerned about getting the public to deal with [[reality]], have made statements like "[[evolution]] is a [[Mythology|myth]] that is now ready to take over [[Christianity]]").
== External links ==
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/peloza.html Findings of the ''Peloza v Capistrano Unified School Disctrict'' case on the United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit]
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education] - The [[National Center for Science Education]]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/ Talk.Origins Archive] - the [[Talk.origins]] archive
* [[Answers in Genesis]] - a [[Young Earth creationism|Young Earth creationist]] organization
** [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs/3547.asp Evolution As Religion] - by David Ungred
* [http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Center for Science and Culture] - a [[Discovery Institute]] program for promoting [[Intelligent design]]
* [http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/evolutionism.htm Evolutionism] - seven different types of evolution are defined and disputed
* [http://www.gate.net/~rwms/crebuttals.html] -
Pro-Evolution site.
* [http://www.evolutionpages.com/Writing.htm] -
Another pro-evolution site.
[[category:anthropology]]
[[nl:Evolutionisme]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Entscheidungsproblem</title>
<id>9672</id>
<revision>
<id>41587486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shawnc</username>
<id>388211</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ wiktionary</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Entscheidungsproblem''''' ([[German language|German]] for '[[decision problem]]') is the challenge in [[symbolic logic]] to find a general [[algorithm]] which decides for given [[first-order predicate calculus|first-order]] statements whether they are universally valid or not. In [[1936]], working independently, [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Alan Turing]] both showed that this is impossible. As a consequence, it is in particular impossible to decide algorithmically whether statements in [[arithmetic]] are true or false.
The question goes back to [[Gottfried Leibniz]], who in the [[seventeenth century]], after having constructed a successful mechanical [[calculating machine]], dreamt of building a machine that could manipulate symbols in order to determine the truth values of mathematical statements. He realized that the first step would have to be a clean [[formal language]], and much of his subsequent work was directed towards that goal. In [[1928]], [[David Hilbert]] and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]] posed the question in the form outlined above.
A first-order statement is called "universally valid" or "logically valid" if it follows from the axioms of the [[first-order predicate calculus]]. [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] states that a statement is universally valid in this sense if and only if it is true in every interpretation of the formula in a model.
In continuation of his "program" with which he challenged the mathematics community in 1900, at a 1928 international conference David Hilbert asked three questions, the third of which became known as "Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem" [Hodges p. 91]. As late as 1930 he believed that there would be no such thing as an unsolvable problem (Hodges p. 92, quoting from Hilbert).
Before the question could be answered, the notion of "algorithm" had to be formally defined. This was done by [[Alonzo Church]] in 1936 with the concept of "effective calculability" based on his [[lambda calculus]] and by Alan Turing in the same year with his concept of [[Turing machine]]s. The two approaches are equivalent, an instance of the [[Church-Turing thesis]].
The negative answer to the ''Entscheidungsproblem'' was then given by Alonzo Church in 1936 and independently shortly thereafter by Alan Turing, also in 1936. Church proved that there is no algorithm (defined via [[recursive function]]s) which decides for two given lambda calculus expressions whether they are equivalent or not. He relied heavily on earlier work by [[Stephen Kleene]]. Turing reduced the [[halting problem]] for Turing machines to the Entscheidungsproblem, and his paper is generally considered to be much more influential than Church's. The work of both authors was heavily influenced by [[Kurt Gödel]]'s earlier work on his [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]], especially by the method of assigning numbers (a [[Gödel number|Gödel numbering]]) to logical formulas in order to reduce logic to arithmetic.
Turing's argument follows. Suppose we had a general decision algorithm for [[first order logic]]. The question whether a given Turing machine halts or not can be formulated as a first-order statement, which would then be susceptible to the decision algorithm. But Turing had proved earlier that no general algorithm can decide whether a given Turing machine halts.
The Entscheidungsproblem is related to [[Hilbert's tenth problem]], which asks for an [[algorithm]] to decide whether [[Diophantine equation]]s have a solution. The non-existence of such an algorithm (proven by [[Yuri Matiyasevich]] in [[1970]]) implies a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem. (see '''[[Matiyasevich's theorem]]''')
It is important to realize that if we restrict ourselves to a specific first-order theory with specified object constants, function constants, predicate constants and subject axioms, the truth |
.S. Military Academy ("Army") defender]]
Dribbling is the act of bouncing the ball continuously. When a player dribbles, he or she pushes the ball down towards the ground, rather than patting it, because this ensures greater control.
When dribbling past an opponent, the dribbler should dribble with the hand furthest from the player. It is therefore important for a player to be able to dribble confidently with both hands. In this way, the defender will not be able to get to the ball without getting past the dribbler. Also, the dribble will be lowered so that its movement is more frequent.
The dribble is also lowered when switching hands. This is because, when switching the hand that is dribbling, the ball travels in front of the player making it easier to steal. Alternatively, to switch hands, a player can dribble between their legs or behind the back.
It is common for beginners to dribble into a difficult position. A skilled player can dribble without watching the ball, using the dribbling motion or [[peripheral vision]] to keep track of the ball's location.By not having to focus on the ball, a player can look for teammates or scoring opportunities, as well as avoid the danger of someone stealing the ball from them.
===Height===
Being tall is a clear advantage in basketball. At the professional level, most male participants are above 1.90 meters (6 ft 3 in) and most women are above 1.70 meters (5 ft 7 in). Guards, for whom physical coordination and ball-handling skills are of greater importance, tend to be the smallest players although they can occasionally be quite tall. Forwards in the men's professional leagues are almost all 2 meters (6 ft 6 in) or taller. Most centers are over 2.1 meters (6 ft 10.5 in) tall. The tallest players ever to play in the NBA, [[Manute Bol]] and [[Gheorghe Muresan]], are 2.31 m (7 ft 7 in). Currently, the tallest NBA player is [[Yao Ming]], who stands at 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in).
The shortest player ever to play in the NBA is [[Muggsy Bogues]] at 1.60 meters (5 ft 3 in). Other shorter players have also experienced success at the professional level. [[Spud Webb|Anthony "Spud" Webb]] was just 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 m) tall, but had a 42-inch (1.07 m) vertical leap, giving him significant height when jumping.
==Variations and similar games==
[[Image:DSCN9696 windsorbball e 300.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pickup basketball game in Main Park, Windsor, Colorado]]
{{main|Variations of basketball}}
<!-- commenting this out for now, the other pic is better. perhaps this could be moved to something about international play? -->
<!--
[[Image:Basketball in The Philippines.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Children playing basketball on Panglao island (south of Bohol) in The Philippines. Basketball is a very popular sport in The Philippines.]]
-->
'''Variations of basketball''' are activities based on the game of basketball, utilizing common basketball skills and equipment (primarily the ball and basket). Some variations are only superficial rules changes, while others are distinct games with varying degrees of basketball influences. Other variations include children's games, contests or activities intended to help the player reinforce skills, which may or may not have a competitive aspect. Most of the variations are played in informal settings without referees or strict rules.
Perhaps the single most common variation is the ''half court'' game. Only one basket is used, with the requirement that the ball be "cleared" - passed or dribbled outside the half-court or three-point line - whenever possession of the ball changes. Half-court games generally require less [[cardiovascular]] stamina, as they eliminate the need for players to run back and forth from one end of the court to the other. Half-court games also double the number of players that can utilize a court, and thus are sometimes required by the owner of a busy facility.
==References==
{{commons|Basketball}}
*{{cite web
| author=National Basketball Association
| year=2001
| url=http://www.nba.com/analysis/rules_index.html
| title=Official Rules of the National Basketball Association
| accessdate=July 16
| accessyear=2004
}}
*{{cite book
| year = 2004
| month = June
| title = Official Basketball Rules
| author = International Basketball Federation
| url = http://www.fiba.com/asp_includes/download.asp?file_id=327
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Anthony
| last = Reimer
| year = 2005
| month = June
| title = FIBA vs North American Rules Comparison
| journal = FIBA Assist
| issue = 14
| pages = 40
| url = http://www.fiba.com/asp_includes/download.asp?file_id=518
}}
*{{cite web
| author=Bonsor, Kevin
| url=http://health.howstuffworks.com/basketball2.htm
| title=How Basketball Works: Who's Who
| work=HowStuffWorks
| publisher=
| accessdate=January 11
| accessyear=2006
}}
==See also==
*[[Rules of basketball]]
*[[Basketball moves]]
*[[Variations of basketball]]
*[[Basketball at the Summer Olympics]]
*[[International Basketball Federation]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
*[[Basketball World Championship]]
*[[Wheelchair basketball]]
==External links==
<!-- Please be selective when adding links, see talk page for more info. -->
*[http://www.nba.com National Basketball Association]
*[http://www.fiba.com International Basketball Federation]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/sports/programme/index_uk.asp?SportCode=BK Basketball at the Olympic Games]
*[http://www.basketball-oasis.com Basketball Oasis Directory]
*[http://www.basketball-plays-and-tips.com/encyclopedia Basketball Plays and Tips]
*[http://www.sacredhoops.com Sacred Hoops Youth Basketball]
*[http://www.history-of-basketball.com/history.htm History of Basketball]
*[http://www.hoophall.com/ Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.sportbee.com/basketball.html Basketball Stores Directory]
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/Basketball/ Basketball on Yahoo!]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Basketball| ]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
{{Link FA|is}}
{{Link FA|it}}
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[ar:كرة سلة]]
[[bg:Баскетбол]]
[[bs:Košarka]]
[[ca:Bàsquet]]
[[cs:Basketbal]]
[[da:Basketball]]
[[de:Basketball]]
[[el:Καλαθοσφαίριση]]
[[eo:Korbopilko]]
[[es:Baloncesto]]
[[et:Korvpall]]
[[fa:بسکتبال]]
[[fi:Koripallo]]
[[fr:Basket-ball]]
[[gl:Baloncesto]]
[[he:כדורסל]]
[[hr:Košarka]]
[[hu:Kosárlabda]]
[[id:Basket]]
[[io:Korbobalono]]
[[is:Körfuknattleikur]]
[[it:Pallacanestro]]
[[ja:バスケットボール]]
[[ko:농구]]
[[lt:Krepšinis]]
[[lv:Basketbols]]
[[mk:Кошарка]]
[[nl:Basketbal]]
[[no:Basketball]]
[[pl:Koszykówka]]
[[pt:Basquetebol]]
[[ro:Baschet]]
[[ru:Баскетбол]]
[[scn:Palla a canistru]]
[[simple:Basketball]]
[[sk:Basketbal]]
[[sl:Košarka]]
[[sr:Кошарка]]
[[sv:Basket]]
[[ta:கூடைப்பந்து]]
[[th:บาสเกตบอล]]
[[tr:Basketbol]]
[[zh:篮球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bicycling/Road</title>
<id>3922</id>
<revision>
<id>15902233</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-25T18:49:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Road bicycle]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Road bicycle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bicycling/Track</title>
<id>3923</id>
<revision>
<id>15902234</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T09:15:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Track cycling]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Track cycling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bicycling/Offroad</title>
<id>3925</id>
<revision>
<id>24815354</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T14:59:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mountain biking]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blowfish</title>
<id>3926</id>
<revision>
<id>39566934</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T09:19:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dancraggs</username>
<id>432923</id>
</contributor>
<comment>'Hootie & the blowfish' is just a band name that happens to include this word. We can't go putting included-word phrases on disambig pages. Already redirects set up from variations of band's name.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Blowfish''''' can mean:
* [[Pufferfish]]
* [[Blowfish (cipher)]], an [[encryption algorithm]] which is named after the fish.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brian Eno</title>
<id>3927</id>
<revision>
<id>42036212</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:23:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BNutzer</username>
<id>736125</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Producing records and other projects */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brianeno.jpg|thumb|right|340px|Brian Eno in 1977]]
'''Brian Peter George St. Jean le Baptiste de la Salle Eno''' (born [[15 May]] [[1948]] in [[Woodbridge, Suffolk]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[electronic music]]ian, [[music theory|music theorist]] and [[record producer]]. As a solo artist, he is probably best known as the father of [[ambient music]].
Eno first came to prominence as the [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] and [[synthesiser]] player and general sonic wizard of the 1970's [[Glam Rock|Glam Rock]] and [[Art rock|Art]] Rock band [[Roxy Music]] (see [[Timeline of trends in music (1970-1979)|1970s in music]]). After leaving the group, Eno recorded two highly idiosyncratic and original [[Rock (music)|rock]] albums, before turning to more abstract soundscapes on subsequent albums such as ''[[Another Green |
ng Tim being displeased at how ''Tool Time'' had been changed into something resembling ''[[The Jerry Springer Show]]'', and Jill getting a new job. The problem was that the job was in [[Indiana]], and Tim didn't want to move at first.
Of course, after talking to his neighbor, he agreed to leave Detroit. Tim ended his ''Tool Time'' appearances with a final show that garnered huge ratings. However, Jill realized that they would be moving out of the house the family grew up in. The conclusion was somewhat ambiguous, although Jill seemed adamant about them not moving. The last shot was Tim imagining (a thought balloon was used for emphasis) putting the whole house on a flatbed truck and then a superfast tugboat, leaving the viewer to decide for himself if they moved or stayed in Detroit.
== Selected list of recurring characters ==
*Karen ([[Betsy Randle]])
*Lisa ([[Pamela Anderson]]) (was never part of credited cast)
*Ilene Markham, DDS ([[Sherry Hursey]])
*Marie Morton ([[Mariangela Pino]])
*Joe Morton ([[Robert Picardo]])
*Jennifer Sudarsky ([[Jessica Wesson]])
*Ashley ([[Leigh Ann Orsi]])
*Lauren ([[Courtney Peldon]])
*Lillian Patterson ([[Polly Holliday]])
*Harry ([[Blake Clark]])
*Delores ([[Shirley Prestia]])
*Marty ([[William O'Leary]])
*John Binford ([[Noble Willingham]])
*Trudy ([[Megan Cavanagh]])
*Felix Myman ([[Al Fann]])
*Rock ([[Casey Sander]])
*Dwayne ([[Gary McGurk]])
*Pete ([[Mickey Jones]])
==Cast notes==
[[Zachery Ty Bryan]] and [[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]] have both made appearances on the TV show ''[[Veronica Mars]]''.
[[Frances Fisher]] who played Rose's mom on the hit movie [[Titanic]], was supposed to play the part of Jill. However, due to lack of chemistry between Allen and Fisher, [[Patricia Richardson]] was brought in to play the part because she and Allen had great chemistry.
[[Megan Cavanagh]], who plays Al Borland's fiancee (and later his [[wife]]) in the eighth season, also starred with Tim Allen in ''[[For Richer or Poorer]]''. She played Levinia Yoder.
[[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]] was written out of the series in the final season to pursue an education. However, it is common belief that he and Allen had a bad off-screen relationship due to the fact that Thomas went on to make movies instead of finishing ''Home Improvement''.
[[Betsy Randle]], who played Jill's friend Karen during the first two seasons, was also originally considered to play Jill, but obviously didn't get the part. Her absence from the series after [[1993]] was due to the fact that she went on to portray Amy Matthews, Corey's mom on the sitcom ''[[Boy Meets World]]''.
==Continuity errors==
Initially, Tim was said to be the oldest brother, with younger brothers Steve and Danny. In later episodes, it is established that Tim is actually the middle brother, with older brother Jeff and younger brother Marty.
== ''Home Improvement'' on DVD ==
Beginning on [[November 2004]] and continuing to this day, ''Home Improvement'' is being released on [[DVD]], one season at a time. Currently, the first 3 seasons have been released (each one approximately five or six months before the next). According to [http://www.ultimatedisney.com Ultimate Disney], Season 4 is to be released [[June 13]], [[2006]] in time for [[Father's Day]]. The site also mentions that it could be released a bit sooner. It is expected that the fifth season will be released in late 2006 (possibly for the holiday season), and the entire series should be released by the middle of [[2008]].
== External links ==
*[http://tvplex.go.com/touchstone/homeimprovement/ Official Homepage of ''Home Improvement'']
*[http://www.hiarchive.co.uk/index.html The Home Improvement Archive]
*[http://www.toolmedia.de Home Improvement Pictures and Sounds]
*{{imdb title|id=0101120|title=Home Improvement}}
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:ABC network shows]]
[[Category:Sitcoms]]
[[Category:Nielsen Ratings winners]]
[[de:Hör mal wer da hämmert]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Roman Britain</title>
<id>13525</id>
<revision>
<id>42106320</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:41:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.46.4.244</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early Roman contacts */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Roman province called Britannia. For other uses, see [[Britannia (disambiguation)]].''
{{UKHBS}}
[[Image:Romanbritain.jpg|250px|thumb|Principal sites in Roman Britain]]
'''Roman Britain''' refers to those parts of the island of [[Great Britain]] controlled by the [[Roman Empire]] between [[43]] and [[410]]. The Romans referred to their province as '''Britannia'''. Prior to their [[Roman invasion of Britain|invasion]], [[British Iron Age|Iron Age Britain]] already had cultural and economic links with [[Continental Europe]], but the invaders introduced new developments in [[agriculture]], [[urbanisation]], [[industry]] and [[architecture]], leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.
Historical records beyond the initial invasion are sparse, although many Roman historians mention the [[Roman province|province]] in passing. Much of our knowledge of the period stems from [[archaeology|archaeological]] investigations and especially [[epigraphy|epigraphic]] evidence.
==Early Roman contacts==
The Romans knew the British Isles as the "Tin Islands", from [[Punic]] traders and merchants who engaged in commerce with the Celtic tribes of this land from their bases in [[Carthaginian Hispania]]. The Roman general and future dictator [[Gaius Julius Caesar]], endowed with a [[proconsul|proconsular]] [[imperium]] for all of Gaul in the first century BCE, briefly invaded Britain as an offshoot of his campaigns in Belgium and Gaul. He subjected many of the native tribes to tribute payments and hostage exchanges, most of which were ignored after his departure due to [[Vercingetorix]]'s rebellion. The British tribes remained independent of Rome until [[Claudius]]' permanent conquest and occupation a century later.
==The Roman invasion==
{{main|Roman invasion of Britain}}
Roman soldiers landed at [[Richborough]] and defeated the southeastern [[British tribes]] under [[Caratacus]], and captured his capital [[Camulodunum]] or [[Colchester, England|Colchester]]. Caratacus refused to submit, and retreated deeper into unconquered [[Brythonic]] territory, coming to the domain of the [[Ordovices]] in [[47]]. He incited this tribe to fight the Romans, and they lost the ensuing battle. Once again Caratacus fled, this time to [[Cartimandua]], queen of the [[Brigantes]]. Cartimandua surrendered Caratacus to the Romans, who brought him in chains to Rome. Meanwhile the invasion continued westwards under [[Vespasian]] and north to ''[[Caledonians|Caledonia]]'' ([[Scotland]]) under [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]].
==Roman rule is established==
For the first twenty years, the Roman rule was oppressive, and this treatment led [[Boudicca]], Queen of the [[Iceni]], to revolt. The [[Trinovantes]] and [[Catuvellauni]] joined, and the alliance assaulted the Roman colony at Camulodunum, looting and burning the town as well as slaying every man, woman and child they found. The governor [[Suetonius Paullinus]], upon reaching [[London]] from his campaigning in the western part of the province, found the town indefensible with the few troops he had. As a result, Paullinus was forced to abandon the city and took only those who could afford to leave in time to retreat with him, leaving some behind. The [[Legio XIV Gemina|Legio XIV]] ''Geminabengala
of this, a number of future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including [[Vespasian]], [[Pertinax]], and [[Gordian I]].
In the following years the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. The governor [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]], father-in-law to the historian [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]], conquered the [[Ordovices]] in [[78]]. With [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX ''Valeria Victrix'']], Agricola defeated the [[Caledonians]] in [[84]] at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]], in what is today northern [[Scotland]]. This marked the high tide mark of Roman territory in Britain; shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the [[Firth of Forth|Forth]]-[[Firth of Clyde|Clyde]] isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
==Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland==
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. [[Archaeology]] has shown that some [[Roman forts]] south of the [[Firth of Forth|Forth]]-[[Firth of Clyde|Clyde]] [[isthmus]] were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. Roman coins and pottery are found circulating at [[native]] settlement sites in what are now the [[Scottish lowlands]] in the years before [[100]], indicating growing [[Romanisation]].
Around [[105]], however, a serious setback appears to have happened at the hands of the tribes of Scotland; several Roman forts were destroyed by fire at this time with human remains and damaged [[armour]] at ''[[Trimontium]]'' ([[Newstead]], [[Scottish Borders]]) indicating hostilities at least at that site. There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from [[Germany]] and an unnamed British war from the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a [[tribune]] on [[Cyrene]]. However, [[Trajan]]'s [[Dacian Wars]] may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the natives rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the li |
alts used for bipolar therapy are lithium carbonate (mostly) and lithium citrate (sometimes). Approved for the treatment of acute mania in 1970 by the [[FDA]], lithium has been an effective mood-stabilizing medication for many people with bipolar disorder. Lithium is also noted for reducing the risk of suicide{{ref|bald_2003}}. Although lithium is among the most effective mood stabilizers, persons taking it may experience side effects similar to the effects of ingesting too much table salt, such as high blood pressure, water retention, and constipation. Regular blood testing is required when taking lithium to determine the correct lithium levels since the therapeutic dose is close to the toxic dose.
The mechanism of lithium salt treatment is believed to work as follows: some symptoms of bipolar disorder appear to be caused by the enzyme [[inositol monophosphatase]] (IMPase), an enzyme that splits [[inositol monophosphate]] into free [[inositol]] and [[phosphate]]. It is involved in [[signal transduction]] and is believed to create an imbalance in [[neurotransmitter]]s in bipolar patients. The lithium ion is believed to produce a mood stabilizing effect by inhibiting IMPase by substituting for one of two magnesium ions in IMPase's active site, slowing down this enzyme.
[[Lithium orotate]] is used as an alternative treatment to lithium carbonate by some sufferers of bipolar disorder, mainly because it is available without a doctor's prescription. It is sometimes sold as "organic lithium" by nutritionists, as well as under a wide variety of brand names. There seems to be little evidence for its use in clinical treatment in preference to lithium carbonate.
===Anticonvulsant mood stabilizers===
[[Anticonvulsant]] medications, particularly [[Valproic acid|valproate]] and [[carbamazepine]], have been used as alternatives or adjuncts to lithium in many cases. Valproate (Depakote and Depakene, Epival) was FDA approved for the treatment of acute mania in 1995, and is now considered by some doctors to be the first line of therapy for bipolar disorder. For some, it is preferable to lithium because its side effect profile seems to be less severe, compliance with the medication is better, and fewer breakthrough manic episodes occur. However, valproate is not as effective as lithium in preventing or managing depressive episodes, so patients taking valproate may also need an antidepressant as an adjunct medicinal therapy. Some research suggests that different combinations of lithium and anticonvulsants may be helpful. Anticonvulsants are also used in combination with antipsychotics. Newer anticonvulsant medications, including [[lamotrigine]] and [[oxcarbemazepine]], are also effective as mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder. [[Lamotrigine]] is particularly promising, as it alleviates bipolar depression and prevents recurrence at higher rates. {{ref|Lamot_1}} [[Topiramate]] has not done well in clinical trials; it seems to help a few patients very much but most not at all. It appears to be useful in some treatment resistant cases. [[Gabapentin]] has failed to distinguish itself from placebo as a mood stabilizer.
According to studies conducted in [[Finland]] in patients with [[epilepsy]], valproate may increase [[testosterone]] levels in teenage girls and produce [[polycystic ovary syndrome]] in women who began taking the medication before age 20. Increased testosterone can lead to polycystic ovary syndrome with irregular or absent menses, obesity, and abnormal growth of hair. Therefore, young female patients taking valproate should be monitored carefully by a physician. It should be noted, however, that the therapeutic dose for a patient taking valproate for epilepsy is very different than the therapeutic dose of valproate for an individual with bipolar disorder.
Other anticonvulsants effective in some cases and being studied closer include [[phenytoin]], [[levitiracetam]], [[pregabalin]] and [[valnoctimide]]. [[Clonazepam]] and other [[benzodiazepines]] are also antimanic agents.
===Atypical antipsychotic drugs===
The newer [[atypical antipsychotic]] drugs such as [[risperidone]], [[quetiapine]], and [[olanzapine]] are often used in acutely manic patients, because these medications have a rapid onset of psychomotor inhibition, which may be lifesaving in the case of a violent or psychotic patient. [[Route of administration|Parenteral]] and orally disintegrating (in particular, [[Zydis]] wafers) forms are favoured in emergency room settings. [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/351/5/476] These drugs can also be used as [[adjunctives]] to lithium or anticonvulsants in refractory bipolar disorder and in prevention of mania recurrence. In light of recent evidence, [[olanzapine]] (Zyprexa) has been FDA approved as an effective monotherapy for the maintenance of bipolar disorder.[http://www.zyprexa.com/common_pages/hcp_maintenance.jsp] A head-to-head randomized control trial in 2005 has also shown [[olanzapine]] monotherapy to be just as effective and safe as lithium in [[prophylaxis]].[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/162/7/1281] [[Eli Lilly]] also offers [[Symbyax]], a combination of [[olanzapine]] and [[fluoxetine]].[http://www.biopsychiatry.com/symbyax.htm]
===Omega-3 fatty acids===
[[Omega-3 fatty acid]]s may also be used as a treatment for bipolar disorder, particularly as a supplement to medication. An initial clinical trial by Stoll et. al. produced positive results {{ref|Stoll_1999}}. However, since 1999 attempts to confirm this finding of beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids in several larger double-blind clinical trials have produced inconclusive results. It was hypothesized that the therapeutic ingredient in omega-3 fatty acid preparations is [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA) and that supplements should be high in this compound to be beneficial {{ref|epa}}. Omega-3 fatty acids may be found in fish, fish oils, and to a lesser degree in other foods such as flaxseed, flaxseed oil and walnuts. Researchers have not determined if flaxseed oil or supplements have the same effect that was observed when bipolar patients were given omega-3 fatty acids through fish products.
===Psychotherapy===
Certain types of [[psychotherapy]] or psychosocial interventions, generally used in combination with medication, often can provide tremendous additional benefit. These include [[cognitive-behavioral therapy]], [[interpersonal and social rhythm therapy]], [[interpersonal group therapy]], [[family systems therapy]], and [[psychoeducation]]. Although bipolar patients will not be cured of the illness through "talking," therapy often can be invaluable in helping to address the effects of disruptive manic or depressive episodes that have hurt a patient's career, relationships or self-esteem. Therapy is available not only from psychiatrists but from social workers, psychologists and other licensed counselors.
===Electroconvulsive therapy===
{{main|Electroconvulsive therapy}}
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes used to treat severe bipolar depression in cases where other treatments have failed. Although it has proved to be a highly effective treatment, doctors are reluctant to use it except as a treatment of last resort because of the side-effects and possible complications of ECT, particularly when repeated treatments ("maintenance ECT") are needed.
===Medical Marijuana===
There are many anecdotal claims that [[medical marijuana]] can help control the mood swings associated with bipolar disorder. The euphoriant effect of THC can elevate depressive phases, while the tranquilizing effects of THC are effective at controlling manic phases. This is only speculation. It should be noted that THC has different effects on different brains, and some studies suggest that marijuana can actually increase anxiety and depression. While most anti-depressants take several weeks to work at full strength, smoked marijuana is effective in minutes, and eaten marijuana is effective within an hour or two. Also, negative side effects associated with pharmaceutical anti-depressants such as nausea, sleep disruption, and loss of libido are usually non-existant with medical marijuana. Of course, marijuana legality issues makes this treatment medically unavailable and/or difficult to obtain for those looking for an alternative.
Some controlled medical studies have concluded that data suggests adults do not increase their risk for depression by using marijuana.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15964704]
One opinion popular among proponents of medical marijuana suggests that since plants cannot be patented, and because marijuana is easily grown, there has been a concerted effort by the pharmaceutical industry to suppress the use of medical marijuana as a treatment for many disorders and illnesses, including bipolar disorder. In contrast, a UK company, [[GW Pharmaceuticals]], has recently begun marketing [[Sativex]], which is a whole-plant [[Cannabis]] extract, and is also pursuing studies of its use for various illnesses, such as cancer and depression.
===Alternative treatments===
{{further|[[Complementary treatments for bipolar disorder]]}}
Complementary non-Western treatments, such as [[acupuncture]] and [[orthomolecular medicine|orthomolecular therapy]], are used by people with bipolar disorder, and some research shows that some of them may have some scientific merit.
==Treatment issues==
Nearly all bipolar treatment studies have involved treating patients in the acute (initial) mania stage, where use of medication may be justified in removing a patient from danger. Less is known, however, about long-term treatment, where relapse prevention and full remission are the main treatment goals.
Until recently, depression was largely overlooked in bipolar disorder. The anticonvulsant medication, [[lamotrigine]] |
unction''' GenerateParadoxicalString ()
'''return''' GenerateComplexString(''n''<sub>0</sub>)
This program calls GenerateComplexString as a subroutine and also has a free parameter
''n''<sub>0</sub>. This program outputs a string ''s'' whose complexity is at least ''n''<sub>0</sub>. By an auspicious choice of the parameter ''n''<sub>0</sub> we will arrive at a contradiction. To choose this value, note ''s'' is described by the program GenerateParadoxicalString whose length is at most
:<math> U + \log_2(n_0) + C \quad </math>
where ''C'' is the "overhead" added by the program GenerateParadoxicalString. Since ''n'' grows faster than log<sub>2</sub>(''n''), there exists a value ''n''<sub>0</sub> such that
:<math> U + \log_2(n_0) + C < n_0. \quad </math>
But this contradicts the definition of having a complexity at least ''n''<sub>0</sub>. Thus the program named "KolmogorovComplexity" cannot actually generate strings with the desired Kolmogorov complexity.
This is proof by contradiction where the contradiction is similar to the [[Berry paradox]]: "Let ''n'' be the smallest positive integer that cannot be defined in fewer than twenty English words. Well, I just defined it in fewer than twenty English words."
== Compression ==
It is however straightforward to compute upper bounds for ''K''(''s''): simply [[data compression|compress]] the string ''s'' with some method, implement the corresponding decompressor in the chosen language, concatenate the decompressor to the compressed string, and measure the resulting string's length.
A string ''s'' is compressible by ''c'' if it has a description whose length does not exceed |''s''| &minus; ''c''. This is equivalent to saying ''K''(''s'') &le; |''s''| &minus; ''c''. Otherwise ''s'' is incompressible by ''c''. A string incompressible by one is said to be simply ''incompressible''; by the [[pigeonhole principle]], incompressible strings must exist, since there are 2<sup>''n''</sup> bit strings of length ''n'' but only 2<sup>''n''&minus;1</sup> shorter strings, that is strings of length ''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1.
For the same reason, "most" strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be significantly compressed: ''K''(''s'') is not much smaller than |''s''|, the length of ''s'' in bits. To make this precise, fix a value of ''n''. There are 2<sup>''n''</sup> bitstrings of length ''n''. The [[Uniform distribution (discrete)|uniform]] [[probability]] distribution on the space of these bitstrings assigns to each string of length exactly ''n'' equal weight 2<sup>&minus;''n''</sup>.
'''Theorem'''. With the uniform probability distribution on the space of bitstrings of length ''n'', the probability that a string is incompressible by ''c'' is at least 1 &minus; 2<sup>&minus;''c''+1 </sup> + 2<sup>&minus;''n''</sup>.
To prove the theorem, note that the number of descriptions of length not exceeding ''n'' &minus; ''c'' is given by the [[geometric series]]:
:<math> 1 + 2 + 2^2 + \cdots + 2^{n-c} = 2^{n-c+1}-1.\quad </math>
There remain at least
:<math> 2^n-2^{n-c+1}+1 \quad </math>
many bitstrings of length ''n'' that are incompressible by ''c''. To determine the probability divide by 2<sup>''n''</sup>.
This theorem is the justification for various challenges in [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/compression-faq/part1/ comp.compression FAQ]. Despite this result, it is sometimes claimed by certain individuals (considered [[Crank (person)#Physics, computer science and mathematics|cranks]]) that they have produced algorithms which uniformly compress data without lossage. See [[lossless data compression]].
==Chaitin's incompleteness theorem ==
We know that most strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be described in any significantly "compressed" way. However, it turns out that the fact that a specific string is complex cannot be formally proved, if the string's length is above a certain threshold. The precise formalization is as follows. First fix a particular [[axiomatic system]] '''S''' for the [[natural number|natural numbers]]. The axiomatic system has to be powerful enough so that to certain assertions '''A''' about complexity of strings one can be associate a formula '''F'''<sub>'''A'''</sub> in '''S'''. This association must be such that if '''F'''<sub>'''A'''</sub> is provable in '''S''', then the corresponding assertion '''A''' is true. This "formalization" can be achieved either by an artificial encoding such as a [[Gödel numbering]] or by a formalization which more clearly respects the intended interpretation of '''S'''.
'''Theorem'''. There exists a constant ''L'' (which only depends on the particular axiomatic system and the choice of description language) such that there is no string ''s'' for which the statement
: <math> K(s) \geq L \quad </math>
(as formalized in '''S''') can be proven within the axiomatic system '''S'''. Note that by the abundance of nearly incompressible strings, the vast majority of those statements must be true.
The proof of this result is modeled on a self-referential construction used in [[Berry's paradox]]. The proof is by contradiction. If the theorem were false, then
:'''Assumption (X)''': For any integer ''n'' there exists a string ''s'' for which there is a proof in '''S''' of the formula "''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n''" (which we assume can be formalized in '''S''').
We can find an effective enumeration of all the formal proofs in '''S''' by some procedure
'''function''' NthProof('''int''' ''n'')
which takes as input ''n'' and outputs some proof. This function
enumerates all proofs. Some of these are proofs for formulas we do not
care about here (examples of proofs which will be listed by the procedure NthProof are the various known proofs of the [[law of quadratic reciprocity]], those of [[Fermat's little theorem]] or the proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] all translated into the formal language of '''S'''). A small fraction are complexity formulas of the form ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n'' where ''s'' and ''n'' constants in the language of '''S'''. There is a program
'''function''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula('''int''' ''n'')
which determines whether the ''n''<sup>th</sup> proof actually proves
a complexity formula ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''L''. The strings ''s'' and
the integer ''L'' in turn are computable by programs:
'''function''' StringNthProof('''int''' ''n'')
'''function''' ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof('''int''' ''n'')
Consider the folowing program
'''function''' GenerateProvablyComplexString('''int''' ''n'')
'''for''' i = 1 to infinity:
'''if''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(i) '''and'''
ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(i) >= ''n''
'''return''' StringNthProof(''i'')
'''quit'''
Given an ''n'', this program tries every proof until it finds a string
and a proof in the formal system '''S''' of the formula ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n''. The program
terminates by our '''Assumption (X)'''. Now this program has a length ''U''.
There is an integer ''n''<sub>0</sub> such that ''U'' + log<sub>2</sub>(''n''<sub>0</sub>) + ''C'' < ''n''<sub>0</sub>, where ''C'' is the overhead cost of
'''function''' GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString()
'''return''' GenerateProvablyComplexString(''n''<sub>0</sub>)
'''quit'''
The program GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString outputs a string ''s'' for which ''K''(''s'') &ge;
''n''<sub>0</sub> can be formally proved in '''S'''. In particular ''K''(''s'') &ge;
''n''<sub>0</sub> is true. However, ''s'' is also described by a program of length
''U''+log<sub>2</sub>(''n''<sub>0</sub>)+''C'' so its complexity is less than ''n''<sub>0</sub>. This contradiction proves '''Assumption (X)''' cannot hold.
Similar ideas are used to prove the properties of [[Chaitin's constant]].
The [[minimum message length]] principle of statistical and inductive inference and machine learning was developed by [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications/ C.S. Wallace] and D.M. Boulton in 1968. MML is [[Bayesian probability|Bayesian]] (it incorporates prior beliefs) and
information-theoretic. It has the desirable properties of statistical
invariance (the inference transforms with a re-parametrisation, such as from
polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates), statistical consistency (even
for very hard problems, MML will converge to any underlying model) and efficiency (the MML model will converge to any true underlying model about as quickly as is possible). [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications/ C.S. Wallace] and D.L. Dowe showed a formal connection between MML and algorithmic information theory (or Kolmogorov complexity) in 1999.
== References ==
* Ming Li and Paul Vitányi, ''An Introduction to Kolmogorv Complexity and Its Applications'', Springer, 1997. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/li97introduction.html Introduction chapter full-text].
* Yu Manin, ''A Course in Mathematical Logic'', Springer-Verlag, 1977.
* Michael Sipser, ''Introduction to the Theory of Computation'', PWS Publishing Company, 1997.
==See also==
*[[Chaitin–Kolmogorov randomness|Chaitin-Kolmogorov randomness]]
*[[List of important publications in computer science#algorithmic information theory|Important publications in algorithmic information theory]]
==External links==
* [http://www.kolmogorov.com/ The Legacy of Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]
* [http://www. |
rbon crystallizes as [[Lonsdaleite]], a form similar to diamond but hexagonal.
Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, also contain pentagons (or possibly heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet into spheres, ellipses or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (also called "[[buckyball]]s" and "[[buckytube]]s") have not yet been fully analyzed. All the names of fullerenes are after [[Buckminster Fuller]], developer of the [[geodesic]] [[dome]], which mimics the structure of "[[buckyball]]s".
A [[nanofoam]] allotrope has been discovered which is [[ferromagnetic]].
Carbon allotropes include:
* [[Amorphous carbon]]
* [[Carbon nanofoam]] (discovered in [[1997]])
* [[Carbon nanotube]]
* [[Diamond]]
* [[Fullerene]]
* [[Graphite]]
* [[Lonsdaleite]]
* [[Aggregated diamond nanorods]] (synthesised in [[2005]])
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes.
Between diamond and graphite:
* Graphite is soft and is used in pencils
* Diamond is the hardest mineral known to man (although aggregated diamond nanorods are now believed to be even harder), but graphite is one of the softest.
* Diamond is the ultimate abrasive, but graphite is a very good lubricant.
* Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, but graphite is a conductor of electricity.
* Diamond is usually transparent, but graphite is opaque.
* Diamond crystallizes in the [[cubic (crystal system)|cubic system]] but graphite crystallizes in the [[hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal system]].
Between amorphous carbon and nanotubes:
* Amorphous carbon is among the easiest materials to synthesize, but carbon nanotubes are extremely expensive to make.
* Amorphous carbon is completely [[isotropic]], but carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials ever produced.
==Occurrence==
There are nearly ten million carbon compounds known to [[science]]. Many thousands of these are vital to life processes. They are also many organic-based reactions of economic importance. Carbon is abundant in [[star]]s, [[comet]]s, and in the [[celestial body's atmosphere|atmosphere]]s of most [[planet]]s. Some [[meteorite]]s contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the [[solar system]] was still a [[protoplanetary disk]]. In combination with other elements, carbon is found the earth's atmosphere and dissolved in all water bodies. With smaller amounts of [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], and [[iron]], it is a major component of very large masses [[carbonate]] [[Rock (geology)|rock]] ([[limestone]], [[dolomite]], [[marble]] etc.). When combined with [[hydrogen]], carbon forms [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]] which are called [[hydrocarbon]]s.
Graphite is found in large quantities in [[New York]] and [[Texas]], the [[United States]]; [[Russia]]; [[Mexico]]; [[Greenland]] and [[India]].
Natural diamonds occur in the mineral [[kimberlite]] found in ancient [[volcano|volcanic]] "necks," or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in [[Africa]], notably in [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], the [[Republic of the Congo]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. There are also deposits in [[Arkansas]], [[Canada]], the Russian [[Arctic]], [[Brazil]] and in Northern and Western [[Australia]].
; see also [[:category:Organic minerals]], [[:category:Carbonate minerals]]
==Organic compounds==
{{main|organic chemistry}}
The most prominent oxide of carbon is [[carbon dioxide]], CO<sub>2</sub>. This is a minor component of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere. In [[water (molecule)|water]] it forms trace amounts of [[methanoic acid]], HCO<sub>2</sub>H, but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized [[carbonate]] [[ion]]s are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably [[calcite]]. [[Carbon disulfide]], CS<sub>2</sub>, is similar.
The other oxides are [[carbon monoxide]], CO, and the uncommon carbon suboxide, C<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly [[polar molecule|polar]], resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to [[haemoglobin]] molecules, so that the gas is highly poisonous. [[Cyanide]], CN<sup>-</sup>, has a similar structure and behaves a lot like a [[halide]] ion; the nitride [[cyanogen]], (CN)<sub>2</sub>, is related.
With reactive [[metal]]s, such as [[tungsten]], carbon forms either carbides, C<sup>-</sup>, or acetylides, C<sub>2</sub><sup>2-</sup> to form alloys with very high melting points. These anions are also associated with [[methane]] and [[acetylene]], both very weak [[acid]]s. All in all, with an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form [[covalent bond]]s. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like [[carborundum]], SiC, which resembles [[diamond]].
===Carbon chains===
Carbon has the ability to form long chains with interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is called [[catenation]]. Carbon-carbon bonds are fairly strong, and abnormaly stable. This property is important as it allows carbon to form a huge number of compounds; in fact, there are more known carbon-containing compounds than all the compounds of the other chemical elements combined.
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the [[hydrocarbon]] - a large family of [[organic molecule]]s that, by definition, are composed of [[hydrogen]] atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains and [[functional group]]s all affect the properties of organic molecules.
==Carbon cycle==
{{main|carbon cycle}}
Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one isotope to another is very rare. Therefore, for practical purposes, the amount of carbon on Earth is constant. Thus processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere, and dispose of it somewhere. The paths that carbon follows in the environment are called the carbon cycle. For example, plants draw carbon dioxide out of the environments and use it to build biomass. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, where some of it is exhaled as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; dead plant or animal matter may become sedimentary rock, and so forth.
==Isotopes==
Carbon has two stable, naturally-occurring [[isotope]]s: [[carbon-12]], or <sup>12</sup>C, (98.89%) and [[carbon-13]], or <sup>13</sup>C, (1.11%), and one unstable, naturally-occurring, [[radioisotope]]; [[carbon-14]] or <sup>14</sup>C. There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is <sup>8</sup>C which decays through [[proton emission]] and [[alpha decay]]. It has a half-life of 1.98739x10<sup>-21</sup> [[Second|s]].
In [[1961]] the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] adopted the isotope [[carbon-12]] as the basis for [[atomic weight]]s.
Carbon-14 has a [[half-life]] of 5730 [[years|y]] and has been used extensively for [[radiocarbon dating]] carbonaceous materials.
==Precautions==
Carbon is relatively safe. Inhalation of fine [[soot]] in large quantities can be dangerous. Carbon may catch fire at very high temperatures and burn vigorously (as in the [[Windscale fire]]).
There are a tremendous number of carbon compounds; some are lethally poisonous ([[cyanide]], CN<sup>-</sup>), and some are essential to life ([[glucose]]).
==References==
* ''[http://lbruno.home.cern.ch/lbruno/documents/Bibliography/LHC_Note_78.pdf On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam]'', J.M. Zazula, 1997
* WebElements.com and EnvironmentalChemistry.com per the guidelines at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements Wikipedia's WikiProject Elements]
==See also==
* [[Organic chemistry]]
* [[Inorganic chemistry of carbon]]
* [[Allotropes of carbon]]
* [[Diamond]]
** [[Material properties of diamond]]
* [[Carbon nanotube]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Carbon}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/6.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Carbon]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/C/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Carbon]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele006.html It's Elemental &ndash; Carbon]
* [http://www.vincentherr.com/cf/ &ndash; Carbon Fullerene and other Allotropes] models by Vincent Herr
* [http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/everywhere.html Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu]
* [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-c01-carbon.htm Electrochemical uses of carbon]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Carbon Computational Chemistry Wiki]
[[Category:Carbon| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Nonmetals]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|sk}}
[[af:Koolstof]]
[[ar:كربون]]
[[bg:Въглерод]]
[[bn:কার্বন]]
[[ca:Carboni]]
[[cs:Uhlík]]
[[cy:Carbon]]
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[[de:Kohlenstoff]]
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[[eu:Karbono]]
[[fa:کربن]]
[[fr:Carbone]]
[[gd:Gualan]]
[[gl:Carbono (elemento)]]
[[gu:કાર્બન]]
[[ko:탄소]]
[[hr:Ugljik]]
[[io:Karbo]]
[[id:Karbon]]
[[ia:Carbon (elemento)]]
[[is:Kolefni]]
[[it:Carbonio]]
[[he:פחמן]]
[[la:Carbonium]]
[[lv:Ogleklis]]
[[lt:Anglis]]
[[lb:Kuelestoff]]
[[li:Koolstof]]
[[hu:Szén]]
[[mk:Јаглерод]]
[[mi:Waro]]
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[[nl:Koolstof]]
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[[ja:炭素]]
[[no:Karbon (grunnstoff)]]
[[nn:Karbon]]
[[oc:Carbòni]]
[[pl:Węgiel (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Carbono]]
[[ro:Carbon]]
[[ru:Углерод]]
[[simple:Carbon]]
[[sk:Uhlík]]
[[sl:Ogljik]]
[[sr:Угљеник]]
[[su:Karbon]]
[[fi:Hiili]]
[[sv:Kol]]
[[th:ค |
of the Amalthea data was already written to tape, it was found that the recorder refused to respond to commands telling it to play back data. Through careful analysis [http://parts.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/NSREC03_C6.pdf] after weeks of troubleshooting of an identical flight spare of the recorder on the ground, it was determined that the cause of the malfunction was a reduction of light output in three infrared Optek OP133 [http://www.optekinc.com/pdf/Op130.pdf] [[LED|light emitting diodes]] located in the drive electronics of the recorder's motor encoder wheel. The [[GaAs]] LEDs had been particularly sensitive to proton irradiation induced [[crystal|atomic lattice]] displacement defects, which greatly decreased their effective light output and caused the drive motor's electronics to falsely believe the motor encoder wheel was incorrectly positioned. ''Galileo''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s flight team then began a series of "[[Annealing (metallurgy)\annealing]]" sessions, where current was passed through the LEDs for hours at a time to heat them to a point where some of the crystalline lattice defects would be shifted back into place, thus increasing the LED's light output. After about 100 hours of annealing and playback cycles, the recorder was able to operate for up to an hour at a time. After many subsequent playback and cooling cycles, the complete transmission back to earth of all recorded Amalthea flyby data was successful.
===Other radiation related anomalies===
The uniquely harsh radiation environment at Jupiter caused over 20 anomalies in addition to the incidents expanded upon above. Despite exceeding its radiation design limit by at least a factor of three, the spacecraft survived all the anomalies. Several of the science instruments suffered increased noise while within about 700,000 km of Jupiter. The quartz crystal used as the frequency reference for the radio suffered permanent frequency shifts with each Jupiter approach. A spin detector failed and the spacecraft gyro output was biased by the radiation environment. The SSI camera began producing totally white images when the spacecraft was hit by the exceptional 'Bastille Day' [[Coronal_mass_ejection | coronal mass ejection]] in 2000 and subsequently on close approaches to Jupiter. The most severe effect was a reset of the computers (called a CDS despun bus reset) that occurred when the spacecraft was either close to Jupiter or in the region of space magnetically downstream of the earth. Work-arounds were found for all of these problems.
===Near failure of atmospheric probe parachute===
The atmospheric probe deployed its first parachute about one minute later than anticipated, resulting in a small loss of upper atmospheric readings. Through review of records, the problem was later determined to likely be faulty wiring in the parachute control system. The fact that the chute opened at all was attributed to luck.
==Future of Jupiter exploration==
After the end of the ''Galileo'' mission and in the light of the discoveries ''Galileo'' made, NASA was planning a future Jupiter mission called [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter|JIMO]]: Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter. The JIMO mission was in its early planning stage and liftoff was not to be expected before [[2017]]. However, the US president's [[2006]] budget request to Congress essentially cut funding for JIMO. Another spacecraft planned to orbit Jupiter is [[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]], due to launch by [[2010]] to study Jupiter's atmosphere and magnetic field. Other missions, such as ''[[New Horizons]]'', launched in 2006, will conduct Jupiter flybys on their way to other targets and provide opportunities for additional scientific research of the Jupiter system.
==External links==
*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ Galileo home page]
*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jimo/ Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]
*[http://www.cs.tcd.ie/Stephen.Farrell/ipn/background/five-antennae-for-galileo.html Site explaining the LGA bandwidth upgrades from the Parkes Observatory]
*[http://lasers.jpl.nasa.gov/PAPERS/GOPEX/gopex_s2.pdf GOPEX site from JPL]
*[http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast21may99_1.htm NASA site on Galileo life detection experiments]
[[Category:Jupiter]]
[[Category:NASA probes]]
[[Category:Jupiter spacecraft]]
[[bg:Галилео (мисия)]]
[[cs:Galileo (sonda)]]
[[de:Galileo (Raumsonde)]]
[[es:Galileo (misión espacial)]]
[[fa:فضاپیمای گالیله]]
[[fr:Galileo (sonde spatiale)]]
[[ko:갈릴레오 우주선]]
[[it:Sonda Galileo]]
[[he:גלילאו (חללית)]]
[[hu:Galileo űrszonda]]
[[nl:Galileo (ruimtesonde)]]
[[ja:ガリレオ (探査機)]]
[[pl:Galileo (sonda)]]
[[pt:Galileu (sonda espacial)]]
[[ru:Галилео (КА НАСА)]]
[[sk:Galileo (kozmická sonda)]]
[[th:ยานกาลิเลโอ]]
[[zh:伽利略号]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garden of Eden</title>
<id>13078</id>
<revision>
<id>42037074</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:36:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.205.181.248</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Suspected locations */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by Ernest Hemingway, see [[The Garden of Eden]]. For the concept in cellular automata, see [[Garden of Eden pattern]].''
[[Image:CranFall.jpg|right|thumbnail|"The Fall of Man" by Lucas Cranach, a 16th century German depiction of Eden]]
The '''Garden of Eden''' (from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Gan Eden'', "גַּן עֵדֶן") is described by the Book of Genesis as being the place where the first man - Adam - and woman - Eve - lived after they were created by God. The past physical existence of this garden forms part of the [[creation belief]] of the [[Abrahamic religion]]s.
The Genesis account (specifically, the [[Jahwist]] version of the creation story) supplies the geographical location of Eden in relation to four major rivers. However, because the identification of these rivers has been the subject of much controversy and speculation, a substantial consensus now exists that the knowledge of the location of Eden has been lost.
There are some religious groups who have a genesis story containing similar subject elements, but who ascribe various locations to the place of first habitation.
Belief in the veracity of the Eden story fundamentally implicates the concepts of God (specifically, the God of the [[Abrahamic religions]]) and creation.
The '''Garden of Eden story''' recounts that [[God]] placed [[Adam and Eve]] in a garden, and commanded them not to eat from the [[Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil]], and that they were expelled from the garden after they disobeyed Him, having been tempted by a [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]], and having eaten of the fruit. The [[Tree of Life]], also planted in the garden, was then denied them by means of a physical barrier, of cherubim and a flaming sword, at the entrance to the garden.
Judaism associates the serpent with the [[Satan]], based on the Oral Tradition (which they received at the same time as the Written Tradition). However, an early [[gnosticism|gnostic Christian]] sect, known as the [[Ophites]], turned this on its head, worshipping the serpent as the [[hero]] trying to impart [[gnosis]], and casting ''God'' as the [[evil]] villain trying to imprison them in the creation of the [[demi-urge]].
In the account the garden is planted "eastward, in Eden", and accordingly "Eden" properly denotes the larger territory which contains the garden rather than being the name of the garden itself: it is, thus, the garden located in Eden. The [[Talmud]] also states ([[Brachos]] 34b) that the Garden is distinct from Eden.
For the association of the Garden of Eden with [[Paradise]], see below.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - The Earthly Paradise (Garden of Eden).jpg|thumb|right|Eden as depicted in [[Hieronymus Bosch|Bosch]]'s ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' includes many exotic [[Africa]]n animals.]]
The [[Book of Genesis]] contains little information on the garden itself. It was home to both the [[Tree of Life]] and the [[Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil]], as well as an abundance of other [[vegetation]] that could feed [[Adam and Eve]].
:''"A river flowed out of [[Eden]] to water the garden, and there it divided and became four rivers"''.
===Suspected locations===
There have been a number of claims as to the actual geographic location of the Garden of Eden, though many of these have little or no connection to the text of ''Genesis''. Most put the Garden somewhere in the [[Middle East]] near [[Mesopotamia]]. Locations as diverse as [[Ethiopia]], [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Seychelles]], [[Johannes Goropius Becanus|Brabant]], and [[Bristol, Florida]] have all been proposed as locations for the garden. Many Christian theologians believe that the Garden never had a terrestrial existence, but was instead an adjunct to [[heaven]] as it became identified with Paradise (see below).
The text asserts that from Eden the river divided into four branches: Hiddekel a.k.a. [[Tigris]], [[Euphrates]], [[Pishon]] and [[Gihon]]. The identity of the former two are commonly accepted, though the latter two rivers have been the subject of endless argument. But if the Garden of Eden had really been near the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates, then the original narrators in the land of [[Canaan]] would have identified it as located generally in the [[Taurus Mountains]], in [[Anatolia]]. Satellite photos reveal two dry riverbeds flowing toward the [[Persian Gulf]] near where the Tigris and Euphrates also terminate. While this accounts for four rivers in the vicinity, that area is the ''mouth'' of those rivers rather than their ''source''.
Some literalists point out that the world of Eden's time was destroyed during [[Deluge (mythology)|Noah's Flood]] and it is therefore impossible to place the Garden anywhere in post-flood geography. There is also an attempt to tie this with th |
a]] has a famine memorial in the form of a [[dolmen]] at the Irish Cultural Center.
* Irish Hills Michigan - The Ancient Order of Hibernian's An Gorta Mor Memorial is located on the grounds of St. Joseph's Shrine in the Irish Hills district of Lenawee County, Michigan.[[http://www.geocities.com/lenaweeaoh/ Pictures of Memorial]]
[[Image:AnGortaMor Memorialbowl.jpg|Irish Hills Michigan - "An Gorta Mor" - The empty bowl represents the hunger of our ancestors. Their are 32 black stones as the platform - one for each county. The grounds are surrounded with a stone wall.]] [[Image:AnGortaMor_MI.jpg|Irish Hills Michigan - "An Gorta Mor" - The Lintel is a step from Penrose Quay in Cork Harbor. The project was the result of several years of fundraising by the Ancient Order of Hibernians in Lenewee County. It was dedicated in 2004 by AOH Divisional President, Patrick Maguire, and many political and Irish figures from around the state of Michigan.]]
===In Australia===
* [[Sydney]], Australia. The Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine [http://www.irishfamine.org/] is located in the courtyard wall of the Hyde Park Barracks, Macquarie Street Sydney. It symbolises the experiences of young Irish women fleeing the Great Irish Famine of 1845–48. [http://www.hht.net.au/museums/hyde_park_barracks_museum/fact_sheet]
{{listdev}}
==See also==
{{commonscat|Irish potato famine}}
* [[Irish potato famine (legacy)]] (continuation of this article)
* [[Highland Potato Famine (1846 - 1857)]]
* [[List of natural disasters in the United Kingdom]]
* "[[Fields of Athenry]]," a popular song about the famine
==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} Robert Kee, ''The Laurel and the Ivy: The Story of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism'' p.15.
*{{fnb|2}} Joe Lee, ''The Modernisation of Irish Society'' p.1. Cormac Ó Grada suggests the higher number of one million.
*{{fnb|3}} FSL Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' p.42.
*{{fnb|4}} Lee, ''op.cit'' p.1.
*{{fnb|5}} Lyons, ''op.cit'' p.43.
*{{fnb|6}} ibid. p.43.
*{{fnb|7}} www.loughrynn.net for the story of the famine in South Leitrim under the management of the Earls of Leitrim
*{{fnb|9}} Joseph Judge, "The Travail of Ireland." ''[[National Geographic]]'' vol. 159 no. 4 (April 1981), pp.432-440
==Additional reading==
*Cormac O'Grada, ''An Economic History of Ireland''
*[[Robert Kee]], ''Ireland: A History'' (ISBN 0349106789)
*[[John Mitchel]], ''The Last Conquest of Ireland'' (1861) (out of print)
*[[Cecil Woodham-Smith]], ''The Great Hunger, 1845-49'' (Penguin, 1991 edition)
*Marita Conlon-McKenna, ''Under the Hawthorn Tree''
==External links==
*[http://www.nationalarchives.ie/famine.html Irish National Archives information on the Famine]
*[http://www.thegreathunger.org/ Quinnipiac University's An Gorta Mor site - includes etexts]
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/ograda.famine.php Ireland's Great Famine] (Cormac &Oacute; Gr&aacute;da) from EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History
*[http://www.irishholocaust.org/ Irish Holocaust]
*[http://www.american.edu/TED/potato.htm History]
*[http://www.people.Virginia.EDU/~eas5e/Irish/Irish.html Newspaper Reports on the Famine]
*[http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/sr189/stack.htm Ireland: The hunger years 1845-1851]
*[http://www.local.ie/general/history/famine/ Local History Website on the Famine]
*[http://www.irishpotatofamine.org/ Kids History Website about the Famine]
*For more on the pathogen see http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/mar2001.ht
[[Category:History of Ireland 1801-1922]]
[[Category:Famines]]
[[Category:1840s]]
[[Category:Land reform in Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish famines|1845-1849]]
[[Category:Potatoes]]
[[Category:Economic disasters]]
{{Irish famines}}
{{Link FA|he}}
[[de:Große Hungersnot in Irland]]
[[es:Gran hambruna irlandesa]]
[[eo:Granda malsatego en Irlando]]
[[fr:Grande Famine]]
[[ga:An Gorta Mór]]
[[it:Grande carestia irlandese (1845 - 1849)]]
[[he:רעב תפוחי האדמה הגדול באירלנד]]
[[nl:Grote hongersnood]]
[[ja:ジャガイモ飢饉]]
[[pl:Klęska głodu w Irlandii]]
[[ru:Голод в Ирландии 1845—1849]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isle of Man</title>
<id>14727</id>
<revision>
<id>41641924</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:06:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.20.183.206</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Local government */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the native Isle of Man [[Cat]], see [[Manx (cat)|Manx Cat]]''.
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ '''[[Ellan Vannin]]''' ([[Manx language|Manx]])<br /> '''Isle of Man''' ([[English language|English]])
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of the Isle of Man.svg|125px|]] || align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Manx coat.PNG|125px]]
|-
|align="center" width="140px"|<small>([[Flag of the Isle of Man|Flag]])</small> || align="center" width="140px"|<small>([[Coat of Arms of the Isle of Man|Coat of Arms]])</small>
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;" | <font size="-1">''National'' ''[[motto]]: Quocunque Jeceris Stabit<br/>([[Latin]]: Whithersoever you throw it, it will'' ''stand'')</font>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:BritishIslesMan.png]]
|-
| [[Official language]]s || None, though [[English language|English]] is the working language of the Government. [[Manx language|Manx]] enjoys some recognition in law.
|-
| [[Capital]] || [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] ([[Doolish]])
|-
| [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man|Lord of Mann]] || [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[List of Lieutenant Governors of the Isle of Man|Lieutenant Governor]] || [[Paul Haddacks|Vice-Admiral Sir Paul Haddacks]]
|-
| [[Chief Minister of the Isle of Man|Chief Minister]] || [[Hon.]] [[Donald Gelling]] [[Legislative_Council_%28Isle_of_Man%29|MLC]]
|-
| [[Currency]] || [[Isle of Man pound]] - The IOM Treasury issues its own notes and coins with a fixed 1:1 exchange rate to [[Pound_Sterling|the pound sterling]].
|-
| [[Time zone]] || [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST +1]]),
|-
| [[National anthem]] || [[Isle of Man National Anthem]]
|-
| National Flower || [[Ragwort|Cushag]]
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] || [[.im]]
|-
| National Birds || [[Peregrine Falcon]] and [[Raven]]
|-
| [[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]] || 44 (UK area code 01624)
|}The '''Isle of Man''' ('''[[Ellan Vannin]]''' in [[Manx language|Manx]]) or '''[[Mann]]''' ('''[[Mannin]]''' in Manx), is a [[constitutional monarchy]] located in the [[Irish Sea]] at the geographical centre of the [[British Isles]]. Although it is not part of the [[United Kingdom]], it is a [[Crown dependency]].
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of the Isle of Man}}
The Isle of Man is part of the [[British Isles]], an [[archipelago]] off the north-western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. The island lies in the [[Irish Sea]], approximately [[equidistant]] between [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].
<!--[[Image:manmap.jpg|thumb|left|float|Map of the Isle of Man; click to enlarge.]]-->
Approximately 48 km (32 miles) long and between 13 and 24 km (8 and 15 miles) in breadth, the island has an area of around [[1 E8 m²|572 km²]] (221 square miles).
Hills in the north and south are bisected by a central valley. The extreme north is exceptionally flat, consisting mainly of deposits built up by deposition from glacial advances from Western [[Scotland]] during colder times. There are more recently deposited [[shingle]] [[beach]]es at the Point of Ayre. It has only one mountain higher than 2000 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]], [[Snaefell]], with a height of 621 m (2,036 ft). According to an old saying, from the summit one can see seven kingdoms: those of Mann, Scotland, [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Wales]], [[Heaven]] and [[Sea|Neptune]].
{{See|List of islands of Isle of Man}}
==People==
{{Main|Demographics of the Isle of Man}}
According to the 2001 census, the Isle of Man is home to 76,315 people, of whom around 25,347 reside in the Island's capital, [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] (''Doolish''). This gives the island a [[population density]] of 345 people per square mile, or 133 per square kilometer.
==Culture==
The culture of the Isle of Man is strongly influenced by its [[Celt]]ic and [[Norse]] origins. It is currently enjoying a revival of the [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] [[Manx language]] (''Gaelg''). Although the last original native speaker died in 1974, small children are once again being brought up speaking Manx. There are now 27 known native speakers and 650 other speakers. Manx is closely related to the [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Irish language]]s.
A well known Manx expression is "Traa Dy Liooar", meaning "time enough" and represents a stereotypical view of the Manx attitude to life.
{{See|music of the Isle of Man}}
==Government==
{{Main|Politics of the Isle of Man}}
===Structure===
The Isle of Man is a self-governing [[crown dependency]]. The [[head of state]] is the [[Lord of Mann]] who is the British Sovereign, currently [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Her Majesty The Queen]], her title on the Island is [[Lord of Mann]]. She is represented by the Island's [[Lieutenant Governor]]. The [[United Kingdom]] is responsible for the Island's defence and for representing the Island in international forums, while the Island's own [[parliament]] has competence over almost all domestic matters.
The Island's parliament is '' |
, which is known only through Greek and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners.
The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetical science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing." {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}} This is the [[macrocosm]]-[[microcosm]] belief central to the hermetic philosophy. In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through [[astrology]], and the earth through the [[classical element|element]]s. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}}
It has been speculated that a riddle from the Emerald Tablet—"it was carried in the womb by the wind"—refers to the distillation of oxygen from [[sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]—a process that was unknown in Europe until its (re)discovery by Sendivogius in the 17th century.
In the 4th century BC, the Greek-speaking [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in 332. This brought them into contact with Egyptian ideas. See [[#Alchemy in the Greek world|Alchemy in the Greek World]] below.
===Chinese alchemy===
Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears.
[[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in [[fireworks]] by the 10th Century, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to [[Japan]], the [[Mongol]]s, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century.
Black powder was most likely invented in the middle east before it found its way
to China. Saltpeter, the critical oxidising component, was found naturally in India and
along the Salt trade routes in the Middle East.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine|medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to [[martial arts]] such as [[Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical).
===Indian alchemy===
Little is known in the West about the character and history of [[India]]n alchemy. An 11th century [[Iran|Persia]]n alchemist named [[al-Biruni]] reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which is called [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." The best example of a text based on this science is ''The Vaishashik Darshana'' of [[Kanad]]a (fl. 600 BC), who described an atomic theory over a century before Democritus.
The texts of [[Ayurvedic]] Medicine and Science have aspects related to alchemy, such having cures for all known diseases. The similarities in [[Ayurveda]] and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them.
Some people have also noted certain similarities between the [[metaphysics]] of the [[Samkhya]] philosophical tradition of Hinduism and the metaphysics of alchemy. Whether there is any direct connection between the two systems is an open question.
The Rasavadam was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example of early Indian medicine.
In traditional Indian medicinal terminology 'rasa' translates as 'mercury' and Nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day.
===Alchemy in the Greek world===
The Greek city of [[Alexandria]] in Egypt was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreanism]], [[ionianism]], and [[gnosticism]]. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a [[ratio]] could be derived. [[Ionia]]n thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on [[phenomenon|natural phenomena]]; this philosophy is believed to have originated with [[Thales]] and his pupil [[Anaximander]], and later developed by [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy. According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified [[law (principle)|natural laws]] that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was [[gnosticism]], a belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian [[Roman empire]], that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation. They further believed that [[god (monotheism)|God]] did not "create" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created "from" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. [[original sin]]). According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the creatures of the world, one worships the True God. Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instead seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed.
One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: ''earth'', ''air'', ''water'', and ''fire''. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}}
The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." {{ref_harvard|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} Later alchemists (if Plato and Aristotle can be called alchemists) extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.
===Alchemy in the Roman Empire===
The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the [[Roman empire]] the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}}
However, the development of [[Christianity]] in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354-430 AD), an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the [[fall of the Roman Empire]]. In essence, he felt that [[reason]] and [[faith]] could be used to understand God, but [[experimental philosophy]] was evil: "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science." {{ref_harvard|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}}
Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned. Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in [[medieval society]] and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly.
Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of "hermetic" to mean "secretive".) {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed.
===Alchemy in the Islamic world===
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Middle East. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better |
As a result, some of the claimed records in the field may seem spurious. There is another Guinness entry for "oldest BASE jumper" which is clearly nothing to do with sporting skill. Even more contentious are claims sometimes made (although not recognised by Guinness) for the lowest jump. Given that a static-lined parachute can be made to open in little more than the length of its suspension lines, jumps can actually be performed at practically any altitude right down to the point at which a parachute is not necessary for survival.
BASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or freefall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the 1300ft Petronas Towers building in Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy. But BASE jumping is a long way from being an Olympic sport. Nevertheless, an increasing number of BASE devotees take their sport seriously as a skilled athletic pursuit. It is moving steadily towards the crossover point at which it will be taken seriously by everyone, as a minority, but genuine, sport.
For now, BASE jumpers are mostly focused on the challenges of public acceptance and understanding of a sport so obviously extreme and so highly dangerous; and on the development of equipment and techniques. Searching for new, and preferably legal, jump sites has also been a fruitful activity for many devotees.
==Site Naming==
Inquiries about sites serve as the primary gatekeeper of the BASE community. If a prospective jumper has to locate experienced jumpers to learn about sites, there is a far greater chance that they will receive instruction (of any kind) and use appropriate gear. If a site is publicized, pretty much anyone can run out and throw himself off of it. He can jump with no training, with improper equipment and with no supervision. This is a recipe for disaster, and has resulted in multiple accidents, including more than one fatality.
Any discussion of a site can easily be held by referring to the site descriptively, rather than by name or location. It is easy to discuss "the Bridge Day site" or "the popular terminal wall in Northern Italy" for example, and using such labels detracts nothing from a technical discussion.
Accidents occur at legal sites, as well as illegal ones, and this reasoning applies equally to either. In fact, the majority of BASE fatalities have occurred at legal sites. The ease of access to these sites, as well as the frequency of accidents, argues, if anything, for greater site secrecy at legal sites.
Some BASE jumpers feel that preventing accidents is important because it keeps sites open for jumping (whether legal or illegal). This concern is a distant second to preventing injury.
==External links==
* [http://www.dropzone.com/cgi-bin/forum/gforum.cgi?forum=22; The BASE Zone at Dropzone.com]
* [http://www.blincmagazine.com/forum/ BASE-Jumping Forums]
* [http://www.basicresearch.com/base_history.htm History of BASE jumping]
* [http://www.basejumper.org/ Basejumper.org]
* http://www.baseclimb.com/BASE_history.htm
* [http://www.ideasfactory.com/business/marketing/know_it/feature6.html An extreme BASE jump]
* [http://www.basefatalities.info/ BASE Fatalities.info]
* [http://www.dropzone.com/cgi-bin/safety/detail_page.cgi?ID=64 Getting Into BASE, by Tom Aiello]
* [http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1112393614225_107802814/?hub=Canada Base Jumper hits buildings on way down in Calgary, Alberta]
* [http://www.basewiki.com BASE-WIKI]
* [http://www.skydivingmovies.com/ver2/pafiledb.php?action=category&id=8 BASE Videos at SkydivingMovies.com]
* [http://www.alexisparkinn.com/photogallery/Videos/2005_basejumper.wmv BASE jumping video]
* [http://www.madwings.com MadWings.com -- All in one place about Extreme sports.]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Beauty</title>
<id>4431</id>
<revision>
<id>41973355</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:49:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.198.137.136</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- NOTICE:
Please don't vandalize this page by putting your
sweetheart's name into it. Some points that may change
your mind if this is what you intend:
1. It truly is unoriginal - half the vandalizations are
people doing exactly this.
2. It's extremely easy to the point of being
superficial and trite - perhaps not the best way to honor
the object of your truest affections.
3. Staining the good work of others is probably a bad way
to go about making a compliment.
-->::''For other uses, see [[Beauty (disambiguation)]].
[[Image:Nymph with morning glory flowers.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''A [[nymph]] with [[morning glory]] flowers'' by [[Jules Joseph Lefebvre|Lefebvre]]. The image of the young woman is a classical symbol of human beauty, and a dominant theme in [[art]].]]
'''Beauty''' is an innate and [[emotional]] [[perception]] of [[life]]'s affirmative aspects &mdash; [[vitality]], [[health]], [[fertility]], [[happiness]], and [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]] &mdash; within objects in the ''perceived world''. In its most profound sense, the beauty engenders a sense of positive reflection on the [[meaning]] of one's own [[being]] within [[nature]].
Beauty involves the [[cognition]] of objects as having a balance and [[harmony]] with nature, which elicits in the viewer a sense and experience of [[attraction]], affection, and [[pleasure]].
An "object of beauty" is anything in the perceived world which reveals a personally meaningful aspect of "natural beauty". The presence of the [[Self (philosophy)|self]] in any human context means that beauty is naturally based on its ''human'' meaning, wherein ''human beauty'' is often the dominant aspect of a greater ''natural beauty.'' The opposite of beauty is ''ugliness'' &mdash;ie. the perceived ''lack'' of beauty, which stimulates ''displeasure'' and engenders a deeper ''negative'' perception of the object.
[[religion|Religious]] and moral teachings often focus on the ''[[virtue]]'' and ''[[divinity]]'' of beauty, to assert natural beauty as an aspect of a ''[[spirituality|spiritual beauty]]'' (ergo ''[[truth]]'') and define all self-centered or materialistic pretentions as based in [[ignorance]]. The ancient story of [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]] for example deals with the distinction between beauty and [[vanity]]. In the modern context, the usage of beauty as means to promote an [[ideology]] or [[dogma]] has been a focus of societal debates which center around issues of [[prejudice]], [[ethics]], and [[human rights]]. The usage of beauty for purposes of [[commercialism]] is a controversial aspect of the "[[culture wars]]," wherin [[feminism]] typically claims such usage promotes a dogmatic (ie. "[[The Beauty Myth]]") rather than a virtuous understanding of beauty.
:''"Beauty is the [[wisdom]] of women. Wisdom is the beauty of men." - Ancient [[wikiquote:Chinese proverbs|Chinese proverb]]
<!-- other beauty quotes - tie common idioms and wisdom to philosphy - "beauty is only skin deep", 'beauty is the reflection of our own' etc.-->
==Beauty and aesthetics==
Understanding the nature and meaning of beauty is one of the key themes in the philosophical discipline known as [[aesthetics]].
The composer and critic [[Robert Schumann]] distinguished between two kinds of beauty, ''natural'' beauty and ''poetic'' beauty: the former being found in the contemplation of nature, the latter in man's conscious, creative intervention into nature. Schumann indicated that in music, or other art, both kinds of beauty appear, but the former is only sensual delight, while the latter begins where the former leaves off.
A common theory says that beauty is the [[appearance]] of things and people that are [[Goodness_and_value_theory|good]]. This has many supporting examples. Most people judge [[physical attractiveness|physically attractive]] human beings to be good, both physically and on deeper levels. The phrase "beauty is in the eye of the beholder," however, suggests that beauty is wholly subjective.
[[Image:Red rose.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Many see natural beauty in the folded petals of a [[rose]].]]
"Beauty as goodness" has many significant counterexamples with no agreed solution. These include such things as a [[glacier]], or a ruggedly dry [[desert]] [[mountain]] range. Most people find beauty in [[nature]], despite it sometimes being "red in tooth and [[claw]]" ([[Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson|Tennyson]]). Another type of counterexample are comic or sarcastic works of art, which can be good, but are rarely beautiful.
It is well known that people's skills develop and change their sense of beauty. [[Carpenter]]s may view an out-of-true [[building]] as ugly, and many [[master tradesman|master]] carpenters can ''see'' out-of-true [[angle]]s as small as half a [[degree (angle)|degree]]. Many musicians can likewise hear as dissonant a tone that's high or low by as little as two percent of the distance to the next note. Most people have similar aesthetics about the work or hobbies they've mastered.
Many admirers consider the [[Venus de Milo]] to be the perfect beauty.
==Theories of beauty==
The earliest theory of beauty can be found in the works of early [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[philosophers]] from the [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] period, such as [[Pythagoras]]. The extant writings attributed to Pythagoras reveal that the Pythagorean school, if not Pythagoras himself, saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according |
gy]] espoused by [[Franz Boas]], who taught at [[Columbia University]] on New York's [[Upper West Side]]. This gave his early work a distinctive American tilt that helped facilitate its acceptance in the U.S. After a brief stint from [[1946]] to [[1947]] as a cultural attaché to the French embassy in [[Washington, DC]], Lévi-Strauss returned to Paris in [[1948]]. It was at this time that he received his [[doctorate]] from the [[Collège de Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] by submitting, in the French tradition, both a "major" and a "minor" thesis. These were ''The Family and Social Life of the Nambikwara Indians'' and ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship''.
''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'' was published the next year and instantly came to be regarded as one of the most important works of anthropological [[kinship]] to be published and was even reviewed favorably by [[Simone de Beauvoir]], who viewed it as an important statement of the position of women in non-western cultures. A play on the title of [[Émile Durkheim]]'s famous ''Elementary Forms of the Religious Life'', ''Elementary Structures'' re-examined how people organized their families by examining the logical structures that underlay relationships rather than their contents. While British anthropologists such as [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] argued that kinship was based on ''descent'' from a common ancestor, Lévi-Strauss argued that kinship was based on the ''alliance'' between two families that formed when women from one group married men from the other.
Throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, Lévi-Strauss continued to publish and experienced considerable professional success. On his return to France, he became involved with the administration of the [[CNRS]] and the [[Musée de l'Homme]] before finally becoming chair of fifth section of the [[École Pratique des Hautes Études]], the 'Religious Sciences' section previously chaired by [[Marcel Mauss]], which he renamed "Comparative Religion of Non-Literate Peoples".
While Lévi-Strauss was well-known in academic circles, it was in 1955 that he became one of France's best known intellectuals by publishing ''Tristes Tropiques''. This book was essentially a travel novel detailing his time as a French expatriate throughout the 1930s. But Lévi-Strauss combined exquisitely beautiful prose, dazzling philosophical meditation, and ethnographic analysis of Amazonian peoples to produce a masterpiece. The organizers of the [[Prix Goncourt]], for instance, lamented that they were not able to award Lévi-Strauss the prize because ''Tristes Tropiques'' was technically non-fiction.
Lévi-Strauss was named to a chair in Social Anthropology at the [[Collège de France]] in 1959. At roughly the same time he published ''Structural Anthropology'', a collection of his essays which provided both examples and programmatic statements about [[structuralism]]. At the same time as he was laying the groundwork for an intellectual program, he began a series of institutions for establishing anthropology as a discipline in France, including the Laboratory for Social Anthropology where new students could be trained, and a new journal, ''l'Homme'', for publishing the results of their research.
In 1962 Lévi-Strauss published what is for many people his most important work, ''Pensée Sauvage''. The title is a pun untranslatable in English &mdash; in English the book is known as ''The Savage Mind'', but this title fails to capture the other possible French meaning of 'Wild [[Pansy| Pansies]]'. In French pensée means both 'thought' and 'pansy,' the flower, while sauvage means 'wild' as well as 'savage' or 'primitive'. The book concerns primitive thought, forms of thought we all use. (Lévi-Strauss suggested the English title be ''Pansies for Thought'', riffing off of a speech by [[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]] in [[Hamlet]].) The French edition to this day retains a flower on the cover.
The first half of the book lays out Lévi-Strauss's [[culture theory|theory of culture]] and mind, while the second half expands this account into a theory of history and social change. This part of the book engaged Lévi-Strauss in a heated debate with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] over the nature of human freedom. On the one hand, Sartre's [[existentialism| existentialist]] philosophy committed him to a position that human beings were fundamentally free to act as they pleased. On the other hand, Sartre was also a leftist who was committed to the idea that, for instance, individuals were constrained by the ideologies imposed on them by the powerful. Lévi-Strauss presented his structuralist notion of agency in opposition to Sartre. Echoes of this debate between [[structuralism]] and [[existentialism]] would eventually inspire the work of younger authors such as [[Pierre Bourdieu]].
Now a world-wide celebrity, Lévi-Strauss spent the second half of the 1960s working on his master project, a four-volume study called ''Mythologiques''. In it, Lévi-Strauss took a single myth from the tip of [[South America]] and followed all of its variations from group to group up through [[Central America]] and eventually into the [[Arctic circle]], thus tracing the myth's spread from one end of the American continent to the other. He accomplished this in a typically structuralist way, examining the underlying structure of relationships between the elements of the story rather than by focusing on the content of the story itself. While ''Pensée Sauvage'' was a statement of Lévi-Strauss's big-picture theory, ''Mythologiques'' was an extended, four-volume example of analysis. Richly detailed and extremely long, it is less widely read than the much shorter and more accessible ''Pensée Sauvage'' despite its position as Lévi-Strauss's master work.
After completing the final volume of ''Mythologique'' in 1971 Lévi-Strauss was elected to the [[Académie Française]] in 1973, France's highest honor for an intellectual. He is also a member of other notable [[Academy|Academies]] worldwide, including the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]]. He also received the [[Erasmus Prize]] in 1973. In 2003 he received the [[Meister-Eckhart-Prize]] for Philosophy. He has received several honorary doctorates from universities such as [[University_of_Oxford|Oxford]], [[Harvard]], and [[Columbia_University|Columbia]]. He is also a recipient of the [[Grand-croix de la Légion d'honneur]], and is a [[Commandeur de l'ordre national du Mérite]] and [[Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres]]. Although retired, he continues to publish occasional meditations on art, music and poetry, as well as interviews and reminiscences of earlier periods of his life.
==Anthropological theories==
Lévi-Strauss' theories are set forth in ''Structural Anthropology'' ([[1958]]). Briefly, he considers culture a system of symbolic communication, to be investigated with methods that others have used more narrowly in the discussion of novels, political speeches, sports, and movies.
His reasoning makes best sense against the background of an earlier generation's social theory. He wrote about this relationship for decades.
A preference for "functionalist" explanations dominated the social sciences from the turn of the century through the [[1950s]], which is to say that anthropologists and sociologists tried to state what a social act or institution was for. The existence of a thing was explained if it fulfilled a function. The only strong alternative to that kind of analysis was historical explanation, accounting for the existence of a social fact by saying how it came to be.
However, the idea of social function developed in two different ways. The English anthropologist [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]], who had read and admired the work of the French sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]], argued that the goal of anthropological research was to find the collective function, what a religious creed or a set of rules about marriage did for the social order as a whole. At back of this approach was an old idea, the view that civilization developed through a series of phases from the primitive to the modern, everywhere the same. All of the activities in a given kind of society would partake of the same character; some sort of internal logic would cause one level of culture to evolve into the next. On this view, a society can easily be thought of as an organism, the parts functioning together like parts of a body.
The more influential functionalism of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] described the satisfaction of individual needs, what a person got out of participating in a custom.
In the United States, where the shape of anthropology was set by the German-educated [[Franz Boas]], the preference was for historical accounts. This approach had obvious problems, which Lévi-Strauss praises Boas for facing squarely.
Historical information is seldom available for non-literate cultures. The anthropologist fills in with comparisons to other cultures and is forced to rely on theories that have no evidential basis whatever, the old notion of universal stages of development or the claim that cultural resemblances are based on some untraced past contact between groups. Boas came to believe that no overall pattern in social development could be proven; for him, there was no history, only histories.
There are three broad choices involved in the divergence of these schools &#8211; each had to decide what kind of evidence to use; whether to emphasize the particulars of a single culture or look for patterns underlying all societies; and what the source of any underlying patterns might be, the definition of a common humanity.
Social scientists in all traditions relied on cross-cultural studies. It was always necessary to supplement information about a society with information about others. So some idea of a common human nature was implicit in each approach.
The critical distinction, then, re |
ted to [[maize]]. In the UK, corn is largely synonymous with [[wheat]] although [[sweetcorn]] may be called corn. A cornfield could be a field of wheat, rye, oats or another grain.
* In the U.S., Canada, and Australia, '''corn''' usually refers to the cereal otherwise known as Indian Corn or [[maize]].
'''Corn''' can also mean:
* A type of [[callus]]
* A grain of any material, not specifically a cereal, as in [[corned beef]], referring to "corns" of [[salt]]
* A type of [[snow]]
==Places==
* [[Corn, Oklahoma]]
* [[Corn, Lot]], a [[commune in France|commune]] in [[France]]
==See also==
* [[Korn (disambiguation)|Korn]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Korn]]
[[ru:Зерно]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyborg</title>
<id>6838</id>
<revision>
<id>42044461</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:18:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.129.184.12</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Overview */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:7of9.jpg|right|thumb|[[Seven of Nine|7 of 9]], a [[Borg]] in ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'']]
The term '''cyborg''', a [[portmanteau]] of ''[[cybernetic]] [[organism]]'', is used to designate an organism which is a mixture of [[life|organic]] and mechanical ([[synthetic]]) parts. Generally, the aim is to add to or enhance the abilities of an [[organism]] by using [[technology]].
==Overview==
The concept of a man-machine mixture was widespread in [[science fiction]] before World War II. [[Edmond Hamilton]] presented space explorers with a mixture of organic and machine parts in his novel "The Comet Doom" in 1928. He later featured the talking, living [[brain]] of an old scientist, Simon Wright, floating around in a transparent case, in all the adventures of his famous hero, [[Captain Future]]. In the short story "No Woman Born" in 1944, [[C. L. Moore]] wrote of Deirdre, a dancer, whose body was burned completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful and supple mechanical body.
The term was created by [[Manfred Clynes|Manfred E. Clynes]] and [[Nathan S. Kline]] in 1960 to refer to their conception of an enhanced [[human]] being who could survive in [[extraterrestrial]] environments. Their concept was the outcome of thinking about the need for an intimate relationship between human and machine as the new frontier of [[space exploration]] was beginning to take place. A designer of [[physiology|physiological]] instrumentation and electronic data-processing systems, Clynes was the chief research scientist in the Dynamic Simulation Laboratory at Rockland State Hospital in [[New York]].
According to some definitions of the term, the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] and physical attachments [[humanity]] has with even the most basic technologies have already made us cyborgs. In a typical example, a human fitted with a heart [[pacemaker]] or an [[insulin pump]] (If the person has [[diabetes]]) might be considered a cyborg, since s/he is incapable of surviving without the mechanical part. As a more extreme example, [[clothing]] can be seen as a cybernetic modification of [[skin]]; enabling us to survive in drastically different environments by constructing things that aren't naturally existing in those environments. A notepad can be seen as rudimentary [[memory augmentation]]. Indeed, our neurology is extensively modified during the process of learning skills in the operation of machinery (such as the reflexes developed in learning, and continuing, to drive a motor vehicle). The boundary blurs even more when controlled [[fire]] or [[agriculture]] are thought of as modifications to our digestion processes. (See "Beyond the Body," below.) This is not a common use of "cyborg" in science fiction, but it is an accepted use in [[cybernetics|cybernetic]] systems theory.
In the [[feminism|feminist]] thinking of [[Donna Haraway]] the cyborg becomes a starting metaphor for exploring ways of breaking down the nature/culture binary. She demonstrates how the desire to separate these two aspects of the world is becoming increasingly difficult and attempts to utilise this confusion of borders in order to create new ways of acting politically. This line of thought is known as [[cyborg theory]].
The term '''fyborg''' (a portmanteau of "functional" and "cyborg") was coined by [[Alexander Chislenko]] to differentiate between the cyborgs of [[science fiction]] and the everyday ways humans extend themselves using technologies such as contact lenses, hearing aids, and mobile phones.
James Litten coined the term '''cyborgation''' to describe the action or process of becoming a cyborg, although nowadays it is common to see '''cyborgization'''.
The [[1972]] [[science fiction]] novel ''Cyborg'', by [[Martin Caidin]], told the story of a man whose damaged body parts are replaced by mechanical devices. This novel was later adapted into a [[Television program|TV series]], ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]'', in 1973.
A book titled ''Cyborg: Digital destiny and human possibility in the age of the wearable [[computer]]'' was published by [[Doubleday]] in 2001. Some of the ideas in the book were incorporated into the 35mm motion picture film ''[[Cyberman (movie)|Cyberman]]''.
[[Isaac Asimov]]'s short story "[[The Bicentennial Man]]" explored cybernetic concepts. The central character is NDR, a robot who begins to modify himself with [[organic compound|organic]] components. His explorations lead to breakthroughs in human [[medicine]] via artificial [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and [[prosthesis|prosthetics]]. By the end of the story, there is little physical difference between the body of the hero, now called Andrew, and humans equipped with advanced prosthetics, save for the presence of Andrew's artificial positronic brain. Asimov also explored the idea of the cyborg in relation to robots in his short story "Segregationist", collected in [[The Complete Robot]].
Today, the [[C-LEG]] system is used to replace [[human leg]]s that were amputated because of injury or illness. The use of sensors in the artificial leg aids in walking significantly. These are the first real steps towards the next generation of cyborgs.
== Cybernetic organism, beyond an individual ==
Generally, the term "cyborg" is used to refer to a man or woman with [[bionics|bionic]], or robotic, [[prosthesis|implants]].
More broadly, the full term "'''cybernetic organism'''," is used to describe larger [[cybernetics|networks of communication and control.]] For example, [[city|cities,]] networks of roads, networks of software, corporations, markets, governments, and the collection of these things together. A corporation can be considered an artificial intelligence that makes use of replaceable human components to function. People at all ranks can be considered replaceable agents of their functionally intelligent government institutions, whether such a view is desirable or not.
The prefix "cyber" is also used to address human-''technology'' mixtures in the abstract- this can include things that aren't normally considered to be technology. Pen and paper, for example, as well as [[speech]], [[language]]. Augmented with these technologies, and connected in communication with people in other times and places, a person becomes capable of much more than they were before. This is like computers, which gain power by using [[Internet]] protocols to connect with other computers. Cybernetic technologies include highways, pipes, electrical wiring, buildings, electrical plants, libraries, and other infrastructure that we hardly notice, but which are critical parts of the [[cybernetics]] that we work within.
==Examples==
===Non-fiction===
*[[Jesse Sullivan]]
*[[Steve Mann]]
*[[Kevin Warwick]]
*[[Michael Chorost]]
===Fiction===
Most works in the [[cyberpunk]] genre include [[cyborg]]s.
<table><tr><td valign=top>
* From [[the Bionic series]]
**[[Steve Austin (fictional character)|Steve Austin]], ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]] ''
**Jaime Sommers, ''[[The Bionic Woman]]''
**Andy Sheffield, ''The Bionic Boy''
**Barney Miller, ''[[The Bionic series]] '', the Seven Million Dollar Man.
**Michael Austin, ''The Return of the Six-Million-Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman''
**Kate Mason, ''Bionic Showdown: The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman''
**Allan Devlin, ''Bionic Showdown: The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman''
**Maximillian, the bionic superdog
*[[Aliens vs. Predator (computer game)|Xenoborg]], ''[[Aliens vs. Predator (computer game)|Aliens vs. Predator]]''
*The [[Borg]], [[Star Trek]]
*[[Cyberman]], [[Doctor Who]]
*[[Cyborg (comics)|Cyborg]], [[DC Universe|DC comics]]
*[[Gray Fox (Metal Gear)|Gray Fox (Cyborg Ninja)]], [[Metal Gear Solid]]
*[[Dalek]]s, [[Doctor Who]]
*Del Spooner, from the movie ''[[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]''
*[[Digit (Cyberchase)|Digit]] and [[The Hacker (Cyberchase)|The Hacker]], in the math mystery cartoon ''[[Cyberchase]]''
*[[Edward Elric]], from [[Fullmetal Alchemist]]
*[[The Terminator]] models, in related movies{{ref|1}}
*various characters in [[The Matrix]] trilogy of movies
*various characters in [[Star Wars]] saga, notably [[Darth Vader]], [[Luke Skywalker]], [[General Grievous]], [[Darth Malak]], [[Admiral Screed]], [[Grand Moff Trachta]], and [[List of minor Rebel characters in Star Wars#Lobot|Lobot]]
*[[RoboCop]], movie
*[[Robo-Manus]], [[Battletoads]] video game series.
*[[Jean-Luc Picard|Capt. Picard]] and [[Geordi La Forge|Lt. Cmdr. La Forge]] from ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' and later movies, [[human]]s with a [[prosthesis|prosthetic]] [[heart]] and [[eyes]], respectively
*[[Technomage]]s, from the [[Babylon 5]] universe, employing a high degree of "organic [[technology]]"
*[[Deathlok]], the Demolisher, [[Marvel Universe|Marvel Comics]]
*[[Alan Gabriel]], [[Big O]]
*[[Habermen]],[[ |
iples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]] when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native [[language]].
In John's Gospel, emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the Spirit to His disciples. This "Higher" [[Christology]], most influential in later development of Trinitarian doctrine, sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among mankind in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.
Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to His followers, uniting them with Himself, and in Himself also uniting them with the Father. (See Raymond Brown, "The Gospel According to John", chapter on [[Pneumatology]]). In John, the gift of the Spirit is equivalent to eternal life, knowledge of God, power to obey, and communion with one another and with the Father.
==Christian views on the Holy Spirit==
===Pentecostalism===
The Christian movement called [[Pentecostalism]] derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]].
The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Many Pentecostals believe in a 'Baptism of the Holy Spirit', in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way. In this the Christian can now be used to do signs, miracles and wonders for the sake of evangelism.
Many Pentecostals also believe that a sure sign of this infilling (baptism) is the ability to speak in other tongues ([[glossalalia]]).
===Catholicism===
The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the Apostles Creed's article ''I believe in the Holy Spirit.'' "No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God." Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who "has spoken through the prophets" makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who "unveils" Christ to us "will not speak on his own." Such properly divine self-effacement explains why "the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him," while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them."
As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit...Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity...Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."
The Catechism also lists the various symbols of the Holy Spirit in the Bible:
*''Water'' - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism. As "by one Spirit we were all baptized," so we are also "made to drink of one Spirit." (1 Cor 12:13) Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified (Jn 19:34; 1 Jn 5:8) as its source and welling up in us to eternal life. (Cf. Jn 4:10-14; 738; Ex 17:1-6; Isa 55:1; Zech 14:8; 1 Cor 10:4; Rev 21:6; 22:17)
*''Anointing'' - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. (Cf. 1 Jn 2:20:27; 2 Cor 1:21) In Christian initiation, anointing is the sacramental sign of Confirmation, called "chrismation" in the Churches of the East. Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew "messiah") means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit.
*''Fire'' - symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire," the Holy Spirit rests on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost and fills them with himself.
*''Cloud and light'' - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of Transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" (Lk 9:34-35)
*''The seal'' is a symbol close to that of anointing. "The Father has set his seal" on Christ and also seals us in him. (Jn 6:27; cf. 2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:3) Because this seal indicates the indelible effect of the anointing with the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders, the image of the seal (sphragis) has been used in some theological traditions to express the indelible "character" imprinted by these three unrepeatable sacraments.
*''The hand''. It is by the Apostles' imposition of hands that the Holy Spirit is given. The Letter to the Hebrews lists the imposition of hands among the "fundamental elements" of its teaching. The Church has kept this sign of the all-powerful outpouring of the Holy Spirit in its sacramental epicleses.
*''The finger.'' "It is by the finger of God that [Jesus] cast out demons." If God's law was written on tablets of stone "by the finger of God," then the "letter from Christ" entrusted to the care of the apostles, is written "with the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone, but on tablets of human hearts." (Ex 31:18; 2 Cor 3:3)
*''The dove.'' When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him.
===Orthodoxy===
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the ''[[Filioque clause|Filioque]]'' in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father ''and'' the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith ([[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]).
===Dispensationalism===
According to [[dispensationalism]] (a pejorative term applied by many modernist groups within the boundaries of evangelical orthodoxy), we are now living in the Age of the Spirit, or church age. The [[Old Testament]] period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father, or of the (Mosaic) law; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the [[Second Coming|second advent of Christ]], the Age of the Spirit, or the church age (see also [[Joachim of Fiore]]).
The Mosaic law was still in effect up to the time when Jesus Christ (the second person of the Trinity) died on a Roman cross, was buried and rose from the dead (Corinthians 15: 1-5). The church age was fully established at Pentecost where the disciples' were given the Holy Spirit, and sent out by Him to plant His church in the world.
The church age is said to close with the [[second coming]] of Christ.
===Branch Davidian===
While most Christians think of the person of the Holy Spirit as being a He or It, [[Branch Davidian|Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists]], and others, believe that the Holy Spirit is a feminine Motherly Being, deriving this from the [[Hebrew language]], rather than [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Latin]]. They also believe that ancient (and modern) [[Goddess|Goddesses]], and the veneration of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], are derived from this truth. They sometimes ascribe the name "[[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]" to the Holy Spirit. This view, however, is often disputed because the Bible is accepted as the Word of God and unchanging, infallible Truth, (to many Christians), and both the Old Testament and New Testament are important and true; the Old testament is, of course, translated from the Hebrew texts and in Hebrew the word for "Goddess" also means "abomination," often in reference to Astarte. See "Hebrew Pronunciation" under "Astarte" here: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astarte#.E2.80.98Ashtart_described_by_Sanchuniathon]
The late [[Lois Roden]], former president of the Branch organization, began teaching this aspect of the Spirit beginning in 1977. Thus Branch believers see a Family in heaven, whose family image is clearly seen on earth.
=="Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"==
'''Holy Ghost''' was the common name for the Holy Spirit in [[English language|English]] prior to the 20th ce |
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]]'s death, and partly to the Victorians' general obsession with [[Christianity|Christian]] [[funeral]] practices). The 2003 [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] Gothic exhibition in London furthered a tenuous connection between modern goth and the [[gothic architecture|medieval gothic period]].
Over time, gothic culture has developed its own "goth slang", with regional variations.
===Later media influences===
As the subculture became well-established the connection between goth and horror fiction became almost a cliche with goths quite likely to appear as characters in horror novels and film. Movies such as ''[[The Crow]]'' drew directly on goth music and style, and the movies of [[Tim Burton]], especially ''[[Beetlejuice]]'', featuring a goth teen, ''[[Edward Scissorhands]]'', ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'', and ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' are all significant. In turn they drew new people into the goth scene. [[Anne Rice]]'s book series "The Vampire Chronicles" and the popular roleplaying game ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade]]'' also referred directly to goth music and culture and encouraged an interest in the scene. In these pop-culture depictions of vampires, vampires are depicted as suave, gothic sophisticates, with naturally darkened eyes and pallid skin. Influences from [[anime]] as well as [[cyberpunk]] fiction such as ''[[The Matrix series|The Matrix]]'' have also crept into the goth scene, which helped give rise to [[Cyber subculture|cybergoth]]. [[Image:kristengoth4.jpg|thumb|200px|Example of vampiric influence on goth makeup.]]
====Current use of the term ''Goth''====
By the 1990s, the term "goth" started to become once again contentious in the English speaking world. New youth subcultures either evolved or became more popular, which ordinary people and the popular media tended to term "goth". This was based primarily on appearance, and the fashions of the subcultures, rather than the musical genres of the bands associated with them. As time went on, the term was bastardized even further in popular usage, being sometimes applied to groups that had neither musical nor fashion similarities to the original goth subculture, such as [[Emo (slang)|Emo]] fans.
This has led to the introduction of terms which some goths use to distinguish members of the other subcultures from goths. These include ''[[mallgoth]]s'' or Neo-Goths in the US, ''[[gogan]]s'' in Australia, and ''[[spooky kid]]s'' or ''[[moshers]]'' in the UK. [[Melbourne]] playwright [[Sai Ho]] is particularly vicious in his hatred of what he terms ''baby goths''. More positive terms, such as ''mini-goths'' or ''baby bats'', are also used by some older goths to refer to youths they see as exhibiting potential for growth into "true" goths later on.
The response of these younger groups to the older [[subculture]] varies. Some being secure in a separate subcultural identity feel deeply insulted at being called "goths" in the first place, while others choose to join the existing subculture on its own terms. Still others have simply ignored its existence, and decided to appropriate the term goth themselves, and redefine it in their own image. Even within the original subculture, changing trends in music have made defining what is and is not goth more complex.
==Elder goth==
An '''elder goth''' is an older member of the goth subculture, usually between the ages of 25 and 40. People over 40 who identify themselves as goth are generally considered to be '''geri-goths'''. Elder goths are generally longtime veterans of the scene, perhaps going back to the Batcave era, but there are some [[late bloomers]].
An elder goth is more likely to draw upon the artistic aspects of the scene, as opposed to their younger counterparts who often act out for shock value. Consequently, an older goth will regard a [[Mansonite]] as a "poser" or a "pretty hate machine" and refuse to acknowledge them as a fellow goth.
In contrast to the stereotypical image of a goth as outcast, some elders are married with families, and most have close knit ties with other members of the subculture.
==Corporate goths==
Though some are lucky enough to find work in [[Bohemianism|Bohemian]] establishments that do not care what one looks like, elder goths often end up finding work in the corporate sector and wear corporate gothwear, which satisfies gothic tastes in fashion without alienating more conservative co-workers. Corporate gothwear varies based on individual taste, though a [[David Bowie]] influence is often prevalent. Examples include, but are not limited to, a black pinstripe suit and burgundy shirt for men and a black turtleneck and skirt with silver jewelry for women.
==Music==
The bands which began the [[gothic rock]] and [[death rock]] scene were limited in number, and included bands such as [[Bauhaus (band)|Bauhaus]], [[Siouxsie & the Banshees]], [[Southern Death Cult]], and [[Christian Death]]. By the mid-eighties, the number of bands began proliferating and became increasing popular, including [[The Sisters of Mercy|Sisters of Mercy]], [[The Mission UK]], and [[Fields of the Nephilim]]. The nineties saw the further growth of eighties bands and emergence of many new bands, most of the [[North American]] examples being released by the [[Cleopatra Records|Cleopatra]] label. In the US, the subculture grew especially in New York and Los Angeles, with many nightclubs featuring gothic/industrial nights. The popularity of bands such as [[Dead Can Dance]] resulted in the creation of a label called [[Projekt]] that produces what is colloquially termed [[Ethereal]] as well as the more electronic [[Darkwave]], both forms of music popular with goths.
By the mid-1990s, styles of music that was heard in venues which goths attend ranged from [[gothic rock]], [[death rock]], [[darkwave]], [[List of industrial music subgenres|industrial]], [[Electronic body music|EBM]], [[synthpop]], [[punk rock|punk]], [[heavy metal music|metal]], [[techno music|techno]], to 1980s dance music. This variety was a result of a need to maximize attendance from everyone across the alternative music scene, particularly in smaller towns, but it also signaled new developments. Gothic rock was originally clearly differentiated from industrial and heavy metal by older participants in the alternative scene, but newcomers and media misconceptions blurred the boundaries in the nineties as [[gothic rock]] became significantly less popular in the US and UK. Thus while [[industrial]] or [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] bands such as [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Jack Off Jill]], [[Nine Inch Nails]], [[Type O Negative]], [[Lacuna Coil]], [[Dimmu Borgir]], [[Cradle of Filth]], and [[Mortiis]] were often labeled as "goth" by the media, this categorization was strongly resisted by goths and indeed also by fans of the bands. Older goths responded by affecting increasing disdain for the popularity of [[Marilyn Manson]] and the likes. Even more confusion was added with the rise of [[gothic metal]], with such bands consciously using gothic imagery from the dark ages in their own music and appearance and started even following fashion trends indistinguishable from older goth ones. Band t-shirts were now the only sure way of identifying someone's musical tastes from their fashion. Arguments about what music is and is not goth became an ever more significant part of how the subculture tried to define itself.
The other significant development of the nineties was the popularity of electronic dance bands like [[VNV Nation]] and [[Covenant]] in the goth scene. The rise of what has been called [[cybergoth]] music and style which has much in common with techno/synthpop, caused bitter divisions between those firmly attached to the guitar based sound of [[gothic rock]] and newcomers or other goths, whose musical and even fashion tastes changed. Bands with a [[darkwave]] sound or those such as [[The Cruxshadows]] which combine an electronic and gothic rock sound can appeal to both sides to some extent.
Recent years have seen resurgence in the Batcave and [[death rock]] sound, in reaction to the EBM, [[futurepop]], and trance, which has taken over many goth clubs. Bands with a more early goth sound like [[Cinema Strange]], [[Black Ice]], and [[Antiworld]] are becoming very popular. Nights like Ghoul School and Release The Bats promote death rock heavily, and the [[Drop Dead Festival]] brings in death rock fans from all over the world.
Today, the scene is most active in [[Western Europe]], especially [[Germany]], with large festivals such as [[Wave Gotik Treffen|Wave-Gotik-Treffen]], [[Zillo]], and others drawing tens of thousands of fans from all over the world.
==Religious Elements==
Religious imagery has frequently played an important part in [[gothic fashion]] and also in song lyrics. However, many goths aspire to free themselves from the perceived limitations of traditional belief systems, and express a belief in open-mindedness and diversity.
One widespread misconception is that the goth subculture as a whole is represents a unified cult-like religion, when in reality there is a wide diversity of religious beliefs throughout the subculture. A large number of goths adhere to [[atheism]] or [[agnosticism]], not wanting to commit to organized religion or what they perceive to be repressive and/or irrational belief systems. An interest in [[neo-paganism]] and the occult amongst goths appears to be higher than amongst the general population. Many goths also follow traditional religions such as Christianity or Judaism, creating a demand for religious goth arts and literature, as illustrated by such websites as [http://www.gothicchristianity.com GothicChristianity.com].
==Popular intolerance and media characterizations==
Like many other music based subcultures, goths have faced differing levels o |
sion was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an address on Ollivier. In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus he shows us the central idea of his own philosophy in action. To no other philosopher has it fallen, during his lifetime, to have his philosophical principles so vividly and so terribly tested.
As many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals were not readily accessible, he agreed to the request of his friends that these should be collected and published in two volumes. The first of these was being planned when war broke out. The conclusion of strife was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in [[1919]]. It bears the title ''L'Energie spirituelle: Essais et Conférences'' (Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures). The noted expounder of Bergson's philosophy in England, Dr. [[Wildon Carr]], prepared an English translation under the title Mind-Energy. The volume opens with the Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, Life and Consciousness, in a revised and developed form under the title Consciousness and Life. Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are manifested. The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is included, as is also the one given in France, ''L'Ame et le Corps'', which contains the substance of the four London lectures on the Soul. The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, ''Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique'' (The Psycho-Physiolgical Paralogism), which now appears as ''Le Cerveau et la Pensée: une illusion philosophique''. Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and Intellectual Effort. The volume is a most welcome production and serves to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force, and on his view of "tension" and "detension" as applied to the relation of matter and mind.
In June, [[1920]], the [[University of Cambridge]] honoured him with the degree of [[Doctor of Letters]] ([[D.Litt]]). In order that he may be able to devote his full time to the great new work he was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology, Bergson was relieved of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern Philosophy at the ''Collège de France''. He retained the chair, but no longer delivered lectures, his place being taken by his noted pupil [[Edouard Le Roy]]. Living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the Porte d'Auteuil in Paris, Bergson won the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1927]].
After his retirement from the ''Collège'', Bergson faded into obscurity, because he was suffering from a degenerative illness. He completed his great new work, ''Les Deux Sources de la religion et de la Morale'', which extended his philosophical theories to the realms of morality, religion and art, in [[1935]]. It was respectfully received by the public and the philosophical community, but all by that time realized that Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past. He was, however, able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by renouncing all of the posts and honours previously awarded him, rather than accept exemption from the [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] laws imposed by the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government. Though wanting to convert to Catholicism, he held off instead and showed solidarity with his fellow Jews by signing the registry books.
A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request. Henri Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, [[Hauts-de-Seine]].
==See also==
*[[Fascism]]
*[[Open society]]
*[[Charles Peguy]]
*[[Process philosophy]]
*[[Nikos Kazantzakis]]
*[[philosophy of biology]]
==Bibliography==
''to be added''
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title= [[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 7|Seat 7]]<br>[[Académie française]] | years=1914&ndash;1941 |
before = [[Émile Ollivier]]|
after = [[Édouard le Roy]]
}}
{{succession box | before = [[Grazia Deledda]] | title= [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1927 | after = [[Sigrid Undset]]
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Henri_Bergson|name=Henri Bergson}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.nautis.com/ Nautis Project]
<!--*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON8/The lectures on change, and Bergson's later life]-->
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON7/ Relationship with James]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON6/ Education and career ]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON5/ Henri Bergson (1859 - 1941]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON4/ LIFE AND WORKS of HENRI BERGSON]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON3/ Francia, 1859-1941]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON2/ Henri Bergson ]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON/ Henri Bergson (1859-1941)]
[[Category:1859 births|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie française|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Bergson, Henri]]
[[bs:Henri Bergson]]
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[[fr:Henri Bergson]]
[[gd:Henri Bergson]]
[[ko:앙리 베르그송]]
[[hr:Henri Bergson]]
[[io:Henri Bergson]]
[[it:Henri Bergson]]
[[he:אנרי ברגסון]]
[[nl:Henri Bergson]]
[[ja:アンリ・ベルクソン]]
[[no:Henri Bergson]]
[[pl:Henri Bergson]]
[[pt:Henri Bergson]]
[[ro:Henri Bergson]]
[[sk:Henri Bergson]]
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[[zh:亨利·柏格森]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans Selye</title>
<id>13532</id>
<revision>
<id>39643885</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T22:10:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Herotodus</username>
<id>869953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Selye's middle names, included section on his experiments with mice and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hans Hugo Bruno Selye''', [[Order of Canada|CC]] (Selye János, [[1907]] - [[1982]]), was a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[endocrinologist]] of [[Austria]]n-[[Hungary|Hungarian]] origin. His mother was [[Austria]]n; his father was [[Hungary|Hungarian]]. He did much important theoretical work on the non-specific response of the organism to [[stress (medicine)|stress]]. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of [[glucocorticoids]], Selye was aware of their role in this response. Some commentators considered him the first to demonstrate the existence of a separate stress [[disease]], the stress syndrome, or [[General adaptation syndrome]]. His initial inspiration for G.A.S came from an endocrinological experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs. He at first believed to have discovered a new hormone but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the same symptoms (swelling of the thymus, atrophy of the adrenal cortex, gastric and duodenal ulcers). This, paired with his observation that people with different diseases exhibit similar symptoms, led to his description of the effects of "noxious agents" as he at first called it.He later coined the term "stress", which has been accepted into the lexicon of various other languages.
To grossly oversimplify to the point of circular argument, Selye discovered and documented that stress differs from other physical responses in that stress is stressful whether the one receives good or bad news, whether the impulse is positive or negative. He called negative stress ''distress'' and positive stress ''eustress''.The system whereby the body copes with stress, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system, was also first described by Selye.
He wrote ''Stress without Distress'' ([[1974]]), ''The Stress of Life'' ([[1956]]), and ''From dream to discovery; on being a scientist'' ([[1964]]). He worked as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the [[Université de Montréal]].
In 1968 he was made a Companion of the [[Order of Canada]].
[[Category:1907 births|Selye]]
[[Category:1982 deaths|Selye]]
[[Category:Hungarian physicians|Selye]]
[[Category:Endocrinologists|Selye]]
[[Category:Hungarian scientists|Selye]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Canada|Selye]]
[[de:Hans Selye]]
[[eo:Hans SELYE]]
[[fr:Hans Selye]]
[[pl:Hans Selye]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hacker</title>
<id>13533</id>
<revision>
<id>42080109</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:10:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Definitions of hack */ templatefying</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Hacker (disambiguation)]] or [[Hacker (computer security)]]''
A '''Hacker''' is a person who creates and modifies [[computer software]] and [[computer hardware]], including computer programming, administration, and security.
In [[computer programming]], a 'hacker' is a programmer who ''hacks'' or reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to exploit or extend existing [[source code|code]] or resources. In [[computer security]], a ''hacker'' is a person able to [[Exploit (computer security)|exploit]] a system or gain unauthorized access through skill and tactics. This usually refers to a [[black hat]] hacker. There are also [[hacker ethic|ethical hackers]] ([[white hat]]s), and [[grey hat]]s. In other technical fields, ''hacker'' is extended to mean a person who makes things work beyond perceived limits through their own tec |
pacemaker]] (Electrical system of the heart) ===
* [[Electrical conduction system of the heart]]
** [[Action potential]]
*** [[Ventricular action potential]]
* [[Sinoatrial node]]
* [[Atrioventricular node]]
* [[Bundle of His]]
* [[Purkinje fibers]]
=== Basic cardiac physiology ===
* [[Systole]]
* [[Diastole]]
* [[Heart sounds]]
* [[Preload]]
* [[Afterload]]
* [[Kussmaul's sign]]
== Disorders of the coronary circulation ==
* [[Atherosclerosis]]
* [[Restenosis]]
* [[Coronary heart disease]] (Ischaemic heart disease, Coronary artery disease)
* [[Acute coronary syndrome]]
** [[Angina]]
** [[Myocardial infarction]] (Heart attack)
== Disorders of the myocardium (muscle of the heart) ==
* [[Cardiomyopathy]]
** [[Ischemic cardiomyopathy]]
** [[Nonischemic cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Amyloid cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] (HCM)
**** [[Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy]] (HOCM) (Idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis (IHSS))
**** [[Apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
**** [[Alcoholic cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]] (Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy)
*** [[Restrictive cardiomyopathy]]
* [[Congestive heart failure]]
** [[Cor pulmonale]]
* [[Cardiac arrest]]
* Primary tumors of the heart
** [[Myxoma]]
== Disorders of the [[pericardium]] (outer lining of the heart) ==
* [[Pericarditis]]
* [[Cardiac tamponade|Pericardial tamponade]]
* [[Constrictive pericarditis]]
== Disorders of the [[heart valves]] ==
* [[Aortic valve]] disorders
** [[Aortic insufficiency]]
** [[Aortic stenosis]]
** [[Aortic valve replacement]]
** [[Aortic valve repair]]
** [[Aortic valvuloplasty]]
* [[Mitral valve]] disorders
** [[Mitral valve prolapse]]
** [[Mitral regurgitation]]
** [[Mitral stenosis]]
** [[Mitral valve replacement]]
** [[Mitral valve repair]]
** [[Mitral valvuloplasty]]
* [[Pulmonic valve]] disorders
** [[Congenital pulmonic stenosis]]
* [[Tricuspid valve]] disorders
== Disorders of the electrical system of the heart ([[Cardiac electrophysiology]]) ==
* [[Cardiac arrhythmia]]s
** [[Supraventricular tachycardia]] (Fast rhythms that originate above the ventricles)
*** [[Atrial fibrillation]]
*** [[Atrial flutter]]
*** [[Atrial tachycardia]]
*** [[Sick sinus syndrome]] (Tachy-Brady syndrome)
*** [[AV nodal reentrant tachycardia]] (AVNRT)
*** [[AV reentrant tachycardia]] (AVRT)
* [[Bigeminy]]
* [[Premature ventricular contraction]]
* [[Ventricular tachycardia]]
** [[Monomorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
** [[Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
*** [[Torsades de pointes]]
* [[Ventricular fibrillation]]
* [[Sick sinus syndrome]]
* [[Heart block]]
** [[First degree heart block]]
** [[Second degree heart block]]
** [[Trifascicular heart block]]
** [[Third degree heart block]]
* Specific diseases of the electrical system of the heart
** [[Brugada syndrome]]
** [[Long QT syndrome]]
** [[Short QT syndrome]]
** [[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome]] (WPW syndrome)
== Inflammation and infection of the heart ==
* [[Endocarditis]]
** [[Rheumatic heart disease]]
* [[Myocarditis]]
* [[Pericarditis]]
== [[Congenital heart disease]] ==
* [[Atrial septal defect]]
* [[Ventricular septal defect]]
* [[Patent ductus arteriosus]]
* [[Bicuspid aortic valve]]
* [[Tetralogy of Fallot]]
* [[Transposition of the great vessels]] (TGV)
== Diseases of blood vessels (Vascular diseases) ==
* [[Vasculitis]]
* [[Atherosclerosis]]
* [[Aneurysm]]
* [[Varicose veins]]
* [[Economy class syndrome]] <!-- VascularBiology or Hematology ? -->
* Diseases of the aorta
** [[Coarctation of the aorta]]
** [[Aortic dissection]]
* Diseases of the [[Carotid artery|carotid arteries]]
** [[Carotid artery disease]]
** [[Carotid artery dissection]]
== Procedures done for coronary artery disease ==
* [[Atherectomy]]
* [[Angioplasty]] (PTCA)
** [[Stent|Stenting]] <!-- a device ? -->
* [[Coronary artery bypass surgery]] (CABG)
* [[Enhanced external counterpulsation]] (EECP)
== Devices used in cardiology ==
* Devices used to maintain normal electrical rhythm
** [[Artificial pacemaker|Pacemaker]]
** [[Defibrillator]]
*** [[Automated external defibrillator]]
*** [[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]
* Devices used to maintain [[blood pressure]]
** [[Artificial heart]]
** [[Heart-lung machine]]
** [[Intra-aortic balloon pump]]
** [[Ventricular assist device]]
== [[Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures|Diagnostic tests and procedures]] ==
* [[Echocardiography|Echocardiogram]]
* [[Cardiac stress test]]
* [[Electrocardiogram]] (ECG or EKG)
** [[Holter monitor|Ambulatory Holter monitor]]
* [[Electrophysiologic study]]
** [[Programmed electrical stimulation]]
* [[Sphygmomanometer]] (Blood pressure cuff)
* [[IVUS]] (IntraVascular UltraSound)
* [[Cardiac enzymes]]
== Cardiac pharmaceutical agents ==
The followings are [[medication]]s commonly prescribed in cardiology:
* [[Antiarrhythmic agents]]
** Type I ([[sodium]] [[ion channel|channel]] blockers)
*** Type Ia
**** [[Quinidine]]
*** Type Ib
**** [[Lidocaine]]
**** [[Phenytoin]]
*** Type Ic
**** [[Propafenone]]
** Type II ([[beta blocker]]s)
*** [[Metoprolol]]
** Type III ([[potassium]] channel blockers)
*** [[Amiodarone]]
*** [[Dofetilide]]
*** [[Sotalol]]
** Type IV (slow [[calcium channel blocker]]s)
*** [[Diltiazem]]
*** [[Verapamil]]
** Type V
*** [[Adenosine]]
*** [[Digoxin]]
* [[ACE inhibitor]]s
** [[Captopril]]
** [[Enalapril]]
** [[Perindopril]]
** [[Ramipril]]
* [[Angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s
** [[Candesartan]]
** [[Eprosartan]]
** [[Irbesartan]]
** [[Losartan]]
** [[Telmisartan]]
** [[Valsartan]]
* [[Beta blocker]]
* [[Calcium channel blocker]]
==See also==
* [[Interventional cardiology]]
==External links==
* [http://health.nih.gov/search.asp/10 U.S. National Institue of Health (NIH)]
* [http://www.escardio.org European Society of Cardiology]
* [http://www.acc.org American College of Cardiology]
* [http://www.americanheart.org American Heart Association]
{{Medicine}}
{{Cardiovascular system}}
[[Category:Cardiology| ]]
[[de:Kardiologie]]
[[es:Cardiología]]
[[fr:Cardiologie]]
[[he:קרדיולוגיה]]
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[[ja:循環器学]]
[[pl:Kardiologia]]
[[pt:Cardiologia]]
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[[sv:Kardiologi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capcom</title>
<id>5422</id>
<revision>
<id>41461466</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:24:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Weregerbil</username>
<id>700735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv, no linkspam in the lead please</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the original [[NASA]] meaning, see [[capsule communicator]].''
{{Infobox Company |
company_name = Capcom Co. Ltd.|
company_logo = [[Image:Capcom logo.gif|The current Capcom logo.]] |
company_slogan = N/A |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] {{tyo|9697}} |
foundation = [[May 30]], [[1979]] |
location = [[Osaka, Japan]] |[[USA]]HQ:California,USA Studios:California,USA [[Asia]]HQ:Hong Kong [[Europe]]HQ:UKGreat Britian Offices:Germany, England
industry =[[Computer and video game industry]]<br>[[Entertainment industry]]|
revenue = [[Yen|JPY]] 52 billion (2004) |
num_employees = 1,206 |
key_people = [[Kenzo Tsujimoto]], CEO<br />[[Yoshiki Okamoto]]<br />[[Shinji Mikami]]<br />[[Keiji Inafune]]|
products = [[Mega Man]]<br />[[Street Fighter]]<br />[[Resident Evil]]<br />[[Breath of Fire]]<br />[[Darkstalkers]]<br />[[Marvel vs. Capcom series]]<br /> [[Captain Commando]] <br />([[List of Capcom games|See complete products listing.]])|
homepage = [http://www.capcom.com www.capcom.com] |
}}
'''Capcom''' (&#12459;&#12503;&#12467;&#12531; in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) {{tyo|9697}} is a leading [[Japan]]ese [[video game developer|developer]] and [[video game publisher|publisher]] of [[computer and video games]]. It was founded in [[1979]] as Japan Capsule Computers, a company devoted to the manufacturing and distribution of electronic game machines. Their current name is a conjunction of '''Cap'''sule '''Com'''puters''.
==History==
Over the years, Capcom has created some of the biggest and longest running [[video game franchise|franchises]] in video gaming history. The company released their first [[arcade game]] in [[1984]]: ''[[Vulgus]]''. Their early games were mostly arcade games such as the [[scrolling shooter]] ''[[1942 (video game)|1942]]''.
In the late [[1980s|80s]], [[Yoshiki Okamoto]] joined the company from [[Konami]]. In [[1987]], Capcom released the game ''[[Street Fighter]]''. In the same year, the company also released the hugely influential [[platform game|platformer]] ''[[Mega Man (video game)|Mega Man]]'' (''Rockman'' in Japan) for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]]. ''[[Final Fight]]'', a [[fighting game|beat 'em up]], was released in [[1989]]. In [[1991]], Okamoto's ''[[Street Fighter II]]'' was released in the [[video arcade|arcades]]. ''[[Resident Evil (video game)|Resident Evil]]'' (''Biohazard'' in Japan), a successful [[survival horror game]], was released on the [[PlayStation]] in [[1996]].
Two Capcom development houses, Clover Studio[http://games.ign.com/objects/674/674345.html] and [[Flagship]][http://games.ign.com/objects/027/027402.html] have created successful titles in recent years, including the ''[[Viewtiful Joe]]'' series and ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Ages|The Legend of Zelda: Oracle Series]]'' (under supervision of [[Shigeru Miyamoto]]).
In [[2002]] a movie based on the series entitled ''[[Resident Evil (movie)|Resident Evil]]'' was released, which recieved a sequel )''[[Resident Evil: Apocalypse]]'') in [[2004]]. A third movie, ''[[Resident Evil: Afterlife]]'' will be released in [[2007]].
==Mascot==
[[image:Captain_Commando.png|right|thumb|Captain Commando, as he appears in ''Marvel vs. Capcom''.]]
Capcom's original [[mascot]], [[Captain Comm |
interview with Goldwater, wherin he elaborated on the account hinted at in the letter to Arnon. Goldwater says he repeatedly asked his friend, Gen. [[Curtis LeMay]], if there was any truth to the rumors that UFO evidence was stored in a secret room at [[Wright Patterson Air Force Base]], and if he (Goldwater) might have access to the room. According to Goldwater, an angry LeMay gave him "holy hell" and said, "Not only can't you get into it but don't you ever mention it to me again."
In a 1988 interview on [[Larry King]]'s radio show, Goldwater was asked if he thought the U.S. Government was witholding UFO evidence; he replied "Yes I do," and added that he believed there were alien life forms.[http://www.anomalies.net/archive/Text-Archive/txt1/672.ufo]
==Death==
Goldwater's public appearances stopped in late 1996 after he suffered a stroke; family members said he was in the early stages of [[Alzheimer's disease]].
Goldwater died on [[May 29]], [[1998]] at the age of 89 in [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]], of complications from the stroke.
==Goldwater Scholarship==
The Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program was established by Congress in 1986 to honor Senator Barry M. Goldwater, who served his country for 56 years as a soldier and statesman, including 30 years of service in the U.S. Senate. The purpose of the Foundation is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue careers in these fields.
The Scholarship is widely considered the most prestigious award in the U.S. conferred upon undergraduates studying the sciences and is awarded to about 300 students (college sophomores and juniors) nationwide in the amount of $7500 per academic year (for their senior year, or junior and senior years).
==Sources==
* Edwards, Lee. ''Goldwater'' (1995).
* Goldberg, Robert Alan. ''Barry Goldwater'' (1995)
* Perlstein, Rick. ''Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus'' (2001) New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 080902859X. On the 1964 campaign.
*''The New Yorker'', [[April 25]], [[1988]], p 70
==Books==
* ''[[Conscience of a Conservative|The Conscience of a Conservative]]'' (1963) speeches ([[ghostwriter|ghostwritten]] by [[Brent Bozell|L. Brent Bozell]]). ISBN 1568491409 (orignal is ASIN B000B9WB16)
*''Why Not Victory?'' (1963) ASIN B0007H8W42
*''Conscience of a Majority'' (1971) ISBN 0671780964
*''Arizona'' (1977) ISBN 0938379046
* ''With No Apologies: The Outspoken Political Memoirs of America's Conservative Conscience'' (1979) ISBN 042504663X
* ''Goldwater'' (1988) ISBN 0385239475
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.goldwaterinstitute.org/ The Goldwater Institute advances the principles of free enterprise, individual responsiblity, and constitutionally-limited government, espoused by Senator Goldwater.]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/may98/goldwaterspeech.htm/ Goldwater's 1964 acceptance speech at the Republican Convention] - the 'extremism in the defense of liberty' speech.
*[http://www.azcentral.com/specials/goldwater/ Extended "in memoriam" reporting from the ''Arizona Republic'']
*[http://www.act.org/goldwater/ Goldwater Scholarship Homepage]
{{start box}}
{{U.S. Senator box|
state=Arizona|
class=1|
before=[[Ernest McFarland]]|
alongside=[[Carl T. Hayden]]|
after=[[Paul Fannin]]|
years=1953&ndash;1965|
}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] [[President of the United States|Presidential]] [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|candidate]]|before=[[Richard Nixon]]|after=[[Richard Nixon]]| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]] (lost)}}
{{U.S. Senator box|
state=Arizona|
class=3|
before=[[Carl T. Hayden]]|
alongside=[[Paul Jones Fannin]], [[Dennis DeConcini]]|
after=[[John McCain]]|
years=1969&ndash;1987|
}}
{{end box}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
[[Category:1909 births|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:United States Air Force generals|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Arizona|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:University of Arizona]]
[[Category:Amateur radio people|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Sigma Chi brothers|Goldwater]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Goldwater]]
[[de:Barry Goldwater]]
[[fr:Barry Goldwater]]
[[it:Barry Morris Goldwater]]
[[nl:Barry Goldwater]]
[[ja:バリー・ゴールドウォーター]]
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[[sv:Barry Goldwater]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baldassare Castiglione</title>
<id>4793</id>
<revision>
<id>41432540</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:22:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.49.62.41</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Baldassare Castiglione''', count of Novellata ([[December 6]], [[1478]] &ndash; [[February 2]], [[1529]]), was a [[diplomat]] and one of the most important [[Renaissance]] [[author]]s.
[[Image:Castiglione.jpg|right|thumb|Baldassare Castiglione]]
He was born in Casatico, near [[Mantua]], [[Italy]] to an ancient family from [[Lombardy]] that had moved to there at the time of [[marquis]] [[Lodovico Gonzaga]], a relative of Luigia Gonzaga, [[mother]] of Castiglione.
In 1494, at the age of 16, Castiglione began his humanistic studies in Milan, which would eventually aid him in future writings. However, in [[1499]], after the death of his [[father]], Castiglione left his studies and Milan to succeed his father in the familial duties as the head of a [[noble family]]. Soon his duties seem to have included representative offices for the court; for instance, he accompanied his marquis for the arrival in Milan of [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]]. For Gonzaga he travelled quite often; during one of his missions to [[Rome]], he met [[Montefeltro|Guidubaldo da Montefeltro]], duke of [[Urbino]], and in 1504 Gonzaga, although reluctant, allowed him to pass to that court.
Urbino was at that time the most refined and elegant among Italian courts, a real meeting point of culture superbly directed and managed by duchess [[Gonzaga|Elisabetta Gonzaga]] and her sister-in-law [[Maria Emilia Pia]]. The most constant guests included: [[Pietro Bembo]], [[Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici|Giuliano de' Medici]], [[Cardinal Bibbiena]], Ottaviano and [[Federico Fregoso]], [[Cesare Gonzaga]] (a cousin of both Castiglione and the duke), and many others. The hosts and guests organised intellectual competitions which resulted in an interesting, stimulating cultural life producing brilliant literary activity.
In [[1506]], Castiglione wrote (and played together with [[Cosimo Gonzaga]]) his eclogue ''Tirsi'', in which allusively, beyond the figures of three shepherds, he originally depicted the court of Urbino. The work contains echoes of both ancient and contemporary poetry, recalling [[Poliziano]] and [[Sannazzaro]] as well as [[Virgil]],.
Castiglione wrote about his works and of those of other guests in some letters to other princes, maintaining an activity very near to diplomacy, though in a literary form, like with [[Ludovico da Canossa]].
[[Francesco Maria della Rovere]] succeeded as duke at Guidubaldo's death, and Castiglione remained at his court; with Francesco Maria, he took part in [[Pope Julius II]]'s expedition against [[Venice]] (an episode in the [[Italian Wars]]) and for this he received the title of conte di [[Novellata]], near Pesaro. When [[Pope Leo X]] was elected, Castiglione was sent to [[Rome]] as an ambassador of Urbino. In Rome he shared friendship with many artists and writers; among these, [[Raphael]] soon became a close friend of his, frequently asking for his suggestions. Raphael gratefully painted a [[Portrait of Balthasar Castiglione (Raphael)|famous portait of Castiglione]] that now is at the [[Louvre]], ([[Paris]]).
In [[1516]], Castiglione was back in Mantua, where he married [[Ippolita Torelli]], descendant of another ancient noble family. He wrote two passionate letters to her, expressing a deep sentiment, but she unfortunately died only 4 years later, when Castiglione was in Rome again as an ambassador, this time for Mantuan Dukes. In [[1521]], Pope Leo X conceded him the ''tonsura'' (first sacerdotal ceremony), and thereupon began Castiglione's second, ecclesiastical career.
In [[1524]], [[Pope Clement VII]] sent him to [[Spain]] as ''nuncius apostolicus'' (ambassador of the [[Holy See]]) in Madrid, and in this role he followed [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] to [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], [[Sevilla]], and [[Granada]]. At the time of the [[Sack of Rome]], the Pope suspected him of "special friendship" for the Spanish emperor Charles: effectively Castiglione should have informed the Holy See about the intentions of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], it was his duty to investigate what Spain was planning against the Eternal City.
On the other side, [[Alonso de Valdes]] (brother of Juan de Valdes and the [[secretary]] of the emperor) publicly declared that the ''Sacco'' was a divine punishment for the too many [[sin]]s of [[clergy]].
Castiglione, in an undoubtedly uncomfortable position, answered both, the Pope and Valdes, in two famous letters from [[Burgos]]. Valdes received a very long and severe letter in which the nuncius used hard terms to define the ''Sacco'' and Valdes' comments.
The Pope received instead a letter (dated [[December 10]], [[1527]]) in which Castiglione dared to underline that several |
Security Council (1975-76 and 1982-83). Former Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, and Attorney General Mohamed Shahabuddeen served a 9-year term on the [[International Court of Justice]] (1987-96).
Guyana has diplomatic relations with a wide range of nations. The [[European Union]] (EU), the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), and the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) have offices in Georgetown.
Guyana strongly supports the concept of regional integration. It played an important role in the founding of the [[Caribbean Community and Common Market]] (CARICOM), but its status as the organization's poorest member limits its ability to exert leadership in regional activities. Guyana has sought to keep foreign policy in close alignment with the consensus of CARICOM members, especially in voting in the UN, OAS, and other international organizations. In [[1993]], Guyana ratified the 1988 Vienna Convention on illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and cooperates with U.S. law enforcement agencies on counternarcotics efforts.
Two neighbours have longstanding territorial disputes with Guyana. Since the 19th century, [[Venezuela]] has claimed all of Guyana west of the [[Essequibo River]] -- 62% of Guyana's territory. At a meeting in Geneva in [[1966]], the two countries agreed to receive recommendations from a representative of the UN Secretary General on ways to settle the dispute peacefully. Diplomatic contacts between the two countries and the Secretary General's representative continue. Neighbouring [[Suriname]] also claims the territory east of Guyana's New River, a largely uninhabited area of some 15,000 square kilometres (6,000 square miles) in southeast Guyana. Guyana and Suriname also dispute their offshore maritime boundaries. This dispute flared up in June 2000 in response to an effort by a Canadian company to drill for oil under a Guyanese concession. Guyana regards its legal title to all of its territory as sound.
'''Disputes - international:'''
all of the area west of the [[Essequibo River]] claimed by [[Venezuela]]; [[Suriname]] claims area east of the New (Upper Courantyne)
:''See also :'' [[Guyana]], <nowiki>Courantyne/Kutari</nowiki> [Koetari] Rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)
'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for [[narcotic]]s from South America - primarily Venezuela - to [[Europe]] and the [[United States]]; producer of [[cannabis]]
:''See also :'' [[Guyana]]
{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Guyana]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Guyana, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guinness</title>
<id>12205</id>
<revision>
<id>42079055</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:01:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrendanH</username>
<id>47438</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */ Deleted too-trivial sentence (there is a limit)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the beer brewery. See also [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of Records]].''
{{brewbox_begin|name=Arthur Guinness Son & Co.}}
{{brewbox_image|image=[[Image:Guinness logo.png|128px]]|caption=}}
{{brewbox_location|location=[[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]}}
{{brewbox_owner|owner=[[Diageo]]}}
{{brewbox_opened|year=[[1756]]}}
{{brewbox_production|amount=100 million [[litre]]s}}
{{brewbox_beers}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Guinness Draught|style=[[Stout]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Guinness Extra Stout|style=[[Stout]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Guinness Original|style=[[Stout]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Harp Lager|style=[[Lager]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Smithwick's|style=[[Ale]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Cashels|style=[[Cider]]}}
{{brewbox_end}}
'''Arthur Guinness Son & Co.''', founded [[1756]], produces a dark [[stout]] [[beer]] (a type of [[porter (beer)|porter]]), known widely as '''Guinness'''.
The first use of the word stout about beer was the Stout-Porter brewed by Guinness of Ireland in 1820, although Guinness had been brewing porters and ales since 1759, initially in [[Leixlip]], but at the [[St. James's Gate Brewery]], [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] since [[1759]], when [[Arthur Guinness]] signed a 9,000 year lease at [[Irish pound|IR&pound;]]45 per annum for the unused brewery. Ten years later in [[1769]] Guinness exported their product for the first time. Six and a half barrels of Guinness Beer were shipped from Ireland to England. It is also brewed under licence internationally; the resulting beer is, from all reports, significantly different. The Guinness brewery in [[Park Royal]], [[London]] closed in [[2005]].
==Composition==
Guinness [[stout]] is made from four natural ingredients: [[water]], [[barley]], [[hops]] and [[yeast]]. As with most beer, the majority of the barley is malted, but a significant proportion is roasted to give Guinness its dark colour and characteristic taste. Despite the "meal in a glass" or "liquid bread" reputation the beverage has among some non-Guinness drinkers, Guinness only contains 198 [[calories]] (838 [[joule|kilojoules]]) per imperial [[pint]] (1460 kJ/[[litre|L]]), less than an equal-sized serving of [[skimmed milk]] or [[orange juice]]. Despite its appearance as a dark and over-powering stout beer, Guinness is actually quite tame and mellow for a stout, and can be enjoyed with most food. Many stout beer aficionados claim it is watery compared to other, more malty stout brews.
[[Draught beer | Draught]] Guinness and its canned namesake contain [[nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) as well as [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>). Unlike carbon dioxide, nitrogen does not dissolve in water, which allows the beer to be put under high pressure without making it fizzy. The high pressure is required to force the draught beer through fine holes in a plate in the tap, which causes the characteristic "surge" (the [[Widget (beer)|widget]] in cans and bottles achieves the same effect). The perceived smoothness of draught Guinness is due to the low acidity and the creaminess of the head caused by the surging. "Original Extra Stout" tastes quite different; it contains only CO<sub>2</sub>, making a more acidic taste.
===Pouring and serving===
[[Image:Ireland 37 bg 061402.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A "perfectly poured" Guinness pint with some brown bread.]]
Draught Guinness is considered at its best flavour when served cool, although not necessarily cold. It should be poured slowly at a 45° angle; about three quarters is poured and left to settle before the rest is added. The tap handle should be pushed forward, rather than pulled, when the beer is topped off. This creates the characteristic creamy head that lasts until the last sip. The perfect pint should have a head just proud of the rim of the glass, and no overspill. Recent advertising campaigns state that "it takes 119.6 [[second]]s to pour the perfect pint" of Guinness. While this method of pouring (slow) is done in Ireland and the UK, many American bars (not all) seem to ignore the requisite 'slow pour'.
Some [[bartender]]s also draw a simple design in the head during the slow pour. [[Shamrock]]s and harps are quite popular designs for this.
It is a common myth that Guinness is brewed using water from the [[River Liffey]], which flows through Dublin close to St James's Gate. It actually comes from the [[Wicklow Mountains]], specifically, [[Lady's Well]].
===Sinking bubbles===
A long time subject of bar conversations has been the observation that gas bubbles travel ''downwards'' in a pint glass of Guinness. {{ref|sink1}}, {{ref|sink2}}
The effect is attributed to drag; bubbles which touch the walls of a glass are slowed in their upwards travel. Bubbles in the centre of the glass are, however, free to rise to the surface, and form a rising column of bubbles. The rising bubbles create a [[Current (fluid)|current]] by the [[entrainment]] of the surrounding fluid. As beer rises in the center, the beer near the outside of the glass falls. This downward flow pushes the bubbles near the glass towards the bottom. Although the effect occurs in any liquid, it is particularly noticeable in any dark nitrogen stout, as the drink combines dark-coloured liquid and light-coloured bubbles.
==Varieties==
[[Image:GuinnessBeer.jpg|thumb|Guinness Original/Extra Stout]]
Guinness is available in a number of variants and strengths, which include:
*Guinness [[draught beer|draught]] stout, sold in kegs—4.1 to 4.3% alcohol by volume (abv);
*Extra Cold draught stout, sold in kegs and put through a super cooler—4.1 to 4.3% abv;
*Bottled Guinness draught, which includes a patented "rocket widget" to simulate the draught taste—4.1 to 4.3% abv;
*Canned Guinness draught, which includes a similar but differently shaped [[widget]]—4.1 to 4.3% abv;
*Guinness Original/Extra Stout, as near to Arthur Guinness' original porter as can be obtained today—4.2 or 4.3% abv (England, Ireland), 5% abv (Canada, mainland Europe), and 6% abv (United States, Australia, Japan);
*Guinness Foreign Extra Stout, sold in West Africa, the Caribbean and Asia—5% abv (China), 6.5% abv (Jamaica), 7.5% abv (Africa) and 8% abv (Malaysia);
*Guinness Foreign Extra Stout Nigeria, uses sorghum in the brewing process instead of barley—sold in Nigeria and Great Britain—7.5% abv;
*Guinness Special Export Stout, sold in Belgium—8% abv;
*Guinness Bitter, an English-style bitter beer—4.4% abv;
*Guinness Extra Smooth, a smoother stout sold in Ghana, Cameroon and Nigeria—5.5% abv;
*Malta Guinness, a non-alcoholic sweet drink, sold in Africa;
*Guinness Mid-Strength, a low-alcohol stout being test-marketed in [[Limerick]], [[Ireland]] from March 2006—2.8% abv. {{ref|mid}}
The Guinness brewery also makes other brands of alcoholic drinks, including Harp, [[Smithwick's]] and Kilkenny. T |
iminal Investigative Training Assistance Program]] (ICITAP) have provided much of that general training. Specialized training in such areas as crowd control, operation of firearms, and VIP protection has been provided by ICITAP, whose experts have also worked closely with the Haitian Government in meeting the material needs of the new force; ICITAP closed in September 2000.
Through its [[Administration of Justice]] (AOJ) program, the U.S. has helped support the independence and competency of Haiti's judicial branch through the training of hundreds of Haitian judges and prosecutors, particularly at the Magisterial Training School established in 1995. The AOJ program ended in July 2000, upon expiration of a bilateral assistance agreement between the [[United States]] and the Government of Haiti. During its tenure, the AOJ program also provided free legal assistance for thousands of impoverished Haitians, and has helped obtain the release of hundreds of people detained without trial. U.S. reform programs have included the participation of non-governmental organizations, particularly to encourage conflict resolution and mediation programs that alleviate pressure on the still-overmatched judicial system. In spite of these initiatives, Haiti's judicial system remains severely troubled -- lacking the modern facilities, properly trained officials, and resources it requires to be able to meet the demands placed upon it. The Carrefour Feuilles trial in September 2000 and the Raboteau trial in November 2000 evidenced significant improvements in the judicial system's capacity. Nevertheless, Haiti's system remains in need of continued reform and strengthening.
'''Military branches:'''
Haitian National Police (HNP)
<br>''note:''
the regular Haitian Army, Navy, and Air Force have been demobilized but still exist on paper until constitutionally abolished
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
1,579,897 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
857,666 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
83,863 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA ; note - mainly for police and security activities
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%
'''Military - note:'''
the Haitian Armed Forces have been demobilized and replaced by the Haitian National Police
==References and Links==
*[[Haiti]]
[[Category:Government of Haiti]]
[[Category:Militaries|Haiti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Haiti</title>
<id>13382</id>
<revision>
<id>41858266</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:43:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>XLR8TION</username>
<id>132585</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Haiti]] is one of the original members of the [[United Nations]] and several of its specialized and related agencies, as well as a member of the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS). It maintains diplomatic relations with 37 countries, including the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].
The international community rallied to Haiti's defense during the 1991-94 period of illegal military rule. Thirty-one countries participated in the U.S.-led Multinational Force (MNF) which, acting under UN auspices, intervened in September 1994 to help restore the legitimate government and create a secure and stable environment in Haiti. At its peak, the MNF included roughly 21,000 troops, mostly Americans, and more than 1,000 international police monitors. Within six months, the troop level was gradually reduced as the MNF transitioned to a 6,000 strong peacekeeping force, the [[UN Mission in Haiti]] (UNMIH). UNMIH was charged with maintaining the secure environment, which the MNF had helped establish, as well as nurturing Haiti's new police force through the presence of 900 police advisors. A total of 38 countries participated in UNMIH.
In order to spur Haiti's social and economic recovery from 3 years of de facto military rule and decades of misrule before that, international development banks and donor agencies pledged in 1994 to provide over $2 billion in assistance by 1999. Disbursements were largely conditioned on progress in economic reform. Parliamentary inaction, principally as a result of the political struggles and gridlock that plagued Haiti since 1996, resulted in the blockage of much of this assistance as disbursement conditions were not met. The electoral crisis that has brewed in the aftermath of the May 21, 2000 local and parliamentary elections has resulted in the blockage of most multilateral and bilateral assistance. Major donors are led by the [[United States]], with the largest bilateral assistance program, and also include [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and Taiwan. Multilateral aid is coordinated through an informal grouping of major donors under the auspices of the [[World Bank]] which, in addition to the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB) and the [[European Union]], is also a major source of Haitian development assistance.
As a result of their recognition of [[Taiwan]], the Haitian government has made it a requirement for citizens of [[People%27s_Republic_of_China|People's Republic of China]] to have visas to visit and conduct business in the country. Due to generous amount of foreign aid from Taiwan, this requirement is unlikely to change anytime in the near future. Visas are also required for citizens of [[Colombia]] and [[Panama]] due to the actions of nationals of those two countries in using Haiti as a drop-off point for narcotic drugs bound for the [[United States]]. Panama's proximity to Colombia and their thriving off-shore banking industry has lured many traffickers to use that nation and Haiti as bases for their activities. Citizens of the [[Dominican Republic]] also require visas to visit Haiti, not only due to the hostile, sometimes volatile relations between both nations, but also because since the late 1990's, the Dominican Republic has become another base for illicit drugs bound for the United States, which usually enter illegally via [[Puerto Rico]]. Once in Puerto Rico, drugs can easiliy reach the United States due to the absence of both immigration and customs between the island and the mainland. [http://www.haiti.org/general_information/visa.htm]
'''Disputes - international:'''
claims US-administered [[Navassa Island]]
'''Illicit drugs:'''
major Caribbean transshipment point for [[cocaine]] en route to the US and Europe
==External links==
* [http://www.haitianconsulate-nyc.org/index_en.html Consulate General of Haiti in New York City, USA (in English/French)]
* [http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/haiti_513/index.html Embassy of France in Port-au-Prince, Haiti (in French)]
* [http://www.embhaiti.cu/Espanol/index.htm Embassy of Haiti in Havana, Cuba (in Spanish/French)]
* [http://www.haiti.org Embassy of Haiti in Washington, D.C.(in English/French)]
* [http://www.un.int/haiti Permanent Mission of Haiti to the United Nations (in English/French)]
* [http://haiti.usembassy.gov United States Embassy in Port-au-Prince, Haiti (in English/French)]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Haiti| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands</title>
<id>13383</id>
<revision>
<id>42115146</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:44:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vinegar</username>
<id>972033</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikinews|Volcanic activity expands McDonald Island off Australia}}
[[Image:Orthographic projection centred over the Heard Islands.png|right|thumb|182px|Orthographic projection centred over the Heard Islands]]
'''Heard Island and McDonald Islands''' (HIMI) are uninhabited, barren islands located in the [[Southern Ocean]] at {{coor dm|53|00|S|73|00|E|}}, about two-thirds of the way from [[Madagascar]] to [[Antarctica]]. They have been part of [[Australia]] since [[1947]], and contain the only two [[active volcano]]es in Australian territory, one of which, [[Mawson Peak]], is the highest Australian mountain. The Group's Size Is 372&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] in area.
==Geography==
'''Heard Island''' ( 368&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] ) is bleak and mountainous, covered in glaciers and dominated by [[Mawson Peak]], a 2745-&nbsp;[[metre]]-high [[volcano]] which forms part of the [[Big Ben (Heard Island)|Big Ben]] [[massif]]. Heard Island is located at {{coor dms|53|06|00|S|073|31|00|E|}}. Mawson Peak is the highest Australian mountain (527m higher than Mount Kosciuszko), and one of only 2 [[active volcano]]es in Australian territory.
The other [[active volcano]] in Australian territory is on McDonald Island: after being dormant for 75,000 years, it erupted in 1992 and has erupted again several times since, its most recent eruption being on [[10 August]] [[2005]].
'''McDonald Islands''', located 44 km to the west of Heard Island, are small and rocky. McDonald Islands are located at {{coor dms|53|03|00|S|72|37|00|E|}}. They consist of McDonald Island (230 m high), Flat Island (55 m high) and Meyer Rock (170 m high). They total approximately 2.5&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] in area and, as with Heard Island, are surface exposures of the [[Kerguelen Plateau]].
There is a small group of islets and rocks about 10 km north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet, Sail Rock, Morgan Island and Black Rock. They total approximately 1.1&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] in area.
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbors.
==Administration and economy==
The islands are a territory of [[Australia]] administered fro |
in [[Muay Thai]].
In [[combat sport]]s, stand-up grappling usually revolves around successful [[takedown (grappling)|takedowns]] and [[throw (grappling)|throws]]. In [[Judo]] a fight is over if one of the judoka score an ''[[ippon]]'', and in some sports such as [[Glima]], the fight is over once one of the opponents has fallen down.
==Ground grappling==
'''Ground grappling''' (in [[budo]] called ''ne-waza'', 寝技, "ground technique") refers to all the grappling tecniques that are applied while the grapplers are no longer in a standing position. The primary concern of in most [[martial art]]s and [[combat sport]]s featuring ground grappling, is [[grappling position|positioning]], which in essence is about obtaining a [[grappling position|dominant position]]. A dominant position generally puts the top grappler in a very advantagous position, he or she can use the position to escape by standing up, [[grappling hold#Pinning hold|pinning]] and exhausting the opponent, executing a [[grappling hold#Submission hold|submission hold]], or [[strike (attack)|striking]] the opponent. The bottom grappler is on the other hand concerned with escaping the situation and improve his or her positioning, typically by using a [[sweep (grappling)|sweep]].
== Uses ==
When unskilled fighters get embroiled in combat, a common reaction is to grab the opponent in an attempt to slow the situation down by holding them still, resulting in an unsystematic struggle that relies on brute force. A skilled fighter, in contrast, can perform takedowns as a way of progressing to a superior position such as a [[mount (grappling)|mount]] or [[side mount (grappling)|side mount]], or using [[grappling hold#Clinch hold|clinch holds]] and ground positions to set up strikes, chokeholds and joint locks. A grappler who has been taken down to the ground can use defensive positions such as the [[Guard (grappling)|guard]], which protects against being mounted or attacked. If a grappler is strong and can utilize leverage well, a takedown itself can be a form of attack -- the impact to the head can render some opponents unconscious. On the other hand, grappling also offers the possibility of controlling an opponent without injuring them. For this reason, most [[police]] staff receive some training in grappling. Likewise, grappling [[sport|sports]] such as judo have been devised so that their participants can compete using full physical effort without injuring their opponents.
Grappling is called [[dumog]] in [[Eskrima]]. The term [[chin na]] in [[Chinese martial arts]] deals with the use of grappling to achieve submission or incapacitation of the opponent (these may involve the use of [[acupressure]] points). Among the styles of [[Tai Chi Chuan]], the [[Wu style T'ai Chi Ch'uan|Wu style]] is known for its ''[[nei chia|internal]]'' or "soft" style grappling (see [[pushing hands]]). Some Chinese martial arts, [[Aikido]] and some [[Eskrima]] systems practice grappling while one or both participants is armed. This practice is significantly more dangerous than unarmed grappling, and generally requires a great deal of training.
== Types of Grappling ==
Through martial art contests such as the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], and interdisciplinary challenge matches throughout the world, it has been established that the most effective systems of pure grappling are [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]], Russian [[Sambo]], [[Judo]] and even American [[Catch Wrestling]]. In these arts, the object is either to take down and pin the opponent, or in the case of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, to catch the adversary in a specialized [[chokehold]] or [[joint-lock]] which forces him or her to [[submission (combat sport term)|tap out]], and thus admit defeat. Regardless of style, there are two forms of grappling that dictate pace, and style of action: with a [[keikogi|gi]] and without. The gi form is known for its emphasis on grips using the gi, while the "no-gi" form emphasized body control of the torso and head.
==See also==
* [[Clinch fighting]]
* [[Ground fighting]]
==External links==
*[http://judoinfo.com/techdrw.htm Judo grappling techniques] Includes images and names of the most common judo ground grappling techniques.
* [http://www.kobukaijujitsu.com/grapplingstyles.html World grappling styles]
[[Category:Combat sports]]
[[Category:Martial art techniques]]
[[Category:Grappling| ]]
[[de:Grappling]]
[[es:Agarre]]
[[id:Pergumulan]]
[[ja:グラップリング]]
[[pl:Chwyciarstwo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Mason University</title>
<id>12566</id>
<revision>
<id>42162012</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:49:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DocMason</username>
<id>1026073</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Men's Basketball */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; width: 21.5em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; font-family: lucida grande, sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<div style="border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 1em 1em; text-align: center;"><font color="#333333" style="font-size:8pt" face="Lucida Grande,Helvetica,Arial" size="1"><b>'''George Mason University'''</b></font>
[[Image:GMU Seal.jpg|seal|100px]]<br><br>
<table style="background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Established</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[1957]]</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">School type</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Public]] [[University]]</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">President</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">Alan G. Merten</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Location</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Fairfax, Virginia]]</td></tr>
<tr><th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Enrollment</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">29,728 ([[2005]])</td></tr><tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Faculty</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">4,265</td></tr><tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Endowment</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[http://www.gmu.edu/events/campaign/home.html]</td></tr><tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Campus</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">[[Suburban]], 806 acres (total for three US campuses)</td></tr><tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Sports teams</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">Patriots</td></tr><tr>
<th style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">Website</th>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">http://www.gmu.edu</td>
</tr>
<tr>
</table>
</div><!--end of slate grey box-->
</div><!--end of floated right section; article starts here-->
[[Image:GMUDaytime4-14-2005.JPG|thumb|280px|left|George Mason University's Fairfax campus]]
'''George Mason University''', also referred to by locals and students as simply "Mason" or "GMU," is an institution of [[university|higher learning]] in the [[Commonwealth]] of [[Virginia]], with campuses in [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]], [[Fairfax, Virginia|Fairfax]], and [[Prince William County, Virginia]], all in the [[suburb|suburbs]] of [[Washington, DC]]. In the fall of 2005 the university opened a site in [[Loudoun County, Virginia]] and announced several months later, the acquisition of 133 acres of land to build a fourth suburban campus that is scheduled to open in 2009. The university is named after [[United States|American]] [[American Revolution|revolutionary]], [[Patriot (American Revolution)|patriot]] and [[Founding Fathers of the United States|founding father]] [[George Mason]].
Its faculty boasts [[Nobel Prize]]-winning [[economics|economists]] [[James M. Buchanan]] (1986) and [[Vernon Smith]] (2002). Another economics professor, [[Walter Williams]], is wel |
nlib.org/library/Enc/Fascism.html Fascism] by Sheldon Richman - discusses economic fascism
* [http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=585 Fascism and Zionism - From The Hagshama Department - World Zionist Organization]
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/understanding_fascism.htm Fascism Part I - Understanding Fascism and Anti-Semitism]
* [http://www.radio4all.net/proginfo.php?id=15029 The Functions of Fascism] a radio lecture by [[Michael Parenti]]
*[http://www.cronologia.it/mondo23i.htm Manifest of the Scientific Racists (in Italian)]
====Anti-fascist websites====
* [http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/index.php?link=template&story=152 British anti-fascist website]
* [http://www.dkrenton.co.uk/research/polecon.htm The Political Economy of Fascism - From Dave Renton's anti-fascist website]
* [http://blava.antifa.net Antifašistická Akcia Bratislava-Antifascism Action Brataslava. Slovak anti-facism website]
====Proponents====
* [http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm The Doctrine of Fascism by Benito Mussolini (complete text)]
* [http://www.fascismoeliberta.net/ Site of an italian fascist party] Italian and German languages
[[Category:Counter-revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Politics of Italy]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Syncretic political movements]]
[[ar:فاشية]]
[[bg:Фашизъм]]
[[be:Фашызм]]
[[ca:Feixisme]]
[[cs:Fašismus]]
[[da:Fascisme]]
[[de:Faschismus]]
[[et:Fašism]]
[[es:Fascismo]]
[[eo:Faŝismo]]
[[fa:فاشیسم]]
[[fr:Fascisme]]
[[ko:파시즘]]
[[id:Fasisme]]
[[it:Fascismo]]
[[he:פשיזם]]
[[ka:ფაშიზმი]]
[[lv:Fašisms]]
[[lt:Fašizmas]]
[[nl:Fascisme]]
[[ja:ファシズム]]
[[no:Fascisme]]
[[nn:Fascisme]]
[[pl:Faszyzm]]
[[pt:Fascismo]]
[[ro:Fascism]]
[[ru:Фашизм]]
[[scn:Fascismu]]
[[simple:Fascism]]
[[sk:Fašizmus]]
[[sl:Fašizem]]
[[sr:Фашизам]]
[[fi:Fasismi]]
[[sv:Fascism]]
[[tl:Pasismo]]
[[tr:Faşizm]]
[[uk:Фашизм]]
[[yi:פאשיזם]]
[[zh:法西斯主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Forge</title>
<id>11057</id>
<revision>
<id>39860727</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T10:21:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Noisy</username>
<id>82213</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove misplaced dab entry (for article on AfD)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Australian blacksmith.jpg|thumb|250px|A blacksmith's forge]]
:''For other uses, see [[Forge (disambiguation)]].''
The '''forge''' or '''smithy''' is the workplace of a [[smith (metalwork)|smith]] or a [[blacksmith]]. "Forging" is the term for shaping metal by use of heat and hammer.
A basic smithy contains a [[forge]], sometimes called a [[hearth]] for heating the metals (commonly iron or steel) to a temperature where the metal becomes malleable (typically red hot), or to a temperature where [[work hardening]] ceases to accumulate, an [[anvil]] (to lay the metal pieces on while hammering), and a [[slack tub]] (to rapidly cool, and thus harden, forged metal pieces in). Tools include [http://members.vol.at/schmiede/feuerzange.htm tongs] to hold the hot metal, and hammers to strike the hot metal.
Once the final shape has been forged, iron and steel in particular often get some type of [[heat treatment]]. This can result in various degrees of hardening or softening depending on the details of the treatment.
== Forging ==
Forging is the working of metal by [[plasticity|plastic deformation]]. It is distinguished from [[machining]], the shaping of metal by removing material (drilling, sawing, milling, turning, grinding, etc.), and from [[casting]], wherein metal in its molten state is poured into a mold, whose form it retains on solidifying. The processes of raising, rolling, swaging, and drawing are essentially forging operations although they are not commonly so called because of the special techniques and tooling they require. Some of these techniques are shown in this [http://members.vol.at/schmiede/feuerzange.htm animation] of the forging of simple flat firetongs.
Forging results in metal that is stronger than [[casting|cast]] or [[machining|machined]] metal parts. This is because during forging the metal's grain flow changes, making it stronger and more [[ductile]].
[[Image:ForgedConrodShowingEtchedSection-s.jpg|thumb|Scan of sectioned, forged conrod that has been etched to show grain flow]]
Many metals are typically forged cold but iron and its alloys are almost always forged hot. This is for two reasons: firstly, if work hardening were allowed to progress, hard materials such as iron and steel would become extremely difficult to work with; secondly, most steel alloys can be hardened by heat treatments (i.e. by the formation of [[Martensite]]) rather than cold forging. Alloys that are amenable to [[precipitation hardening]] (such as most structural alloys of [[aluminium]] and [[titanium]]) can also be forged hot, then made strong once they achieve their final shape. Other materials must be strengthened by the forging process itself.
Forging was done historically by a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the twelfth century CE the hammer and anvil are by no means obsolete.
In modern times, industrial forging is commonly done either with [[machine press]]es or with hammers powered by steam or compressed air. These hammers are very large, having reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers (500 pounds or less reciprocating weight) and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well.
In industry a distinction is made between open- and closed-die forging. In open-die work the metal is free to move except where contacted by the hammer, anvil, or other (often hand-held) tooling. In closed-die work the material is placed in a die resembling a mold, which it is forced to fill by the application of pressure. A great many common objects (wrenches, crankshafts...) are produced by closed-die forging, which is well suited to mass production. Open-die forging lends itself to very short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work.
Closed-die forging is more expensive for mass production than is [[casting]], but produces a much stronger part, and is therefore used for tools, high-strength machine parts and the like. One particular variant, [[Forge#Drop Forge|drop forging]], is often used to mass produce flat wrenches and other household tools.
== Types of forges ==
=== Coal/coke/charcoal forge ===
A forge which typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal.
The designs of these forges have varied over time and circumstances for thousands of years but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. The illustration at the beginning of this article shows a coal forge in operation.
A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealling, and drawing temper as examples).
The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three primary ways: 1) the amount of air, 2) the volume of fuel, and 3) the shape of the fuel/fire.
These factors have determined over time the essential features of this type of forge:
: 'tuyere' -- a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire
: 'bellows' or 'blower' a means for air to be forced into the tuyere
: 'fire pot' or 'hearth' a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening.
In practice fuel is placed in or on the 'hearth' and lit. The 'bellows' are worked to introduce additional air (oxygen) into the fire through the 'tuyere'. With the additional oxygen the fire can consume more fuel and burn hotter.
In practice a blacksmith will balance the fuel and oxygen in the fire to suit particular kinds of work and often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire.
In a typical, but by no means universal, coal forge a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. When in operation the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire, and surrounding all will be a ring or horseshoe shaped layer of raw coal usually kept damp and tightly packed to both maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it "cooks" into coke first.
If a larger fire is necessary the smith will increase the air into the fire and feed and deepen the coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work.
The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a 'back draft' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall.
Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that coal is used in although since there is no need to convert the raw fuel into something more refined at the heart of the fire as with coal, the fire is handled differently.
Individual smiths and specialized applications and needs have led to the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the commercially available coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to little more than a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it.
=== Gas forge ===
A forge which typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel to heat metal. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mount |
uot;Sister Madly," the latter a raucous singalong when played in concert. Although critics were impressed, the album was not as accessible as their debut. Specifically, the public was not expecting the first single to be an acoustic song with [[country music|country]] roots and it set the stage for disappointing album sales. The label quickly pulled promotion for the album yet again, and Crowded House had effectively disbanded in frustration after a short tour of Australia and [[Canada]].
===''Woodface'' (1991)===
Faced with some time off, Neil began writing some songs with his brother Tim for an album they were considering to release under the name "Finn." The sessions yielded enough songs for an album, but Neil offered to have Tim join Crowded House and record some of these songs with a full band. Tim agreed, and the band soon wound up in the studio again.
''[[Woodface]]'' was released in July 1991, and it featured seven songs written jointly by "Finn/Finn." The other seven tracks were Neil compositions. "Chocolate Cake" was released as the first single, and it sealed the fate of the band in America. The song was a scathing comment on American excesses, and it was not taken well by critics or the public in the country.
The album sold well internationally, especially in the UK. The band was at the pinnacle of its creative output, and the songs "Weather With You" and "Fall At Your Feet" became signature songs for the band. During the supporting tour for ''Woodface'', Tim Finn left the band to further pursue his solo career.
===''Together Alone'' (1993)===
For their next album, ''[[Together Alone]]'', Crowded House recruited multi-instrumentalist Mark Hart of [[Supertramp]] to join the band. Producer [[Youth (producer)|Youth]] helmed the sessions in [[Kare Kare]] Beach, New Zealand. (The opening song of the album is named after the area.) The album sold well internationally upon release in October 1993 (except in the US) on the strength of "Distant Sun" and the haunting "Private Universe." The song "Locked Out" actually charted in the United States, reaching a Top 20 chart position, after appearing on the soundtrack for the film ''[[Reality Bites]]''.
The band toured Europe and had begun a series of dates in the United States when drummer Paul Hester left the band, requesting more time with his family. Although they finished the tour with session drummer Peter Jones, Neil's heart was not in the work. Following the tour, he decided to work with Tim on their joint album and plan for a solo career. The band officially dissolved shortly after the release of "Finn" in 1995.
''[[Recurring Dream]]'', a career-spanning collection of greatest hits and a few new songs, was released in June 1996 and went straight to #1 on the Australian and UK record charts.
===''Farewell to the World'' (1996)===
On the strength of ''Recurring Dream'', Neil decided that the band should have a proper send-off, with one last concert. All original members, including Paul Hester, were on board. On November 24, 1996, Crowded House played its last show at the [[Sydney Opera House]] in front of a crowded house of almost 100,000. Proceeds from this concert supported the [[Sydney Children's Hospital]].
''[[Afterglow (Crowded House album)|Afterglow]]'', an album of formerly rare and unreleased recordings was released in [[1999]].
==Songwriting and influences==
The group's output was mainly [[folk music|folk]]-influenced [[pop music|pop]]-[[rock and roll|rock]] in a decidedly [[Beatles]] vein, but Finn's songwriting skills made them stand out from similar bands. By far they are New Zealand's most internationally-successful pop musicians. ''Together Alone'' featured some [[Māori]] influenced music, and the lyrics to "Pineapple Head" began when Neil's son [[Liam Finn|Liam]] started talking nonsense while he was suffering with a high fever.
==Post-Crowded House careers==
* Neil Finn embarked on a successful solo career, and Tim Finn has resumed his, although they have continued to work together and have recorded a total of two [[Finn Brothers]] albums as of [[2004]].
* Paul Hester became a [[celebrity|television personality]] in Australia with his own [[primetime]] show called Hessie's Shed, and a stint on the short lived [[Mick Molloy Show]], though he mostly worked as a freelance drummer (e.g. for [[Tarmac Adam]]). He hosted the successful Australian cable music channel Music Max's Sessions series. After a long battle with [[clinical depression|depression]], Hester took his own life on [[March 26]], [[2005]] at age 46.
* Nick Seymour produces bands in his studio in [[Dublin]].
* Mark Hart rejoined Supertramp.
==Crowded House song covers==
* In 1996, [[Belinda Carlisle]] covered "She Goes On" as "He Goes On" on her album ''Woman & A Man''.
* In 1998, British performer [[Paul Young]] covered "Don't Dream It's Over".
* In 1999, [[Australian Aborigine|Australian Aboriginal]] singer [[Jimmy Little]] recorded a cover version of "Into Tempation" for a rock/indie covers album entitled ''Messenger''.
* In 2000, [[Neuvo Flamenco]] musician [[Jesse Cook]] closed the album ''Free Fall'' with a cover of "Fall At Your Feet".
* In 2002, [[Sixpence None the Richer]] covered "Don't Dream It's Over" for their [[2002]] album ''Divine Discontent'', which includes many other covers of other artists' works.
* In 2004, [[Busted]] performed a cover version of "Fall At Your Feet" as a B-side to the single "Who's David".
* In 2005, ''She Will Have Her Way'', a cover album by a variety of female artists, was released featuring versions of Neil and Tim Finn songs from Crowded House, Split Enz, and the brothers' solo careers. Crowded House tracks include "Better Be Home Soon" by [[Kasey Chambers]], "Don't Dream It's Over" by [[Sarah Blasko]], and "Pineapple Head" by [[Natalie Imbruglia]]. A limited edition has a second disc which contains the original versions of the tracks.
* In 2005, [[James Blunt]] performed a cover version of "Fall At Your Feet" as a B-side to the single "You're Beautiful".
* In 2005, [[Howie Day]] included his "Don't Dream It's Over" cover on his live album ''Live From...''.
==Singles Discography==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Danish charts !! [[UK Singles Chart]] !! US Charts !! US Modern Rock !! Album
|-
|[[1987]]||Don't Dream It's Over||#13||#27*||#2|| ||''Crowded House''
|-
|[[1987]]||Something So Strong|| || ||#7||||''Crowded House''
|-
|[[1987]]||Now We're Getting Somewhere|| || ||#45||||''Crowded House''
|-
|[[1988]]||Better Be Home Soon||#78|| ||#42||#29||''Temple of Low Men''
|-
|[[1991]]||Chocolate Cake||#62||#69||||#2||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1991]]||Fall At Your Feet|| ||#17||#75||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1991]]||Weather With You||#23||#7||#45||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1992]]||Four Seasons In One Day|| ||#26|| ||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1992]]||It's Only Natural||#59||#24|| ||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1993]]||Distant Sun||#70||#19|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1993]]||Nails In My Feet|| ||#22|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1994]]||Fingers of Love|| ||#25|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1994]]||Pineapple Head|| ||#27|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1994]]||Locked Out|| ||#13||||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1996]]||Instinct|| ||#12|| ||||''Recurring Dream''
|-
|[[1996]]||Not The Girl You Think You Are|| ||#20|| ||||''Recurring Dream''
|}
* ''When reissued in the UK in 1996, "Don't Dream It's Over" peaked even higher, reaching #25.''
==Album Discography==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! Year !! Title !! DE !! UK !! US
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
|[[1987]]||'''[[Crowded House (album)|Crowded House]]'''||#45|| ||#12
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
|[[1988]]||'''[[Temple of Low Men]]'''||#82|| ||#35
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
|[[1991]]||'''[[Woodface]]'''||#26||#6||
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
|[[1993]]||'''[[Together Alone]]'''||#55||#4||
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
|[[1996]]||'''[[Recurring Dream]] - The Very Best of Crowded House'''||#57||#1||#83
|- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
|[[1999]]||'''[[Afterglow (album)|Afterglow]]'''||||#18||
|}
* Tracks on [[1996]]'s ''[[Recurring Dream]]: The Very Best of Crowded House''
**"Weather With You"
**"World Where You Live"
**"Fall At Your Feet"
**"Locked Out"
**"Don't Dream It's Over"
**"Into Temptation"
**"Pineapple Head"
**"When You Come"
**"Private Universe"
**"Not the Girl You Think You Are"
**"Instinct"
**"I Feel Possessed"
**"Four Seasons in One Day"
**"It's Only Natural"
**"Distant Sun"
**"Something So Strong"
**"Mean to Me"
**"Better Be Home Soon"
**"Everything Is Good for You"
==External links==
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=79462 Crowded House biography on Everything2.com]
* [http://frenz.com Frenz of the Enz authorized fanclub]
* [http://www.somethingsofinn.com Something So Finn]
* [http://www.etext.org/lists/house/ Tongue in the mail]
[[Category:Australian musical groups]]
[[Category:New Zealand musical groups]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[de:Crowded House]]
[[es:Crowded House]]
[[nl:Crowded House]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colette</title>
<id>6928</id>
<revision>
<id>40149582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T14:50:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NYArtsnWords</username>
<id>379519</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed Fr writer cat (already included in sub cat Fr novelists) and added Fr lit template</c |
son]] Day" each April 15 in all MLB ballparks
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/15 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050415.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=15 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[April 14]] - [[April 16]] - [[March 15]] - [[May 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:15 April]]
[[an:15 d'abril]]
[[ar:15 إبريل]]
[[ast:15 d'abril]]
[[be:15 красавіка]]
[[bg:15 април]]
[[bs:15. april]]
[[ca:15 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 15]]
[[co:15 d'aprile]]
[[cs:15. duben]]
[[csb:15 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cv:Ака, 15]]
[[cy:15 Ebrill]]
[[da:15. april]]
[[de:15. April]]
[[el:15 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:15-a de aprilo]]
[[es:15 de abril]]
[[et:15. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 15]]
[[fi:15. huhtikuuta]]
[[fo:15. apríl]]
[[fr:15 avril]]
[[fy:15 april]]
[[ga:15 Aibreán]]
[[gl:15 de abril]]
[[he:15 באפריל]]
[[hr:15. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 15]]
[[ia:15 de april]]
[[id:15 April]]
[[ie:15 april]]
[[io:15 di aprilo]]
[[is:15. apríl]]
[[it:15 aprile]]
[[ja:4月15日]]
[[jv:15 April]]
[[ka:15 აპრილი]]
[[ko:4월 15일]]
[[ku:15'ê avrêlê]]
[[lb:15. Abrëll]]
[[li:15 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 15]]
[[mk:15 април]]
[[ms:15 April]]
[[nap:15 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:15 april]]
[[nn:15. april]]
[[no:15. april]]
[[oc:15 d'abril]]
[[pam:Abril 15]]
[[pl:15 kwietnia]]
[[pt:15 de Abril]]
[[ro:15 aprilie]]
[[ru:15 апреля]]
[[scn:15 di aprili]]
[[sco:15 Aprile]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 15.]]
[[simple:April 15]]
[[sk:15. apríl]]
[[sl:15. april]]
[[sq:15 Prill]]
[[sr:15. април]]
[[sv:15 april]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 15]]
[[th:15 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 15]]
[[tr:15 Nisan]]
[[tt:15. Äpril]]
[[uk:15 квітня]]
[[ur:15 اپریل]]
[[vi:15 tháng 4]]
[[wa:15 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 15]]
[[zh:4月15日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 30</title>
<id>1011</id>
<revision>
<id>41950790</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:04:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Durova</username>
<id>521374</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ adding</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=30}}
|}
'''April 30''' is the 120th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (121st in [[leap year]]s), with 245 days remaining, as the last day in April.
==Events==
*[[313]] - [[Roman emperor]] [[Licinius]] unifies the entire [[Eastern Roman Empire]] under his rule.
*[[711]] - [[Moors|Moorish]] troops led by [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] land at [[Gibraltar]] to begin their [[invasion]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Al-Andalus]]).
*[[1429]] - [[Joan of Arc]] arrives to relieve the [[Siege of Orléans]].
*[[1483]] - [[Orbit]]al calculations suggest that on this day [[Pluto]] moved inside [[Neptune]]'s orbit, making Neptune the furthest planet from the Sun until [[July 23]], [[1503]].
*[[1492]] - [[Spain]] gives [[Christopher Columbus]] his commission of exploration.
*[[1671]] - [[Petar Zrinski]], the [[Croatia]]n [[Ban (title)|Ban]] from the [[Zrinski]] family, is [[capital punishment|executed]].
* [[1794]] - The [[Battle of Boulou (1794)|Battle of Boulou]] is fought, in which [[France|French]] forces defeated the [[Spain|Spanish]] under General Union.
*[[1789]] - On the balcony of [[Federal Hall]] on [[Wall Street]] in [[New York City]], [[George Washington]] takes the oath of office to become the first elected [[President of the United States]].
*[[1803]] - [[Louisiana Purchase]]: The [[United States]] purchases the [[Louisiana]] Territory from [[France]] for $15 million, more than doubling &ndash; overnight &ndash; the size of the young nation.
*[[1812]] - The [[Territory of Orleans]] becomes the 18th [[U.S. state]] under the name [[Louisiana]].
*[[1838]] - [[Nicaragua]] declares independence from the [[Central American Federation]]
*[[1863]] - [[Mexican]] forces attacked the [[French Foreign Legion]] in Hacienda Camarón,[[Mexico]].
*[[1894]] - [[Coxey's Army]] reaches [[Washington, D.C.]] to protest the [[unemployment]] caused by the [[Panic of 1893]].
*[[1900]] - [[Hawaii]] becomes a territory of the [[United States]], with [[Sanford B. Dole]] as governor.
* 1900 - [[Casey Jones]] dies attempting to save the runaway train [[Cannonball Express]].
*[[1904]] - The [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] [[World's Fair]] opens in [[Saint Louis, Missouri]].
*[[1920]] - [[Peru]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1925]] - Automaker [[Dodge Brothers, Inc]] is sold to [[Dillon, Read & Company]] for [[USD]] $146 million plus $50 million for charity.
*[[1927]] - The [[Federal Industrial Institute for Women]], opens in [[Alderson, West Virginia]], as the first women's federal prison in the [[United States]].
*[[1938]] - The [[animated cartoon]] short ''[[Porky's Hare Hunt]]'' debuts in movie theaters, introducing [[Bugs Bunny]].
*[[1939]] - [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to appear on [[television]].
* 1939 - The [[1939 New York World's Fair]] opens.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Mincemeat]] &ndash; The submarine [[HMS Seraph (P219)|HMS ''Seraph'']] surfaces in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] off the coast of [[Spain]] to deposit a dead man planted with false invasion plans and dressed as a British military intelligence officer.
*[[1945]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Eva Braun]] commit suicide after being married for one day.
*[[1947]] - In [[Nevada]], the Boulder Dam is officially renamed [[Hoover Dam]] again.
*[[1948]] - In [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], the [[Organization of American States]] is established.
*[[1966]] - [[Anton LaVey]] founds the [[Church of Satan]].
*[[1973]] - [[Watergate Scandal]]: President [[Richard Nixon]] announces that top [[White House]] aids [[H.R. Haldeman]], [[John Ehrlichman]], and others have resigned.
*[[1975]] - Communist forces gains control of [[Saigon]]. The [[Vietnam War]] formally ends with the unconditional surrender of [[South Vietnam]]ese president [[Duong Van Minh]].
*[[1980]] - Accession of [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands]].
*[[1983]] - [[Michael Jackson]]'s song "[[Beat It]]" hits number 1 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] music charts.
*[[1988]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]] wins the thirty-third [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Switzerland]] singing "Ne partez pas sans moi" (Don't leave without me).
*[[1991]] - A [[1991 Bangladesh cyclone|tropical cyclone]] hits [[Bangladesh]] killing an estimated 138,000 people.
*[[1992]] - The last episode of the ''[[Cosby Show]]'' airs.
*[[1993]] - The [[World Wide Web]] was born at [[CERN]]
*[[1993]] - During a changeover at a [[tennis]] tournament in [[Hamburg, Germany]], [[Monica Seles]] is stabbed in the back by a deranged fan of rival [[Steffi Graf]]. Seles would not play competitively for more than two years after the incident.
*[[1994]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Paul Harrington]] & [[Charlie McGettigan]] win the thirty-ninth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for Ireland singing "Rock'n'Roll Kids".
*[[1995]] - U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] became the first U.S. President to visit [[Northern Ireland]].
*[[1997]] - [[Ellen DeGeneres]]'s character comes out of [[the closet]] on the sitcom [[Ellen (TV show)|Ellen]].
*[[1999]] - [[NATO]] membership expands by approving the admission of the [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]].
*1999 - [[Cambodia]] joins the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) bringing the total members to 10.
*1999 - [[Neo-nazi]] bomber [[David Copeland]] detonates his third bomb in front of the [[Admiral Duncan pub]] and is arrested the night after.
*2001 - [[Chandra Levy]], a former intern to [[California]] Congressman [[Gary Condit]], is last seen in [[Washington, D.C.]]
*[[2002]] - A [[referendum]] in [[Pakistan]] overwhelmingly approves the Presidency of [[Pervez Musharraf]] for another five years.
* 2002 - The law N26-РЗ "On the [[Flag of Udmurtia|National Flag of the Udmurt Republic]]" has appeared.
*[[2004]] - The last edition of [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s ''[[Morning Edition]]'' with [[Bob Edwards]] as host airs.
==Births==
*[[1586]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1617]])
*[[1602]] - [[William Lilly]], English astrologer (d. [[1681]])
*[[1623]] - [[François de Laval]], first bishop of New France (d. [[1708]])
*[[1651]] - [[Jean-Baptiste de la Salle]], French educational reformer (d. [[1719]])
*[[1662]] - Queen [[Mary II of England]] (d. [[1694]])
*[[1664]] - [[François Louis, Prince of Conti]], French general (d. [[1709]])
*[[1710]] - [[Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée]], Bavarian general (d. [[1795]])
*[[1723]] - [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]], French naturalist (d. [[1806]])
*[[1721]] - [[Roger Sherman]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1793]])
*[[1777]] - [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. [[1855]])
*[[1829]] - [[Ferdinand von Hochstetter]], Austrian geologist (d. [[1884]])
*[[1857]] - [[Eugene Bleuler]], Swiss psychiatrist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1865]] - [[Max Nettlau]], German anarchist and historian (d. [[1944]])
*[[1870]] - [[Franz Lehar]], Austrian composer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1876]] - [[Orso Mario Corbino]], Italian physicist (d. [[1937]])
*[[1877]] - [[Alice B. Toklas]], American companion of [[Gertrude Stein]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1883]] - [[Jaroslav Hasek|Jaroslav Ha&#353;ek]], Czech novelist (d. [[1923]])
*[[1893]] - [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]], Nazi foreign minister (d. [[1946]])
*[[1901]] - [[Simon Kuznets]], Ukrainian-born economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1985]])
*[[1902]] - [[Theodore Schultz]], American |
cular are the utterances of the great generalizers! &hellip; The most richly satisfying essays are those which make the best not of one, not of two, but of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist" (''Collected Essays'', "Preface").
==The essay as a pedagogical tool==
In recent times, essays have become one of the chief tools by which [[college]]s judge the mastery and comprehension of material, and they are sometimes used as a part of the criteria by which the student body is selected as well. Academic essays are usually more formal and present the writer's own views as well as the comprehensive analysis of what has previously been written on a topic.
Many students' first exposure to the genre is the "five-paragraph essay": a highly structured form requiring an introduction presenting the [[thesis statement]]; three body paragraphs, each of which presents an idea to support the thesis; and a conclusion, which restates the thesis and summarizes the supporting points. The form is controversial. It does allow the student writer to put some structure in place, at a stage when the main concern is mastering more "tactical level" issues such as unified paragraphs, transitions, thesis statements, and so forth, but its simplistic structure severely limits the author's range of expression.
Other common types of essays used for academic purposes include argumentative essays, definition essays, compare/contrast essays, and cause/effect essays.
Common subjects of academic essays include history, philosophy, psychology, and literature.
==Non-literary essays==
===Art===
In the visual [[art]]s, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch upon which a final painting or sculpture is based, made as a test of the work's composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those following, comes from the word ''essay'''s meaning of "attempt" or "trial").
===Music===
In the realm of [[music]], composer [[Samuel Barber]] wrote a set of "Essays for Orchestra," relying on the form and content of the music to guide the listener's ear, rather than any extra-musical plot or story.
===Film===
[[Film]] can also be used to produce the more subjective reflective attitude characteristic of essays. Important essay film makers include [[Chris Marker]], [[Guy Debord]], [[Raoul Peck]] and [[Harun Farocki]]. One working definition of the essay film is "documentary laced with self-portrait." Theoretical approaches to this genre can be found in the works of Michel Beaujour, Raymond Bellour and Roland Barthes. Other filmmakers who have been active in the essay film are [[Orson Welles]], Trinh T. Minh-ha, Hartmut Bitomski, Alexander Kluge, Jem Cohen, [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and Robert Kramer. Perhaps the original essay filmmaker was [[Dziga Vertov]].
===Photography===
A [[photography|photographic]] essay is an attempt to cover a topic by a series of photographs.
===Philately===
In [[philately]], an '''essay''' is a [[prototype]] for a proposed [[stamp]]. In contrast, a '''proof''' is the prototype of an accepted stamp. Both essays and proofs are rare, as usually just a few are produced. They are not sold publicly, but handled by insiders or held in postal museums or collections.
Possibly the first essay of a stamp not accepted is the [[Prince Consort Essay]] from [[1850]].
===Numismatics===
A [[numismatics|numismatic]] essay is a coin prototype proposed for general sale or circulation.
==Related terms==
*[[abstract (summary)]]
*[[Introduction (essay)|Introduction]]
*[[Body (writing)]]
*[[Book report]]
*[[conclusion]]
*[[plagiarism]]
==References==
* [[Theodor W. Adorno]], ''The Essay as Form'' in: Theodor W. Adorno, The Adorno Reader, Blackwell Publishers 2000
* Beaujour, Michel. Miroirs d'encre: Rhétorique de l'autoportrait. Paris: Seuil, 1980. [Poetics of the Literary Self-Portrait. Trans. Yara Milos. New York: NYU Press, 1991].
* Bensmaïa, Reda. The Barthes Effect: The Essay as Reflective Text. Trans. Pat Fedkiew. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1987.
== External links ==
* [http://www.theory.org.uk/david/essay.htm How to write an essay] - A short guide for university students by [[David Gauntlett]]
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/essay.html The Age of the Essay] by [[Paul Graham]]
* [http://www.uk-student.net/modules/wfsection/viewarticles.php?category=2 Guidance on Essay Writing]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/results?title=essay Essay eTexts] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.neilstoolbox.com/bibliography-creator/ Reference Generator] - generates references in the correct form
* [http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/essay.html English Tutoring and Writing Center] - guide to different kinds of essays
* [http://www3.baylor.edu/~Jesse_Airaudi/nothingwords.html How to Say Nothing in 500 Words] - Tips for writing good essays
[[Category:Literature]][[Category:Essays|*]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Error correction and detection</title>
<id>10375</id>
<revision>
<id>41285755</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T07:43:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.111.214.183</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Error correction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Forward error correction}}
In [[computer science]] and [[information theory]], the issue of '''error correction and detection''' has great practical importance. Error detection is the ability to detect errors that are made due to noise or other impairments in the
course of the transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction has the additional feature that
enables localization of the errors and correcting them.
Given the goal of error correction, the idea of error detection may seem to be insufficient. However, error-correction schemes may be computationally intensive, or require excessive redundant data which may be inhibitive for a certain application. Error correction in some applications, such as a sender-receiver system, can be achieved with only a detection system in tandem with an [[ARQ|automatic repeat request]] scheme to notify the sender that a portion of the data sent was received incorrectly and will need to be retransmitted, however where efficiency is important, it is possible to detect and correct errors with far less redundant data.
=== Typical schemes ===
Several schemes exist to achieve error detection, and are generally quite simple.
==== Repetition schemes ====
Variations on this theme exist. Given a stream of data that is to be sent, the data is broken up into blocks of bits, and in sending, each block is sent some predetermined number of times. For example, if we want to send "1011", we may repeat this block three times each.
Suppose we send "1011 1011 1011", and this is received as "1010 1011 1011". As one group is not the same as the other two, we can determine that an error has occurred. This scheme is not very efficient, and can be susceptible to problems if the error occurs in exactly the same place for each group (e.g. "1010 1010 1010" in the example above will be detected as correct in this scheme).
The scheme however is extremely simple, and is in fact used in some transmissions of [[numbers station]]s.
==== Parity schemes ====
:''Main article'': [[Parity bit]]
Given a stream of data that is to be sent, the data is broken up into blocks of bits, and the number of 1 bits is counted. Then, a "parity bit" near the block is set or cleared if the number of one bits is odd or even. If the tested blocks overlap, then the parity bits can be used to isolate the error, and even correct it if the error is isolated to one bit: This is the principle of the [[Hamming code]].
There is a limitation to parity schemes. A parity bit is only guaranteed to detect single bit errors. If two or more bits have an error, the parity bit can record the correct number of ones, even though the data is corrupt.
==== Cyclic redundancy checks ====
: ''Main article'': [[Cyclic redundancy check]]
Many more complex error detection (and correction) methods make use of the properties of finite fields and polynomials over such fields.
The cyclic redundancy check considers a block of data as the coefficients to a polynomial and then divides by a fixed, predetermined polynomial. The coefficients of the result of the division is taken as the redundant data bits, the CRC.
* Checking the received data can be achieved by multiplying the predetermined polynomial by the CRC.
* If this is the same as the payload data, then the data has been received without error.
* Alternatively, one can recompute the CRC from the payload bits and compare the CRC with the CRC that has been received.
== Error correction ==
The above methods are sufficient to determine whether some data has been received in error. But often, this is not enough. Consider an application such as [[simplex]] teletype over radio ([[SITOR]]). If a message needs to be received quickly and needs to be complete without error, merely knowing where the errors occurred may not be enough, the second condition is not satisfied as the message will be incomplete. Suppose then the receiver waits for a message to be repeated (since the situation is simplex), the first condition is not satisfied since the receiver will have to wait (possibly a long time) for the message to be repeated to fill the gaps left by the errors.
It would be advantageous if the ''receiver'' could somehow determine what the error was and thus correct it. Is this eve |
usand times worse."
Even the political fall-out was seen in "High Water" and "Summer Days"; the former featured verses like "Well, George Lewis told the Englishman, the Italian and the Jew/'You can't open your mind, boys, to every conceivable point of view'/They got Charles Darwin trapped out there on Highway Five/Judge says to the High Sheriff, 'I want him dead or alive/Either one, I don't care" while the latter had "Politician got on his jogging shoes/He must be running for office, got no time to lose/He been suckin' the blood out of the genius of generosity."
Such interpretations quickly became fashionable, but as other important events have taken shape and the attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center recede into history, it's uncertain how long these interpretations will last. In an interview conducted by Alan Jackson for ''The Times'' Magazine in 2001, before the album was released, Dylan said "these so-called connoisseurs of Bob Dylan music...I don't feel they know a thing, or have any inkling of who I am and what I’m about. I know they think they do, and yet it’s ludicrous, it's humorous, and sad. That such people have spent so much of their time thinking about who? Me? Get a life, please. It’s not something any one person should do about another. You’re not serving your own life well. You’re wasting your life."
By 2002, Dylan's touring band (the same unit which played on ''"Love and Theft"'') began to change. Kemper left, replaced by George Receli. This configuration was featured in Dylan's next project, ''[[Masked & Anonymous]]'', but soon after, Charlie Sexton left the band. Larry Campbell would later follow. As of 2005, only bassist Tony Garnier remains.
In August 2003, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' had a front page article detailing allegations of plagiarism in lyrics found in ''"Love and Theft"''. A number of lines were apparently taken from <u>Confessions of a Yakuza: A Life in Japan's Underworld</u>, a Japanese book written by Junichi Saga. Translated to English by John Bester, the book was a biography of one of the last traditional Yakuza bosses in Japan.
In the article published in the ''Journal'', a line from "Floater" ("I'm not quite as cool or forgiving as I sound") was traced to a line in the book, which said "I'm not as cool or forgiving as I might have sounded." A number of other examples were listed, all of which can be found at http://www.dylanchords.com/41_lat/textual_sources.htm
The story caused a brief stir, but little came out of it. Saga told the Associated Press that he was ecstatic to have inspired such a well-known songwriter. Saga later told his publisher, Tokyo-based Kodansha International, that he had "absolutely no plans to sue," but he did add that he would haved prefered to be credited as a source for Dylan's songs. "Why would I sue? To take something that made people around the world happy and try to exploit it for money -- that's poverty," Saga said. "This shows that people in other countries can relate to the harsh realities of prewar Japan, which was a poor, struggling nation. I'm just happy someone read my book and liked it."
The case was never brought to court, but it did raise some questions regarding 'fair use' and copyright infringement. For one, the book claimed to be an unauthorized memoir of a Yakuza's life, drawn from his own words without permission. Furthermore, every journalist noted the title ''"Love and Theft"'' was a blatant acknowledgement of 'theft' in music and pop culture, one of the peripheral themes of the album. (Before it was officially released, it was widely acknowledged that the title was also based on Lott's book.)
==Track listing==
All songs by Bob Dylan.
#"Tweedle Dee & Tweedle Dum" - 4:46
#"Mississippi" - 5:21
#"Summer Days" - 4:52
#"Bye and Bye" - 3:16
#"Lonesome Day Blues" - 6:05
#"Floater (Too Much to Ask)" - 4:59
#"High Water (For Charlie Patton)" - 4:04
#"Moonlight" - 3:23
#"Honest with Me" - 5:49
#"Po' Boy" - 3:05
#"Cry a While" - 5:05
#"Sugar Baby" - 6:40
==Trivia==
*The lyrics to Summer Days, ''She says, "You can't repeat the past." I say, "You can't? What do you mean, you can't? Of course you can"'' are a reference to [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s novel [[The Great Gatsby]] which includes the following dialogue: "'Can't repeat the past?' he cried incredulously. 'Why of course you can!'" However, no potential court case came out of ''this''.
==Personnel==
*Bob Dylan - vocals, guitar, piano
*[[Larry Campbell (musician)|Larry Campbell]] - guitar, banjo, mandolin, violin
*[[Charlie Sexton]] - guitar
*[[Tony Garnier (musician)|Tony Garnier]] - bass
*[[Augie Meyers]] - accordion, Hammond B3 & Vox organs
*[[David Kemper]] - drums
*[[Clay Meyers]] - bongos
{{Bob Dylan}}
[[Category:2001 albums|Love and Theft]][[Category:Bob Dylan albums|Love and Theft]][[Category:Columbia Records albums|Love and Theft]]
[[fr:Love and Theft]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Beverly Hillbillies</title>
<id>3376</id>
<revision>
<id>41747843</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:27:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.239.9.103</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the TV series. There is also an article about the [[The Beverly Hillbillies (1993 movie)|motion picture of the same title]].}}
[[Image:Hillbillies1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''The Beverly Hillbillies'']]
'''''The Beverly Hillbillies''''' is a [[television program|TV]] [[situation comedy|sitcom]] about a [[hillbilly]] family living in modern urban society.
The patriarch strikes [[petroleum|oil]] while [[hunting]] on his land near fictional Bugtussle. He then listens to the advice of friends, neighbors and extended family members, and moves with his family to [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]], [[California]], with the resultant [[wealth]].
A [[Filmways, Inc.|Filmways]] production, the series aired on [[CBS]] from [[September 26]], [[1962 in television|1962]] to [[September 7]], [[1971 in television|1971]].
Despite its being panned by [[critic]]s, ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' shot to the top of the [[Nielsen Ratings]] shortly after its premiere and stayed there for several seasons. It was high in the ratings throughout most of its run.
==Background==
The series starred [[Buddy Ebsen]] as the widowed patriarch, Jedidiah "Jed" Clampett; [[Irene Ryan]] as his mother-in-law, Granny (Daisy Moses); [[Donna Douglas]] as his daughter, Elly May; [[Max Baer, Jr.]] as his nephew, Jethro Bodine, (sometimes playing Jethro's twin sister, Jethrene, on early shows); [[Raymond Bailey]] as Jed's greedy banker, Milburn Drysdale; [[Harriet E. MacGibbon]] as Drysdale's snobbish wife, Margaret; and [[Nancy Kulp]] as Drysdale's [[secretary]], Miss Jane Hathaway, who pined for the clueless Jethro.
In the beginning, Jed's cousin, Pearl (Jethro's mother, played by [[Bea Benaderet]]), also appeared.
The [[Theme music|theme song]], "[[The Ballad of Jed Clampett]]," ([[Media:Ballad of Jed Clampett.ogg|listen]]) was written by producer and writer [[Paul Henning]] and originally performed by [[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] artists [[Flatt and Scruggs]]. It was #44 on the music [[Billboard magazine|charts]] in [[1962 in music|1962]]. Flatt and Scruggs made several guest appearances as themselves, and as potential suitors for Pearl.
==Unusual storylines==
Most storylines revolved around the clash between the "uncivilized" hillbilly [[culture]] the Clampetts represented and the "civilized" [[United States|American]] culture the Drysdales represented. The Clampetts lived as they always had, even in their large, elegant mansion, never abandoning their mountain attire or replacing the old rattletrap truck that they moved to California in. They continued to grow their own food; and Granny made [[Sodium hydroxide|lye]] [[soap]] and [[moonshine]].
A running theme during the series involved the outlandish efforts Mr. Drysdale took to keep the Clampetts in Beverly Hills (and their money in his bank). Such desires to return to the mountains were often prompted by Granny after some perceived slight she received from the "city-folk" around them. Drysdale went so far as to recreate the [[log cabin]] the Clampetts lived in and place it right next to the swimming pool and the [[still]] Granny had installed to make [[moonshine]] ("for medicinal purposes").
==Characters==
Although having little formal education, Jed had good common sense, Granny had insights into human nature, and Elly May was a strong capable girl. However Jethro, was incredibly ignorant and self centered. Granny styled herself an "M.D." - "mountain doctor" - claiming to have a complete knowledge of [[herbs]], potions and tonics. Elly May had a deep rapport with all animals and adopted a great diversity of them, including [[raccoon]]s and a [[chimpanzee]], as her "critters." Another running joke was her poor culinary skills; the results were not only inedible but, when the clan discreetly fed her meals to the backyard plants as so not to hurt her feelings, the plants died.
Elly May was as stunningly [[beauty|beautiful]] as she was naïve, and was squired about by eager young [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] [[actor]]s with [[stage name]]s like "Dash Riprock" and "Bolt Upright." (Obvious puns on the actors [[Rock Hudson]] and [[Rip Torn]].) Jethro called himself "Beef Jerky," imagining himself a [[playboy]] and sophisticated man-about-town. He was particula |
shed so that Trudeau could bring the strip to [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
*In June [[1985]], a series of strips includes photos of [[Frank Sinatra]] associated with a number of people with [[mafia]] connections, one alongside text from President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s speech awarding Sinatra the [[Medal of Freedom]].
*In January [[1987]], politicians are again declared "Guilty, guilty, guilty." This time it is [[Donald Regan]], [[John Poindexter]] and [[Oliver North]], referring to their roles in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
*In June 1989, several days' comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, due to the humor of the strips being considered in bad taste in light of the mass murder of democracy demonstators in [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square]] in [[Beijing]], [[China]].
*In May 1990, the storyline included the death due to [[AIDS]] of Andy Lippincott.
*In November [[1991]], a series of strips implies that former Vice-President [[Dan Quayle]] has connections with drug-dealers.
*In December [[1992]], ''Working Woman'' magazine names two characters (Joanie Caucus and Lacey Davenport) as role models for women.
*In November [[1993]], a story line dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers.
*In June [[1994]], the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book ''Same-Sex Unions in Premodern Europe'' by [[John Boswell]]. A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the ''Pentagraph'' from Bloomington, Illinois, refused to run the entire series.
*In March [[1995]], [[John McCain]] denounces Trudeau on the floor of the [[United States Senate|Senate]], "hold[ing] him in utter contempt" for a strip about [[Bob Dole]]'s strategy of exploiting his war record in his [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|presidential campaign]]. (McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to ''The Long Road Home'', Trudeau's collection of comic strips dealing with B.D.'s leg amputation during the second Iraq war.)
* Later in [[1995]] Mark, a gay character from the strip, was seen in the final days of Berke Breathed's comic ''[[Outland (comic)|Outland]]'' heading off with a main character from that series, the previously-heterosexual Steve Dallas.
*In February [[1998]], a strip dealing with [[Bill Clinton]]'s [[Monica Lewinsky|sex scandal]] was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers because it included the phrases "[[oral sex]]" and "semen-streaked dress".
*In November [[2000]], a strip was not run in some newspapers when Duke says of then-Presidential candidate [[George W. Bush]]: "He's got a history of alcohol abuse and [[cocaine]]."
*In September [[2001]], a strip perpetuated the Internet hoax that claimed [[George W. Bush]] had the lowest IQ of any president in the last 50 years, half that of [[Bill Clinton]]. When caught repeating the hoax, Trudeau apologized for "unsettling anyone who was under the impression that the President is, in fact, quite intelligent."
*In 2003 a cartoon that publicised the recent medical discovery that [[masturbation]] reduces the risk of [[colon cancer]], alluding to [[masturbation]] as "self-dating", was not run in many papers.
*February 2004: Trudeau used his strip to make the apparently genuine offer of $10,000 for anyone who can personally confirm that [[George W. Bush]] was actually present during a part of his service in the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. As of [[2006]], the offer remains unclaimed.
* April 2004: On [[April 21]], after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw B.D.'s head without some sort of helmet. In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the [[U.S.-led occupation of Iraq]]. Later that month, after awakening and discovering his situation, B.D. exclaims "SON OF A ''BITCH!!!''" The single strip was removed from many papers.
*May 2004: two Sunday strips are published containing only the names of soldiers killed in the War in Iraq.
*[[7 March]] [[2005]]: Begins serial memorializing the death of [[Hunter S. Thompson]].
*July 2005: Several newspapers decline to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser [[Karl Rove]] as "[[Turd Blossom]]," a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove.
* The strips scheduled to run from [[31 October]] to [[5 November]] 2005 and a Sunday strip scheduled for [[13 November]] about the nomination of [[Harriet Miers]] to the Supreme Court were withdrawn suddenly after her nomination was. The strips have been posted on the official website {{ref|www.doonesbury.com.963}}, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate.
==Criticism==
[[Conservative]]s have long called for the censorship of ''Doonesbury''. Several examples are cited in the [[#Milestones|Milestones]] section. The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication. In another example, when Lacy Davenport's husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits, apparently not understanding the context, called the strip blasphemous. The sequence of Dick Davenport's final bird-watching and fatal heart attack were run in November 1986.
''Doonesbury'' has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years. Outspoken critics have included members of every US Presidential administration since Richard Nixon's. There have also been other politicians who did not view the way that ''Doonesbury'' portrayed them very favorably, including former U.S. House Speaker Thomas "Tip" O'Neill and former California Governor Jerry Brown.
The strip has also met controversy over every military conflict it has dealt with, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars. When ''Doonesbury'' ran the names of soldiers who had died in Iraq since the 2003 invasion, conservative commentators accused Garry Trudeau of using the American dead to make a profit for himself, and again demanded that the strip be removed from newspapers.
After many letter writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics. In [[2005]], [[Continental Features]] gave in to their demands, and refused to continue printing the Sunday Doonesbury, causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed. Of the 38, only one newspaper ''[[The Anniston Star]]'' in [[Anniston]], [[Alabama]], continued to carry the Sunday Doonesbury, though of necessity in black and white.
==Awards and honors==
*In [[1975]] the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored.
*Trudeau received "Certificates of Achievement" from the [[US Army]] 4th Battalion 67th Armor Division and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War. The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection ''Welcome to Club Scud!''
*Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in [[1995]]. [http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards2.asp]
*Trudeau was awarded the [[US Army]]'s [[Commander's Award for Public Service]] in [[2006]] for his series of strips about BD's recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq. [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001919927]
== Trivia ==
* Long time supporting character Jim Andrews, and the company he works for (Universal Petroleum) were named by Trudeau after his first editor at Universal Press Syndicate, Jim Andrews. The book ''The People's Doonesbury'' is dedicated in memory of Andrews.
* [[Enzo Baldoni]], the strip's long time Italian translator and a personal friend of G. B. Trudeau was kidnapped and killed in Iraq where he was an independent reporter at the end of August 2004, in a tragic resemblance of what happened to B. D.
== Published collections ==
''See: [[List of published collections of Doonesbury]]''
== Notes ==
# {{Note|AmHumor511}} {{cite book | author=Blair, Walter and Hamlin Hill | title=America's Humor: From Poor Richard to Doonesbury | edition=First paperback edition | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1980 | id=ISBN 0-19-502756-6 | pages=Page 511}}
# {{Note|Flashbacks_Oct76}} Article originally published in the Brunswick, NJ, ''Home News'', [[10 October]] [[1976]]. Reprinted on the ''Doonesbury Flashbacks'' CD-ROM.
# {{note|www.doonesbury.com.963}} {{cite web | title=Doonesbury@Slate - Miers' Strips | url=http://www.doonesbury.com/strip/miers.html | accessdate=November 19 | accessyear=2005 }}
== References ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Garry Trudeau | last = Trudeau | first = Garry | title=Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy | publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0517054914}}
* Trudeau, Garry, ''Doonesbury Flashbacks'' CD-ROM for Microsoft Windows. Published by Mindscape, 1995.
* [http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]
== External links ==
* [http://www.doonesbury.com/ Doonesbury home page]
* {{imdb title|id=0075953|title=The Doonesbury Special (1977)}}
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Doonesbury|*]]
[[it:Doonesbury]]
[[ja:ドゥーンズベリー]]
[[sv:Doonesbury]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dice</title>
<id>8244</id>
<revision>
<id>42132471</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:03:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>196.40.10.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Standard variations */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses, see either [[Die]] or [[Dice (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Wuerfel5.jpg|thumb|200px|Typical role-playing dice, showing a var |
ding to the [[Big Bang]] theory, the [[universe]] emerged from an extremely dense and hot state (bottom). Since then, space itself has expanded with the passage of time, carrying the galaxies with it.]]
In [[physical cosmology]], the '''Big Bang''' is the [[science|scientific]] [[Theory#science|theory]] that the [[universe|universe]] emerged from an enormously [[density|dense]] and [[temperature|hot]] state about 13.7 billion years ago. The Big Bang is a consequence of the observed [[Hubble's law]] [[velocity|velocities]] of [[Cosmic distance ladder|distant]] [[galaxy|galaxies]] that when taken together with the [[cosmological principle]] imply that [[metric space|space]] is expanding according to the [[Robertson-Walker coordinates|Friedmann-Lemaître model]] of [[general relativity]]. [[Extrapolation|Extrapolated]] into the past, these [[observation]]s show that the universe has expanded from a state in which all the [[matter]] and [[energy]] in the universe was at an immense temperature and density. [[physics|Physicists]] do not widely agree on what happened before this, although general relativity predicts a [[gravitational singularity]] (for reporting on some of the more notable speculation on this issue, see [[cosmogony]]).
The term ''Big Bang'' is used both in a narrow sense to refer to a point in time when the observed expansion of the universe ([[Hubble's law]]) began&mdash;calculated to be 13.7 [[billion]] ([[1 E17 s|1.37 × 10<sup>10</sup>]]) years ago&mdash;and in a more general sense to refer to the prevailing cosmological [[paradigm]] explaining the origin and expansion of the universe, as well as the composition of primordial matter through [[nucleosynthesis]] as predicted by the [[Alpher-Bethe-Gamow theory]] {{ref|ABGtheory}}.
One consequence of the Big Bang is that the conditions of today's universe are different from the conditions in the past or in the future. From this [[Model (abstract)|model]], [[George Gamow]] in 1948 was able to predict, at least qualitatively, the existence of [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) {{ref|GammowCMB}}. The CMB was discovered in the 1960s and further validated the Big Bang theory over its chief rival, the [[steady state theory]].<br clear="right"/>
{{Cosmology}}
==History==
{{main|History of the Big Bang}}
The Big Bang theory developed from observations and theoretical considerations. Observationally, it was determined that most spiral nebulae were receding from Earth, but those who made the observation weren't aware of the cosmological implications, nor that the supposed nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own [[Milky Way]]{{ref|Slipher}}. In 1927, the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] priest [[Georges Lemaître]] independently derived the [[Friedmann equations|Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations]] from [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[Einstein equation|equations]] of [[general relativity]] and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral [[nebula]]e, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval [[atom]]"&mdash;what was later called the Big Bang{{ref|Lemaitre}}.
In 1929, [[Edwin Hubble]] provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. He discovered that, relative to the Earth, the galaxies are receding in every direction at speeds directly proportional to their distance from the Earth. This fact is now known as [[Hubble's law]] {{ref|Christianson}}. Given the [[cosmological principle]] whereby the universe, when viewed on sufficiently large distance scales, has no preferred directions or preferred places, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding contradicting the infinite and unchanging [[static universe]] scenario developed by Einstein.
This idea allowed for two opposing possibilities. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by [[George Gamow]]. The other possibility was [[Fred Hoyle]]'s [[steady state model]] in which new matter would be created as the galaxies moved away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time{{ref|steadystate}}. It was actually Hoyle who coined the name of Lemaître's theory, referring to it sarcastically as "this ''big bang'' idea" during a program broadcast on [[March 28]], [[1949]] by the [[BBC]] [[Third Programme]]. Hoyle repeated the term in further broadcasts in early 1950, as part of a series of five lectures entitled ''[[The Nature of Things]]''. The text of each lecture was published in ''[[The Listener (British magazine)|The Listener]]'' a week after the broadcast, the first time that the term "big bang" appeared in print. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309093139/html/136.html]
For a number of years the support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. Since the discovery of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] in [[1965]] it has been regarded as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Virtually all theoretical work in cosmology now involves extensions and refinements to the basic Big Bang theory. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding what happened at the Big Bang, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.
Huge advances in Big Bang cosmology were made in the late 1990s and the early 21st century as a result of major advances in [[telescope]] technology in combination with large amounts of satellite data such as that from [[COBE]], the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] and [[WMAP]]. Such data has allowed cosmologists to calculate many of the parameters of the Big Bang to a new level of precision and led to the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating. (See [[dark energy]].)
See also: '''[[Timeline of cosmology]]'''
== Overview ==
{{External_Timeline|Graphical timeline of the Big Bang|Graphical timeline of the Big Bang}}
Based on measurements of the expansion of the universe using [[Type I supernova|Type Ia supernova]]e, measurements of the lumpiness of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]], and measurements of the [[correlation function]] of galaxies, the universe has a calculated [[Age of the universe|age]] of [[1 E17 s|13.7 ± 0.2 billion years]]. The agreement of these three independent measurements is considered strong evidence for the so-called [[Lambda-CDM model|ΛCDM model]] that describes the detailed nature of the contents of the universe.
The early universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high [[energy]] density and concomitantly huge [[temperature]]s and [[pressure]]s. It expanded and cooled, going through [[phase transition]]s analogous to the condensation of steam or freezing of water as it cools, but related to elementary particles.
Approximately 10<sup>-35</sup> seconds after the [[Planck epoch]] a phase transition caused the universe to experience [[exponential growth]] during a period called [[cosmic inflation]]. After inflation stopped, the material components of the universe were in the form of a [[quark-gluon plasma]] (also including all other particles&mdash;and perhaps experimentally produced recently as a quark-gluon liquid [http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/728-1.html]) in which the constituent particles were all moving [[relativity|relativistically]]. As the universe continued growing in size, the temperature dropped. At a certain temperature, by an as-yet-unknown transition called [[baryogenesis]], the quarks and gluons combined into [[baryon]]s such as protons and neutrons, somehow producing the observed [[asymmetry]] between [[matter]] and [[antimatter]]. Still lower temperatures led to further [[symmetry breaking]] phase transitions that put the [[fundamental force|forces of physics]] and [[particle physics|elementary particles]] into their present form. Later, some protons and neutrons combined to form the universe's [[deuterium]] and [[helium]] [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] in a process called [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]]. As the universe cooled, matter gradually stopped moving relativistically and its [[rest mass]] energy density came to [[gravity|gravitationally]] dominate that of [[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]. After about 300,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly [[hydrogen]]); hence the radiation [[decoupling|decoupled]] from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is the cosmic microwave background.
Over time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, [[star]]s, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today. The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe. The three possible types are known as [[cold dark matter]], [[hot dark matter]], and [[baryonic matter]]. The best measurements available (from [[WMAP]]) show that the dominant form of matter in the universe is cold dark matter. The other two types of matter make up less than 20% of the matter in the universe.
The universe today appears to be dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as [[dark energy]]. Approximately 70% of the total energy density of today's universe is in this form. This component of the universe's composition is revealed by its property of causing the [[Hubble Law|expansion of the universe]] to deviate from a linear velocity-distance relationship by causing [[spacetime]] to expand faster than expected at very large distances. Dark energy in its simplest formation takes the form of a [[cosmological constant]] term in [[Einstein's field equation]]s of general relativity, but its composition is unknown and, m |
erleading clinics. The National Cheerleading Association held its first clinic in [[1949]] with 52 girls in attendance. The next year, the clinic had grown to 350 cheerleaders. By the [[1950s]], most American high schools had formed cheerleading squads.
By the [[1960s]], cheerleading had grown to be a staple in American high school and collegiate sports. Organized cheerleading competitions began to crop up with the first ranking of the "Top Ten College Cheerleading Squads" and "Cheerleader All America" awards given out by the International Cheerleading Foundation (now the World Cheerleading Association or WCA) in 1967. In 1978, America was introduced to competitive cheerleading by the first broadcast of Collegiate Cheerleading Championships on [[CBS]].
In the 1960s [[National Football League]] (NFL) teams began to organize professional cheerleading teams. It was the [[Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders]] who gained the spotlight with their revealing outfits and sophisticated dance moves, which debuted in the 1972-1973 season, but were first seen widely in [[Super Bowl X]] ([[1976]]). This caused the image of cheerleaders to permanently change, with many other NFL teams emulating them.
The [[1980s]] saw the onset of modern cheerleading with more difficult stunts and gymnastics being incorporated into routines. Cheerleading organizations started applying safety guidelines and offering courses on safety training for coaches and sponsors. In 1984, Cheer Ltd. Inc. (sic) established the National Cheer Conference (NCC) for cheer coaches to receive instruction and hands-on course work in cheerleading techniques. AACCA is the nationally recognized safety organization, conducting safety courses since 1987. A more recent organization to conduct safety courses is the NCSSE.
The spirit industry leaders were united with the unprecedented [[2004]] establishment of SITA, the Spirit Industry Trade Association. Founded by leaders of nine major cheerleading companies including American Championships, America's Best, AmeriCheer, Athletic Championships, Atlantic Cheer & Dance, Cheer Ltd. Inc, COA, ECA, and UPA, the industry trade association includes both cheerleading companies, affiliate companies, and safety organizations. Another trade organization, OSIP, the Organization of Spirit Industry Providers, consists of over 33 member organizations including Universal Cheerleaders Association, National Spirit Association, USASF, Fellowship of Christian Cheerleaders, Ross Athletic, CheerSPORT and others.
Today, cheerleading has grown to an estimated 4 million participants in the United States alone.
[[Image:CheerleadingStunt,UTEP,29November2005.jpg|thumb|[[UTEP]] [[cheerleader]]s (orange uniforms) in a [[stunt]] for the renaming of [[Glory Road (film)|Glory Road]] on the campus, November 29, 2005. The [[Golddigger]]s ([[pompon]] girls -- black and white uniforms) are to the front. ]]
==Safety==
The [[August]] [[2005]] death of Ashley Burns, a 14 year old cheerleader, while practicing a stunt, drew attention to the risks in the development of cheerleading stunts, even though Burns actually died due to the reopening of pre-existing internal injuries. Fatalities and serious injuries are extremely rare in cheerleading. In the United States since [[1991]], only two deaths have been confirmed as being caused by cheerleading.
The National Federation of High Schools, Universal Cheerleaders Association, and the American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors joined together to develop and promote the NF Coaches Education Program. On the college level, the [[NCAA]] has required all college cheerleading coaches are AACCA safety certified by August 1, [[2006]].
==Motions/Jumps==
*Common cheerleading motions are high V, low V, half-high and half-low Vs, diagonals, K's, L's, T's, broken T's, touchdowns, low touchdowns, tabletops, and punches. The motions always need to be sharp and precise so that the cheerleaders do not look sloppy.
*'''Toe Touch''' is a jump with legs straddled, and straight, toes pointed, knees up or back, and the arms in a T motion. This is the most common jump.
*'''Hurdler''' The straight leg is either forward (a front hurdler) with arms in a touchdown, or out to the side (a side hurdler) with arms in a T. The bent knee faces the crowd.
*'''Pike''' is among the most difficult of jumps. Both legs are straight out, knees locked. Arms are in a touchdown motion out in front to create a folded position in the air. This is often performed at a ninety-degree angle to the audience in order to show off the air position.
*'''Around the World''' is a jump where the performer hits a pike and then whips his or her legs quickly back around into a toe touch. This jump is regarded as difficult to accomplish, because two positions must be reached in the very short time while the jumper is in the air.
*'''Herkie''', named for Lawrence R. Herkimer, the founder of the National Cheerleader's Association, is similar to a side-hurdler, except that instead of both arms being in a "T" motion, both arms are opposite of what the leg beneath them is doing. Example of this would be the straight arm would be on the side of the bent leg, and the bent arm is on the side of the straight leg. One other variation of this includes the bent leg is pointing straight down, instead of out like the side-hurdler. The jump is speculated to have been invented because Herkie wasn't able to do an actual side-hurdler.
*'''Double Nine''' is a jump similar to a pike except one leg and one arm are bent in to form two "nines".
*'''Double Hook''' is a jump where the legs are in the "cheer sit" position.
==Stunting==
[[Image:Cheer stunt.jpg|thumb|right|Cheerleaders perform a stunt for parade watchers. The flyer does a full twist in the air as the bases prepare to catch her.]]
*A '''stunt''' involves one or more bases holding or tossing a cheerleader in the air.
*'''Flyers''' are cheerleaders held or tossed in the air.
*'''Bases''' are the cheerleaders who hold and toss the flyers.
*'''Backspots''' are cheerleaders who stand behind the flyer and the bases that have three duties: 1. To make sure that the stunt does not fall and to help catch the flyer if it does fall. 2. To help the bases by lifting some of the flyer's weight, making the stunt more stable and less heavy for the bases. 3. To help ensure the safe dismount of the flyer from the stunt. Back spots are not used with "partner stunts."
*'''Frontspots''' have similar duties to backspots, but are generally used by younger teams or more inexperienced squards.
*'''Pyramids''' are multiple groups of stunts, connected aerially by their flyers. This connection may be made in a variety of ways, from a simple linking of hands to having a multi-level pyramid, with the flyers already in the air acting as primary bases for another flyer or flyers on top of them.
==Tumbling==
*In competition and most collegiate level cheerleading, [[tumbling]] is a requirement. The most basic tumbling is a cartwheel or a round off. The more difficult skills are back [[Handspring (Gymnastics)|handsprings]] and round off back handsprings. Other more advanced skills include: back tucks, layouts, twisting layouts (fulls), and front tumbling, such as front handsprings, and punch fronts.
==Cheers/Chants==
Every sideline cheerleading team has their "signature" cheers and chants. Most of the time the cheerleaders and coaches come up with these cheers/chants, although there are a few professional specialists, such as [[Krazy George Henderson]]. Cheers are often longer than chants and usually incorporate jumps, tumbling, or stunting. Chants are short and repetitive and usually involve crowd participation.
==All-Star Competitive Cheerleading==
In the early [[1990s]], cheerleading teams not associated with schools or sports leagues, whose main objective is competition, started to emerge. All-star cheerleading involves a squad of anywhere between 3-30+ females and/or males. The squad prepares year-round, but they only actually perform for up to 2 1/2 minutes in their competitions. The numbers of competitions a team participates in varies from team to team, but generally, most teams tend to participate in 6 or 7 competitions a year. During a competition, a squad covers everything from stunting to tumbling to dancing. There is custom music for the entire routine. Teams apply an 8 count system to the music so the team members know how long stunts need to be held, when they are supposed to do their tumbling, the order the pyramid is assembled, and when specific dance moves are to be performed.
All-star teams are operated out of [[gymnastics]] facilities, or cheer gyms, which are entire gyms built to facilitate the needs of competitive cheerleaders.
All-star competitive cheerleaders are placed into divisions which are grouped based upon age and ability level. Judges at the competition watch for illegal moves from the group or any of its members. Here, an illegal move is something that is not allowed in that division, due to difficulty and safety restrictions. More generally, judges look at the difficulty and execution of stunts and tumbling, synchronization, the sharpness of the motions in the dance, as well as the cheer (if applicable), and overall routine execution.
All-star cheerleading is a relatively young sport. The US All Star Federation (USASF) has emerged as the preeminent organization for all-star teams and gyms. Companies that run competitions include AmeriCheer, U.S. Spirit, Universal Cheerleading Association (UCA), National Cheerleading Association (NCA, the very first), Cheer Ltd. Inc, American Cheer Power, Cheerleaders of America (COA), World Spirit Federation (WSF), JAMfest Cheer and Dance, FCC (Fellowship of Christian Cheerleaders), CHEERSPORT, and many more.
Competitive cheerleading is a major time |
Colonel]], he accompanied his division to [[India]]. The next year, his elder brother, [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington]], was appointed [[Governor-General of India]], and when the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] broke out from 1798 against the Sultan of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Tipu Sultan]], Arthur Wellesley commanded a division of his own. While serving in that capacity, he was appointed Governor of [[Seringapatam]] and [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], positions he held until 1805. He commanded the (always outnumbered) British army at [[Battle of Assaye|Assaye]], [[Argaon|Argaum]], and stormed the fortress at [[Gawilghur]]. Through his own skill as a commander, and the bravery of his Scotch troops, the Indians were defeated at every engagement, and, following the successful conclusion of that campaign, he was appointed to the supreme military and political command in the [[Deccan]]; while in that position he defeated the robber chieftain Dhundia Wagh (who had ironically escaped from prison in [[Seringapatam]] during the last battle of the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars|Mysore war]]) and also the [[Marathas]] (in 1803). In 1804, he was created a [[Order of the Bath|Knight of the Bath]], which would be the first of numerous [[British honours system|honours]] throughout his life. When his brother's term as [[Governor-General of India]] ended in 1805, the brothers returned together to England, where they were forced to defend their imperialistic (and expensive) employment of the British forces in India.
Wellesley was elected MP for [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] (in the [[British House of Commons]]) for six months in 1806; a year later, he was elected MP for [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]] on the [[Isle of Wight]], a constituency he would represent for two years. During this time, he was an established [[Tory]], and in April 1807 (while representing [[St Michael]]), he was invested a [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellor]]. Additionally, he served as [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]] for some time. However, his political life would soon come to an abrupt end, and he would sail to Europe to participate in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].
==Napoleonic Wars==
[[Image:Goyawellington.jpeg|frame|right|Portrait of the Duke of Wellington by [[Francisco de Goya]], 1812-14.]]
It was in the following years that Wellesley undertook the events that made his place in history. Since 1789, [[France]] had been embroiled in the [[French Revolution]], and after seizing the government in 1799, Napoleon had reached the heights of power in Europe. The British government was casting about for ways to end Napoleon's threat; and Wellesley helped to supply them.
First came junior command in an expedition to [[Denmark]] in [[1807]], which soon led to Wellesley's promotion to [[Lieutenant-General]] and a transfer to the theatre of the [[Peninsular War]]. Although that war was not going particularly well, it was the one place where the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and the British had managed to put up a fight on the European mainland against France and her allies. (The disastrous [[Walcheren expedition]] was typical of the misfired British expeditions of the time.) Wellesley had submitted a memorandum to [[Lord Castlereagh]] on the defense of Portugal and Castlereagh appointed him head of an expeditionary force. Wellesley defeated the French at the [[Battle of Roliça]] and the [[Battle of Vimeiro]] in [[1808]]. Unfortunately, Wellington was superceded in command of the British army, and he was compelled to sign the controversial [[Convention of Cintra]], which stipulated that the British navy would transport the French army out of [[Lisbon]] with all their loot, and Wellesley was briefly recalled to Britain to face a tribunal brought about by political opponents in Parliament. In the meantime, however, Napoleon himself had come to Spain with his veteran troops, and when the Commander-in-Chief, [[John Moore (British soldier)|Sir John Moore]], died during the [[Battle of Corunna]], Wellesley was sent back to Portugal to command the tiny British garrison still in Lisbon.
Quickly reinforced, Wellesley took the offensive in [[April]] [[1809]], joining with a Spanish army under Cuesta he defeated one of the armies of [[Joseph Bonaparte|King Joseph of Spain]] (Napoleon's eldest brother) at the [[Battle of Talavera de la Reina]] in 1809. For this, he was raised to the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom|Peerage]] as '''Viscount Wellington''', of Talavera and of [[Wellington, Somerset|Wellington]] in the [[Somerset|County of Somerset]]. Betrayed by the Spanish, the British were compelled to retreat to Portugal. When the French army under Marshall Andre Massena invaded Portugal again in [[1810]], he slowed them down at the [[Battle of Buçaco|Busaco]], then blocked them from taking the Lisbon peninsula by his magnificently constructed earthwork [[Lines of Torres Vedras]] coupled with the waterborne protection of the British Royal Navy (the bloodless [[Battle of Lisbon]]). The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellesley followed and after several skirmishes, drove them out of Portugal entirely except for the small garrison at Albuera which was placed under siege. In [[1811]], Massena returned to Portugal, and Wellesley narrowly defeated the French at the battle of [[Battle of Fuentes de Onoro|Fuentes de Oñoro]] and [[Battle of Albuera|Albuera]]. In [[May]] [[1811]], he was promoted to [[General]] for his services in Portugal.
Capturing the twin fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz (the 'Keys' of Portual) in 1812, Wellington joined his small British force to the resurgent Portuguese army, rebuilt by Beresford. Driving into Spain, he defeated the French again at [[Battle of Salamanca|Salamanca]], then took the Spanish capital of [[Madrid]]. Around this time, he was created '''Earl of Wellington''' and given command of all Allied armies in Spain. Failing to take the vital fortress of Burgos, the French [[counterattack]] that year put the British forces in a precarious position, but Lord Wellington withdrew his army quickly, and joining with the smaller corps commanded by Rowland Hill, the combined allied army retreated to Portugal.
Taking advantage of the withdrawal of many French troops to Napoleon's doomed invasion of [[Russia]], Wellington led a new offensive in [[1813]], personally leading a small force in a feint against the French center, the main army commanded by Thomas Graham looped around the French right, leading to the rout of the French forces. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington brought the French to battle at the [[Battle of Vitoria]], which pushed the enemy back into France and for which he was promoted to [[Field Marshal]]. After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona and San Sebastion, he invaded France, and finally defeated the French army under Marshall Soult at the [[Battle of Toulouse (1814)|Toulouse]]. Four days after Napolean surrendered to the Allied armies of the Prussians, Russians, and Austrians. After this battle, Napoleon was exiled to the island of [[Elba]] in [[1814]].
Hailed as the conquering [[hero]], Wellington was created '''Duke of Wellington''', a title still held by his descendants. He was soon appointed [[Ambassador]] to France, then took [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Lord Castlereagh]]'s place as First Plenipotentiary to the [[Congress of Vienna]], where he strongly advocated allowing France to keep its place in the European balance of power. On [[2 January]] [[1815]], the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross]] upon the expansion of that order.
On [[26 February]] [[1815]], Napoleon escaped his prison on Elba and returned to France. Regaining control of the country by May, he then faced a reformation of the alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna to command the Anglo-Allied forces during the [[Waterloo Campaign]]. He ended up in [[Belgium]], commanding the British army and the allied Dutch-Belgians alongside with [[Prussia|Prussian]] forces under [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]]. After the [[Prussia|Prussian]] defeat at Lille, and the inconclusive draw at [[Battle of Quatre Bras]], the British army retreated to the small town of Waterloo and two days later, on [[18 June]], fought the battle of Waterloo. After an all-day fight, the French Guard was dramatically repulsed by British volley fire, and the arrival of Prussian reinforcements turned Napolean's defeat to a rout. The French Emperor abdicated once again on [[22 June]], and was spirited away by the British to distant [[Saint Helena|St Helena]].
==Wellington as soldier==
[[Image:Wellington Statue.jpg|250px|thumb|the Iron Duke in bronze by [[John Steell]] with the [[Balmoral Hotel]] in the background.]]
Despite oft cited similarities between Napoleon Bonaparte and Wellington, the strategies and tactics employed by both were diametically opposed. Perhaps the main reason that Napoleon stands in many history texts above Wellington is that Napoleon offered radical changes in warfare in every respect, whereas Wellington's contribution to warfare lies more in the brilliant use of the old.
Napoleonic tactics were typified by massive conscript armies who advanced in tight columns to rout opposing forces. This was soon adopted by nearly every major participant in the war, with the chief exception of the British and the Spanish and Portuguese they trained. In almost every engagement, the tight-packed French columns(in which only the first two ranks could fire) would advance, apparently unheeding of casualties. Against the ill-trained armies of the Austrians, Prussians, and the other allied powers, it was spectacularly successful. Against the excellently trained British regulars who stood in line in two ranks(and thus, every man in line could fire), the column was a spectacular failure. despite |
er the defeat of the combined [[Samnium|Samnite]], Celtic and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] alliance by the Romans in the [[Samnite Wars|Third Samnite War]] sounded the end of the Celtic domination in Europe, but it was not until [[192 BC]] that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy.
Under Caesar the Romans conquered Celtic Gaul, and from [[Claudius]] onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of the Celtic [[British Isles]]. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman '[[tribe|tribal]]' boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government. [[Latin]] was the official language of these regions after the conquests.
The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanized and keen to adopt Roman ways. [[Celtic art]] had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay.
===Examples of Romanization===
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
Roman influence led directly to the decline of the druidic priests. Prior to Roman conquests, the druids exercised enormous spiritual and political power among the celtic peoples. The druidic religion was seen as a major impediment to the "Romanization" of the newly conquered celts. Thus began a deliberate policy on the part of the Roman conquerors to replace the old celtic political structure with Roman institutions. The elimination of the druidic class was instrumental to cementing Roman authority.
This led the birth of many Romano-celtic deities, as old celtic gods took on new Latin names and aspects of Roman divinities, and began to be worshipped alongside the more traditional Jovian pantheon.
Another example of romanization is the change in family social structure from an egalitarian and polytheistic type to a patriarchical structure like the roman concept of [[Pater familias]] where "a mans house is his castle" and the eldest or highest ranking man has almost absolute authority over the family. This cultural practice has persisted in many ways and can still be found amongst the cultural descendants of those who were conquered by the Romans.
===Celtic Christianity ===
While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] moved from [[Celtic polytheism]] to [[Celtic Christianity]] which was a major source of missionary work in other parts of Britain and central Europe. This brought the early [[medieval]] renaissance of [[Celtic art]] between [[390]] and [[1200]], developing many of the styles now thought of as typically Celtic, and found through much of Ireland and Britain, including the north-east and far north of Scotland, [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] and [[Shetland Islands]]. This was brought to an end by [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Normans|Norman]] influence, though the [[Celtic languages]] and some minor influences of the art continued.
==Celts pushed west by Germanic migration==
Celts were pushed westwards by successive waves of [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] invaders, perhaps themselves at times pressured by [[Huns]] and [[Scythians]] or simply population pressures in their homeland of [[Scandinavia]] and Northern Germany. With the [[fall of the Roman Empire]] the Celts of [[Gaul]], Iberia and [[Britannia]] were "conquered" by tribes speaking [[Germanic language]]s.
Elsewhere, the Celtic populations were assimilated by others, leaving behind them only a legend and a number of place names such as [[Bohemia]], after the Boii tribe which once lived there, or the Kingdom of [[Belgium]], after the Belgae, a Celtic tribe of Northern Gaul and south-eastern England. Their mythology has been absorbed into the folklore of half a dozen other countries. For instance, the famous Medieval English Arthurian tale of ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'' is almost certainly partially derived from the medieval Irish text <cite>Fled Bricrend</cite> <cite>(The Feast of [[Briccriu|Bricriu]])</cite>.
Argument rages in the academic world as to whether the Celts in England were mostly wiped out/pushed west as the lack of evidence for influence of the Celts on [[Anglo-Saxon]] society suggests, or whether the Teuton migration consisted merely of the social elite and that the genocide was cultural rather than physical due to such relatively few numbers of Anglo-Saxons mixing with the far larger native population, enabled to do so due to the civil strife in Britain after the Roman withdrawal and the unity of the incoming invaders. Some recent DNA studies have suggested that the population of England maintains a predominantly ancient British element, equal in most parts to Cornwall and Wales. The general indigenous population of Yorkshire, East Anglia and the Orkney and Shetland Islands are those populations with the least traces of ancient British continuation <ref>"<cite>By analyzing 1772 Y chromosomes from 25 predominantly small urban locations,we found that different parts of the British Isles have sharply different paternal histories; the degree of population replacement and genetic continuity shows systematic variation across the sampled areas.</cite>" [http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/capelli2_CB.pdf A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles (pdf)]</ref>. Ironically, it may be Viking genetic influence and not Anglo-Saxon which has had a more profound impact on British bloodlines.
== Celtic social system and arts ==
The pre-Christian Celts had a well-organized social structure, based on class and kinship, with the religion we call [[Celtic polytheism]]. Elected Kings led the tribes, and society was divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy, an intellectual class including druids, poets, and jurists, and everyone else. Women participated both in warfare and in kingship, and all the offices of high and low kings were filled by election under the system of [[tanistry]], both factors which would confuse Norman writers expecting the feudal principle of [[primogeniture]] where the succession goes to the first born son. Little is known of family structure, but [[Athenaeus]] in his ''Deipnosophists,'' 13.603, claims that "the Celts, in spite of the fact that their women are very beautiful, prefer boys as sexual partners. There are some of them who will regularly go to bed – on those animal skins of theirs – with a pair of lovers," implying with a woman ''and'' a boy.
Celtic societies were organised around warfare, but this seems to have been more of a sport focussed on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, drawing obvious comparisons to warfare among [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] prior to European contact. This was the age of [[Hillfort]]s and [[dun]]s, but there was apparently no [[urbanization]].
There is strong archeological evidence to suggest that the pre-Roman Celtic nations were tied into a network of overland trade routes that spanned [[Eurasia]] from Ireland to China. Celtic traders were also in contact with the Phoenicians, gold works made in Pre-Roman Ireland have been unearthed in archeological digs in Palestine, and trade routes between the Celtic nations and Palestine date back to at least 1600 BC.
Local trade was largely in the form of barter, but as with most tribal societies they probably had a reciprocal economy in which goods and other services are not exchanged, but are given on the basis of mutual relationships and the obligations of kinship. Though they had a written language, the [[Ogham]] script, it was only used for ceremonial purposes and they produced little in the way of literary output. Instead, Celtic peoples preferred the oral Bardic tradition. The oldest recorded rhyming poetry in the world is of Irish origin and is a transcription of a much older epic poem, leading some scholars to claim that the Celts invented [[Rhyme]]. They were highly skilled in visual arts and [[Celtic art]] produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.
In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative, for example they still used [[chariot]]s in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans, though when faced with the Romans, and in the Atlantic islands their chariot tactics defeated the invasion attempted by [[Julius Caesar]].
==Celtic religious patterns==
Although Celtic gods varied from region to region and tribe to tribe, the Celtic religion had some patterns. For example like Mediterranean cultures most early Celts worshipped in sacred groves. This was once postulated to have occurred because of Celts trading with Mediterranean cultures; however, evidence from Hallstatt era finds show that the earliest Celts practiced this before such trade took place. More reasonably, it is a byproduct of most primitive religion to worship in such a way. However, [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] Celts also built temples of varying size and shape, though they still usually maintained sacred trees, or votive pools. Worship was, in this way, defered to temples, when they were available. Numerous temples were converted by the Romans, and with little difficulty; the design was rather similar to Roman temples, as they were both highly influenced by the Greeks, architecturally speaking.
Their druid postitions vary; a druid is not always a priest. Druids are any members of a Celtic society who had what we would view today as a college education. The most educated druids were usually doctors, priests, and heralds, as these occupations required the most memorization and skill for their practices. Priests from this class were in charge of a great deal of religious festivals, as well as organizing the calendar; a daunting |
[[1958]] from the [[Potchefstroom University]] with [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] and [[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]] degrees (the latter ''[[cum laude]]''). In [[1969]] he married Marike Willemse, with whom he had two sons and a daughter.
"F.W.", as he became popularly known, was first elected to the South African [[Parliament]] in 1969 as the member for [[Vereeniging]], and entered the cabinet in 1978. He became [[Transvaal]] provincial National Party leader in 1982. After a long political career and with a very conservative reputation, in 1989 he placed himself at the head of ''verligte'' ("enlightened") forces within the governing party, with the result that he was elected head of the National Party in February 1989, and finally State President in September 1989 to replace then president [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] when the latter was forced to step down after a [[stroke]].
==Ending apartheid==
:''Main article: [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|Apartheid]].''
De Klerk believed that apartheid could not survive and that concessions would need to be made with, at best, power sharing between black and white people. This was for various reasons:
* escalating unrest in the country, and the realisation that this could only be resolved by political change and not by increased repression by the state
* increasingly stringent international [[international sanctions|sanctions]], driven by the [[United Nations]], which were stifling the South African economy
* an increasing number of white South Africans becoming disillusioned with apartheid
* the collapse of the communism in Eastern Europe and thus the end of the 'rooi gevaar' (red danger).
In his opening address to parliament on [[February 2]], [[1990]], he legalised the [[African National Congress|ANC]], the [[Pan African Congress|PAC]] and the [[South African Communist Party|SACP]], ordered the release of many [[political prisoner]]s, reduced emergency detentions to six months and suspended the [[death sentence]]. These actions paved the way for negotiations which led to the end of apartheid and National Party rule.
On [[February 10]], [[1990]], de Klerk announced that [[Nelson Mandela]] would be released the next day. The Government and the ANC began talks in [[May 1990]], and by [[June 1990|June]] the [[state of emergency]] had been lifted and the ANC had agreed to a ceasefire. In [[1991]], the Acts which restricted land ownership, specified separate living areas and classified people by race were all repealed. South Africa had taken its first real steps towards becoming an open 'multiracial' society.
In 1992, de Klerk held a [[1992 South African Referendum|national referendum]], where white South Africans, being the only enfranchised citizens, voted "Yes" for the reforms. De Klerk and Mandela were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1993 for their work for the peaceful dismantling of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa.
De Klerk's reforms led many pro-apartheid supporters to leave the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] and join the [[Conservative Party (South Africa)|Conservative Party]], which was against many of the reforms. It also provoked a resurgence of opposition from the white far-right [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging|AWB]], and violence also continued between [[Inkatha]] and the ANC, fuelled by the revelation that the government had given economic and military aid to Inkatha.
In April of 1994, racially inclusive elections were held for the first time ever. De Klerk ran a largely ceremonial and uncompetitive presidential campaign against Mandela, in which Mandela was soundly elected. He went on to serve for two years as deputy president in [[Nelson Mandela]]'s government, but announced his retirement from politics in August, 1997, in order to dissociate the National Party from the policies he had once implemented.
Although doubt has been expressed as to whether the main motivation in his decision to end apartheid was because he believed it to be wrong, or because he was giving in to domestic and international pressure, he cites personal conviction as his primary aim. In his own words, questioned on his rationale for bringing an end to apartheid (speaking at [[Richmond Hill High School]] in [[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]], [[Canada]] in November, 2005), the former President responded that he decided to end apartheid "to bring justice to everybody. The realisation that I cannot build the best interests of my people on the basis of injustice towards a majority of the other people who share the same country with me and my people."
==Later life==
In [[1998 in South Africa|1998]], Conservative South African opinion was scandalised by de Klerk's messy [[divorce]] from his wife of 38 years, Marike, and his prompt re-marriage to Elita Georgiades. Then, in [[2001 in South Africa|2001]], the country was shocked by the [http://www.dispatch.co.za/2003/05/14/southafrica/AAAALEAD.HTM violent death of his ex-wife], apparently at the hands of a young security guard during the course of a robbery.
In 2004, de Klerk announced that he was quitting the New National Party and seeking a new political home after it was announced that the NNP would merge with the ruling ANC.
==External links==
*[http://www.fwdklerk.org.za The FW de Klerk Foundation]
*[http://anjool.co.uk/south_africa.htm#fw Interview at Oxford Union, 2005]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[State President of South Africa]]|years=1989&ndash;1994|before=[[Pieter Willem Botha]]|after=[[Nelson Mandela]]''<br>''([[President of South Africa]])''}}
{{succession box | before = [[Rigoberta Menchú]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1993 | after = [[Yasser Arafat]] <br> [[Shimon Peres]] <br> [[Yitzhak Rabin]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=de Klerk, Frederik Willem
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[State President of South Africa]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[March 18]], [[1936]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Johannesburg]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[Category:South African people|F.W. De Klerk]]
[[Category:1936 births|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Living people|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:State Presidents of South Africa|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:South African politicians|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Deputy Presidents of South Africa|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:South African lawyers|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Apartheid in South Africa|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[af:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
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[[de:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
[[es:Frederik De Klerk]]
[[fr:Frederik De Klerk]]
[[id:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
[[he:פרדריק וילם דה קלרק]]
[[ms:F.W. de Klerk]]
[[nl:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
[[no:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
[[ja:フレデリック・ウィレム・デクラーク]]
[[pl:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
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[[zh:戴克拉克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frédéric Mistral</title>
<id>11481</id>
<revision>
<id>39701661</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T06:18:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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</contributor>
<comment>picture from commons</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Forum Arles.jpg|250px|thumb|Statue of Frédéric Mistral in Arles]]
'''Frédéric Mistral''' ([[September 8]], [[1830]] - [[March 25]], [[1914]]) was a [[France|French]] [[poet]] who led the [[19th century]] revival of [[Occitan language|Occitan]] ([[Provençal]]) language and literature. He was a key figure in the literary ''[[félibrige]]'' movement. He shared the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1904]] (with [[Jose Echegaray y Eizaguirre]]) for his contributions in literature and [[philology]].
==Life==
Frédéric Mistral was born in [[Maillane]], in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' of France. Mistral's father was a well-to-do farmer in the former [[provinces of France|French province]] of [[Provence]]. Mistral attended the Royal College of [[Avignon]] (later renamed the Frédéric Mistral School). One of his teachers was [[Joseph Roumanille]], who had begun writing poems in the vernacular of Provence and who became his lifelong friend. Mistral took a degree in law at the [[University of Aix-en-Provence]] in [[1851]].
Wealthy enough to live without following a profession, he early decided to devote himself to the rehabilitation of Provencal life and language. In [[1854]], with several friends, he founded the ''félibrige'', an association for the maintenance of the Provencal language and customs, extended later to include the whole of southern France (le pays de la [[Occitan language|langue d'oc]], "the country of the language of oc"). As the language of the [[troubadour]]s, Provençal had been the cultured speech of southern France and was used also by poets in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]. Mistral threw himself into the literary revival of Provençal and was the guiding spirit and chief organizer of the ''félibrige'' until his death in 1914.
Mistral devoted 20 years' work to a scholarly dictionary of Provençal, entitled ''[[Lou Tresor dou Felibrige]]'', 2 vol. ([[1878]]). He also founded a Provencal ethnographic museum in [[Arles]], using his Nobel Prize money to assist it. His attempts to restore the Provençal language to its ancient position did not succeed, but his poetic genius gave it some enduring masterpieces, and he is considered one of the greatest poets of France.
Mistral died in Maillane on the 25th of March, 1914.
==Works==
His literary output consists of four long [[narrative poem]]s: ''[[Mirèio]]'' ([[1859]]; Mireio: A Provencal Poem), ''Calendau'' ([[1867]]), ''Ner |
, he extended the panorama, and arrived at the formulation of the now-canonical 23 Problems of Hilbert. The full text is important, since the exegesis of the questions still can be a matter of inevitable debate, whenever it is asked how many have been solved.
Some of these were solved within a short time. Others have been discussed throughout the 20th century, with a few now taken to be unsuitably open-ended to come to closure. Some even continue to this day to remain a challenge for mathematicians.
==Formalism==
In an account that had become standard by the mid-century, Hilbert's problem set was also a kind of manifesto, that opened the way for the development of the [[formalism|formalist]] school, one of three major schools of mathematics of the 20th century. According to the formalist, mathematics is a game devoid of meaning in which one plays with symbols devoid of meaning according to formal rules which are agreed upon in advance. It is therefore an autonomous activity of thought. (Cfr.: [[Hermann Hesse]] - ''The glass bead game''). There is, however, room to doubt whether Hilbert's own views were simply formalist in that sense.
===Hilbert's program===
In [[1920]] he proposed explicitly a research project (in ''[[metamathematics]]'', as it was then termed) that became known as [[Hilbert's program]]. He wanted [[mathematics]] to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation. He believed that in principle this could be done, by showing that:
#all of mathematics follows from a correctly-chosen finite system of [[axiom]]s; and
#that some such axiom system is provably consistent.
There seem to have been both technical and psychological reasons why he formulated this proposal. It affirmed his dislike of what had become known as the ''[[ignorabimus]]'', still an active issue in his time in German thought, and traced back in that formulation to [[Emil du Bois-Reymond]].
This program is still recognisable in the most popular [[philosophy of mathematics]], where it is usually called ''formalism''. For example, the [[Bourbaki]] group adopted a watered-down and selective version of it as adequate to the requirements of their twin projects of (a) writing encyclopedic foundational works, and (b) supporting the [[axiomatic method]] as a research tool. This approach has been successful and influential in relation with Hilbert's work in algebra and functional analysis, but has failed to engage in the same way with his interests in physics and logic.
===Gödel's work===
Hilbert and the talented mathematicians who worked with him in his enterprise were committed to the project. His attempt to support axiomatized mathematics with definitive principles, which could banish theoretical uncertainties, was however to end in failure.
[[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]] demonstrated that any non-contradictory formal system, which was comprehensive enough to include at least arithmetic, cannot demonstrate its completeness by way of its own axioms. In [[1931]] his [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]] showed that Hilbert's grand plan was impossible as stated. The second point cannot in any reasonable way be combined with the first point, as long as the axiom system is genuinely [[finitary]].
Nevertheless, the incompleteness theorem says nothing with regard to the demonstration by way of a different formal system of the completeness of mathematics. The subsequent achievements of [[proof theory]] at the very least ''clarified'' consistency as it relates to theories of central concern to mathematicians. Hilbert's work had started logic on this course of clarification; the need to understand Gödel's work then led to the development of [[recursion theory]] and then [[mathematical logic]] as an autonomous discipline in the decade 1930-1940. The basis for later [[theoretical computer science]], in [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Alan Turing]] also grew directly out of this 'debate'.
==The Göttingen school==
Among the students of Hilbert, there were [[Hermann Weyl]], the champion of chess [[Emanuel Lasker]] and [[Ernst Zermelo]]. [[John von Neumann]] was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, he was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as
[[Emmy Noether]] and [[Alonzo Church]].
==Hilbert space==
Around 1909, Hilbert dedicated himself to the study of differential and integral equations; his work had direct consequences for important parts of modern functional analysis. In order to carry out these studies, Hilbert introduced the concept of an infinite dimensional [[Euclidean space]], later called [[Hilbert space]]. His work in this part of analysis provided the basis for important contributions to the mathematics of physics in the next two decades, though from an unanticipated direction.
Later on, [[Stefan Banach]] amplified the concept, defining [[Banach spaces]]. Hilbert space is the most important single idea in the area of [[functional analysis]] that grew up around it during the 20th century.
==Hilbert and Physics==
Until 1912, Hilbert was almost exclusively a "pure" mathematician. When planning a visit from Bonn, where he was immersed in studying physics, his fellow mathematician and friend [[Hermann Minkowski]] joked he had to spend 10 days in quarantine before being able to visit Hilbert. In fact, Minkowski seems responsible for most of Hilbert's physics investigations prior to 1912, including their joint seminar in the subject in 1905.
In 1912, three years after his friend's death, he turned his focus to the subject almost exclusively. He arranged to have a "physics tutor" for himself. He started studying [[Kinetic theory|kinetic gas theory]] and moved on to elementary [[radiation]] theory and the molecular theory of matter. Even after the war started in 1914, he continued seminars and classes where the works of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] and others were followed closely.
In 1915 Hilbert and Einstein both arrived at the necessary field equations to complete [[General Relativity]] (the [[Einstein-Hilbert action]]), Einstein on November 11 and 25, then Hilbert on November 20, 1915 (Reid, p., 141). Despite the "remarkable coincidence" (Reid p. 141),
: "Hilbert freely admitted, and frequently stated in lectures, that the great idea was Einstein's.
: " 'Every boy in the streets of Göttingen understands more about four-dimensiona geometry than Einstein,' he once remarked. 'Yet, in spite of that, Einstein did the work and not the mathematicians'." (Reid pp. 141-142).
Some historians aver bitterness on the part of Einstein about priority [reference required]. For more see [[relativity priority dispute]]).
Additionally, Hilbert's work anticipated and assisted several advances in the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]]. He anticipated [[Hermann Weyl]]'s proof of the mathematical equivalence of [[Werner Heisenberg]]'s [[matrix mechanics]] and [[Erwin Schrödinger]]'s [[Schrödinger equation|wave equation]] and his namesake [[Hilbert space]] plays an important part in quantum theory.
Throughout this immersion in physics, he worked on putting rigor into the mathematics of physics. While highly dependent on higher math, the physicist tended to be "sloppy" with it. To a "pure" mathematician like Hilbert, this was both "ugly" and difficult to understand. As he began to understand the physics and how the physicists were using mathematics, he developed a coherent mathematical theory for what he found, most importantly in the area of [[integral equations]]. When his colleague [[Richard Courant]] wrote the now classic [[Methods of Mathematical Physics]] including some of Hilbert's ideas, he added the older professors name as author even though he had not directly contributed to the writing. Meaning that the math was generally beyond them, Hilbert said "Physics is too hard for physicists." The Courant-Hilbert book made it easier for them.
==Number theory ==
Hilbert unified the field of [[algebraic number theory]] with his 1897 treatise ''Zahlbericht'' (literally "report on numbers"). He disposed of [[Waring's problem]] in the wide sense. He then had little more to publish on the subject; but the emergence of [[Hilbert modular form]]s in the dissertation of a student means his name is further attached to a major area.
He made a series of conjectures on [[class field theory]]. The concepts were highly influential, and his own contribution is seen in the namse of the [[Hilbert class field]], and the [[Hilbert symbol]] of [[local class field theory]]. Results on them were mostly proved by 1930, after breakthrough work by [[Teiji Takagi]] that established him as Japan's first mathematician of international stature.
Hilbert did not work in the central areas of [[analytic number theory]], but his name has become known for the [[Hilbert-Pólya conjecture]], for reasons that are anecdotal.
==Miscellaneous talks, essays, and contributions==
His [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel|paradox of the Grand Hotel]], a meditation on strange properties of the infinite, is often used in popular accounts of infinite [[cardinal number]]s.
==Later years==
Hilbert lived to see the [[Nazi]]s purge many of the prominent faculty members at [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]], in [[1933]]. [http://www.childrenofthemanhattanproject.org/HISTORY/H-02b.htm]. Among those forced out were [[Hermann Weyl]], who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930, [[Emmy Noether]] and [[Edmund Landau]]. One of those who had to leave Germany was [[Paul Bernays]], Hilbert's collaborator in [[mathematical logic]], and co-author with him of the important book ''Grundlagen der Mathematik'' (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert-[[Wilhelm Ackermann|Ackermann]] book ''[[Principles |
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