text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
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cell wall]] synthesis. This has a lethal effect on [[bacterium|bacteria]], especially on [[Gram-positive]] ones. Bacteria can become [[antibiotic resistance|resistant]] against beta-lactam antibiotics by expressing [[beta-lactamase]].
== See also: ==
* [[Beta-lactam antibiotic]]
* [[Beta-lactamase]]
[[Category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]]
[[category:functional groups]]
[[fr:Bêta-lactame]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bacillus Thuringiensis</title>
<id>4428</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bacillus_thuringiensis]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bishop of Brandenburg</title>
<id>4429</id>
<revision>
<id>22884655</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-09T02:56:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gentgeen</username>
<id>25065</id>
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<comment>recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bishops of [[Brandenburg]]''' until 1200 (from genealogy H. Stoyan)
Dietmar (949-968)
Dodilo (968-980)
Volkmar (980-1004)
Wigo (992-1018)
Luizo (1022-1032)
Rudolf ( -1048)
Dankwart ( -1051)
Dietrich I (1068-1080)
Volkmar II (1080-1092)
Hartbert (1100-1122)
Ludolf (1124-1137)
Landbert (1137-1138)
Wiggar (1138-1160)
Wilman (1160-1173)
Sigfried I (1173-1179)
Baldran (1179-1190)
Alexius (1190-1192)
Norbert (1192-1207)
----
Bishops of Havelberg Brandenburg
Udo 946 - 983
Hildrich 991 -1008
Erich 1008 -1024
Godschalk 1028 -1085
Wigmann -1089
Hezilo 1096 -1110
Bernhard 111? -1118
Heimo 1118 -1120
Gumbert 1120 -1125
Anshelm 1129 -1155
Walo 1155 -1176
Hubert 1177 -1191
Helmbert 1191 -1206
----------------------------------
Margraves Lausitz
----------------------------------------
Margraves of Brandenburg
Siegfried 936 - 937
Christian 937 - 945
Gero 937 - 965
Dietrich 965 - 985
Lothar 985 -1003
Werner 1003 -1009
Bernard I 1018 -1044
Wilhelm 1044 -1056
Lothar Udo I 1056 -1057
Udo II 1057 -1082
Heinrich 1082 -1106
Lothar UdoIII 1087 -1106
Rudolph 1106 -1114
Henrich II 1114 -1128
Udo IV 1128 -1130
Conrad Plotzkau1130-1133
next : [[Ascanians]]
[[Albert the Bear]] 1134-1170
" Saxony 1138-1142
---------------------------
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops by diocese|Brandenburg]]
[[de:Liste der Bischöfe von Brandenburg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BASE jumping</title>
<id>4430</id>
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<id>40794828</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T01:42:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BASE jumping''' is the sport of using a [[parachute]] to jump from fixed objects. "BASE" is an [[acronym]] that stands for the four categories of objects from which one can jump; '''(B)'''uilding, '''(A)'''ntenna (an uninhabited tower such as an aerial mast), '''(S)'''pan (a bridge, arch or dome), and '''(E)'''arth (a cliff or other natural formation). BASE jumping is much more dangerous than [[skydiving]] from aircraft and is currently regarded as a fringe [[extreme sport]].
==History==
[[Image:statofliberty.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[The Statue of Liberty]] ]]
There are isolated examples of BASE jumps dating from the early 1900s. [[Frederick Law]] jumped from the [[Statue of Liberty]] in 1912; [[Štefan Banič]] jumped from a 41-floor building in Washington D.C. in order to demonstrate his new [[parachute]] to the U. S. Patent Office and U.S. military; [[Michael Pelkey]] and [[Brian Schubert]] jumped the cliff "[[El Capitan]]" in [[Yosemite Valley]] in 1966; and in 1976, [[Rick Sylvester]] jumped [[Canada]]'s [[Mount Asgard]] for the opening sequence of the [[James Bond]] movie "[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]", giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping. However, these and other sporadic incidents were one-off experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. The acronym "BASE" was coined by film-maker [[Carl Boenish]], who in 1978 filmed the first jumps from El Capitan to be made using ram-air parachutes and [[Freeflying/Tracking|freefall tracking]] technique, which effectively defines modern BASE jumping. These jumps were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this which popularised BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his 1984 death on a cliff jump in [[Norway]]. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.
==Comparison with skydiving==
BASE jumping grew out of [[skydiving]] (recreational parachuting from aircraft). There are three main technical differences between the two. Firstly, BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives. Secondly, a BASE jump takes place in close proximity to the cliff or tower which provided the jump platform. Thirdly, the BASE jumper generally has a lower airspeed than a skydiver throughout the jump, because a BASE jump starts with zero airspeed, and (due to the limited altitude) a BASE jumper very seldom approaches the [[terminal velocity]] (airspeed) of a skydiver. All three factors have significant implications.
Firstly, the BASE parachute system has to be made to open very quickly at low airspeeds. Skydiving parachutes are reefed to slow down the opening and reduce opening shock forces. Secondly, the cliff or tower presents a risk to the BASE jumper if, for example, the parachute opens facing backwards. An off-heading opening is not considered a problem in skydiving, but has caused fatal impact injuries in BASE jumping. Off heading opening resulting in object strike is the leading cause of serious injury and death in BASE jumping.
An experienced skydiver is recommended to deploy their parachute no lower than 2,000 feet (610 m). At that time, if they have already been in [[free-fall]] for at least 1,000 feet (305 m), the jumper is traveling 120 miles per hour (54 m/s), and is 11 seconds from the ground. Most BASE jumps are made from less than 1,000 feet (305 m). For example, a BASE jump from a 500 foot (152 m) object is about 6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in freefall. On such a jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of the skydiver, and more quickly (ie. in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation. Many BASE jumpers use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and jump with only one parachute - since, with a total freefall time of 6 seconds, there would be no time to use a reserve parachute. In these systems, the actual parachute canopy should also be specifically manufactured for BASE jumping, however skydiving parachutes with some modifications (primarily the addition of a tail pocket for stowing suspension lines) are occasionally used by those unable to purchase appropriate equipment. The rest of the system is almost always specifically designed for BASE use. Standard skydiving equipment can only be used on relatively high BASE jumps. If modified, by removing the bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute, standard skydiving gear can be used for lower BASE jumps, but is then prone to kinds of malfunction which are rare in normal skydiving (such as "line-overs" and broken lines).
The vast majority of people who try BASE jumping are those that have already learned to skydive. It is important to know how to safely fly and land a parachute, and this is best learned on airplane skydives, from higher deployment altitudes, over large fields that provide room for error in learning how to land. Most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have 3 minutes or more of a parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from 500 feet (152 m) will have a parachute ride of about 10 to 15 seconds.
One way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a static line or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps (below 200ft) to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall.
In parachuting, height is safety, and by making lower altitude jumps, BASE jumpers give up the safety margins built into skydiving (such as the option of using a reserve parachute if there are problems deploying the main chute). The lower airspeed of a BASE jump is also a risk factor. Skydivers use the air flow to stabilise their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. Usually BASE jumpers jump to cause a tumble by back flipping and then using the gyroscopic effects to at least have some form of control. The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor "exit" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this be |
in these “minor” syllables is usually reduced to {{IPA|[ə]}} in the spoken language.
Words can also be made up of two full syllables.
Words with three or more syllables are mostly loanwords from other languages, usually Pali, Sanskrit, or French.
== Dialects ==
[[Dialect]]s are sometimes quite marked; notable variations are found in speakers from [[Phnom Penh]] (the capital city), [[Battambang]] in the countryside and the northern dialects of Thailand (such as in Surin province).
A notable characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is a tendency towards what might be considered "relaxed" pronunciation, with some parts slurred together or dropped entirely. For instance, "Phnom Penh" will sometimes be shortened to "m'Penh". Another characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is observed in words with an "r" in the second position of the first syllable (that is, where "r" is the second consonant, as in the English word "bread"). The "r" is not pronounced, and the first consonant is pronounced harder than usual, and the syllable is spoken with a dipping tone much like the "hỏi" tone in Vietnamese. For example, some people pronounce "dreey" (meaning "fish") as "te"; the "d" becomes a "t", and the vowel (similar to "long A" in English) begins low and rises in tone. Another example is the word for ''orange'': it is pronounced ''kroich'' (the older form) by those in the countryside, but simply ''koich'' (without the r) by those in the city.
== Grammar ==
Word order in Khmer is generally [[Subject Verb Object]]. Khmer is primarily an [[isolating language]], but lexical [[Derivation (linguistics)|derivation]] by means of prefixes and infixes is common.
== Writing system ==
Khmer is written with the [[Khmer alphabet]]. [[Khmer numerals]], which were inherited from Indian numerals, are used more widely than [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]].
== Footnotes ==
# {{note|1}} <small>Vietnamese government figure.
# {{note|2}} <small>Non-government estimate of the [[Khmer Krom]] living in Vietnam.</small>
== References ==
*Ferlus, Michel. 1992. ''Essai de phonétique historique du khmer'' (Du milieu du premier millénaire de notre ère à l'époque actuelle)", Mon-Khmer Studies XXI: 57-89)
*Headley, Robert et. al. 1977. ''Cambodian-English Dictionary''. Washington, Catholic University Press.
*Huffman, Franklin. 1967. ''An outline of Cambodian Grammar''. PhD thesis, Cornell University.
*Huffman, Franklin. 1970. ''[http://www.pratyeka.org/csw/hlp-csw.pdf Cambodian System of Writing and Beginning Reader]''. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300013140
*Jacob, Judith. 1974. ''A Concise Cambodian-English Dictionary''. London, Oxford University Press.
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=km}}
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91043 Ethnologue entry on Khmer]
*[http://www.anu.edu.au/~u9907217/languages/AAlecture2.html Khmer language: its historical development]
* ''[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=75 Khmer]'' at [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/ UCLA Language Materials project]
[[Category:Khmer language]]
[[Category:Languages of Cambodia]]
[[Category:Languages of Thailand]]
[[bg:Кхмерски език]]
[[de:Khmer-Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma camboyano]]
[[eo:Ĥmera lingvo]]
[[fa:زبان خمر]]
[[fr:Khmer]]
[[ko:크메르어]]
[[id:Bahasa Khmer]]
[[nl:Khmer (taal)]]
[[ja:クメール語]]
[[pl:Język khmerski]]
[[pt:Língua khmer]]
[[fi:Khmerin kieli]]
[[sv:Khmer (språk)]]
[[th:ภาษาเขมร]]
[[wa:Xhmer]]
[[zh:高棉语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Mechanics</title>
<id>5217</id>
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<timestamp>2002-06-06T17:01:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Classical mechanics]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical mechanics]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Central processing unit</title>
<id>5218</id>
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<id>42163245</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.112.29.179</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* TLP: Simultaneous thread execution */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{redirect|CPU}}
[[Image:Intel_80486DX2_bottom.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Intel 80486DX2]] [[microprocessor]] in a ceramic [[Pin grid array|PGA]] package]]
A '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU'''), or sometimes simply '''processor,''' is the component in a [[Computer#Digital circuits|digital computer]] that interprets instructions and processes data contained in [[computer software|software]]. CPUs provide the fundamental digital computer trait of programmability, and are one of the core components found in almost all modern [[microcomputer]]s, along with [[primary storage]] and [[input/output]] facilities. A CPU that is manufactured using [[integrated circuit]]s, often just one, is known as a [[microprocessor]]. Since the mid-1970s, single-chip microprocessors have almost totally replaced all other types of CPUs, and today the term "CPU" almost always applies to some type of microprocessor.
The phrase "central processing unit" is, in general terms, a description of a certain class of logic machines that can execute complex [[computer program]]s. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that existed long before the term "CPU" ever came into widespread usage. However, the term itself and its acronym have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s {{Ref harvard|weik1961|Weik 1961|a}}. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, usually one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of inexpensive and standardized classes of processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor [[mainframe]]s and [[minicomputer]]s and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the [[integrated circuit]] (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured in very small spaces (in the order of [[millimeter]]s). Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from [[automobile]]s to [[cell phone]]s to children's toys.
==History==
[[Image:Edvac2.png|thumb|220px|right|[[EDVAC]], one of the first electronic stored program computers.]]
[[Image:PDP-8i_cpu.jpg|thumb|250px|CPU, [[Magnetic core memory|core memory]], and [[Computer bus|external bus]] interface of an MSI [[PDP-8]]/I.]]
{{main|History of computing hardware}}
Prior to the advent of machines that resemble today's CPUs, computers such as [[ENIAC]] had to be physically rewired in order to perform different tasks. These machines are often referred to as "fixed-program computers," since they had to be physically reconfigured in order to run a different program. Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a software (computer program) execution device, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.
The idea of a stored-program computer was already present during the design of ENIAC, but was not initially used in that computer because of speed considerations. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was even completed, mathematician [[John von Neumann]] distributed the paper entitled "First Draft of a Report on the [[EDVAC]]." It outlined the design of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949 {{Ref harvard|vonNeumann1945|von Neumann 1945|a}}. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. These instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the EDVAC to run. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were stored in high-speed [[Memory (computers)|computer memory]] rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the large amount of time and effort it took to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With Von Neumann's design, the program, or software, that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the computer's memory. {{ref|eniac}}
It should be noted that while Von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, others before him such as [[Konrad Zuse]] had suggested similar ideas. Additionally, the so-called [[Harvard architecture]] of the [[Harvard Mark I]], which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using [[Punched tape|punched paper tape]] rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the Von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily Von Neumann in design, but elements of the Harvard architecture are commonly seen as well.
Being [[digital]] devices, all CPUs deal with discrete states and therefore require some kind of switching elements to differentiate between and change these states. Prior to commercial acceptance of the transistor, [[Relay|electrical relay]]s and [[vacuum tube]]s (thermionic valves) were commonly used as switching elements. Although these had distinct speed adv |
Army.
"Ike" Eisenhower died at 12:25 PM on [[March 28]], 1969, at [[Walter Reed Army Hospital]] in [[Washington D.C.]], after a long illness at the age of 78. He lies alongside his wife and their first child, who died in childhood, in a small chapel called the Place of Meditation, at the [[Eisenhower Presidential Library]], located in Abilene. His [[state funeral]] was quite unique because they were presided over by [[Richard Nixon]], who was vice-president under Eisenhower and was already serving as president of the United States. [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/Last_Salute/ch29.htm]
==Legacy==
Eisenhower's picture was on the dollar coin from 1971 to 1979. Nearly 700 million of the copper-nickel clad coins were minted for general circulation, and far smaller numbers of uncirculated and [[proof coinage|proof]] issues (in both copper-nickel and 40% silver varieties) were produced for collectors. Ike reappeared on a [[commemorative]] silver dollar issued in 1990, celebrating the 100th anniversary of his birth.
In 1971, the [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] in [[Rancho Mirage, California]] was named for him.
In 1983, [[The Eisenhower Institute]] was founded in Washington, D.C. as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.
In 1999, the [[United States Congress]] created the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission]], which is in the planning stages of creating an enduring [[Eisenhower National Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] across the street from the [[National Air and Space Museum]] on the [[National Mall]].
==Trivia==
* He named the presidential retreat [[Camp David]] after his grandson [[David Eisenhower]].
* In 1961 when he handed over the presidency to [[John F. Kennedy]], at 43 the youngest elected president, he was the oldest president to serve, at 70 years and 98 days &ndash; a record since broken by [[Ronald Reagan]].
* Eisenhower was the first president affected by the [[22nd Amendment]], limiting presidential terms, and the first Republican president to be elected to two full terms since William McKinley (who did not live to serve them both).
* In 1945, General Eisenhower was the first American made an honorary member of the British [[Order of Merit]]. Only one other American has ever been given this honor, [[John Gilbert Winant]] in 1947. Eisenhower is one of very few Americans made an [[List of honorary British Knights|honorary]] [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]].
* With the exception of [[George Washington]], who was appointed a [[Lieutenant General]] after serving as President, Eisenhower is the only United States President with military service to reenter the [[United States armed forces]] after leaving the office of President.
* Eisenhower has been portrayed by several actors, including [[Tom Selleck]] in the 2004 television program "Ike: Countdown to D-Day" which depicts the 90 days leading up to the [[D-Day|D-Day Invasion]]. On [[June 6]] of that year, Eisenhower's grandson, David, along with Roosevelt's grandson, David, and [[Arabella Churchill (charity founder)|Arabella Churchill]], granddaughter of British Prime Minister [[Sir Winston Churchill]], appeared on [[MSNBC]] during the network's coverage of the 60th anniversary of D-Day and talked about the roles their respective grandfathers played during the allied invasion.{{fn|3}}
==Awards and decorations==
===United States===
* [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Army Distinguished Service Medal]] with four [[oak leaf clusters]]
* [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]
* [[Legion of Merit]]
* [[World War I Victory Medal]]
* [[European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal]] with one silver and four bronze [[service stars]]
* [[American Campaign Medal]]
* [[American Defense Service Medal]] with "Foreign Service" [[Campaign clasp|clasp]]
* [[World War II Victory Medal]]
* [[Mexican Border Service Medal]]
* [[Army of Occupation Medal]] with "Germany" clasp
===International Awards===
* [[Order of the Bath|British Order of the Bath]]
* [[Order of Merit| British Order of Merit]]
* [[Africa Star|British African Star]]
* [[Order of Leopold|Belgian Order of Leopold]]
* [[Croix de Guerre|Belgian Croix de Guerre]]
* [[Légion d'honneur|French Legion of Honor]]
* [[Croix de Guerre|French Croix de Guerre]]
* [[French Liberation Medal]]
* [[Luxembourg War Cross]]
* [[Luxembourg Medal of Merit]]
* [[Order of the White Lion|Czechoslovakian Order of the White Lion]]
* [[Golden Star of Victory|Czechoslovakian Golden Star of Victory]]
* [[Order of the Elephant|Danish Order of the Elephant]]
* [[Order of Ouissan Alaouite|Moroccan Order of Ouissan Alaouite]]
* [[Order of the Lion|Netherlands Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion]]
* [[Order of Victory|Russian Order of Victory]]
* [[Order of Suvorov|Russian Order of Suvorov]]
* [[Virtuti Militari|Polish Virtuti Militari]]
* [[Polish Cross of Grunwald]]
* [[Polish Rastituta Chevalier]]
* [[Argentinian Great Cross of the Order of the Liberator]]
* [[Brazilian Grand Cross Order of Military Merit]]
* Brazilian Grand Cross Order of Aeronautical Merit
* Brazilian National Order of the Southern Cross
* Brazil War Medal
* Brazil Campaign Medal
* Chief Commander of the Chilean Order of Merit
* Chinese Grand Cordon of the Order of Yun Hui
* Chinese Grand Cordon of the Order of Yun Fei
* Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon
* Egyptian Grand Cordon of the Order of Ismal
* Ethiopian Order of Solomon
* Greek [[Order of George I]] with Swords
* Guatemalan Cross of Military Merit
* Haitian Great Cross of the Order of Honor and Merit
* Grand Cross of the Italian Military Order
* Order of Mexican Military Merit
* Mexican [[Aztec Eagle]]
* Medal of Mexican Civic Merit
* Norwegian Order of St. Olaf
* Tunisian Grand Cordon of the Nishan Iftikar
In addition, Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc. in cities around the world, including [[Paris]], [[France]].
== Quotes ==
[[Image:wiki_eisenhower.JPG|thumb|left|Stamp issued by the [[United States Postal Service|USPS]] in 1969 commemorating Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
''From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city, every village, and every rural schoolhouse, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.''<br>
--Dwight D. Eisenhower when signing into law the phrase "One nation under God" into the [[Pledge of Allegiance]].
''Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children. This is not a way of life at all in any true sense. Under the clouds of war, it is humanity hanging on a cross of iron.''<BR>
-- Dwight Eisenhower, [[April 16]], [[1953]]
''I like to believe that people in the long run are going to do more to promote peace than our governments. Indeed, I think that people want peace so much that one of these days governments had better get out of the way and let them have it.''<BR>
-- Dwight D. Eisenhower
''In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the [[military-industrial complex]]. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist.''<BR>
-- Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address [[January 17]], [[1961]] (source: Fortune program)
''Should any political party attempt to abolish social security, unemployment insurance, and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group, of course, that believes you can do these things. Among them are [[H. L. Hunt]] (you possibly know his background), a few other Texas oil millionaires, and an occasional politician or business man from other areas. Their number is negligible and they are stupid.''<br>
-- Dwight D. Eisenhower in a letter to his brother Edgar, [[November 8]], [[1954]], [http://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/ike.asp Snopes page]
== Footnotes ==
*{{fnb|1}} All of the Eisenhower boys left the Jehovah's Witness religion when they reached adulthood and openly opposed major aspects of [[Watchtower]] teaching, although some of the values they learned from their Bible studies probably influenced them throughout their lives. Some Watchtower values may even have been reflected in Eisenhower's statements against war made in his latter life. Nonetheless, the Eisenhowers endeavored to hide the full extent of their mother's and family's Watchtower involvement although they did at times admit their affiliation with them.
*{{fnb|2}} As V-E Day came, Allied forces in Western Europe [not including Italy] consisted of 4.5 million men, including 9 armies (5 of them American&mdash;one of which, the Fifteenth, saw action only at the last), 23 corps, 91 divisions (61 of them American), 6 tactical air commands (4 American), and 2 strategic air forces (1 American). The Allies had 28,000 combat aircraft, of which 14,845 were American, and they had brought into Western Europe more than 970,000 vehicles and 18 million tons of supplies. At the same time they were achieving final victory in Italy with 18 divisions (7 of them American). [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/AMH/AMH-22.htm]
*{{fnb|3}} {{cite web
| title = An Eisenhower, A Roosevelt, A Churchill
| work = MSNBC D-Day 60th Anniversary Special Report
| url = http://msnbc.msn.com/id/5139714
| accessdate = March 29
| accessyear = 2005
}}
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Eisenhower video montage.ogg|
title = Eisenhower video montage|
description =Collection of video clips of the president. (7.5 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg] |
ticospinal tract or ''upper motor neurons'' that project from the [[motor cortex]] of the brain. On macroscopic pathology, there is a degeneration of the ventral horns of the spinal cord, as well as atrophy of the ventral roots. In the brain, atrophy may be present in the frontal and temporal lobes. On microscopic examination, neurones may show spongiosis, the presence of astrocytes, and a number of inclusions including characteristic "skein-like" inclusions, bunina bodies, and vacuolisation.
There is a role in excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, presumably secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction. In animal models, death by [[apoptosis]] has also been identified.
==Emotional lability / pseudobulbar affect==
{{main|labile affect}}
Around a third of all MND patients experiece [[labile affect]], also known as emotional lability, pseudobulbar affect, or pathological laughter and crying. Patients with pseudobulbar palsy are particuarly likely to be affected, as are patients with PLS.
==Extra-motor change in MND==
[[Cognitive]] change can and does occur in between 33&ndash;50% of patients. A small proportion exhibit a form of [[frontotemporal dementia]] characterised by behavioural abnormalities such as [[disinhibition]], [[apathy]], and personality changes. A small proportion of patients may also suffer from an [[aphasia]], which causes difficulty in naming specific objects. A larger proportion (up to 50%) suffer from a milder version of cognitive change which primarily affects what is known as [[executive function]]. Briefly, this is the ability of an individual to initiate, inhibit, sustain, and switch attention and is involved in the organisation of complex tasks down to smaller components. Often patients with such changes find themselves unable to do the family finances or drive a car. [[clinical depression|Depression]] is surprisingly rare in MND (around 5&ndash;20%) relative to the frequency with which it is found in other, less severe, neurological disorders e.g. ~50% in [[multiple sclerosis]] and [[Parkinson's disease]], ~20% in Epilepsy. Depression does not necessarily increase as the symptoms progress, and in fact many patients report being happy with their [[quality of life]] despite profound disability. This may reflect the use of [[Coping (psychology)|coping strategies]] such as reevaluating what is important in life.
Although traditionally thought only to affect the motor system, sensory abnormalities are not necessarily absent, with some patients finding altered sensation to touch and heat, found in around 10% of patients. Patients with a predominantly upper motor neurone syndrome, and particularly PLS, often report an enhanced startle reflex to loud noises.
Neuroimaging and neuropathology has demonstrated extra-motor changes in the frontal lobes including the inferior frontal gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and superior temporal gyrus. The degree of pathology in these areas has been directly related to the degree of cognitive change experienced by the patient, if any. Patients with MND and dementia have been shown to exhibit marked frontotemporal lobe atrophy as revealed by [[MRI]] or [[SPECT]] [[neuroimaging]].
==Epidemiology==
The incidence of MND is approximately 1&ndash;5 out of 100,000 people. Men have a slightly higher incidence rate than women. Approximately 5,600 cases are diagnosed in the U.S. every year. By far the greatest risk factor is age, with symptoms typically presenting between the ages of 50-70. Cases under the age of 50 years are called "young onset MND", whilst incidence rates appear to tail off after the age of 85.
Tentative environmental risk factors identified so far include: exposure to severe electrical shock leading to coma, having served in the first [[Gulf War]], and playing professional [[football (soccer)]]. However, these findings have not been firmly identified and more research is needed.
There are three "hot spots" of MND in the world. One is in the Kii pensinula of Japan, one amongst a tribal population in Papua New Guinea. Until the 1960s, Chamorro inhabitants from the island of [[Guam]] in the [[Oceania|Pacific Ocean]] had an increased risk of developing a form of MND known as Guamanian ALS-PD-dementia complex or "lytico bodig", but since then the incidence rates have returned to near normal, and nobody born since 1940 has developed the disease. Putative theories involve neurotoxins in local wildlife including [[cycad]] nuts and other traditional foodstuffs[http://www.boston.com/news/science/articles/2003/12/09/flying_fox_linked_to_disease/].
==Treatment==
Currently, there is no cure for ALS. The only drug that affects the course of the disease is [[riluzole]]. The drug functions by blocking the effects of the neurotransmitter glutamate, and is thought to extend the lifespan of an ALS patient by only a few months.
The lack of effective medications to slow the progression of ALS does not mean that patients with ALS cannot be medically cared for. Instead, treatment of patients with ALS focuses on the relief of symptoms associated with the disease. This involves a variety of health professionals including neurologists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, dieticians, respiratory therapists, social workers, palliative care specialists, specialist nurses and psychologists. A list of neurology clinics that specialize in the care of patients with ALS can be found on the World Federation of Neurology website (http://www.wfnals.org/clinics/).
==Research Efforts==
The search for a drug that will slow ALS disease progression is underway. For example, recent research using mouse models suggests that [[minocycline]], a common antibiotic, may also be effective in extending the lifespan of ALS sufferers. This drug must pass [[clinical trials]] with ALS patients before it may be used as a general treatment for ALS.
[[Minocycline]] extends the lifespan of ALS mice with SOD1 mutations, but it does not prevent their eventual death. Other agents that are currently in trials include ceftriaxone, arimoclomol, IGF-1 and coenzyme Q10 to name but a few. A list of US-based clinical ALS trials may be found at www.clinicaltrials.org or by contacting your local ALS/MND charity.
==Etymology==
''Amyotrophic'' comes from the [[Greek language]]: ''A-'' means "no", ''myo'' refers to "muscle", and ''trophic'' means "nourishment"; ''amyotrophic'' therefore means "no muscle nourishment," which describes the characteristic [[atrophy|atrophication]] of the sufferer's disused muscle tissue. ''Lateral'' identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located. As this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening ("[[sclerosis]]") in the region.
==History and prominent patients==
[[United States|U.S.]] baseball player [[Lou Gehrig]] brought national and international attention to the disease in [[1939]] when he abruptly retired after being diagnosed with ALS/MND; he would die two years later. Former guitar virtuoso [[Jason Becker]], [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Stephen Hawking]], and ex-[[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] [[Football (soccer)|football]] player [[Jimmy Johnstone]] also suffer from the disease.
Founder of care homes [[Leonard Cheshire]] VC, owner from 1957-1966 of [[Athelhampton]] House in Dorset Sir Robert Cooke F.R.C.S., [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Victor Emery]], [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] [[football (soccer)|football]]er [[Sam English]], [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] [[pitcher]] [[Catfish Hunter|Jim "Catfish" Hunter]], [[blues]] singer and guitarist [[Leadbelly]], [[China|Chinese]] Chairman [[Mao Zedong]], [[jazz]] giant [[Charles Mingus]], [[Hollywood]] actor [[David Niven]], legendary [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] manager [[Don Revie]], teacher and book subject [[Morrie Schwartz]], American television actor [[Lane Smith]], linguist [[Larry Trask]], ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' journalist [[Jill Tweedie]], avant-garde guitarist [[Derek Bailey]], American [[soap opera]] veteran [[Michael Zaslow]], and libertarian writer, politician, and investment analyst, [[Harry Browne]] died from the disease.
[[Diane Pretty]] was a British woman with the disease who was involved in a prominent [[right-to-die]] case in the early [[2000s]].
==See also==
* [[Kennedy disease]]
* [[Monomelic amyotrophy]]
* [[Primary lateral sclerosis]]
* [[Progressive muscular atrophy]]
* [[Riluzole]]
==Sources and references==
* [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/motor_neuron_diseases/motor_neuron_diseases.htm NINDS Motor Neuron Diseases Information Page]
:Motor Neuron Diseases information sheet compiled by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).
* [http://www.alsod.org/ ALSOD Database of all known SOD1 mutations]
* Some information gathered from Dr. M Norenberg, [[University of Miami]] ([[October 26]] [[2004]]).
* ''Crossing the Finishing Line&mdash;Last Thoughts of Leonard Cheshire VC'', ed. [[Reginald C. Fuller]] (London 1998).
* ''[[De Standaard]]'' ([[Dutch language]] newspaper), [[12 September]] [[2005]].
* Zhu S, Stavrovskaya IG, Drozda M, Kim BY, Ona V, Li M, Sarang S, Liu AS, Hartley DM, Wu du C, Gullans S, Ferrante RJ, Przedborski S, Kristal BS, Friedlander RM. "Minocycline inhibits cytochrome c release and delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in mice." Nature. 2002 [[May 2]];417(6884):74-8.
* Van Den Bosch L, Tilkin P, Lemmens G, Robberecht W. "Minocycline delays disease onset and mortality in a transgenic model of ALS." Neuroreport. 2002 [[12 June]];13(8):1067-70.
* Kriz J, Nguyen MD, Julien JP. "Minocycline slows disease progression in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis." Neurobiol Dis. 2002 Aug;10(3):268-78.
==Information about Clinic |
/Children of God"], Nova Religio (Journal of the University of California)
* Shepherd, Gary and Shepherd, Gordon (Spring 2000).[http://www2.oakland.edu/oujournal/files/Shepherd.pdf "The Moral Career of a New Religious Movement"] The Oakland Journal.
* Wilson, Bryan and Jamie Cresswell, eds. (1999). "New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response". ''Routledge'', London, UK.
* Wright, Stuart (1987). "Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection". ''Society for the Scientific Study of Religion''. Washington, D.C., USA.
* Van Zandt, David (1991). "Living in the Children of God". ''Princeton University Press'', Princeton, New Jersy.
===Journalistic and popular===
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Category:Press Category:Press] - An archive of press coverage (hosted by [http://www.xfamily.org xfamily.org])
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Category:Video_Archives Television Coverage] - An archive of television coverage (hosted by [http://www.xfamily.org xfamily.org])
* Davis, Deborah (1984). [http://www.exfamily.org/art/exmem/debdavis/the_cog.html "The Children of God: The Inside Story".] ''Zondervan''. ISBN 0-3102-7840-6. (Davis is one of David Berg's daughters)
* McManus, Una (1980). "Not for a Million Dollars". Impact Books. ISBN 0-9148-5054-7.
* Williams, Miriam (1999). "Heaven's Harlots: My Fifteen Years As a Sacred Prostitute in the Children of God Cult". ''Quill''. ISBN 0-6881-7012-9.
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/cult/children_of_god/main.htm "30 Members of Children of God arrested"] ([[September 2]], [[1993]]). ''Washington Post'', pp. A05
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/cult/children_of_god/child1.htm "The Family" and Final Harvest"] ([[June 2]], [[1993]]). ''Washington Post'', pp. A01
* Goodstein, Laurie (2005), ''[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/15/national/15cult.html Murder and Suicide Reviving Claims of Child Abuse in Cult]'', [[New York Times]], [[January 15]] 2005, pg. A-1
==External links==
===Primary sources===
* Official Family Web sites: [http://www.thefamily.org English], [http://www.lafamilia.org/ Spanish], [http://www.thefamily.dp.ua/ Russian], [http://www.afamilia.org/ Portuguese], [http://www.greekfamily.org/ Greek], [http://www.family.gr.jp/ Japanese], [http://www.thefamily-chinese.org/ Chinese], [http://www.thaifamily.org/ Thai], [http://www.thefamilyeurope.org Europe] (in English, Czech, French, Croatian, Italian, Dutch, Polish, and Portuguese), [http://www.familyafrica.com South Africa] (English)
See also: [[Programs, projects, and productions of the Children of God]]
===Members' sites===
* [http://www.deeptruths.com/ Deep Truths] Basic writings of David Brandt Berg.
* [http://www.kt70.com/~jamesjpn/ James Japan] (Also the webmaster of Deep Truths.)
* [http://www.myconclusion.com/ My Conclusion]<ref name=MyConclusion/> Opinions and responses by current second-generation members with positive viewpoints about The Family.
* [http://www.theendtime.com/ The Endtime] Offers Family-produced Endtime videos.
* [http://www.anzwers.org/free/beyondstars/index.html The Endtime News] Focus on the Endtime.
===Former-member websites===
* [http://www.exfamily.org ExFamily.org] - Community site for former ''first'' generation members of the Children of God/The Family. Includes archive of over 4000 COG/Family publications, documentation, and message boards.
* [http://www.geocities.com/familyartcorner/ Family Art] - Flash presentation addressing plagiarism of art used in internal publications of the Children of God/The Family.
* [http://www.lamatteryresource.org LaMattery Resource]- A LaMattery family site about The Family.
* [http://makestraightpaths.com Make Straight Paths] - Site for former and current members comparing Family doctrine with the Bible.
* [http://www.movingon.org MovingOn]<ref name=MovingOn/> - Community site for former ''second'' generation members of The Family.
* [http://www.newdaynews.com/ New Day News] - Site for former members of the Children of God/The Family. Includes message boards and collection of photos.
* [http://www.excult.org/ Sword of the Lord Ministries] Ex-member site includes some video interviews.
* [http://www.xfamily.org xFamily] - A wiki site about The Family, including archive of selected COG/Family publications, and featuring the Ricky Rodriguez pre-murder-suicide video.
* [http://xchildrenofgod.xfamily.org/ xFamily Forum] - A message board about The Family.
===Opposing Viewpoints===
* [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/f/f38.html Family of Love] Apologetics Index
===Court cases===
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Final_Report_on_the_Activities_of_the_Children_of_God Final Report on the Activities of the Children of God to Hon. Louis J. Lefkowitz, Attorney General of the State of New York] &mdash; 1974-09-30
* [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/vindicated_stm.2004.pdf A review of judicial findings on the Family International by the Family International.]
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Krounapple_v._Children_of_God%2C_David_Brandt_Berg%2C_et._al._77CV-11-4706 Krounapple v. Children of God, David Brandt Berg, et. al. 77CV-11-4706. Court of Common Pleas, Franklin County, Ohio, USA. 21 June, 1979]
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Judgment_of_Lord_Justice_Ward Judgment of the Rt. Hon. Lord Justice Ward] - 1995 judgment resulting from major custody case in the UK involving The Family.
* [http://www.exfamily.org/art/misc/cult_justice.shtml Cult Justice - France]
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Brian_Edward_Pickus_-_Argentina_Extradition_Case Brian Edward Pickus - Argentina Extradition Case] &mdash; Court records and other information about the legal proceedings for the extadition of Family member Brian Pickus from Argentina to the United States for the crimes of kidapping, burglary and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution.
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Case_81/89_Cavazza%2C_Juan_C._and_others Case 81/89 Cavazza, Juan C. and others, on Inf. Art.125, 139, 140, 142, Par.l, 142 bis, 210, 293 of the Code of Proceedings and art.3 of Law 23,592. Federal Court of San Isidro, 1 Sec.2 Office II, Reg. 443. Buenos Aires, Argentina] &mdash; Court documents and other information related to legal proceedings in Argentina against 21 Family members.
*[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Tribunal_de_Menores_de_Mercedes_-_Case_number_32.202 Tribunal de Menores de Merecdes - Causa 32.202] - Court documents and other information relating to a complaint filed in Argentina on behalf of two U.S. citizens seeking the return of their four abducted children.
* [http://sapas.tripod.com.ar/testimoniocausandd.htm Antecedentes de la Causa NDD en Argentina- Causa 32.202- menores Frouman E. y otros s/ Inf. Art. 10- Ley 10.067 by Hugo Gabutti.] &mdash; review of the Frouman case and related legal action against the Children of God in Argentina by a former police detective assigned to investigate the organization and find abducted children. In Spanish.
*[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Richard_Peyer_vs_Family_of_Love_et._al._1CC00-0-063603 Richard Peyer vs Family of Love et. al. 1CC00-0-063603] &mdash; Records of a civil suit against the Family of Love and other parties by a mother whose children were abducted in September 1980 and a man who was assaulted during the abduction. &ndash; Circuit Court (O`AHU - First Judicial Circuit), Honolulu, Hawaii. — 1980-11-26
*[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Candy_Ann_Pickus%2C_et._al._v._Phyllis_Gotwalt_et._al._1CC00-0-072110 Candy Ann Pickus et. al. vs Phyllis Gotwalt et. al. - 1CC00-0-072110] &mdash; Records of a civil suit against Phyllis Gotwalt, Brian Pickus and others allegedly responsible for the abduction of the Pickus children. &ndash; Circuit Court (O`AHU - First Judicial Circuit), Honolulu, Hawaii. — 1980-11-26
* [http://www.cesnur.org/testi/TheFamily/argentina.htm The Children of God/The Family Court Cases in Argentina, 1987-1995: A Documentary History]
* [http://www.cesnur.org/testi/TheFamily/france.htm The Children of God/The Family Court Cases in France, 1991-2000]
===Other===
* BBC Radio 4, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/programmes/beyond_belief/index.shtml ''Beyond Belief''], [[August 9]], [[2004]]: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/realmedia/beyond_belief/beyond_20040809.ram "Cults"] - One of the participants is a member of The Family.
* BBC Radio 4, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/religion/bigots.shtml ''Bigots or Believers'']
* Jones, Paul [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/Family.html The Family (The Children of God)] article on the website of the [[University of Virginia]] written by a student of the late Jeffrey Hadden
[[Category:Children of God|*]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Intentional communities]]
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[[ja:ファミリー (新宗教)]]
[[nl:Children of God]]
[[pl:Rodzina (religia)]]
[[sv:Familjen]]
[[zh:上帝之子]]</text>
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<comment>Added Center for Information Technology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Coimbatore Institute of Technology]]
*[[CIT Group Incorporated]] - a commercial and consumer finance company
*[[California Institute of Technology]]
*[[Canberra Institute of Technology]]
*[[Carnegie Institute of Technology]]
*[[Center for Information Technology]] - an agency of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States Federal Government]]
*[[Cork Institute of Technology]]
*[[Chartered Institute of Transport]] (now part of the [[Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport]])
*[[Counselor-In-Training]]
*[[Computer and Infor |
the [[1978 NFL season]]. [[Greg Pruitt]] and [[Mike Pruitt]] led a rushing attack that gained almost 2500 yards, but problems with the team's dismal pass defense resulted in the Browns finishing 8-8 on the year.
The 1979 campaign started with four consecutive wins, three of which were in the final minute or overtime. Four more games were won by less than a touchdown. This penchant for playing close games would later earn them the nickname "[[Kardiac Kids]]". Sipe threw 28 touchdown passes, tying him with [[Steve Grogan]] of [[New England Patriots|New England]] for most in the league, but his 26 interceptions also led the league. Mike Pruitt had a Pro Bowl season with his 1294 rushing yards, while the defense was still shaky, ranking near the bottom in rushing defense. The team finished 9-7, behind division rivals [[Houston Oilers|Houston]] and [[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh]] in a tough AFC Central.
The 1980 season is still fondly remembered by Browns fans. After splitting the first six games by going 3-3, the Browns won three straight games with fourth-quarter comebacks, and stopped a late comeback by the [[Baltimore Colts]] to win a fourth. The Browns won two more games in that fashion by the end of the season, and even lost a game to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] on the last play when a [[Hail Mary pass]] was tipped into the waiting hands of [[Ahmad Rashad]]. Sipe passed for 4000 yards and 30 touchdowns (enough for him to be named the [[NFL MVP]]), behind an offensive line that sent three members to the [[Pro Bowl]]: [[Doug Dieken]], [[Tom DeLeone]] and [[Joe DeLamielleure]]. The "Kardiac Kids" name stuck. A fourth-quarter field goal by [[Don Cockroft]] in the final game against the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] helped the Browns capture the division with an 11-5 mark, with the [[Oakland Raiders]] their opponent in the team's first playoff game in eight years. However, a heartbreaking end of this dramatic season came in the closing seconds when Sipe called what became known as "[[Red Right 88]]" and passed toward the end zone, only to watch Oakland's [[Mike Davis (football player)|Mike Davis]] intercept the ball. The Raiders went on to win the [[Super Bowl]], and "[[Red Right 88]]" has been cursed by Cleveland sports fans ever since.
If 1980 was a dream season, then 1981 was a nightmare. Sipe threw only 17 touchdowns, while being picked off 25 times. The Browns went 5-11, and few of their games were particularly close. Tight end [[Ozzie Newsome]], their only Pro Bowler, had 1002 yards receiving for six touchdowns.
In 1982 [[Brian Sipe]] split quarterbacking duties with [[Paul McDonald]], and both put up similar numbers. The Browns had little success rushing or defending against it, finishing in the bottom five teams in both yardage categories. Despite going 4-5, Cleveland was able to make the playoffs due to an expanded playoff system in the strike-shortened year. They were matched up with the Raiders in the playoffs, but were easily defeated 27-10.
Sipe and the Browns got some of their spark back in 1983. Sipe had 26 touchdown passes and 3566 yards, while [[Mike Pruitt]] ran for 10 scores on 1184 yards. Cleveland even won two games in overtime and another in the fourth quarter. A fourth-quarter loss to the [[Houston Oilers]] in their second-to-last game dashed their playoff hopes. At 9-7 the Browns finished one game behind the Steelers, and lost out on a wild-card spot due to a tiebreaker.
1984 was a rebuilding year. Brian Sipe defected to the upstart [[USFL]] after the 1983 season, and [[Paul McDonald]] was named the starting quarterback. [[Mike Pruitt]] missed much of the season and later ended up on the [[Buffalo Bills]]. Coach [[Sam Rutigliano]] lost his job after a 1-7 start as [[Marty Schottenheimer]] took over. The Browns coasted to a 5-11 record.
===1985-90: The Bernie Kosar years===
In [[1985 NFL season|1985]], the Browns selected University of Miami quarterback [[Bernie Kosar]] in the Supplemental Draft. Under Schottenheimer and with Kosar at quarterback, the Browns enjoyed noteworthy success, reaching the playoffs each of the next five seasons, advancing to the AFC championship game three of those years.
Kosar took over midway through the 1985 season from [[Gary Danielson]] and turned the struggling season around, winning four of his six regular season starts. Two young rushers, [[Earnest Byner]] and [[Kevin Mack]], ran for 1000 yards. Their 8-8 record won them the top spot in a weak AFC Central, and nearly shocked the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the divisional playoff before [[Dan Marino]] led a spirited second-half comeback to win 24-21.
The Browns broke through into the ranks of the NFL elite with a 12-4 showing in [[1986 NFL season|1986]], behind Kosar's 3854 yards passing and a defense with four Pro Bowlers ([[Chip Banks]], [[Hanford Dixon]], [[Bob Golic]] and [[Frank Minnifield]]). With the best record in the AFC, the Browns clinched home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. They needed it. In the divisional playoff, the [[New York Jets]] were leading 20-10 with less than four minutes to play and the Browns driving when [[Mark Gastineau]] was called for roughing the passer on a 3rd-and-24 play. The penalty gave Cleveland a first down and the drive ended with a [[Kevin Mack]] touchdown run. The Jets went [[three-and-out]], and the Browns again drove the length of the field. A [[Mark Moseley]] field goal tied it with 11 seconds left, and the game went to overtime. Moseley missed another field goal in the extra frame, and the game then went to double overtime. His second chance was good and the Browns won 23-20, in the second-longest game in NFL history.
The AFC Championship game was against the [[Denver Broncos]], a team that would prove to be Cleveland's nemesis in this era. Like the week before, it was a heart-stopper that went to overtime. But this time, it was [[John Elway]] and the Broncos who came away the victors. Elway led a 98-yard touchdown drive (now often referred to as simply "[[The Drive]]") in the final five minutes, ended with a 5-yard pass to [[Mark Jackson (football)|Mark Jackson]] that tied the game at 20-20. [[Rich Karlis]] won the game for Denver with a field goal early in overtime.
The Browns success was replicated in [[1987 NFL season|1987]], with 22 touchdown passes and 3000 yards for Kosar, and eight Pro Bowlers: Kosar, Mack, Dixon, Golic, Minnifield, [[linebacker]] [[Clay Matthews]], [[wide receiver]] [[Gerald McNeil]] and [[offensive line]]man [[Cody Risien]]. At 10-5, the Browns won the AFC Central again. Cleveland easily defeated the [[Indianapolis Colts]] 38-21 in the divisional playoff and travelled to Denver for a rematch with the Broncos in the AFC Championship. With the score 21-3 in favor of the Broncos at halftime, Kosar led a third-quarter comeback with two touchdowns by [[Earnest Byner]] and another by [[Reggie Langhorne]]. Early in the fourth quarter, [[Webster Slaughter]]'s 4-yard touchdown catch tied it at 31-31. The Broncos regained the lead with a 20-yard [[Sammy Winder]] touchdown with under five minutes to go, setting the stage for another Browns comeback...or so they thought. Kosar drove the Browns to the Broncos' 8 yard line with 1:12 to go, and handed off to Byner. When it looked like he had an open route to the end zone, he was stripped of the ball by [[Jeremiah Castille]]. The Broncos recovered what became known as "[[The Fumble]]". After taking a safety, the Broncos shocked the Browns again, 38-33.
Injuries to Kosar and two of his backups sidelined them for much of the [[1988 NFL season|1988]] season, but the Browns still finished 10-6. A final-week comeback victory in a snowstorm at [[Cleveland Stadium]] over the [[Houston Oilers]] clinched them a wild-card playoff spot, and a home game rematch against the Oilers in the first round. After [[Mike Pagel]], in for Kosar, threw a touchdown pass to [[Webster Slaughter]] late in the fourth quarter to pull the Browns within a point at 24-23, the Browns had three chances to recover an [[onside kick]] (due to penalties), but the Oilers recovered and stopped the Cleveland comeback.
Coach [[Marty Schottenheimer]] left the Browns by mutual agreement with Modell shortly after the loss to the Oilers. Modell was tired of losing in the playoffs and Schottenheimer was tired of what he perceived as Modell's interference with his coaching personnel and game strategy. Schottenheimer was quickly hired by the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] for the [[1989 NFL season|1989]] season. [[Bud Carson]] was his replacement in Cleveland, but his tenure was short - only one and a half years. The 1989 season, headlined by Slaughter's Pro Bowl-worthy 1236 yards receiving, was a success at 7-3 until a 10-10 tie with Schottenheimer's Chiefs in November led to a 3-game losing streak. Two comeback wins over the [[Minnesota Vikings]] and Houston Oilers in the season's final two weeks kept them in the playoff race. The tie ended up being the Browns' saving grace, with their 9-6-1 record winning them the AFC Central title and first-round bye over the Oilers and [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] at 9-7. The Browns narrowly survived a scare from the [[Buffalo Bills]] in their divisional playoff game, when [[Scott Norwood]] missed an extra point that would have pulled Buffalo within 3 points and, later, when [[Jim Kelly]]'s desperation pass to the [[end zone]] on the final play of the game was intercepted.
Cleveland's 34-30 win set them up for a rematch with the Broncos in Denver for the AFC Championship. While their two previous matchups went down to the wire, this one was never in doubt. The Broncos led from start to finish, and a long Elway touchdown pass to Sammy Winder put the game way in the fourth quarter. Denver easily won 37-21.
In [[1990 NFL season|1990]] things began to unravel. Kosar threw more interceptions (15) than touchdowns (10) for the first time in his career; an |
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MAXIMOP<br>
maximum Maytag mode<br>
maximum seek time<br>
maximum segment size<br>
Maximum Transmission Unit<br>
Maxis Software<br>
MB<br>
MBASIC<br>
Mbogo, Dr. Fred<br>
MBONE<br>
mbps<br>
MBS<br>
MC<br>
mc<br>
MC68000<br>
MC6809<br>
MCA -- '''DONE''' (redirected to Micro Channel Architecture)<br>
MCC<br>
McCulloch-Pitts neuron<br>
McG360<br>
MCI<br>
MCL<br>
M-Code<br>
MCP<br>
MCP-1600<br>
MCS<br>
MCSD<br>
MCSE<br>
mcvax<br>
mcvert<br>
MD<br>
md<br>
MD5<br>
MDF<br>
MDI<br>
MDL<br>
Mean Time Between Failures<br>
Mean Time Between Faults<br>
Mean Time To Recovery<br>
measure<br>
measurement<br>
meatspace<br>
meatware<br>
Media Access Control<br>
Media Access Unit<br>
Media Converter<br>
Media Gateway Control Protocol<br>
Medium Access Control<br>
meeces<br>
Meet<br>
meg<br>
mega-<br>
megabits per second<br>
megabyte<br>
megaflop<br>
megaflops<br>
megahertz<br>
megapenny<br>
MEGO<br>
Mei<br>
Mel<br>
MELD<br>
MELDC<br>
Melinda<br>
Mellor<br>
meltdown<br>
member function<br>
membership function<br>
meme<br>
meme plague<br>
memetic algorithm<br>
memetics<br>
Memex<br>
memo function<br>
memoisation<br>
memoised function<br>
memoization<br>
memoized function<br>
memory<br>
memory address space<br>
memory farts<br>
memory leak<br>
memory location<br>
memory management<br>
Memory Management Unit<br>
memory mapped I/O '''DONE'''<br>
memory protection<br>
memory smash<br>
Memory Type Range Registers<br>
MEMS<br>
Mentat<br>
MENTOR<br>
menu<br>
menu bar<br>
menuitis<br>
MENYMA/S<br>
Mercury Autocode<br>
mercury delay line<br>
MERISE<br>
Merlin<br>
MEROON<br>
Mesa<br>
mesh<br>
MESI protocol<br>
message<br>
Message Digest 5<br>
message digest function<br>
Message Handling System<br>
message passing<br>
[[Message Passing Interface]]<br>
message switching<br>
Message Transfer Agent<br>
Messaging Application Programming Interface<br>
Messaging Applications Programming Interface<br>
mess-dos<br>
META<br>
meta<br>
META 5<br>
meta bit<br>
MetaCard<br>
Meta-CASE tool<br>
Metaclass<br>
Meta-Crystal<br>
Metadata<br>
meta-data<br>
Metadata Information Partners<br>
META element<br>
metafile<br>
METAFONT<br>
metaheuristic<br>
Meta-II<br>
metainformation<br>
Meta-IV<br>
METAL<br>
metalanguage<br>
Metal Oxide Semiconductor<br>
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor<br>
metaphone<br>
metaprogram<br>
metasyntactic variable<br>
metasyntax<br>
META tag<br>
Meta-Vlisp<br>
Met-English<br>
METEOR<br>
meter<br>
method<br>
methodology<br>
Methods<br>
me too<br>
metre<br>
metric<br>
Metropolitan Area Network<br>
M-expression LISP<br>
MFC<br>
MFE<br>
MFLOPS<br>
[[MFM]] '''DONE'''<br>
MFTL<br>
mg<br>
MGCP<br>
mh<br>
MHDL<br>
MHEG<br>
MHS<br>
MHz<br>
MIB<br>
MIB Variable<br>
Mic-1<br>
Mic-2<br>
MICE<br>
mice<br>
Michigan Algorithm Decoder<br>
mickey<br>
mickey mouse program<br>
MICR<br>
micro<br>
micro-<br>
Micro Assembly Language<br>
microcentury<br>
Micro Channel Architecture -- '''DONE'''<br>
microcode<br>
Microcom Networking Protocol<br>
microcomputer<br>
microcontroller<br>
MicroDroid<br>
microelectromechanical system<br>
Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation<br>
MicroEmacs<br>
microfloppies<br>
microfortnight<br>
MicroGnuEmacs<br>
Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems<br>
Micro Interpreter for Knowledge Engineering<br>
microkernel<br>
microLenat<br>
micrometre<br>
Micro ML<br>
Micron<br>
micron<br>
Micron Electronics, Inc.<br>
Micronetics Standard MUMPS<br>
Micro$oft<br>
microPLANNER<br>
microprocesor<br>
microprocessor<br>
Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages<br>
microprogramming<br>
microReid<br>
MICRO SAINT<br>
microsecond<br>
Microserf<br>
Microslop<br>
Microsloth Windows<br>
Microsoft<br>
Microsoft Access<br>
Microsoft Basic<br>
Microsoft Certified Solution Developer<br>
Microsoft Certified System Engineer<br>
Microsoft Certified Systems Developer<br>
Microsoft Corporation<br>
Microsoft Excel<br>
Microsoft Exchange<br>
Microsoft Extended<br>
Microsoft Foundation Classes<br>
Microsoft IIS<br>
Microsoft IntelliMouse Explorer<br>
Microsoft Internet Information Server<br>
Microsoft Mail<br>
Microsoft Mail Application Program Interface<br>
Microsoft Network<br>
Microsoft Networking<br>
Microsoft Office<br>
Microsoft Point to Point Encryption<br>
Microsoft SQL Server<br>
Microsoft Windows<br>
Microsoft Word<br>
MicroStation<br>
microtape<br>
Microware Corporation<br>
Microwave Hardware Description Language<br>
MIDAS<br>
Midas<br>
Midas-WWW<br>
middle-endian<br>
middleware<br>
MIDI<br>
mid-level network<br>
MIF<br>
MIG<br>
MIGRAINES<br>
MII<br>
MIIS<br>
MIKE<br>
mil<br>
Milarepa<br>
MILITRAN<br>
mill<br>
millennium bug<br>
millennium meltdown<br>
milli-<br>
milliLampson<br>
millisecond<br>
MILNET<br>
MIMD<br>
MIME<br>
mimencode<br>
MIMER<br>
MIME type<br>
MIMIC<br>
MIMOLA<br>
mind mouse<br>
mind uploading<br>
Minerva software<br>
minicomputer<br>
Mini Disc<br>
minifloppy<br>
minimal automaton<br>
minimax<br> '''DONE'''
Mini-ML<br>
minimum seek time<br>
Mini PL/I<br>
MINITAB II<br>
MINIX<br>
Minnesota Internet Users Essential Tool<br>
MINT<br>
MiNT<br>
Mint Is Not TRAC<br>
Minuet<br>
MINUIT<br>
minus<br>
minus infinity<br>
MIPS<br>
MIPS project<br>
MIPS R2000<br>
MIPS R2010<br>
MIPS R3000<br>
MIPS R4000<br>
MIPS Technologies, Inc.<br>
Miracula<br>
Miranda<br>
MIRFAC<br>
mirror<br>
mirroring<br>
MIS<br>
misbug<br>
misfeature<br>
MISHAP<br>
Missed'em-five<br>
missile address<br>
miswart<br>
MIT<br>
MIT AI Lab<br>
MITI<br>
MITILAC<br>
MIT Lisp Machine<br>
MITRE Corporation<br>
MIT Research Laboratory for Electronics<br>
MITS<br>
MIT Scheme<br>
MIX<br>
MIXAL<br>
MIX Communications<br>
M-JPEG<br>
MJS<br>
mk<br>
ML<br>
ml<br>
ML-2000<br>
MLAB<br>
ML/I<br>
MLISP<br>
ML Kit<br>
MLL<br>
ML-lex<br>
ML-Linda<br>
ML Threads<br>
ML-Twig<br>
mm<br>
Mma<br>
mmap<br>
MMCD<br>
MMDF<br>
MMI<br>
MML<br>
MMU<br>
MMX<br>
MMX technology<br>
mn<br>
mnemonic<br>
MNP<br>
mo<br>
Mobile Triton<br>
mobo<br>
MOBSSL-UAF<br>
moby<br>
mockingbird<br>
Mockingboard<br>
Mock Lisp<br>
mod<br>
*MOD<br>
modal<br>
modal logic<br>
MODCAL<br>
Mode<br>
mode<br>
mode bit<br>
MODEF<br>
MODEL<br>
model<br>
model checking<br>
modeling<br>
modelling<br>
Model View Controller<br>
modem<br>
MODEM7<br>
moderator<br>
[[Modified Frequency Modulation]] '''DONE'''<br>
modifier<br>
M O drive<br>
MODSIM<br>
MODSIM |
by one of its moons, a moon passing into the shadow cast by its parent planet, or a moon passing into the shadow of another moon. A solar ''eclipse'' is actually a misnomer; the phenomenon is actually an [[occultation]].
An eclipse is a type of [[syzygy]], as are [[Astronomical_transit|transits]] and [[Occultation|occultations]].
==Eclipses in the Earth-Moon system==
An eclipse involving the Sun, Earth and Moon can only occur when they are in a line. Because the plane of the [[orbit]] of the Moon is tilted with respect to the plane of the [[orbit]] of the Earth (the [[ecliptic]]), eclipses occur only when the three bodies are near the intersection (the [[node (astronomy)|node]]) of these planes. The Sun passes either node once a [[year]], and eclipses occur in a period of about two [[draconic month]]s around these times. There can be from four to seven eclipses in a calendar [[year]]. They repeat according to [[eclipse cycle]]s.
===Types of eclipse===
[[image:eclipse99mir.jpg|right|frame|1999 Total solar eclipse seen from the [[Mir]] space station]]
The most dramatic eclipses visible from [[Earth]] are:
* '''[[Lunar eclipse]]s''' - the Earth obscures the Sun, from the [[Moon]]'s point of view. The Moon moves through the [[shadow]] cast by the Earth. This can only happen at [[full moon]].
* '''[[Solar eclipse]]s''' - the Moon [[occultation|occults]] the Sun, from the Earth's point of view. The Moon casts a shadow that touches the surface of the Earth. This can only happen at [[new moon]].
These eclipses can be divided into different types:
*'''Total eclipses''', in which the light source is totally blocked off by the eclipsing body. For total solar eclipses, the viewer is in the [[umbra]] part of the Moon's shadow.
*'''Partial eclipses''', in which only part of the luminary is covered (solar eclipses), or when only part of a body is eclipsed by the shadow (lunar eclipses). For solar eclipses, the viewer is in the [[penumbra]] part of the Moon's shadow.
*'''Annular eclipse''', which are a total eclipse of luminary where a thin ring of light is visible around the intervening object. For solar eclipses, the viewer is in the [[antumbra]] part of the Moon's shadow. It is pure coincidence that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent sizes, making annular eclipses possible. Annular eclipses are ideal times for observing [[solar prominence]]s.
*'''Hybrid''' solar eclipses, which consists of three phases: the eclipse starts as an annular one, then turns into a total and by the end it returns to the annular phase.
=== Eclipse phases ===
[[Image:Solar_eclips_1999_5.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photo taken by [[User:Lviatour|Luc Viatour]] during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]These were used in occult ceremonies.
=== General phases of a solar eclipse ===
* The '''general eclipse''' begins when the Moon's penumbra cone starts to sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The '''total''' or '''annular eclipse''' begins when the Moon's umbra starts to sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The '''[[centrality]]''' begins when the axis of the Moon's shadow cone starts to sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The eclipse's '''maximum''' occurs when the terrestrial surface within the umbra reaches its largest area.
* The centrality ends when the axis of the Moon's shadow finishes its sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The total or annular eclipse ends when the Moon's shadow finishes its sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The general eclipse ends when the Moon's penumbra finishes its sweep across the Earth's disc.
[[Image:Film_eclipse_soleil_1999.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Photo taken by [[User:Lviatour|Luc Viatour]] during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]
=== Local phases of a solar eclipse ===
* '''First contact''' (also called '''first exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc starts to cover the Sun's.
* '''Second contact''' (also called '''first interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc is entirely surrounded by the Sun's (for an annular eclipse) or the instant when the Sun's disc disappears completely behind the Moon's (for a total eclipse).
* '''Third contact''' (also called '''second interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc starts to come out of the Sun's (for an annular eclipse) or the instant when the Sun's disc reappears from behind the Moon's (for a total eclipse).
* Lastly, '''fourth contact''' (also called '''second exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc clears the Sun's.
=== Phases of a lunar eclipse ===
There are three types of lunar eclipses: '''penumbral''', when the Moon crosses only the Earth's penumbra; '''partial''', when the Moon crosses partially into the Earth's umbra; and '''total''', when the Moon crosses entirely within the Earth's umbra.
[[Image:Eclipse_lune.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Photo taken by [[User:Lviatour|Luc Viatour]] ]]
* '''First contact''' (also called '''first exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon starts to enter into the Earth's umbra.
* '''Second contact''' (also called '''first interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon enters completely into the Earth's umbra. This is the beginning of '''[[totality]]'''.
* The '''maximum''' of the eclipse occurs when the angular distance between the centre of the Moon's disc and the centre of the shadow cone is at its smallest value.
* '''Third contact''' (also called '''second interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon starts to come out of the Earth's umbra. This is the end of totality.
* Lastly, '''fourth contact''' (also called '''second exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon clears the Earth's umbra completely.
=== The eclipse in mythology ===
[[Image:EclipseCarving.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Han Dynasty Carving]]
Before modern astronomy arose there were long-standing explanations for eclipses in many cultures. These would typically involve conflicts between mythic forces. For example, in Hindu mythology, the two demons [http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Astronomy/Rahu.html Rahu]and Ketu were believed to be the cause of eclipses. Similarly in China, at the Imperial observatory in Beijing, is a carved stone with the following explanation:
:"This carved stone chart explained the cause of solar eclipses. The center of the golden bird (the symbol of the sun) was covered by the toad (the symbol of the moon). The people of the [[Han Dynasty]] called the phenomenon a good combination of the sun and the moon."
In this explanation we see a recognition of the celestial realities and a cheerful outlook regarding the event. In other cultures an eclipse could be both a surprising and a terrifying event.
===The eclipse in astrology===
In the field of [[astrology]] an eclipse is said to activate the exact degree of the [[ecliptic]] that the eclipse falls upon, in one of the 12 astrological signs. Traditionally, eclipses were said to have a ''malefic'' influence, that supposedly being a more negative and ominous influence rather than a positive one. (''see also'': [[omen]])
==Eclipses elsewhere in the solar system==
[[image:JupiterandIo.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A picture of [[Jupiter]] and its moon [[Io (moon)|Io]] taken by [[Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]]. The black spot is Io's shadow.]]
Eclipses are impossible on [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]], which have no moons.
On [[Mars]], only partial eclipses are possible, because neither of its moons is large enough to cover the Sun's disc. Martian eclipses have been photographed from both the surface of Mars and from orbit. See [[Transit of Phobos from Mars]] and [[Shadow of Phobos on Mars]].
The [[gas giants]], which have many moons, frequently display eclipses. The most striking involve [[Jupiter]], which has four large moons, and which has a low [[axial tilt]], making eclipses more frequent. It is common to see the larger moons casting circular shadows upon Jupiter's cloudtops.
[[Pluto]], with its large moon [[Charon (moon)|Charon]], is also the site of many eclipses.
==See also==
* [[Eclipse cycle]]
* [[Eclipsing binary]]
* ''[[Faraon|Pharaoh]]'' ([[historical novel]] by [[Boleslaw Prus|Boles&#322;aw Prus]], incorporating a [[solar eclipse|solar-eclipse]] scene likely inspired by [[Christopher Columbus]]' use of a [[lunar eclipse|lunar-eclipse]] prediction).
* [[Saros cycle]]
== External links ==
The following web page lists many of the cycles over which solar and lunar eclipses repeat, including the [[Saros]] and [[Inex]]:
* http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/calendar/eclipsecycles.htm
Search 5,000 years of eclipse data by type, magnitude, Saros number or simply by year on the following site:
* http://www.hermit.org/Eclipse/when_search.shtml (loads slowly)
Dr. Fred Espenak's eclipse site:
* http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/eclipse.html
Stunning Solar and Lunar Eclipse Sequences and Photos:
* http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Eclipses.htm
Interactive eclipse maps site:
* http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/SolarEclipsesGoogleMaps.html
Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site:
* http://www.zam.fme.vutbr.cz/~druck/Eclipse/
Windows software for finding eclipse dates and times:
* http://www.hermetic.ch/lcef/lcef.htm
[[Category:Eclipses| ]]
[[Category:Astronomical events]]
[[ar:كسوف الشمس]]
[[ca:Eclipsi]]
[[de:Verfinsterung]]
[[el:Έκλειψη]]
[[es:Eclipse]]
[[fr:Éclipse]]
[[gl:Eclipse]]
[[ko:식현상]]
[[he:ליקוי מאורות]]
[[ms:Gerhana]]
[[nl:Eclips]]
[[pl:Zaćmienie]]
[[pt:Eclipse]]
[[ru:Затмение]]
[[sk:Zatmenie]]
[[th:อุปราคา]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ed</title>
<id>9771</id>
<revision>
<id>40896596</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T19:10:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/156.63.21.14|156.63.21.14]] ([[User talk:156.63.21.14|talk]]) to last version by Tobias Bergemann</comment>
<text xml:spa |
nd Patriots|Boston Patriots]], 13-10, on [[September 9]], [[1960]]. They were the first AFL team ever to defeat an [[NFL]] team, on [[August 5]], [[1967]] when they beat the [[Detroit Lions]] 13-7. Despite their relative lack of early success, the Broncos produced some memorable games, like the 38-38 tie against the [[Buffalo Bills]] in [[1960]].
Denver has reached the [[Super Bowl]] six times, winning it in the [[1997]] and [[1998]] seasons. It is odd to remember a time, then, when Denver was the lowliest of teams, managing its first winning season in [[1973]] after thirteen years of futility. Denver, in fact, came close to losing its franchise in [[1965]], but a local ownership group took control that year and began to build the team.
In [[1967]], under head coach [[Lou Saban]], Denver took the field with almost two dozen rookies on its roster; though Saban's tenure was unsuccessful, it set the stage for later successes. In [[1973]], [[John Ralston]] coached the now-mature Broncos to a 7-5-2 record, including a dramatic tie with [[Oakland Raiders|Oakland]] in Denver's first-ever ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' appearance that is still remembered as a pivotal game in Broncos history. Ralston coached the team until [[1976]], when well-publicized clashes between Ralston and his players led to Ralston's removal.
Rookie coach [[Red Miller]], along with the [[Orange Crush Defense]] and aging quarterback [[Craig Morton]], promptly took Denver to its first playoff appearance &ndash; and, ultimately first [[Super Bowl]] &ndash; in [[1977]], where they were defeated by the [[Dallas Cowboys]], 27-10. Prior to [[1977 NFL season|1977 season]], Denver had received very little national attention and was rarely featured on nationally-televised games.
[[Quarterback]] [[John Elway]] arrived in [[1983]]. Originally drafted by the [[Baltimore Colts]] as the #1 pick of the draft, Elway proclaimed that he would shun football in favor of [[baseball]] (he was drafted by the [[New York Yankees]] to play centerfield) unless he was traded to a selected list of other teams, which included Denver. Prior to Elway, Denver had had over 24 different starting quarterbacks in its 23 seasons to that point. Elway would remain the quarterback through five Super Bowls, three under head coach [[Dan Reeves]] and two under [[Mike Shanahan]], and would end his career as the MVP of [[Super Bowl XXXIII]], his last NFL game. The Broncos would lose [[Super Bowl XXI]] to the [[New York Giants]] 39-20, [[Super Bowl XXII]] to the [[Washington Redskins]] 42-10 and [[Super Bowl XXIV]] to the [[San Francisco 49ers]] 55-10, the most lopsided Super Bowl in history.
In 1995, the Broncos debuted rookie running back sensation [[Terrell Davis]], who, in 1997 would finally lead the Broncos to their first Super Bowl victory, in [[Super Bowl XXXII]], over the [[Green Bay Packers]] 31-24. Although Elway was unable to complete more than 11 of his 22 passing attempts, throwing one interception and no touchdowns, Terrell Davis was able to overcome a severe migraine headache that caused him blurred vision and rush for 157 yards and three touchdowns to earn MVP honors.
The Broncos repeated the following year, defeating the [[Atlanta Falcons]] 34-19 to win [[Super Bowl XXXIII]]. Since the Elway's retirement following the 1998 season, Denver has only had one losing season ([[1999]]) and has made the playoffs as a wild card three times (in [[2000]], [[2003]] and [[2004]]), and as a division champion once ([[2005]]). However, they have won only one playoff game since Elway's retirement. Prior to the 2005 season, the Broncos were plagued by early season success followed by late season flops. In both [[2003]] and [[2004]] they started the season 5-1 and ended 10-6. In [[2005]], the Broncos would finally win a playoff game without Elway, defeating the defending Super Bowl champion [[New England Patriots]], ending the Patriots 10 game playoff winning streak. Unfortunately, the following weekend, the hosting Broncos' were defeated at home by the visiting Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship by a score of 34-17.
Since the Shanahan era began, the Broncos have been known for having high-yardage running backs. ''Tuesday Morning Quarterback'' writer [[Gregg Easterbrook]] once mused that Denver’s helmets should have a label that says "Insert running back, gain 1,000 yards." To wit: [[Terrell Davis]], [[Olandis Gary]], [[Mike Anderson]], [[Clinton Portis]], and, [[Reuben Droughns]] have all posted 1000-yard rushing seasons in Denver, with Davis shattering the 2,000 yard barrier in [[1998]]. In [[2005]], [[Mike Anderson]] rushed for more than 1,000 yards for the first time in five seasons. Anderson's backfield mate, [[Tatum Bell]], fell 79 yards short of 1,000 with 921. That would have made them the first two running backs in over 20 years to break 1,000 yards in a single season on the same team.
So the debate rages on: is it Denver's system, or their running backs, that are responsible for the huge numbers year-in and year-out? [http://www.footballoutsiders.com/ Football Outsiders] did a study to determine just that, and found some evidence that Denver's system of [[zone-blocking]] did aid running backs, and that most rushers who succeed in Denver will have a drop-off elsewhere. The study can be found [http://www.footballoutsiders.com/ramblings.php?p=2484&cat=1 here]. It must be noted that both Droughns and Portis have had great success with their new teams after leaving the Broncos.
==2005 Season==
{{see|2005 Denver Broncos}}
==Season-by-season records==
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Denver Broncos (AFL)'''
|-
|1960 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1961 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 3rd West (AFL) || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd West (AFL) || --
|-
|1963 || 2 || 11 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1964 || 2 || 11 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1965 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1966 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1967 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1968 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1969 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1970 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1971 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1972 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || --
|-
|1973 || 7 || 5 || 2 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1974 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1975 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1976 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1977 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XII]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1978 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1978-79|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1979 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1979-80|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Oilers]])
|-
|1980 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1981 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1982 || 2 || 7 || 0 || 12th AFC Conf. || --
|-
|1983 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1983-84|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Seattle Seahawks|Seahawks]])
|-
|1984 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1984-85|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1985 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|[[1986 Denver Broncos|1986]] || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXI]] ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1987 || 10 || 4 || 1 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXII]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1988 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1989 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXIV]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1990 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC West || --
|-
|1991 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Conference Championship]] ([[Buffalo Bills|Bills]])
|-
|1992 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || --
|-
|1993 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1993-94|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Los Angeles Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1994 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1995 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1996 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jaguars]])
|-
|[[1997 Denver Broncos|1997]] || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXXII]]'''
|-
|[[1998 Denver Broncos|1998]] || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC West || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXXIII]]'''
|-
|1999 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 5th AFC West || --
|-
|2000 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Baltimore Ravens|Ravens]])
|-
|2001 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || --
|-
|2002 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|2003 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|2004 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|[[2005 Denver Broncos|2005]] || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Conference Championship]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
{{end box}}
^At the end of [[2005 NFL season]], the Broncos All-Time Record is 379-335-10 (including playoffs).
==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Denver Broncos roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
*[[John Elway]] (2004)
===Retired numbers===
*[[John Elway]] - #7
*[[Floyd Little]] - #44
*[[Frank Tripucka]] - #18 (Tripucka's number has been removed from retirement, due to a lack of evidence that it was retired, according to Broncos PR.)
===Ring of Fame===
The Broncos have a Ring of Fame on the Level 5 facade of INVESCO Field at Mile High, which honors the following:
* 23 [[Goose Gonsoulin]], S, 1960-66, inducted 1984
* 44 [[Floyd Little]], RB, 1967-75, inducted 1984
* 87 [[Lionel Taylor]], WR, 1960-66, inducted 1984
* 87 [[Rich Jackson (football player)| |
miles (155 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]) in [[Lincoln County, Nevada]], [[United States|USA]]. It is part of the vast (4,687 square mile [12,139 km&sup2;]) [[Nellis Air Force Range]] (NAFR). The area consists largely of the wide Emigrant Valley, framed by the Groom and Papoose mountain ranges (to the North and South respectively) and the Jumbled Hills to the East. Between the two ranges lies Groom Dry Lake ({{coor dms|37|16|05|N|115|47|58|W|}}), a dry [[endorheic|alkali lake]] bed roughly three miles (5 km) in diameter. A large air base exists on the southwest corner of the lake ({{coor dm|37|14|N|115|49|W|}}) with two concrete runways, one of which extends onto the lake bed, and four unprepared runways on the lake bed itself.
High-resolution satellite images have shed some light on the facility's complex runway layouts. Area 51 has two operating runways, the main is 14L/32R, a concrete runway constructed in the 1990s, measuring 11,980 x 200 feet (3,651 x 61 m) with a 1000 x 100 feet (304 x 30 m) overrun at each end and the secondary, shorter runway is 12/30 which also doubles as a taxiway, measuring 5,420ft x 150 feet (1,652m x 45m). The older runway is exactly six miles (9,656 m) long. It is composed of 12,500 feet of concrete, 11,080 feet of asphalt, and 5560 feet and 2540 feet of now dismantled asphalt on the north and south ends respectively. At least three sets of old runway markings are found, suggesting that the full six-mile length was probably never used in its entirety. Currently only a 6,600 feet (2011 m) stretch of the concrete section is marked for use, forming runway 14R/32L. The dirt lakebed runways, comprising two twin airstrips, measure up to 11,270 feet (3435 m) in length and 100 to 170 feet (30 to 52 m) in width.
Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flats region of the [[Nevada Test Site]] (NTS), the location of many of the U.S. [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy's]] [[nuclear weapons]] tests. The [[Yucca Mountain]] nuclear storage facility is approximately 40 miles (64km) southwest of Groom Lake.
The designation "Area 51" is somewhat contentious, appearing on older maps of the NTS but not newer ones, but the same naming scheme is used for other parts of the Nevada Test Site.
The area is connected to the internal NTS road network, with paved roads leading both to Mercury to the northwest and west to Yucca Flats. Leading northeast from the lake, Groom Lake Road (a wide, well-conditioned dirt road) runs through a pass in the Jumbled Hills. Groom Lake Road was formerly the track leading to mines in the Groom basin, but has been improved since their closure. Its winding course takes it past a security checkpoint, but the restricted area around the base extends further east than this (unauthorized visitors who travel west on Groom Lake Road are usually observed first by guards located on the hills surrounding the pass, still several miles from the checkpoint). After leaving the restricted area (marked by numerous warning signs stating that "photography is prohibited" and that "use of deadly force is authorized") Groom Lake Road descends eastward to the floor of the Tikaboo Valley, passing the dirt-road entrances to several small ranches, before joining with [[Nevada State Route 375]], the "Extraterrestrial Highway", south of [[Rachel, Nevada|Rachel]].
== Operations at Groom Lake ==
Groom Lake is not a conventional airbase, and frontline units are not normally deployed there. It appears, rather, to be used during the development, test and training phases for new aircraft. Once those aircraft have been accepted by the [[United States Air Force]], operation of that aircraft is generally shifted to a normal air force base. Groom is reported, however, to be the permanent home for a small number of aircraft of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] design (obtained by various means). These are reportedly analyzed and used for training purposes.
Soviet spy satellites obtained photographs of the Groom Lake area during the height of the Cold War, but these support only modest conclusions about the base. They depict a nondescript base, airstrip, hangars, and so forth, but nothing that supports some of the wilder claims about underground facilities. Later commercial satellite images show that the base has grown, but remains superficially unexceptional.
=== Senior Year/U-2 program ===
Groom Lake was used for bombing and artillery practice during [[World War II]], but was then abandoned until 1955, when it was selected by [[Lockheed]]'s [[skunkworks]] team as the ideal location to test the forthcoming [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] spy plane. The lakebed made for an ideal strip to operate the troublesome test aircraft from, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter protected the secret plane from curious eyes.
Lockheed constructed a makeshift base at Groom, little more than a few shelters and workshops and a small constellation of trailer homes in which to billet its small team. The first U-2 flew at Groom in August 1955, and U-2s under the control of the [[CIA]] began overflights of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] territory by mid-1956.
During this period, the NTS continued to perform a series of atmospheric nuclear explosions. U-2 operations throughout 1957 were frequently disrupted by the [[Operation Plumbbob|Plumbbob]] series of atomic tests, which exploded over two dozen devices at the NTS. The Plumbbob-Hood explosion on [[July 5]] scattered [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] across Groom and forced its (temporary) evacuation.
As the U-2's primary mission was to overfly the Soviet Union, it operated largely from airbases near the Soviet border, including [[Incirlik Air Base|Incirlik]] in [[Turkey]] and [[Peshawar]] in [[Pakistan]].
=== Blackbird (OXCART/A-10/A-11/A-12/SR-71) program ===
Even before U-2 development was complete, Lockheed began work on its successor, the [[CIA]]'s ''OXCART'' project, a [[Mach number|Mach]]-3 high altitude [[reconnaissance]] aircraft later known as the [[SR-71 Blackbird]]. The Blackbird's flight characteristics and maintenance requirements forced a massive expansion of facilities and runways at Groom Lake. By the time the first A-12 Blackbird prototype flew at Groom in 1962, the main runway had been lengthened to 8500 ft (2600 m), and the base boasted a complement of over 1000 personnel. It had fueling tanks, a control tower, and a [[baseball]] diamond. Security was also greatly enhanced, the small civilian mine in the Groom basin was closed, and the area surrounding the valley was made an exclusive military preserve (where interlopers were subject to "lethal force"). Groom saw the first flight of all major Blackbird variants: A-10, A-11, A-12, RS-71 (renamed [[SR-71]] by USAF Chief of Staff [[Curtis LeMay]] and not by a presidential error as popularly believed), the abortive YF-12A strike-fighter variant, and the disastrous D-21 Blackbird-based drone project.
=== Have Blue/Senior Trend/F-117 program ===
The first [[Have Blue]] prototype stealth fighter (a smaller cousin of the [[F-117 Nighthawk]]) first flew at Groom in late 1977. Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued there until mid-1981, when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters. In addition to flight testing, Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and was the location for training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots. Subsequently active-service F-117 operations (still highly classified) moved to the nearby [[Tonopah Test Range]] and finally to [[Holloman Air Force Base]].
=== Later operations ===
[[Image:Area 51.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Simulated aerial view of Area 51, made using [[Landsat]] imagery]]
Since the F-117 became operational in 1983, operations at Groom Lake have continued unabated. The base and its associated runway system have been expanded, and the daily flights bringing civilian commuters from Las Vegas continue. Some commentators, after examining recent satellite photos of the base, estimate it to have a live-in complement of over 1000 people, with a similar number commuting from Las Vegas. In 1995 the federal government expanded the exclusionary area around the base to include nearby mountains that had hitherto afforded the only decent overlook of the base. Subsequently, limited views of the area are available only from the summits of several distant mountains, particularly Tikaboo Peak ({{coor dms|37|20|40|N|115|21|32|W|}}), around 26 miles (42 km) to the east.
Aircraft that have supposedly been tested at Groom include the [[Northrop Tacit Blue]] stealth demonstrator, various classified [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]]s, a small stealthy [[VTOL]] troop-transport aircraft, a stealthy [[cruise missile]], the rumored [[Aurora aircraft|Aurora]] [[hypersonic]] spy plane, a "[[Stealth Blimp]]", and replacements for the SR-71 and F-117A.
== Area 51 commuters ==
[[Image:Wfm tc janet at mccarran.jpg|thumb|right|300px|EG&G JANET 737s at McCarran.]]
Defense contractor [[EG&G]] maintains a private terminal at [[McCarran International Airport]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. A number of unmarked aircraft operate daily shuttle services from McCarran to sites operated by EG&G in the extensive federally controlled lands in southern Nevada. These aircraft reportedly use JANET radio call signs (e.g., "JANET 6"), said to be an acronym for "Joint Air Network for Employee Transportation" or (perhaps as a joke) "Just Another Non-Existent Terminal". EG&G advertises in the Las Vegas press for experienced airline pilots, saying applicants must be eligible for government security clearance and that successful applicants can expect to always overnight at Las Vegas. These aircraft, painted white with red trim (the livery of now defunct [[Western Airlines]]), include [ |
r the global Blue Whale population is increasing or remaining stable. In the Antarctic, best estimates show a significant increase since the end of illegal Soviet Union whaling, but numbers remain at under 1% of their original levels. It has also been suggested that Icelandic and California populations are increasing but these increases are not statistically significant. The total world population is likely about 10,000 although there is great uncertainty in available estimates for many areas. The Blue Whale remains listed as "endangered" on the [[IUCN Red List]] of threatened species as it has been since the list's inception. The largest concentration, consisting of about 2,000 individuals, is the North-East Pacific population that ranges from [[Alaska]] to [[Costa Rica]] but is most commonly seen from California in summer. This group represents the best hope for a long-term recovery in Blue Whale population. Sometimes this population strays over to the North-West Pacific; infrequent sightings between [[Kamchatka Peninsula|Kamchatka]] and the northern tip of Japan have been recorded.
In the Southern Hemisphere, there are two distinct subspecies, the Antarctic blue whale, numbering around 1,700 in 1996 (95% interval 860-2,900), and the pygmy blue whale in the Indian Ocean, probably numbering around 5,000 (although no reliable estimates exist). Migratory patterns of these subspecies are not well known. For example, pygmy blue whales have been recorded in the northern Indian Ocean (Oman, Maldives, Sri Lanka) where they may form a distinct resident population. In addition, the population of blue whales occurring off Chile and Peru may also be a distinct population. Some Antarctic blue whales approach the eastern South Atlantic coast in winter, and occasionally their sounds are heard off Peru, western Australia, and in the northern Indian Ocean. In Chile, the [[Cetacean Conservation Center]], with support from the [[Chilean Navy]], is undertaking extensive research and conservation work on a recently discovered feeding aggregation of the species off the coast of [[Chiloe Island]].
In the North Atlantic, two stocks are recognised. The first is found off [[Greenland]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]] and the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]]. This group is estimated to total about 500. The second, more eastern group is spotted from the [[Azores]] in Spring to Iceland in July and August; it is presumed that the whales follow the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] between the two volcanic islands. Beyond Iceland, Blue Whales have been spotted as far north as [[Spitsbergen]] and [[Jan Mayen]] though such sightings are rare. Scientists do not know where these whales spend their winters. The total North Atlantic population is between 600 and 1500.
Human threats to the potential recovery of Blue Whale populations include the accumulation of [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) chemicals within the whale's blood, causing poisoning and premature death, and the ever-increasing amount of noise created by ocean traffic. This noise drowns out the noises produced by whales (''see [[whale song]]''), which may make it harder for whales to find a mate.
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue whale atlantic1.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Atlantic (1)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue whale atlantic2.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Atlantic (2)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue whale atlantic3.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Atlantic (3)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue Whale NE Pacific.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Northeast Pacific|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue Whale West Pacific.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Western pacific|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue Whale South Pacific.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the South pacific|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==References==
* Richard Sears (1998). "Blue Whale" pp 112-116 in ''Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals'' (Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen eds).
* William Perrin and Joseph Geraci. "Stranding" pp 1192-1197 in ''Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals'' (Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen eds).
* {{RefAudubonMarineMammals}} pp 89-93
* {{cite journal | author= A. Arnason and A. Gullberg | title= Comparison between the complete mtDNA sequences of the blue and fin whale, two species that can hybridize in nature | journal= Journal of Molecular Ecology | year= 1993 | volume= 37 | pages=312&#8211;322}}
* {{cite book | author= W.J. Richardson, C.R. Greene, C.I. Malme and D.H. Thomson | title = Marine mammals and noise | publisher = Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA. | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0125884419}}
* {{cite book | title = Blue Whales | author = J. Calambokidis and G. Steiger | year = 1997 | publisher = Voyageur Press| id = ISBN 0896583384}}
* {{cite journal | title = Underwater sounds from the blue whale ''Balaenoptera musculus'' | author = W.C. Cummings and P.O. Thompson | journal = Journal of the Acoustics Society of America | volume = 50(4) | pages = 1193-1198 | year = 1971}}
* {{cite journal | title = Evidence for increases in Antarctic blue whales based on Bayesian modelling | author = T.A. Branch, K. Matsuoka and T. Miyashita | journal = Marine Mammal Science | volume = 20 | pages = 726-754 | year = 2004}}
* {{cite journal | title = Sightings and movements of blue whales off central California from 1986-88 from photo-identification of individuals | author = J. Calambokidis, G. H. Steiger, J. C. Cubbage, K. C. Balcomb, C. Ewald, S. Kruse, R. Wells and R. Sears | journal = Rep. Whal. Comm. | volume = 12 | pages = 343-348 | year = 1990}}
* {{cite web | author = National Marine Fisheries Service | year = 2002 | title = Endangered Species Act - Section 7 Consultation Biological Opinion | url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/readingrm/ESAsec7/7pr_surtass-2020529.pdf | format = PDF }}
* {{cite web | title=Blue Whale | work= American Cetacean Society | url= http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/bluewhl.htm | accessdate= January 7| accessyear= 2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Whale bone Arch | work = Places to Visit around the Isle of Lewis | url=http://www.isle-of-lewis.com/things_to_do/places-to-visit.htm | accessdate = May 18 | accessyear = 2005}}
==Notes==
#{{note|WPH5}}A discussion of how to compare the loudness of sounds made in different media is given at http://www.surtass-lfa-eis.com/Terms/.
==External links==
* [http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/whales/blue 70South - information on the Blue Whale]
* [http://www.ccc-chile.org Chilean Conservation Centre]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3003564.stm Science seeks clues to pygmy whale]
* [http://www.earthwindow.com/blue.html Blue Whale photographs] by Mike Johnson, Marine Natural History Photographer
* [http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/bluewhl.htm American Cetacean Society Blue Whale fact sheet]
* [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/species/Bluewhale.shtml Information on Blue Whales] from EnchantedLearning.com
* [http://www.oceanlight.com/html/blue_whale.html Numerous Blue Whale photographs] from OceanLight.com
* [http://seamap.env.duke.edu/species/tsn/180528 Blue Whale Species profile] at [http://seamap.env.duke.edu OBIS-SEAMAP: mapping marine mammals, birds and turtles]
* [http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=41 MarineBio: Blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Baleen whales]]
[[ca:Balena blava]]
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[[zh:蓝鲸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolshevik</title>
<id>4927</id>
<revision>
<id>41835391</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:27:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Firestorm</username>
<id>170507</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* February Revolution */ added a bit about 'peace, land, and bread'.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Leninsfinalfight.jpg|thumb|none|300px|right|Leaders of the Bolshevik Party and the [[Communist International]], a painting by [[Malcolm McAllister]] on the [[Pathfinder Mural]] in [[New York City]] and on the cover of the book ''Lenin’s Final Fight'' published by Pathfinder. From left: [[Zinoviev]], [[Bukharin]], [[Trotsky]], [[Lenin]], [[Karl Radek|Radek]] ]]
'''Bolsheviks''' ("Большеви́к", derived from the [[Russian (language)|Russian]] word ''''''Bolsheviki'''''', "majority faction") were members of the [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party]]'s Bolshevik faction. Bolsheviks had an extreme socialist and internationalist outlook, and were opponents of the Russian traditional statehood and the Russian Orthodox Church. The other faction of the RSDLP was known as the [[Menshevik]]s, derived from the word ''men'shinstvo'' ("minority"). The split into two factions occurred at the Second [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]] in [[1903]]. After the split, the Bolshevik party was designated as RSDLP(b) (Russian: РСДРП(б)), where "b" stands for "Bolsheviks".
Bolsheviks led by [[Vladimir Lenin]] seized power in Russia in 1917 in an event known as the [[October Revolution]]. Shortly after seizing power, the party changed their name to the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1918 and were generally known as the Communist Party after that point. However, it was not until 1952 that the party formally dropped the word "Bolshevik" from its name. (See [[Congress of t |
ty gets a fair amount of [[precipitation]], although major paralyzing [[snow]] and [[rain]] storms such as [[blizzard]]s and [[hurricane]]s are uncommon compared to more coastal cities like [[Moncton]] or [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] (but do happen on occasion). On average, Fredericton receives approximately 1100 mm of precipitation per year. Snowfall is common between late November and early April, and snow usually stays on the ground beginning in December. [[Flood]]ing occurs during the [[Spring (season)|spring]] of most years on area rivers and affects the city's low lying neighbourhoods.
==Education and Research==
===Universities and Colleges===
[[Image:UNB.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Looking down the hill from UNB towards downtown and the Saint John River]]
Fredericton's status as an educational centre is evident in the city's two degree granting [[universities]]: the [[University of New Brunswick]] and [[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)]].
The [[University of New Brunswick]] - commonly abbreviated UNB - was founded in 1785 and - along with the University of Georgia - is the oldest public university in North America. Built in 1826, UNB's [[Old Arts Building]] is the oldest university building still in use in Canada. UNB also houses Renaissance College which is a leading elite leadership training institution in New Brunswick. UNB houses a Faculty of Law which is one of two Anglophone common-law schools in Atlantic Canada.
[[Saint Thomas University]] is the province's only Catholic university and has been located in Fredericton since 1964, when it moved from its [[Chatham, New Brunswick]] campus. [[Saint Thomas University]] - commonly abbreviated as STU - is a leading liberal arts university that boasts programs in gerontology, criminology, journalism, social work, native studies, and education.
Adding to Fredericton's cultural and artisitic life is the [[New Brunswick College of Craft and Design]] which houses the provinces leading programs in photography and visual arts. The [[New Brunswick Community College]] maintains a campus in Fredericton providing two year degree programs oriented to quick entry into the job market.
Fredericton is also home to a small Pentecostal College, the Northeastern Christain College, located on the city's northside. This college trains and certifies [[pentecostalism|pentecostal]] [[Minister (Christianity)|Ministers]].</p>
===School System===
Fredericton is home to two public [[high school]]s. [[Fredericton High School]], which was once the largest school in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] until the construction of [[Leo Hayes High School]] in 1999, primarily serves students on the south side. It is also one of the oldest public highschools in Canada tracing its beginnings to 1785 - having celebrated its bicentennial in 1985. Fredericton High School is home to several important sports teams - including basketball, hockey, soccer, and football - which dominated New Brunswick provincial highschool sports championships during much of the 1980s and 1990s.
[[Leo Hayes High School]], which opened in 1999, serves north side students. In addition, there are four [[middle schools]], fourteen [[elementary schools]] and three [[private schools]] in the city. A recent issue with middle schools in the city has been the location of George Street Junior High and Albert Street Junior High close to the city centre. This fails to account for the city's changing demographic - which has seen the growth of suburban neighbourhoods. Recent discussions have involved possibly closing down either George Street Junior High or Albert Street Junior to replace them with a suburban Junior High School - possibly to be located in Skyline Acres in the Eastern part of the City.
Fredericton is also serviced by the French language Ecole Sainte Anne which provides K-12 French language education. Ecole Sainte Anne is administered by a school district system separate from that which governs the English language schools in the city.</p>
===Research===
Fredericton hosts several major research centres - dealing with policy development, agriculture, forestry, and engineering. These research institutions are either connected to the City's two universities as well as the provincial and federal government.
The Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre (including Provincial and Federal Departments) is the leading forestry research centre in Atlantic Canada. This Centre carries out major research endeavours in forestry management and scientific research. The Centre closely collaberates with the Forestry Department at the [[University of New Brunswick]] which is one of the top Forestry Departments in Canada. As well, research and development in agriculture and crop development is carried out at the Agricultural Research Station in Lincoln.
The [[University of New Brunswick]] is the site of several major research centres in social science, forestry, geomatics and biomedical engineering, and policy devlopment. These include the Centre for Conflict Studies - which carries out Research on military and strategic issues and the Muriel McQueen Fergusson Centre for Family Violence Research carries out multi-disciplinary research on family violence issues. Furthermore, the Institute of Biomedical Engineering has completed groundbreaking work on prosthetic limbs to aid war amputees in developing countries.
As well, the city's growing IT sector has been the basis for new research on IT and computer programming development.
==Economy==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:King_Street.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A view of Downtown from King Street, 2004]] -->
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the lumber industry - with corresponding mills - were a primary sector of Fredericton's economy. Over the course of the 20th century, these industries declined and gave way to the provincial government and the universities being the primary employers in the city.
The policies of centralizing provincial government functions during the 1960s under New Brunswick Premier [[Louis Robichaud]] -along with the expanded role of the public sector characteristic of the 1960s/70s - led to a sizeable expansion of the city's population. It was during these decades that the Hill area on the city's Southside was largely developed and bedroom communities such as [[New Maryland, New Brunswick|New Maryland]] emerged.
The 1960s also saw an expansion of the [[University of New Brunswick]] - due to increased post-war university enrollments - as well as the construction of the Fredericton campus of [[Saint Thomas University]]. Also contributing to this expansion was the move of the Law School to the Fredericton area. This expansion of the post-secondary sector also contributed to Fredericton's population growth during the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, the city's population has continued to grow though at a slower rate due to slower growth of the government sector - along with hiring freezes and in some cases layoffs - during the [[Frank McKenna]] and [[Bernard Lord]] governments.
In recent years, increased student enrollments at the city's universities has led to greater demand for rental property. This has led to the construction of new university residences and apartment buildings in the city and increased rates of rent - making them the highest rental rates in the province.
It is due to the predominance of the universities and government in the city, that Fredericton has not been subjected to the severe economic fluctuations faced by other Atlantic Canadian cities that have had to deal with mill shutdowns and the decline of the fishing industry in recent decades. It is for this reason that Fredericton is one of the few Atlantic Canadian cities, along with [[Moncton]] and [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]] that has actually reported a population increase in recent years.
In the 1990s several [[call centres]] opened up in the Fredericton area due to policies of the McKenna Liberal government. Lately, the city has also tried to entice [[technology]] firms to mixed success. Several local IT companies have specialized in e-Learning services making Fredericton an e-Learning hub of sorts in the spirit of [[Smartforce]] (a homegrown e-learning company which saw major downsizing after its heyday in the dot-com era, and later renamed [[SkillSoft]].)
The city has been investing actively in IT infrastructure. The City of Fredericton was recently the winner of the "Judges Innovation Award" at the 2004 C.I.P.A. (Canadian Information Productivity Awards) Awards due to their "Fred-eZone" free municipality wide [[WiFi]] network initiative. This and other innovations by the city's [[utelco]], '''e-Novations''', lead world leading technology company [[Intel]] to do a case study on their successes. Fred-eZone spans much of the city’s downtown, parts of surrounding residential areas as well as peripheral commercial areas such as Fredericton's Regent Mall.
Recently, the [[New Brunswick]] government has been seeking to attract more immigrants to the province (and consequently the Fredericton area) to increase the labour force and compensate for an aging population.
==Culture==
[[Image:Beaverbrook.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Beaverbrook Art Gallery]]
Due to the presence of the two universities, Fredericton is more cosmopolitan than many cities its size. This is reflected in cuisine offered by local ethnic restaurants (which include Mexican, Lebanese, Indian, Pakistani, Chinese, Caribbean, Italian, Brazilian, Japanese and Greek foods). There are also several retail outlets that sell ethnic products and artifacts.
Fredericton is an important cultural centre of the region featuring art galleries, the [[New Brunswick College of Craft and Design]], museums and theatres which promote local artistic and literary talent.
Architecturally, Fredericton span |
ewsRadio]] was previously called the [[Parliamentary and News Network]] (PNN). The station was set up to broadcast Australian Federal Parliament and is similar to the [[BBC Parliament]] television channel in the [[UK]]. However, when Parliament is not sitting, the station broadcasts news on a 24/7 format with updates on the quarter hour. Most of its news comes from [[ABC News]] reporters, however it also uses the resources of [[BBC Radio]], [[NPR]] and [[CNN Radio]].
===Triple J===
[[Triple J]] or JJJ is a national youth radio network, broadcasting new alternative music, particularly Australian music. The station's demographic is 15-25 years.
===dig===
Dig radio broadcasts over the internet, pay TV and Digital Radio. It is not available via a standard radio on AM or FM frequency. Dig broadcasts a diverse range of music and also plays music submitted by listeners.
===ABC Classic FM===
[[ABC Classic FM]] was the ABC's first FM service. It was originally known simply as "ABC FM", then for a short time "ABC Fine Music". Its format borrowed heavily from community stations that eventually founded the [[Fine Music Network]] and also from [[BBC Radio 3]].
The ABC, through ABC Classic FM has helped support the ABC owned state symphony orchestras, chamber music, instrumental recitals, opera, choral and solo singers.
===Radio Australia===
The ABC also operates [[Radio Australia]], an international shortwave service with transmissions aimed at [[East Asia]] and the [[Pacific Islands]], although its signals are also audible in many other parts of the world. It features programs in various languages spoken in these regions, including [[Chinese language|Mandarin]], [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Tok Pisin]].
Radio Australia concentrates on news and current affairs, but it also features historical documentaries, information about Australian lifestyle and culture, and light entertainment. Although it does produce some of its own programming, most of the shows transmitted over Radio Australia are relays of programmes produced by the domestic Radio National network.
Radio Australia bulletins are also carried on the [[World Radio Network]], which is available on satellite in [[Europe]] and [[North America]].
It is of little interest to domestic Australian audiences as most of its material has already been broadcast or is broadcast simultaneously on the easier to receive domestic ABC networks.
==Television==
[[Image:ABC_Header.jpg|760x82]]
{{Infobox Network |
network_name = ABC |
country = [[Australia]] |
network_type = [[Terrestrial television|Broadcast]] [[television network]] |
available = Nationally|
owner = [[Government of Australia]]|
launch_date = 1956 as ABC|
founded = 1956 as ABC|
website = [http://www.abc.net.au/tv/ www.abc.net.au/tv] |
callsigns = [[ABN-2]] ([[New South Wales]])<br>[[ABV-2]] ([[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]])<br>[[ABQ-2]] ([[Queensland]])<br>[[ABS-2]] ([[South Australia]])<br>[[ABW-2]] ([[Western Australia]])<br>[[ABC-9]] ([[Australian Capital Territory|Canberra]])<br>[[ABD-6]] ([[Northern Territory]])<br>[[ABT-2]] ([[Tasmania]]) |
market_share = 15.7% Nationally {{ref|Shares}} <BR> [[List of Australian television ratings for 2005|2005 Ratings Season]]|
slogan = ''There's More To Television'' |
}}
See [[List of Australian Broadcasting Corporation programs]].
===ABC TV===
The ABC operates a single nationwide TV channel, '''ABC TV'''. Each state and territory has a slightly different version of ABC TV. The differences between these are small, consisting of a nightly news program, a weekly current affairs program, a weekly sports program during winter, state election specials and the odd program. These regional versions are listed below with the name of their main transmitter.
*[[ABC ACT]] - [[ABC-9]] [[Canberra]], [[Australian Capital Territory]]
*[[ABC Northern]] - [[ABD-6]] [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Northern Territory]]
*[[ABC NSW]] - [[ABN-2]] [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]]
*[[ABC Queensland]] - [[ABQ-2]] [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]]
*[[ABC Southern]] - [[ABS-2]] [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]]
*[[ABC Tasmania]] - [[ABT-2]] [[Hobart]], [[Tasmania]]
*[[ABC Victoria]] - [[ABV-2]] [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
*[[ABC Western]] - [[ABW-2]] [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]]
*[[ABC Asia-Pacific]] - available by satellite and selected cable telvision services across Asia - Produced on contract to the Department of Foreign Affairs and subject of an intense contract renegiotation in 2005; due to change its name in the near future. It can be watched over the internet by clicking [http://wwitv.com/ip_tv/8388.asx here].
===Regional programming===
The ABC produces a number of programs aimed at rural and regional viewers.
===News and Current Affairs===
ABC produces a large range of high quality [[current affairs]] television programs, notably ''[[Lateline (news)|Lateline]]'', ''[[Australian Story]]'', ''[[The 7.30 Report]]'' and ''[[Four Corners (TV series)|Four Corners]]''. The ABC's number of foreign reporters is unmatched by other Australian networks.
The ABC news and current affairs programs include:
* [[ABC Midday News & Business | The Midday Report]] - National, business & finance news hosted by [[Ros Childs]] (Weekdays at 12pm).
* [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] [http://www.abc.net.au/news/] - State-specific news hosted by local presenters (Nightly at 7pm).
* [[The 7.30 Report]] [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/] - Current affairs program hosted by [[Kerry O'Brien]] (Monday - Thursday at 7:30pm).
* [[Four Corners (TV series)| Four Corners]] [http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/] - 45-minute long investigative journalism program (Mondays at 8:30pm).
* [[Australian Story]] [http://www.abc.net.au/austory/] - Unique biographical-style program focussing on well-known and ordinary Australians (Mondays at 8:00pm).
* [[Media Watch (Australian TV series)| Media Watch]] [http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/] A critique of the Australian media (Mondays at 9:15pm).
* [[Foreign Correspondent]] [http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/] - Reports from the ABC's foreign correspondents around the world (Tuesdays at 9:20pm).
* [[Lateline (ABC-TV) | Lateline]] [http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/] - Late night news and current affairs (Weeknights from approximately 10:30pm).
* [[Stateline]] [http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/] Similar to [[The 7:30 Report]], but state-based with local presenters (Fridays at 7:30pm).
* [[Insiders]] [http://www.abc.net.au/insiders/] Interviews, discussion and analysis of Australian politics hosted by [[Barrie Cassidy]] (Sundays at 9am).
* [[Landline]] [http://www.abc.net.au/landline/] A national rural current affairs program hosted by [[Sally Sara]] (Sundays at 12pm).
===Sport===
ABC-TV broadcasts a diverse range of less popular sports which are not shown on commercial networks or pay-TV. ABC Sport primarily broadcasts domestic and international netball, international lawn bowls, women's basketball and state australian rules football and rugby league competitions. The national broadcaster also covers the Paralympic Games and Hopman Cup tennis tournament.
===Drama===
The ABC has recently been criticised for its lack of Australian drama and its heavy reliance on British, particularly BBC drama programs.
===Comedy===
Despite its low budget, ABC-TV has screened some quality comedies and launched the careers of some of Australia's most successful comedians. Recent notables have included the ratings hits ''[[Kath &amp; Kim]]'' , ''[[The Glass House (TV series)|The Glass House]]'' , ''[[Enough Rope]]'' and ''[[CNNNN]]''. Over the years the ABC has also produced highly successful programs such as ''[[Frontline (Australian television series)|Frontline]]'', ''[[The Micallef Program]]'', ''[[The Games]]'' , ''[[The Late Show]]'', ''[[Mother and Son]]'' , ''[[Backberner]]'' and ''[[Good News Week]]''.
===Children and Education===
The ABC is unmatched in Australia for its commitment to children's programs. Its morning programming is committed entirely to programs aimed at entertaining and educationg Children. On the entertainment side, programs such as ''[[Sesame Street]]'' and the ABC's own ''[[Play School]]'' & ''[[Bananas in Pyjamas]]'' are highly popular. Educational programs like [[BTN]] or [[Behind the News]] have educated Australian children for generations.
===ABC2===
On March 7th, 2005, [[ABC2]] was launched [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1186949.htm]. It is largely a combination of the [[ABC Kids (Australia)]] channel and a [[CBC Newsworld]]-like proposal called [[ABC Daily]]. It screens predominantly repeated ABC news and current affairs programs, compilations of ABC news bulletin stories with some additional reporting, children's programming, music documentaries and state football.
===ABC Asia Pacific===
The [[ABC Asia Pacific]] TV service was launched in [[2002]]. It is partly funded by Australia's [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] (DFAT), and partly by advertising. The channel is available [[free-to-air]] to [[East Asia]] and the [[Pacific Islands]] via satellite and local cable systems is also now available in [[South Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]. It can be also watched on the [http://wwitv.com/ip_tv/8388.asx Internet].It is currently available in 8 million homes in more than 35 countries across the region and in more than 190,000 hotel rooms.
ABC Asia Pacific screens a variety of programs, from the ABC itself, including tailor-made news bulletins for the region, from the other Australian terrestrial TV networks, plus Sky News and independents. It also carries the [[soap opera]] ''[[Home and Away]]'', [[Australian Rules Football|Australian Rules]] and [[Rugby League]] matches, and [[UK|Bri |
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Two [[law|legal]] concepts go by the name '''''barratry:''''' one in [[criminal law|criminal]] and [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]], the other in [[admiralty law]].
* In criminal and civil law, '''barratry''' is the act or practice of bringing repeated legal actions solely to harass. Usually, the actions brought lack merit. This action has been declared a crime in some jurisdictions. ''See also:'' [[champerty]], [[SLAPP]], [[vexatious litigation]], [[abuse of process]], [[malicious prosecution]], [[forum shopping]].
* In [[admiralty law]], '''barratry''' is a fraudulent act committed by a master or crew of a vessel which damages the vessel or its cargo, including desertion, illegal [[scuttling]], and theft of the ship or [[cargo]].
A third meaning also exists: the buying and selling of positions within civil authority. This contrasts with '''[[simony]]''', which is the buying and selling of positions within the church.
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Civil law]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Birth defect</title>
<id>3444</id>
<revision>
<id>15901776</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-01T10:11:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karada</username>
<id>6817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Congenital disorder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blind drunk</title>
<id>3445</id>
<revision>
<id>18646977</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-12T02:54:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pianoman87</username>
<id>194203</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed double redirect: now redirects straight to drunkenness</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drunkenness]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bomber</title>
<id>3446</id>
<revision>
<id>41306637</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T12:24:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gooberliberation</username>
<id>324413</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
A '''bomber''' is a [[military aircraft]] designed to attack ground targets, primarily by dropping [[bomb]]s.
*[[Strategic bomber]]s are primarily designed for long-range strike missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, and shipyards in order to damage an enemy's war effort. Examples: [[B-17 Flying Fortress]], [[Avro]] [[Avro Lancaster|Lancaster]], [[B-52 Stratofortress]], [[Tupolev Tu-16]], [[Tupolev Tu-160]], [[Gotha G]].
*Tactical bombers are smaller aircraft that operate at shorter range, typically along with troops on the ground. This role is filled by many designs, including those listed below. In modern terms, anything combat aircraft is not a purpose-designed strategic bomber falls into this category.
*Ground-attack (or [[close air support]]) aircraft are designed to loiter over a battlefield and attack tactical targets, such as [[tank]]s, troop concentrations, etc. Examples: [[Junkers Ju 87 Stuka|Stuka]], [[Ilyushin Il-2|Il-2 Shturmovik]], [[A-10 Warthog]], [[Sukhoi Su-25]].
*[[Fighter-bomber]]s(also called tactical fighters, strike fighters, and attack fighters) are multi-role combat aircraft which can (at least theoretically) be equipped for either air-to-air combat or air-to-ground combat. Many fighter bombers were also designed to engage in [[aerial combat]] immediately after attacking ground targets. Modern multi-role combat aircraft are designed to fulfull multiple roles due to budget restrictions as often as they are for versatility. Examples: [[Hawker Typhoon]], [[Sukhoi Su-7]], [[Republic F-105]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]], and the [[Panavia Tornado]].
[[image:b2.spirit.2.750pix.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[United States Air Force]] [[B-2 Spirit]] bomber]]
In the past, bombers were an obvious separate type, and often looked dramatically different from other types as well. This was due largely to the lack of power in [[aircraft engine]]s, meaning that in order to carry any reasonable warload, the designs had to carry multiple engines. The result was a much larger aircraft, one with a reasonable [[useful load fraction]] for the role. Engine power was so scarce that designs had to be tailored to one particular niche; during [[World War II]] there were [[dive bomber]]s, [[light bomber|light]], [[medium bomber|medium]] and [[heavy bomber|heavy]] bombers, and specialized ground attack designs.
Traditionally, bombers have carried only defensive armament, and are not designed to engage in combat with other aircraft. They are relatively large and unmaneuverable (although some have been as fast or faster than contemporary fighters). Attack aircraft are smaller, faster, and more agile, but less so than a [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] when armed for a ground attack mission. They may carry air-to-air armament, but typically only for self-defense.
In modern air forces, the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurry. Many attack aircraft, even ones that ''look'' like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Indeed, the design qualities that make an effective low-level attack aircraft make for a distinctly inferior air superiority fighter, and vice versa. Conversely, many fighter aircraft, such as the [[F-16]], are often used as 'bomb trucks,' despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of [[aerial refueling]], which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations.
The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the [[Cold War]] both because of spiraling costs and the advent of the [[intercontinental ballistic missile]], which was felt to have equal [[deterrence|deterrent]] value while being much more difficult to intercept. The [[United States Air Force]] [[XB-70 Valkyrie]] program was cancelled for that reason in the early [[1960s]], and the later [[B-1 Lancer]] and [[B-2 Spirit]] aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s continued in use into the 21st century. Similarly, the [[Soviet Union]] fielded the intermediate-range [[Tupolev Tu-22M]] in the [[1970s]], but the [[Mach number|Mach 3]] bomber project came to naught. The Mach 2 [[Tupolev Tu-160]] was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the earlier [[Tupolev Tu-16]] and [[Tupolev Tu-95]] heavy bombers of [[1950s]] vintage to soldier on into the 21st century. Meanwhile, the [[United Kingdom|British]] strategic bombing force largely came to an end with the phase-out of the [[V Bomber]] force (the last of which left service in [[1983 in aviation|1983]]. The only other nation that fields a strategic bombing force at present is the [[People's Republic of China]], which has a number of Chinese-built [[Tupolev Tu-16]]s.
Plans in the US and Russia for successors to the current strategic bomber force remain only paper projects, and present political and funding pressures suggest that they are likely to for the foreseeable future. In the US, current plans call for the existing USAF bomber fleet to remain in service until the mid-to-late 2020s, with no replacement in sight.
==See also:==
[[bomb]], [[V bomber]], [[light bomber]], [[Dive bomber|dive-bombers]], [[Torpedo bomber|torpedo-bombers]], [[strategic bomber]]s, [[strategic bombing]], [[F-117 stealth bomber|stealth bombers]], [[low-level bombing]], [[carpet bombing]], [[cruise missile]]s, [[Kamikaze]], [[aerial bombing of cities]], [[close air support]], [[aerial interdiction]], [[offensive counter air]], [[terror bombing]]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Military aircraft]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Billiards</title>
<id>3447</id>
<revision>
<id>42066441</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:05:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.67.3.35</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The semi-''mass&eacute;'' ("curve" or "swerve") shot */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the various cue sports. In the United States, Billiards often denotes the gamut of cue games. Sometimes, however, "billiards" standing alone will refer to carom games played on a pocketless table, while games played on tables with pockets are referred to as pocket billiards or "pool". By contrast, in some countries, "billiards" refers unambiguously to a specific game. For instance, in the United Kingdom, "billiards" denotes [[English billiards]] exclusively. Likewise, in the [[Netherlands]], billiards refers solely to [[Carambole billiards]].''
[[Image:Studenten Billard.JPG|right|thumb|300px|]]
'''Billiards''' is a family of games played on a table, with a stick, known as a [[cue stick]], which is used to strike balls, moving them around the table.
All billiard games are generally regarded to have evolved into indoor games from outdoor stick and ball |
contemporary animation, terming most of it, especially [[television]] cartoons such as those of [[Hanna-Barbera]], "[[illustrated radio]]."
Jones' intellectualism, writing ability, and capacity for self-analysis made him an historical authority as well as a major contributor to the development of the animation genre throughout the 20th century.
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Chuck Jones has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 7011 Hollywood Blvd.
Chuck Jones died of [[congestive heart failure]] on [[February 22]] [[2002]], at age 89. Jones' death brought down the final curtain on ''[[Looney Tunes]]''/''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' family of creators. [[Mel Blanc]], [[Friz Freleng]], [[Tex Avery]], [[Bob Clampett]] and [[Carl W. Stalling]] had all died by the time Jones passed away.
==Influence and critical perception==
Jones is considered by many to be a master of characterization and timing. His best works are noted for depicting a refinement of character to the point that a single eyebrow wiggle could be a major gag as opposed to the wild, frenetic style usually associated with cartoons, and those of Warner Bros. in particular. Like Walt Disney, Jones wanted animation to gain respect from the film and art communities, and often undertook special animation projects reflecting such, including ''What's Opera Doc'', ''The Dot and the Line'', and the [[1944]] political film ''Hell-Bent for Re-Election'', a [[election campaign|campaign]] film for [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] that he directed for UPA.
In his later years, Jones became the most vocal alumnus of the Termite Terrace studio, frequently giving lectures, seminars, and working to educate newcomers in the animation field. Many of his principles, therefore, found their way back into the mainstream animation consciousness, and can be seen in films such as ''[[Cats Don't Dance]]'', ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'' and ''[[Lilo & Stitch]]''.
Jones had a penchant for cuteness in his earliest days as is visible in his cartoons featuring [[Sniffles]] the Mouse. Other Warners directors, particularly [[Tex Avery]] and [[Robert Clampett]], considered "cute" to be a [[four letter word]]. By request of producer Leon Schlesinger, Jones changed his style, and began making zanier pictures such as ''[[Wackiki Wabbit]]'' and ''Hare Conditioned''. After Avery, Clampett, and Schlesinger left the studio, Jones gradually reincorporated elements of the slow pace, sentimentality and cuteness of his previous work with characters like [[Marc Antony and Pussyfoot]] and the young [[Ralph Phillips]]. His versions of the characters he worked with often showcased a more infantile look than other interpretations, with larger eyes and eyelashes. This is especially apparent in his ''Tom and Jerry'' films, some of which are considered the weakest in the canon.
Jones, like the rest of his Termite Terrace associates after the departure of Schlesinger, has been criticized for using repetitive plots, most obvious in the [[Pepe Le Pew]] and [[Road Runner]] cartoons. It must be noted, however, that many of these films were originally issued to theatres years apart, and the repetitious factor was often done at the request of the producers, management, or theatre owners. Also, series like the Road Runner were set up as exercises in exploring the same situation in different ways. Jones had a set list of rules as to what could and could not occur in a Road Runner cartoon, and stated that it was not ''what'' happened that was important in the films, but ''how'' it happened.
Chuck Jones' reinvention of certain characters is also a controversial subject. He reimagined the wacky, Clampett-esque hero [[Daffy Duck]] as a greedy, sneaky [[antagonist]] with a slow-burning temper; and he relegated hapless star [[Porky Pig]] to being a [[sidekick]] or audience-aware observer of the action. Jones also created a series of films in which he used [[Friz Freleng]]'s [[Sylvester]] in the context of a real [[cat]]. Like all the Warners directors, his [[Bugs Bunny]] characterization is unique to his films: Jones' Bugs never attacks unless attacked, unlike Avery's and Clampett's bombastic rabbits.
==Notable animated films directed by Chuck Jones==
[[Image:Michigan J Frog.png|thumb|100px|One Froggy Evening]]
*''[[The Dover Boys]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Hell-Bent for Election]]'' ([[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] campaign film, [[1944]])
*''[[The Rabbit of Seville]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Duck Amuck]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Duck Dodgers|Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[One Froggy Evening]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[What's Opera, Doc?]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[The Dot and the Line]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Bear that Wasn't]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'' (TV special, [[1966]])
*''[[The Phantom Tollbooth]]'' (feature film, [[1970]])
==References==
* Barrier, Michael (1999). Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-516729-5.
* Jones, Chuck (1989). Chuck Amuck : The Life and Times of an Animated Cartoonist. New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux. ISBN 037-412348-9.
* Jones, Chuck (1996). Chuck Reducks : Drawing from the Fun Side of Life. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 044-651893-X.
==External links==
* [http://www.chuckjones.com/ Chuck Jones web site]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/jones.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/jon1int-1 Photo gallery, full biography and online video at Achievement.org]
* {{imdb name|id=0005062|name= Chuck Jones}}
* [http://www.coldbacon.com/jones.html Good Chuck Jones tribute]
* [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060115/REVIEWS08/601150301 Chuck Jones: Three Cartoons (1953-1957)] - [[Roger Ebert]] discusses Jones' three films in the United States [[Library of Congress]] [[National Film Registry]].
*[http://www.toxicuniverse.com/review.php?aid=1000228 Biography of Chuck Jones] by Daniel Briney at ToxicUniverse.com.
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6207191 Chuck Jones at Find-A-Grave]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Costume</title>
<id>7673</id>
<revision>
<id>40747582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:32:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drb13 agito</username>
<id>753488</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Yarkand ladies.JPG|thumb|right|360px|Yarkand ladies' summer fashions. 1870s]]
The term '''costume''' can refer to [[wardrobe]] and [[dress]] in general, or to the distinctive style of dress of a particular people, class, or period. It can also refer to the artistic arrangement of accessories in a [[picture]], [[statue]], [[poem]], or [[play]], appropriate to the time, place, or other circumstances represented or described, or to a particular style of [[clothing]] worn to portray the wearer as a [[fictional character|character]] or type of character other than their regular persona at a social event such as a [[Masquerade ball|masquerade]], a [[fancy dress party]] or in an artistic [[Theatre|theatrical]] [[performance]].
[[Image:Operettenkostüme1.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Costumes for the ballroom (about 1850)]]
[[Theatrical costumes]], in combination with other aspects, serve to portray characters' age, [[gender role]], [[profession]], [[social class]], [[personality]], and can even reveal information about the historical period/era, geographic location, time of day, as well as the season or weather of the theatrical performance. Sometimes theatrical costumes literally mimic what the costume designer thinks the character would wear if the character actually existed. On the other hand, often stylized theatrical costumes can exaggerate some aspect of a character. Without [[theatrical costumers]], the audience would be left wondering who is related to whom, and which person is which. Costuming, truly is as important as the set and the script, yet most audiences take it for granted.
[[National costume]] or regional costume can express local (or [[exile]]d) [[identity]] and emphasise uniqueness. It is often a source of one's National pride. Think [[Scotsman]] in a [[kilt]] or Japanese in a [[kimono]].
The wearing of costumes has become an important part of [[Mardi Gras]] and [[Halloween]] celebrations, and (to a lesser extent) people may also wear costumes in conjunction with other [[holiday]] celebrations, such as [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]]. Mardi Gras costumes are usually [[Court jester|jesters]] and other fantasy characters, while Halloween costumes traditionally take the form of [[supernatural]] creatures such as [[ghosts]], [[vampires]], and [[angels]]. Christmas and Easter costumes typically portray mythical holiday characters, such as [[Santa Claus]] by donning a [[santa suit]] and [[beard]] or play the [[Easter Bunny]] by putting on a furry costume and head. Costumes may serve to portray various other character themes during secular holidays, such as an [[Uncle Sam]] costume worn on the [[Independence Day (US)|Independence day]] for example.
One of the more prominent places people see costumes is in theatre, film and TV. Another very popular place for costumes is sporting events and college games Those costumes are called [[mascots]]. These team mascots hep the club or team rally around their own teams cause.
Corporations and charities create brand identities by including a [[ |
that the pedals, seat and handlebars are all higher than normal) -- other types tall bikes are made by welding two more more bicycle frames on top of each other, and running additional chains from the pedals to the rear wheel.
**''Come-apart bike'', (essentially a unicycle, plus a set of handlebars attached to forks and a wheel).
:Clown bikes are also built that are directly geared, with no freewheeling, so that they may be pedaled backwards. Some are built very small but are otherwise normal.
* [[Art bike]]s: Some bikes are built so that the frame appears to be made of junk or found objects:
**[[Bongo the Clown]] built several ridable parade bikes which were as much kinetic sculptures as transport.
** The [[Dekochari]] is a form of [[Art bike]] indigenous to [[Japan]]
* A ''[[unicycle]]'' is not a bicycle, as it has only one wheel, but it is related.
==Standards==
A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components, to help make spare parts exchangeable:
* [[ISO 5775]] Bicycle tire and rim designations
* ISO 8090 Cycles &mdash; Terminology (same as BS 6102-4)
* ISO 4210 Cycles &mdash; Safety requirements for bicycles
==See also==
[[Image:Bicycles snow Graz 2005 original.jpg|thumb|250px|Bicycles in the snow]]
* [[Bicycle gearing]]
* [[Bicycle lock]]
* [[Bicycle messenger]]
* [[Bicycle safety]]
* [[Bicycling terminology]]
* [[Clothing-optional bike rides]]
* [[Clown bicycle]]
* [[Countersteering]]
* [[Cycling]]
* [[Cycling hand signals]]
* [[Fietsvierdaagse]]
* [[French bicycle industry]]
* [[List of bicycle manufacturers]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[List of important cycling events]]
* [[Mountain biking]]
* [[Quadricycle]]
* [[Raleigh Chopper]]
* [[Segregated cycle facilities]]
* [[Safety standards]]
* [[Timeline of transportation technology]]
* [[Tricycle]]
* [[Utility cycling]]
* [[Vehicular cycling]]
==Notes==
*1 [[Scientific American]], March 1973: "Bicycle Technology", by S.S.Wilson.
*2 [http://www.jhu.edu/~gazette/1999/aug3099/30pedal.html "Johns Hopkins Gazette"], Aug.30, 1999
*3 "The Stability of the Bicycle", David Jones, "Physics Today", April 1970: pp.34-40 (external link, below)
*4 Townsend (external link, below)
*5 [[The Economist]], Feb.15, 2003
*6 "Cities for Cyclists" (external link, below)
*7 "Bicycling Life" (external link, below)
*8 [[Effective Cycling|John Forester's Effective Cycling]]
*9 See Chapter 9 of "Bicycling Science" (Reference, below) for details of transmission efficiency.
==References==
{{wikibookspar||Bicycle repair}}
* ''All About Bicycling'', Rand McNally.
* ''The New Columbia Encyclopedia''
* Richard Ballantine, ''Richard's Bicycle Book'', Pan, 1975.
* Caunter C. F. ''The History and Development of Cycles'' Science Museum London 1972.
* Daniel Kirshner. ''Some nonexplanations of bicycle stability''. American Journal of Physics, 48(1), 1980. The abstract reads "In this paper we attempt to verify a nongyroscopic theory of bicycle stability, and fail".
* David B. Perry, ''Bike Cult: the Ultimate Guide to Human-powered Vehicles'', Four Walls Eight Windows, 1995.
* Roni Sarig, ''The Everything Bicycle Book'', Adams Media Corporation, 1997
* {{cite web | title=Randonneurs USA | work=PBP: Paris-Brest-Paris | url=http://www.rusa.org/pbp.html | accessdate=March 31 | accessyear=2005}}
*US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. "America's Highways 1776-1976", pp. 42-43. Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office.
* David Gordon Wilson, ''Bicycling Science'', MIT press, ISBN 0-262-73154-1
* David V. Herlihy, ''Bicycle: The History'', Yale University Press, 2004
* Frank Berto, ''The Dancing Chain: History and Development of the Derailleur Bicycle'', San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-41-4.
* ''The Data Book: 100 Years of Bicycle Component and Accessory Design'', San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-01-5.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Bicycle}}
{{portalpar|Cycling}}
* The World's Bicycle Conference: [http://www.velomondial.net Velo Mondial]
* BikeForums.net (2005). [http://www.bikeforums.net/ BikeForums]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* [http://sheldonbrown.com/ Brown, Sheldon] (2005). Extensive online [http://sheldonbrown.com/glossary.html bicycle glossary].
* eHow, Inc. (2005). [http://www.ehow.com/how_228_make-bike-fit.html How to Make Your Bike the Perfect Fit]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* [http://www.ecf.com/ European Cyclists' Federation]
* Exploratorium (2004). [http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/humanpower1.html Science of Cycling: Human Power]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* Freerideforums.net (2006).[http://www.freerideforums.com/ Freerideforums]
* Hudson, William (2003). [http://www.jimlangley.net/ride/bicyclehistorywh.html Myths and Milestones in Bicycle Evolution]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. (2005). [http://www.cyclingforum.org/forums/ CyclingForum.org]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* Jones, David E. H. (1970). [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~fajans/Teaching/MoreBikeFiles/JonesBikeBW.pdf The Stability of the Bicycle]. Scanned in copy for download for personal use.
* Townsend, Andy (2005). [http://www.rider-ed.com/tips/motorcyclestability.htm Motorcycle Stability and Steering]. Rider Education of New Jersey, Inc. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Consumer goods]]
[[Category:Cycling]]
[[Category:Cycle types]]
[[Category:Human powered vehicles]]
[[Category:National Toy Hall of Fame]]
{{link FA|ru}}
{{link FA|uk}}
{{link FA|da}}
[[bg:Велосипед]]
[[be:Ровар]]
[[ca:Bicicleta]]
[[cs:Jízdní kolo]]
[[da:Cykel]]
[[de:Fahrrad]]
[[es:Bicicleta]]
[[eo:Biciklo]]
[[fr:Bicyclette]]
[[ga:Rothar]]
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[[ko:자전거]]
[[io:Biciklo]]
[[id:Sepeda]]
[[is:Reiðhjól]]
[[it:Bicicletta]]
[[he:אופניים]]
[[lt:Dviratis]]
[[hu:Kerékpár]]
[[nl:Fiets]]
[[ja:自転車]]
[[no:Sykkel]]
[[nn:Sykkel]]
[[pl:Rower]]
[[pt:Bicicleta]]
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[[uk:Велосипед]]
[[zh:腳踏車]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biopolymer</title>
<id>3974</id>
<revision>
<id>42050702</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:30:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>158.109.57.111</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Biopolymers''' are a special class of [[polymer]]s found in nature.
[[Starch]], [[protein]]s and [[peptide]]s, [[DNA]], and [[RNA]] are all examples of biopolymers, in which the monomer units, respectively, are [[sugar]]s, [[amino acid]]s, and [[nucleic acid]]s.
== Biopolymers vs. Polymers ==
A major but defining difference between [[polymers]] and biopolymers can be found in their structures. Biopolymers inherently have a well defined structure:
The exact chemical composition and the sequence in which these units are arranged is called the polymer's [[primary structure]]. Many biopolymers spontaneously "[[protein folding|fold]]" into characteristic shapes (also known as [[secondary structure]] and [[tertiary structure]], which determine their biological functions and depend in a complicated way on their primary structures. [[Structural biology]] is the study of the shapes of biopolymers.
In contrast most synthetic polymers have much simpler and more random or statistic structures.
Another, yet very important, difference is the lack of a molecular mass distribution in most biopolymers. As their synthesis is controlled by a template directed process in most in vivo systems all biopolymers of a type (say one specific protein) are all alike: they all contain the same sequence and number of monomers and thus all have the same mass. This phenomenon is called [[monodispersity]] in contrast to the [[polydispersity]] encountered in polymers. As a result biopolymers have a [[polydispersity index]] of 1.
== Naming Conventions ==
=== Proteins ===
The convention for a protein is to list its constituent amino acid residues as they occur from the amino terminus to the carboxylic acid terminus.
=== Nucleic Acids ===
The convention for a nucleic acid sequence is to list the [[nucleotide]]s as they occur from the 5' end to the 3' end of the [[polymer chain]], where 5' and 3' refer to the numbering of carbons around the ribose ring which participate in forming the phosphate diester linkages of the chain. Such a sequence is called the primary structure of the biopolymer.
=== Sugars ===
(information missing)
== Structural Characterization ==
There are a number of [[biophysics|biophysical]] techniques for determining sequence information. Protein sequence can be determined by [[Edman degradation]], in which the N-terminal residues are hydrolyzed from the chain one at a time, derivatized, and then identified. Mass [[spectrometer]] techniques can also be used. Nucleic acid sequence can be determined using gel [[electrophoresis]] and capillary electrophoresis. Lastly, mechanical properties of these biopolymers can often be measured using [[optical tweezers]] or [[atomic force microscopy]].
== Biopolymers as materials ==
Some biopolymers- such as [[polylactic acid]] and [[poly-3-hydroxybutyrate]] can be used as plastics, replacing the need for [[polystyrene]] or [[polyethylene]] based plastics.
==See also==
* [[condensation polymer]]s
* [[DNA sequence]]
* [[biomaterial]]s
* [[Melanin]]
* [[Sequencing]]
* [[Worm-like chain]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Biotechnology products]]
[[cs:Biologická makromolekula]]
[[de:Biopolymer]]
[[es:Biomolécula]]
[[id:Biopolimer]]
[[ja:生体高分子]]
[[ms:Biopolimer]]
[[pl:Biopolimer]]
[[pt:Biomolécula]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>United Kingdom general election, 2001</title>
<id>3975</id>
<revision>
<id>41416337</i |
ns, faith also means that one accepts the [[religious tenet]]s of the religion as true. For non-creedal religions, faith often means that one is loyal to a particular religious community. In general, faith means being sure of what you hope for and certain of what you do not see with your physical (as opposed to spiritual) eyes.
In Romans 8:24-28 of the King James version of the Christian Bible, an intriguing, and perhaps controversial contradiction to the general interpretation that "faith means being sure of what you hope for...." is found.
24-For we are saved by hope: but hope that is seen is not hope: for what a man seeth, why doth he yet hope for?
25-But if we hope for that we see not, then do we with patience wait for it.
26=Likewise the Spirit also helpeth our infirmities: for we know not what we should pray for as we ought: but the Spirit itself maketh intercession for us with groanings which cannot be uttered.
27-And he that searcheth the hearts knoweth what is the mind of the Spirit, because he maketh intercession for the saints according to the will of God.
28-And we know that all things work together for good to them that love God, to them who are the called according to his purpose.
The biblical text is replete with implications for faith as well as hope. Yet, not even a conceptual grasp of God is admitted. The hopeful are enjoined to wait patiently, to experience the presence of God, only as groanings which can not be uttered.
Perhaps depicted is the transcension of hope into faith, where the object of faith is not what is seen with spiritual eyes, but is more, as in the reference to "he that searcheth the hearts knoweth" that which is realized as the transformation of human intent. Underling reference to the mind of the spirit is arguably that higher purpose of the saints, a purpose which transcends the salvation of the self.
Here then is relief of our human infirmities: a hope for the salvation of mankind, achievable only by those who discover their purpose, here presented ultimately, not as faith in, but love of God - that God which is revealed as each according to his purpose, work together for good.
Sometimes, faith means a belief in a relationship with a [[deity]]. In this case, "faith" is used in the sense of "fidelity." Such a commitment need not be blind or submissive, although it often shares these types of characteristics. For many Jews, for example, the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Talmud]] depict a committed but contentious relationship between their God and the Children of Israel. For quite a lot of people, faith or the lack thereof, is an important part of their [[Identity|identities]]. E.g. a person will identify him or herself as a Muslim or a [[skeptic]].
Many religious [[rationalism|rationalist]]s, as well as non-religious people, criticize implicit faith as being irrational. In this view, belief should be restricted to what is directly supportable by logic or evidence and nothing should be believed unless supported by the [[Scientific method]]. Others say faith is perfectly compatible with and does not necessary [[contradict]] reason. Sometimes faith can be referred as ignorance of reality. It is a strong believe in no proof.
Sometimes, faith means a belief in the existence of a deity, and can be used to distinguish individual belief in deities from belief in deities within religion. However it can also be used in context of belief in deities within religions. Many [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] claim that there is adequate [[historical evidence]] of their God's [[existence]] and [[interaction]] with human beings. As such, they may believe that there is no need for "faith" in God in the sense of belief against or despite evidence; rather, they hold that evidence is sufficient to demonstrate that their God certainly exists, and that particular beliefs, concerning who or what their God is and why this God is to be trusted, are vindicated by evidence and logic. There is no historical evidence, which convinces the whole community of [[historian]]s that any one religion is true. For people in this category, "faith" in a God simply means "belief that one has [[knowledge]] of [any particular] God". It is logically impossible that all these different religions with their mutually contradictory beliefs can simultaneously be true. Therefore the majority of believers have faith in a belief system which is in some ways false, which they have difficulty describing at least. This is disputed though by some religious traditions especially in [[Hinduism]] who hold the view that the several different faiths are just aspects of the ultimate truth that the several religions have difficulty to describe and understand. They see the different religions as just different paths to the same goal. This does not explain away all logical contradictions between faiths but these traditions say that all seeming contradictions will be understood once a person has an experience of the Hindu concept of [[moksha]].
What is believed concerning God, in this sense, is at least in principle only as reliable as the evidence and the logic by which faith is supported.
Finally, some religious believers – and many of their critics – often use the term "faith" as the [[affirmation]] of [[belief]] without an ongoing [[test]] of [[evidence]], and even despite evidence apparently to the contrary. Most [[Jew]]s, [[Christianity|Christian]]s and [[Muslim]]s admit that whatever particular evidence or reason they may possess that their God exists and is deserving of trust, is not ultimately the basis for their believing. Thus, in this sense ''faith'' refers to ''belief beyond evidence or [[logical argument]]s'', sometimes called "implicit faith". Another form of this kind of faith is [[fideism]]: one ought to believe that God exists, but one should not base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any [[reason]]s at all. Faith in this sense, grounded simply in the sincerity of faith, belief on the basis of believing, is often associated with [[Søren Kierkegaard]] for example, and some other [[existentialism|existentialist]] religious thinkers; his views are presented in ''[[Fear and Trembling]]. ''[[William Sloane Coffin]] counters that ''faith is not acceptance without proof, but trust without reservation.''
==Judaism==
Although Judaism does recognize the positive value of ''Emunah'' (faith/belief) and the negative status of the ''Apikorus'' (heretic) the specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been heatedly disputed throughout Jewish history. Many, but not all, Orthodox Jews have accepted Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Belief.
For an English translation of his Principles, see: [[http://studentorgs.utexas.edu/cjso/Chabad/moshiach/techiya-masim.html]]
For a wide history of this dispute, see: Shapira, Marc: The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (Series).)
==Christianity==
Faith in [[Christianity]] centers on faith in the saving grace of [[Christ]] the Son of the living [[God]], who died for the [[sin]] of the [[world]]. The precise meaning and content of [[faith in Christianity]] differs somewhat between the various Christian traditions. The definition of this quality for Christians is found in the scriptural text at Hebrews 11:1: "Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see". (NIV)
For more, see: ''[[Faith in Christianity]]''
==Islam==
Faith in [[Islam]] centers on faith in the fulfillment of prophecy by [[Muhammad]], the prophet and messenger of the holy God [[Allah]].
For more, see: ''[[Faith in Islam]]''
==Buddhism==
Faith (saddha/sraddha) is an important constituent element of the teachings of the [[Buddha]] - both in the [[Theravada]] tradition as in the [[Mahayana]]. While not of the “blind” variety and on occasion linked with [[insight]] (prajna), Buddhist faith (as advocated by the Buddha of the various scriptures) nevertheless requires a degree of trusting confidence and belief primarily in the spiritual attainment and salvational knowledge of the Buddha. Faith in [[Buddhism]] centers on belief in the Buddha as a supremely Awakened being, on his unexcelled role as teacher of both humans and gods, in the truth of his [[Dharma]] (spiritual Doctrine), and in his [[Sangha]] (community of spiritually developed followers). Faith in Buddhism functions as a form of motor, which propels the Buddhist practitioner towards the goal of Awakening ([[bodhi]]) and [[Nirvana]].
For more, see ''[[Faith in Buddhism]]''
==Rastafari==
Faith to the [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] implies knowledge of the [[divinity]] of [[Haile Selassie]] rather than belief in this proposition, as Rastas claim not to hold belief systems. The word faith does not hold such negative connotations. Their faith in Selassie as God, and as the being who is going to end their sufferings at the day of judgement when they will return to live in [[Africa]] under his rule is at the center of their lives. The [[dreadlocks]] are worn as an open declaration of faith in and loyalty towards Haile Selassie, while [[cannabis|marijuana]] is seen to help cultivate a strong faith by bringing the faithful closer to God. Rastas have faith when 2 or more of them come together to reason about their religion that Haile Selassie is with them.
Selassie is seen as both God the Father, who created Heaven and earth, and as God the Son, the Reincarnation of Jesus Christ. To complete the Holy Trinity the Holy Spirit is seen as being in the believers themselves, and within all human beings.
The announcement of the [[death]] of Selassie in [[1975]] did not disturb the faith of the Rastas, who assumed that God cannot die, and that the |
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:50:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.16.77.9</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Environmental concerns */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bo-map.png|right|]]
[[Image:Belarus_1997_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Belarus]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Belarus in December 2002.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Belarus in December 2002.]]
'''[[Belarus]]''', a generally flat country (the average elevation is 162 meters above sea level) without natural borders, occupies an area of 207,600 square kilometers, or slightly smaller than the [[United Kingdom]] or the state of [[Kansas]]. Its neighbors are [[Russia]] to the east and northeast, [[Latvia]] to the north, [[Lithuania]] to the northwest, [[Poland]] to the west, and [[Ukraine]] to the south.
; Geographic coordinates:
: {{coor d|53|N|28|E|}}
==Topography and Drainage==
Belarus's mostly level terrain is broken up by the Belarusian Range (Byelaruskaya Hrada), a swath of elevated territory, composed of individual highlands, that runs diagonally through the country from west-southwest to east-northeast. Its highest point is the 346-meter Mount Dzyarzhynskaya (Dzerzhinskaya, in Russian), named for Feliks Dzerzhinskiy, head of Russia's security apparatus under Stalin. Northern Belarus has a picturesque, hilly landscape with many lakes and gently sloping ridges created by glacial debris. In the south, about one-third of the republic's territory around the Prypyats' (Pripyat', in Russian) River is taken up by the low-lying swampy plain of the Belarusian Woodland, or Palyessye (Poles'ye in Russian).
Belarus's 3,000 streams and 4,000 lakes are major features of the landscape and are used for floating timber, shipping, and power generation. Major rivers are the west-flowing Zakhodnyaya Dzvina (Zapadnaya Dvina in Russian) and Nyoman (Neman in Russian) rivers, and the south-flowing Dnyapro (Dnepr in Russian) with its tributaries, Byarezina (Berezina in Russian), Sozh, and Prypyats' rivers. The Prypyats' River has served as a bridge between the Dnyapro flowing to Ukraine and the Vistula in Poland since the period of Kievan Rus'. Lake Narach (Naroch', in Russian), the country's largest lake, covers eighty square kilometers.
Nearly one-third of the country is covered with pushchy (sing., pushcha), large unpopulated tracts of forests. In the north, conifers predominate in forests that also include birch and alder; farther south, other deciduous trees grow. The Belavezhskaya (Belovezhskaya, in Russian) Pushcha in the far west is the oldest and most magnificent of the forests; a reservation here shelters animals and birds that became extinct elsewhere long ago. The reservation spills across the border into Poland; both countries jointly administer it.
==Climate==
Because of the proximity of the [[Baltic Sea]] (257 meters at the closest point), the country's climate is temperate continental. Winters last between 105 and 145 days, and summers last up to 150 days. The average temperature in January is -6°C, and the average temperature for July is about 18°C, with high humidity. Average annual precipitation ranges from 550 to 700 millimeters and is sometimes excessive.
==Environmental concerns==
The most notorious legacy of pollution from the communist era is the April 26, 1986, accident at the Chernobyl' nuclear power plant in Ukraine. Some 70 % of the radiation spewed was carried by the wind to Belarus, where it affected at least 25 % of the country--especially the Homyel' (Gomel' in Russian) and Mahilyow (Mogilëv in Russian) voblastsi (sing., voblasts'), or counties, in the south and southeast, and 22 % of the population. Although more than 2 million people (including 600,000 children) lived in areas affected by fallout from the disaster, the Soviet government tried to cover up the accident until Swedish scientists pressed for an explanation of the unusually high levels of atmospheric radiation in Sweden.
The Belorussian government's request to the Soviet government for a minimum of 17 billion rubles to deal with the consequences was answered with Moscow's offer of only 3 billion rubles. According to one official in 1993, the per capita expenditure on the accident was one kopek in Russia, three kopeks in Ukraine, and one ruble (100 kopeks) in Belarus.
Despite the government's establishment of the State Committee for Chernobyl', the enactment of laws limiting who may stay in contaminated areas, and the institution of a national program for research on the effects, little progress was made in coping with the consequences of the disaster, owing to the lack of money and the government's sluggish attitude. In 1994 a resettlement program for 170,000 residents was woefully underbudgeted and far behind schedule. To assist victims of Chernobyl', a Western organization, the Know-How Fund, provided many Belarusian doctors with training in the latest bone-marrow techniques in Europe and the United States.
The long-range effects of the disaster include an increasing incidence of various kinds of cancer and birth defects; congenital defects in newborns are reported to be 40 % higher than before the accident. Tainted water, livestock, farm produce, and land are widespread, and the extensive wetlands retain high concentrations of radiation. Cleanup of the disaster accounted for 14 % of the state budget in 1995. Other environmental problems include widespread chemical pollution of the soil, which shows excessive pesticide levels, and the industrial pollution found in nearly all the large cities.
; Natural hazards:
: NA
; Environment - current issues:
:* Soil pollution from pesticide use.
:* South-Eastern part of the country contaminated with fallout from [[1986]] nuclear reactor accident at [[Chernobyl]], [[Ukraine]], receiving about 60% of total fallout. Vast amounts of territory in [[Homyel voblast|Homyel]] and [[Mahilyow voblast|Mahilyow]] [[voblast]]s rendered uninhabitable. Roughly 7,000 km² (2,700 mi²) of soil were contaminated by [[Caesium|caesium-137]] to levels greater than 15 [[curie]]s (550 [[becquerel|gigabecquerels]]) per square kilometer, i.e., taken from human usage for indefinite time. In 1996 the areas contaminated with over 1 Ci/km² (37 GBq/km²) of cesium-137 constituted about 21% of the total territory (only 1% decrease compared to 1986), and in 2002 over 1.5 mln people still lived in this area.
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to [[treaty|treaties]]: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
: Signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
==Area and boundaries==
; Area:
:* Total: 207,600 [[Square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 207,600 km²
:* Water:
; Area comparative:
:* [[Australia]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
:* [[Canada]] comparative: half the size of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]
:* [[Europe]] comparative: 13th place, slightly smaller than the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Romania]]
:* [[United States]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Kansas]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 3,098 km
:* Border countries: [[Latvia]] 141 km, [[Lithuania]] 502 km, [[Poland]] 605 km, [[Russia]] 959 km, [[Ukraine]] 891 km
; Coastline:
: 0 km (landlocked)
; Maritime claims:
: None (landlocked)
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Nyoman River 90 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: [[Dzyarzhynskaya Hara]] 345 m
==Resources and land use==
; Natural resources:
: Forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomitic limestone, marl, chalk, sand, gravel, clay
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 29%
:* Permanent crops: 1%
:* Permanent pastures: 15%
:* Forests and woodland: 34%
:* Other: 21% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 1,150 km² (1998 est.)
; Water resources:
: About 20,000 rivers and streams, with the total length of 91,000 km, and about 11,000 lakes, including 470 lakes with the area exceeding 0.5 km² each. [[Naroch]] is the largest lake (79.2 km², the deepest point about 25 m). Significant amounts of swampy area, notably in the [[Polesia]] region.
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''Much of the material in this article is adapted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and 2003.''
== External links ==
*[http://www.chernobyl.info/files/doc/TabE_Minsk.pdf Chernobyl data for Belarus]
[[Category:Geography by country|Belarus]]
[[Category:Geography of Belarus]]
[[pt:Geografia da Bielorrússia]]
[[ru:Географические данные Белоруссии]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Belarus</title>
<id>3533</id>
<revision>
<id>15901855</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:33:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of Belarus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Belarus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Belarus</title>
<id>3534</id>
<revision>
<id>40554698</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:22:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Belarus table}}
==Overview==
After collapse of the Soviet Union all former Soviet respublics were faced deep economic crisis. Belarus has however chosen its own way of overcoming this crisis. After [[1994]] election of [[Alexander Lukashenko]] as the first President, he launched the country on the path of "market [[socialism]]" as opposed to "wild capitalism" chosen by Russia at that time. In keeping with this policy, administrative c |
Rommel was removed after a short time; however, he was placed in command of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s personal protection battalion (''Führer-Begleitbattalion'').
==World War II==
[[Image:Rommel France 1940.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rommel during the French campaign of 1940]]
===Poland 1939===
In the [[autumn]] of 1938 Hitler selected Rommel to be in charge of the Wehrmacht unit assigned to protect him during his visits to occupied [[Czechoslovakia]]. Just prior to the invasion of [[Poland]] he was promoted to [[Major General]] and made commander of the ''Führer-Begleitbattalion'', responsible for the safety of Adolf Hitler's mobile headquarters during the campaign.
===France 1940===
In [[1940]], only three months before the invasion, Rommel was given command of the [[German 7th Panzer Division|7th Panzer Division]], later nicknamed ''Gespenster-Division'' (the ''"Ghost Division"'', due to the speed and surprise it was consistently able to achieve, to the point that even the German High Command lost track of where it was), for ''[[Fall Gelb]]'' ("Case Yellow"), the invasion of [[France]] and the [[Low Countries]]. Remarkably, this was Rommel's first command of a Panzer unit. He showed considerable skill in this operation, repulsing a counter-attack by the [[British Expeditionary Force|BEF]] (British Expeditionary Force) at [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Arras]]. 7th Panzer was one of the first German units to reach the [[English Channel]] (on [[10 June]]) and would capture the vital port of [[Cherbourg]] ([[19 June]]). As a reward Rommel was promoted and appointed commander of the [[German 5th Light Division|5th Light Division]] (later reorganized and redesignated as the 21st Panzer) and of the [[German 15th Panzer Division|15th Panzer Division]], which were sent to [[Libya]] in early [[1941]] to aid the defeated and demoralized Italian troops, forming the ''[[Deutsches Afrika Korps]]''
({{Audio|De-Deutsches_Afrikakorps-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen</small>}}). It was in [[Africa]] where Rommel achieved his greatest fame as a commander.
===Africa 1941-43===
[[Image:AKrommel.jpg|thumb|250px|Erwin Rommel, 1941]]
Rommel spent most of 1941 building his organization and re-forming the shattered Italian units, who had suffered a string of defeats at the hands of [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] forces under Major General [[Richard O'Connor]]. An offensive pushed the Allied forces back out of [[Libya]], but it stalled a relatively short way into Egypt, and the important port of [[Siege of Tobruk|Tobruk]], although surrounded, was still held by Allied forces under an [[Australia]]n General, [[Leslie Morshead]]. The Allied Commander-in-Chief, General [[Archibald Wavell]] made two unsuccessful attempts to relieve Tobruk ([[Operation Brevity]] and [[Operation Battleaxe]]).
Following the costly failure of Battleaxe, Wavell was relieved by Commander-in-Chief India, General [[Claude Auchinleck]]. Auchinleck launched a major offensive to relieve Tobruk ([[Operation Crusader]]) which eventually succeeded. During the confusion caused by the Crusader operation, Rommel and his staff several times ended up behind British lines. On one occasion Rommel went into a hospital for New Zealand soldiers - still under the control of the British. "He inquired if anything was needed, promised the British medical supplies and drove off unhindered." - (''The Rommel Papers'', chapter 8 by General [[Fritz Bayerlein]].)
Crusader was a defeat for Rommel. After several weeks of fighting Rommel ordered the withdrawal of all his forces from the area around Tobruk ([[December 7]] [[1941]]) and retreated back towards El Agheila. The British followed, attempting to cut off the retreating troops as they had done in 1940 but Rommel launched a counter-attack on [[January 20]] [[1942]] and mauled the British. The Afrika Korps retook Benghazi and the British pulled back to the Tobruk area and commenced building defensive positions.
In the early summer of 1942 ([[May 24]] [[1942]]) Rommel's army attacked. In a classic ''[[blitzkrieg]]'', Rommel outflanked the British at [[Battle of Gazala|Gazala]], surrounded and reduced the strongpoint at [[Battle of Bir Hakeim|Bir Hakeim]] and forced the British to quickly retreat, in the so-called "Gazala Gallop", to avoid being completely cut off. Tobruk, isolated and alone, was now all that stood between the Afrika Korps and Egypt. On [[21 June]] [[1942]], after a swift, coordinated and fierce [[combined arms]] assault, the city surrendered along with its 33,000 defenders. Only at the [[Battle of Singapore|fall of Singapore]], earlier that year, had more British and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] troops been captured. Allied forces were comprehensively beaten. Within weeks they had been pushed back far into [[Egypt]].
[[Image:Rommel in Africa1941.jpg|left|thumb|310px|Rommel in Africa - Summer 1941]]
Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway town of [[El Alamein]], just 60 miles from [[Alexandria]]. The [[First Battle of El Alamein]] was lost by Rommel due to a combination of supply problems (created by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] and [[Royal Navy]] interdiction, assisted by [[Ultra]]) and improved British tactics. Britain, with her back to the wall, was very close to their supplies and had fresh troops on hand to reinforce her positions. Auchinleck's tactics of continually attacking the weaker Italian forces during the battle forced Rommel to use the [[Deutsches Afrika Korps|Afrika Korps]] in a "fire brigade" role and gave Auchinleck the initiative. Rommel tried again to break through British lines during the [[Battle of Alam Halfa]]. He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived Allied commander, Lieutenant General [[Bernard Montgomery]], who had achieved overwhelming material superiority.
With Allied forces from [[Malta]] interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert, Rommel could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle, the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]], to force his troops back. After the defeat at El Alamein, despite urgings from [[Hitler]] and [[Mussolini]], Rommel's forces did not again stand and fight until they had entered [[Tunisia]]. Even then, their first battle was not against the [[British Eighth Army]], but against the [[U.S. II Corps]]. Rommel inflicted a sharp reversal on the American forces at the [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]].
Turning once again to face the British Commonwealth forces in the old French border defences of the [[Mareth Line]], Rommel could only delay the inevitable. [[Ultra]] was a major factor that led to the defeat of his forces. He left Africa after falling sick, and the men of his former command eventually became [[prisoners of war]].
Some historians contrast Rommel's withdrawal of his army back to Tunisia against Hitler's dreams of much greater success than even his capture of Tobruk (in sharp contrast to the fate suffered by the [[German 6th Army]] at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] under the command of [[Friedrich Paulus]] which stood its ground and was annihilated).
Sometimes in this period, it is recorded a failed desperate British attempt to capture Rommel from his headquarters, 250 miles behind the enemy lines. [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/theartofwar/valgal/valour/INF3_0437.htm]
===France 1943-1944===
[[Image:Blaskowitz, Rommel, Rundstedt2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Field Marshall Erwin Rommel (center) discusses the upcoming Allied invasion of France with Colonel General [[Johannes Blaskowitz]] and Field Marshall [[Gerd von Rundstedt]].]]
Back in Germany, Rommel was for some time virtually "unemployed". However, when the tide of war shifted against Germany, Hitler made Rommel the commander of Army Group B, responsible for defending the French coast against a possible Allied invasion. Dismayed with the situation he found, the slow building pace and realizing he had just months before an invasion, Rommel invigorated the whole fortification effort along the Atlantic coast, under his direction work was significantly sped up, millions of mines laid, and thousands of tank traps and obstacles were set up on beaches and throughout the countryside.
After his battles in Africa, Rommel concluded that any offensive movements would be impossible due to the overwhelming Allied [[air superiority]]. He argued that the tank forces should be dispersed in small units and kept in heavily fortified positions located as close to the front as possible, so they wouldn't have to move far and en masse when the invasion started. He wanted the invasion stopped right on the beaches. However his commander, [[Gerd von Rundstedt]], felt that there was no way to stop the invasion near the beaches due to the equally overwhelming firepower of the [[Royal Navy]]. He felt the tanks should be formed into large units well inland near [[Paris]], where they could allow the Allies to extend into France and then be cut off. When asked to pick a plan, Hitler then vacillated and placed them in the middle, far enough to be useless to Rommel, not far enough to watch the fight for von Rundstedt. Rommel's plan nearly came to fruition anyway.
During [[D-Day]] several tank units, notably the [[12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend|12th SS Panzer Division]], were close enough to the beaches to potentially create serious havoc. Hitler refused however to release the panzer reserves as he believed the Normandy landings were a diversion. Hitler and the German High Command expected the main allied assault in the Pas de Calais, thanks to the success of a secret allied deception campaign ([[Operation Fortitude]]). Facing only small scale German attacks, the allies quickly secured the [[beachhead]].
===The plot against Hitler===
[[Image:LangRugeSpeidelRommel May1944.jpg|right|thumb|250px|May 1944, Rommel with his close |
mped by three separate hearts, two of which are used for pumping blood to the cuttlefish's pair of [[gill]]s (one heart for each gill), and the third for pumping blood around the rest of the body. A cuttlefish's heart must pump a higher blood flow than most other animals because hemocyanin is substantially less capable of carrying oxygen than hemoglobin.
Cuttlefish have [[ink]], like [[squid]]s and [[octopus]]es. This ink was formerly an important [[dye]], called [[sepia]]. Today artificial dyes have replaced natural sepia. Cuttlefish are caught for food, though squid is more popular.
[[Image:CuttleEye.jpg|thumb|left|An image of a cuttlefish eye]]
Cuttlefish eat small [[mollusc]]s, [[crab]]s, [[shrimp]], [[fish]] and other cuttlefish. Their [[predator]]s are [[shark]]s, fish, and other cuttlefish. They live about 1 to 2 years.
Like [[octopus]]es, cuttlefish have been successfully raised as [[pet]]s in home [[aquarium]]s, though even their bare necessities are significant. In particular, cuttlefish need a minimum amount of [[sea water]] in proportion to their body size, their tank needs to be cleaned every time they ink, they cannot tolerate abrupt changes in light levels, and they cannot coexist with other animals, and rarely ever with other cuttlefish. All other animals of comparable or smaller size, including other cuttlefish, are instinctively seen as food.
Domestic cuttlefish are very reminiscent of [[domestic cat]]s, even exhibiting cat-like habits such as resting, pouncing on moving prey, begging owners for food, and even begging for more food than they need or is healthy for them. Like cats, cuttlefish are not truly [[domestication|tame]], but rather tolerate and cooperate with their owners to live a comfortable life. But unlike cats, cuttlefish ''will'' try to eat other cuttlefish.
==Classification==
[[Image:Camouflage.jpg|250px|right|thumbnail|An infant cuttlefish protects itself with camouflage]]
There are 119 [[species]] currently recognised, grouped into 5 [[genus|genera]]. [[Sepiadariidae]] contains seven species and 2 genera. All the rest are in [[Sepiidae]].
*CLASS [[Cephalopoda|CEPHALOPODA]]
**Subclass [[Nautiloidea]]: nautilus
**Subclass [[Coleoidea]]: [[squid]], [[octopus]], [[cuttlefish]]
***Superorder [[Decapodiformes]]
****Order [[Spirulida]]: Ram's Horn Squid
****'''Order Sepiida''': cuttlefish
*****Family [[Sepiadariidae]]
*****Family [[Sepiidae]]
****Order [[Sepiolida]]: bobtail squid
****Order [[Teuthida]]: squid
***Superorder [[Octopodiformes]]
[[Category:Cuttlefish|*]]
[[de:Sepien]]
[[fr:Sepiida]]
[[ko:갑오징어목]]
[[he:דיונון]]
[[nl:Zeekat (inktvis)]]
[[sl:Sipa]]
[[zh:乌贼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cadillac (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6634</id>
<revision>
<id>39391806</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T21:36:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ejrrjs</username>
<id>104704</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cadillac''', when used alone, can refer to:
*[[Cadillac]], [[General Motors]]' [[luxury car]] brand.
*[[Cadillac, Michigan]]
*Cadillac, [[Quebec]]
*[[Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac]] (1658-1730), for whom the above are named
*[[Cadillac, Gironde|Cadillac]], a [[commune in France|commune]] in the [[Gironde]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', in [[France]]
*[[Cadillac (band)|Cadillac]], a Spanish pop group
*[[Los Fabulosos Cadillacs]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] latin rock group
*[[The Cadillacs]], an American vocal group
*[[Cadillac]], Plattenladen in Flensburg in den 80ern
*[[Cadillac (game)|Cadillac]], a hackysack game
*[[Cadillac]], nickname of NFL player [[Carnell Williams]]
*[[ Cadillacs]] is the name of a nightclub in Bath, England.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Cadillac (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Cadillac]]
[[it:Cadillac]]
[[nl:Cadillac]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese checkers</title>
<id>6635</id>
<revision>
<id>41461149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:20:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.111.251.203</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chinese_checkers_start.png|thumb|right|200px|Chinese checkers]]
'''Chinese checkers''' is a [[board game]] that can be played by two to six people. The object of the main game is to place one's pieces in the corner opposite their starting position by moving them through jumps over other pieces. The game does not actually originate from [[China]] (nor is it a variation on [[checkers]] or [[Chinese chess]]), but was given that name in the [[United States]] to make it sound more exotic. When it was first released in [[Germany]], it was called Stern-Halma, as it is similar to the older game of [[Halma]] except that the board is star (''stern'') shaped.
The Chinese checkers board is laid out in a six-pointed star. The game pieces are usually six sets of colored [[marbles]], ten of each color. The ten marbles are arranged as a triangle in the starting position in one of the corners of the star.
Two different variations can be played on the game set, "hop across" and "capture". Each of the games has an original and a fast-paced variant.
== Hop across ==
[[Image:Chinese_checkers_jump.png|thumb|Standard jumps can have multiple hops, but each hop must be directly adjacent.]]
In the "hop across" variation, each player puts his or her own colored marbles on one corner of the star, and attempts to relocate them all to the opposite corner. Players take turns moving one marble, either a single step or a chain of one or more hops. A step consists of moving a marble to an adjacent unoccupied space in any of the six directions. In the diagram at right, Green might move the topmost marble one space down and to the left. A hop consists of jumping over a single adjacent marble, either one's own or an opponent's, to an unoccupied space directly opposite. In the diagram at right, Red might advance the indicated marble by a chain of three hops in a single move.
The basic strategy is to find the longest hopping path instead of moving step by step. However, since your opponent or opponents can make use of whatever hopping ladders you create, more advanced strategy requires hindering your opponent as well as helping yourself. Of equal importance is the players' strategy or algorithm for emptying and filling their origin and destination triangles. Games between experts are rarely decided by more than a couple of moves.
[[Image:Chinese_checkers_flying_jump.png|thumb|left|Jumping over non-adjacent pieces is allowable only in the fast-paced variant.]]
In the fast-paced variant, which is played mainly in [[Hong Kong]], game pieces may hop over ''non-adjacent'' pieces. A hop consists of jumping over a distant marble to a symmetrical position on the opposite side. For example, if there are two empty spaces between the moving marble and the marble over which it is hopping, it lands on the opposite side with a gap of two empty spaces. As before, a single move may be a chain of hops, as shown in the diagram at left.
Usually, in the fast paced version, a marble is allowed to enter into an empty corner in the middle of a series of hops, but must hop out again before the move is over.
Jumping over two marbles in a single hop is not allowed. For example, in the diagram at left, the green marble marked with an X could not hop in the direction of the space marked with an O. Therefore, in this variant even more than in the original version, it is sometimes strategically important to keep one's marbles bunched in order to prevent a long opposing hop.
The game layout varies according to how many players are involved.
[[Image:ChineseCheckersboard.jpeg|thumb|A typical game board.]]
In a six player game, each player plays with one set of marbles. The pieces move into one of the opponents' corner. If your opponent refuses to move a piece out of the starting corner, you are out of luck to win the game because if he doesn't come out, you cannot finish.
In a five player game, the situation is same as the six player game except that one player moves the pieces into an empty corner. Because this player is in an advantageous position, usually a weaker player (e.g. a younger child) would take that position.
The four player game is same as the six player game except two opposite corners are unused.
In a three player game, the players can play one set or two sets of marbles each. If one set is used, the game pieces are moved across the field into an empty corner. If two sets are used, each player starts with two color sets at opposite corners.
In a two player game, each player can play one, two or three sets of marbles. If one set is played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's corner. If two sets are played, the pieces can either go into the player's own opposite corners or into an opponent's corner. If three sets are played, the pieces usually go to the opponent's corner.
Each layout takes different game strategy. For example, if your pieces go to your own corner, you can arrange your own pieces to serve as bridges between the two opposite ends. On the contrary, if your opponent occupies your target corner, you might have to play a waiting game until all the pieces are moved out.
== Capture ==
In the "capture" variation all sixty game pieces are put in the [[hexagon]]al field in the center of the game board. The one hole in the center of the board is left unoccupied so that the game board starts out with a symmetrical hexagonal pattern. The players take turns hopping any game pieces over other game pieces on the board; the hopped over pieces are captured (retired from the game, as in checkers) and collected in the player's bin.
At the end of the game, the player with the most captured pieces is the winner. The board is tightly packed at |
ism]]. US support for Papadopoulos is claimed to be the cause of rising [[anti-Americanism]] in Greece during and following the junta's harsh rule.
On [[November 25]], [[1973]], following the bloody suppresion of [[Athens Polytechnic uprising]] on the 17th of November, General [[Dimitrios Ioannides]] replaced Papadopoulos and tried to continue the dictatorship despite the popular unrest the uprising had triggered. Ioannides' attempt in July [[1974]] to overthrow Archbishop [[Makarios]], the [[President of Cyprus|President]] of [[Cyprus]], brought Greece to the brink of war with Turkey, which invaded Cyprus and occupied part of the island. Senior Greek military officers then withdrew their support from the junta, which toppled. Leading citizens persuaded Karamanlis to return from exile in [[France]] to establish a government of national unity until elections could be held. Karamanlis' newly organized party, [[New Democracy]] (ND), won elections held in November [[1974]], and he became prime minister. The cause of the downfall of the [[dictatorship]] formally was the invasion by [[Turkey]] of [[Cyprus]], which was seen as a military and political failure of the junta; however, since then, historians and other people have regarded the uprising at the Polytechnic University (Greek: &#919; &#949;&#958;&#941;&#947;&#949;&#961;&#963;&#951; &#964;&#959;&#965; &#928;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#964;&#949;&#967;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#959;&#965;) as the event that most discredited the military government.
Following the [[1974]] [[referendum]] which resulted in the abolition of the monarchy, a new constitution was approved by parliament on [[June 19]], [[1975]]. Parliament elected [[Constantine Tsatsos]] as President of the republic. In the parliamentary elections of [[1977]], New Democracy again won a majority of seats. In May [[1980]], Prime Minister Karamanlis was elected to succeed Tsatsos as [[List of Presidents of Greece|President]]. [[George Rallis]] succeeded Karamanlis as Prime Minister.
On [[January 1]], [[1981]], Greece became the 10th member of the [[European Community]] (now the [[European Union]]). In parliamentary elections held on [[October 18]], [[1981]], Greece elected its first socialist government when the [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]] (PASOK), led by [[Andreas Papandreou]], won 172 of 300 seats. On [[March 29]], [[1985]], after Prime Minister Papandreou declined to support President Karamanlis for a second term, Supreme Court Justice [[Christos Sartzetakis]] was elected president by the Greek parliament.
Greece had two rounds of parliamentary elections in [[1989]]; both produced weak coalition governments with limited mandates. Party leaders withdrew their support in February 1990, and elections were held on [[April 8]]. New Democracy, led by [[Constantine Mitsotakis]], won 150 seats in that election and subsequently gained two others. After Mitsotakis dismissed his first Foreign Minister, [[Antonis Samaras]], in [[1992]], Samaras formed his own political party, [[Political Spring]]. A split between Mitsotakis and Samaras led to the collapse of the ND government and new elections in September [[1993]] saw Papandreou return to power.
On [[January 17]], [[1996]], following a protracted illness, Papandreou resigned and was replaced as Prime Minister by former Minister of Industry [[Costas Simitis]]. Simitis won elections in [[1996]] and [[2000]]. In [[2004]] Simitis retired and [[George Andreas Papandreou]] succeeded him as PASOK leader. At the March [[2004]] elections, however, PASOK was defeated by New Democracy, led by [[Costas Caramanlis]], the nephew of the former President.
==See also==
* [[Timeline of Greek history]]
* [[Kings of Greece]]
* [[Otto of Greece]]
* [[Greek Fascism]]
* [[Military history of Greece during World War II]]
* [[Greek Resistance]]
* [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]]
[[Category:History of Greece|Modern]]
[[la:Historia Graeca]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van het moderne Griekenland]]
[[pl:Historia Grecji]]
[[sv:Greklands historia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heracles</title>
<id>13815</id>
<revision>
<id>42067393</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:14:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redmosquito720</username>
<id>777561</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Birth and childhood */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Heracles.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Heracles]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Heracles''', or '''Heraklês''' ("glory of [[Hera]]", &#x1F29;&rho;&alpha;&kappa;&lambda;&eta;&sigmaf;) was a [[Greek hero cult|divine hero]], the [[demigod]] son of [[Zeus]] and [[Alcmene]], and stepson of Alcmene's rightful husband and great-grandson of [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]]. In [[Roman Mythology|Roman mythology]] he was called '''[[Hercules]]'''. He was, arguably, the greatest of the mythical Greek heroes, the paragon of masculinity par excellence, his extraordinary strength being one of his attributes. Many stories are told of his life, the most famous being [[The Twelve Labours|The Twelve Labours of Herakles]]. His [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] equivalent was Hercle, a son of [[Tinia]] and [[Uni]]. He was also identified with [[Heryshaf]] ([[Egyptian mythology]]).
Curiously, priests wore female clothing in temples devoted to Heracles, possibly making reference to the myth of [[Omphale]].
== Birth and childhood ==
{{Greek myth}}
A major factor in the well-known tragedies surrounding Heracles stem from the hatred that the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had for him. Heracles was a son of Zeus and Alcmene, and so his very existence proved at least one of Zeus's many illicit affairs. Hera often conspired against Zeus's mortal offspring, as revenge for her husband's infidelities.
Heracles was a product of the affair Zeus had with the mortal woman Alcmene. Zeus coupled with her after disguising himself as her husband, Amphitryon, home early from war. Amphitryon did return later the same night, and Alcmene became pregnant with twins.
On the night the twins were to be born, Hera, knowing of her husband Zeus's adultery, persuaded Zeus to swear an oath that the child born that night to a member of the House of Perseus would be High King.
Once the oath was sworn, Hera hurried to Alcmene's dwelling and slowed the birth by sitting crosslegged with her clothing tied in knots. Meanwhile, she caused another boy [[Eurystheus]] to be born prematurely, making him High King in place of Heracles. She would have permanently delayed Heracles' birth had she not been foiled by [[Galanthis]], her servant, who told her that she had already delivered the baby. Upon hearing this Hera jumped in surprise, therefore untying the knots and finally allowing Alcmene to give birth. One of the boys, [[Iphicles]], was a mortal, while the other was the demi-god Heracles.
<br>Another version says that Hera made [[Eileithya]] sit in said position and that Galanthis tricked the goddess.
<br>Hera turned Galanthis into a [[weasel]] and forced her to give birth by laying eggs through her mouth.
Heracles was named in an unsuccessful attempt to mollify Hera. A few months after he was born, Hera sent two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot. Heracles throttled a snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were child's toys.
One account of the origin of the [[Milky Way]] is that Zeus tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles; discovering who he was, she pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day (a similar story is told about Hera and [[Hermes]]; however, in that case, the trick worked and Hera became fonder of Hermes).
According to Greek tradition, probably based on Libanius, "Oration" XII, 99, or on the Epitome of the Library of Apollodorus, Heracles was conceived in the womb when Zeus extended the night into three during his parents' nuptial. That miraculous event may have been a [[solar eclipse]] near daybreak, which took place on [[September 7]], [[1250s BC|1251 BC]]. It lasted from 6:51 to 9:41 in the morning at Sparta, with 75.9% magnitude.
Legend has it that Heracles was born in [[Thebes, Greece]], where Alcmene and Amphitryon lived. The eclipse could well be visible there also. Alternatively it is more likely to have been the [[solar eclipse|total solar eclipse]] which occurred at around about midday on [[February 10]], [[1280s BC|1286 BC]] thereby making one night into three. Totality occurred at 10:52 UTC according to [http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat/SE-1299--1200.html NASA] projections. This would place Heracles' birth in early [[November]] of the same year.
The ancient Greeks celebrated Heracles' birth on the 4th day of each Greek month.
== Adulthood ==
He continued to perform feats such as slaying a lion that was preying on the local flocks and defending Thebes against a neighbouring army. For the latter he was awarded the King of Thebes' ([[Creon]]) daughter, Megara.
=== The Twelve Labours ===
''Main Article'': [[The Twelve Labours]]
In a fit of madness, induced by [[Hera]], Heracles slew his children and brother's children and as penance as told to him by the [[Delphic Sibyl]], he was required to carry out ten tasks set by his arch-enemy, [[Eurystheus]] (who had become King in his stead). Herakles successfully carried them all out, but [[Eurystheus]] was told by [[Hera]] to deem that two of the tasks had been failed due to Herakles being helped, and allocated two more, which Herakles also completed, making 12.
[[image:Heracles_Farnese.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Heracles, '''&#x1F29;ρακλής'''. The Strongest Hero of [[Greek Mythology]]]]
The traditional order of the labours is:
#The [[Nem |
nhanced IDE/Fast-ATA/ATA-2 FAQ]
* [http://www.dewassoc.com/kbase/hard_drives/hard_drive_size_barriers.htm Hard Drive Size Barriers]
* [http://www.t13.org/ T13 Technical Standards Group]
[[Category:Advanced Technology Attachment| ]]
[[bs:IDE]]
[[de:ATA/ATAPI]]
[[es:Integrated Drive Electronics]]
[[fr:Integrated drive electronics]]
[[it:Advanced Technology Attachment]]
[[he:ATA]]
[[hu:Ata]]
[[lt:ATA]]
[[nl:Integrated Drive Electronics]]
[[ja:Advanced Technology Attachment]]
[[pl:ATA]]
[[pt:ATA]]
[[ru:ATA]]
[[sk:ATA]]
[[fi:IDE]]
[[sv:IDE]]
[[tr:Ata]]
[[zh:集成设备电路]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atari 2600</title>
<id>2779</id>
<revision>
<id>41986680</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:33:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DrBob</username>
<id>2251</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ultrogonic|Ultrogonic]] ([[User talk:Ultrogonic|talk]]) to last version by Wvoutlaw2002</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system|title = Atari 2600
|logo = [[Image:Atari_logo.png|80px]]
|image = [[Image:Atari2600wood4.jpg|300px|Atari 2600 four-switch "wood veneer" version (the original 2600 had six switches).]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1977]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame =
}}
The '''Atari 2600''', released in [[1977]], is the first successful [[video game console]] to use plug-in [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s instead of having [[dedicated console|one or more games built in]].{{ref|plug-in-carts}} Originally known as the '''Atari VCS'''&mdash;for '''''V'''ideo '''C'''omputer '''S'''ystem''&mdash;the machine's name was changed to "Atari 2600" (from the unit's Atari part number, CX2600) in [[1982]], after the release of the more advanced [[Atari 5200]]. It was wildly successful, and during the [[1980s]], "Atari" was a synonym for this model in mainstream media. The 2600 was typically bundled with two [[joystick]] [[game controller|controllers]], a conjoined pair of [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]] controllers, and a cartridge game.
== History ==
=== Development and market considerations ===
[[Atari]] had spun off an engineering think-tank in 1975 called Cyan Engineering to research next-generation video game systems, and had been working on a prototype known as "Stella" (named after one of the engineers' bicycles) for some time. Unlike prior generations of machines which used custom [[Logic programming|logic]] to play a small number of games, Stella's core was a complete [[Central processing unit|CPU]], the famous [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] in a cost-reduced version, known as the [[MOS Technology 6507|6507]]. It was combined with a display and sound chip of their own design known as the '''[[Television Interface Adapter|TIA]]''', for '''''T'''elevision '''I'''nterface '''A'''daptor''. At first the design was not going to be cartridge-based, but after seeing a "fake" cartridge system on another machine they realized they could place the games on cartridges essentially for the price of the connector and packaging.
In August 1976 [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] released their own cartridge-based system, the [[Channel F]]. Stella was still not ready for production, but it was clear that it needed to be before there were a number of "me too" products filling up the market &ndash; which had happened after they invented [[PONG]]. Atari simply didn't have the cash flow to complete the system quickly, given that sales of their own PONG systems were cooling. [[Nolan Bushnell]] eventually turned to [[Time Warner|Warner Communications]], and sold the company to them in [[1976]] for $28 million on the promise that Stella would be produced as soon as possible.
Key to the eventual success of the machine was the hiring of [[Jay Miner]], a chip designer who managed to squeeze an entire [[breadboard]] of equipment making up the TIA into a single chip. Once that was completed and debugged the system was ready for shipping.
By the time it was released in [[1977]], the development had cost about US$100 million.
=== Launch and runaway success ===
The initial price was $199 with a library of 9 titles. In a play to compete directly with the Channel F, Atari named the machine the Video Computer System (or VCS for short), as the Channel F was at that point known as the '''VES''', for ''Video Entertainment System''. When Fairchild learned of Atari's naming they quickly changed the name of their system to become the Channel F. However both systems were now in the midst of a vicious round of price-cutting: PONG clones made obsolete by these newer and more powerful machines sold off their boxes to discounters for ever-lower prices. Soon many of the clone companies were out of business, and both Fairchild and Atari were selling to a public that was completely burnt out on PONG. In 1977 Atari sold only 250,000 VCSs. In 1978 only 550,000 units from a production run of 800,000 were sold, requiring further financial support from Warner to cover losses. This led directly to the disagreements that caused Atari founder [[Nolan Bushnell]] to leave the company in [[1978]].
Once the public realized it was possible to play video games other than PONG, and programmers learned how to push its hardware's capabilities, the 2600 gained popularity. Fairchild had by this point given up, thinking they were a passed fad, thereby handing the entire quickly growing market to Atari. By [[1979]], the 2600 was the best selling [[Christmas]] present (and console), mainly because of its exclusive content, and a million were sold that year.
[[Image:A2600_Space_Invaders.png|thumb|225px|Atari 2600 ''[[Space Invaders]]'' (1980).]]
The 2600 was also rebadged as the '''Sears Video Arcade''' and sold through [[Sears|Sears-Roebuck]] stores.
Atari then licensed the smash [[video arcade|arcade]] hit ''[[Space Invaders]]'' by [[Taito Corporation|Taito]], which greatly increased the unit's popularity when it was released in May [[1980]], doubling sales again to over 2 million units. The 2600 and its cartridges were the main factor behind Atari grossing more than $2 billion in profits in 1980. Sales then doubled again for the next two years, with almost 8 million units selling in 1982.
During this period, Atari expanded the 2600 family with two other compatible consoles. They designed the [[Atari 2700]], a wireless version of the console that was never released due to a design flaw. The company also built a sleeker version of the machine dubbed the [[Atari 2800]] to sell directly to the [[Japan|Japanese]] market in early [[1983]], but it suffered from competition with the newly-released [[Nintendo]] [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Famicom]].
=== Growing pains and decline ===
During this period Atari continued to grow until it had one of the largest [[research and development|R&D]] divisions in [[Silicon Valley]]. They spent much of their R&D budget on projects that seemed rather out of place at a videogame (or even home computer) company, projects many of which never saw the light of day. Meanwhile several attempts to bring out newer consoles failed for one reason or another, although their [[home computer]] systems, the [[Atari 8-bit family]] sold reasonably if not spectacularly. Warner was more than happy anyway, as it seemed to have no end to the sales of the 2600, and Atari was responsible for over half of the company's income.
[[Image:PacManCrt260007052004.jpg|thumbnail|left|2600 Pac Man cartridge]]
The programmers of many of Atari's biggest hits grew disgruntled with the company for not crediting game developers. For example, Rick Mauer, the programmer of Atari 2600 ''[[Space Invaders]]'', received no credit and made only $11,000 for his efforts, in spite of the cartridge grossing more than $100 million in sales. Most notably, Warren Robinett, the lead programmer of ''[[Adventure (Atari 2600)|Adventure]]'', in protest against Atari's anonymity policy, hid his name in a secret room within the game. This was the very first "[[easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]]"&mdash;a hidden treat or in-joke&mdash;a practice which continues in software development to this day. Many other programmers left the company and formed their own independent software companies. The most prominent and longest-lasting of these third-party developers was [[Activision]], founded in 1980, whose titles quickly became more popular than those of Atari itself. Atari attempted to block third-party development for the 2600 in court but failed, and soon other publishers, such as [[Imagic]] and [[Coleco]], entered the market. Atari suffered from an image problem when a company named [[Mystique (company)|Mystique]] produced a number of [[pornographic]] games for the 2600. The most notorious of these, ''[[Custer's Revenge]]'', caused a large number of protests from women's and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] groups. Atari sued Mystique in court over the release of the game.
Atari continued to scoop up licenses during the shelf life of the 2600, the most prominent of which included ''[[Pac-Man]]'' and ''[[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]]'' Public disappointment with these two titles and the market saturation of bad third-party titles are cited as big reasons for the [[video game crash of 1983]]. Suddenly Atari's growth meant it was losing massive amounts of money during the crash, at one point about $10,000 a day. Warner quickly grew tired of supporting the now-headless company, and started looking for buyers in [[1984]].
=== The console that refused to die ===
[[Image:atari_2600_2.jpeg|thumb|225px|right|Atari 2600 in its 1986 cost-reduced version, also kno |
created a masterpiece. If it goes terribly (most often) they can simply blame the failure on the restrictions mentioned above. Moreover, many in the film industry feel that if you cannot finance a film properly, it is questionable if you should be doing the film at all.
These rules have been both circumvented and broken, from the first dogme film,. For instance, in ''[[Idioterne|The Idiots]]'', a musician provided background music off-camera, and Thomas Vinterberg "confessed" to having covered a window during the shooting of one scene in ''[[The Celebration]]'' (''Festen''), which is both bringing a prop onto the set and using special lighting. As mentioned on the Dogme 95 website, it's up to the director of the movie to interpret the rules.
In certain cases, the titles of Dogme films are superfluous, since they are also referred to by numbers. The spirit of the Dogme technique influenced Lars von Trier's film ''[[Breaking the Waves]]'', although it is not a Dogme film. The first of the Dogme films was Vinterberg's 1998 film ''Festen'', which is also known as ''Dogme #1''. ''Festen'' was highly acclaimed by many critics, and won the Jury Prize at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] that year. Von Trier's only Dogme film, ''[[Idioterne]]'' (''The Idiots'', or ''Dogme #2''), was less successful. Since those two original films were released, other directors have participated in the creation of Dogme films. For example, the [[United States|American]] director [[Harmony Korine]] created the movie ''Julien Donkey-Boy'' which is also known as ''Dogme #6''.
For more information, see [http://www.dogme95.dk www.dogme95.dk].
A related [[United Kingdom|British]] literary movement, called the [[New Puritans]], espouses similar values for the writing of fiction. A totally unrelated group calling themselves 'Dogme ELT' attempted to link the Vows of Chastity idea to English language teaching, but later admitted that they had not meant their 'Vows' to be taken literally.
==List of Dogma films==
# [[The Celebration]] (Original title "Festen", Denmark, 1998) [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0154420/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The Idiots]] (Original title "Idioterne", Denmark, 1998) [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0154421/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Mifunes Sidste Sang]] (int. [[Mifune's Last Song]]) (Denmark, 1999) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0164756/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The King is Alive]] (Denmark, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0208911/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Lovers (Movie)|Lovers]] (France, 1999) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0178721/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Julien Donkey-Boy]] (USA, 1999) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0192194/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Interview (movie)|Interview]] (South Korea, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0253146/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Fuckland]] (Argentina, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0270957/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Babylon (movie)|Babylon]] (Sweden, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0280610/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Chetzemoka's Curse]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0276855/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Diapason (movie)|Diapason]] (Italy, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0274460/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Italiensk For Begyndere]] (Denmark, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0243862/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Amerikana]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0276773/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Joy Ride (Swiss film)|Joy Ride]] (Switzerland, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0275812/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Camera (movie)]] (USA, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0278380/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Bad Actors]] (USA, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0276794/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Reunion (movie)]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0220005/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Et Rigtigt Menneske]] (Denmark, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0273326/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Når Nettene Blir Lange]] (Norway, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0268509/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Strass]] (Belgium, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298169/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[En Kærlighedshistorie]] (Denmark, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0285280/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Era Outra Vez]] (Spain, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0222515/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Resin (movie)]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0304628/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Security, Colorado]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0392759/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Converging With Angels]] (USA, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0294475/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The Sparkle Room]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0423240/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Come Now]] (USA)
# [[Elsker Dig For Evigt]] (Denmark, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0315543/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The Bread Basket]] (USA, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0326523/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Dias De Boda]] (Spain, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0311049/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[El Desenlace]] (Spain, 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0422085/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Se Til Venstre, Der Er En Svensker]] (Denmark, 2003) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0338418/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Residencia]] (Chile. 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0439782/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Forbrydelser]] (Denmark, 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0347016/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Cosi x Caso]] (Italy, 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0422014/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Amateur Dramatics (movie)]] (UK/Denmark)
# [[Gypo]] (UK, 2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0443526/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Mere Players]] (USA)
# [[el ultimo lector]] (Mexico)
# [[Lazy Sunday Afternoons]] (UK)
# [[Lonely Child]](Canada)
# [[DarshaN]] (USA)
# [[11:09]] (USA)
# [[Vince Conway]] (UK)
# [[Regret Regrets]] (USA)
# [[Perspective (film)|Perspective]] (UK)
# [[Godinne van die Grondpad]] (South Africa)
# [[Giles sucks]] (Luxembourg)
# [[Michelle, Gilles, Kim]] (Luxembourg)
# [[autobahne]] (Turkey)
# [[lovesickdiaries.com]] (USA)
==See also==
*[[minimalism]]
*[[realism (arts)|realism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dogme95.dk Official Dogme95 website]
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/dogme95.jsp GreenCine primer on Dogme95]
[[Category:Movements in cinema]]
[[Category:Danish culture]]
[[zh-min-nan:Dogme 95]]
[[cs:Dogme 95]]
[[da:Dogme95]]
[[de:Dogma 95]]
[[eo:Dogmo 95]]
[[es:Dogma 95]]
[[fr:Dogme95]]
[[hu:Dogma-filmek]]
[[it:Dogma 95]]
[[ja:ドグマ95]]
[[lb:Dogma 95]]
[[nl:Dogma 95]]
[[no:Dogmefilm]]
[[pt:Dogma 95]]
[[ru:Догма 95]]
[[zh:道格玛95]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diplomatic immunity</title>
<id>8921</id>
<revision>
<id>41852179</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:48:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.110.239.13</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[newsmagazine]] series, see [[Diplomatic Immunity (TV series)]].''
'''Diplomatic immunity''' is a form of legal [[immunity (legal)|immunity]] and a policy held between governments, which ensures that [[diplomat]]s are given safe passage and are considered not susceptible to [[lawsuit|lawsuit]] or [[prosecution]] under the host country's laws (although they can be expelled). It was agreed as [[international law]] in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]] (1961), though there is a much longer history in international law.
It is possible for the official's home country to waive immunity; this tends to only happen when the individual has committed a serious [[crime]], unconnected with their diplomatic role (as opposed to, say, allegations of [[espionage|spy]]ing), or has witnessed such a crime. Alternatively, the home country may prosecute the individual.
== History ==
The sanctity of diplomats has been observed for centuries. Most likely, the immunity of diplomatic staff rises from the immunity of the messengers sent on the battlefield. Before the evolution of the international justice, many wars were considered rebellions or unlawful by one or more combatant sides. In such cases, the servants of the "criminal" sovereign were often considered accomplices and their persons violated. In other circumstances, harbingers of unconsiderable demands were killed as a declaration of war. A well-known case recorded by [[Herodotus]], occurred when two servants of the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] Great-King were killed by first drowning them in a well and then burying them there. This was the [[Athens|Athenian]] response to the Persian demand for Greek "water and soil".
A [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] envoy was urinated on, as he was leaving the city of [[Carthage]]. The oath of the envoy: "This stain will be washed away with blood!" was fulfilled by the [[Second Punic War]].
As diplomats by definition enter the country under [[safe-conduct]], violating them is normally viewed as a great breach of honour, although there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed. [[Genghis Khan]] and the [[Mongols]] were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often take horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. The [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] first guaranteed diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors in [[1709]], after Count [[Andrey Matveyev]], a Russian resident in London, had been subjected by British [[bailiff]]s to verbal and physical abuse.
Modern diplomatic immunity evolved parallel to the development of modern diplomacy. In the seventeenth century European diplomats realized that protection from prosecution was essential to doing their jobs and a set of rules evolved guaranteeing the rights of diplomats. These were still confined to Western Europe, and were closely tied to the prerogatives of nobility. Thus an emissary to the [[Ottoman Empire]] could expect to be arrested and imprisoned upon the outbreak of hostilities between their state and the empire. The international justice applied only between "civilized" (or Christian) peoples. The [[French Revolution]] also disrupted this system as the revolutionary state and [[Napoleon]] impris |
f June 2004:
*[[KFOR]] in [[Kosovo]] (700)
*[[UNMIK]] in Kosovo (2) + civilians (policemen)
*[[UNIFICYP]] in [[Cyprus]] (3)
*[[UNMIL]] in [[Liberia]] (2)
*[[UNTSO]] in [[Egypt]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] (14)
*[[UNMEE]] in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]] (207)
*[[ISAF]] in [[Afghanistan]] (60)
*[[UNMOGIP]] in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (45) + 70 civilians
*[[UNMOP]] in [[Montenegro]] has ended [[December 15]] [[2002]].
Source: http://tietokannat.mil.fi/rauhanturvaajat/ops.php3
''See also :'' [[Finland]], [[Finnish Jäger troops]], [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]]s, [[List of senior officers of the Finnish Defence Forces|List of senior officers]]
==External links==
* [http://www2.mil.fi/english/ Finnish Defence Forces]
* [http://tietokannat.mil.fi/rauhanturvaajat/main.php3 Finnish Peacekeeping Operations (in Finnish)]
[[Category:Militaries|Finland]]
[[Category:Military of Finland]]
[[Category:Wars of Finland]]
[[fi:Suomen Puolustusvoimat]]
[[sv:Finländska försvarsmakten]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Finland</title>
<id>10716</id>
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<id>39711622</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T08:31:30Z</timestamp>
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<ip>159.46.248.229</ip>
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<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Finland}}
'''[[Finland]]’s basic [[foreign policy]]''' goal, from the end of the [[Continuation War]] with the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R.]] in [[1944]] until [[1991]], was to avoid great-power conflicts and to build mutual confidence with the Soviet Union. Although the country was culturally, socially, and politically [[Western civilization|Western]], Finns realized they must live in peace with the U.S.S.R. and take no action that might be interpreted as a security threat. The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] in [[1991]] opened up dramatic new possibilities for Finland and has resulted in the Finns actively seeking greater participation in Western political and economic structures.
==Relations With the Soviet Union and With Russia==
The principal architect of the post-1944 foreign policy of [[neutral country|neutrality]] was [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi|J.K. Paasikivi]], who was President from [[1946]] to [[1956]]. [[Urho Kekkonen]], President from [[1956]] until [[1981]], further developed this policy, stressing that Finland should be an active rather than a passive neutral. This policy is now popularly known as the “[[Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line]].”
=== Humiliation ===
Finland signed the [[Paris Peace Treaty]] with the [[Allies]] in February [[1947]], which:
* confirmed Finland’s concessions in the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]] with exception for the Soviet lease of [[Hanko Peninsula]] in south-westernmost Finland
* limited the size of [[Finnish Defence Forces|Finland’s armed forces]]
* ratified the cessions after the [[Winter War]] and the [[Continuation War]]
* gave the Soviet Union a naval base at [[Porkkala]] 30 kilometres west of [[Helsinki]] including rights of free transit
* contained unnecessary but particularly humiliating provisions directed against “[[Fascism]] in Finland”
* called for Finland to pay to the Soviet Union [[war reparations]] amounting to an estimated $570 million in [[1952]], the year the payments ended.
The development from the [[Abyssinia crisis]], indicating the failure of the [[League of Nations]], to the Paris Peace Treaty, when the last hope of more than oral support from the ideologically akin [[Western countries]] faded, convinced the Finns that they had absolutely no-one other than themselves to rely on in their problematic relations with the Soviet Union.
The Finnish Army, which in defence against the Soviet Union had numbered to over 500,000, was to be limited to 34,400 men, the navy to 4,500 men and 10,000 tons, and the air force to 3,000 men and 60 planes. With this provision the Western Allies had, seemingly, left Finland in the Soviet Union’s power.
The political clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty were particularly alienating. Through this clause, the Allies agreed to [[the Kremlin]] view that the Soviet Union represented “Liberty” and Finland represented “Fascism”. The peace treaty stipulated that the country should take all measures necessary to secure ''“human rights and the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, of press and publication, of religious worship, of political opinion and of public meeting.”'' Finland’s government undertook further to prevent the resurgence of Fascist organizations or any others, ''“whether political, military or semi-military, whose purpose it is to deprive the people of their democratic rights.”'' With the exception that the victor’s interpretation of “Fascist organizations” turned out to be wide, these clauses had no practical effects.
=== Reassurance ===
''(See also: [[Finlandization]])''
For the survival of Finland as an independent [[sovereignty|sovereign]] [[country]], firmly convicted in the value of [[democracy]], [[capitalism]], [[human rights|human]] and [[civil rights]], Finland had to find a formula to convince [[Stalin]] and his successors, that the Soviet Union’s vital interests could be met voluntarily by the Finns. This was the gist of the [[Paasikivi doctrine]].
In April [[1948]], Finland signed an [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]] with the Soviet Union. Under this mutual assistance pact, Finland was obliged — with the aid of the Soviet Union, if necessary — to resist armed attacks by [[Germany]] or its allies against Finland or against the U.S.S.R. through Finland. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland’s desire to remain outside great-power conflicts. This agreement was renewed for 20 years in [[1955]], in [[1970]], and again in [[1983]] to the year [[2003]].
Finland responded cautiously in [[1990]]–91 to the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]]. They unilaterally abrogated restrictions imposed by the 1947 and 1948 treaties, joined in voicing [[Nordic]] concern over the coup against Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], and gave increasing unofficial encouragement to [[Baltic countries|Baltic]] independence.
At the same time, by replacing the Soviet-Finnish mutual assistance pact with treaties on general cooperation and trade, Finns put themselves on an equal footing while retaining a friendly bilateral relationship. Finland now is boosting cross-border commercial ties and touting its potential as a commercial gateway to Russia. It has reassured Russia that it will not raise claims for Finnish territory seized by the U.S.S.R., and continues to reaffirm the importance of good bilateral relations.
==Multilateral Relations==
Finnish foreign policy emphasizes its participation in multilateral organizations. Finland joined the [[United Nations]] in 1955 and the [[European Union]] in [[1995]]. As noted, the country also is a member of [[NATO]]’s [[Partnership for Peace]] as well as an observer in the [[North Atlantic Cooperation Council]] and the [[Western European Union]].
Finland is well represented in the [[UN civil service]] in proportion to its population and belongs to several of its specialized and related agencies. Finnish troops have participated in [[UN peacekeeping]] activities since 1956, and the Finns continue to be one of the largest per capita contributors of peacekeepers in the world. Finland is an active participant in the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE) and in early 1995 assumed the co-chairmanship of the OSCE’s [[Minsk Group]] on the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]] conflict.
Cooperation with the other [[Scandinavia]]n countries also is important to Finland, and it has been a member of the [[Nordic Council]] since 1955. Under the council’s auspices, the Nordic countries have created a common labor market and have abolished immigration controls among themselves. The council also serves to coordinate social and cultural policies of the participating countries and has promoted increased cooperation in many fields.
In addition to the organizations already mentioned, Finland is a member of the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[International Finance Corporation]], the [[International Development Association]], the [[Bank for International Settlements]], the [[Asian Development Bank]], the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], the [[Council of Europe]], and the [[Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]].
Relations between the [[United States]] and Finland are warm. Some 200,000 U.S. citizens visit Finland annually, and about 3,000 U.S. citizens are resident there. The U.S. has an educational exchange programme in Finland that is comparatively large for a Western European country of Finland’s size. It is financed in part from a trust fund established in [[1976]] from Finland’s final repayment of a [[U.S. loan]] made in the aftermath of [[World War I]].
Finland is bordered on the east by [[Russia]] and, as one of the former Soviet Union’s neighbours, has been of particular interest and importance to the US both during the [[Cold War]] and in its aftermath. Before the USSR dissolved in 1991, longstanding US policy was to support Finnish neutrality while maintaining and reinforcing Finland’s historic, cultural, and economic ties with the West. The US has welcomed Finland’s increased participation since 1991 in Western economic and political structures.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Finland has moved steadily towards integration into Western institutions and abandoned its formal policy of neutrality, which has been recast as a policy of military nonalliance coupled with the maintenance of a credible, independent defence. Finland’s [[1994]] decision to buy 64 [[F-18 Hornet]] fighter planes from the United States signalled the abandonment of the country’s |
wn by ordinary human knowledge, and also when he speaks as a mere unofficial theologian, ''doctor privatus''.
His assertions are much more unbounded in the last part, which treats of the pope's power in secular matters. While he says that the pope has no direct jurisdiction in such things, he yet stoutly contends for the power of deposing kings, absolving subjects from their allegiance, and altering civil laws, when these actions are necessary for the good of the souls committed
to the charge of the chief pastor.
==New duties after [[1589]] - controversial writings==
Until 1589 Bellarmine was occupied altogether
as professor of theology, but that date marked
the beginning of a new epoch in his life and of new dignities. After the murder of [[Henry III of France]], [[Pope Sixtus V]] sent Gaetano as legate to Paris to negotiate with the League, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian; he was in the city during its siege by [[Henry of Navarre]].
The next pope, [[Pope Clement VIII]] (1591-1605), set great store by him. Bellarmine wrote the preface to the new edition of the [[Vulgate]], and was made rector of the Roman College in [[1592]], examiner of [[bishop]]s in [[1598]] and [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] in [[1599]]. As [[inquisition|inquisitor]], he oversaw the trial and burning of [[Giordano Bruno]].
In [[1602]] he was made [[archbishop]] of [[Capua]]. He had written strongly against pluralism and non-residence, and he set a good example himself by leaving within four days
for his [[diocese]], where he devoted himself zealously to his episcopal duties, and firmly
executed the reforming decrees of the [[Council of Trent]].
Under [[Pope Paul V]] ([[1605]]-[[1621]]) arose the great conflict between Venice and the [[papacy]], in which Fra [[Paolo Sarpi]] was the spokesman of the Republic, protesting against the papal interdict, reasserting the principles of [[Council of Constance | Constance]] and of [[Council of Basel | Basel]], and denying the pope's authority in matters secular. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and at the same time possibly saved Sarpi's life by giving him warning of an impending murderous attack.
He had occasion to cross swords with a more prominent antagonist, [[James I of England]], who prided himself on his theological attainments. Bellarmine had written a letter to the English archpriest Blackwell, reproaching him for having taken the oath of allegiance in apparent disregard of his duty to the pope. James attacked
him in [[1608]] in a Latin treatise, which the scholarly cardinal answered at once, making merry with delicate humor over the defects of the royal Latinity.
James replied with a second attack in more careful
style, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph II and
all the monarchs of [[Christendom]], in which he posed as the defender of primitive and true Christianity. Bellarmine's answer to this covers more or less the whole controversy.
In 1616, Cardinal Bellarmine notified [[Galileo Galilei]] of the [[decree]] of the [[Inquisition|Tribunal of the Inquisition]] against the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] hypothesis. When Galilei complained of rumors to the effect that he had been forced to abjure and do penance, Bellarmine wrote him a courteous letter describing what had been said, which was used in Galilei's defense at his trial in 1633.
In reply to a posthumous treatise of [[William Barclay (jurist)|William Barclay]], the celebrated Scottish [[jurist]], he wrote another ''Tractatus de potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporalibus'', which reiterated his strong assertions on the subject, and was therefore prohibited in [[France]], where it agreed with the sentiments of neither the king nor the bishops. He was among the theologians consulted on the teaching of Galilei when it first made a stir at Rome.
In his old age he was allowed to return to his old home, Montepulciano, as its bishop for four years, after which he retired to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew in Rome. He received some votes in the [[papal election|conclaves]] which elected [[Pope Leo XI]], [[Pope Paul V]], and [[Pope Gregory XV]], but only in the second case had he any prospect of election.
Over the years, the members of his order have continually attempted to procure his canonization. Finally he was canonized by [[Pope Pius XI]] in [[1930]]; the following year he was declared a [[doctor of the church|Doctor of the Church]]. His body rests in the Church of [[Sant'Ignazio]], the chapel of the Roman College, next to the body of his student, [[St. Aloysius Gonzaga]], as he himself had wished.
The best of the older editions of his works is that in seven vols., [[Cologne]], [[1617]]; recent ones are those of [[Paris]], [[1870]]-74, and [[Naples]], [[1872]].
==Quotes==
*''To assert that the earth revolves around the sun is as erroneous as to claim that Jesus was not born of a virgin.''
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
[[Category:1542 births|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:1621 deaths|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Italian theologians|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Italian saints|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Bellarmine]]
[[cs:Roberto Bellarmino]]
[[da:Bellarmino]]
[[de:Robert Bellarmin]]
[[fr:Robert Bellarmin]]
[[it:San Roberto Bellarmino]]
[[nl:Robertus Bellarminus]]
[[ro:Robert Bellarmin]]
[[sv:Roberto Bellarmino]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bipolar transistor</title>
<id>4879</id>
<revision>
<id>15903129</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-16T21:34:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mudlock</username>
<id>1473</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bipolar junction transistor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bildungsroman</title>
<id>4880</id>
<revision>
<id>41642483</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:12:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DanielCD</username>
<id>81016</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Some "more contemporary" examples */ rm Harry Potter</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''''bildungsroman''''' ([[IPA]] /{{IPA|ˈbɪldʊŋs.roˌmaːn}}/, [[German language|German]]: "novel of education" or "novel of formation") is a [[novel]] which traces the spiritual, moral, psychological, or social development and growth of the main character from (usually) childhood to maturity.
==Some prominent older examples==
*[[Laurence Sterne]]'s ''[[Tristram Shandy]]''
*[[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]''
*[[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Great Expectations]]''
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship]]''
*[[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''
::''More examples are listed [[Bildungsroman examples (pre-1930)|here]]''
==Some "more contemporary" examples==
*[[C. S. Forester]]'s ''[[Mr. Midshipman Hornblower]]''
*[[Harper Lee]]'s ''[[To Kill A Mockingbird]]''
*[[Betty Smith]]'s ''[[A Tree Grows in Brooklyn]]''
::''More examples are listed [[Bildungsroman examples (post-1930)|here]]''
==Films==
Many such books have been translated to film. Other films exhibiting the '''bildungsroman''' form are listed here, showing the character and the actor playing the role.
*Luke ([[Mark Hamill]]) in ''[[Star Wars|Star Wars IV-VI]]''
*Lili ([[Leslie Caron]]) in ''[[Lili]]''
*Gigi ([[Leslie Caron]]) in ''[[Gigi]]''
*Katsushiro ([[Isao Kimura]]) in ''[[Seven Samurai|Shichinin no samurai (Seven Samurai)]]''
*Chico ([[Horst Buchholz]]) in ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]''
*Will Hunting ([[Matt Damon]]) in ''[[Good Will Hunting]]''
==See also==
* [[Künstlerroman]]
* [[Coming of age]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Bildungsroman]]
[[es:Bildungsroman]]
[[nl:Bildungsroman]]
[[ja:教養小説]]
[[zh:教育小说]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bachelor</title>
<id>4881</id>
<revision>
<id>40597388</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T18:50:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJFJR</username>
<id>141808</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add: ''For the college degree see [[bachelor's degree]]''</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about unmarried men, for the television show, see [[The Bachelor]]. For the college degree see [[bachelor's degree]].''
A '''bachelor''' is traditionally an un[[marriage|married]] but marriageable man, however some restrict the usage to men who have never been married. The female equivalent term is ''[[spinster]]''. In literature during the [[Victorian era]], the term was sometimes used as a [[euphemism]] for a [[homosexuality|homosexual]] man, particularly in the term '''confirmed bachelor'''.
==Etymology and historical meanings==
*The word is from [[Old French]] ''bacheler'' "knight bachelor," a young [[squire]] in training, ultimately from [[Latin]] ''baccalarius'', a [[vassal]] farmer.
*The Old French term was loaned into English around [[1300]], referring to one belonging to the lowest stage of [[knighthood]]. [[Knight bachelor|Knights bachelor]] were either poor vassals who could not afford to take the field under their own banner, or knights too young to support the responsibility and dignity of [[knight banneret|knights banneret]].
*from the 14th century, the term was also used for a junior member of a [[guild]], otherwise known as "yeomen", or [[university]].
*Hence, an ecclesiastic of an inferior grade, e.g. a young [[monk]] or even recently appointed [[Canon (priest)|canon]] (Severtius, de episcopis Lugdunen-sibus, p. 377, in [[Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange|du Cange]]).
*Those holding the preliminary degree of a [[university]], enabling them to proceed to that of master (magister) which alone entitled th |
aced by the [[United States Grand Prix]]. The F1 championship gradually expanded to other non-European countries as well. Argentina hosted the first [[South America]]n grand prix in [[1953 Argentine Grand Prix|1953]], and [[Morocco]] hosted the first [[Africa]]n World Championship race in 1958. Asia ([[Japan]] in 1976) and [[Oceania]] ([[Australia]] in 1985) followed. The current nineteen races are spread over the continents of [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Oceania]], [[North America]], and [[South America]].
Traditionally, each nation has hosted a single grand prix that carries the name of the country. If a single country hosts multiple grands prix in a year, they receive different names. For example, every year two grands prix take place in [[Germany]], one of which is known as the [[European Grand Prix]].
The grands prix, some of which have a history that predates the Formula One World Championship, are not always held on the same circuit every year. The [[British Grand Prix]], for example, though held every year since 1950, alternated between [[Brands Hatch]] and [[Silverstone]] from 1963 to 1986. The only other race to have been included in every World Championship season is the [[Italian Grand Prix]]. It has always taken place at [[Autodromo Nazionale Monza|Monza]], with one exception in 1980 when it took place at [[Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari|Imola]] (which now hosts the [[San Marino Grand Prix]]).
One of the newest races on the Grand Prix, held in Bahrain, represents Formula One's first penetration into the Middle East with a high tech purpose-built desert track. The [[Bahrain Grand Prix]], along with other new races in China and Turkey, present new opportunities for the growth and evolution of the Formula One Grand Prix franchise whilst new facilities also raise the bar for other Formula One racing venues around the world.
== Circuits ==
[[Image:Monza aerial photo.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Autodromo Nazionale Monza]], home to the [[Italian Grand Prix]], is one of the oldest-used circuits in Formula One.]]
[[Image:Ims aerial.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]], venue for the [[United States Grand Prix]]]]
[[Image:F1 grand prix world map.PNG|thumb|250px|Countries which have had Formula One circuits]]
{{See also|List of Formula One circuits}}
A typical circuit usually features a stretch of straight road on which the starting grid is situated. The ''pit lane'', where the drivers stop for fuel during the race, and where the teams work on the cars before the race, is normally located next to the starting grid. The layout of the rest of the circuit varies widely, although in most cases the circuit runs in a clockwise direction. Those few circuits that run anticlockwise (and therefore have predominantly left handed corners) can cause drivers neck problems due to the enormous lateral forces generated by F1 cars pulling their heads in the opposite direction to normal. Many corners have become well known in their own right, such as the high-speed ''Eau Rouge'' at [[Spa-Francorchamps]], and before the addition of chicanes to tame it, the Tamburello corner at [[Imola]] and the Curva Grande at [[Monza]], as well as in recent years the thirteenth turn at [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway|Indianapolis]] (road course configuration), known as the fastest corner in the sport. Also particularly lamented are the circuits at [[Zandvoort]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Kyalami]] in [[South Africa]], neither of which are now used by F1.
Most of the circuits currently in use are specially constructed for competition. The only real street circuit is the [[Circuit de Monaco]], used for the [[Monaco Grand Prix]], although races in other urban locations come and go ([[Las Vegas]] and [[Detroit]], for example) and proposals for such races are often discussed – most recently for [[London]]. Several other circuits are also completely or partially laid out on public roads, such as [[Spa-Francorchamps]]. The glamour and history of the Monaco race are the primary reasons why the circuit is still in use, since it is thought not to meet the strict safety requirements imposed on other tracks. Three-time World champion [[Nelson Piquet]] famously described racing in Monaco as "riding a bicycle around your living room."
Circuit design to protect the safety of drivers is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as exemplified by the new track in [[Bahrain]], designed – like most of F1's new circuits – by [[Hermann Tilke]]. Whereas in the 1950s a driver was lucky to find a strategically placed bale of straw to absorb an impact, modern Formula One circuits feature large run-off areas, gravel traps and tire barriers to reduce the risk of injury in crashes. This is an ongoing task – after the deaths of [[Ayrton Senna]] and [[Roland Ratzenberger]] at [[Imola]] during the 1994 season, the [[FIA]] mandated further changes to circuits. These were mostly aimed at better matching the speed of a car with both the available space to slow down in before reaching a barrier and the ability of those barriers to safely absorb the energy of a crash. An ongoing complaint of long time F1 fans is the emasculation of the world's greatest circuits in order to satisfy sometimes arbitrary demands from the FIA. Whilst circuit safety is of prime importance, this can often be achieved without the reduction of the modern circuit to parade route status.
== The future of Formula One ==
[[Image:Tyre carts on grid at USGP 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Recent and proposed rule changes have attempted to reverse the trend of "tyre wars", which critics believe have shifted the competition from drivers and teams to tyres.]]
{{Main|Future of Formula One}}
Formula One went through a difficult period in the early 2000s. Viewing figures dropped, and fans expressed their loss of interest due to the dominance of [[Michael Schumacher]] and [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]. However, viewing figures are seeing some signs of recovery due to the varied 2005 season, with the Canadian Grand Prix attracting the third largest global TV audience of any sporting event in 2005, behind only the Super Bowl and the UEFA Champions League final.{{ref|Canada_view_fig2005}}
At present, the [[FIA]] has been taxed with the responsibility of making rules to combat the spiralling costs which affect the smaller teams and to ensure that the sport remains as safe as possible. The sport's rapid expansion into new areas of the globe also leaves some question as to which races will be cut.
=== Venue changes ===
In the interest of making the sport truer to its designation as a World Championship, [[Formula One Management|FOM]] president [[Bernie Ecclestone]] has initiated and organized a number of Grands Prix in new countries and continues to discuss new future races. [[As of 2005]], this expansion has resulted in the disappearance of only one race, the [[Austrian Grand Prix]], which was last held in [[2003 Austrian Grand Prix|2003]]; however, several teams have expressed their preference for a shorter calendar{{ref|Shorter_calendar}}, and the future of such races as the [[British Grand Prix|British]], [[European Grand Prix|European]] and [[San Marino Grand Prix|San Marino]] Grands Prix has recently fallen into doubt.
The inaugural [[Turkish Grand Prix]] took place in 2005 in [[Istanbul Racing Circuit|Istanbul Park]], and Ecclestone has asserted publicly that F1 will return to [[South Africa]] within five years.{{ref|South_Africa}} He has also expressed interest in a Russian Grand Prix in [[Moscow]] or [[St Petersburg]] in the near future.{{ref|Russia}} The [[European Union]]'s ratification of laws prohibiting [[tobacco]] advertising went into effect on [[July 31]], [[2005]], providing another incentive for the heavily tobacco-sponsored sport to find venues outside of Europe.{{ref|EU_tobacco}}
The future of the [[United States Grand Prix]] at Indianapolis Motor Speedway is also in doubt after only six cars started the [[2005 United States Grand Prix|2005 race]] due to concerns about the safety of the supplied [[Michelin]] tyres. The US Grand Prix has been officially scheduled to occur again at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on [[July 2]], [[2006]].
Several of the new circuits in F1, especially those designed by Herman Tilke, have been criticized as lacking the "flow" of such classics as Spa-Francorchamps and Imola. His redesign of the Hockenheim circuit in Germany for example, while providing more capacity for grandstands and eliminating extremely long and dangerous straights, has been frowned upon by many who argue that part of the character of the Hockenheim circuits were the long and blinding straights into the Black Forest. These newer circuits, however are generally agreed upon to meet the safety standards of modern Formula One better than the older ones.
=== Rule changes ===
In the interests of safety and competition due to spending, the FIA instituted a number of rule changes at the start of the [[2005 Formula One season|2005 season]]. New tyre restrictions, multi-race engines, and reductions on downforce took effect. These two issues, safety and cost, are paramount in all rule-change discussions, and the FIA has made public its intention to continue to modify the rules with these goals in mind.
The most significant of the new rules to save money required an engine to be used for two consecutive races. Drivers had the same unit for practice, qualifying, and race day as in previous years, and a team changing out an engine for any reason was penalized half the grid (10 spots) on race day. This reduced the number of engines each team produced by a significant amount, and the subsequent man hours required in constructing and maintaining the most expensive part of the car. The switch to a single set of tires went into effect: one set was to be used for qualifying, then set aside as spares, while only one set was used for the entire race, along with wets and intermediates for rai |
somehow escaped. Psychological studies later showed that crewmen transferred to the submarine were never accepted as part of the [[team]]. Later, US naval policy was changed so that after events of such psychological trauma, the crew would be dispersed to new assignments.
[[Category:Psychology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Church</title>
<id>6325</id>
<revision>
<id>41673696</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:57:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.211.22.242</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Christian buildings of worship. For other uses of the word, see [[Church (disambiguation)]].''
{{christianity}}
A '''church building''' (or simply '''church''') is a building used in [[Christianity|Christian]] worship. See also [[altar]], [[altar rails]], [[apse]], [[confessional]], [[dome]], [[lych gate]], [[nave]], [[narthex]], [[pew]], [[pulpit]], [[sanctuary]].
==Etymology==
The word ''church'' is derived through [[Middle English|Middle]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] ''cirice, circe'' from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''κυριακον'' "Lord's house". However, most English versions of the [[New Testament]] use the word ''church'' to translate ''[[ecclesia]]'', in Greek ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ἐκκλησία]]'', literally "the called out", meaing a gathering of people. The [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[Scottish English]] word ''[[kirk]]'' has a related [[etymology]] and is a [[cognate]].
In English, the word can be used in reference to a gathering of people for a religious meeting but is sometimes used to refer to a building or group of buildings. It is also used to refer to a denomination that places the leadership of all congregations in a central location, such as the "Roman Catholic Church"; in this context it is usually capitalized. It can also be used in an institutional sense to refer to all churches, such as "the church today".
The Bible states in Ephesians 4:11-12"...he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers; for the perfecting of the saints..." While some may state that a church is wherever two or three are gathered, biblically a church is a called out body with a structured system of pastoral authority.
Although the Christian Bible says that the church is actually the body of believers, in Jewish times, the temple at Jerusalem held the presence of God in a place called the Holy of Holies. After the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Bible says that the Holy Spirit (the presence of God) dwells within each believer.[[Image:Stanford University Quad Memorial Church.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Stanford Memorial Church]]
== Origins of Christian places of worship ==
The architecture of Christian worship space grew out of the regular meetings of the followers of Christianity in [[house church|private houses]] and [[synagogue]]s, and occasionally in [[catacomb]]s when necessary. When either the size of the community outgrew the space or the complexity of the uses of the space outpaced the architectural adaptation of houses, buildings began to be built specifically for worship. This became much more feasible and common when [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] stopped the Roman persecution of Christians by issuing the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313.
=== In the first century ===
The first Christians were, like [[Jesus]], [[Judaism|Jews]] resident in Palestine who worshipped on occasion in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and weekly in local synagogues. Temple worship was a ritual involving sacrifice, occasionally including the sacrifice of animals in atonement for sin, offered to [[Yahweh]]. The [[New testament]] includes many references to Jesus visiting the Temple, the first time as an infant with his parents.
The early history of the synagogue is controverted, but it seems to be an institution developed for public Jewish worship during the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian captivity]] when the Jews did not have access to the Jerusalem Temple for ritual sacrifice. Instead, to give a rough summary, they developed a daily and weekly service of readings from the [[Torah]] or the prophets followed by commentary. This could be carried out in a house if the attendance was small enough, and in many towns of the [[Diaspora]] that was the case. In others more elaborate architectural settings developed, sometimes by converting a house and sometimes by converting a previously public building. The minimum requirements seem to have been a meeting room with adequate seating, a case for the Torah scrolls, and a raised platform for the reader and preacher.
[[Image:The Église des Réformés in Marseille.jpg|thumb|left|The ''Église des Réformés'' in [[Marseille]].]]
Jesus himself participated in this sort of service as a reader and commentator (see [[Gospel of Luke]] 4: 16-24) and his followers probably remained worshippers in synagogues in some cities. However, following the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in [[70]], the new Christian movement and Judaism increasingly parted ways. The Church became overwhelmingly Gentile sometime in the second century.
For the history of how services take place within a church, see [[worship]] or do a search on any particular [[religious denomination]] that you might be interested in.
== Early examples of church architecture ==
[[Image:Lärbro church at Gotland.jpg|right|thumb||Lärbro church at Gotland]]The Syrian city of [[Dura-Europos]] on the West bank of the Euphrates was an outpost town between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Parthian empire|Parthian]] empires. During a siege by Parthian troops in A.D. 257 the buildings in the outermost blocks of the city grid were partially destroyed and filled with rubble to reinforce the [[city wall]]. Thus were preserved and securely dated the earliest decorated church and a [[synagogue]] decorated with extensive wall paintings. Both had been converted from earlier private buildings.
The church at Dura Europos has a special room dedicated for baptisms with a large [[baptismal font]].
A common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles, and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary). These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world. Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the "west" end of the church or over the crossing.
==See also==
[[Image:Église Collégiale Sainte Marthe (Tarascon).jpg|thumb|St Martha's, in [[Tarascon]].]]
* [[Separation of church and state]]
* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Eucharist]]
* [[Baptism]]
* [[Liturgy]]
* [[Nicene Creed]]
* [[Apostles' Creed]]
* [[List of tallest church towers]]
* [[List of churches]]
* [[Places of worship]]
==Compare==
* [[Basilica]]
* [[Cathedral]]
* [[Monastery]]
* [[Temple]]
* [[Chapel]]
* [[Parish]]
* [[Particular church]]
* [[House church]]
* [[Stave church]]
* [[Church in a pub]]
* [[Storefront church]]
* [[Double Church]]
==External links==
*[http://www.goarch.org/access/Companion_to_Orthodox_Church/art_and_architecture.html Orthodox Art and Architecture]
*[http://www.soca.cjb.net The Syrian Orthodox Church]
*[http://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html The Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt]
*[http://www.churchaudiosecrets.com Church Audio Secrets Training Guide]
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Church Church at WikiChristian]
[[Category:Churches|*]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[bg:Църква]]
[[cs:Kostel]]
[[da:Kirke (bygning)]]
[[de:Kirchengebäude]]
[[et:Kirik (pühakoda)]]
[[es:Iglesia]]
[[eo:Eklezio]]
[[fr:Église (édifice)]]
[[id:Gereja]]
[[it:Chiesa]]
[[he:&#1499;&#1504;&#1505;&#1497;&#1497;&#1492;]]
[[hu:Egyház]]
[[ko:교회]]
[[la:Ecclesia]]
[[nl:Kerk]]
[[nds:Kark]]
[[ja:&#25945;&#20250;]]
[[no:Kirke]]
[[nn:Kyrkje]]
[[pl:Ko&#347;ci&#243;&#322;]]
[[pt:Igreja]]
[[sco:Kirk]]
[[simple:Church]]
[[sv:Kyrka]]
[[zh:&#25945;&#22530;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Childe's Tomb</title>
<id>6326</id>
<revision>
<id>18954837</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-16T12:41:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RobotE</username>
<id>273237</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Childe's Tomb''' is located on the south-east edge of [[Foxtor Mires]], c.500 metres north of [[Fox Tor]] on [[Dartmoor]], in the [[United Kingdom]]. It is approximately 3 feet 4 inches (1 m) tall and 1 foot 8 inches (0.5 m) at the crosspiece.
The [[Ordnance Survey]] [[grid reference]] for Childe's Tomb is: 626 703.
Legend has it that the cross was erected over the [[kistvaen]] (burial chamber) of [[Childe the Hunter]].
The cross has its base in a socket stone, resting on granite blocks over the chamber. The whole is surrounded by a circle of granite stones set up on their edge, in the fashion of a number of kistvaens on the moor. This raises the total height of the cross to 7 feet.
The tomb was vandalised in [[1812]] by [[Thomas Windeatt]] who was responsible for taking many of the stones when building Fox Tor Farm. It is believed that some stones were used to make a [[clapper bridge]] across the River Swincombe.
The site was repaired in the [[1880s]] by [[Fearnley Tanner]] as one of the first acts of the [[Dartmoor Preservation Association]].
Childe the Hunter was Ordulf, son of Ordgar, who was the [[Anglo-Saxon]] Earl of [[Devon]] in the [[11th Century]]. The name 'Childe' is derived from the |
also emphasized that it is a non-natural property. That is, two objects that are [[Qualitative identity|qualitatively identical]] cannot have different values. There cannot be two yellow shirts that are identical in every way (same shade of yellow, made at the same factory, the same brand name, the same style, etc...) except for their reception of the predication of "good" (one cannot be good and the other not good). An object's property of "good" is determined by what other properties the object has. It is a property that is a product of having other properties. Therefore, if two objects are qualitatively identical, they must have the same value of "good".
===Moral knowledge===
To support his proposed arguments, Moore contended that man has a "moral intuition" that helps him locate what exactly is "good". In this he was a follower of [[Ethical intuitionism]].
==Proof of an External World==
One of the most important parts of Moore's philosophical development was his break from the [[idealism]] that dominated British philosophy (as represented in the works of his former teachers [[F. H. Bradley]] and [[John McTaggart]]), and his defense of what he regarded as a "[[common sense]]" form of [[Philosophical realism|realism]]. In his 1925 essay "[[A Defence of Common Sense]]" he argued against idealism and [[skepticism]] toward the external world on the grounds that they could not give reasons to accept their metaphysical premises that were more plausible than the reasons we have to accept the common sense claims about our knowledge of the world that skeptics and idealists must deny. He famously put the point into dramatic relief with his 1939 essay "Proof of an External World", in which he gave a common sense argument against skepticism by raising his right hand and saying "Here is one hand," and then raising his left and saying "And here is another," then concluding that there are at least two external objects in the world, and therefore that he knows (by this argument) that an external world exists. Not surprisingly, not everyone inclined to skeptical doubts found Moore's method of argument entirely convincing; Moore, however, defends his argument on the grounds that skeptical arguments seem invariably to require an appeal to "philosophical intuitions" that we have considerably less reason to accept than we have for the common sense claims that they supposedly refute. (In addition to fueling Moore's own work, the "Here is one hand" argument also deeply influenced [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], who spent his last weeks working out a new approach to Moore's argument in the remarks that were published posthumously as ''[[On Certainty]]''.)
==Language==
Moore is also remembered for drawing attention to the peculiar inconsistency involved in uttering a sentence such as "It will rain but I don't believe that it will"--a puzzle which is now commonly called "[[Moore's paradox]]". The puzzle arises because it seems impossible for anyone to consistently ''assert'' such a sentence; but there doesn't seem to be any ''logical contradiction'' between "It will rain" and "I don't believe that it will rain". (Indeed, it is not unusual for such conjunctions to be ''true'' &#8212; for example, whenever I am wrong about the weather forecast.)
In addition to Moore's own work on the paradox, the puzzle also inspired a great deal of work by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], who described the paradox as the most impressive philosophical insight that Moore had ever introduced.
==Organic Wholes==
Moore’s description of the principle of organic unity is extremely straightforward; nonetheless, it is a principle that seems to have generally escaped ethical philosophers before his time:
: The value of a whole must not be assumed to be the same as the sum of the values of its parts (Principia, [http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.18 &sect; 18]).
According to Moore, a moral actor cannot survey the “goodness” inherent in the various parts of a situation, assign a value to each of them, and then generate a sum in order to get an idea of its total value. A moral scenario is a complex assembly of parts, and its total value is often created by the relations between those parts, and not by their individual value. The organic metaphor is thus very appropriate: biological organisms seem to have emergent properties which cannot be found anywhere in their individual parts. For example, a human brain seems to exhibit a capacity for thought when none if its neurons exhibit any such capacity. In the same way, a moral scenario can have a value far greater than the sum of its component parts.
To understand the application of the organic principle to questions of value, it is perhaps best to consider Moore’s primary example, that of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object. To see how the principle works, a thinker engages in “reflective isolation”, the act of isolating a given concept in a kind of null-context and determining its intrinsic value. In our example, we can easily see that per sui, beautiful objects and consciousnesses are not particularly valuable things. They might have some value, but when we consider the total value of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object, it seems to exceed the simple sum of these values (Principia 18:2).
{{sectstub}}
==Works Online==
* G. E. Moore, [http://fair-use.org/mind/1899/04/the-nature-of-judgment "The Nature of Judgment"] (1899)
* G. E. Moore, ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/ Principia Ethica]'' (1903)
* G. E. Moore, [http://fair-use.org/international-journal-of-ethics/1903/10/book-reviews/the-origin-of-the-knowledge-of-right-and-wrong Review of Franz Brentano's ''The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and Wrong''] (1903)
* G. E. Moore, [http://www.ditext.com/moore/refute.html The Refutation of Idealism] (1903)
* G. E. Moore, ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/ethics Ethics]'' (1912)
==External Resources==
* Summary of life and work of G. E. Moore at http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/moor.htm
* The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore/ G.E. Moore]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore-moral/ G.E. Moore's Moral Philosophy]
==Books==
*''Moore: G.E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles'' by [[Paul Levy]] (1979), ISBN 9780030536168
*''A Defense of Realism: Reflections on the Metaphysics of G. E. Moore'' by [[E.D. Klemke]] ISBN 1573927325
==Sources==
#G.E. Moore, ''On Defining "Good,"'' in Analytic Philosophy: Classic Readings, Stamford, CT: Wadsworth, 2002, pp.1-10. ISBN 0-534-51277-1.
[[Category:1873 births|Moore, G.E.]]
[[Category:1958 deaths|Moore, G.E.]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Moore, G.E.]]
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[[bg:Джордж Едуард Мур]]
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<page>
<title>Geography</title>
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<comment>RV:V</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"> [[Image:Physical_world.jpg|thumb|333px|right|Map of the Earth ([[:Image:Physical_world.jpg|Medium]]) ([[:Image:World-map-2004-cia-factbook-large-2m.jpg|Large 2 MB]])]]
{{commonscat}}
{{portal}}
'''Geography''' is the description of the surface of the [[Earth]], its life and culture. The word comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words '''[[Gaia (mythology)|Ge]]''' (''&gamma;&eta;'') or '''Gaea''' (''&gamma;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha;''), both meaning '''"Earth"''', and '''graphein''' (''&gamma;&rho;&alpha;&phi;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;'') meaning '''"to describe"''' or "to write". Modern geography is an amazingly diverse subject that draws upon almost every other arena of knowledge, and contributes to a great many as well.
<blockquote>''"Mere place names are not geography. To know by heart a whole gazeteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this... to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influence upon man. In a word, geography is a science, a thing not of mere names, but of argument and reason, of cause and effect."'' -- [[William Hughes]] (King's College, 1863) <!-- - who taught the geography of the Holy Lands to divinity students at King's College London defined geography in an address in 1863: -->
</blockquote>
Some geographers are inspired more by biology and economics, while others use concepts taken from subjects such as sociology, psychology and other sciences.
Modern Geography now includes humanity in adition to the physical world, so geographers tend to specialise in one of the broad branches of the subject.
=== Physical geography ===
[[Physical geography]] (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an [[Earth science]]. It aims to understand the physical layout of the Earth, its weather and global [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] patterns.
Physical geography relies on the following fields of study:
* [[Geology]]
* [[Geomorphology]]
* [[Hydrology]]
* [[Glaciology]]
* [[Biogeography]]
* [[Climatology]]
* [[Soil science]]
* [[Coastal geography|Coastal/Marine studies]]
* [[Geodesy]]
* [[Palaeogeography]] and [[paleoclimatology]]
* [[Environmental geography|Environmental Geography]] and management
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Oce |
Computing]]
[[it:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
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<title>Wikipedia:Status of FOLDOC import</title>
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<minor />
<comment>|{{PAGENAME}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a title index of all the entries at the [[FOLDOC|Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]], which we have been given [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]] to use. This page is to keep track of what has been incorporated into Wikipedia. Anyone who wants to help, jump right in. As entries are imported, simply add '''DONE''' after the link.
[[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]]
A few notes:
* Many entries will have to be renamed, such as number-only titles (since we generally reserve number entries for years). For example, [[8086]] becomes [[Intel 8086]]. Also titles that clash with non-computing subjects will need new names.
* Some entries we won't need or want to import (we might already have the information in an article, for example). In these cases, the entry should be marked as '''NO IMPORT''', and the reason given. In particular there are thousands of entries from the [[Jargon File]], most of which do not make encyclopedia articles.
* Many articles contain outdated information, especially note about technologies that were superseded, companies whose ownership has changed, etc. As a general principle, '''never do data dump'''.
* Generally, acronyms should be expanded. For example, the [[Industry Standard Architecture| ISA]] article should be found at [[Industry Standard Architecture]], rather than pointing to ISA the disambiguation page. Many entries occur twice e.g., [[TCP]] and [[Transmission control protocol]] -- one should [[Wikipedia:redirect|redirect]] to the other as appropriate. Also, you may update the [[List of computing and IT abbreviations|existing list]] of computing abbreviations.
* If an article already exists on a given topic but the FOLDOC entry has information that we don't, it should be integrated with our article, rather than tacked onto the end. If our article and the FOLDOC one contradict each other, mention the contradiction on the appropriate Talk page so it can be discussed.
* When importing a full entry, or integrating it with one of our current entries, it would be good to leave a note similar to this at the bottom, though FOLDOC's editor, Denis Howe, doesn't require it:
::<nowiki>''This article was originally based on material from [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing|FOLDOC]], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]]. Update as needed.''</nowiki>
: Alternatively, the <nowiki>{{FOLDOC}}</nowiki> message template may be used to incorporate an appropriate message.
* New entries and changes appear on FOLDOC from time to time at http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/new.html
''See also:'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
== Mirrors ==
These are FOLDOC mirrors, which may not be up-to-date:
* http://www.instantweb.com/foldoc/
* http://www.nue.org/foldoc/
* http://www.nightflight.com/foldoc/
* http://foldoc.linuxguruz.org/
[[Category:Wikipedia maintenance|{{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
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<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/symbols - B</title>
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<comment>Disambig page style repair ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
'''symbols - B''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Wikipedia:Status of FOLDOC import|FOLDOC Status Page]]
[[!]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to exclamation mark<br>
[["]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to double quote<br>
[[%]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to percent<br>
[[,]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to comma<br>
[[0 (number)|0]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to zero<br>
[[0/1 knapsack problem]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[100BaseFX]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[100BaseT]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[100BaseTX]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[100BaseVG]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[100VG-AnyLAN]] -- '''DONE''' (redirected to [[100BaseVG]])<br>
[[10base2]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[10base5]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[10baseT]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[120 reset]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[1-2-3]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Lotus 1-2-3]])<br>
[[1394]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Firewire]])<br>
[[1541]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Commodore 1541]])<br>
[[1581]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Commodore 1581]])<br>
[[16550]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[16550 UART]])<br>
[[16 bit]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[16-bit application]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[1802]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed CDP1802) -- '''REDONE''' (merged into [[RCA 1802]])<br>
[[1NF]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[database normalization]])<br>
[[1TBS]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[One True Brace Style]])<br>
[[1.TR.6]] -- '''DONE'''<br>
[[2]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to Number 2 <br>
[[20-GATE]] -- '''DONE''' (probably should be [[20-Gate programming language]], but I'm not sure)<br>
[[2780]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Binary Synchronous Transmission]])<br>
[[2B1D]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[Basic Rate Interface]])<br>
[[2B1Q]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[two-binary, one-quaternary]])<br>
[[2B+D]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[Basic Rate Interface]])<br>
[[2NF]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[database normalization]])<br>
2.PAK -- '''DONE'''<br>
320xx -- '''DONE''' (renamed 320xx microprocessor)<br>
3270 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IBM 3270)<br>
32-bit application -- '''DONE'''<br>
3780 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Binary Synchronous Transmission)<br>
386 -- '''DONE''' renamed to (Intel 80386)<br>
386BSD -- '''DONE''' (integrated with our article)<br>
386SPART.PAR -- ''DONE'''<br>
3Com Corporation -- '''DONE'''<br>
3DO -- '''DONE'''<br>
3GL -- '''DONE''' (renamed Third generation language)<br>
3NF -- '''DONE''' (renamed database normalization)<br>
3Station -- '''DONE'''<br>
3-tier -- '''DONE''' renamed to 3-tier (computing)<br>
404 -- '''DONE''' (renamed 404 error)<br>
4.2BSD -- '''DONE''' renamed to Berkeley Software Distribution<br>
431A -- '''DONE'''<br>
4510 -- '''DONE'''<br>
473L Query -- '''DONE''' (renamed 473L Query programming language)<br>
486 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80486)<br>
486SX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80486SX<br>
4GL -- '''DONE''' (renamed fourth generation language)<br>
4NF -- '''DONE''' (renamed database normalization)<br>
51forth -- '''DONE''' (renamed 51forth programming language)<br>
56 kbps -- '''DONE'''<br>
56k line -- '''DONE'''<br>
586 -- '''NO IMPORT:''' "What the Pentium was not called" isn't exactly an article. ;-)<br>
5ESS Switch -- '''DONE'''<br>
5NF -- '''DONE''' (renamed database normalization)<br>
5th Glove -- '''DONE'''<br>
6.001 -- '''DONE''' renamed to 6.001 (MIT)<br>
610 -- '''DONE'''<br>
6309 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Hitachi 6309)<br>
64 bit -- '''DONE'''<br>
6501 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 6501)<br>
6502 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 6502)<br>
650x -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 650x)<br>
6510 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 6510)<br>
65816 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 65816)<br>
6800 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 6800)<br>
68000 -- '''DONE''' renamed to Motorola 68000<br>
68020 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68020)<br>
68030 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68030)<br>
68040 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68040)<br>
68050 -- '''DONE'''<br>
68060 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68060)<br>
6809 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 6809)<br>
680x0 -- '''DONE''' renamed to Motorola 680x0<br>
686 -- '''DONE''' (see other meanings links)<br>
68HC11 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68HC11)<br>
68LC040 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68LC040)<br>
6x86 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Cyrix 6x86<br>
754 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IEEE Floating Point Standard<br>
80186 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80186)<br>
80188 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80188)<br>
802.2 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IEEE 802.2<br>
802.3 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IEEE 802.3<br>
80286 -- '''NO IMPORT''' |
ries possessing substantial self-government===
*[[Anguilla]]
*[[Bermuda]]
*[[British Virgin Islands]]
*[[Cayman Islands]]
*[[Gibraltar]]
*[[Montserrat]]
*[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
===Other Overseas Territories===
*[[British Antarctic Territory]] (under Antarctic Treaty overlaps Argentine and Chilean claim)
*[[British Indian Ocean Territory]]
*[[Falkland Islands]] (also claimed by [[Argentina]])
*[[Pitcairn Island]]
*[[Saint Helena (Britain)|Saint Helena]] (including dependencies of [[Ascension Island|Ascension]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]])
*[[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] (also claimed by [[Argentina]])
*[[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]
==Crown Dependencies in British Isles (Outside UK & EU)==
*[[Guernsey]]
*[[Jersey]]
*[[Isle of Man]]
==[[Personal union|Personal Unions]]==
===[[Kingdom of England]] ([[927]] - [[1707]])===
*[[Norway]] from 1016 to 1035
*[[Denmark]] from 1016 to 1035 and again from 1040 to 1042
*[[Normandy]] from 1066 to 1087 and again from 1105 to 1204/[[1259]]
*[[Aquitaine]] from 1152 to 1362, from 1377 to 1390, and again from 1399 to 1449
*[[Lordship of Ireland]] from 1171 to 1541
*[[Principality of Wales]] from 1282 to [[1536-41]] (when Wales and England were united in the Acts of Union)
*[[Kingdom of Ireland]] from 1541 to 1707
*[[Scotland]] from 1603 to 1707 (when they were joined together in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]])
*[[Netherlands]] from 1689 to 1702, with the King of England, Scotland and Ireland also serving as [[Stadtholder]] of most of the provinces of the Netherlands. The actual situation was slightly more complex with the Dutch provinces [[Holland]], [[Zeeland]] and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] entering into personal union in 1672, [[Gelderland]] and [[Overijssel]] in 1675 and [[Drenthe]] in 1696. Only 2 Dutch provinces never entered into the personal union: [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]].
===[[Kingdom of Great Britain]] ([[1707]] - [[1801]])===
*[[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]] from 1707 to 1801 (when they were joined together in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]])
*[[Hanover (state)|Hanover]] from 1714 to 1801
*[[Corsica]] from 1794 to 1796
===[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] ([[1801]] - [[1927]])===
*[[Hanover (state)|Hanover]] from 1801 to 1837
*[[India]] from 1877 to 1927
===[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] ([[1927]] - present)===
====Former====
*[[Ireland]] - [[1927]] to 1949
*[[India]] - [[1927]] to 1950
*[[Union of South Africa]] - [[1931]] to 1961
*[[Pakistan]] - [[1947]] to 1956
*[[Ceylon]] now [[Sri Lanka]] - [[1948]] to 1972
*[[Ghana]] - [[1957]] to 1960
*[[Sierra Leone]] - [[1961]] to 1971
*[[Nigeria]] - [[1960]] to 1963
*[[Tanganyika]] now [[Tanzania]] - [[1961]] to 1962
*[[Uganda]] - [[1962]] to 1963
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[1962]] to 1976
*[[Kenya]] - [[1963]] to 1964
*[[Malawi]] - [[1964]] to 1966
*[[Malta]] - [[1964]] to 1974
*[[Gambia]] - [[1965]] to 1970
*[[Guyana]] - [[1966]] to 1970
*[[Mauritius]] - [[1968]] to 1992
*[[Fiji]] - [[1970]] to 1987
====Current====
*[[Canada]], through the [[Statute of Westminster]] in 1931
*[[Australia]], through adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1942 (retroactive to 1939)
*[[New Zealand]], through adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1947
*[[Jamaica]], through independence in 1962
*[[Barbados]], through independence in 1966
*The [[Bahamas]], through independence in 1973
*[[Grenada]], through independence in 1974
*[[Papua New Guinea]], through independence in 1975
*The [[Solomon Islands]], through independence in 1978
*[[Tuvalu]], through independence in 1978
*[[Saint Lucia]], through independence in 1979
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], through independence in 1979
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]], through independence in 1981
*[[Belize]], through independence in 1981
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], through independence in 1983
==See also==
* [[British colonisation of the Americas]]
* [[British East India Company]]
* [[British Empire and Commonwealth Museum]]
* [[Commonwealth of Nations]]
* [[Commonwealth Realm]]
* [[Decolonisation]]
* [[Evolution of the British Empire]]
* [[History of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Imperialism in Asia]]
* [[List of United Kingdom topics]]
* "[[The White Man's Burden]]"
*[[Size of Empires]]
* [[Government Houses of the British Empire]]
==External links==
{{wikisourcecat}}
* [http://www.britishempire.co.uk Extensive information on the British Empire]
* [http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html Sizes of various empires and quasi-empires]
{{Colonial Empires}}
==Further reading==
*James, Lawrence,(1998) ''The Rise and Fall of the British Empire'', 2nd. ed, Abacus ISBN 031216985X
*Judd, Denis, (1999) ''Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present'', Fontana ISBN 0465019544
*Fergusson, Niall (2003). ''Empire &#8211; How Britain Made the Modern World'', Pengiun Books ISBN 0-141-00754-0
{{Link FA|de}}
[[Category:British Empire| ]]
[[Category:Empires]]
[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:History of Scotland]]
[[Category:History of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[af:Britse Ryk]]
[[ca:Imperi britànic]]
[[da:Britiske imperium]]
[[de:Britisches Imperium]]
[[es:Imperio británico]]
[[eo:Brita imperio]]
[[fr:Empire britannique]]
[[ko:대영 제국]]
[[it:Impero britannico]]
[[he:האימפריה הבריטית]]
[[nl:Britse Rijk]]
[[ja:大英帝国]]
[[no:Det britiske imperiet]]
[[nn:Det britiske imperiet]]
[[pl:Imperium brytyjskie]]
[[pt:Império britânico]]
[[ru:Британская Империя]]
[[sk:Britské impérium]]
[[sl:Britanski imperij]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen imperiumi]]
[[sv:Brittiska imperiet]]
[[vi:Đế quốc Anh]]
[[zh:大英帝国]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bronislav Pilsudski</title>
<id>4722</id>
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<id>37423462</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T22:53:13Z</timestamp>
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<username>Freakofnurture</username>
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<comment>{{R from title without diacritics}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bronisław Piłsudski]] {{R from title without diacritics}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Bernouilli inequality</title>
<id>4724</id>
<revision>
<id>15902982</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-02T21:31:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bernoulli's inequality]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>Batman (1989 film)</title>
<id>4726</id>
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<ip>71.152.41.106</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name =Batman |
image =Movie_DVD_cover_batman.jpg |
producer =[[Peter Guber]]<br>[[Jon Peters]] |
writer = [[Sam Hamm]] (screenwriter)<br>[[Warren Skaaren]] (screenwriter)<br>[[Sam Hamm]] (story)<br>[[Bob Kane]] (comic book)<br> |
starring = [[Michael Keaton]]<br>[[Jack Nicholson]]<br>[[Kim Basinger]]<br>[[Billy Dee Williams]]<br>[[Jack Palance]] |
director = [[Tim Burton]]|
distributor =[[Warner Brothers]] |
released =[[June 19]], [[1989]] |
runtime = 126 min. |
language = English |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $35,000,000 |
imdb_id = 0096895 |
}}
'''''Batman''''' was released in [[United States|U.S.]] theaters on [[June 23]], [[1989]] by [[Warner Bros.]] and soon became the highest grossing [[film|movie]] of [[1989 in film|the year]]. It was directed by [[Tim Burton]] and starred [[Jack Nicholson]] as the [[Joker (comics)#The 1989 film|Joker]], [[Michael Keaton]] as [[Batman]], and [[Kim Basinger]] as reporter [[Vicki Vale]]. Although Keaton played the nominal hero of the film, Nicholson received top billing.
This movie helped usher a return to the darker roots of the Batman of the original [[comic book|comics]] and away from the [[Camp (style)|camp]]y [[1960s]] [[Batman (1960s TV series)|''Batman'' television series]] and cartoon ''[[Super Friends]]''. Like many film versions of comic book heroes, the ''Batman'' movie told its own version of his origin, and how [[Joker (comics)|The Joker]] figured in that origin.
Many people who recognized Batman from the 1960s television series reprehended the film for being too solemn and humorless; however, it should be noted that the character's original tone was serious-minded and not comedic or mirthful. Another complaint, one that long plagued the Batman films made between 1989 and 1997, was that the films tended to focus too much on the villain and not enough on Batman himself.
Numerous comic book fans were displeased to learn that Michael Keaton (who was better known for his comedic roles at the time) was cast as the title character, and assumed that it was a sure sign of the production taking the same tone of the 1960s television series. The producers hurriedly released a [[teaser trailer]] to prove they were treating the character faithfully. The marketing move was successful and since the film's successful release, most fans consider Keaton the one of the best actors to have played Batman in a live-action film.
The film score was written by [[Danny Elfman]] and the [[Batman (album)|soundtrack]] was written and performed by [[Prince (artist)|Prince]].
Two animated series (''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Batman and Robin]]'') were created in the wake of the film's success, and three sequels --''[[Batman Returns]]'' (1992), ''[[Batman Forever]]'' (1995), and ''[[Batman and Robin]]'' (1997)-- were pr |
=
*[http://www.visitturkeynow.com/cities/c_hattusas.htm Hattusas/Bogazköy]
*[http://www.asor.org/HITTITE/HittiteHP.html The Hittite Home Page]
*[http://pages.sbcglobal.net/zimriel/amc/arzawa.html Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/bogazkale Pictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sites]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/yazilikaya Pictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sites]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/alacahoyuk Pictures of Alacahöyük, one of a group of important sites]
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/anat/hethbs.htm Der Anitta Text (at TITUS)]
*[http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/29/50/ Encyclopaedia of Turkey : Hittite relief at Karabel]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article330433.ece Tahsin Ozguc]
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Hittite Empire]]
[[Category:Indo-European peoples]]
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[bg:Хети]]
[[bs:Hetiti]]
[[ca:Hitita]]
[[cs:Chetité]]
[[da:Hittitterne]]
[[de:Hethiter]]
[[es:Hititas]]
[[fr:Hittites]]
[[gl:Hitita]]
[[it:Ittiti]]
[[he:חתים (עם)]]
[[lt:Hetitai]]
[[nl:Hettieten]]
[[ja:ヒッタイト]]
[[pl:Hetyci]]
[[pt:Hititas]]
[[ru:Хетты]]
[[sk:Chetiti]]
[[sl:Hetiti]]
[[sv:Hettiter]]
[[tr:Hititler]]
[[zh:赫梯王国]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hold more stubbornly at least</title>
<id>13309</id>
<revision>
<id>15910924</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-31T16:50:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.179.252.89</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Attempted to make the sentence about no propositions more clear, as it stood, was filled with negations and very unclear, one could do even better still</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hold more stubbornly at least''' is a phrase popularized by the late Harvard [[philosophy]] professor, [[W. V. Quine]].
In [[W. V. Quine]]'s conception of a person's set of [[belief]]s as a "seamless web", there is a lack of propositions which one could, in principle, not give up—if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection—or [[hold come what may]]. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implied by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of [[logic]], or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxiliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
{{philo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hideki Tojo</title>
<id>13310</id>
<revision>
<id>41868996</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:34:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HenryLi</username>
<id>149793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>correct format</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Toj2o.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hideki Tojo]]
'''Hideki Tojo''' ([[Wiktionary:Kyūjitai|Kyūjitai]]: 東條 英機; [[Wiktionary:Shinjitai|Shinjitai]]: 東条 英機; ''{{Audio|ja-tojo_hideki.ogg|Tōjō Hideki}}'') ([[December 30]] [[1884]] &ndash; [[December 23]] [[1948]]) was a [[General]] in the [[Imperial Japanese Army]], an ultranationalist thinker, and the 40th [[Prime Minister of Japan]]; he served as prime minister during much of [[World War II]], from [[October 18]] [[1941]] to [[July 22]] [[1944]].
==Military and political life==
Tojo was born in [[Tokyo]], Japan in [[1884]]. He was the third son of Hidenori Tojo, a [[Lieutenant General]] in the Japanese Army. Tojo's two older brothers died before his birth. In [[1909]] he married Katsuko Ito, with whom he had three sons and four daughters.
In [[1905]] he graduated from the Military Academy and entered service as a [[Second Lieutenant]] in the [[infantry]]. He rose through the ranks of the Army, graduating with top grades from the Army college <!-- need a better translation for rikugun-daigakkou...staff college? Army War College? -->in 1915. After graduation, he taught at the war college and served as an infantry officer. He did occasional duty on the general staff.
During the 1920s, Tojo was also member of the [[Tosei-Ha]] (Control Group) along with [[Kazushige Ugaki]], [[Gen Sugiyama]], [[Koiso Kuniaki]], [[Yoshijiro Umezu]], and [[Tetsuzan Nagata]]. They attempted to represent the more conservative [[moderates]] in opposition to the [[radical]] group [[Koda-Ha]] (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group) led by [[Sadao Araki]]. Both factions derived from the [[Double Leaf Society]], a 1920s militaristic group with fanatical [[ultranationalism|ultranationalistic]] beliefs.
By [[1935]], he was a [[major general]] commanding the [[Kempeitai]] of the [[Kantogun]] (a.k.a. Kwantung Army) in the Japanese [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]], and by 1937 he was [[Chief of Staff]] of that army. In 1938, Tojo served as Vice-Minister of War. From December of 1938 to 1940, Tojo was Inspector-General of Army Aviation. He was also the real commander-in-chief in charge of the [[Japanese Secret Services]] before and during the Pacific War period, and was in direct contact with [[Koki Hirota]] and leading the secret services in the [[Black Dragon Society]] and other Japanese [[secret societies]].
During the [[2-26 Incident]], Tojo and [[General Honjo]], a noted supporter of [[Sadao Araki]], surprisingly acted against the rebels. The [[Emperor]] acted with unusual force against the coup, and after a brief political crisis and stalling from the military, the rebels were forced to surrender. In the aftermath, many radical officers were retired and the coup leaders were tried and executed.
During his period at the [[Home Ministry (Japan)|Home Ministry]], he lead the [[Keishicho (to 1945)|Keishicho]] (Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department).
He became the Commander of the 24th Infantry Brigade in August [[1934]]; the [[Commanding General]] of the [[Military Police]] in the Kantogun in September [[1935]]; [[Lieutenant General]] in December [[1936]]; [[Chief of Staff]] of the Kantogun in March [[1937]]; the Vice-Minister of War in May [[1938]] (during the first [[Konoye]] Cabinet); and the [[Inspector General]] of [[Army Aviation]] in December 1938.
In July 1937, he personally lead the units of the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade at the [[Chahar Battle]]. When the [[China Incident]] occurred, the section stationed in [[Manchukuo]] moved to [[Hopei]] and fought near [[Peking]] against Chinese forces. Then the Brigade was ordered to participate in the offensive in [[Chahar]] Province. The Brigade marched via [[Chengde]] and [[Dolonnor]] and reached [[Zhangbei]] in five days. The distance of this march was 700km. Units were assigned to certain infantry divisions. Seeing this use of armor, [[Commander Sakai]], the tank commader, opposed Tojo, who was the commander of the [[Chahar Expeditionary Force]]; another officer in same operation was [[Kitsuju Ayabe]]. (Later, he became the highest commander of all Japanese forces.)
In the late [[1930s]], Tojo became a member of the military clique, the [[Kodoha]], that pushed [[Japan]] into the Second World War. Appointed [[Ministry of War|War Minister]] in [[1940]], he was instrumental in leading Japan into the [[Axis Alliance]] with [[Germany]] and [[Italy]]. In July 1940, he was appointed [[War Minister]] in the second [[Fumimaro Konoye]] Cabinet, and remained in that post in the third Konoye Cabinet. When [[Prime Minister]] Konoye was unable to secure an agreement with the [[United States of America|United States]], Tojo's faction drove him into retirement. In [[1941]], Tojo was appointed [[prime minister]] by [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Hirohito]] and took command of the entire Japanese military. He also took leadership in [[Imperial Way Faction]] at that time. At varying times during his premiership, Tojo held the [[portfolios]] of [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Foreign Affairs]], Education, [[interior ministry|Home Affairs]], Commerce and Industry, and Munitions. As education minister, he continued [[militaristic]] and [[nationalist]] indoctrination in the national education system, and reaffirmed [[right-wing]] policies in government, in accordance with outlines traced by [[Sadao Araki]], his ideological and political precursor.
In February 1944, Tojo assumed the post of Chief of the Army General Staff. However, following a series of military disasters, culminating in the [[fall of Saipan]], he was abandoned by his backers and forced to resign on [[July 18]], [[1944]]. He retired to the first reserve list and went into seclusion.
Tojo's nickname was "the razor (''kamisori'')".
==Military Service==
2dLt (Infantry), April 1905; was graduated from [[War College]], December 1915; official duty, [[Switzerland]], August 1919; Major, August 1920; official duty, [[Germany]], July 1921; LtCol, August 1924; Colonel, August 1918; [[Regimental Commander]], 1st Infantry, August 1929; MajGen, March 1933; Commandant,"Rikugun Shikan Gakko" ([[Military Academy]]), March 1934;
===Rise to office of Prime Minister===
In those days, the Japanese army was strongly pushing to begin the war because Germany was winning. Tojo was one of these advocates of war. However, Hirohito did not want to start the war and preferred to keep negotiating with the U.S. in order to find a way out of the conflict. However, the prevailing opinion within the Japanese Army at that time was that continued negotiations could be dangerous. In addition, the US cut off Japan's oil supply. Hirohito thought that he might be able to control extreme opinions in the army by using Tojo since he wa |
ee]]
* [[List of pensionaries]]
* [[The Netherlands]]
[[Category:Former polities in the Netherlands|Holland]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hô-lân (tē-tài)]]
[[ca:Holanda]]
[[cs:Holandsko]]
[[de:Holland]]
[[es:Holanda]]
[[eo:Holando]]
[[fr:Hollande]]
[[nl:Holland]]
[[no:Holland]]
[[pt:Holanda (região)]]
[[ru:Голландия]]
[[sv:Holland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Netherlands</title>
<id>13289</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41785995</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:10:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.60.82.167</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pre-history era */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Rembrandt_Conspiracy_of_Julius_Civilis.jpg.JPG|thumb|250px|right|''The Conspiracy of Julius Civilis'', completed in 1661 by [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], the best-known painter of the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. It depicts a [[Batavii|Batavian]] oath to [[Gaius Julius Civilis]], the head of the [[Batavian rebellion]] against the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] in 68 AD. It was to be hung in the city hall of [[Amsterdam]], as a display of heroism analogous to that of the recent [[Eighty Years' War]], that had led to independence from [[Spain]]. However, it was rejected because Rembrandt did not paint the figures as idealisations, but as real people.]]
''The history of the [[Netherlands]] is closely related to that of the [[Low Countries]]; it was not until the 16th century that an independent state roughly corresponding to the present-day country was established. As a consequence, the geographical scope of this article sometimes extends to the southern parts of the Low Countries. Conversely, a large part of what is now the Netherlands was sea or swamp well into the Middle Ages.''
If one took the oldest signs of human activity as a starting point for the '''history of the Netherlands''', then such a history would span at least two hundred fifty thousand years. It was, however, not until the arrival of the [[ancient Rome|Romans]], who annexed the southern part of the present-day country, that written sources on its inhabitants became abundant. At the time of the Roman occupation, the country was inhabited by various [[Germanic tribes]], and the south was inhabited by Celts, who merged with newcomers from other Germanic tribes during the [[Völkerwanderung]] following the fall of the Roman empire.
In the medieval period, the [[Low Countries]] (roughly present-day [[Belgium]] and [[the Netherlands]]) consisted of various [[countship|countships]], [[duchy|duchies]] and [[diocese|dioceses]] belonging to the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. These were united into one state under [[Habsburg]] rule in the 16th century. The [[Counter-Reformation]] following the success of [[Calvinism]] in the Netherlands, and the attempts to centralise government and supress religious diversity led to a revolt against [[Philip II of Spain]]. On [[26 July]] [[1581]], independence was declared, and finally recognised after the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1566-1648). The years of the war also marked the beginning of the [[Dutch Golden Age]], a period of great commercial and cultural prosperity roughly spanning the 17th century.
After the French occupation at the beginning of the 19th century, [[the Netherlands]] started out as a monarchy, governed by the [[House of Orange]]. However, after a conservative period, strong [[liberalism|liberal]] sentiments could no longer be ignored, and the country became a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[constitutional monarch]] in 1848. It has remained so to this day, with a brief interruption during the [[Netherlands in World War II|occupation by Nazi Germany]].
[[The Netherlands]] is now a modern, [[Industrialisation|industrialised]] nation and a large exporter of [[agricultural]] products. International trade (literally 'overseas') has always been a central aspect of the Dutch economy (also influencing the culture) and was also an important reason for the struggle for independence and cause of the ensuing wealth.
==Pre-history era==
The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[ice age]]; the oldest remnants that have been found are a hundred thousand years old. During the last ice age, the Netherlands had a [[tundra]] climate with very scarce vegetation. The first inhabitants survived as hunter-gatherers. After the end of the ice age, the area was inhabited by various palaeolithic groups. One group even made canoes (Pesse, around 9000 BC) and after that, around 8000 BC, a mesolithic tribe resided near Bergumermeer (Friesland).
'''[[Agriculture]]''' arrived in the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC, by the [http://angelfire.com/me/ij '''Linear Pottery Culture'''] (probably Central European farmers) but was only practised on the [[loess]] [[plateau]] in the very south (Southern [[Limburg]]). Their knowledge was not used to build farms in the rest of the Netherlands owing to a lack of animal domestication and proper tools.
After the first farmers left the Netherlands around 4500 BC, only hunters and gatherers remained, (with a '''Swifterband''' settlement around 4300 BC as an exception) such as the hunters of the '''Vlaardingen''' culture (around 2600 BC).<br>
Later, the first notable remains of Dutch prehistory was erected: the [[dolmens]], large stone grave monuments. They are found in the province of [[Drenthe]], and were probably built by people of the farming [[Funnelbeaker culture]] between 4100 and 3200 BC.<br>
To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game, such as seals. There is even some evidence of small settlements in the west.<br>
The first evidence of the use of a ''wheel'' dates from about 2400 BC. This could likely have been made by someone, related to the '''Bellbeaker culture''' (Klokbeker cultuur). This culture also experimented with copper working, of which some evidence (stone anvils, copper knives, a copper spearhead) was found on the Veluwe. Each copper finding shows that there was trade with other "countries", as natural copper cannot be found in the Dutch soil.
The '''[[Bronze age]]''' [http://angelfire.com/me/ik/index.html] probably started somewhere around 2000 BC. The bronze tools in the grave of "The smith of Wageningen" illustrated their quest for knowledge. ([http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/pics1.html Typical Dutch Bronze Age items]) After this finding, more Bronze Age findings appear, such as Epe, Drouwen, etc. The many findings of rare (and therefore valuable) objects such as tin beads on a necklace in Drenthe suggest Drenthe as a trade centre of the Netherlands in the Bronze Age. <br> The stock of broken bronze objects, meant to recycle (Voorschoten) tells us something about the value of bronze in the Bronze Age, which lasted until about 800 BC.
[http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/images/typ.jpg Typology of Dutch Bronze Age axes] Typical Bronze Age objects are: knives, swords, axes, fibuale, bracelets, etc. Most Bronze Age objects were found in Drenthe. One item shows that merchants travelled far: large bronze situalae (buckets) were manufactured somewhere in eastern France or in Switzerland, for mixing wine with water (a Roman / Greek custom).
The '''[[Iron Age]]''' brought fortune to the Netherlands, because iron ore was found in the North ("moeras ijzererts") as well as in the centre (natural "balls" with iron in them, at the Veluwe) as well as in the South (red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant). The smiths could thus travel from small settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on-demand such as axes, knives, pins, arrowheads, swords, etc. There is even evidence of the use of "damast-forging"; an advanced way to forge metal (swords) with the advantage of flexible iron with the strength of steel.<br>
The wealth of the Netherlands in the Iron Age can be shown via the "King's grave in Oss" (about [[500 BC]]). There, a true king was buried with some extraordinary objects: an [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/images/zwoss.jpg iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral]. He was buried in the largest grave mound of Western Europe, which was 52 m wide!
At the time of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] arrival, [[the Netherlands]] were inhabited by various [[Germanic tribes]], who had settled there since around 600 BC, such as the [[Tubanti]], the [[Canninefates]], the [[Frisians]]. Celtic tribes settled the south, among them the [[Eburones]], [[Menapii]] and [[Texuandri]]. Several Germanians settled in the Rhine delta at the beginning of the Roman settlement, and formed the Germanic tribe of the [[Batavii]]. The [[Batavii]] were regarded as good soldiers and fought in many important wars, for instance the conquest of [[Dacia]], (Rumania) by emperor [[Trajan]]. In later [[nationalism|nationalistic]] views, the [[Batavii]] were sometimes regarded as the "true" forefathers of the Dutch, as reflected in the name of the later ''[[Batavian Republic]]''.
== Roman era ==
After [[Julius Caesar]] conquered Gaul, he conquered [[Belgium]] and The Netherlands around the year 58 BC, which made it the northern border of the European mainland.
They built the first cities and created the [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Inferior]]. For most of the area of Roman occupation in the Netherlands, the boundary of the Roman Empire lay along the [[Rhine]]. Romans built the first military forts and cities in the Netherlands. The most important of these were [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], [[Nijmegen]], and [[Maastricht]]. The northern part of the Netherlands, which was outside the Roman Empire and where the [[Frisians]] lived (and still do), was also heavily influenced by its strong southern neighbour. The Romans also introduced writing.
The relationship with the orig |
\varphi.</math>
Furthermore, the successive powers of &phi; obey the Fibonacci [[recurrence]]:
:&phi;<sup>&minus;2</sup> = &minus; &phi; + 2,
:&phi;<sup>&minus;1</sup> = &phi; &minus; 1,
:&phi;<sup>0</sup> = 1,
:&phi;<sup>1</sup> = &phi;,
:&phi;<sup>2</sup> = &phi; + 1,
:&phi;<sup>3</sup> = 2&phi; + 1,
:&phi;<sup>4</sup> = 3&phi; + 2,
:&phi;<sup>5</sup> = 5&phi; + 3,
:&phi;<sup>''n''</sup> = ''F''(''n'')&phi; + ''F''(''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1),
:...
Because &phi; is the only positive number that satisfies the identity &phi;<sup>''n''</sup> = &phi;<sup>''n'' &minus; 1</sup> + &phi;<sup>''n'' &minus; 2</sup>, any polynomial expression in &phi; may be decomposed into a linear expression. For example:
:<math>3\varphi^3 - 5\varphi^2 + 4 = 3(\varphi^2 + \varphi) - 5\varphi^2 + 4 = 3[(\varphi + 1) + \varphi] - 5(\varphi + 1) + 4 = \varphi + 2 \approx 3.618</math>
From a mathematical point of view, the golden ratio is notable for having the simplest continued fraction expansion, and of thereby being the "most irrational number" worst case of [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]]'s [[Lagrange's approximation theorem|approximation theorem]]. It has been argued this is the reason angles close to the golden ratio often show up in [[phyllotaxis]] (the growth of plants). It is also the fundamental unit of the [[algebraic number field]] <math>\mathbb{Q}(\sqrt{5})</math> and is a [[Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number]].
The golden ratio has interesting properties when used as the base of a [[numeral system]] (see [[Golden mean base]]). Another interesting property is its square being equal to itself plus one, while its reciprocal is itself minus one.
==Aesthetic uses==
[[Image:ParthenonGoldenRatio.png|thumb|left|325px|The [[Parthenon]] showing various [[golden rectangle]]s claimed to be used in its design.]]
It has been claimed that the [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] knew the golden ratio because ratios close to the golden ratio may be found in the positions or proportions of the [[Pyramids of Giza]].
The [[History of Greece|ancient Greeks]] already knew the golden ratio from their investigations into [[geometry]], but there is no evidence they thought the number warranted special attention above that for numbers like <math>\pi</math> ([[Pi]]), for example. Studies by psychologists have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human perception of [[beauty]]. They are, at best, inconclusive. Despite this, a large corpus of beliefs about the aesthetics of the golden ratio has developed. These beliefs include the mistaken idea that the purported aesthetic properties of the ratio was known in antiquity. For instance, the [[Acropolis]], including the [[Parthenon]], is often claimed to have been constructed using the golden ratio. This has encouraged modern artists, architects, photographers, and others, during the last 500 years, to incorporate the ratio in their work. As an example, a [[rule of thumb]] for composing a photograph is called the [[rule of thirds]]; it is said to be roughly based on the golden ratio.
It is also claimed that the human body has proportions close to the golden ratio.
In 1509 [[Luca Pacioli]] published the ''Divina Proportione'', which explored not only the mathematics of the golden ratio, but also its use in architectural design. This was a major influence on subsequent generations of artists and architects. [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] drew the illustrations, leading many to speculate that he himself incorporated the golden ratio into his work. It has been suggested for example that Da Vinci's painting of the ''Mona Lisa'' employs the Golden Ratio in its geometric equivalents.
The [[Architect]] [[Le Corbusier]] used the golden ratio as the basis of his [[Modulor]] system of [[Architecture]].
[[Image:Golden-ratio-construction.png|frame|summary of [[Ruler-and-compass construction|classical construction]]<br>upon a [[unit square]]]]
[[Image:Golden section page.png|thumb|left|250px|Golden ratio applied to page and margin dimensions in [[book design]]]]
The ratio is sometimes used in modern man-made constructions, such as stairs and buildings, [[woodwork]], and in [[paper size]]s; however, the series of standard sizes that includes [[A4 paper size|A4]] is based on a ratio of <math>\sqrt{2}</math> and not on the golden ratio. The average ratio of the sides of great paintings, according to a recent analysis, is 1.34. [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9908036/]. Credit cards are generally 3&nbsp;3/8 by 2&nbsp;1/8 inches in size, which is less than 2 % from the golden ratio.
The ratios of [[just intonation|justly tuned]] [[octave]], [[fifth]], and major and minor [[sixth]]s are ratios of consecutive numbers of the [[Fibonacci sequence]], making them the closest low integer ratios to the golden ratio. [[James Tenney]] reconceived his piece ''[[shepard tone|For Ann (rising)]]'', which consists of up to twelve computer-generated upwardly [[glissando]]ing tones (see [[Shepard tone]]), as having each tone start so it is the golden ratio (in between an [[equal tempered]] [[minor sixth|minor]] and [[major sixth]]) below the previous tone, so that the combination tones produced by all consecutive tones are a lower or higher pitch already, or soon to be, produced.
[[Ernő Lendvai]] (1971) analyses [[Béla Bartók]]'s works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the [[acoustic scale]]. French composer [[Erik Satie]] used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including ''Sonneries de la Rose+Croix''. His use of the ratio gave his music an otherworldly symmetry.
[[Image:Divina proportione.png|thumb|Woodcut from the ''Divina Proportione'' by [[Luca Pacioli ]] (1509) depicting the golden proportion as it applies to the human face.]]
The construction of a [[pentagram]] is based on the golden ratio. The pentagram can be seen as a geometric shape consisting of 5 straight lines arranged as a star with 5 points. The intersection of the lines naturally divides each length into 3 parts. The smaller part (which forms the pentagon inside the star) is proportional to the longer length (which form the points of the star) by a ratio of 1:1.618... It is thought by some that this fact may be a reason why the ancient philosopher [[Pythagoras]] chose the pentagram as the symbol of the secret fraternity of which he was both leader and founder.
[[Image:Golden_Ratio.jpg|thumb|left|325px|The famous "Golden Ratio" sculpture in Jerusalem.
This fifty-ton stone and gold installation is based on the Fibonacci numbers.
The "Golden Ratio" was contributed by the Australian sculptor Andrew Rogers.
(Photo credit: [http://www.isracast.com/njf.asp IsraCast])]]
There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere (for any of several definitions of "evenly"), but a good approximation can be achieved by dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal area and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e. 360&deg;/&phi; &cong; 222.5&deg;. This approach was used to arrange mirrors on the [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast09oct_1.htm Starshine 3 satellite].
{{-}}
==Decimal expansion==
{{OEIS|id=A001622}}
<code>
1.6180339887 4989484820 4586834365 6381177203 0917980576
2862135448 6227052604 6281890244 9707207204 1893911374
8475408807 5386891752 1266338622 2353693179 3180060766
7263544333 8908659593 9582905638 3226613199 2829026788
0675208766 8925017116 9620703222 1043216269 5486262963
1361443814 9758701220 3408058879 5445474924 6185695364
8644492410 4432077134 4947049565 8467885098 7433944221
2544877066 4780915884 6074998871 2400765217 0575179788
3416625624 9407589069 7040002812 1042762177 1117778053
1531714101 1704666599 1466979873 1761356006 7087480710
1317952368 9427521948 4353056783 0022878569 9782977834
7845878228 9110976250 0302696156 1700250464 3382437764
8610283831 2683303724 2926752631 1653392473 1671112115
8818638513 3162038400 5222165791 2866752946 5490681131
7159934323 5973494985 0904094762 1322298101 7261070596
1164562990 9816290555 2085247903 5240602017 2799747175
3427775927 7862561943 2082750513 1218156285 5122248093
9471234145 1702237358 0577278616 0086883829 5230459264
7878017889 9219902707 7690389532 1968198615 1437803149
9741106926 0886742962 2675756052 3172777520 3536139362
1076738937 6455606060 5922...
</code>
This can also be found fairly easily on a calculator, using the formula
:<math>{1+\sqrt{5} \over 2}</math> or <math>5^{0.5} \times 0.5 + 0.5</math>
==See also==
{{wikisource}}
* [[Golden angle]]
* [[Golden function]]
* [[Golden rectangle]]
* [[Golden section search]]
* [[Golden section (page proportion)]]
* [[Logarithmic spiral]]
* [[Fibonacci number]]
* [[Modulor]]
* [[Sacred geometry]]
* [[The Roses of Heliogabalus]]
* [[Plastic number]]
* [[Penrose tiles]]
* [[Dynamic symmetry]]
* [[Golden ratio base]]
* [[Vitruvian man]]
* [[The Da Vinci Code]]
==References==
* ''Crest of the Peacock'', George G. Joseph, London, 1991.
==External links==
===Mathematics===
* {{MathWorld|title=Golden Ratio|urlname=GoldenRatio}}
* [http://www.goldennumber.net The Golden Number]
* [http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/phi.html The Golden Section: Phi] (homepage created by Dr Ron Knott)
* [http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/analysis/phi/ PHI, the golden ratio]
* [http://goldennumber.net/phi20000.htm Phi to 20,000 places]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2346374 p |
-bin/wiki.pl?TransClusion implements TransClusion] using [[Purple Numbers]].
* The [[Linux-HA]] project uses [http://wwnew.linux-ha.org/WikiTransclusion wiki transclusion] to create its [http://wwnew.linux-ha.org/ public web site].
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Transclusion Wikipedia:Transclusion], transclusion in [[Wikipedia]]
[[Category:HTML]]
[[Category:Hypertext]]
[[es:Transclusión]]
[[pl:Transkluzja]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Typed link</title>
<id>13500</id>
<revision>
<id>40010759</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:52:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.250.143.131</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>microformat. Nofollow</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''typed link''' in a [[hypertext]] system is a link to another document or part of a document that includes information about the ''character'' of the link. For example, rather than merely pointing to the existence of a document, a link might also specify that the document supports the conclusion of the article pointing to it, that it contradicts the article pointing to it, that it is an older version of the document, that it serves to define the word next to the link, that it is an index to other documents of the same type, or some other relationship. This allows a user to take actions such as searching only certain types of links or displaying them differently. It may also allow browsing software to do things like pre-fetching documents it expects the user to browse.
Present [[HTML]] supports typed links from whole documents to whole documents with the <code><link></code> tag. For example, the tag <code><link rel="Contents" href="top.html"></code> specifies that the document "top.html" is a table of contents for the work that includes the document you are currently reading, and the tag <code><link rel="Next" href="chap3.html"></code> specifies that "chap3.html" is the next document in logical sequence after the one you are reading. There is also the <code>rev</code>erse attribute.
The HTML standard states that both <code>rel</code> and <code>rev</code> can be added to the typical <code><a></code> tag. A Draft [[RFC]] to define standard link types for HTML was proposed in [[1994]], but expired without much comment.
Typed links, while not really a part of [[Internet]]/HTML based hypertext systems were a common feature in pre-Internet hypertext systems such as [[Project Xanadu|Xanadu]], [[NoteCards]], [[HyperWriter]], [[IBIS]]/[[gIBIS]] and others. While typed links can be very useful, the lack of a standardized set of link attributes such as "Supports Position"/"Refutes Position" as well as the difficulty of applying the attributes has always hindered the use of typed links beyond prototyping purposes. Any system of attributes would turn a hypertext corpus into a [[semantic web]], and permit more sophisticated processing.
[[Microformat]]s are a proposal to use the existing elements of [[XHTML]] [[semantical HTML|in a semantical way]], not requiring the use of a new XML vocabulary.
There are also proposals for de-facto standards that type links with the <code>rel</code> attribute.
A somewhat successful example is <code>rel="[[nofollow]]"</code> proposed by Google to discourage [[comment spam]] in weblogs.
[[Category:Hypertext]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Source tracking</title>
<id>13501</id>
<revision>
<id>29626692</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-29T21:30:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>159.101.46.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Link corrected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Source tracking''' pertains to the ability of some [[hypertext]] systems to rigorously track the exact source of every document or partial document included in the system; that is, they remember who entered the information, when it was entered, when it was updated and by whom, and so on. This allows determining the exact history of every document (and even small parts of documents).
Present [[HTML]] and [[HTTP]] do not have this feature, but certain systems on the [[World Wide Web]] (such as [[Wiki|WikiWiki]] and [[Everything2|Everything Engine]]) may have limited versions of the capability.
[[pl:&#346;ledzenie &#378;r&#243;de&#322;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HHGG</title>
<id>13502</id>
<revision>
<id>15911107</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-15T08:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paul A</username>
<id>7104</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>punctuation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</title>
<id>13503</id>
<revision>
<id>15911108</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-15T05:28:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.85.222.249</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hitch Hikers Guide to the Galaxy</title>
<id>13504</id>
<revision>
<id>15911109</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-15T05:26:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.85.222.249</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H.P. Lovecraft</title>
<id>13509</id>
<revision>
<id>42156467</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:48:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Clown in black and yellow</username>
<id>748024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added IMDB-verified mention of documentary "the Eldritch Influence" and an external link to the official move site</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Howard Phillips Lovecraft
|image_name=Lovecraft.jpg
|image_caption=
|dead=dead
|date_of_birth=[[August 20]], [[1890]]
|place_of_birth=[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]], [[USA]]
|date_of_death=[[March 15]], [[1937]]
|place_of_death=[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]], [[USA]]}}
'''Howard Phillips Lovecraft''' ([[August 20]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[March 15]], [[1937]]) was an [[United States|America]]n author of [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]], noted for combining these three [[genre]]s within single [[narrative]]s. Lovecraft's readership was limited during his life, but his works have become highly important and influential among writers and fans of modern horror fiction.
==Biography==
Lovecraft was born on [[20 August]] [[1890]] at 9:00 am in his family home at 194 (now 454) Angell Street in [[Providence, Rhode Island]]. He was the only child of Winfield Scott Lovecraft, a traveling salesman of jewelry and precious metals, and Sarah Susan Phillips Lovecraft, who could trace her ancestry in America back to the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1630. Unusual for the time, both of his parents were in their thirties when they married and it was the first marriage for both. When Lovecraft was three, his father became acutely [[psychotic]] at a hotel in [[Chicago, Illinois]] where he was on a business trip and was brought back to Butler Hospital in Providence, where he remained for the rest of his life. His affliction was [[General paresis of the insane|general paresis]] and may have been caused by [[syphilis]].
Lovecraft was thereafter raised by his mother, two aunts (Lillian Delora Phillips and Annie Emeline Phillips), and his grandfather, [[Whipple Van Buren Phillips]], with whom Lovecraft and his female relatives lived until Phillips' death. Lovecraft was a [[child prodigy]], reciting poetry at age two and writing complete poems by six. His grandfather encouraged his reading, providing him with classics such as ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights|The Arabian Nights]]'', ''[[Thomas Bulfinch|Bulfinch's Age of Fable]]'', and children's versions of The ''[[Iliad]]'' and The ''[[Odyssey]]''. His grandfather also stirred young Howard's interest in the weird by telling him original tales of Gothic horror.
Lovecraft was frequently ill as a child and was said by his biographer ([[L. Sprague de Camp]]) to have suffered from a rare disease known as [[poikilothermism]], the result of which made him always feel cold to the touch. He attended school only sporadically but he read much. He produced several [[hectograph]]ed publications with a limited circulation beginning in 1899 with ''The Scientific Gazette''.
Whipple Van Buren Phillips died in 1904, and the family was subsequently impoverished by mismanagement of his property and money. The family was forced to move down the street to 598 Angell Street, accommodations which were much smaller and less comfortable. Lovecraft was deeply affected by the loss of his home and birthplace and even contemplated suicide for a time. He suffered a nervous breakdown in 1908, as a result of which he never received his high school diploma. This failure to complete his education &mdash; his hopes of ever entering [[Brown University]] dashed &mdash; nagged at him for the rest of his life, and he in fact maintained that he was a high school graduate.
Lovecraft wrote fiction as a youth, but then set it aside for some time in favour of poetry and essays, before returning to fiction in 1917 with more polished stories such as ''The Tomb'' and ''Dagon''. The latter was his first professionally published work, appearing in ''Weird Tales'' in 1923. Also around this time he b |
olume 1]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4610 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 2]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4773 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 3]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4919 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 4]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12073 Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume I]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12074 Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume II]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/696 The Castle of Otranto]
* [http://www.friendsofstrawberryhill.org The Friends of Strawberry Hill]
* [http://www.twickenham-museum.org.uk/detail.asp?ContentID=140 The Twickenham Museum - Horace Walpole]
[[Category:1717 births|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:1797 deaths|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:English memoirists|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:English novelists|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Gay politicians|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:LGBT politicians from the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Walpole, Horace]]
[[de:Horace Walpole]]
[[fr:Horace Walpole]]
[[it:Horace Walpole]]
[[ja:&#12507;&#12524;&#12473;&#12539;&#12454;&#12457;&#12523;&#12509;&#12540;&#12523;]]
[[nl:Horace Walpole]]
[[pl:Horace Walpole]]
[[sv:Horace Walpole]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horace Engdahl</title>
<id>13448</id>
<revision>
<id>37289708</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:11:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Horace Engdahl''' (born [[December 30]], [[1948]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] literary historian and critic. He has been the permanent secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]] since 1999.
Engdahl was born in [[Karlskrona]], Sweden. He earned his B.A. in 1970 at [[Stockholm University]], and began his doctoral studies there; he completed his Ph.D. only in 1987, with a study on Swedish [[romanticism]], but had meanwhile been active as a literary critic, translator and journal editor, and was one of the introducers of the continental tradition of literary scholarship in Sweden. He is currently adjunct professor of Scandinavian literature at the [[University of Aarhus]] in [[Denmark]]. He speaks [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] fluently.
In 1997, Engdahl became a member of the [[Swedish Academy]], elected to the seat vacated by the death of [[Johannes Edfelt]]; in [[1999]], he succeeded [[Sture Allén]] as the Academy's permanent secretary, i.e. its executive member and spokesperson. As such, he has the annual task of announcing the recipient of the [[Nobel prize in literature]] to the press.
He is married to [[Ebba Witt-Brattström]], professor of literature at the [[Södertörn University College]] outside [[Stockholm]]. Together they have the sons Caspar, Marcel and Fabius.
==External links==
*[http://www.svenskaakademien.se/ENG/members/lmp/chair17.html Presentation] at the official website of the [[Swedish Academy]]
[[Category:1948 births|Engdahl, Horace]]
[[Category:Living people|Engdahl, Horace]]
[[Category:Members of the Swedish Academy|Engdahl, Horace]]
[[Category:Polyglots|Engdahl, H]]
[[de:Horace Engdahl]]
[[sv:Horace Engdahl]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew language</title>
<id>13450</id>
<revision>
<id>41731958</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:10:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clean using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hebrew
|nativename=עִבְרִית ''‘Ivrit''
|pronunciation=/ʔivˈʁit/ (standard Israeli), /ʕivˈriθ/ (oriental), /ivˈʀis/ ([[Ashkenazi Hebrew language|Ashkenazi]])
|region=[[Israel]] and other countries
|speakers=app. 7.5 million (including app. 700,000 non-Jewish speakers in Gaza/West Bank/Israel proper). 195,375 in the United States.<sup>1</sup><br><small>
<sup>1</sup>''United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. [http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t37/tab01a.pdf Table 1a.]</small>''
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam5=[[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|fam6=[[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]]
|script=[[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew abjad]]
|nation=[[Israel]]
|agency=[[Academy of the Hebrew Language]]<br>(האקדמיה ללשון העברית ''HaAqademia LaLashon Ha‘Ivrit'')
|iso1=he|iso2=heb|iso3=heb|
<!-- Linguasphere code: 12-AAB -->
<!-- The Linguasphere code is for future reference, if Linguasphere codes are put into the infobox. -->}}
'''Hebrew''' (עִבְרִית ''‘Ivrit'') is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic language family]] spoken by more than 7 million people, mainly in [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]], the [[United States]] and by [[Jews|Jewish]] communities around the world. The core of the [[Tanakh]] (sometimes referred to as the [[Hebrew Bible]]), the [[Torah]] (which [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] traditionally hold to have been first recorded in the time of [[Moses]] 3,300 years ago), is written in (Biblical) [[Classical Hebrew]]. [[Jew]]s have always called it {{Ivrit|&#1500;&#1513;&#1493;&#1503; &#1492;&#1511;&#1493;&#1491;&#1513;}} ''Leshon ha-Kodesh'' ("The Sacred Language") as the scriptures written in this language were considered sacred. Most scholars agree that after the first destruction of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and the [[Babylon]]ians in [[586 BCE]], the kind of Hebrew prevalent in the [[Tanakh]] was replaced in daily use by [[Mishnaic]] Hebrew and a local version of [[Aramaic]]. After the depletion of the Jewish population of parts of [[Iudaea Province|Roman occupied Judea]], it is believed that Hebrew gradually ceased to be a spoken language roughly around [[200|200 CE]], but remained a major written language throughout the centuries. Not only religious, but texts for a large variety of purposes: letters and contracts, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, protocols of courts&mdash;all resorted to Hebrew, which thus adapted itself to various new fields and terminologies by borrowings and new inventions.
Hebrew was revitalized as a spoken language during the late 19th and early [[20th century]] as Modern Hebrew, replacing a score of languages spoken by the Jews at that time, such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]] (also called Judezmo), [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and other languages of the [[Jewish diaspora]] as the spoken language of the majority of the [[Jewish]] people living in [[Israel]].
Because of its large disuse for centuries, Hebrew lacked many modern words. Several were adapted from the Hebrew Bible or from other languages by [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]]. Largely because of this, modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921, and the primary official language of [[Israel |the State of Israel]], (Arabic maintained its official language status). The Hebrew name for the language is {{Ivrit|&#1506;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497;&#1514;}}, or ''‘Ivrit'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/iv&#690;rit/}})
==History==
While the term "Hebrew" as a nationality is customarily used to refer to the ancient [[Israelite]]s, the classical Hebrew language was extremely similar to the [[Canaanite languages]] spoken by their neighbors, such as [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]; indeed, [[Moabite language|Moabite]] and Hebrew are often considered to be two dialects of the same language.
Hebrew strongly resembles [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and to a lesser extent South-Central [[Arabic language|Arabic]], sharing many linguistic features with them.
===Early history===
Hebrew is an Afro-Asiatic language. This language family is generally thought by linguists to have originated somewhere in northeastern [[Africa]], and began to diverge around the [[8th millennium BCE]], although there is much debate about the exact date and place. (The theory is espoused by most archeologists and linguists, but at odds with traditional reading of the Torah.) One branch of this family, [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], eventually reached the [[Middle East]]; it gradually differentiated into a variety of related languages.
By the end of the [[3rd millennium BCE]] the ancestral languages of [[Aramaic]], [[Ugaritic]], and other various [[Canaanite]] languages were spoken in the [[Levant]] alongside the influential dialects of [[Ebla]] and [[Akkad]]. As the Hebrew founders from northern [[Harran|Haran]] filtered south into and came under the influence of the Levant, like many sojourners into Canaan including the [[Philistines]], they adopted Canaanite dialects. The first written evidence of distinctive Hebrew, the [[Gezer calendar]], dates back to the [[10th century BCE]], the traditional time of the reign of [[David]] and [[Solomon]]. It presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The [[Gezer]] calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] one that through the [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]]s later became the [[Roman script]]. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and |
ulian calendar, which is [[7 January]] in the Gregorian calendar until 2100. All of the other Eastern churches that are not Orthodox churches, like the Coptic, Ethiopic, Nestorian, Jacobite, and Armenian, continue to use their own calendars, which usually result in fixed dates being celebrated in accordance with the Julian calendar. All Eastern churches continue to use the Julian Easter with the sole exception of the [[Finnish Orthodox Church]], which has adopted the Gregorian Easter.
The [[Republic of China]] formally adopted the Gregorian calendar at its founding on [[1 January]] [[1912]], but China soon descended into a period of warlordism with different warlords using different calendars. With the [[Northern Expedition|unification]] of China under the [[Kuomintang]] in October 1928, the [[Nationalist Government]] decreed that effective [[1 January]] [[1929]] the Gregorian calendar would be used henceforth. However, China retained the Chinese traditions of numbering the months and a modified [[Era System]], backdating the first year of the ROC to 1912; this system is still in use in [[Taiwan]] where this ROC government retains control. Upon its foundation in 1949, the [[People's Republic of China]] continued to use the Gregorian calendar with numbered months, but abolished the ROC Era System and adopted the Western fashion of naming years.
[[Japan]] replaced the traditional lunisolar calendar with the Gregorian calendar on [[1 January]] [[1873]], but, like China, continued to number the months, and used reign names instead of the [[Common Era]]: ''Meiji'' 1=1868, ''Taisho'' 1=1912, ''Showa'' 1=1926, ''Heisei'' 1=1989, and so on. This system remains in use. The "western calendar" (&#35199;&#26278;, ''seireki'') is nonetheless widely accepted by civilians and to a less extent by government agencies.
====Timeline====
<timeline>
DateFormat = yyyy
ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:38
PlotArea = left:20 right:20 bottom:20 top:10
Colors =
id:noir value:black
id:canvas value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97)
id:gris value:gray(0.80)
id:grilleMajor value:rgb(0.80,0.80,0.80)
id:bleuclair value:rgb(0.56,0.56,0.86)
id:rouge value:red
id:rougeclair value:rgb(0.86,0.56,0.56)
id:bleuclair value:rgb(0.76,0.76,0.96)
id:grilleMinor value:rgb(0.86,0.86,0.86)
Period = from:1550 till:2050
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy
AlignBars = justify
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:50 start:1550 gridcolor:grilleMinor
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:1600 gridcolor:grilleMajor
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas bars:canvas
BarData=
bar:epoque
barset:evennement
PlotData=
bar:epoque shift:(0,0) width:30
from:start till:end color:gris # Arri�re plan
from:start till:1581 text:"Julian~calendar" color:rougeclair anchor:from
from:1582 till:end text:"Gregorian calendar" color:rouge
barset:evennement color:noir shift:(2,0) width:25
from:1582 till:1582 text:"1582~Spain, Portugal, and their possessions;~Italy, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth" shift:(2,5)
from:1582 till:1582 text:"1582~France, Catholic Netherlands, Savoy, Luxembourg"
from:1583 till:1583 text:"1583~Austria; Catholic Switzerland and Germany"
from:1587 till:1587 text:"1587~Hungary"
from:1605 till:1710 text:"1605-1710~Nova Scotia" color:bleuclair anchor:from
from:1610 till:1610 text:"1610~Prussia"
from:1582 till:1735 text:"1582-1735~Duchy of Lorraine" color:bleuclair anchor:from
from:1648 till:1648 text:"1648~Alsace"
from:1682 till:1682 text:"1682~Strasbourg"
from:1700 till:1700 text:"1700~Protestant Germany, Switzerland and Netherlands;~Denmark & Norway" shift:(2,5)
from:1753 till:1753 text:"1753~Sweden & Finland"
#To start again the indentation in top
barset:break
at:1752 #blank line
at:1752 #blank line
at:1752 #blank line
at:1752 #blank line
from:1752 till:1752 text:"1752~Britain and its possessions"
at:1760 #blank line
from:1760 till:1760 text:"1760~Lorraine (Habsburg -> France)"
at:1584 #blank line
at:1584 #blank line
from:1584 till:1584 text:"1584~Bohemia and Moravia"
#To start again the indentation in top
barset:break
from:1811 till:1811 text:"1811~Swiss canton of Grisons"
from:1867 till:1867 text:"1867~Alaska (Russia -> USA)"
from:1873 till:1873 text:"1873~Japan"
from:1875 till:1875 text:"1875~Egypt"
from:1912 till:1912 text:"1912~Albania"
from:1915 till:1915 text:"1915~Latvia, Lithuania"
from:1916 till:1916 text:"1916~Bulgaria"
from:1918 till:1918 text:"1918~Russia, Estonia"
from:1919 till:1919 text:"1919~Romania, Yugoslavia
from:1922 till:1922 text:"1922~USSR"
from:1923 till:1923 text:"1923~Greece"
from:1926 till:1926 text:"1926~Turkey"
#To start again the indentation in top
barset:break
from:1912 till:1912 text:"1912 & 1929~China" shift:(2,5)
</timeline>
==Proleptic Gregorian calendar==
The Gregorian calendar can, for certain purposes, be extended backwards to dates preceding its official introduction, producing the [[proleptic Gregorian Calendar]]. However, this proleptic calendar should be used with great caution.
For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to [[15 October]] [[1582]] are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, and '''not''' converted into their Gregorian equivalents.
However, events occurring in countries where the Gregorian calendar was introduced later than [[4 October]] [[1582]] are a little more contentious. For example, in Britain and its overseas possessions (then including the American colonies), the new calendar was not introduced until [[14 September]] [[1752]]. How, then, would people date events occurring in Britain and her possessions in the 170 years between 1582 and 1752? The answer depends very much on the context, but writers who want to avoid confusion make it absolutely clear which calendar is being used. People have avoided changing historical records in Britain deriving from this period; however, it is often highly desirable to translate particular [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]] dates into their [[Old Style and New Style dates|New Style]] equivalents, such as where the context includes reference to other countries that had already converted to New Style before Britain did. Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the [[Julian day number]].
If comparisons of dates are done using different calendars, we can encounter logical absurdities such as [[William and Mary]] of Orange seeming to arrive in London to accept the English crown, a week or so before they left the [[Netherlands]]; and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]] apparently dying on exactly the same date ([[23 April]] [[1616]]), when in fact Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by 10 days in real time. This coincidence however has allowed [[UNESCO]] to make [[23 April]] the [[International Day of the Book]].
For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the [[international standard]] [[ISO 8601]], the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a [[year zero|year 0]] and instead uses the counting numbers 1, 2, &hellip; both for years AD and BC and for CE and BCE. Thus the traditional timeline is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses [[astronomical year numbering]] which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 timeline is -0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002.
==Confusion with British versus American usage==
Dates of events in Britain prior to 1752 are usually now shown in their original Old Style form, whereas dates of events in (then British) America prior to 1752 are usually now shown in the New Style form.
* For example, Shakespeare died on [[23 April]] (OS), and it is rare to see this converted to [[3 May]] (NS). But while [[George Washington]] was born on [[11 February]] (OS), his birthday is now celebrated on [[22 February]] (NS). (He changed its celebration date himself, as a twenty one year old surveyor.)
However, neither of these practices is universal in either country, so it is sometimes very unclear which calendar is being used, and this can lead to false assumptions, which can lead to dates being inaccurately converted from one calendar to the other. Since the resurgence of interest in the history of the calendar, more information about the real dates (according to various calendars) of events has been forthcoming and many previous errors have been corrected. While these changes are welcome, there is still much scope for confusion; therefore, noting the calendar being used in transitional periods would help the reader understand the dates involved.
==Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates==
Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between Gregorian (New Style) and Julian (Old Style) calendar dates has increased as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! Gregorian range || Julian range || Difference
|-
|From [[15 October]] [[1582]] <br> to [[28 February]] [[1700]]
|From [[5 October]] [[1582]] <br> to [[18 February]] [[1700]]
|10 days
|-
|From [[1 March]] [[1700]] <br> to [[28 February]] [[1800]]
|From [[19 February]] [[1700]] <br> to [[17 February]] [[1800]]
|11 days
|-
|From [[1 March]] [[1800]] <br> to [[28 February]] [[1900]]
|From [[18 February]] [[1800]] <br> to [[16 February]] [[1900]]
|12 days
|-
|From [[1 March]] [[1900]] <br> to [[28 February]] [[2100]]
|From [[ |
n hate or despise him."
==Works==
{{wikisource author}}
===Dramatic=== ''(Incomplete)''
* ''Plays Unpleasant'':
** ''[[Widowers' Houses]]'' (1892)
** ''[[The Philanderer]]'' (1898)
** ''[[Mrs. Warren's Profession]]'' (1898)
* ''Plays Pleasant'':
** ''[[The Man of Destiny]]'' (1897)
** ''[[Arms and the Man]]'' (1898)
** ''[[Candida (play)|Candida]]'' (1898)
** ''[[You Never Can Tell]]'' (1898)
* ''Three Plays for Puritans'':
** ''[[The Devil's Disciple]]'' (1897)
** ''[[Captain Brassbound's Conversion]]'' (1900)
** ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' (1901)
* ''[[Man and Superman]]'' (1902)
* ''[[John Bull's Other Island]]'' (1904)
* ''[[Major Barbara]]'' (1905)
* ''[[The Doctor's Dilemma]]'' (1906)
* ''[[Getting Married]]'' (1908)
* ''[[Dark Lady of the Sonnets]]'' (1910)
* ''[[Fanny's First Play]]'' (1911)
* ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]'' (1912)
* ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' (1913)
* ''[[Heartbreak House]]'' (1919)
* ''[[Back to Methuselah]]'' (1921)
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|In the Beginning]]''
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|The Gospel of the Brothers Barnabas]]''
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|The Thing Happens]]''
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman]]''
** ''[[As Far as Thought Can Reach: A.D. 31,920|As Far as Thought Can Reach]]''
* ''[[Saint Joan (play)|Saint Joan]]'' (1923)
* ''[[The Apple Cart]]'' (1929)
* ''[[Geneva, a Fancied Page of History in Three Acts|Geneva]]''
* ''[[Misalliance]]''
* ''[[The Six of Calais]]''
* ''[[The Glimpse of Reality]]''
* ''[[How He Lied to Her Husband]]''
===Novels & collections of essays ===
* ''[[Commonsense about the War]]''
* ''[[The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism]]''
* ''[[The Black Girl in Search of God]]''
*''Everybody's Political What's What?'' 1944 Constable and Company Ltd
===Music criticism ===
* ''[[The Perfect Wagnerite: A Commentary on the Niblung's Ring]]'', ''1923''
== See also ==
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
==External links==
*George Bernard Shaw and the [http://www.ivu.org/history/shaw/ History of Vegetarianism and his works related to vegetarianism]
* [http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/may/bkpub.asp Biography] in ''The World & I'' magazine
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Bernard+Shaw | name=George Bernard Shaw}}
*[http://literalsystems.org/abooks/doku.php?id=audiobook:excerpt_from_caesar_and_cleopatra "Excerpt from Caesar and Cleopatra" Creative Commons audio recording.]
* [http://www.shawfest.com/ The Shaw Festival at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada.] A town and theatre dedicated to staging the plays and dramas of George Bernard Shaw.
* [http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/resources/archives/special_collections/danlaurence_collection.htm Dan H. Laurence/Shaw Collection] in the University of Guelph Library, Archival and Special Collections, holds more than 3,000 items related to his writings and career
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Shaw_e.htm Biography and quotes of George Bernard Shaw]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Wladyslaw Reymont]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1925 | after = [[Grazia Deledda]]
}}
{{end box}}
{{Shaw}}
[[Category:1856 births|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British academics|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British dramatists and playwrights|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British essayists|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British linguists|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Irish dramatists and playwrights|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Shaw, Geo]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:People associated with the London School of Economics|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Socialists|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Writing Adapted Screenplay Oscar|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[ast:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[cs:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[cy:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[da:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[de:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[et:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[es:Bernard Shaw]]
[[eo:George Bernard SHAW]]
[[fr:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[gd:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[hr:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[hu:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[ia:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[it:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[he:ג'ורג' ברנרד שו]]
[[lt:Džordžas Bernardas Šo]]
[[nl:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[ja:ジョージ・バーナード・ショー]]
[[no:George Bernard Shaw]]
[[pl:George Bernard Shaw]]
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[[ro:George Bernard Shaw]]
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[[sr:Џорџ Бернард Шо]]
[[fi:George Bernard Shaw]]
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[[uk:Шоу Бернард]]
[[zh:萧伯纳]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Golan Heights</title>
<id>12856</id>
<revision>
<id>41300907</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:13:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tasc</username>
<id>853739</id>
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<minor />
<comment>hide links, which have to be moved elsewhere</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Golan 92.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sites on the Golan in blue are Israeli settlement communities. Sites on the Golan in black are Druze and Circassian communities. The Golan Heights are surrounded by four countries: [[Lebanon]] - [[Syria]] - [[Jordan]] - [[Israel]].]]
The '''Golan Heights''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: هضبة الجولان ''Hadhbat al-Jaulan'', [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: רמת הגולן ''Ramat HaGolan'') or '''Golan''', formerly also known as the Syrian Heights <!-- find another place for these links [http://www.gush-shalom.org/archives/article244.html][http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/lebanon/intro.htm],--> are a plateau on the border of [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]]. Israel captured the Heights from Syria in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] (and again in the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]]). In 1981, it applied its "laws, jurisdiction and administration" in the Golan Heights<!-- not a place for link [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Golan+Heights+Law.htm]-->. Syria asserts that the Heights are part of the governorate of [[Al Qunaytirah]]. The international community considers the area Syrian territory under [[Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli occupation]], but Israel has a more complex position. (See ''[[Golan_Heights#Current status|Current status]]'' below).
==Geography==
[[Image:Golanhospital.jpg|thumb|The Golan Hospital in Al-Qunaytirah as it appears today]]
[[Image:300px-GolanHeights-mill.jpg|thumb|[[Wind turbine]] in the Golan Heights]]
[[Geography|Geographically]], the Heights are bordered on the west by a rock escarpment that drops 1700 feet (500 m) to the [[Sea of Galilee]] and the [[Jordan River]]; on the south by the [[Yarmouk River]]; on the north by the international border with Lebanon, and on the east by a largely flat plain, called the [[Hauran]]. The Golan is usually divided into three regions: northern (between Nahals Sa'ar and Gilabon), central (between Nahals Gilabon and Dilayot), and southern (between Nahal Dilayot and the Yarmouk Valley).
[[Geology|Geologically]], the Golan Heights are a [[plateau]], and part of a [[Holocene]] [[volcanic field]] that extends northeast almost to [[Damascus]]. The entire area is scattered with inactive [[volcanic cone#cinder cone|cinder cone]]s such as [[Majdal Shams]]. [[Mount Hermon]] is in the northern Golan Heights but is geologically separate from the volcanic field. Near Hermon is a [[crater lake]] called [[Birkat Ram]] ("Ram Pool") which is fed by underground springs.
'''Streams in the Golan Heights''':
* [[Yarmouk River]]
* [[Jilabun]]
* [[Dlaiot]]
* [[Jehudia]]
* [[Mitzar]]
* [[Samekh]]
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:250px-Yarmooch.jpg|thumb|the [[Yarmouk River]]]] -->
== Current status ==
The [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli army]] captured the Heights and put them under military administration from 1967 until 1981, when the [[Knesset]] passed ''The Golan Heights Law''[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Golan+Heights+Law.htm], similar to its 1967 measures concerning [[Jerusalem]]. Most of the Arab residents of the Golan Heights, mainly [[Druze]], retain their Syrian citizenship even though Israeli citizenship is available to them. Syria continues to offer them some benefits such as free university tuition.
Israel's measures are frequently termed "annexation" but the real status of the Golan is very far from legally clear - the word "annexation" or equivalent concepts, like "extending sovereignty," are not used in the law itself. In any case, the result of the extension of sovereignty/annexation has been an end to the application of military regulations to the populace<!-- i think this is what was meant here, since the military occupation clearly continues-->. It has also been noted that the Golan Heights may return to Syria as part of a peace settlement.
When Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] was asked in the Knesset why he was risking international criticism for this annexation, he replied "You use the word annexation, but I am not using it." [http://www.mepc.org/public_asp/journal_vol5/9701_lustick.asp] The governmental [[Jewish Agency for Israel]] states that "Although reported as a<!--an/[sic]?--> annexation, it is not: the Golan Heights are not declared to be Israeli territory."[http://www.jafi.org.il/education/jafi75/timeline7b.html#1] On the other hand, the [[Netanyahu]] government's Basic Policy Guidelines stated "The government views the Golan Heights as essential to the security of the state and its water resources. Retaining Israel's sovereignty over the Golan will be the basis for an arrangement with Syr |
he Prosecutor and the Assembly of State Parties.
The initial impetus for its establishment came from within the United Nations. Although it is legally a separate entity established by a separate treaty between states, and not the Security Council acting under the United Nations Charter, the UN has a clearly defined role towards the court. The court's relationship with the United Nations is governed by a Relationship Agreement between the Court and the United Nations, which mainly provides for Security Council referrals under the Rome Statute, and for United Nations assistance in payment for any prosecutions made under such a referral.
Countries ratifying the treaty that created the ICC grant it authority to try their citizens for [[war crime]]s, [[crimes against humanity]] and [[genocide]]. It provides for ICC jurisdiction over-state party or on the territory of a non-state party where that non-state party has entered into an agreement with the court providing for it to have such jurisdiction in a particular case (consent).
Many states wanted to add "aggression," "[[terrorism]]" and drug trafficking to the list of crimes covered by the Rome Statute; however other states opposed this, on the grounds that these crimes were difficult to define, and that dealing with less serious crimes such as terrorism and drug trafficking would distract from the seriousness of the crimes the ICC was established to deal with. As a compromise, the treaty merely brands "aggression" as a crime without providing a definition, pending adoption of an amendment to the Statute. It may also be amended to include other crimes. However, no amendments can be made to the Rome Statute until seven years after the Statute became legally binding.
=== How cases reach the ICC ===
Cases may be referred to the ICC by one of four methods:
#A country member of the Assembly of States Parties (ratified the Court's Statute) sends the case;
#A country that has chosen to accept the ICC's jurisdiction sends the case;
#The Security Council sends the case (subject to veto from the permanent five members); or
#The three-judge panel authorizes a case initiated by the ICC Prosecutor.
Even though the Court has jurisdiction over the [[crime against peace|crime of international aggression]], it will not exercise such jurisdiction until the crime has been further defined. The statute that established the ICC mandates that the state parties attempt to define aggression in 2009.
== List of states party to the treaty ==
[[Image:World map ICC member states.png|thumb|right|400px|World map of ICC member states]]
[[As of 2005|As of October 2005]], the following 100 countries have ratified or acceded to the ICC Statute: [http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp]
*In '''[[Europe]]''': [[Albania]], [[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]]
*In '''[[Africa]]''': [[Benin]], [[Botswana]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Djibouti]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Malawi]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritius]], [[Namibia]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]].
*In the '''[[Americas]]''': [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]]
*In '''[[Asia]]''': [[Afghanistan]], [[Cambodia]], [[Jordan]], [[Mongolia]], [[South Korea]], [[Tajikistan]]
*In '''[[Oceania]]''': [[Australia]], [[East Timor]], [[Fiji]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Nauru]], [[New Zealand]], [[Samoa]]
In addition to the above states, there are 39 other states which have signed but not ratified the treaty. Signing has some legal consequences from customary international law. A state is expected not to sabotage a treaty it has signed although it has not ratified it. Therefore the USA and Israel "unsigned" the Rome treaty, after which the USA engaged in bilateral agreements which undermine the obligations of states who have ratified.
== Opposition to the ICC ==
The creation and existence of the court has been controversial with a number of states. The largest disagreement continues to surround the source and nature of the court's jurisdiction.
Some countries object to the court, saying that there is very little legal supervision of the court's apparatus, and that the court's verdicts may become subject to political motives. They argue that the court's mandate was already excessively wide (and would be even more so if the crime of aggression was defined in its Statute), meaning the court could (perhaps unwillingly) become a tool for [[barratry]] and pointless legal hassle. Although supporters say that the checks and balances in the ICC made this an unlikely possibility, opponents argue that giving even a temporary member of the Security Council the power to veto any objections of prosecutorial bias gave the ICC no accountability whatsoever.
Supporters would counter that the ICC's definitions are very similar to those of the [[Nuremberg trials]]. They also argue that the [[state]]s which object to the ICC are those which regularly carry out [[genocide]], [[war crime]]s and [[crimes against humanity]] in order to protect or promote their political or economic interests.
=== U.S. objections ===
The [[United States]] did not ratify the treaty. [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] signed the ICC Statute during his last hours in office, with the stated objective that the US could continue to take part in negotiations on the rules of procedure for the new court, in an attempt to obtain an exemption for U.S. nationals taking part in UN-sponsored peacekeeping missions—as several other countries were able to do. Nevertheless, the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration was opposed to the treaty as it then stood. A Presidential signature on a treaty does not make it legally binding until it is submitted and approved by the [[United States Senate]] which did not occur in the case of this treaty.
Amid bipartisan consensus, the U.S. has since stated that it does not intend to ratify the treaty, and so is not legally bound by it. To this end the US has negotiated over 100 so-called article 98 opt outs that give US troops protection from the ICC while on the soil of a member country.
The U.S. claims that American soldiers and political leaders may be subject to "frivolous or politically motivated prosecutions." (a form of [[barratry]]) Supporters of this position have argued that many countries in the world have an [[anti-American]] agenda, and may enjoy constantly charging American politicians or military officials with trumped-up war crimes charges, simply to cause embarrassment and bad publicity for the United States. The Bush administration has criticized ICC's lack of checks and balances, while some counter that the US administration itself has denied such checks and balances to terror suspects. Opponents of the position of the U.S. point to the adoption of the treaty by other countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], equally or even more at risk of being the subject of politically motivated prosecutions.
A formal US position on the ICC can be found at http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/15158.htm.
Many in the U.S. who believe that the U.S. has a history of supporting human rights also believe that the United States is more qualified to move against war criminals than many of the signatories of the ICC. They cite the following examples to support their case:
* The [[Nuremberg trials]] were convened under pressure from the [[United States]] and one of the four chief prosecutors of the first trial was [[Robert H. Jackson]], a Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
* The U.S.-led military actions in [[Iraq]] in 2003 have led to the killing, capture, or removal from power of alleged Iraqi war criminals like [[Ali Hassan al-Majid]] and [[Saddam Hussein]].
The ICC was conceived during the Nuremberg trials as the natural extension of the principles of international justice. The United States itself was instrumental in early efforts to bring the ICC into being. Recent attempts by the United States government in opposition to the ICC run contrary to the official U.S. position during Nuremberg.
Furthermore, opponents contend that extradition of criminals from non-ICC members would require [[Security Council]] approval and support. Therefore, any kind of military action to force compliance would have to be undertaken (in large part) by the U.S. Supporters of the Court point out that it is true that the ICC relies on member states to find and capture criminals inside their own borders(called extradition), no law allows a state to capture ICC suspects in foreign states. The United States would therefore only be responsible for war criminals inside its own borders. Thus, Enos Irigaba Kagaba, a participant in the Rwandan genocide, was arrested in Minneapolis in 2004 and later deported to Rwanda. However, many people wanted by the Special Court in Sierra Leonne fo |
of the cortex in critical areas related to sound and [[visual processing]]. These and similar structural abnormalities may be the basis of the inevitable and hard to overcome difficulty in reading.
Several [[genetics|genetic]] regions on [[chromosome]]s 1 and 6 have been found that might be linked to dyslexia. In all likelihood, dyslexia is a conglomeration of disorders that all affect similar and associated areas of the cortex. With time, science is likely to identify and classify all individual suborders with benefits to our understanding of how low-level genetic flaws can affect the wiring of the [[brain]] and enhance or reduce a particular component of human mental capacity.
Some studies have concluded that speakers of languages whose orthography has a strong correspondence between letter and sound (e.g. [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]) have a much lower incidence of dyslexia than speakers of languages where the letter is less closely linked to the sound (e.g. [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]). {{ref|MITNews}}
Whether models of dyslexia are correct or not, the main lesson of dyslexia is that minor genetic changes affecting the layering of the cortex in a minor area of the brain may impose limitations on the overall intellectual function. At the same time, dyslexia shows that the brain exhibits a strong ability to compensate for its acquired limitations, and intense training can often result in miraculous turnabouts.
===Characteristics===
Most dyslexics will exhibit about 10 of the following traits and behaviors. These characteristics can vary from day-to-day or minute-to-minute. The most consistent thing about dyslexics is their inconsistency. Symptoms increase dramatically with confusion, time pressure, emotional stress, or poor health.
This may vary according to which of the suggested underlying causes of dyslexia affect the individual dyslexic.{{ref|37Symptoms}}
====General====
* Appears to be bright, seemingly highly intelligent, and articulate but unable to read, write, or spell at grade level.
* Isn't "behind enough" or "bad enough" to be helped in the school setting.
* Feels dumb; has poor self-esteem; hides or covers up weaknesses with ingenious compensatory strategies; easily frustrated and emotional about school reading or testing.
* Perhaps talented in either art, drama, music, sports, mechanics, story-telling, sales, business, designing, building, or engineering.
* Seems to "Zone out" or daydream often; gets lost easily or loses track of time.
* Difficulty sustaining attention; seems "hyper" or "daydreamer."
* Learns best through hands-on experience, demonstrations, experimentation, observation, and visual aids.
====Vision, reading, and spelling====
There is no scientific evidence that a relationship exists between reading failure and perceptual ability or
that visual training provides effective treatment.
[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/ijlink?linkType=ABST&journalCode=pediatrics&resid=73/6/824].
====Hearing and speech====
* Has extended hearing; hears things not said or apparent to others; easily distracted by sounds.
* Difficulty putting thoughts into words; speaks in halting phrases; leaves sentences incomplete; stutters under stress; mispronounces long words, or transposes phrases, words, and syllables when speaking.
====Writing and motor skills====
* Trouble with writing or copying; pencil grip is unusual; handwriting varies or is illegible.
* Clumsy, uncoordinated, poor at ball or team sports; difficulties with fine and/or gross motor skills and tasks; prone to motion-sickness.
* Can be [[ambidextrous]], and often confuses left/right, over/under.
*May write in "mirror writing" (writing that appears backwards, but can be read when reflected in a mirror)
====Math and time management====
* Has difficulty telling time, managing time, learning sequenced information or tasks, or being on time.
* Shows dependence on finger counting and other tricks when doing math; knows answers, but can't do it on paper.
* Can count, but has difficulty counting objects and dealing with money.
* Can do arithmetic, but fails word problems; when doing math must see the big picture before the detail.
====Memory and '''cognition'''====
* Excellent long-term memory for experiences, locations, and faces.
* Poor memory for sequences, facts and information that have not been experienced.
* Thinks primarily with images and feeling, not sounds or words (little internal dialogue).
====Behavior, health, development and personality====
* Extremely disorderly or compulsively orderly.
* Can be class clown, trouble-maker, or too quiet.
* Had unusually early or late developmental stages (talking, crawling, walking, tying shoes).
* Prone to ear infections; sensitive to foods, additives, and chemical products.
* Can be an extra deep or light sleeper; bedwetting beyond appropriate age.
* Unusually high or low tolerance for pain.
* Strong sense of justice; emotionally sensitive; strives for perfection.
==Public support==
In the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and in the [[United Kingdom]], some people say that there is a lack of adequate support and a general lack of interest in the learning disabilities of children in public schools. This has recently led to legal action by private parties against public schools in the United States and state schools in the United Kingdom.
Some charitable organizations like the [[Scottish Rite]] Foundation have undertaken the task of testing for dyslexia and making training classes and materials available for teachers and students. [http://www.alscottishritelearningcenters.com/Workshop%20topics.htm] [http://www.glmasons-mass.org/Grand_Lodge/family/srcentr.htm] [http://www.austinscottishrite.org/srcharity.html]
In [[English law]], the failure of schools to diagnose and provide remedial help for dyslexia became grounds for personal injury litigation in 1999 following a [[House of Lords]] decision in the case of [[Pamela Phelps]]. Students with dyslexia in Higher Education may receive support funded via the Disabled Students Allowance. Support can take the form of IT equipment (software and hardware) as well as personal assistance, also known as non-medical helper support. Dyslexic students will also be entitled to special provision in examinations such as additional time to allow them to read and comprehend exam questions.
The British [[Disability Discrimination Act]] also covers dyslexia.
:''"In some cases, people have 'coping strategies' which cease to work in certain circumstances (for example, where someone who [[Stuttering | stutters]] or has dyslexia is placed under stress). If it is possible that a person's ability to manage the effects of the impairment will break down so that these effects will sometimes occur, this possibility must be taken into account when assessing the effects of the impairment."'' &mdash; Paragraph A8, Guidance to the Definitions of Disability
Many doctors and teachers diagnose students with [[Attention Deficit Disorder]] rather than dyslexia. Of all the conditions that can mimic, mask or co-exist with ADD, dyslexia is probably the most well known. It is also one of the most misunderstood. Dyslexia is a learning disability that affects 17-20% of school age children according to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Like ADD, the dyslexic mind functions differently than others. Dyslexic children, like ADD children, tend to be above average intelligence, if not gifted. But they have specific difficulties with words. They have difficulty recalling words, even words they are familiar with. They also have difficulty with sequencing. Letters and syllables can become inverted (like "aminal") as can entire words. ("Come here over.") The child may have trouble distinguishing between the letters "b," "d," "q" and "p."
==Bibliography==
* de Lacoste-Utamsing, C., and Holloway, R., Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Corpus Callosum, Science, Vol 216, 1982.
* Dennis, M., Impaired Sensory and Motor Differentiation with CC Agenesis: A Lack of Callosal Inhibition during Ontogeny? Neuropsychologia, vol 14 p. 455-469, 1976.
* Duffy, F., Denkla, M., Bartels, P., and Sandini, G., Dyslexia: Regional Differences in Brain Electrical Activity by Topographic Mapping, Annals of Neurology, vol 7 #5, 1980
* Ettlinger, G., Blakemore, C. B., Milner, A. D., and Milner J., Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum: A behavioral Investigation, Brain, vol 75, 1972.
* Ferriss, G. S., and Dorsen, M., Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum: Neuropsychological Studies, Cortex, vol2, #2, 1975.
* Gazzaniga, M. S., Cognitive and Neurologic Aspects of Hemispheric Disconnection in the Human Brain, Discussions in Neurosciences, vol 4, #4, FESN, 1978.
* Gazzaniga, M., Consistency and Diversity in Brain Organization, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol 299, Ps 415-424, 1977.
* Gladstone, M., and Best, C. T., Developmental Dyslexia: The Potential Role of Interhemispheric Collaboration in Reading Acquisition, Hemispheric Function and Collaboration in the Child, Ed., Catherine Best, Academic Press 1983.
* Gross, K., Rothenberg, S., Schottenfield, S., and Drake, C., Duration Thresholds for Letter Identification in Left and Right Visual Fields for Normal and Reading-Disabled Children, Neuropsvchologia, vol 6, 1978.
* Gross-Glenn, K., and Rothenberg, S., Evidence for Deficit in Interhemispheric Transfer of Information in Dyslexic Boys, International Journal of Neuroscience, vol 24, 1984.
* Haggerty, R., and Stamm, J. S., Dichotic Auditory Fusion Levels in Children with Learning-Disabilities, Neuropsychologia, vol 16, 3, 1978.
* Harris, A. J., Lateral Dominance and Reading Disability, Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol 12, #5 1979.
* Horowitz, B., Rumsey, J |
and sometimes claims handling services for insurance companies. These companies often have special expertise that the insurance companies do not have.
==Life insurance and saving==
Certain life insurance contracts accumulate [[cash]] values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and [[financial endowment|endowment]] policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or [[liquidation|liquidate]] [[wealth]] when it is needed. See [[life insurance]].
In many countries, such as the US and the UK, [[tax law]] provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of [[saving]] as well as protection in the event of early death.
==Financial viability of insurance companies==
Financial stability and strength of the insurance company should be a major consideration when purchasing an insurance contract. An insurance premium paid currently provides coverage for losses that might arise many years in the future. For that reason, the viability of the insurance carrier is very important. In recent years, a number of insurance companies have become insolvent, leaving their policyholders with no coverage (or coverage only from a government-backed insurance pool with less attractive payouts for losses). A number of independent rating agencies, such as Best's, provide information and rate the financial viability of insurance companies.
==Controversies==
=== Insurance insulates too much ===
By creating a "security blanket" for its insureds, an insurance company may inadvertently find that its insureds may not be as risk-averse as they should be (since the insured assumes the risk belongs to the insurer). This problem is known to the insurance industry as [[moral hazard]]. To reduce their own financial exposure, insurance companies have contractual clauses that mitigate their obligation to provide coverage if the insured engages in some kind of behavior that grossly magnifies their risk of loss or liability.
For example, liability insurance providers do not provide coverage for liability arising from [[intentional tort]]s committed by the insured. Even if a provider was irrational enough to try to provide such coverage, it is against the public policy of most countries to allow such insurance to exist, and thus it is usually illegal.
===Complexity of insurance policy contracts===
Insurance policies can be complex and some policyholders may not understand all the fees, regulation and coverages included in a policy. As a result, people could buy policies at unfavorable terms. In response to these issues, governments often make detailed regulations that set down minimum standards for policies and govern how they may be [[advertising|advertised]] and sold.
Many individuals purchase policies through an insurance broker. The broker can counsel the policyholder on which coverage to purchase and limitations of the policy. A broker generally holds contracts with many insurers which allows the broker to "shop" the [[market]] for the best rates and coverage possible.
=== Redlining ===
Redlining is the practice of some insurance companies to deny the issuance of coverage in specific geographic areas, usually due to an increased likelihood of risk; the validity of the assessment may be real or perceived, though it is often attributed to discrimination.
Evaluation of risk, when an insurer determines a premium or premium rate structure, considers quantifiable factors, including location, [[credit score]]s, [[gender]], [[occupation]], [[marital status]], and [[education]] level. However, the use of these essential factors, whether inappropriately or not, are often considered to be 'unfair' or [[discriminatory]] by some consumers and their advocates, sometimes leading to political disputes about insurers' determination of premiums and possible [[government]] intervention to limit the factors used.
A refutation to this is that the job of an insurance underwriter is to properly categorize a given risk as to the likelihood that the loss will occur. Any factor that causes a greater likelihood of loss should in theory, be charged a higher rate. This is a basic principle of insurance and must be followed for insurance companies or groups to operate properly, even for [[non-profit organization]]s. Thus, discrimination of potential insureds by legitimate factors is central to insurance. Therefore the only thing that can be considered legitimately "unfair" are practices that [[discrimination|discriminate]] against a given group without actual factors that show that the group is a higher risk. So, eliminating real factors discriminates against other insureds by forcing them to bear part of the cost of the disallowed perceived factors.
=== Health insurance ===
Health insurance, which is coverage for individuals to protect them against medical costs, is a highly charged and political issue in the United States, which does not have socialized health coverage. In theory, the market for health insurance provision should function in a manner similar to other insurance coverages, but the skyrocketing cost of health coverage has disrupted markets around the globe, but perhaps most glaringly in the US. Please see [[health insurance]] for a discussion of this category.
=== Dental insurance ===
Dental insurance, like health insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs. Dental insurance usually goes hand-in-hand with health insurance, with most people in the United States receiving it included in their health insurance plan from their employer. Along with receiving dental insurance from your employer, there are ways to receive dental insurance through resellers and companies for individuals and families; although this way tends to be too expensive for most people.
=== Insurance Patents ===
New insurance products can now be protected from copying with a [[business method patent]]. This may lead to the more rapid introduction of new insurance products as insurance companies will invest more heavily in new product development if they can be reasonably assured that their patents will keep those products from being copied.
A recent example of a new insurance product that is patented is telematic [[auto insurance]]. It was independently invented and patented by a major US auto insurance company, [[Progressive Corporation|Progressive Auto Insurance]] ([http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5797134.html US patent 5,797,134]) and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez ([http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=EP0700009&F=8&RPN=EP0700009&DOC=cca34af1984f0dc47b32e9a9722ad1a148 European Patent EP0700009B1]).
The basic idea of telematic auto insurance is that a driver's behavior is monitored directly while the person drives and this information is transmitted to an insurance company. The insurance company then assesses the risk of that driver having an accident and charges insurance premiums accordingly. A driver that drives a lot of distance at high speed, for example, will be charged a higher rate than a driver that drives small distances at low speed.
A British auto insurance company, [[Norwich Union]], has taken a license to both the Progressive patent and Perez patent. They have made additional investments in infrastructure and developed a commercial offering called "Pay As You Drive" or PAYD.
Many independent inventors are in favor of patenting new insurance products since it gives them protection from big companies when they bring their new insurance products to market. Independent inventors account for 70% of the new US patent applications in this area.
Many insurance executives are opposed to patenting insurance products because it creates a new risk for them. [[The Hartford]] insurance company, for example, had to recently pay US$80 million to an independent inventor, Bancorp Services, in order to settle a patent infringement and theft of trade secret lawsuit for a new type of corporate owned life insurance product invented and patented by Bancorp.
There are currently about 150 new patent applications on insurance inventions filed per year in the United States. [http://marketsandpatents.com/IPB-12152005.mht (Source: Insurance IP Bulletin, December 15, 2005)]. Only about 20 - 30 patents per year, however, are actually issuing.
=== The insurance industry and rent seeking ===
Certain insurance products and practices have been described as [[rent seeking]] by critics. That is, insurance companies have been alleged to have certain products or practices that are only useful due to certain government laws (especially tax laws), and that the insurance industry in these cases generally adds no economic value but instead supports politicians who will continue the legal regime which gives the insurance company these benefits. For example, in the United States the current tax rules generally allow owners of variable annuities (see [[annuity (US financial products)]] and variable life insurance (see [[variable universal life insurance]]) to invest in the stock market and defer or eliminate paying any taxes until withdrawals are made. Sometimes this tax deferral is the only reason some individuals use these products instead of a mutual fund. Another example is the legal infrastructure which allows life insurance to be held in an irrevocable trust which is used to pay an [[estate tax]] while the proceeds itself are immune from the estate tax.
== Insurance in [[Blackjack]] ==
In the [[casino]] game , [[insurance]] is an optional play that requires the player to bet 1/2 of his current bet to the posibilitiy of the house drawing a blackjack (an ace and a ten), if the house does draw a blackjack, all insured players get their bet back, i |
to the [[golden ratio]] seemed more attractive. Some modern research seems to confirm this, in that people whose facial features are symmetric and proportioned according the golden ratio are consistently ranked as more attractive than those whose faces are not.
According to an ancient Indian definition, the beautiful is that which from moment to moment is always new. That is to say, it removes the mind from the world in which things grow old. But considering that the [[visual cortex | visual system]] allows us to see by extracting the stable, rather than changing, features of the environment on a momentary basis, this ancient definition seems hard to support.
Different cultures have deified beauty, typically in female forms. Here is a list of the goddesses of beauty in four different mythologies.
* [[Aphrodite]] - [[Greek mythology]]
* [[Freya]] - [[Norse Mythology]]
* [[Lakshmi]] - [[Hindu mythology]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] - [[Roman mythology]]
[[Image:Lolita.png|right|thumb|''Lolita'']]
[[Beauty contest]]s claim to be able to judge beauty.
The ''millihelen'' is sometimes jokingly defined as the scientific unit of human beauty. This derives from the legend of [[Helen of Troy]] as presented in [[Christopher Marlowe]]'s ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]'', in which her beauty was said to have launched a thousand ships. The ''millihelen'' is therefore the degree of beauty that can launch one ship.
The foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists set the standard for male beauty in Western Civilization. The ideal Roman is the more masculine form of pure male beauty. He is ideally defined (very similar to today's pure definition of a Classic male beauty or masculinity today would be defined as: larger (ie. taller over 6',) far more muscular, long legged, with a full head of thick hair, a high and wide forehead - sign of intelligence, wide set eyes, a strong browline, a strong perfect nose and profile relationship, a smaller mouth, and a strong jaw line. These factors in combination would, as it does today, result in an impressive "grand" look of pure handsome mascultinity.
It is ironic that in early Hollywood that ideal was strived for or created whereas many actors today who do not fit that [[Classical]] standard such as Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, and many others are frequently pushed to the public by the Hollywood press machine, as "beautiful' or 'good-looking.'
===Mathematical beauty===
{{Main|Mathematical beauty}}
Even mathematical formulae can be considered beautiful. <math>e^{i \pi} +1 = 0</math> is commonly considered one of the most beautiful theorems in mathematics (see ''[[Euler's identity]]'').
The poet [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] wrote that "[[Euclid]] alone has looked on beauty bare" in an allusion to the austere beauty many people have found in the reasoning in the [[Geometry|geometer]] Euclid's ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''.
Another connection between mathematics and beauty which played a prominent role in Pythagoras' philosophy was the way in which musical tones can be arranged in mathematical sequences, which repeat at regular intervals called [[octave]]s.
The so-called "Golden Mean", represented by the greek letter Phi(Φ) and approximately equal to 1.618, has also been considered by many to be beautiful. It is also called the divine ratio and it is frequently found in nature. For example, in a nautilus shell, the ratio between each section is about 1.618. In Ancient Greece and Rome beauty was measured and based on similar principles.
==Effects of beauty in human society==
A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that (subjectively) good-looking people earn more. Less attractive people earned, on average, 13% less than more attractive people, while the penalty for overweight was around 5%.
The term "beautiful people" is used to refer to those who closely follow trends in [[fashion]], physical appearance, [[food]], dining, [[wine]], [[automobiles]], and [[real estate]], often at a considerable financial cost. Such people often mirror in appearance and consumer choices the characteristics and purchases of wealthy [[actors]] and [[actresses]], [[model (person)|models]], or other [[celebrities]]. The term "beautiful people" originally referred to the [[musicians]], actors and celebrities of the [[California|Californian]] "[[hippy|Flower Power]]" generation of the [[1960s]]. [[The Beatles]] reference the original "beautiful people" in their [[1967]] song "Baby You're a Rich Man" on the [[Magical Mystery Tour]] album. With the close of the 1960s, the concept of beautiful people gradually came to encompass [[fashionista|fashionistas]] and the "[[hip (slang)|hip]]" people of [[New York City]], expanding to its modern definition. Beautiful people usually enjoy an image-based and/or financially-based prestige which enhances their aura of success, power, and beauty.
==See also==
{{wikiquotepar|Beauty}}
*[[Aesthetics]]
*[[Body Dysmorphic disorder]]
*[[Cuteness]]
*[[Human physical appearance]]
*[[Mathematical beauty]]
*[[Physical attractiveness]]
*[[Plastic surgery]]
*[[Sexual attraction]]
*[[Wabi-sabi]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fitgroove.com/beauty.asp FitGroove: Health and Beauty] Beauty articles and information.
*[http://www.faceresearch.org/ FaceResearch] &ndash; Scientific research and online studies on facial beauty
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-28 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century
*[http://art.net/~coffin/WRITINGS/BEAUTY/beauty.html The Symbol of Beauty] essay by Tom Coffin
[[Category:Aesthetics]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the physical phenomenon. For the sports team, please see [[Brownian Motion (Ultimate)]].''
[[Image:BrownianMotion.png|thumb|right|256px|An example of 1000 simulated steps of Brownian motion in two dimensions. The origin of the motion is at [0,0] and the ''x'' and ''y'' components of each step are independently and [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] with variance 2 and mean 0. The mathematical model posits motion in which the steps are not discrete.]]
The term '''''Brownian motion''''' (in honor of the botanist [[Robert Brown (botanist)|Robert Brown]]) refers to either
# The physical phenomenon that minute particles immersed in a fluid move about randomly; or
# The mathematical models used to describe those random movements.
The mathematical model can also be used to describe many phenomena not resembling (other than mathematically) the random movement of minute particles. An often quoted example is [[stock market]] fluctuations. Another example is the evolution of physical characteristics in the fossil record.
Brownian motion is among the simplest [[stochastic process]]es on a continuous domain, and it is a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of both simpler (see [[random walk]]) and more complicated stochastic processes. This [[Universality (dynamical systems)|universality]] is closely related to the universality of the [[normal distribution]]. In both cases, it is often mathematical convenience rather than accuracy as models that motivates their use. All three quoted examples of Brownian motion are cases of this:
# It has been argued that [[Lévy flight]]s are a more accurate, if still imperfect, model of stock-market fluctuations.
# The physical Brownian motion can be modelled more accurately by a more general [[diffusion|diffusion process]].
# The dust hasn't settled yet on what the best model for the fossil record is, even after correcting for non-[[normal distribution|Gaussian]] data.
== History ==
[[Jan Ingenhousz]] made some observations of the irregular motion of [[carbon]] [[dust]] on [[ethanol|alcohol]] in [[1765]] but Brownian motion is generally regarded as having been discovered by the botanist [[Robert Brown (botanist)|Robert Brown]] in 1827. The story goes that Brown was studying [[pollen]] particles floating in water under the microscope. He then observed minute particles within vacuoles in the pollen grains executing the jittery motion that now bears his name. By doing the same with particles of dust, he was able to rule out that the motion was due to pollen being "alive", but it remained to explain the origin of the motion. The first to give a theory of Brownian motion was [[Louis Bachelier]] in 1900 in his PhD t |
eah is shunned by many people. [[Voodoo]] is practiced, but almost exclusively by immigrants from [[Haiti]], Cuba, Dominican Republic and Jamaica.
==Culture==
{{seealso|Culture of the Bahamas}}
Bahamian [[culture]] is a hybrid of [[Africa]]n, [[Europe]]an and indigenous forms. Perhaps its most famous export is a rhythmic form of [[music]] called [[junkanoo]].
==Climate==
The [[climate]] of the Bahamas is [[subtropical]] to [[tropical]], and is moderated significantly by the waters of the [[Gulf Stream]], particularly in [[winter]]. Conversely, this often proves very dangerous in the [[summer]] and [[autumn]], when [[hurricane]]s pass near or through the islands. [[Hurricane Andrew]] hit the northern islands in [[1992 Atlantic hurricane season|1992]], and [[Hurricane Floyd]] hit most of the islands in [[1999 Atlantic hurricane season|1999]]. [[Hurricane Frances]] of [[2004 Atlantic hurricane season|2004]] was expected to be the worst ever for the islands. Also in 2004, the northern Bahamas were hit by a less potent [[Hurricane Jeanne]].
==See also==
* [[Bahamian American]]
* [[Tongue of the Ocean]], a geological phenomenon
* [[Communications in the Bahamas]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Bahamas]]
* [[Military of the Bahamas]]
* [[Transport in the Bahamas]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of the Bahamas]]
==References==
===General history===
* Albury, Paul. ''The Story of The Bahamas''. London: MacMillan Caribbean, 1975.
* Miller, Hubert W. "The Colonization of the Bahamas, 1647-1670," ''The William and Mary Quarterly'' 2 no.1 (Jan 1945): 33-46.
* Craton, Michael. ''A History of the Bahamas''. London: Collins, 1962.
* Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. ''Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People''. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992.
===Economic history===
* Johnson, Howard. ''The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom''. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991.
* Johnson, Howard. ''The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783-1933''. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996.
* Storr, Virgil H. ''Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas''. New York: Peter Lang, 2004.
===Social history===
* Johnson, Wittington B. ''Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784-1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society.'' Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 2000.
* Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force," ''History Today'' 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30-35.
* Saunders, Gail. ''The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s-1920s''. Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996.
* Saunders, Gail. ''Bahamas Society After Emancipation''. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|The Bahamas}}
* [http://www.bahamas.gov.bs/ Bahamas Government Official Website]
* [http://www.bahamas.co.uk/ UK Bahamas Tourist Office]
* [http://www.bahamas-tourisme.fr/ French Bahamas Tourist Office]
* [http://www.bahamas.com/ Bahamas Ministry of Tourism]
* [http://www.constitution.org/cons/bahamas.htm The Bahamas Constitution]
* [http://www.bahamianstudies.org/ Bahamian Studies Online]
* {{de icon}} [http://www.strausbach.de/bahamas_photo.php Photogallery] (with slide show)
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/bahamas-abacos/ Photographs of the Bahamas] - Abaco islands, including Junkanoo festival
''Maps of the Bahamas Islands [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com Caribbean-On-Line.com]''
* [http://www.bahamas-on-line.com/bahamas-maps.html Map of the Bahamas Island Chain]
{{West Indies}}
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[[an:Bahamas]]
[[bg:Бахамски острови]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''مملكة البحرين<br>Kingdom of Bahrain'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2 |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | [[image:Flag of Bahrain.svg|125px|Flag of Bahrain]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Bahrain coa.png|125px]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of Bahrain|In Detail]])
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Emblem of Bahrain|Full size]])
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | <small>''[[National motto]]: [[Bahrainona]]'' &#1576;&#1581;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575;</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#fff;" | [[image:LocationBahrain.png]]
|-
| '''Official [[language]]s''' || [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Manama]]
|-
| '''[[King of Bahrain|King]]''' || [[Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifah]]
|-
| '''[[Prime Minister of Bahrain|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Khalifah bin Sulman al-Khalifah]]
|-
| '''[[Crown Prince]]'''
| [[Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br> - Total<br> - % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 176th]]<br> 665 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (253&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]])<br> 0%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
<br> - Total (2005)
<br> - [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 157th]]
<br> 688,345
note: includes 235,108 non-nationals (July 2005 est.)
<br> 987/km&sup2; (2,556/sq.&nbsp;mi)
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.846 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|43rd]]) – <font color="#009900">high</font>
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''- From the [[United Kingdom]]<br>
|
<br>1971
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Bahraini Dinar]] (BHD)
|-
| '''[[GDP]]'''
| $ 14.08 billion ([[List of countries by gdp (ppp)|130]])
|-
| '''[[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita| GDP per capita]]'''
| $ 20,500 (50)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+3
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Bahrainona]] (Our Bahrain)
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.bh]]
|-
| '''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 973
|}The '''Kingdom of Bahrain''', or '''Bahrain''' (''formerly spelled '''Bahrein'''''), ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: مملكة البحرين) is a [[borderless country|borderless]] [[island nation]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] ([[Southwest Asia]]/[[Middle East]], [[Asia]]). [[Saudi Arabia]] lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the [[King Fahd Causeway]] (officially opened on [[November 25]], [[1986]]), and [[Qatar]] is to the south across the [[Persian Gulf]]. The [[Qatar–Bahrain Friendship Bridge]], currently being planned, will link Bahrain to Qatar as the longest fixed link in the world.
==History==
{{Main|History of Bahrain}}
Bahrain has been populated by humans since prehistoric times, and has even been proposed as the site of the [[Biblical]] [[Garden of Eden]].
Its strategic location in the [[Persian Gulf]] has brought rule and influence from the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Greeks]], [[Persian people|Persians]], and finally the [[Arab]]s, under whom the island became [[Muslim]]. Bahrain was in the ancient times known as [[Dilmun]], [[Tylos]] (its Greek given name), Awal, as well as [[Persian language|Persian]] name [[Mishmahig]] when it came under the imperial rule of the [[Persian Empire]].
The islands of Bahrain, positioned in the middle south of the [[Persian Gulf]], have attracted the attention of many invaders in history. Bahrain, meaning "Two Seas" refers to the fact that the islands contain the two sources of water, sweet water springs and salty water in the surrounding seas.
A strategic position between East and West, fertile lands, fresh water, and pearl diving made Bahrain a centre of [[Urban area|urban]] settlement throughout history. Some 2,300 years [[Anno Domini|BC]], Bahrain became a centre of one of the ancient empires trading between [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) and the [[Indus Valley]] (now the region near India). This was the civilization of Delmon that was linked to the Sumerian Civilization in the third millennium BC. Bahrain became part of the Babylonian empire about 600 BC. Historical records referred to Bahrain as the "Life of Eternity", "Paradise", etc. Bahrain was also called the "Pearl of the Persian Gulf".
Bahrain up until 1521 comprised the bigger region of Ahsa, Qatif (both are now the eastern province of [[Saudi Arabia]]) as well as Awal (now Bahrain Isl |
t he would be remembered for his "involvement in personal scandal" rather than his accomplishments as president, and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" 47% of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.
==Public image==
[[Image:ClintonChild.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Clinton sitting with a child.]]
As the first [[Baby Boomer]] president, Clinton was seen during his presidency and during his candidacy as a change from the presidents of the [[G.I. Generation|World War II Generation]]. With his [[soundbite|sound-bite]]-ready dialogue and pioneering use of pop culture in his campaigning (he appeared on ''[[The Arsenio Hall Show]]'' playing the [[saxophone]] during the 1992 campaign), Clinton was described, often negatively, as the "[[MTV]] president". Despite criticisms that his appeal to young voters lacked substance, Clinton won among [[Generation X]] voters in the 1992 election, with the highest Gen-X turnout ever. Clinton clearly came across as popular to young people. Until his inauguration as president, he had earned substantially less money than his wife, and had the smallest net worth of any president in modern history, according to ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton's Autobiography)|My Life]]'', Clinton's autobiography. Clinton was also very popular overall among [[African-American]]s and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency. <ref>[http://www.americanprogress.org/site/pp.asp?c=biJRJ8OVF&amp;b=122950 A Conversation With President Bill Clinton on Race in America Today] - interview with Clinton, [[Center for American Progress]], [[July 16]], [[2004]]</ref>
Many people saw the couple as an unprecedented political partnership. Some even suspected that Hillary, and not Bill, was the dominant force behind the pair, and many jokes implied that Hillary was the real [[President of the United States]].
Social conservatives were put off by the impression of Clinton having been a "[[hippie]]" during the late 1960s, his coming-of-age era. In the 1960s, however, Clinton might not have been viewed as such by many of those in the hippie subculture. Clinton avoided the draft with a student deferment while studying abroad during the [[Vietnam War]] Clinton's marijuana experimentation, clumsily excused by Clinton's statement that he "didn't inhale" further tarnished his image with some voters, although he was actually to the right of previous Democratic candidates for the presidency on many issues - he supported the [[death penalty]], [[curfew]]s, uniforms in public schools, and other measures opposed by [[youth rights]] supporters, and he expanded the [[War on Drugs]] greatly while in office.
[[Image:pres38-42.jpg|350px|thumb|Presidents Bill Clinton, [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Gerald Ford]], and their wives at the funeral of President [[Richard Nixon]] on [[April 27]] 1994.]]
===Extramaertial Affairs===
Starting from [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 Presidential election campaign]], rumors about Clinton's [[adultery]] were floating about, and these surfaced and increased with [[Paula Jones]]' accusations of [[sexual harassment]]. After allegations had linked him to Jones, [[Gennifer Flowers]], and [[Kathleen Willey]], Clinton's sex life would become the focus of his public image when, in January 1998, recorded conversations by [[Linda Tripp]] contained statements by White House intern [[Monica Lewinsky]] about having [[oral sex]].
===Other Views===
Clinton's warmth, curiosity and openness unite to create an intense personal charm, but his character and policies were viewed with intense, personal dislike by some conservative critics. Several unsubstantiated accusations were leveled on conservative talk radio programs. Among these were rumors of involvement with drug traffickers and personal [[cocaine]] use. Some talk show personalities fomented [[Vince Foster#Conspiracy Theory|conspiracy theories]] about Clinton's involvement in the death of long-time friend and aide [[Vince Foster]], which was later ruled a [[suicide]] in an extensive investigation by [[Kenneth Starr]]. The deadly [[Branch Davidian]] standoff near [[Waco, Texas]] in 1993, which many considered to be a bungled operation, engendered further hostility in some conservative circles towards the Clinton administration.
===Nicknames===
Clinton is often referred to by nickname among both detractors and fans. One of the earliest was "Bubba", which alludes to his Southern [["good ol' boy"]] background. Other common nicknames include "Slick Willy" and "Clintoon" (by detractors), and the "Big Dog" (by fans). Although the phrase typically refers to [[Ronald Reagan]]'s presidency, Clinton's presidency is sometimes referred to as the "[[Teflon character|Teflon]] Presidency" for how scandals and setbacks never seem to stick to him, at least in terms of dropped public support. During his first presidential campaign in 1992 he claimed the moniker of the "Comeback Kid" after placing second in the [[New Hampshire primary]] to [[Paul Tsongas]] ("Tonight New Hampshire's made me the Comeback Kid" ).
==Post-presidential career==
===2001===
[[Image:ClintonSenate.jpg|thumb|250px|Hillary Clinton is sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as Bill and [[Chelsea Clinton]] observe.]]
[[Image:DailyShowClinton.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bill Clinton on ''[[The Daily Show]]'', promoting ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton's Autobiography)|My Life]]'']]
On [[January 18]] [[2001]], he addressed the nation one last time on television from the Oval Office of the White House, two days before handing over the presidency to [[George W. Bush]], whose father he had defeated in [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]].
Like other former American presidents, Clinton has engaged in a career as a public speaker on a variety of issues (earning $875,000 in 2004 alone, according to Mr. Clinton's own financial disclosure statements). In these, he continues to comment on aspects of contemporary politics, and he has been known to disregard the "unwritten rule" whereby former presidents refrain from partisan criticism of their successors. One notable theme is his advocacy of multilateral solutions to problems facing the world. Clinton's close relationship with the [[African American]] community has been highlighted in his post-Presidential career with his opening of his personal office in the [[Harlem]] section of [[New York City]]. He assisted his wife [[Hillary Clinton]] in her campaign for office as a [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from New York|senator]] representing [[New York]].
===2004===
In February 2004, Clinton (along with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Sophia Loren]]) won a [[Grammy Award]] for [[Grammy Awards of 2004#Children's|Best Spoken Word Album for Children]] for narrating the [[Russian National Orchestra]]'s album ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]/Wolf Tracks''. Clinton won a second Grammy in February 2005, [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album|Best Spoken Word Album]] for ''[[My Life]]''.
Clinton collected his [[memoir]]s into a [[book]] entitled ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton's Autobiography)|My Life]]'', which was released on [[June 22]] [[2004]]. Commenting on memoirs in general, he said "some are dull and self-serving, hopefully mine will be interesting and self-serving." The book made an unprecedented three appearances on the [[Amazon.com]] best-seller list before it was even released.
====Kerry Campaign====
On [[July 26]] [[2004]], Clinton spoke for the fifth time in a row to the [[2004 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]], using the opportunity to praise candidate [[John Kerry]]. Many Democrats believed that Clinton's speech was one of the best in Convention history. In it, he criticized President George W. Bush's depiction of Kerry, saying that "strength and wisdom are not opposing values."
====Health Scare====
On [[September 2]] [[2004]], Clinton had an episode of [[angina]] and was evaluated at [[Northern Westchester Hospital]]. It was determined that he had not suffered a [[coronary infarction]], and he was sent home, returning the following day for [[angiography]], which disclosed multiple vessel [[coronary artery disease]]. He was transferred to [[Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center]] in New York City, where he successfully underwent quadruple [[coronary artery bypass surgery]] on [[September 6]] [[2004]]. The medical team responsible for Clinton claimed that, had he not had surgery, he would likely have suffered a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] within a few months. On [[March 10]] [[2005]], he underwent a follow-up surgery to remove scar tissue and fluid from his left chest cavity, a result of his open-heart surgery.
=====Presidential Libary====
He dedicated his [[presidential library]], which is the largest in the nation, the [[William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park|William J. Clinton Presidential Center]], in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] on [[November 18]] [[2004]]. Under rainy skies, Clinton received words of praise from former presidents [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[George H. W. Bush]], as well as from the current president, [[George W. Bush]]. He was also treated to a musical rendition from [[Bono]] and [[David Howell Evans|The Edge]] from [[U2]], who expressed their gratitude at Clinton's efforts to resolve the Northern Ireland conflict during his presidency.
[[Image:Bushclinton2.jpg|thumb|left|Clinton and former President Bush at Super Bowl XXXIX.]]
[[Image:Jp2presidents.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton, along with President George W. Bush, his wife, Laura, and Bush's father pay their respects to Pope John Paul II before the pope's funeral.]]
====Since====
On [[November 22]] [[2004]], New York |
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computer science</title>
<id>5323</id>
<revision>
<id>42131422</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:53:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allan McInnes</username>
<id>647621</id>
</contributor>
<comment>achievements stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Current-CS-COTW}}
{{portal}}
'''Computer science''' is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s{{ref|def}}. Many [[diversity of computer science|diverse fields]] exist within the broader discipline of computer science; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[algorithms]] used in performing computations. Still others focus on the problems involved in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing a computation, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming languages]] to craft a solution to some concrete computational problem.
== History ==
{{main|history of computer science}}
The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[digital computer]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term ''computer'' referred to a human clerk that performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight. Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer.
During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960's, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs {{ref_harvard|Denning2000|Denning 2000|_}}.
==Major achievements==
{{section-stub}}
* Definition of computability {{ref_harvard|Constable2000|Constable 2000|_}}
* Recognition that there are unsolvable and intractable problems {{ref_harvard|Constable2000|Constable 2000|_}}
== Relationship with other fields ==
{{main|Diversity of computer science}}
{{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}}
Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''"Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]].
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines {{ref_harvard|Denning2000|Denning 2000|_}}. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Godel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]].
The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]] {{ref_harvard|Parnas1998|Parnas 1998|_}}. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all.
==Fields of computer science==
{{section-stub}}
=== Mathematical foundations ===
; [[Cryptography]]
: algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]
; [[Graph theory]]
: Foundations for Data Storage structure and searching algorithms.
; [[Mathematical logic]]
; [[Type Theory]]
: formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs, especially program safety
=== Theory of computation ===
; [[Automata theory]]
; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]]
; [[Computational complexity theory]]
: fundamental bounds (esp. time and storage space) on computations
=== Algorithms and data structures ===
; [[Analysis of algorithms]]
; [[Algorithms]]
: formal processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes
; [[Data structure]]s
: the organization and manipulation of data
=== Programming languages and compilers ===
; [[Compiler]] construction
: ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones
; [[Programming language]]s
: formal languages for expressing algorithms and the properties of these languages
=== Databases ===
; [[Data mining]]
: study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]
=== Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems ===
;[[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]]
: theory and practice of simultaneous and interacting computation
; [[Computer networking|Networking]]
: algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across long distances, often including [[error correction]]
;[[Parallel computing]]
: computing using multiple computers and multiple processors in parallel
===Computer architecture ===
; [[Computer architecture]]
: the design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system at the gate level, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem
; [[Operating system]]s
: systems for managing computer programs and data structures
=== Software engineering ===
; [[Computer programming]]
: the act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]
; [[Formal methods]]
: mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs
; [[Software engineering]]
: the principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs
=== Artificial intelligence ===
; [[Artificial intelligence]]
: the implementation and study of systems that exhibit (either behaviourally or seemingly) an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own, sometimes inspired by the characteristics of living beings. Computer science is closely tied with AI, as software and computers are primary tools for the development and progression of artificial intelligence.
; [[Automated reasoning]]
; [[Robotics]]
: algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots
; [[Computer vision]]
: algorithms for extracting three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture
=== Computer graphics ===
; [[Computer graphics]]
: algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world
; [[Image processing]]
: Remote Sensing
=== Scientific computing ===
; [[Bioinformatics]]
==Computer science education==
Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.
Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of compute |
due to limited space. Bones are respectfully washed and placed in an [[ossuary]], often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally when a body is exhumed something believed to be miraculous occurs to reveal the person's sainthood. There have been numerous occurrences where the exhumed bones are said to suddenly give off a wonderful fragrance, like flowers; or sometimes the body is said to be found [[incorruptibility|incorrupt]] despite having not been embalmed (traditionally the Orthodox do not [[embalm]] the dead) and having been buried for three years.
For the Orthodox, body and soul both comprise the person, and in the end, body and soul will be reunited; therefore, the body of a saint shares in the holiness of the soul of the saint.
Because the Orthodox Church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead (believing the saints are alive in Heaven), the Orthodox treat the saints as if they were still here. They venerate them and ask for their prayers, and consider them brothers and sisters in Christ Jesus. Saints are venerated and loved and asked to intercede for salvation, but they are not given the worship accorded to God, because their holiness is believed to come from God. In fact, anyone who worships a saint, [[relic]]s, or [[icon]]s is to be excommunicated. As a general rule only [[clergy]] will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession; however, in [[veneration]] the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Every [[altar]] in every Orthodox church contains relics, usually of a [[martyr]]. The Church building interiors are covered with the icons of saints.
The Orthodox Church sees [[baptism]], both for infants and adults, as the moment one is born into Christ. The person entering the baptismal font is not seen as the same person who emerges, so the person is given a new name, always the name of a saint. As well as birthdays, Orthodox celebrate the day of the saint for whom the person is named (the person's name day).
===The Last Things===
Eastern Orthodox [[theology]] does not consider Heaven to be a static state. Mankind will be restored to a state of perfection in which he retains his individuality and personality, yet he is devoid of all adverse traits which limit his unending progression towards God (i.e. Since God's love and wisdom are infinite, there will be constant progression toward a deeper understanding of that love and wisdom), and this is seen as heavenly bliss. Heaven is the unending sea of God's love in which we are plunged.
Concerning those who have rejected the love and mercy of God, they will likewise be plunged into that endless sea of God's love, but because of their rejection and hatred it will seem to them an unquenchable and eternal fire. In other words, God is love, and his love does not change, and so it is our acceptance or rejection of that love that will bring either heaven or hell upon us.
==Art and architecture==
===Church buildings===
[[Image:Orthodoxchurch.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A 3D Rendering of a Traditional Orthodox Church]]
[[Image:Orthodox-church.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Depiction of a typical Orthodox Church building]]The church building has many symbolic meanings. Perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in Noah's) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations. And so, most Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular shape, especially for churches with large choirs is the Cross. Architectural patterns may vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars, but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same.
The Church building is divided into three main parts: the narthex (entrance hall), the nave and the sanctuary (also called the ''altar'' or ''holy place'').
'''Narthex:''' The narthex is the connection between the Church and the outside world and for this reason catechumens (pre-baptized Orthodox) and non-Orthodox stand here (note: the tradition of allowing only confirmed Orthodox into the nave of the church has for the most part fallen into disuse). In monastic churches it is usual for the lay people visiting the monastery to stand in the narthex while the monks or nuns stand in the nave. Separating the narthex from the nave are the Royal Doors (from the time of the Byzantine Empire, when the emperor would enter the main body of [[Hagia Sophia]], the Church of holy Wisdom, through these doors and proceed up to the altar to partake of the Eucharist). On either side of this portal are large brass candlestands called ''menalia'' which represent the pillars of fire which went before the hebrews into the promised land.
'''Nave:''' The nave is the main body of the church where the people stand during the services. In most Orthodox churches there are no pews but rather ''stacidia'' (like a high chair with foldup seat&mdash;it has arm rests high enough to be used while standing&mdash;see the picture of the monks); these were usually found along the walls, to be used only by the aged and infirm. Traditionally there is no sitting during services with the only exceptions being during the reading of the Psalms, and the priest's sermon. The people stand before God. However because of the influence of Roman Catholic and Protestant practices in western countries it is not uncommon to find pews and kneelers in more modern church structures.
[[Image:Hram sv sava.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The [[Temple of Saint Sava|Hram Svetog Save]] or Temple of St. Sava, the world's largest Orthodox church]]
The walls are normally covered from floor to ceiling with icons or wall paintings of saints, their lives, and stories from the Bible. Because the church building is a direct extension of its Jewish roots where men and women stand separately, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, with men standing on the right and women on the left. Because of this arrangement it is emphasized that we are all equal before God (equal distance from the altar), and that the man is not superior to the woman. In many modern churches this traditional practice has been altered and families stand together.
Above the nave in the dome of the church is the icon of Christ the Almighty (''Pantokratoros'', "Ruler of All"). Directly hanging below the dome (In more traditional churches) is usually a kind of circular chandelier with depictions of the saints and apostles, called the ''horos'' which represents the Choir of the saints; during certain significant moments of the service, it is swung to symbolically represent the universal participation of the church on earth and the church in heaven.
'''Iconostasis:''' Traditionally called the ''templon'', it is a screen or wall between the nave and the sanctuary, which is covered with icons. There will normally be three doors, one in the middle and one on either side. The central one is traditionally called the ''Beautiful Gate'' and is only used by the clergy. There are times when this gate is closed during the service and a curtain is drawn. The doors on either side are called the ''Deacons' Doors'' or ''Angel Doors'' as they often have depicted on them the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. These doors are used by deacons and servers to enter the sanctuary. Typically, to the left of the Beautiful Gate (as seen from the altar) is the icon of Christ, then the icon of St [[John the Baptist]]; to the right the icon of the [[Theotokos]], always shown holding Christ; and then the icon of the saint to whom the church is dedicated (i.e., the patron). There are often other icons on the iconostasis but these vary from church to church. Above and behind the iconostasis (if the iconostasis does not reach the ceiling) is the ''Platytera ton Ouranon'' ("more spacious than the heavens"), the icon of Virgin Mary with Christ blessing all. Oil lamps burn before all the icons.
'''Sanctuary:''' The area including the altar table at its center, behind the iconostasis: it is the "Holy of Holies" of the church. The church, if at all possible, is always aligned with the altar facing East. The priest also faces East when before the holy table (away from the congregation), offering prayers for the people to God and then coming out through the Beautiful Gate to give God's good news (Gospel) to the people. To the left of the altar table will be the ''Prosthesis'' table (table of preparation) where the bread and wine are prepared for the Eucharist before the Divine Liturgy begins.
===Icons===
[[Image:Orthodox prayer corner.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A fairly elaborate Orthodox Christian prayer corner as would be found in a private home]]Icons are replete with symbolism meant to convey far more meaning than simply the identity of the person depicted, and it is for this reason that Orthodox iconography has become an exacting science of copying older icons rather than an opportunity for artistic expression. The Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by [[Luke the Evangelist]]. Orthodox regard their depiction of Christ as accurate, with Christ having brown semi-curly hair, brown eyes, and Semitic features (the Virgin Mary being similar). The personal, idiosyncratic and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, when Russian icon painting was strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek icon painting also began to take on a strong romantic western influence for a period and the difference between some Orthodox icons and western religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a strong trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic representations.
Statuary is almost non-existant within the Orthodox Church possibly because it too closely re |
tp://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/eb9c16cf85b549b0?dmode=source&hl=en This posting], with almost 1000 entries, is the earliest version of THE LIST that is preserved. [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/0be3766859a054d7?dmode=source&hl=en This response] to an item in the newsgroup's [[FAQ list]] tells the then-recent story of the list's origin.
*{{note|MRR}} Chuck Musciano's first posting proposing the movie ratings report is also missing, but here are his [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/35c44009a40310da?dmode=source&hl=en first call for votes] and his [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/15a4b0ea83c44e67?dmode=source&hl=en first ratings report].
*{{note|Combined}} [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/0203e8ba735348fd?dmode=source&hl=en Needham's first combined LIST and ratings report]. His first posting of the database scripts is not available.
*[http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/dcc90b58a95e1883?dmode=source&hl=en A 1994 FAQ list for the database]. Section 8 tells its early history in a less sanitized manner than the IMDb link above.
[[Category:Movie websites|Internet Movie Database]]
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[[sr:ИМДб]]
[[fi:Internet Movie Database]]
[[sv:IMDb]]
[[tr:IMDb]]
[[zh:因特网电影数据库]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Integers</title>
<id>14623</id>
<revision>
<id>15912161</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Integer]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Inorganic chemistry</title>
<id>14624</id>
<revision>
<id>41486278</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:08:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.1.206.187</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Inorganic chemistry''' is the branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the properties and reactions of [[inorganic compound]]s. This includes all chemical compounds except the many which are based upon chains or rings of [[carbon]] atoms, which are termed organic compounds and are studied under the separate heading of [[organic chemistry]]. The distinction between the two disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]].
==Categories of [[inorganic chemical reaction]]s==
There are four categories of inorganic chemical reactions: [[combination reaction]]s, [[decomposition reaction]]s, [[single displacement reaction]]s, and [[double displacement reaction]]s.
==Branches of inorganic chemistry==
Major branches of inorganic chemistry include
* [[Mineral|Minerals]], such as [[salt]], [[asbestos]], [[silicate|silicates]], ...
* [[Metal|Metals]] and their alloys, like [[iron]], [[copper]], [[aluminium]], [[brass]], [[bronze]], ...
* Compounds involving non-metallic elements, like [[silicon]], [[phosphorus]], [[chlorine]], [[oxygen]], for example [[water]]
* [[complex (chemistry) | Metal complexes]]
Commercially important inorganic substances include [[Semiconductor|silicon chips]], [[transistor|transistors]], [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] screens, [[fiber optics|fiber optical cables]] and a great many [[catalysis|catalysts]].
Inorganic chemistry is based upon [[physical chemistry]] and forms the basis for [[mineralogy]] and [[materials chemistry]]. It often overlaps with [[geochemistry]], [[analytical chemistry]], [[environmental chemistry]] and [[organometallic chemistry]].
[[Organometallic chemistry]] combines aspects of [[organic chemistry]] with those of inorganic chemistry, and is formally defined as the study of compounds containing metal-carbon bonds, although many "[[organometallic compound]]s" contain no such bonds. Among the simplest organometallic compounds are the metal carbonyls, in which [[carbon monoxide]] binds to a metal through the carbon. [[Vitamin B12]], whose active site is similar to that of [[hemoglobin|haemoglobin]], is a naturally-occurring, metabolically-important [[organometallic compound]] containing large organic components ([[corrin]] and protein) and a metal, [[cobalt]], bonded to carbon.
The range of inorganic chemistry includes both molecular compounds, which exist as discrete [[molecules]], and [[crystals]], whose structures are described by infinite lattices of regularly-ordered atoms and which are studied by [[crystallography]] and [[solid state chemistry|solid-state chemistry]].
See also [[List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Inorganic chemistry| Important publications in inorganic chemistry]]
{{BranchesofChemistry}}
[[Category:Inorganic chemistry| ]]
[[af:Anorganiese chemie]]
[[ar:كيمياء غير عضوية]]
[[bg:Неорганична химия]]
[[ca:Química inorgànica]]
[[cs:Anorganická chemie]]
[[da:Uorganisk kemi]]
[[de:Anorganische Chemie]]
[[es:Química inorgánica]]
[[fr:Chimie inorganique]]
[[gl:Química inorgánica]]
[[ko:무기화학]]
[[id:Kimia anorganik]]
[[it:Chimica inorganica]]
[[he:כימיה אי-אורגנית]]
[[la:Chemica Inorganica]]
[[lv:Neorganiskā ķīmija]]
[[hu:Szervetlen kémia]]
[[ms:Kimia tak organik]]
[[nl:Anorganische chemie]]
[[nds:Anorganisch Chemie]]
[[ja:無機化学]]
[[nn:Uorganisk kjemi]]
[[pl:Chemia nieorganiczna]]
[[pt:Inorgânico]]
[[ru:Неорганическая химия]]
[[sk:Anorganická chémia]]
[[su:Kimia anorganik]]
[[sv:Oorganisk kemi]]
[[th:อนินทรีย์เคมี]]
[[vi:Hóa vô cơ]]
[[zh:无机化学]]
[[uk:Неорганічна хімія]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Insert (film)</title>
<id>14625</id>
<revision>
<id>36248536</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T19:11:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NeoThe1</username>
<id>34710</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Re-fixed link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[film]], an '''insert''' is a shot of part of a [[scene (film)|scene]] as filmed from a different angle and/or focal length from the [[master shot]]. Inserts cover action already covered in the master shot, but emphasize a different aspect of that action due to the different framing. An insert is different from a [[cutaway]] in that the cutaway is of action ''not'' covered in the master shot.
There are more exact terms to use when the new, inserted shot is another view of actors: [[close-up]], [[head shot]], [[knee shot]], [[Two Shot|two shot]]. So the term "insert" is often confined to views of objects--and body parts, other than the head. Thus: CLOSE-UP of the gunfighter, INSERT of his hand quivering above the holster, TWO SHOT of his friends watching anxiously, INSERT of the clock ticking.
Often inserts of this sort are done separately from the main action, by a second-unit director using stand-ins.
Inserts and [[cutaway]]s can both be vexacious for directors, as care must be taken to preserve [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] by keeping the objects in the same relative position as in the main take, and having the lighting the same.
The [[1975 in film|1975]] movie ''[[Inserts (film)|Inserts]]'' directed by [[John Byrum]] about a [[pornographic film]] production, which starred [[Richard Dreyfuss]] and was originally released with an [[X-rated|X rating]], took its name from this film technique.
==See also==
*[[Cutaway (film)]]
[[Category:Film techniques]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ingmar Bergman</title>
<id>14626</id>
<revision>
<id>41036831</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:20:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chupon</username>
<id>194773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ fixing links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ingmar bergman.jpg|thumb|200px|Ingmar Bergman]]
{{Audio|sv-Ingmar_Bergman.ogg|'''Ingmar Bergman'''}} (pronounced {{IPA |&#712;b&#603;rjman}} in Swedish, but usually {{IPA |&#712;b&#605;gmən}} in English, [[IPA in Unicode]] notation) (born [[July 14]], [[1918]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[theater director|stage]] and [[film director]] who is one of the key film [[auteur]]s of the second half of the [[twentieth century]].
==Biography and style characteristics==
Born in [[Uppsala]], Sweden, to a [[Lutheran church|Lutheran]] minister of Danish descent, Bergman grew up surrounded by religious imagery and discussion. Bergman attended [[Stockholm University]] and became interested in theater, and later in [[film|cinema]]. His films usually deal with [[existentialism|existential]] questions about mortality, loneliness, and [[faith]]; they are also usually direct and not overtly stylized. ''[[Persona (movie)|Persona]]'', one of Bergman's most famous films, is unusual among Bergman's work for being both existentialist and [[avant-garde]].
As a director, Bergman favors intuition over intellect, and chooses to be unaggressive in dealing with actors. Bergman sees himself as having a great responsibility toward them, whom he views as collaborators in a psychologically vulnerable position. He states that a director must be both honest and supportive to allow others their best work.
Bergman usua |
on the [[French Riviera]]. However, she spent her latter years in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]] and is buried there in a tomb surrounded by five stone lions.
One of her most widely quoted aphorisms is: "Fashion is not simply a matter of clothes. Fashion is in the air, born upon the wind. One intuits it. It is in the sky and on the road."
Chanel has been portrayed on the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] stage by [[Katharine Hepburn]] in a musical by [[Andre Previn]] and [[Alan Jay Lerner]], and on screen by the French actress [[Marie-France Pisier]].
The [[House of Chanel]] in [[Paris]], under [[Karl Lagerfeld]], remains one of the top design houses today.
==Sources==
*[http://www.chanel.com Official Site of Chanel]
*[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_chanel_coco.htm Women's History from about.com]
[[Category:1883 births|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[Category:1971 deaths|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[category:Fashion designers|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[Category:French fashion designers|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[Category:French businesspeople|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[Category:Fashion magnates|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[de:Coco Chanel]]
[[es:Coco Chanel]]
[[fr:Coco Chanel]]
[[it:Coco Chanel]]
[[he:קוקו שאנל]]
[[ja:ココ・シャネル]]
[[no:Coco Chanel]]
[[pl:Coco Chanel]]
[[pt:Coco Chanel]]
[[sr:Коко Шанел]]
[[sv:Coco Chanel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU Compiler Collection</title>
<id>12323</id>
<revision>
<id>41797422</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:42:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.238.95.176</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Architectures */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
name = GNU Compiler Collection |
logo = [[Image:GCC logo.png|40px]] |
screenshot = [[Image:Gcc-3.4.4-ss.png|220px]] |
caption = GCC, operated via the command line |
developer = [[GNU|The GNU Project]] |
latest_release_version = 4.1.0 |
latest_release_date = [[February 28]], [[2006]] |
operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |
genre = [[Compiler]] |
license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
website = [http://gcc.gnu.org gcc.gnu.org] |
}}
The '''GNU Compiler Collection''' (usually shortened to '''GCC''') is a set of [[programming language]] [[compiler]]s produced by the [[GNU|GNU Project]]. It is [[free software]] distributed by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) under the [[GNU General Public License|GNU GPL]] and [[GNU Lesser General Public License|GNU LGPL]], and is a key component of the [[GNU toolchain]]. It is the standard compiler for the free software [[Unix-like]] [[operating systems]], and certain proprietary operating systems derived therefrom such as [[Mac OS X]].
Originally named the '''GNU C Compiler''', because it only handled the [[C programming language]], GCC was later extended to compile [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Fortran]], [[Ada programming language|Ada]], and others.
==Overview==
GCC was originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] in [[1987]] as the compiler for the GNU Project, in order to have a compiler available that was [[free software]]. Its development was closely shepherded by the [[Free Software Foundation]].
In [[1997]], a group of developers dissatisfied with the slow pace and closed nature of official GCC development formed a project called [[EGCS]] (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System) which merged several experimental [[fork (software)|forks]] into a single project forked from GCC. EGCS development subsequently proved sufficiently more vital than GCC development and EGCS was eventually "blessed" as the official version of GCC in April [[1999]].
GCC is now maintained by a varied group of programmers from around the world. It has been ported to more kinds of [[central processing unit|processor]]s and [[operating system]]s than any other compiler.
As well as being the official compiler of the GNU system, including Linux-based variants ([[GNU/Linux]]), GCC has been adopted as the main compiler used to build and develop other operating systems including the [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]s, [[Mac OS X]], [[NeXTSTEP]], and [[BeOS]].
GCC is often the compiler of choice for developing software that is required to execute on a plethora of hardware. Differences in native compilers lead to difficulties in developing code that will compile correctly on all the compilers and build scripts that will run for all the platforms. By using GCC, the same parser is used for all platforms, so if the code compiles on one, chances are high that it compiles on all. In some cases GCC produces slower executables than other compilers, but being free software, and/or the potential for reduced development costs often makes using it worthwhile.
==Languages==
[[As of version 4.0|As of version 4.0.0]] (released on [[April 20]] [[2005]]), the standard compiler release includes front ends for:
* [[Ada programming language|Ada]] (GCC for Ada ''aka'' [[GNAT]])
* [[C programming language|C]]
* [[C++]] (GCC for C++ ''aka'' G++)
* [[Fortran programming language|Fortran]] (GCC for Fortran ''aka'' [[GFortran]])
* [[Java programming language|Java]] (GCC for Java ''aka'' [[GCJ]])
* [[Objective C|Objective-C]]
A front end for [[CHILL programming language|CHILL]] was previously included, but has been dropped owing to a lack of maintenance. The G77 front end was dropped in favour of the new GFortran frontend that supports Fortran 95. [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[Modula-2 programming language|Modula-2]], [[Modula-3 programming language|Modula-3]], [[Mercury programming language|Mercury]], [[VHDL|VHDL]], [[PL/I|PL/I]] and [[Objective-C#Objective-C%2B%2B|Objective-C++]] frontends also exist.
==Architectures==
GCC target processors (as of version 4.1) include:
* [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]]
* [[ARM architecture|ARM]]
* [[Blackfin]]
* [[Hitachi H8|H8/300]]
* [[System/370]], [[zSeries|System/390]]
* [[x86]] and [[AMD64]]
* [[IA-64]] i.e. the "[[Itanium]]"
* [[Motorola 68000]]
* [[Motorola 88000]]
* [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]
* [[PA-RISC]]
* [[PDP-11]]
* [[PowerPC]]
* [[SuperH]]
* [[SPARC]]
* [[VAX]]
* [[Renesas]] [[R8C]]/[[M16C]]/[[M32C]] families
* [[MorphoSys]] family
Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included [[A29K]], [[Advanced Risc Computing|ARC]], [[Atmel AVR]], [[C4x]], [[CRIS]], [[D30V]], [[DSP16xx]], [[FR-30]], [[FR-V]], [[Intel i960]], [[IP2000]], [[M32R]], [[Freescale 68HC11|68HC11]], [[MCORE]], [[MMIX]], [[MN10200]], [[MN10300]], [[320xx microprocessor|NS32K]], [[ROMP]], [[Stormy16]], [[V850]], and [[Xtensa]]. Additional processors, such as the [[D10V]], [[PDP-10]], [[MicroBlaze]] and [[Z8000]], have been supported by GCC versions maintained separately from the FSF version.
==Structure==
GCC's external interface is generally standard for a [[Unix]] compiler. Users invoke a driver program named <code>gcc</code>, which interprets command arguments, decides which language compilers to use for each input file, runs the [[assembler]] on their output, and then possibly runs the [[linker]] to produce a complete program.
Each of the language compilers is a separate program that takes in source code and produces assembly language. All have a common internal structure; a per-language [[front end]] that [[parsing|parses]] the languages and produces an [[abstract syntax tree]] ("tree" for short), and a [[back end]] that converts the trees to GCC's [[Register Transfer Language]] (RTL), runs various [[compiler optimization]]s, then produces assembly language using architecture-specific [[pattern matching]] originally based on an algorithm of [[Jack Davidson]] and [[Chris Fraser]]'s.
Nearly all of GCC is written in C, although much of the Ada frontend is written in Ada.
===Front ends===
[[Frontend]]s vary internally, having to produce trees that can be handled by the backend. Some parsers use a [[YACC]]-type grammar specification, while others are hand-coded [[recursive descent parser]]s.
Until recently, the tree representation of the program was not fully independent of the processor being targeted. Confusingly, the meaning of a tree was somewhat different for different language front-ends, and front-ends could provide their own tree codes.
In 2005, two new forms of language-independent trees were introduced. These new tree formats are called [[GENERIC]] and [[GIMPLE]]. Parsing is now done by creating temporary language-dependent trees, and converting them to GENERIC. The so-called gimplifier then lowers this more complex form into the simpler [[Static single assignment form|SSA]]-based GIMPLE form which is the common language for a large number of new powerful language- and architecture-independent global (function scope) optimizations.
Optimization on trees does not generally fit into what most compiler developers would consider a front end task, as it is not language dependent and does not involve parsing. GCC developers have given this part of the compiler the somewhat contradictory name the "middle end." These optimizations include [[dead code elimination]], [[partial redundancy elimination]], [[global value numbering]], [[sparse conditional constant propagation]], and [[scalar replacement of aggregates]]. Array dependence based optimizations such as [[automatic vectorization]] are currently being developed.
===Back end===
The behavior of the GCC back end is partly specified by [[preprocessor macro]]s and functions specific to a target architecture, for instance to define the [[endianness]], [[word size]], and [[calling convention]]s. The front part of the back end uses these to help decide RTL generation, so although GCC's RTL is nominally processor-independent, the initial sequence of abstract instructions is already adapted to the target.
The exact set of GCC optimizations varies from release to release as it develops, but includes the standard algorithms, such as [[jum |
:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rsabbatini</username>
<id>3044</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For information about chromosomes in [[genetic algorithm]]s, see [[Chromosome (genetic algorithm)]].''
[[image:chromosome.png|frame|'''Figure 1:''' Chromosome. (1) <font color="#0002FF">[[Chromatid]]</font>. One of the two identical parts of the chromosome after [[S phase]]. (2) <font color="#FF0000">Centromere</font>. The point where the two chromatids touch, and where the microtubules attach. (3) Short arm (4) Long arm.]]
The [[DNA]] which carries [[genetic information]] in [[Cell (biology)|cells]] is normally packaged in the form of one or more large [[macromolecule]]s called '''chromosomes'''.
A chromosome, from the [[ancient Greek]] ''χρωμα'' (color) and ''σωμα'' (body) is, minimally, a very long, continuous piece of DNA, which contains many [[gene]]s, [[regulatory sequence|regulatory element]]s and other intervening [[genetic sequence|nucleotide sequences]]. In the chromosomes of [[eukaryote]]s, the uncondensed DNA exists in a quasi-ordered structure inside the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], where it wraps around [[histone]]s (structural [[protein]]s, Fig. 1), and where this composite material is called [[chromatin]]. During [[mitosis]] (cell division), the chromosomes are condensed and a spindle composed of microtubules is formed. Microtubules are self-assembled from [[dimers]] of alpha and beta [[tubulin]]. Microtubules attach to chromosomes at specialized structures, the kinetochores, one of which is present on each sister chromatid. Sister chromatids are attached at an area called the [[centromere]]. This term is sometimes misleading, however, because they are not necessarily joined at the center of the chromosome. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical [[microscope]]. Each chromosome has two arms, the shorter one called '''p arm''' (from the [[French language|French]] ''petit'', small) and the longer one '''q arm''' (''q'' following ''p'' in the Latin alphabet). [[Prokaryote]]s do not possess histones or nuclei. In its relaxed state, the DNA can be accessed for [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]], regulation, and [[replication]].
==History==
Chromosomes were first observed in [[plant]] cells by [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[botanist]] [[Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli]] (1817-1891) in [[1842]], and independently, in [[Ascaris]] [[worm]]s, by the Belgian scientist [[Edouard Van Beneden]] (1846-1910). The use of [[basophilic]] [[aniline]] [[dye]]s was a fundamentally new technique for effectively [[staining]] the [[chromatin]] material inside the nucleus. Their behavior in animal ([[salamander]]) cells was later described in detail by [[Germany|German]] [[anatomist]] [[Walther Flemming]] (1843-1905), the discoverer of [[mitosis]], in [[1882]]. The name was invented later by another German anatomist, [[Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz|Heinrich von Waldeyer]]. In [[1910]], American [[geneticist]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] (1866-1945) proved that chromosomes are the carriers of genes, by studying the common [[Drosophila melanogaster|fruit fly]] ([[Drosophila melanogaster]]).a
== Chromosomes in plants, yeast and animals ==
[[Eukaryotes]] ([[cell (biology)|cells]] with nuclei such as plants, yeast, and animals) possess multiple linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one [[centromere]], with one or two arms projecting from the centromere. The ends of the chromosomes are special structures called ''[[telomere]]s''. DNA replication begins at many different locations on the chromosome.
==Chromosomes in bacteria==
Bacterial chromosomes are often circular but sometimes linear. Some bacteria have one chromosome, while others have a few. Bacterial DNA also exists as [[plasmid]]s. The distinction between plasmids and chromosomes is poorly defined, though size and necessity are generally taken into account. Bacterial chromosomes initiate replication and one origin of replication.
When linear, bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the [[plasma membrane]] of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of membranes (and the attached DNA).
== Chromatin ==
Two types of [[chromatin]] can be distinguished:
*[[Euchromatin]], which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., expressed as protein.
*[[Heterochromatin]], which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types:
**''Constitutive heterochromatin'', which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains [[Repeated sequence (DNA)|repetitive sequences]].
**''Facultative heterochromatin'', which is sometimes expressed.
[[image:chromatin_chromosome.png|frame|none|'''Figure 2:''' Different levels of DNA condensation. (1) Single DNA strand. (2) Chromatin strand (<font color="#0000FF">'''DNA'''</font> with <font color="#008000">'''histones'''</font>). (3) Chromatin during [[interphase]] with <font color="#FF0000">'''centromere'''</font>. (4) Condensed chromatin during [[prophase]]. (Two copies of the DNA molecule are now present) (5) Chromosome during [[metaphase]].]]
In the very early stages of mitosis, the chromatin strands become more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material and become a compact transport form. Eventually, the two matching [[chromatid]]s (condensed chromatin strands) become visible as a chromosome, linked at the [[centromere]]. Long [[microtubule]]s are attached at the centromere and two opposite ends of the cell. During mitosis, the microtubules pull the chromatids apart, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and can function again as chromatin. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are highly structured (Fig. 2). For example, genes with similar functions are often kept close together in the nucleus, even if they are far apart on the chromosome. The short arm of a chromosome can be extended by a [[satellite chromosome]] that contains codes for [[ribosome|ribosomal]] [[RNA]].
== Number of chromosomes in different species ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"
|+ Chromosome numbers in some animals
|-
! Species !! # !! Species !! #
|-
| [[Drosophila melanogaster|Fruit fly]] || 8
| [[Guinea Pig]] || 16
|-
| [[Dove]] || 16
| [[Snail]] || 24
|-
| [[Earthworm]] || 36
| [[Tibetan fox]] || 36
|-
| [[Cat]] || 38
| [[Pig]] || 38
|-
| [[Mouse]] || 40
| [[Rat]] || 42
|-
| [[Rabbit]] || 44
| [[Syrian hamster]] || 44
|-
| [[Hare]] || 46
| [[Human]] || 46
|-
| [[Ape]] || 48
| [[Sheep]] || 54
|-
| [[Elephant]] || 56
| [[Cattle|Cow]] || 60
|-
| [[Donkey]] || 62
| [[Horse]] || 64
|-
| [[Dog]] || 78
| [[Chicken]] || 78
|-
| [[Carp]] || 104
| [[Butterfly|Butterflies]] || 380
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"
|+ Chromosome numbers in some plants
|-
! Plant Species !! #
|-
| [[Arabidopsis]] || 10
|-
| [[Rye]] || 14
|-
| [[Maize]] || 20
|-
| [[Einkorn wheat]] || 14
|-
| Pollard wheat || 28
|-
| [[Bread wheat]] || 42
|-
| Wild [[tobacco]] || 24
|-
| Cultivated tobacco || 48
|-
| [[Fern]] || 1200
|}
Normal members of a particular [[species]] all have the same number of chromosomes (see the table).
[[Asexual reproduction|Asexually reproducing]] species have one set of chromosomes, which is the same in all body cells.
[[Gamete]]s, reproductive cells, are [[haploid]] [n] and have one set of chromosomes. [[sexual reproduction|Sexually reproducing]] species have [[somatic cell]]s, body cells, which are [[diploid]] [2n] having two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. Gametes are produced by [[meiosis]] of a diploid [[germ line]] cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves ([[Chromosomal crossover|crossover]]), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge ([[fertilization]]), a new diploid organism is formed.
Some animal and plant species are [[polyploid]] [Xn] and have more than two sets of chromosomes. Agriculturally important plants such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some [[cultivar]]s as well as the wild progenitors. The more common pasta and bread wheats are polyploid having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat{{ref|a}}.
Historical note: In 1921, [[Theophilus Painter]] claimed, based on his observations, that human sex cells had 24 chromosomes, giving humans 48 chromosomes total. It wasn't until 1955 that the number was clearly shown to be 23.
{{-}}
== Karyotype ==
[[image:NHGRI human male karyotype.png|thumb|right|200px|'''Figure 3''': Karyogram of human male]]
To determine the (diploid) number of chromosomes of an organism, cells can be locked in metaphase [[in vitro]] (in a reaction vial) with [[colchicine]]. These cells are then stained (the name chromosome was given because of their ability to be stained), photographed and arranged into a [[karyotype]] (an ordered set of chromosomes, Fig. 3), also called ''karyogram''. Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special [[XY sex-determination system|gonosomes]] (sex chromosomes, |
oung: Xll Cantos''
* (1951) ''Poems''
* (1962) ''In a Green Night: Poems 1948&ndash;60''
* (1964) ''Selected Poems''
* (1965) ''The Castaway and Other Poems''
* (1969) ''The Gulf and Other Poems''
* (1973) ''Another Life''
* (1976) ''Sea Grapes''
* (1979) ''The Star-Apple Kingdom''
* (1981) ''Selected Poetry''
* (1981) ''The Fortunate Traveller''
* (1983) ''The Caribbean Poetry of Derek Walcott and the Art of Romare Bearden''
* (1984) ''Midsummer''
* (1986) ''Collected Poems, 1948-1984''
* (1987) ''The Arkansas Testament''
* (1990) ''[[Omeros]]''
* (1997) ''The Bounty''
* (2000) ''Tiepolo's Hound''
* (2004) ''[[The Prodigal]]''
===Plays===
* (1950) ''Henri Christophe: A Chronicle in Seven Scenes''
* (1951) ''Harry Dernier: A Play for Radio Production''
* (1953) ''Wine of the Country''
* (1954) ''The Sea at Dauphin: A Play in One Act''
* (1957) ''Ione''
* (1958) ''Drums and Colours: An Epic Drama''
* (1958) ''Ti-Jean and His Brothers''
* (1966) ''Malcochon: or, Six in the Rain''
* (1967) ''Dream on Monkey Mountain''
* (1970) ''In a Fine Castle''
* (1974) ''The Joker of Seville''
* (1974) ''The Charlatan''
* (1976) ''O Babylon!''
* (1977) ''Remembrance''
* (1978) ''Pantomime''
* (1980) ''The Joker of Seville and O Babylon!: Two Plays''
* (1982) ''The Isle Is Full of Noises''
* (1986) Three Plays (''The Last Carnival'', ''Beef, No Chicken'', and ''A Branch of the Blue Nile'')
* (1991) ''Steel''
* (1993) ''Odyssey: A Stage Version''
* (1997) ''[[The Capeman]]'' (lyrics, in collaboration with [[Paul Simon]])
==External links==
*[http://www.nobel.se/literature/laureates/1992/index.html Nobel Laureate Derek Walcott]
*[http://www.postcolonialweb.org/caribbean/walcott/walcottov.html Postcolonialweb.org on Walcott]
*[http://www.ttw.org.tt/ Trinidad Theatre Workshop]
== Further reading ==
*Breslin, Paul. ''Nobody's Nation: Reading Derek Walcott''. Chicago: U. Chicago, 2001. ISBN 0-226-07426-9
*Hamner, Robert D., Ed. ''Critical Perspectives on Derek Walcott''. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents, 1993. ISBN 0-89410-142-0
*Parker, Michael and Roger Starkey, Eds. ''New Casebooks: Postcolonial Literatures: Achebe, Ngugi, Desai, Walcott''. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0-333-60801-1
*Walcott, Derek. ''Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays''. New York: Farrar, 1970. ISBN 0-374-50860-7
[[Category:1930 births|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Living people|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Saint Lucian writers|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Trinidad and Tobago writers|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category: Dramatists and playwrights|Walcott, Derek]]
[[bg:Дерек Уолкот]]
[[de:Derek Walcott]]
[[es:Derek Walcott]]
[[fr:Derek Walcott]]
[[no:Derek Walcott]]
[[nn:Derek Walcott]]
[[pl:Derek Walcott]]
[[fi:Derek Walcott]]
[[sv:Derek Walcott]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Decipherment</title>
<id>8946</id>
<revision>
<id>38595231</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T09:49:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quatloo</username>
<id>716232</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>May perhaps have an Arabic root but this is not an Arabic word</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Decipher, Inc.]] is also the name of a game publisher''
'''Decipherment''' is the analysis of documents written in ancient [[language]]s, where the language is unknown, or knowledge of the language has been lost.
It is closely related to [[cryptanalysis]] &mdash; the difference being that the original document was not deliberately written to be difficult to decipher.
The term has also been used to describe the analysis of the [[genetic code]] information encoded in [[DNA]] - see the [[Human Genome Project]] article for more on this.
Some people have also used the word metaphorically to mean something like 'understanding'.
Examples of document decipherment:
* [[Cuneiform (script)|Cuneiform]] writing
* [[Harappan writing]]
* [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]ic writing
* [[Indus script]]
* [[Kharoshthi|Kharoshthi script]]
* [[Linear A]]
* [[Linear B]]
* [[Maya writing]]
* [[Olmec writing]]
Famous documents that have been the subject of actual or attempted decipherment:
* the [[Dresden Codex]]
* the [[Phaistos Disc]]
* the [[Rosetta Stone]]
* the [[Behistun Inscription]]
* the [[Voynich Manuscript]]
* the [[Rohonczi Codex]]
Famous decipherers:
* [[Michael Ventris]]
* [[Jean-François Champollion]]
* [[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]]
* [[Yuri Knorosov]]
==See also==
* [[Archaeology]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[List of undeciphered writing systems]]
* [[List of famous ciphertexts]]
* [[Writing systems]]
==External links==
* [http://www.plu.edu/~ryandp/texts.html Ancient Languages and Scripts]
* http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~fsaber1/language/MysteryCuneiform.html
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mindusscript.html How come we can't decipher the Indus script?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[de:Entschlüsselung]]
[[et:Dešifreerimine]]
[[tr:deşifre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domestic violence</title>
<id>8948</id>
<revision>
<id>41879615</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:54:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joe Decker</username>
<id>204282</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Types */ Bold "threats' to clarify it's part of the list of seven types of IPV as currently listed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Domestic violence''', broadly defined, is [[violence]] within a [[home]]. Beyond this, the term has a range of definitions, some more and some less formal, that are frequently used with little awareness that a range of definitions exists. Domestic violence can be physical, sexual and/or psychological.
Domestic violence is perpetrated by, and on, both men and women, and occurs in same-sex and opposite-sex relationships.
According to the [[Center for Disease Control]] [http://www.cdc.gov/], domestic violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 32 million Americans (Tjaden and Thoennes 2000).
Domestic violence can vary in frequency and severity. It occurs on a continuum, ranging from non-physical psychological abuse to one hit that may or may not physically injure the victim to chronic, severe violence. The term "initimate partner violence", or IPV, is often used more or less synonymously. Repeated abuse is also known as battering.
==Types==
There are seven main types of intimate partner violence:
'''Physical [[violence]]''' is the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm, for example, hitting, shoving, biting, restraint, or use of a weapon.
'''[[Sexual violence]]''' is divided into three categories: 1) use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual act against his or her will, whether or not the act is completed; 2) attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, to decline participation, or to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e.g., because of illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or because of intimidation or pressure; and 3) abusive sexual contact.
'''Threats''' of physical or sexual violence use words, gestures, or weapons to communicate the intent to cause death, disability, injury, or physical harm.
'''Psychological/emotional violence''' involves trauma to the victim caused by acts, threats of acts, or coercive tactics. Psychological/emotional abuse can include, but is not limited to, humiliating the victim, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, and denying the victim access to money or other basic resources. It is considered psychological/emotional violence when there has been prior physical or sexual violence or prior threat of physical or sexual violence.
[[Relational aggression]] is form of Psychological/Social aggression the uses various forms of falsehood, secrecy and gossip to commit covert violence. Also known (incorrectly) as 'Female Bullying', it is often a spectactularly successful tactic because so few people know how to detect it. Women, and also men, often use it because it is covert, leaves no visible scars and can be done with a smile. It destroys or damages the target's reputation and ruins the targets relationships.
[[Parental alienation]] is another form of covert violence where children are used as a weapon of war by one parent to alienate the other parent. This covert form of domestic violence is often used by women, and sometimes men too, in high-conflict marriages. It is often devastating to the alienated spouse/parent and to the alienating/alienated children caught in the middle. In effect, it uses innocent, unwitting children to commit relational aggression by one parent against the other.
In addition, [[stalking]] is often included among the types of IPV. Stalking generally refers to repeated behavior that causes victims to feel a high level of fear (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000).
==[[CAFCASS]] Definition==
CAFCASS, whilst mentioning in its Domestic Violence Policy [http://www.cafcass.gov.uk/English/Publications/consultation/04DecDV%20Policy.pdf] that it uses the term ''domestic violence'' to refer to a range of violent and abusive behaviours, defines it as:
*Patterns of behaviour characterised by the misuse of power and control by one person over another who are or have been in an intimate relationship. It can occur in mixed gender relationships and same gender relationships and has profound consequences for the lives of children, individua |
olynomial-time" means it returns "YES" in polynomial time when
// the answer should be "YES", and runs forever when it's "NO".
//
// Input: S = a finite set of integers
// Output: "YES" if any subset of S adds up to 0.
// Otherwise, it runs forever with no output.
// Note: "Program number P" is the program you get by
// writing the integer P in binary, then
// considering that string of bits to be a
// program. Every possible program can be
// generated this way, though most do nothing
// because of syntax errors.<br>
FOR N = 1...infinity
FOR P = 1...N
Run program number P for N steps with input S
IF the program outputs a list of distinct integers
AND the integers are all in S
AND the integers sum to 0<br>
THEN
OUTPUT "YES" and HALT
If '''P''' = '''NP''', then this is a polynomial-time algorithm accepting an NP-Complete language. "Accepting" means it gives "YES" answers in polynomial time, but
is allowed to run forever when the answer is "NO".
Perhaps we want to "solve" the SUBSET-SUM problem, rather than just "accept" the SUBSET-SUM language. That means we want it to always halt and return a "YES" or "NO" answer. Does any algorithm exist that can provably do this in polynomial time? No one knows. But if such algorithms do exist, then we already know some of them! Just replace the IF statement in the above algorithm with this:
IF the program outputs a complete math proof
AND each step of the proof is legal
AND the conclusion is that S does (or does not) have a subset summing to 0
THEN
OUTPUT "YES" (or "NO" if that was proved) and HALT
==Logical characterizations==
The P=NP problem can be restated in terms of the expressibility of certain classes of logical statements. All languages in P can be expressed in [[first-order logic]] with the addition of a [[least fixed point]] operator (effectively, this allows the definition of recursive functions). Similarly, NP is the set of languages expressible in existential [[second-order logic]] &mdash; that is, second-order logic restricted to exclude [[universal quantification]] over relations, functions, and subsets. The languages in the [[polynomial hierarchy]], [[PH (complexity)|PH]], correspond to all of [[second-order logic]]. Thus, the question "is P a proper subset of NP" can be reformulated as "is existential second-order logic able to describe languages that first-order logic with least fixed point cannot?"
==Trivia==
The [[Princeton University]] computer science building has the question "P=NP?" encoded in [[Binary and text files |binary]] in its brickwork on the top floor of the west side. If it is proven that P=NP, the bricks can easily be changed to encode "P=NP!". If P does not equal NP, it can be changed to "P<NP!". [http://www.princeton.edu/~taubetap/tours/handbook.pdf]
Hubert Chen, PhD, of [[Cornell University]] offers this [[tongue-in-cheek]] proof that P does not equal NP: "''Proof by contradiction. Assume P = NP. Let y be a proof that P = NP. The proof y can be verified in polynomial time by a competent computer scientist, the existence of which we assert. However, since P = NP, the proof y can be generated in polynomial time by such computer scientists. Since this generation has not yet occurred (despite attempts by such computer scientists to produce a proof), we have a contradiction.''"[http://www.cs.cornell.edu/hubes/pnp.htm]
The P = NP problem has also been featured in television:
* In a scene of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' entitled "Homer<sup>3</sup>" (part of the [[Treehouse of Horror VI]] episode), Homer enters the third dimension where "P = NP" appears as a hovering problem in this bizarre parallel universe.
* In an episode of ''[[Futurama]]'', Fry and Amy spend a moment in a supply closet, in which there are two separate binders labelled "P" and "NP".
* In the second episode of the CBS show ''[[NUMB3RS]]'', an eccentric mathematician who is indirectly responsible for a few deaths tries to forget his mistake by trying to solve P = NP. We watch him cover several chalk boards with notations before he stops.
==See also==
*[[P (complexity)]]
*[[NP (complexity)]]
*[[NP-complete]]
*[[Game complexity]]
== References ==
* A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
* E. Berlekamp and D. Wolfe, Mathematical Go: Chilling Gets the Last Point, A. K. Peters, 1994. D. Wolfe, Go endgames are hard, MSRI Combinatorial Game Theory Research Worksh., 2000.
* [[Neil Immerman]]. Languages Which Capture Complexity Classes. ''15th ACM STOC Symposium'', pp.347-354. 1983.
* {{cite book | author = [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]] | title = [[Introduction to Algorithms]] | edition = Second Edition | publisher = MIT Press and McGraw-Hill | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0262032937 | chapter = Chapter 34: NP-Completeness | pages = pp.966–1021 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Christos Papadimitriou]] | year = 1993 | title = Computational Complexity | publisher = Addison Wesley | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0201530821 | chapter = Chapter 14: On P vs. NP | pages = pp.329–356 }}
==External links==
* [http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems/index.htm The Clay Math Institute Millennium Prize Problems]
* [http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/Official_Problem_Description.pdf The Clay Math Institute Official Problem Description (pdf)]
* Gerhard J. Woeginger. [http://www.win.tue.nl/~gwoegi/P-versus-NP.htm The P-versus-NP page]. A list of links to a number of purported solutions to the problem. Some of these links state that P equals NP, some of them state the opposite. It's probable that all these alleged solutions are incorrect.
* [http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/cgt/hard.html Computational Complexity of Games and Puzzles]
* [http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html The "PRIMES is in P" FAQ]
* Scott Aaronson's Complexity Zoo: [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo#p P], [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo#np NP]
* [http://www.qeden.com/ Millennium Prize Problems Wiki]
{{ComplexityClasses}}
[[Category:Complexity classes]]
[[Category:Conjectures]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in mathematics]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in computer science]]
[[Category:Millennium Prize Problems]]
[[de:P/NP-Problem]]
[[fr:Classes de complexité P et NP]]
[[ko:P-NP 문제]]
[[it:Classi di complessità P e NP]]
[[he:P=NP]]
[[ja:P≠NP予想]]
[[fi:P=NP]]
[[th:กลุ่มความซับซ้อน พี และ เอ็นพี]]
[[zh:P/NP问题]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Peirce</title>
<id>6117</id>
<revision>
<id>42003655</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:58:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jon Awbrey</username>
<id>705791</id>
</contributor>
<comment>lower profile for outline</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- merged with Charles Saunders Peirce-->
[[Image:Charles Sanders Peirce theb3558.jpg|thumb|right|Charles Sanders Peirce]]
'''Charles Sanders Santiago Peirce'''
(pronounced ''purse''), ([[September 10]], [[1839]] &ndash; [[April 19]], [[1914]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[polymath]], born in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. Although educated as a [[chemist]] and employed as a [[scientist]] for 30 years, he is now mostly seen as a [[philosophy|philosopher]]. He is the greatest American builder of [[architectonic]] systems, and his admirers deem him the most important systematizer since [[Kant]] and [[Hegel]], who were major influences.
Peirce was largely ignored within his lifetime, and the secondary literature was scant until after [[WWII]]. Much of his huge output is still unpublished. An innovator in fields such as [[mathematics]], [[research]] methodology, the [[philosophy of science]], [[epistemology]], and [[metaphysics]], he considered himself a [[logic|logician]] first and foremost. While he made major contributions to formal logic, "logic" for him encompassed much of what is now called the philosophy of science and epistemology. He, in turn, saw logic as a branch of [[semiotics]], of which he is a founder. In 1886, he saw that logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits, thus anticipating the digital computer.
==Life==
<blockquote> Right from the beginning, the relations of America as New England with Europe were, from the philosophical point of view, ambiguous, when they were not simply difficult and, in the end, impossible. Peirce is in himself the ‘’resumé’’ of this story… from the rejection of European philosophical paradigms to the creation of new paradigms which are not only Peirce’s but America’s, and slowly but inevitably [those] of the global world of tomorrow. (Deledalle 2000: 3). </blockquote>
Brent (1998) is the only Peirce biography in English. Charles Sanders Peirce was the son of Sarah Hunt Mills and [[Benjamin Peirce]], a professor of [[astronomy]] and [[mathematics]] at [[Harvard University]], perhaps the first serious research mathematician in America. At 12 years of age, Charles devoured an older brother's copy of [[Richard Whately]]'s ''Elements of Logic'', then the leading English language text of its kind. Thus began his lifelong fascination with logic and reasoning. He went on to obta |
nder [[shari'a]] law, but was ultimately unable to do so because of both Russian resistance and opposition from many Chechens (many of whom had not been converted to Islam at the time). Its banner was again picked up by the [[Avar]] [[Imam Shamil]], who fought against the Russians from [[1834]] until [[1859]].
===Soviet rule===
Chechen Rebellion would characteristically flame up whenever the Russian state faced a period of internal uncertainty. Rebellions occurred during the Russo-Turkish War (''See'' [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878]]), the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], [[Russian Civil War]], and [[Collectivization]]. Under Soviet Rule, Chechnya was combined with [[Ingushetia]] to form the autonomous republic of [[Chechen-Ingushetia]] in the late [[1930s]]. The Chechens, though, again rose up against Soviet rule during the [[1940s]], resulting in the deportation of the Chechen population to the [[Kazakh SSR]] (later [[Kazakhstan]]) and [[Siberia]] during [[World War II]]. [[Stalin]] and others argued this was necessary in order to stop the Chechens from providing assistance to the Germans during the Second World War. Although the German front never made it to the border of Chechnya, an active [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] movement threatened to undermine the Soviet defenses of the [[Caucasus]] (noted writer [[Valentin Pikul']] claims in his historical account [[Barbarossa]] that while the city of [[Grozny]] was being prepared for a siege in 1942, all of the air bombers stationed on the Caucasian front had to be directed at quelling the Chechen insurrection instead of fighting the German [[Battle of Stalingrad|siege of Stalingrad]]). As well, incidents of covert German airdrops into Chechnya and interceptions of radio exchanges between German and Chechen rebels were frequent. The Chechens were allowed to return to their homeland after [[1956]] during the [[de-Stalinization]] which occurred under [[Nikita Khrushchev]].
The Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life and for advancement in the Soviet system. Many ethnic Chechens managed to achieve top positions in the government and military of the USSR (notable among them are [[Ruslan Khasbulatov]] (speaker of Soviet [[Supreme Soviet]]), [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]] (Soviet general), [[Doku Zavgaev]] (chairman of Chechen-Ingush ASSR), and [[Aslambek Aslakhanov]] (Soviet/Russian lawmaker)). The Chechens remained peaceful and relatively loyal to the state until the introduction of [[Glasnost]] under [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in the late 1980s.
With the impending collapse of the Soviet Union, an [[independence]] movement, initially known as the Chechen National Congress, formed in 1990. This movement was ultimately opposed by [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s [[Russian Federation]], which argued: (1) Chechnya had not been an independent entity within the Soviet Union &ndash; as the Baltic, Central Asian, and other Caucasian States had &ndash; but was a part of the [[Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic]] and hence did not have a right under the Soviet constitution to secede; (2) Other ethnic groups inside Russia, such as the Tatars, would join the Chechens and secede from the Russian Federation if they were granted that right; and (3) Chechnya was at a major chokepoint in the oil-infrastructure of the country and hence would hurt the country's economy and control of oil resources.
===First Chechen War===
{{main|First Chechen War}}
[[Image:Evstafiev-chechnya-palace-gunman.jpg|thumb|A Chechen insurgent near the Presidential Palace in Grozny, January 1995. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Image:Evstafiev-chechnya-iternal-praying.jpg|thumb|Chechens Warm in Grozny just days before Russian troops entered the city. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Image:Evstafiev-chechnya-handshake.jpg|thumb|Chechen insurgents in downtown Grozny, 1995. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Image:Evstafiev-helicopter-shot-down.jpg|thumb|The first casualties - a Russian helicopter downed by Chechen fighters near the capital Grozny, December 1994. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Dzhokhar Dudayev]], the Republic of Chechnya's nationalist president, declared Chechnya's independence from Russia in [[1991]]. Dudayev's cabinet was largely filled with relatives and members of his [[teip]], many of whom were alleged to have been involved in criminal activities, and a few of whom had previous criminal convictions. This, combined with a failure to maintain control over the republic, saw his rule descend into chaos and wide-spread corruption. From 1991 to 1994, as many as 300,000 people of non-Chechen ethnicity (mostly Russians) fled the republic, and an unknown number (some estimate as high as 50,000) were murdered or disappeared ([http://www.izvestia.ru/russia/article1092129]). At this time, the slave trade also re-emerged in Chechnya (the earliest known person taken as a Chechen slave, Vladimir Yepishin, was kidnapped in 1989 and released in 2002, and claims to have come in contact with other slaves kidnapped by Chechens in the mid-80s [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1875162.stm]). [http://www.anycities.com/user/conrad/english/genocide/genocide_2.htm][http://www.anycities.com/user/conrad/english/genocide/genocide_1.htm].
Chechen sources claim [http://www.alter.most.org.pl/fa/chechen.html] non-Chechens were victims of common criminals and were not singled out. Russian sources, however argue that xenophobic rhetoric of Dudayev and other Chechen nationalists played some part in the events of those years.
On May 26 and on July 29, 1994, Chechen terrorists took hostages (including schoolchildren) in Russian city Mineralny Vody. 4 persons died.
In December 1994 [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] ordered 40,000 troops retake Chechnya (''see'' [[First Chechen War]]), after having been told by close advisors that it would be a popular, short, and victorious war{{fact}}. Yeltsin hoped to use the victory to overtake political opponents and win in the 1996 presidential elections{{fact}}, which was extremely uncertain as opponents within the former Communist Party and nationalists under [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] had gained a large amount of popular support while Yeltsin's approval ratings hovered in the single digits.
The Russian army entered Chechnya on [[December 10]], [[1994]], with only a few weeks of preparations and almost no prior planning or reconnaissance, with the official mission of restoring constitutional order. Unprepared for and not expecting intense fighting, Russian forces suffered humiliating losses after entering Grozny, which unbeknownst to ground troops had been fortified and filled with the Chechen army and a large number of volunteers in preparation for the invasion (it should be noted that despite knowing they would be fighting for control of Grozny, Dudayev's government did not issue an evacuation notice for the city, something which was responsible for the majority of civilian casualties during the battle for Grozny). Russian troops had not secured the Chechen capital of [[Grozny]] by year's end, managing to gain control of the city in February [[1995]] after heavy fighting. A few months later, the majority of active Chechen resistance was pushed back into the mountains around Ichkeria. In response, Chechen fighters launched two attacks on Russian soil. The most high-profile of these, led by Chechen field commander and later first vice-premier of Ichkeria, [[Shamil Basayev]], was the [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]] in June 1995. Shamil's large group seized the hospital and the 1,600 people inside for a period of several days. In total, 129 people died and 415 were wounded. Most victims died in a cross-fire. Although he failed in his demands to stop the war, Basayev and his fighters were able to successfully retreat back to Chechnya under cover of hostages. The media coverage surrounding the hostage-taking and Basayev's safe retreat propelled the then mostly unknown Basayev into Chechnya's most famed national hero overnight. Seeking to emulate Basayev's success, [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]]'s son-in-law, [[Salman Raduev]], led a similar raid on the hospital of [[Kizlyar]] in January 1996. 78 hostages and policemen, and most of Raduyev's 300-strong group, died in the hostage crisis.
Yeltsin's government, weary of negative media coverage of the conflict and wanting a quick end to the fighting, halted the Russian advance and began a long series of fruitless peace talks with the separatists. Most of the Russian army was withdrawn, with the biggest contingent being a 3000-strong force left to secure Grozny. The error in this judgement became immediately apparent as the remaining Russian troops came under small but regular guerrilla-style attacks despite the many cease-fires under effect during negotiations. During a break in the negotiation process in April of 1996, Dudayev was killed in an air raid. The peace process impacted Russian intelligence gathering as well, demonstrated most dramatically when thousands of Chechen irregulars from all over the country poured into Grozny in early August 1996 to retake the city in a plan hatched by [[Shamil Basayev]], catching the Russian forces completely unprepared. With 3000 servicemen besieged in Grozny with no possibility of timely relief, Yeltsin was forced into negotiations on the Chechen leaders' terms. The hostilities effectively ended with the signing of the Khasavyurt accords by Gen. [[Aleksandr Lebed]] on August 31, 1996. The formal peace treaty was signed by Presidents Yeltsin and Maskhadov in the Kremlin on May 12, 1997 [http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9705/12/chechnya/] These accords declared that Chechnya's national status would be decided by the end of [[2001]], but gave the [[Ichkeria|Republic of Ichkeria]] de-facto independence in the meantime [http://www.kafkas.org.tr/hakkinda/endless_genocide_It_ |
modified Bessel functions''' (or occasionally the '''hyperbolic Bessel functions''') of the first and second kind, and are defined by:
:<math>I_\alpha(x) = i^{-\alpha} J_\alpha(ix) \!</math>
:<math>K_\alpha(x) = \frac{\pi}{2} \frac{I_{-\alpha} (x) - I_\alpha (x)}{\sin (\alpha \pi)} = \frac{\pi}{2} i^{\alpha+1} H_\alpha^{(1)}(ix) \!</math>
These are chosen to be real-valued for real arguments ''x''. They are the two linearly independent solutions to the modified Bessel's equation:
:<math>x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + x \frac{dy}{dx} - (x^2 + \alpha^2)y = 0.</math>
Unlike the ordinary Bessel functions, which are oscillating as functions of a real argument, ''I''<sub>&alpha;</sub> and ''K''<sub>&alpha;</sub> are [[exponential growth|exponentially growing]] and [[exponential decay|decaying]] functions, respectively. Like the ordinary Bessel function ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>, the function ''I''<sub>&alpha;</sub> goes to zero at ''x''=0 for &alpha; > 0 and is finite at ''x''=0 for &alpha;=0. Analogously, ''K''<sub>&alpha;</sub> diverges at ''x''=0.
{|
|-
| [[Image:BesselI_plot.svg|none|thumb|350px|Modified Bessel functions of 1st kind]]
| [[Image:BesselK_plot.svg|none|thumb|350px|Modified Bessel functions of 2nd kind]]
|}
<!-- <center>[[image:ModifiedBessel.png|Plot of some modified Bessel functions]]<br />Plot of six modified Bessel functions. In solid line ''K''<sub>0</sub>, ''K''<sub>1</sub>, and ''K''<sub>2</sub>. In dashed line : ''I''<sub>0</sub>, ''I''<sub>1</sub>, and ''I''<sub>2</sub>.</center> -->
The '''modified Bessel function of the second kind''' has also been called by the now-rare names:
* Basset function
* modified Bessel function of the third kind
* MacDonald function
=== Spherical Bessel functions ===
When solving for separable solutions of Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates, the radial equation has the form:
:<math>x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + 2x \frac{dy}{dx} + [x^2 - n(n+1)]y = 0.</math>
The two linearly independent solutions to this equation are called the '''spherical Bessel functions''' ''j''<sub>''n''</sub> and ''y''<sub>''n''</sub> (also denoted ''n''<sub>''n''</sub>), and are related to the ordinary Bessel functions ''J''<sub>''n''</sub> and ''Y''<sub>''n''</sub> by:
:<math>j_n(x) = \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} J_{n+1/2}(x),</math>
:<math>y_n(x) = \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} Y_{n+1/2}(x) = (-1)^{n+1} \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} J_{-n-1/2}(x).</math>
The spherical Bessel functions can also be written as:
:<math>j_n(x) = (-x)^n \left(\frac{1}{x}\frac{d}{dx}\right)^n\,\frac{\sin x}{x} ,</math>
:<math>y_n(x) = -(-x)^n \left(\frac{1}{x}\frac{d}{dx}\right)^n\,\frac{\cos x}{x}.</math>
The first spherical Bessel function <math>j_0(x)</math> is also known as the [[sinc function]]. The first few spherical Bessel functions are:
:<math>j_0(x)=\frac{\sin x} {x}</math>
:<math>j_1(x)=\frac{\sin x} {x^2}- \frac{\cos x} {x}</math>
:<math>j_2(x)=\left(\frac{3} {x^2} - 1 \right)\frac{\sin x}{x} - \frac{3\cos x} {x^2}</math>
and
:<math>y_0(x)=-j_{-1}(x)=-\,\frac{\cos x} {x}</math>
:<math>y_1(x)=j_{-2}(x)=-\,\frac{\cos x} {x^2}- \frac{\sin x} {x}</math>
:<math>y_2(x)=-j_{-3}(x)=\left(-\,\frac{3}{x^2}+1 \right)\frac{\cos x}{x}- \frac{3 \sin x} {x^2}.</math>
There are also spherical analogues of the Hankel functions:
:<math>h_n^{(1)}(x) = j_n(x) + i y_n(x)</math>
:<math>h_n^{(2)}(x) = j_n(x) - i y_n(x).</math>
In fact, there are simple closed-form expressions for the Bessel functions of [[half-integer]] order in terms of the standard [[trigonometric function|trigonometric functions]], and therefore for the spherical Bessel functions. In particular, for non-negative integers ''n'':
:<math>h_n^{(1)}(x) = (-i)^{n+1} \frac{e^{ix}}{x} \sum_{m=0}^n \frac{i^m}{m!(2x)^m} \frac{(n+m)!!}{(n-m)!!}</math>
and ''h''<sub>''n''</sub><sup>(2)</sup> is the complex-conjugate of this (for real ''x''). (!! is the double [[factorial]].) It follows, for example, that ''j''<sub>0</sub>(''x'') = sin(''x'')/''x'' and ''y''<sub>0</sub>(''x'') = -cos(''x'')/''x'', and so on.
=== Riccati-Bessel functions ===
Riccati-Bessel functions only slightly differ from spherical Bessel functions:
:<math>S_n(x)=x j_n(x)=\sqrt{\pi x/2}J_{n+1/2}(x)</math>
:<math>C_n(x)=-x y_n(x)=-\sqrt{\pi x/2}Y_{n+1/2}(x)</math>
:<math>\zeta_n(x)=x h_n^{(2)}(x)=\sqrt{\pi x/2}H_{n+1/2}^{(2)}(x)=S_n(x)+iC_n(x)</math>
They satisfy the differential equation:
:<math>x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + [x^2 - n (n+1)] y = 0</math>
This differential equation, and the Riccati-Bessel solutions, arises in the problem of scattering of electromagnetic waves by a sphere, known as [[Mie scattering]] after the first published solution by Mie (1908). See e.g. Du (2004) for recent developments and references.
Following [[Peter Debye|Debye]] (1909), the notation <math>\psi_n,\chi_n</math> is sometimes used instead of
<math>S_n,C_n</math>.
== Asymptotic forms ==
The Bessel functions have the following asymptotic forms for non-negative &alpha;. For small arguments <math>0 < x \ll \sqrt{\alpha + 1}</math>, one obtains:
:<math>J_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \frac{1}{\Gamma(\alpha+1)} \left( \frac{x}{2} \right) ^\alpha </math>
:<math>Y_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \left\{ \begin{matrix}
\frac{2}{\pi} \left[ \ln (x/2) + \gamma \right] & \mbox{if } \alpha=0 \\ \\
-\frac{\Gamma(\alpha)}{\pi} \left( \frac{2}{x} \right) ^\alpha & \mbox{if } \alpha > 0
\end{matrix} \right.</math>
where &gamma; is the [[Euler-Mascheroni constant]] (0.5772...) and &Gamma; denotes the [[gamma function]]. For large arguments <math>x \gg |\alpha^2 - 1/4|</math>, they become:
:<math>J_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}
\cos \left( x-\frac{\alpha\pi}{2} - \frac{\pi}{4} \right)</math>
:<math>Y_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}}
\sin \left( x-\frac{\alpha\pi}{2} - \frac{\pi}{4} \right).</math>
(For &alpha;=1/2 these formulas are exact; see the spherical Bessel functions above.) Asymptotic forms for the other types of Bessel function follow straightforwardly from the above relations. For example, for large <math>x \gg |\alpha^2 - 1/4|</math>, the modified Bessel functions become:
:<math>I_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi x}} e^x,</math>
:<math>K_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} e^{-x}.</math>
while for small arguments <math>0 < x \ll \sqrt{\alpha + 1}</math>, they become:
:<math>I_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \frac{1}{\Gamma(\alpha+1)} \left( \frac{x}{2} \right) ^\alpha </math>
:<math>K_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \left\{ \begin{matrix}
- \ln (x/2) - \gamma & \mbox{if } \alpha=0 \\ \\
\frac{\Gamma(\alpha)}{2} \left( \frac{2}{x} \right) ^\alpha & \mbox{if } \alpha > 0
\end{matrix} \right.</math>
==Properties==
For integer order &alpha; = ''n'', ''J''<sub>''n''</sub> is often defined via a [[Laurent series]] for a generating function:
:<math>e^{(x/2)(t-1/t)} = \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty J_n(x) t^n,</math>
an approach used by [[P. A. Hansen]] in 1843. (This can be generalized to non-integer order by [[contour integration]] or other methods.) Another important relation for integer orders is the '''Jacobi-Anger identity''':
:<math>e^{iz \cos \phi} = \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty i^n J_n(z) e^{in\phi},</math>
which is used to expand a [[plane wave]] as a sum of cylindrical waves, or to find the [[Fourier series]] of a tone modulated [[Frequency modulation|FM]] signal.
The functions ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>, ''Y''<sub>&alpha;</sub>, ''H''<sub>&alpha;</sub><sup>(1)</sup>, and ''H''<sub>&alpha;</sub><sup>(2)</sup> all satisfy the [[recurrence relation]]s:
:<math>Z_{\alpha-1}(x) + Z_{\alpha+1}(x) = \frac{2\alpha}{x} Z_\alpha(x)</math>
:<math>Z_{\alpha-1}(x) - Z_{\alpha+1}(x) = 2\frac{dZ_\alpha}{dx}</math>
where ''Z'' denotes ''J'', ''Y'', ''H''<sup>(1)</sup>, or ''H''<sup>(2)</sup>. (These two identities are often combined, e.g. added or subtracted, to yield various other relations.) In this way, for example, one can compute Bessel functions of higher orders (or higher derivatives) given the values at lower orders (or lower derivatives). In particular, it follows that:
:<math>\left( \frac{d}{x dx} \right)^m \left[ x^\alpha Z_{\alpha} (x) \right] = x^{\alpha - m} Z_{\alpha - m} (x)</math>
:<math>\left( \frac{d}{x dx} \right)^m \left[ \frac{Z_\alpha (x)}{x^\alpha} \right] = (-1)^m \frac{Z_{\alpha + m} (x)}{x^{\alpha + m}}</math>
Because Bessel's equation becomes [[Hermitian]] (self-adjoint) if it is divided by ''x'', the solutions must satisfy an orthogonality relationship for appropriate boundary conditions. In particular, it follows that:
:<math>\int_0^1 x J_\alpha(x u_{\alpha,m}) J_\alpha(x u_{\alpha,n}) dx = \frac{\delta_{m,n}}{2} J_{\alpha+1}(u_{\alpha,m})^2,</math>
where &alpha; > -1, &delta;<sub>''m'',''n''</sub> is the [[Kronecker delta]], and ''u''<sub>&alpha;,m</sub> is the ''m''-th [[root (mathematics)|zero]] of ''J''<sub>&alpha;</sub>(''x''). This orthogonality relation can then be used to extract the coefficients in the ' |
chedelic drug|psychedelic]] properties, both [[recreational drug|recreationally]] and religiously (as [[entheogen]]s) (see main article, ''[[Psychedelic mushroom]]'').
===Types of fungi===
The major divisions ([[phyla]]) of fungi are mainly classified based on their sexual [[reproduction|reproductive]] structures. Currently, five divisions are recognized:
[[Image:K_1033CR08-9_Yellow_fungus_on_stalk.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Yellow fungus]]
* The [[Chytridiomycota]] are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi produce zoospores that are capable of moving on their own through liquid menstrua by simple [[flagellum|flagella]].
* The [[Zygomycota]] are known as zygomycetes and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores. [[Black bread mold]] (''Rhizopus stolonifer'') is a common species that belongs to this group, another is ''[[Pilobolus]]'', which shoots specialized structures through the air for several meters and was the source of the name for the modern dance troupe.
* Members of the [[Glomeromycota]] are also known as the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually. This is an ancient association, with evidence dating to 350 mybp.
* The [[Ascomycota]], commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, meiotic spores are called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This division includes [[morel]]s, some [[mushroom]]s and [[truffle]]s, as well as single-celled [[yeast]]s and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g. ''[[Neurospora crassa]]'').
* Members of the [[Basidiomycota]], commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called [[basidiospore]]s on club-like stalks called [[basidium|basidia]]. Most common [[mushroom]]s belong to this group, as well as [[rust (fungus)]] and [[smut (fungus)|smut fungi]], which are major pathogens of grains.
Although the [[water mold]]s and [[slime mold]]s have traditionally been placed in kingdom Fungi and are still studied by mycologists, they are not true fungi. Unlike true fungi, the water molds and slime molds do not have cell walls made of [[chitin]]. In the [[kingdom (biology)|5-kingdom system]], they are currently placed in kingdom [[Protist]]a.
===Structure===
Fungi may be single-celled or multicellular. Multicellular fungi are composed networks of long hollow tubes called [[hyphae]]. The hyphae often aggregate in a dense network known as [[mycelium]]. The mycelium grows through the [[substrate]] on which the fungus feeds. Because fungi are imbedded in the medium in which they grow, they are often not visible to the naked eye.
Although fungi lack true organs, the mycelia of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes may become organized into more complex reproductive structures called [[fruiting body|fruiting bodies]], or sporocarps, when conditions are right. "Mushroom" is the common name given to the above-ground fruiting bodies of many fungal species. Although these above-ground structures are the most conspicuous to humans, they make up only a small portion of the entire fungal body. Some fungi form rhizoids, which are underground root-like structures that provide support and transport nutrients from the soil to the rest of the mycelium.
The largest organism in the world is purported to be a single ''[[Armillaria ostoyae]]'' individual growing in a forest in eastern [[Oregon]], [[USA]]. The underground mycelial network may cover as much as 890 [[hectare|ha]] (2200 [[acre]]s).
[[Image:Fungi Belize.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fungus growing on fallen tree trunks in [[Belize]].]]
===Reproduction===
Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually. In [[asexual reproduction]], the [[offspring]] are genetically identical to the “parent” organism (they are [[Cloning|clones]]). During [[sexual reproduction]], a mixing of [[gene|genetic material]] occurs so that the offspring exhibit traits of both parents. Many species can use both strategies at different times, while others are apparently strictly sexual or strictly asexual. Sexual reproduction has not been observed in some fungi of the [[Glomeromycota]] and [[Ascomycota]]. These are commonly referred to as Fungi imperfecti or [[Deuteromycota]].
Yeasts and other unicellular fungi can reproduce simply by [[budding]], or “pinching off” a new cell. Many multicellular species produce a variety of different asexual spores that are easily dispersed and resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions are right, these spores will [[germination|germinate]] and colonize new [[habitat]]s.
Sexual reproduction in fungi is somewhat different from that of animals or plants, and each fungal division reproduces using different strategies. Fungi that are known to reproduce sexually all have a [[haploid]] stage and a [[diploid]] stage in their life cycles. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes also go through a [[dikaryotic]] stage, in which the [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] inherited by the two parents do not fuse right away, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see [[heterokaryosis]]).
In zygomycetes, the haploid hyphae of two compatible individuals fuse, forming a [[zygote]], which becomes a resistant [[zygospore]]. When this zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes [[meiosis]], generating new haploid hyphae and asexual [[sporangiospore]]s. These sporangiospores may then be distributed and germinate into new genetically-identical individuals, each producing their own haploid hyphae. When the hyphae of two compatible individuals come into contact with one another, they will fuse and generate new zygospores, thus completing the cycle.
In ascomycetes, when compatible haploid hyphae fuse with one another, their nuclei do not immediately fuse. The dikaryotic hyphae form structures called [[ascus|asci]] (''sing.'' ascus), in which [[karyogamy]] (nuclear fusion) occurs. These asci are embedded in an [[ascocarp]], or fruiting body, of the fungus. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate to form new haploid mycelium. Asexual [[Conidium|conidia]] may be produced by the haploid mycelium. Many ascomycetes appear to have lost the ability to reproduce sexually and reproduce only via conidia.
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of ascomycetes. Sexually compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. This leads to the production of a [[basidiocarp]]. The most commonly-known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms. Club-like structures known as [[basidia]] generate haploid [[basidiospores]] following karyogamy and meiosis. These basidiospores then germinate to produce new haploid myceliumata.
==Edible and poisonous fungi==
Some of the most well-known types of fungi are the [[Edible mushroom|edible]] and [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous mushrooms]]. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Button mushrooms (''Agaricus bisporus'') are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. [[Button mushroom|Portobello mushrooms]] are also members of this species, but grow to a much larger size. Other commercially-grown mushrooms that have gained in popularity in the West and are often available fresh in grocery stores include oyster mushrooms, shiitakes, and [[enoki]] mushrooms.
There are many more mushroom species that are [[Mushroom hunting|harvested from the wild]] for personal consumption or commercial sale. Morels, [[chanterelle]]s, [[truffles]], [[Craterellus|black trumpets]], and [[porcini]] mushrooms (also known as king boletes) all command a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.
Hundreds of mushroom species are toxic to humans, causing anything from upset stomachs to [[hallucination]]s to death. Some of the most deadly belong to the genus ''[[Amanita]]'', including ''[[Amanita virosa|A. virosa]]'' (the "Destroying Angel") and ''[[Amanita phalloides|A. phalloides]]'' (the "Death Cap"). Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea usually occur within 6-24 hours after ingestion of these mushrooms, followed by a brief period of remission (usually 1-2 days). Patients often fail to present themselves for treatment at this time, assuming that they have recovered. However, within 2-4 weeks [[liver]] and [[kidney]] failure leads to death if untreated. There is no antidote for the toxins in these mushrooms, but [[kidney dialysis]] and administration of [[corticosteroids]] may help. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary (Kaminstein 2002).
[[Amanita muscaria|Fly agaric]] mushrooms (''A. muscaria'') are also responsible for a large number of poisonings, but these cases rarely result in death. The most common symptoms are nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, and hallucinations. In fact, this species is used ritually and recreationally for its hallucinogenic properties. However, if it is taken in over a long period of time (regularly over more than six months), this species might cause a temporary loss of sight, which can last from several minutes to an hour.
==Fungi in the biological control of pests==
Many fungi compete with other organisms, or directly infect them. Some of those fungi are considered beneficial because they can restrict, and sometimes eliminate, the populations of noxious organisms like pest insects, [[mites]], [[weeds]], [[nematodes]] and other fungi, like those that kill plants. There is much interest on the manipulation of these beneficial fungi for the [[biological control]] of pests. Some of these fungi can be used as [[biopesticides]], like those that kill insects ([[entomopathogenic fungi]]). Specific e |
kish soldiers withstood the assaults, though according to Arab sources, the Arab cavalry several times broke into the interior of the Frankish square. But despite this, Franks did not break, and it is probably best expressed by a translation of an Arab account of the battle from the Medieval Source Book: "And in the shock of the battle the men of the North seemed like North a sea that cannot be moved. Firmly they stood, one close to another, forming as it were a bulwark of ice; and with great blows of their swords they hewed down the Arabs. Drawn up in a band around their chief, the people of the Austrasians carried all before them. Their tireless hands drove their swords down to the breasts of the foe." Both Western and Muslim accounts of the battle agree that sometime during the height of the fighting, scouts sent by Martel to the Muslim camp began freeing prisoners, and fearing loss of their plunder, a large portion of the Muslim army abandoned the battle, and returned to camp to protect their spoils. In attempting to stop what appeared to be a retreat, Abdul Rahman was surrounded and killed by the Franks, and what started as a ruse ended up a real retreat, as the Muslim army fled the field that day. They could have probably resumed the battle the following morning, but Rahman's death led to bickering between the surviving generals, and the Arabs abandoned the battlefield the day after his death, leaving Martel a unique place in history as the savior of Europe and a brilliant general in age not known for its generalship. Martel's Franks, virtually all infantry without armour, managed to withstand mailed horsemen, without the aid of bows or firearms, a feat of arms almost unheard of in medieval history.
==After Tours==
In the subsequent decade, Charles led the Frankish army against the eastern duchies, Bavaria and Alemannia, and the southern duchies, [[Aquitaine]] and [[Provence]]. He dealt with the ongoing conflict with the [[Frisia]]ns and [[Saxons]] to his northeast with some success, but full conquest of the Saxons and their incorporation into the Frankish empire would wait for his grandson Charlemagne, primarily because Martel concentrated the bulk of his efforts against Muslim expansion.
So instead of concentrating on conquest to his east, he continued expanding Frankish authority in the west, and denying the Emirite of Córdoba a foothold in Europe. After his victory at Tours, Martel continued on in campaigns in [[736]] and [[737]] to drive other Muslim armies from bases in Gaul after they again attempted to get a foothold in Europe beyond al-Andalus. His victories at Berre and Narbonne again expelled invading Islamic armies.
===Wars from 732-737===
Between his victory of 732 and [[735]], Charles reorganised the kingdom of [[Burgundy]], replacing the counts and dukes with his loyal supporters, thus strengthening his hold on power. He was forced, by the ventures of [[Radbod, King of the Frisians|Radbod]], [[rulers of Frisia|duke of the Frisians]] (719-734), son of the Duke Aldegisel who had accepted the missionaries Willibrord and Boniface, to invade independence-minded Frisia again in [[734]]. In that year, he slew the duke, who had expelled the Christian missionaries, in battle and so wholly subjugated the populace (he destroyed every pagan shrine) that the people were peaceful for twenty years after.
The dynamic changed in 735 because of the death of Odo the Great, who had been forced to acknowledge, albeit reservedly, the suzerainty of Charles in 719. Though Charles wished to unite the duchy directly to himself and went there to elicit the proper homage of the Aquitainians, the nobility proclaimed Odo's son, [[Hunold]], whose dukeship Charles recognised when the Arabs invaded Provence the next year.
This naval Arab invasion was headed by Abdul Rahman's son. It landed in [[Narbonne]] in 736 and took [[Arles]]. Charles, the conflict with Hunold temporarily put on a back burner, descended on the Provençal strongholds of the Muslims. In 736, he retook [[Montfrin]] and [[Avignon]], and Arles and [[Aix-en-Provence]] with the help of [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards]]. [[Nîmes]], [[Agde]], and [[Béziers]], held by Isalm since [[725]], fell to him and their fortresses destroyed. He defeated a mighty host outside of Narbonne, but failed to take the city. Provence, however, he successfully rid of its foreign occupiers.
Notable about these campaigns was Charles' incorporation, for the first time, of heavy cavalry with stirrups to augment his [[phalanx]]. His ability to coordinate infantry and cavalry veterans was unequaled in that era and enabled him to face superior numbers of invaders, and decisively defeat them again and again. Some historians believe Narbonne in particular was as imporant a victory for Christian Europe as Tours. In ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels'', [[Antonio Santosuosso]], Professor Emeritus of History at the [[University of Western Ontario]], and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute, puts forth an interesting modern opinion on Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's son in 736-737. Santosuosso presents a compelling case that these later defeats of invading Muslim armies were at least as important as Tours in their defence of Western Christendom and the preservation of Western monasticism, the monasteries of which were the centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of her Dark Ages. He also makes a compelling argument, after studying the Arab histories of the period, that these were clearly armies of invasion, sent by the Caliph not just to avenge Tours, but to conquer Christian Europe and bring it into the Caliphate. Thus, Charles again championed Christianity and halted Muslim expansion into Europe, as the window was closing on Islamic ability to do so. These defeats were the last great attempt at expansion by the Umayyad Caliphate before the destruction of the dynasty at the [[Battle of the Zab]], and the rending of the Caliphate forever.
===Interregnum===
In 737, at the tail end of his campaigning in Provence and [[Septimania]], the king, Theuderic IV, died. Martel, titling himself ''maior domus'' and ''princeps et dux Francorum'', did not appoint a new king and nobody acclaimed one. The throne lay vacant until Martel's death. As the historian [[Charles Oman]] says (''The Dark Ages'', pg 297), "he cared not for name or style so long as the real power was in his hands".
The interregnum, the final four years of Charle's life, was more peaceful than most of it had been and much of his time was now spent on administrative and organisational plans to create a more efficient state. Though, in [[738]], he compelled the Saxons of [[Westphalia]] to do him homage and pay tribute. Charles set about integrating the outlying realms of his empire into the Frankish church. He erected four diocese in Bavaria ([[Salzburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Freising]], and [[Passau]]) and gave them Boniface as [[archbishop]] and [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at [[Mainz]]. In [[739]], [[Pope Gregory III]] begged Charles for his aid against Liutprand. But Charles was loathe to fight his onetime ally and ignored the papal pleas. Nonetheless, the Papal applications for Frankish protection showed how far Martel had come from the days he was tottering on excommunication, and set the stage for his son and grandson to literally rearrange Italy to suit the Papacy, and protect it.
==Death==
Charles Martel died on [[October 22]], [[741]], at [[Quierzy-sur-Oise]] in what is today the [[Aisne]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in the [[Picardy]] region of France. He was buried at [[Saint Denis Basilica]] in [[Paris]]. His territories were divided among his adult sons a year earlier: to [[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]] he gave Austrasia and Alemannia (with Bavaria as a vassal), to [[Pippin the Younger]] Neustria and Burgundy (with Aquitaine as a vassal), and to [[Grifo]] nothing, though some sources indicate he intended to give him a strip of land between Neustria and Austrasia.
As noted, Gibbon called him "the paramount prince of his age." A strong argument can be made that Gibbon was correct.
==Legacy==
At the beginning of Charles Martel's career, he had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, Clotaire IV. By his end, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, no hallowed Meroving was needed, neither for defence nor legitimacy: Charles divided his realm between his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son [[Bernhard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]]. In between, he strengthened the Frankish state by consistently defeating, through superior generalship, the host of hostile foreign nations which beset it on all sides, including the heathen Saxons, which his grandson Charlemagne would fully subdue, and Moors, which he halted on a path of continental domination.
Charles was that rarest of commodities in the Dark Ages: a brilliant stategic general, who also was a tactical commander ''par excellance'', able in the crush and heat of battle to adapt his plans to his foes forces and movement &mdash; and amazingly, defeated them repeatedly, especially when, as at Tours, they were far superior in men and weaponry, and at Berre and Narbonne, when they were superior in numbers of brave fighting men. Charles had the last quality which defines genuine greatness in a military commander: he foresaw the dangers of his foes, and prepared for them with care; he used ground, time, place, and fierce loyalty of his troops to offset his foes superior weaponry and tactics; third, he adapted, again and again, to the enemy on the battlefield, cooly shifting to compensate for the unforeseen and unforeseeable.
===Beginning of the Reconquista===
It is vital to note that Marte |
ons génitales féminines]]
[[he:מילת נשים]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fermentation''' typically refers to the conversion of [[sugar]] to [[alcohol]] using [[yeast]]. The process is often used to produce or preserve food, typically [[wine]] or [[beer]], but also includes the making of [[yoghurt|yogurt]]. The science of fermentation is known as [[zymology]].
In its strictest sense, '''fermentation''' (formerly called '''zymosis''') is the anaerobic metabolic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation. Fermentation does not release all the available energy in a molecule; it merely allows [[glycolysis]] (a process that yields two ATP per glucose) to continue by replenishing reduced [[coenzyme]]s. Fermentation yields [[lactate]], [[acetic acid]], [[ethanol]], or other [[redox|reduced]] [[metabolite]]s.
'''Fermentation''' is also used much more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of [[microorganism]]s on a [[growth medium]]. No distinction is made between [[Cellular respiration|aerobic]] and [[Glycolysis|anaerobic]] metabolism when the word is used in this sense.
Fermentation usually implies that the action of the microorganisms is desirable. Occasionally wines are enhanced through the process of [[cofermentation]]. When fermentation stops prior to complete conversion of sugar to alcohol, a [[stuck fermentation]] is said to have occurred.
==History==
Since fruits ferment naturally, fermentation precedes human history. However, humans began to take control of the fermentation process at some point. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting beverages in [[Babylon]] circa [[5000 BC]], [[ancient Egypt]] circa [[3000 BC]], [[pre-Hispanic Mexico]] circa [[2000 BC]], and [[Sudan]] circa [[1500 BC]]. There is also evidence of leavened bread in [[ancient Egypt]] circa [[1500 BC]] and of milk fermentation in Babylon circa [[3000 BC]]. The Chinese were probably the first to develop vegetable fermentation.
==Biochemistry==
[[Fermentation]] is a process that is important in [[anaerobic exercise|anaerobic]] conditions when there is no [[oxidative phosphorylation]] to maintain the production of ATP ([[Adenosine triphosphate]]) by [[glycolysis]]. During fermentation pyruvate is metabolised to various different compounds. Textbook examples of fermentation products are [[ethanol]] (drinkable alcohol), [[lactic acid]], and [[hydrogen]]. However, more exotic compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as [[butyric acid]] and [[acetone]].
Although the final step of fermentation (conversion of pyruvate to fermentation end-products) does not produce energy, it is critical for an anaerobic cell since it regenerates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD<sup>+</sup>), which is required for glycolysis. This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic conditions.
Fermentation products contain chemical energy (they are not fully oxidized) but are considered waste products since they cannot be metabolised further without the use of oxygen (or other more highly-oxidized electron acceptors). A consequence is that the production of ATP by fermentation is less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation, where pyruvate is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide. Fermentation produces two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose compared to approximately 36 by aerobic respiration. Even in vertebrates, however, it is used as an effective means of energy production during short, intense periods of exertion, where the transport of oxygen to the muscles is insufficient to maintain aerobic metabolism. While fermentation is helpful during short, intense periods of exertion, it is not sustained over extended periods in complex aerobic organisms. In humans, for example, lactic acid fermentation provides energy for a period ranging from 30 seconds to 2 minutes. The speed at which ATP is produced is about 100 times that of [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. The pH in the [[cytoplasm]] quickly drops when [[lactic acid]] accumulates in the muscle, eventually inhibiting enzymes involved in glycolysis.
==Products==
Products produced by fermentation are actually waste products produced during the reduction of pyruvate to regenerate NAD+ in the absence of oxygen.
When yeast ferments, it breaks down the sugar(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) into exactly two molecules of ethanol (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O) and two molecules of carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>).
* [[Ethanol fermentation]] (done by [[yeast]] and some types of [[bacterium|bacteria]]) breaks the pyruvate down into [[ethanol]] and carbon dioxide. It is important in [[bread]]-making, [[brewing]], and [[wine]]-making. When the ferment has a high concentration of [[pectin]], minute quantities of [[methanol]] can be produced. Usually only one of the products is desired; in bread the alcohol is baked out, and in alcohol production the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
* [[Lactic acid fermentation]] breaks down the pyruvate into [[lactic acid]]. It occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the [[blood]] can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some [[bacterium|bacteria]] and some [[fungi]]. It is this type of bacteria that convert [[lactose]] into lactic acid in [[yogurt]], giving it its sour taste.
The burning sensation in muscles during hard exercise used to be attributed to the production of [[lactic acid]] during a shift to '''anaerobic glycolosis''', as oxygen is converted to [[carbon dioxide]] by [[aerobic glycolysis]] faster than the body can replenish it; but muscle soreness and stiffness after hard exercise is actually due to [[microtrauma]] of the [[muscle fibres]]. The body falls back on this less-efficient but faster method of producing ATP under low-oxygen conditions. This is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at high concentration in the atmosphere and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production in cells. The [[liver]] later gets rid of this excess lactate by transforming it back into an important glycolysis intermediate called [[pyruvate]]. [[Aerobic glycolysis]] is a method employed by muscle cells for the production of lower-intensity energy over a longer period of time.
Bacteria generally produce acids. Vinegar ([[acetic acid]]) is the direct result of bacterial fermentation. In milk, the acid coagulates the [[casein]], producing curds. In pickling, the acid preserves the food from pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria.
==Uses==
The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion, e.g., converting [[juice]] into [[wine]], grains into [[beer]], and [[carbohydrate]]s into [[carbon dioxide]] to leaven [[bread]].
According to Steinkraus (1995), food fermentation serves five main purposes:
#Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates
#Preservation of substantial amounts of food through [[lactic acid]], alcoholic, [[acetic acid]], and [[alkaline fermentation]]s
#Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential [[amino acid]]s, essential [[fatty acid]]s, and vitamins
#Detoxification during food-fermentation processing
#A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements
Fermentation has some benefits exclusive to foods. Fermentation can produce important [[nutrients]] or eliminate [[antinutrients]]. Food can be preserved by fermentation, since fermentation uses up food energy and can make conditions unsuitable for undesirable microorganisms. For example, in [[pickling]] the acid produced by the dominant bacteria inhibit the growth of all other microorganisms. Depending on the type of [[freeze distillation|fermentation]], some products (e.g., [[fusel alcohol]]) can be harmful to people's health.
In [[alchemy]], fermentation is often the same as [[putrefaction]], meaning to allow the substance to naturally [[rot]] or [[decomposition|decompose]].
==Fermented foods, by region==
* World wide: [[alcohol]], [[wine]], [[vinegar]], [[olives]], [[yogurt]]
* [[Asia]]
** [[East Asia|East]] and [[South East Asia|South East]] Asia: [[asinan]], [[bai-ming]], [[belacan]], [[burong mangga]], [[dalok]], [[jeruk]], [[fish sauce]], [[Kimchi]](김치), [[doenjang]](된장), [[leppet-so]], [[miang]], [[nata de coco]], [[nata de pina]], [[natto]], [[naw-mai-dong]], [[pak |
otably, the Church did not opine on the evolution of animals other than humans, nor did it endorse a particular theory of creationism.
Soon after the [[1909]] statement, [[Joseph F. Smith]] professed in certain editorials that "the Church itself has no philosophy about the ''modus operandi'' employed by the Lord in His creation of the world. (''Juvenile Instructor'', 46 (4), 208-209 (April 1911), and that various possibilities for such creation might have included the idea that Adam and Eve: (1) "evolved in natural processes to present perfection", (2) were "transplanted [to earth] from another sphere" ('''see, e.g., [[Adam-God theory]]'''), or (3) were "born here . . . as other mortals have been." (''[[Improvement Era]]'' 13, 570 (April 1910).
In [[1925]], as a result of publicity from the [[Scopes Trial|"Scopes Monkey Trial"]] concerning the right to teach evolution in [[Tennessee]] public schools, the [[First Presidency]] reiterated its [[1909]] stance, stating that "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, basing its belief on divine revelation, ancient and modern, declares man to be the direct and lineal offspring of Deity. . . . Man is the child of God, formed in the divine image and endowed with divine attributes."
The issue of evolution surfaced again in the early [[1930]]s, when there was an intense debate between liberal theologian and [[general authority]] [[B. H. Roberts]], an ardent proponent of evolution, and the more conservative theologian [[Joseph Fielding Smith]]. This prompted the [[First Presidency]], then led by [[Heber J. Grant]] as President, to conclude:
:Upon the fundamental doctrines of the Church we are all agreed. Our mission is to bear the message of the restored gospel to the world. Leave geology, biology, archaeology, and anthropology, no one of which has to do with the salvation of the souls of mankind, to scientific research, while we magnify our calling in the realm of the Church. . .
:Upon one thing we should all be able to agree, namely, that Presidents Joseph F. Smith, John R. Winder, and Anthon H. Lund were right when they said: "Adam is the primal parent of our race" [First Presidency Minutes, Apr. 7, 1931].
Later, [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] published his book ''Man: His Origin and Destiny'', which denounced evolution without qualification. Similar statements of denunciation were made by [[Bruce R. McConkie]], who as late as [[1980]] denounced evolution as one of "the seven deadly heresies" (BYU [[Fireside (Mormonism)|Fireside]], June 1, 1980), and stated: "There are those who say that revealed religion and organic evolution can be harmonized. This is both false and devilish." Evolution was also denounced by the very conservative [[Ezra Taft Benson]], who as an Apostle called on members to use the Book of Mormon to combat evolution and several times denounced evolution as a "falsehood" on a par with [[socialism]], [[rationalism]], and [[humanism]]. (Ezra Taft Benson, Conference Report, April 5, 1975).
Today, largely influenced by Smith, McConkie, and Benson, evolution is rejected by a large number of Church members, including highly educated members and even some bio- and paleo-science professors at Church-owned schools such as [[Brigham Young University]]. However, the Church still does not have an official position on how the Earth was created, and many devout Latter-day Saints have accepted evolution as a fact of history. See, e.g., Trent D. Stephens, D. Jeffrey Meldrum, & Forrest B. Peterson, ''Evolution and Mormonism: A Quest for Understanding'' (Signature Books, 2001).
===The beginnings of the Church bureaucracy===
====New building programs====
*Constructing administration buildings
*Zions Securities Corporation (managing taxable Church properties)
*Corporation of the President (managing non-taxable Church properties)
====The early correlation movement====
*Priesthood editorial oversight of formerly priesthood-auxiliary-specific YMMIA, YLMIA, Relief Society, Primary, and Sunday School magazines.
*Adoption of the Boy Scout program (1911)
*Priesthood Committee on Outlines established for publishing lesson materials for each priesthood quorum
*Melchizedek Priesthood handbook (1928)
Priesthood-Auxiliary movement (1928-1937): re-emphasized the church hierarchy around Priesthood, and re-emphasized other church organizations as "priesthood auxiliaries" with reduced autonomy.
====The Church Educational System====
*As free public schools became available, the church closed or relinquished church-run "stake academies" and junior colleges in 1920s (except Rick's College and Brigham Young Academy).
*Building of seminaries on church property adjacent to public high schools (beginning 1912).
*Establishment of a General Board of Education
*Institutes of religion (beginning 1926 at University of Idaho)
====Church welfare systems====
*Relief Society's Social Services department (1920s--provided therapy, counseling, and adoption services)
*Church Security Program (1936)
*Welfare Program (1938)
*Welfare Services department (Social Services, employment and guidance programs, and health services)
*Military Relations Committee
===The Church and "Lamanites"===
During the post-[[World War II]] period, the Church also began to focus on expansion into a number of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures, as well as Oceanic cultures, which many Mormons considered to be the same ethnicity. These peoples were called "Lamanites", because they were all thought to descend from the [[Lamanite]] group in the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. In [[1947]], the Church began the [[Indian Placement Program]], where Native American students (upon request by their parents) were voluntarily placed in white Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year, where they would attend public schools and become assimilated into Mormon culture.
In [[1955]], the Church began ordaining black [[Melanesia]]ns to the [[Priesthood (Latter-day Saint)|Priesthood]].
==Reacting and Adapting to the Postmodern World (c. 1960 and later)==
By the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], as a consequence of its massive, international growth in the post-[[World War II]] era, the Church was no longer primarily a Utah-based church, but a world-wide organization. The church, mirroring the world around it, felt the disunifying strains of alien cultures and diverse points of view that had brought an end to the idealistic modern age. At the same time, the [[postmodernity|postmodern]] world was increasingly skeptical of traditional religion and authority, and driven by mass-media and public image. These influences awoke within the church a new self-consciousness. The Church could no longer rest quietly upon its fundamentals and history. It felt a need to sell its image to an increasingly jaded public, to jettison some of its Utah-based parochialism, to control and manage Mormon scholarship that might present an unfavorable image of the Church, and to alter its organization to cope with its size and cultural diversity, while preserving centralized control of Latter-day Saint doctrine, practice, and culture.
Thus, the Church underwent a number of important changes in organization, practices, and meeting schedule. In addition, the Church became more media-savvy, and more self-conscious and protective of its public image. The Church also became more involved in public discourse, using its new-found political and cultural influence and the media to affect its image, public morality, and Mormon scholarship, and to promote its missionary efforts. At the same time, the Church struggled with how to deal with increasingly pluralistic voices within the Church and within Mormonism. In general, this period has seen both an increase in cultural and racial diversity and extra-faith [[ecumenism]], and a decrease in intra-faith [[religious pluralism|pluralism]].
===Latter-day Saint ecumenism===
Until the Church's phenomenal growth after World War II, it had been seen in the eyes of the general public as a backward, non- or vaguely-[[Christianity|Christian]] polygamist cult in Utah -- an image that interfered with proselyting efforts. As the Church's size began to merit new visibility in the world, the Church seized upon the opportunity to re-define its public image, and to establish itself in the public mind as a mainstream Christian faith. At the same time, the Church became publicly involved in numerous ecumenical and welfare projects that continue to serve as the foundation of its ecumenism today.
====Moderation and assimilation of Mormon rhetoric====
As part of the Church's efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the Church began to moderate its earlier anti-[[Catholicism|Catholic]] rhetoric. In General Authority [[Bruce R. McConkie]]'s 1958 edition of ''Mormon Doctrine'', he had denounced the Catholic Church as "the church of the devil" and "the great and abominable church". In his 1966 edition of the same book, this language was removed.
''See generally'': Armand L. Mauss, ''The Angel and the Beehive: The Mormon Strugle with Assimilation'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Gordon Sheperd & Gary Sheperd, "Mormonism in Secular Society: Changing Patterns in Official Ecclesiastical Rhetoric," ''Review of Religious Research'' 26 (Sept. 1984): 28-42.
====Standardization of missionary discussions====
The first routinized system for teaching Church principles to potential proselytes had been created in 1953 and named "A Systematic Program for Teaching the Gospel". In 1961, this system was enhanced, expanded, and renamed "A Uniform System for Teaching Investigators". This new system, in the form of a hypothetical dialogue with a fictional character named "Mr. Brown", included intricate de |
ranilka of Russian origin, as well as several paintings shoving scenes from the [[New Testament]], brought by pilgrims from Bitola from their pilgrimage in Jerusalem. The opening scenes of the film "The Peacemaker" were shot in the "St. Dimitrija" church in Bitola.
The '''Ajdar-kadi (Turkish judge) mosque''' is one of the most attractive monuments of the Islamic architecture in Bitola. It was built in 1561-1562, as the project of the famous architect [[Mimar Sinan]], ordered by the Bitola kadija Ajdar-kadi. The [[mosque]] was abandoned and over time, it was heavily damaged, but, the recent restoration and conservation works, have restored, to a certain extent, the original appearance to the mosque.
The '''Jeni mosque''' is located in the centre of the city. It has a square base, topped with a cupola. Near the mosque there is a minaret, 40 m high. Today, in the rooms of this mosque are permanent and temporary art exhibitions are held.
The '''Ishak mosque''' is the inheritance of the famous kadi [[Ishak Çelebi]]. In the spacious yard of the mosque, there are several tombs, attractive because of the soft, molded shapes of the sarcophagi.
The '''Bezisten (the old Turkish market)''' is mentioned in another description of the city from the 16th and the 17th century. The present Bezisten in external appearance does not differ much from the original one. The Bezisten had 86 shops and 4 large iron gates. The shops were used for selling textiles, and today they are being used for selling food products.
The '''Bath Deboj''' (Turkish bath=[[hamam]]). The period of construction is not known. This hamam over time was heavily destroyed, but, after the repairs were made it regained its original appearance: beautiful facade, two large cupolas and several minor ones.
== Bitola today ==
[[Image:pelister.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bitola-The National park Pelister]]
Bitola is the main economical and industrial center in the western part of Macedonia. Many of the largest companies in Macedonia are situated in the city. Bitola has a vast economic potential. The Pelagonija agricultural combine is the largest producer of food in the country. The Streževo water system is the largest in Macedonia and has the best technological facilities. The three thermoelectric power stations of REK Bitola produce nearly 80% of electricity in the state. The Frinko refrigerate factory is a leading electrical and metal company. Bitola also has significant capacities in textile and food industries.
The University of “St. Kliment Ohridski” is the second university in the Republic of Macedonia. It was formed in 1979, as a result of dispersed processes that occurred in education in the seventies, and increasing demand of highly skilled professionals outside the Republic’s capital. Since 1994, it carries the name of the great Slavic educator [[St. Clement of Ohrid]]. The following higher educational institutions and scientific-research organizations are part of this University:
*Technical Faculty – Bitola
*Economical Faculty – [[Prilep]]
*Faculty of Tourism and Leisure management – [[Ohrid]]
*Teachers Faculty – Bitola
*Faculty of biotechnological sciences – Bitola
*Medical college – Bitola
*Tobacco institute – [[Prilep]]
*Hydro-biological institute – [[Ohrid]]
*Slavic cultural institute – [[Prilep]]
Institutions that are part of the university are located in Bitola, [[Ohrid]] and [[Prilep]], but the headquarters are in Bitola. University with its additions in development of higher education and scientific thought has succeeded to establish itself, accomplishing permanent cooperation with University of [[St. Cyril and Methodius]] from [[Skopje]] and with other universities from [[Balkan]] and [[European]] countries.
The Science Society is another active institution in Bitola. There is a large number of cultural institutions as well. The best known among them is the Bitola Theater, which has won the highest theater accolades at many festivals in the country and abroad. The Art Gallery and a number of cultural and artistic associations have recorded a continuously upward line of activity. Bitola also hosts the international art event entitled 'Small Bitola Monmartre' and the Interfest festival of classical music. The 'llinden Days' folk music festival is another event held there each year.
Bitola nowadays is turning into the second diplomatic center of Macedonia. [[Austria]], [[Slovenia]], [[France]], [[Turkey]],[[Italy]],[[United Kingdom]],[[Russia]],[[Romania]], [[Greece]] and other countries have already opened consulates there.
== External links ==
*[http://www.bitola.gov.mk Bitola Municipality Official Page]
*[http://www.radiomacedonia.net Radio Stari Kraj Macedonia]
*[http://www.bitola.de Bitola Babam Bitola]
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<title>Battle of Bosworth Field</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bosworth Field
|partof=the [[Wars of the Roses]]
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[August 22]], [[1485]]
|place=Around White Moors, between [[Shenton]] and [[Dadlington]] in [[Leicestershire]], [[England]]
|result=Decisive Lancastrian victory
|combatant1=[[Richard III of England]], [[House of York|Yorkist]]
|combatant2=[[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond]], [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]]
|commander1=[[Richard III of England]]&dagger;
|commander2=Nominally, [[Henry VII of England|Richmond]]
In practice, [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford|the Earl of Oxford]]
|strength1=8,000
|strength2=5,000
|casualties1=900
|casualties2=100
}}
{{Campaignbox Wars of the Roses}}
The '''Battle of Bosworth''' or '''Bosworth Field''' was an important battle during the [[Wars of the Roses]] in [[15th century]] [[England]]. It was fought on [[22 August]], [[1485]] between the [[House of York|Yorkist]] [[List of monarchs of England|King]] [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], the last of the [[Plantagenet]] dynasty, and the [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] contender for the crown, [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond]] (later King Henry VII). It ended in the defeat and death of Richard and the establishment of the [[Tudor dynasty]]. Historically, the battle is considered to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses, although further battles were fought in the years that followed as Yorkist [[pretender|pretenders]] unsuccessfully sought to reclaim the crown. (Strictly, Tudor's earlier [[treason]]s had caused him to be stripped of the Richmond title, until he took [[The Crown]] and gave the title back to himself.)...
==The Campaign and its politics==
Henry had landed in [[Pembrokeshire]], the county of his birth, on [[7 August]] with a small force&mdash;consisting mainly of [[France|French]] [[Mercenary|mercenaries]]&mdash;in an attempt to claim the throne of England. Richard III had fought similar battles with Lancastrian usurpers in the past, but this one would be his last. Although Henry did not have his opponent's [[military]] experience, he was accompanied by his uncle, [[Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford|Jasper Tudor, 1st Earl of Pembroke]] (later 1st Duke of Bedford) and [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford]], each of them being a brilliant and seasoned [[soldier]]. Henry gathered supporters in the course of his journey through his father's native [[Wales]], and by the time he arrived in the [[Midlands]], he had amassed an army of an estimated 5,000 men. The King, by contrast, could command nearly 8,000. The decisive factor in the battle was to be the conduct of the Stanley brothers&mdash;[[William Stanley (Battle of Bosworth)|Sir William Stanley]] and [[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby|Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley]], the latter being Henry's stepfather. Richard had good cause to distrust them, but was dependent on their continued loyalty.
The battlefield site, now open to the public, is close to [[Sutton Cheney]] and [[Market Bosworth]] in [[Leicestershire]]. The actual site of the battle has been the topic of often contentious debate among professional and amateur historians, with a compelling case being made for situating the battle closer to the villages of [[Dadlington]] and [[Stoke Golding]], although most are agreed that Richard's encampment the night before the battle was indeed on [[Ambion Hill]]. Another school of thought is that the battle actually took place at [[Merevale]], just above [[Atherstone]] in [[Warwickshire]]; certainly reperations were made by the king to Atherstone after the battle. [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland]], with Lo |
the addition of ANVIS compatible lighting systems. The TCTO (Time Compliance Technical Order) that added the NVIS compatible systems was completed in 2004. 615 aircraft were delivered to 5 countries.
* '''Block 50/52 (F-16 CJ/DJ)''' <br>Block 50/52 was first delivered in late 1991, the aircraft are equipped with improved [[GPS]]/[[INS]]. All aircraft feature helmet-mounted-cueing allowing off-boresight air-to-air missile firing. The aircraft can carry a further batch of advanced missiles; the [[AGM-84 Harpoon]] missile, JDAM, JSOW and WCMD. Block 50 aircraft are powered by the F110-GE-129 while the Block 52 jets use the F100-PW-229.
* '''Block 50D/52D Wild Weasel''' An advanced [[SEAD|Suppression of Enemy Air Defences]] "[[Wild Weasel]]" capability is provided by the AN/ASQ-213 HARM Targeting System (HTS), allowing greater range and more precision by utilizing the known range mode of the HARM. It can carry the ALQ-119 Electronic Jamming Pod for self protection. With the retirement of the F-4G Wild Weasel, the 50/52D is now the sole provider of SEAD missions.
* '''Block 50/52 Plus''' <br> These aircraft are fitted with the latest avionics (including the [[ALE-50 Towed Decoy System]]) and provisions for [[Conformal Fuel Tanks]] (CFTs). The Greek Air Force ordered this version with the CFTs. All two-seat "Plus" airframes include the enlarged Avionics Dorsal Spine which adds 30 cubic feet (850 L) to the airframe for more avionics with only small increases in weight and drag. This version is sometimes called F-16U and is the fundation of F-16 E/F Block 60.
*'''F-16I''' <br> Block 50/52 Plus for Israeli Defense Force - Air Force, with significant Israeli avionics replacing that of American firms (Such as Israeli Aerial Towed Decoy replacing the ALE-50). The addition of Israeli built autonomous aerial combat maneuvering instrumentation systems enables the training exercises to be conducted without the dependence on the ground instrumentation systems, and the helmet mounted sight is also a standard equipmnet. The F-16I also has the Israeli built removable conformal fuel tanks added.
*'''F-16 CCIP''' <br>The Common Configuration Implementation Program seeks to standardise all Block 40/42/50/52 F-16s to 50/52 configuration for simplified training and maintenance.
===F-16 E/F===
* '''Block 60''' <br>Based on the F-16C/D, it features conformal fuel tanks and improved radar and avionics; it has only been sold to the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The General Electric F110-132 is a development of the -129 model and is rated at 32,500 lbf (144 kN). A major difference from previous Blocks is the [[Northrop Grumman]] [[APG-80]] Active Electronically Scanned Array ([[AESA]]) radar. Block 60 allows the carriage of all Block 50/52 aircraft-compatible weaponry as well as [[ASRAAM]] and the [[AGM-84E]] Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM). The CFTs provide an additional 450 US gallons (2,045 litres) of fuel allowing increased range or time on station. This has the added benefit of freeing up hardpoints for weapons, i.e. hardpoints that would have been occupied by underwing fuel tanks. Theoretically, the aircraft could be purchased by the United States Air Force, but in practice the USAF has shown little interest in acquiring new F-16s given that it has an extensive "boneyard" fleet of the planes at the [[Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center]] and is planning to take delivery of the new [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]] by the end of the decade.<br />
** A single-seat version of the [[F-16XL]] was to be designated F-16E, with the twin-seat variant designated F-16F. This was sidelined by the Air Force's selection of the [[F-15E Strike Eagle]] in the 1980s Enhanced Tactical Fighter flyoff.
==Other variants==
* '''F-16/79''' - Modified export-version F-16A designed for use with the outdated [[J79]] turbojet engine in answer to President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s directive to curtail arms proliferation by selling only reduced capability weapons. However, numerous exceptions were made, and with the later relaxation of the policy under President Carter and cancellation under President [[Reagan]], no copies were ultimately sold.
* '''F-16/101''' - Modified F-16A designed for use with the [[General Electric F101]] turbofan engine from the [[B-1 Lancer|B-1A]] program. GE attempted to rework the engine for fighter usage, but it was never adopted for the F-16. Data from the F-16/101 assisted in the development of the F110 turbofan.
* '''F-16ADF''' - upgraded Block 15 for United States [[Air National Guard]]'s fighter interception mission (hence the name Air Defense Fighter). Begun in 1989, 270 airframes were upgraded. Avionics were upgraded (including the addition of an IFF interrogator and bird slicing IFF antennas), and a spotlight fitted forward and below the cockpit, for night time identification. This was the only US version equipped with the AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile. Beginning in 1994 these aircraft began to be replaced by newer F-16C variants. By 2005 only the North Dakota ANG was flying this example.
* '''[http://www.israeli-weapons.com/weapons/aircraft/f-16i/F-16I.html F-16I]''' - a version with improved avionics, manufactured for [[Israel]]. Its avionics were significantly modified with Israeli components, and conformal fuel tanks fitted to increase its range. Initial orders were made in 1997 with the first deliveries in December 2003.
* '''[[Mitsubishi F-2|F-2A/B]](FS-X)''' - Indigenous F-16 inspired design produced in [[Japan]] by [[Mitsubishi|Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]], with cooperation from Lockheed Martin. It is larger and utilizes mainly Japanese avionics.
* '''[[F-16XL]]''' - a delta-wing version used by [[NASA]] for aeronautical research, once conceived of as a possible competitor for the [[Enhanced Tactical Fighter]] program, later won by the [[F-15E]]. If the F-16XL had gone into production, it would have been designated F-16E/F (single/twin seat). Two examples were built, one single seat and one two-seat version.
* '''RF-16C/F-16R''' - [[reconnaissance]] version that carries the [[ATARS]] package.
* '''F-16 MLU''' - (Mid Life Update) An update of the F-16 A/B to the Block 20 standard for the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Belgian Air Force, the Royal Danish Air Force, the Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Portuguese Air Force.
* '''F-16N''' - 22 Block 30 aircraft delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as aggressor trainers. These aircraft were delivered in 1987-1988. VF-126 and The Navy Fighter Weapons School operated them at NAS Miramar. East coast squadrons were VF-43 at NAS Oceana and VF-45 at NAS Key West. Each squadron had one TF-16N and 5 F-16N, with the exception of NFWS which had 7. Due to the high stress of constant combat training the wings of these aircraft began to crack and the Navy announced their retirement in 1994 and they were sent to AMARC by 1995. As adversary aircraft they were notable for their colorful appearance. Most F-16Ns were painted in a three-tone blue and gray "ghost" scheme. Top Gun had some of the more colorful ones: a three-color desert scheme, a light blue one and a green splinter camo version with Marine markings. VF-126 also had a unique blue example. In 2002 the Navy began to receive 14 F-16 A and B models from AMARC, once again for adversary training and painted in exotic schemes.
* '''TF-16N''' - Four two-seaters delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as aggressor trainers. Each of the four Navy F-16 adversary squadrons had one example of this version.
* '''KF-16''' - 180 licensed by Lockheed Martin in 1990's. Almost 2,500 parts changed from the original F-16E/F. Also in the late 1990's, Lockheed and KAI produced the first Korean Indigenous plane, the T-50/A-50. Modeled from the original F-16. About $22 million in cost and the South Korean government has ordered 94 planes in 2004. About 1200 expected to be sold.
[[Image:F-16_VISTA.jpg|thumb|The F-16 VISTA]]
* '''F-16 VISTA''' - Lockheed-Martin's experimental F-16 with thrust vector control. The VISTA program is considered as successful but the thrust vector control (TVC) never made it into fighter versions.
* '''AFTI/F-16''' -
==Operators==
{{main|Operators of the F-16 Fighting Falcon}}
Total delivered or on order as of 2005:
*[[United States Air Force]]: 2507 (some sold to other countries)
*[[United States Navy]]: 40
*Other air forces: 2401
**[[Royal Bahraini Air Force]]: 22
**[[Belgian Air Force]]: 160
**[[Chilean Air Force]]: 10+18
**[[Danish Air Force]]: 78
**[[Egyptian Air Force]]: 220
**[[Hellenic Air Force]]: 170
**[[Royal Jordanian Air Force]]: 24
**[[Indonesian Air Force]]: 10
**[[Israeli Air Force]]: 382
**[[Aeronautica Militare Italiana|Italian Air Force]]: 34
**[[Royal Netherlands Air Force]]: 213
**[[Royal Norwegian Air Force]]: 72
**[[Royal Oman Air Force]]: 12
**[[Pakistan Air Force]]: 40
**[[Polish Air Force]]: 48
**[[Portuguese Air Force]]: 45
**[[Republic of Singapore Air Force]]: 60
**[[Republic of China Air Force|Republic of China (Taiwan) Air Force]]: 150
**[[Republic of Korea Air Force]](ROKAF): 180
**[[Royal Thai Air Force]]: 61
**[[Turkish Air Force]]: 240
**[[United Arab Emirates Air Force]]: 80
**[[Venezuelan Air Force]]: 24
*Total number manufactured: 4,426
*Unit cost:
**F-16A/B: 1998USD 14.6 million
**F-16C/D: 1998USD 18.8 million
**late models: 1998USD 26.9 million
==Current sale proposal by the USA==
Recently Lockheed Martin has entered in discussion with the [[India]]n ministry of defence which is looking out for replacing its aging fleet of MiG-21. But the signals coming out from the chambers of [[Indian Air Force]] do not depict a rosy picture for this aircraft.
Following the recent earthquake, Pakistan recently reported that it is going to delay purchase of 50 late-model F-16s (F-16C/D, Block 50/52) along with some secondhand USAF F-16s. It will however immediately purchase 26 sec |
Talmud'' website)
==See also==
* [[Chosen people]], [[Chosen one]]
* [[Supersessionism]]
* [[Jewish view of Jesus]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=478&letter=C&search=chosen%20people Chosen people] at the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]]
*[http://www.rj.org/rj.shtml Beliefs of Reform Judaism]
*[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/Preaching/S970623_Covenanting.html The Jewish concept of chosenness]
*[http://www.simpletoremember.com/faqs/The_Jewish_Nation.htm The Chosen People FAQs]
* [http://www.bc.edu/research/cjl/meta-elements/texts/articles/rosenthal.htm Some are Chosen, All are Loved. Rabbi Gilbert S. Rosenthal]
* [http://www.adatshalom.net/dvarchin/max.html ''The Chosen People: Reclaiming Our Sacred Myth'', Mitchell Max]
===Charges of racism===
*[http://www.adl.org/hate-patrol/churchmovement.asp Anti-Defamation League paper on Christian Identity]
*[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/american/adl/paranoia-as-patriotism/covenant.html The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord - a Christian Identity movement]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Cyprus/8815/ Response to anti-Semites' posting of Talmud "Quotes" and other anti-Semitic fabrications and distortions]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/ The Real Truth About The Talmud] (Exposes fraudulent or distorted Talmud quotes used by anti-Semites)
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=160993 Are the Jews the Chosen People?] chabad.org
== References ==
* ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', JTSA, New York, 1988, p.33-34
* ''Platform on Reconstructionism'' Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot, Sept. 1986, pages D, E
* ''Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism'', 1999 Pittsburgh convention of the Central Conference of American Rabbis
* ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing
* Ismar Elbogen ''Jewish Liturgy: A Comprehensive History'' JPS, 1993. The most thorough academic study of the Jewish liturgy ever written.
* Marcia Falk ''The Book of Blessings'' HarperSanFranciso, 1996
* Reuven Hammer, Ed. ''Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals'', The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003
* [[Nosson Scherman]], Ed. ''The Complete Artscroll Siddur'', Mesorah Publications, 2nd edition, 1986
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Jews]]
[[pl:naród wybrany]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross-compilation</title>
<id>7452</id>
<revision>
<id>39353200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T16:18:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.98.249.237</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added link to polish version.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Compiler|Compiling]] a program takes place by running a compiler on the ''build platform''. The compiled program will run on the ''host platform''. Usually these two are the same; if they are different, the process is called '''cross-compilation'''.
Typically the [[hardware architecture]] differs, like for example when compiling a program destined for the [[MIPS architecture]] on an [[x86]] computer; but cross-compilation is also applicable when only the [[operating system]] environment differs, as when compiling a [[FreeBSD]] program under [[Linux]]; or even just the system library, as when compiling programs with [[uClibc]] on a [[glibc]] host.
A "'''Canadian Cross'''" is a shortcut to describe a three-way cross-compilation : on platform A, compile a compiler to run on platform B that generates executable for platform C. For instance [[NetBSD]] provides a [[POSIX]] [[Unix shell]] script named "build.sh" which will first build its own toolchain with host's compiler which in turn will be used to build the cross-compiler. Finally the latter will be used to build the whole system.
Cross-compilation is typically more involved and prone to errors than with native compilation. Due to this, cross-compiling is normally only utilized if the target is not yet ''self-hosting'' (i.e. able to compile programs on its own), unstable, or the build system is simply much faster. For many [[embedded system]]s, cross-compilation is simply the only possible way to build programs, as the target hardware does not have the resources or capabilities.
The autotools packages (i.e. [[autoconf]], [[automake]], and [[libtool]]) use the notion of a ''build platform'', a ''host platform'', and a ''target platform''. The ''build platform'' is where the code is actually compiled. The ''host platform'' is where the compiled code will execute. The ''target platform'' usually only applies to compilers as it represents what type of object code the package itself will produce (such as cross-compiling a cross-compiler); otherwise the ''target platform'' setting is irrelevant.
For example, consider cross-compiling a video game that will run on the [[Dreamcast]]. The machine where the game is compiled is the ''build platform'' while the Dreamcast is the ''host platform''.
==See also==
*[[Cross compiler]]
==References==
* [http://kegel.com/crosstool/ Crosstool] is a helpful [[toolchain]] of [[Scripting programming language|scripts]], which create a Linux crosscompile environment for the desired architecture.
* [http://buildroot.uclibc.org/ buildroot] is another set of scripts, but for building a uClibc based system.
*http://www.scratchbox.org/
[[Category:Cross-compilers|*]]
[[pl:Kompilacja skrośna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christian persecution</title>
<id>7453</id>
<revision>
<id>15905519</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-26T12:09:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JeLuF</username>
<id>733</id>
</contributor>
<comment>replaced pre-stub by #REDIRECT [[Persecution of Christians]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Persecution of Christians]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chaparral</title>
<id>7455</id>
<revision>
<id>41539331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:54:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WormRunner</username>
<id>28250</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RiDa is a chaparral species?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the biome. For other uses, see [[Chaparral (disambiguation)]]''
'''Chaparral''' is a [[shrubland]] [[biome]] found primarily in [[California]], USA, that is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers) and wildfire. Similar plant communities are found in the five other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the [[Mediterranean]] (where it is known as [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]]), central [[Chile]] ([[Chilean Matorral|matorral]]), [[South Africa]]n Cape Region (known there as [[fynbos]]), and [[Australia]] (Western and Southern).
The word ''chaparral'' comes from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''chaparro'', or dwarf evergreen oak, which itself comes from the [[Basque language|Basque]] word ''txapar'', with the same meaning.
[[Image:chaparral.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Chaparral, Santa Ynez Mountains, near Santa Barbara, California]]
A typical chaparral plant community consists of densely-growing evergreen [[oak]]s and other drought-resistant shrubs. It often grows so densely that it is all but impenetrable to large animals and humans. This, and its generally arid condition, makes it notoriously prone to wildfires. Although many chaparral plant species require some fire cue (heat, smoke, or charred wood) for germination, chaparral plants are not "adapted" to fire per se. Rather, these species are adapted to particular fire regimes involving season, frequency, intensity and severity of the burn.
==Ecology of fire in chaparral==
There are two misconceptions relating to California chaparral. 1) Chaparral needs to burn to remain healthy, and 2) fire suppression policies have allowed chaparral to accumulate unnatural levels of fuel.
California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire. Old-growth chaparral in excess of one hundred years old remains a productive, dynamic ecosystem. There is no scientific evidence to support the notion that native shrublands have become unhealthy due to overgrowth. In fact, seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate. When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and the system is typically replaced by non-native, weedy grassland.
The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires is related to one of the most repeated misconceptions regarding the system: past fire suppression efforts have allowed an &#8220;unnatural&#8221; accumulation of brush to develop within the chaparral, leading to huge, catastrophic wildfires. This belief appears to be based on the misapplication of studies relating to dry ponderosa pine forests showing that undergrowth has increased over the past century due to successful fire fighting activities. In the past, surface fires burned through these forests at intervals anywhere between 4 to 36 years, clearing out the understory and creating a more ecologically balanced system. However, this conclusion has nothing to do with California shrublands.
Detailed analysis of historical fire data has shown that not only have fire suppression activities failed to exclude fire from southern California chaparral as they have in ponderosa pine forests, but the number of fires is actually increasing in step with population growth. Research showing differences in fire size and frequency between southern California and Baja has been used to imply larger fires north of the border are the result of fire suppression, but this opinion has been seriously challenged by numerous investigators and is no longer supported by the majority of f |
ed, a public school system was created and [[stage coach]] lines were established. Regular newspapers and telegraph offices were active in Lewiston, [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] and [[Silver City, Idaho|Silver City]] by [[1865]].
The discovery of gold, silver and other valuable natural resources throughout Idaho beginning in the 1860s, as well as the completion of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|Transcontinental Railroad]] in [[1869]] brought many new people to the territory, including [[Chinese]] laborers who came to work the mines. As Idaho approached statehood, [[mining]] and other extractive industries became increasingly important to her economy. By the [[1890s]], for example, Idaho exported more [[lead]] than any other state.
In 1865, Boise replaced Lewiston as the territorial capital. The move, which was extremely unpopular in northern Idaho, increased the often bitter sectionalism between the northern and southern parts of the territory. Proposals to split the two regions were widespread. In [[1887]] Idaho Territory was nearly legislated out of existence, but President [[Grover Cleveland]] refused to sign a bill that would have split Idaho Territory between Washington Territory in the north and [[Nevada]] in the south.
In [[1889]] the [[University of Idaho]] was awarded to the northern town of [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]] instead of its original planned location at Eagle Rock (now [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]]) in the south. This served to alleviate some of the hard feelings felt by northerners over losing the capital.
When President [[Benjamin Harrison]] signed the law admitting Idaho as a [[U.S. state]] on [[July 3]], [[1890]], the population was 88,548. [[George Laird Shoup|George L. Shoup]] became the state's first governor.
During its first years of statehood Idaho was plagued by labor unrest in its mining community, culminating in the December [[1905]] assasination of former governor [[Frank Steunenberg]] by [[Albert Horsley|Harry Orchard]], aka Albert Horsley, a radicial unionist incensed by Steunenberg's efforts as governor to break an [[1899]] strike after being elected on a pro-labor platform. In a nationally publicized [[1907]] trial [[Industrial Workers of the World]] organizer [[Bill Haywood|"Big Bill" Haywood]] and two other labor leaders were tried and acquitted of conspiracy to murder Steunenberg. Orchard was convicted and sentenced to life in prison.
[[Image:All female survey crew - Minidoka Project, Idaho 1918.jpg|thumb|left|All female survey crew - Minidoka Project, Idaho 1918]]
After statehood, Idaho's economy began a gradual shift away from mining and towards agriculture, particularly in the south. Older mining communities such as Silver City and [[Rocky Bar, Idaho|Rocky Bar]] gave way to agricultural communities incorporated after statehood, such as [[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa]] and [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]]. Milner Dam on the Snake River, completed in [[1905]], allowed for the formation of many agricultural communities in the [[Magic Valley]] region, which had previously been nearly unpopulated.
Meanwhile, some of the mining towns were able to reinvent themselves as resort communities, most notably in [[Blaine County, Idaho|Blaine County]], where the [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]] ski resort opened in [[1936]]. Others, such as Silver City and Rocky Bar, became [[ghost town|ghost towns]].
In the north, mining continued to be an important industry for several more decades. The closure of the Bunker Hill Mine complex in [[Shoshone County, Idaho|Shoshone County]] in the early 1980s sent the region's economy into a tailspin. However, since that time there has been a substantial increase in [[tourism]] in northern Idaho, particuarly in [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]].
Although Idaho's dependence on mining has decreased, the state remains a top producer of [[silver]] and [[lead]]. Today, Idaho's industrial economy is growing, with high-tech products a leading sector. Since the late [[1970s]], Boise has emerged as a center for [[semiconductor manufacturing]]. Boise is the home of [[Micron Technology Inc.]], the only U.S. manufacturer of [[dynamic random access memory]] (DRAM) chips. [[Hewlett-Packard]] has operated a large plant in Boise, in southwestern Idaho, since the 1970s, devoted primarily to [[LaserJet printer]]s.[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/mar04.html]. [[Dell, Inc.]] operates a major customer support call center in Twin Falls.
A troubling development in the [[1980s]] was the rise in North Idaho of a few [[right-wing]] [[extremist]] and "survivalist" political groups, most notably one holding [[Neo-Nazi]] views, the [[Aryan Nations]]. These groups were most heavily concentrated in the Panhandle region of the state, particularly in the vicinity of [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]], a resort town. Although Idaho is a conservative state politically the vast majority of its residents reject such hateful ideologies. In 2001, the Aryan Nations compound, which had been located in [[Hayden Lake, Idaho]], was confiscated as a result of a court case, and the organization moved out of state. About the same time Boise installed an impressive stone Human Rights Memorial featuring a bronze statue of [[Anne Frank]] and quotations from her and many other writers extolling human freedom and equality.
== Law and government ==
[[Image:Boise Idaho.jpg|thumb|Boise, Idaho, state capitol]]
===State government===
The current Governor of Idaho is [[Dirk Kempthorne]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]), re-elected in 2002.
{{see|List of Idaho Governors}}
The constitution of Idaho provides for 3 branches of government: the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Idaho has a [[bicameral]] legislature, elected from 35 legislative districts, each represented by one Senator and two Representatives. Idaho still operates under its original ([[1889]]) state constitution.
====United States Senators====
*[[Larry Craig|Larry E. Craig]] ([[United States Republican Party|Republican]], Class 2)
*[[Mike Crapo]] (Republican, Class 3)
====House of Representatives====
Idaho has two [[United States House of Representatives|House Representatives]]
*1st District: [[C. L. Otter|C.L. "Butch" Otter]] (Republican)
*2nd District: [[Mike Simpson]] (Republican)
On the national level Idaho is a strongly Republican state which has not supported a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] for [[president of the United States|president]] since [[1964]]. Even in that election, [[Lyndon Johnson]] defeated [[Barry Goldwater]] by less than two percentage points. In [[2004]], [[George W. Bush]] carried Idaho by a margin of 38 percentage points and 68.4% of the vote, winning in 43 of 44 counties. Only [[Blaine County, Idaho|Blaine County]], which contains the [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]] ski resort, supported [[John Kerry]].
The Idaho Legislature has been continuously controlled by the Republican Party since the late 1950s, although Democratic legistators are routinely elected from [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]], [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]], [[Blaine County, Idaho|Blaine County]] and the northern Panhandle.
Idaho is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].
== Geography ==
[[Image:National-atlas-idaho.PNG|left|thumb|Map of Idaho]]
[[Image:Owyhee Mountains.jpg|thumb|Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed in the Owyhee Mountains about 50 miles southwest of Boise, Idaho.]]
[[Image:Crooked Creek in Gospel Hump Wilderness.jpg|thumb|Crooked Creek in Gospel Hump Wilderness, Idaho]]
[[Image:Idaho USA12.jpg|thumb|Idaho landscape]]
{{see|List of Idaho counties}}
Idaho borders [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[British Columbia]] (the Idaho-BC border is 48 miles long). Idaho has a rugged landscape with some of the largest unspoiled natural areas in the country. Idaho is a [[Rocky Mountains|Rocky Mountain]] state with exciting scenery and enormous natural resources. Idaho has towering, snow-capped mountain ranges, swirling white rapids, peaceful lakes and steep canyons. The churning waters of [[Snake River]] rush through [[Hells Canyon]], which is deeper than the [[Grand Canyon]]. [[Shoshone Falls]] plunges down rugged cliffs from a height greater than that of [[Niagara Falls]].
The major rivers in Idaho are the [[Snake River]], the [[Clearwater River (Idaho)|Clearwater River]] and the [[Salmon River (Idaho)|Salmon River]]. Other significant rivers include the [[Boise River]] and the [[Payette River]].
Idaho's highest point is [[Borah Peak]] in the Lost River Mountains north of [[Mackay, Idaho|Mackay]]. Idaho's lowest point is in [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]], where the Clearwater River joins the Snake River and continues into [[Washington]].
Most major cities in Idaho, including [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]], [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]], [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]] and [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]], are in the [[Mountain Standard Time Zone]]. Areas north of the Salmon River, including [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]] and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]], are in the [[Pacific Standard Time Zone]].
=== Lakes ===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
* [[Coeur d'Alene]]
* [[Priest Lake]]
* Payette Lake (McCall)
* [[Lake Pend Oreille|Pend Oreille]]
* Lake Lowell
* Henery's Lake
</td><td valign=top>
* Sawtooth National Recreational Area
** Redfish Lake
** Alturas Lake
** Petit Lake
** Sawtooth Lake
</td></tr></table>
=== National Parks ===
* [[California National Historic Trail]]
* [[City of Rocks National Reserve]]
* [[Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve|Craters of the Moon National Monument]]
* [[Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument]]
* [[Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail]]
* [[Minidoka Internment National Monument]]
* [[Nez Perce National Historical Park]]
* [[Oregon National Histo |
or inlet in [[cablemodem]]s). See http://www.marine-electronics.net/techarticle/coax/f-con.htm
* In [[finance]], F is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[Ford Motor Company]].
* In [[grammar]], F is often an abbreviation for the female [[grammatical gender]].
* In [[information systems]], F is often used as an abbreviation for the female sex in personal data records.
* In [[language]], F is often used as mild censorship for the vulgar word, [[fuck]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], F stands for [[France]].
* In [[mathematics]], F is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[fifteen]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 16 or greater.
* In [[meteorology]], F is the abbreviation for the [[Fujita-Pearson Tornado Scale]] that classifies [[tornado]]es according to damage and associated wind speeds (F0 through F5).
* In the [[SI]] system,
**F is the symbol for [[farad]], the [[SI derived unit]] for electric [[capacitance]].
**f, [[femto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10<sup>-15</sup>.
* In [[music]],
** F is a [[note]].
** f is a notation for [[forte]].
* In [[optics]], ''f'' is the [[focal length]]
* In [[photography]], ''f'' is the [[focal length]] or the [[F-number|f-number]]
* In [[physics]],
** ''F'' represents the [[Faraday constant]].
** ''f'' is the [[variable]] for [[frequency]]
** F is used to indicate [[focal point]], such as in [[concave mirror]]s.
** ''F'' is used to represent [[force]] as in the equation ''F'' = ''m'' * ''a''
* In [[printing]], f. is an abbreviation for [[Bookbinding|folio]] (page in a book), although it is more common to see ff. as the plural form.
* In [[propositional logic]] F is the symbol for false.
* In [[radio]]communication, F is one of the [[ITU prefix]]es allocated to [[France]].
* In [[slang]], F can stand for [[felony]]. From the song "Ebonics" by [[Big L (rapper)|Big L]] - "If you caught a felony / You caught a F".
* In [[temperature]], °F (or &#8457;, Unicode U+2109) is degrees [[Fahrenheit]].
==Variants of F==
* The '''F with hook''' or '''script F''' (Unicode U+0191 and U+0192, &#401; and ƒ) is used in the transcription of [[Kabye language|Kabye]] and other West African languages for the [[voiceless bilabial fricative]]. Lowercase ƒ is the [[monetary symbol]] for the Dutch [[florin]] (which no longer exists as of the introduction of the [[Euro]]), as well as the mathematical symbol of ''function''
* '''F with dot above''' (Unicode U+1e1e and U+1e1f, &#7710; and &#7711;) is used in the old orthography of [[Irish language|Irish]]
* The [[French Franc]] can be written FF or &#8355; (Unicode U+20a3)
* In mathematics, the '''script capital F''' (Unicode U+2131, &#8497;) represents the [[Fourier transform]]
* There also exists:
** The '''turned capital F''' (Unicode U+2132, &#8498;), which is a letter that the Roman Emperor [[Claudius]] attempted to add to the [[Latin alphabet]], the "[[digamma inversum]]". (There's no "turned small f" because were no [[minuscule]] letters at that time.)
** The '''parenthesized small F''' (Unicode U+24a1, &#9377;)
** The '''circled F''' (Unicode U+24bb and U+24d5, &#9403; and &#9429;)
==See also==
{{AZsubnav}}
[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[als:F]]
[[ar:F]]
[[bs:F]]
[[ca:F]]
[[sn:F]]
[[cs:F]]
[[da:F]]
[[de:F]]
[[el:F]]
[[es:F]]
[[eo:F]]
[[fr:F]]
[[gl:F]]
[[ko:F]]
[[hr:F]]
[[id:F]]
[[it:F]]
[[he:F]]
[[kw:F]]
[[la:F]]
[[hu:F]]
[[nl:F]]
[[ja:F]]
[[no:F]]
[[nn:F]]
[[pl:F]]
[[pt:F]]
[[ro:F]]
[[ru:F (буква)]]
[[simple:F]]
[[sl:F]]
[[fi:F]]
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<title>FTP</title>
<id>10832</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-14T00:30:09Z</timestamp>
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<username>Gssh4life</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The abbreviation '''FTP''' can refer to:
* The [[File Transfer Protocol]] used on the [[Internet]].
* The [[Federal Theater Project]], a [[United States of America|U.S.]] [[New Deal]] project.
* the ''[[Franc Tireurs Partisans]]'' ("Partisan irregular riflemen"), a Communist [[French Resistance]] movement during the [[Second World War]].
* [[Foiled twisted pair]] [[cable|cabling]].
* "For ten points", an abbreviation often used in [[quizbowl]] questions.
* ''Fuck the [[Pope]]'', or ''Fuck the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provos]]'', used by supporters of [[United Kingdom|British]] rule in [[Northern Ireland]].
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<title>Film noir/Film list</title>
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<page>
<title>Food preservation</title>
<id>10834</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:06:42Z</timestamp>
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<username>Dcandeto</username>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41778141 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Konservering.jpg|thumb|300px|Various preserved foods]]
'''Food preservation''' is the process of treating and handling [[food]] in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent [[foodborne illness]] while maintaining [[nutrition]]al value, texture and [[flavor]].
== Preservation Processes ==
{| width="350" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em;"
! Method
! Effect on microbial growth or survival
|-
| [[Refrigeration]] or chilling
| Low temperature to retard growth
|-
| [[Freezing]]
| Low temperature and reduction of water activity to prevent growth
|-
| [[Drying_(food)|Drying]], [[curing]] and conserving
| Reduction in [[water activity]] sufficient to delay or prevent growth
|-
| [[Vacuum]] and [[oxygen]] free [[modified atmosphere]] packaging
| Low [[oxygen]] tension inhibits strict [[aerobe]]s and delay growth of facultative [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobe]]s
|-
| Carbon dioxide enriched modified atmosphere packaging
| Specific inhibition of some micro-organisms by [[carbon dioxide]]
|-
| Addition of [[weak acid]]s
| Reduction of the intracellular [[pH]] of micro-organisms
|-
| [[Lactic acid|Lactic]] [[fermentation]]
| Reduction of pH value ''in situ'' by microbial action and sometimes additional inhibition by the lactic and [[acetic acid]]s formed and by other microbial products. (e.g. [[ethanol]], [[bacteriocin]]s)
|-
| [[Sugar]] preservation
| Cooking in high sucrose concentration creating too high osmotic pressure for most microbial survival.
|-
| [[Ethanol]] preservation
| Steeping or cooking in [[Ethanol]] produces toxic inhibition of microbes. Can be combined with [[sugar]] preservation
|-
| [[Emulsion|Emulsification]]
| Compartmentalisation and [[nutrient limitation]] within the [[aqueous]] droplets in water-in-oil emulsion foods
|-
| Addition of [[preservative]]s such as [[nitrite]] or [[sulphite]] ions
| [[Inhibitor|Inhibition]] of specific groups of micro-organisms
|-
| [[Pasteurization]] and [[appertization]]
| Delivery of [[heat]] sufficient to inactivate target micro-organisms to the desired extent
|-
| [[Food irradiation]] ([[Radurization]], [[radicidation]] and [[radappertization]])
| Delivery of [[ionising radiation]]
|-
| Application of high hydrostatic pressure (Pascalization)
| Pressure-inactivation of vegetative bacteria, yeasts and moulds
|}
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[fungus|fungi]] and other [[microorganism|micro-organisms]], as well as retarding the [[redox|oxidation]] of [[fat]]s which cause [[Rancidification|rancidity]]. It also includes processes to inhibit natural aging and discolouration that can occur during food preparation such as the [[polyphenoloxidase]] reaction in [[apple]]s which causes browning when apples are cut. Some preservation methods require the food to be sealed after treatment to prevent re-contamination with microbes; others, such as drying, allow food to be stored without any special containment for long periods.
Preservation processes include:
* Heating to kill or denature organisms (e.g. boiling)
* Oxidation (e.g use of sulphur dioxide)
* Toxic inhibition (e.g. smoking, use of carbon dioxide, vinegar, alcohol etc)
* Dehydration (drying)
* Osmotic inhibition ( e.g use of syrups)
* Low temperature inactivation (e.g. freezing)
* Many combinations of these methods
==Methods==
Common methods of applying these processes include [[drying (food)|drying]], [[freeze drying]], [[freezing]], [[vacuum-packing]], [[canning]], preserving in syrup, sugar crystalisation, [[food irradiation]], adding [[preservative]]s or inert [[gas]]es such as [[carbon dioxide]].
Other methods that not only help to preserve food, but also add flavor, include [[pickling]], [[salting (food)|salting]], [[smoking (food)|smoking]] , preserving in [[syrup]] or [[ethanol|alcohol ]], [[sugar]] crystalisation and [[curing]].
===Drying===
{{seealso|Drying (food)}}
One of the oldest methods of food preservation is by [[drying (food)|drying]], which reduces [[water activity]] sufficient to delay or prevent [[bacterium|bacteria]]l growth.
Most types of meat can be dried and this is especially valuable |
ackenzie Astin Director: Jeff Abugov
*"New Sex Now: Life's Ultimate Pleasure" (2002, New Sex Institute)
==Study of sexuality==
In contemporary academia, sexuality is studied in the field of [[gender and sexuality studies]], among many other fields.
== Topics in human sexuality ==
*[[Sexology]]
*[[Sex organ]]
*[[Genital modification and mutilation]]
*[[Sexual orientation]]
*[[Paraphilia]]
*[[Sexually transmitted disease]]
*[[Human sexual behavior]]
*[[Sex crime]]
*[[Human male sexuality]]
*[[Human female sexuality]]
==External links==
*[http://hmsx.sfsu.edu/ Program in Human Sexuality Studies]
*[http://nsrc.sfsu.edu/ National Sexuality Resource Center]
*[http://www.arhp.org/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals]
*[http://www.uvm.edu/~dhowell/EBS/History_of_Surveys_of_Sexual_Behavior1.pdf History of Surveys of Sexual Behavior] from [http://www.uvm.edu/~dhowell/EBS/ Encyclopedia of Behavioral Statistics]
*[http://www.jhuccp.org Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Center for Communication Programs (JHUCCP)] creates behavior change communication programs related to Reproductive Health in developing countries.
*[http://db.jhuccp.org/popinform/basic.html POPLINE] is a searchable database of the world's reproductive health literature.
[[Category:Human sexuality|*]]
[[bg:Сексуалност]]
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[[pt:Sexologia]]
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[[vi:Tình dục]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Horse Breeding</title>
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<title>Horse breeding</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:15:40Z</timestamp>
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<username>Dbachmann</username>
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<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deutsches Reitpony - Stute mit säugendem Fohlen.jpg|thumb|right|400px]]
'''Horse breeding''' is the process of using [[selective breeding]] to produce additional individuals of a given [[phenotype]], that is, continuing a [[breed]]. Alternatively, a breeder could, using individuals of differing phenotypes, create a new [[breed]], with specific characteristics.
Beyond phenotype (appearance and [[equine conformation|conformation]]) of horses, breeders aspire to improve physical performance abilities. This has led to the development of families or bloodlines within breeds that are specialists for excelling in specific events.
An example of this is horses that are bred to excel in a performance event called "Cutting", or separating a cow from a herd and frustrating the cow's strong instinct to rejoin the herd. This event favors horses that are highly trainable, eg - have an ability to learn from repetitive stimuli, that conformationally have short cannons and low hocks to facilitate quick stops and low turns, are muscular and athletic and commonly somewhat short in stature, and who demonstrate an attitude of dominating a cow, known as "cowsense."
Another example would be [[show hunter]] horses that are bred to excel in events such as "Hunter Under Saddle," "English Pleasure," or "Hunter On The Flat." This event favors animals that are tall and leggy, who are able to trot and canter smoothly and efficiently while giving the equestrian a comfortable ride, and who have a naturally good jump with [[bascule]] and good form.
A [[show jumping|show jumper]], however, would be bred less for overall form and more for power over fences, speed, scope, and a general carefulness. This favors a lighter horse with a good galloping stride, a powerful and strong hind end, and a good shoulder angle and length of neck.
The [[male]] [[parent]] of a horse is commonly known as the [[sire]] and the [[female]] [[parent]] as the dam. The quality of the [[sire]] is regarded as more important than the quality of the [[mare]] in many circles. However, both are equally important, as each gives 50% of the genes. It may even be said that the mare is ''more'' important, as the foal often learns habits from its dam when young.
==A Brief History of Horse Breeding==
Man is thought to have first driven the horse several thousand years ago, and to have mounted and ridden the animal a few thousand years following. However, documented breeding has a more blurry history.
One of the earliest people known to document the breedings of their horses were the [[Bedouin]]s, the breeders of the great [[Arabian (horse)|Arabian horse]]. The ancient [[Akhal-Teke]] has also been bred for centuries, possibly longer than the Arabian, specifically for war and racing. The nomads of the Mongolian steppes bred horses for several thousand years as well, and horse herding is still present in modern Mongolia.
Horse breeding changed with the times. Medieval Europe bred large horses specifically for war, called destriers. These horses were the ancestors of the great heavy horses of today, and their size was preferred not because of the weight of the armor, but because a large horse provided more power for the knight’s lance. Weighting almost twice as much as a normal riding horse, the destrier was a powerful weapon in battle. During this time, lighter horses were bred in northern Africa and the Middle East by Muslim warriors, who did not use lances and preferred a faster, cat-like horse than a slower, larger horse. The lighter horse suited the raids and battles of the Bedouins better than a destrier, and allowed them to outmaneuver rather than overpower the enemy. The Europeans, however, made up for the lack of speed of their native breeds by adding hotter blood—probably [[Arabian (horse)|Arabian]], [[Barb (horse)|Barb]], or [[Akhal-Teke|Turkish]]—to their stables to create a type of horse known as a Courser, which was used as a message horse rather than a war horse.
The need for horses for heavy draft work continued until the [[industrial revolution]] and the advent of the automobile. After this time, draft horse numbers then dropped significantly. The animals are today used mainly for pulling and plowing competitions rather than farm work. They have also been used to outcross with lighter breeds, such as the [[Thoroughbred]], to produce a horse more suited for the sport horse disciplines.
During the [[Renaissance]], horses were bred not only for war, but for [[classical dressage|haute ecole]] riding, which was the current rage. Thus the [[Lipizzaner]] was first developed from the Spanish horses.
It was during the 1600s when Europe began to really focus on breeding horses for specific purposes. The use of the horse determined its qualities, from smooth amblers for riding to horses bred specifically for carrying goods. It was during this time that gunpowder was developed, and so the light cavalry horse, a faster and quicker war horse, was bred for a “shoot and run” tactic rather than the close hand-to-hand fighting seen in the Middle Ages.
After [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] retook the British throne in 1660, horse racing, which had been banned by Cromwell, was revived. The [[Thoroughbred]] was developed 40 years later, bred to be the ultimate racehorse, through the lines of 3 foundation stallions. The Thoroughbred breeding hub in Lexington, Kentucky was developed in the late 1700s, and became a mainstay in American racehorse breeding. The Thoroughbred continues to dominate the horseracing world, although its lines have been more recently used to improve warmblood breeds and to develop sport horses.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more of a need for fine carriage horses in Europe, bringing in the dawn of the warmblood. The warmblood breeds have been exceptionally good at adapting to changing times, and from their carriage horse beginnings they easily transitioned during the 1900s into a sport horse type. Today’s warmblood breeds, although still used for [[combined driving|competitive driving]], are more often seen competing in the [[show jumping]] or [[dressage]] arenas.
The [[American Quarter Horse]] was developed in the 1700s, mainly for quarter racing (racing 1/4 of a mile). The breed was later developed for work in the west; and “cowsense” was particularly bred for as their use for herding cattle increased. The Quarter Horse today has two distinct types: the sleeker racing type and the stock horse type. The racing type most resembles the finer-boned ancestors of the first racing Quarter Horses, and the type is still used for 1/4-mile races. The stock horse type is the more popular of the two, and is used in western events and is bred for a shorter stride, docile temperament, and cowsense.
==Deciding to Breed a Mare==
[[Image:Cabalo121eue.JPG|thumb|left|300px]]
Breeding a horse should be taken seriously, and the owner should be willing to invest the time and money into the endeavor. It is agreed by most that the one area where an owner should not cut costs is the stud fee, which is generally the area in which most amateur breeders try to save money. If a mare owner is not financially able to breed without cutting back on the stud fee, it is oftentimes best to wait to breed the mare.
A mare should not be bred for the sake of it, but instead have valuable qualities to pass on. The mare owner should in an honest and in an unbiased manner consider the mare’s temperament, conformation, performance record, soundness, bloodlines, and health. Only a mare of good quality should be bred. Many times |
of the Year'' (1992&ndash;present) provides the following information:
*The Bahá'í Faith is the second most widespread of the world's independent religions in terms of the number of countries where adherents live
*It is established in 247 countries and territories throughout the world
*Its members hail from over 2,100 ethnic, racial, and tribal groups
*It boasts approximately seven million adherents[http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911] worldwide [2005].
*Bahá'í scriptures have been translated into over 800 languages.
Bahá'ís are generally quite proud of their multi-ethnic character, and believe that their Faith is uniquely destined to grow in numbers and influence.
==Teachings==
{{Bahá'í books}}
{{main|Bahá'í teachings}}
===Summary===
[[Shoghi Effendi]] wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]'s teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' constitute the bed-rock of the Bahá'í Faith:
:"The independent search after truth, unfettered by [[superstition]] or [[tradition]]; the oneness of the entire [[Human|human race]], the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of [[prejudice]], whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between [[religion]] and [[science]]; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a [[Bahá'í Faith and Language Policy|universal auxiliary language]]; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a [[World government|world tribunal]] for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of [[worship]]; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and [[World peace|universal peace]] as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Bahá'u'lláh proclaimed]."
::(''God Passes By'', p. 281)
===Social principles===
The following 12 "principles" are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá'í teachings. They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912. The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate.
:*The Oneness of [[God]]
:*The [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion|Oneness of religion]]
:*The [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity|Oneness of mankind]]
:*[[Bahá'í Faith and gender equality|Gender Equality]]
:*Elimination of all forms of prejudice
:*World peace
:*[[Bahá'í Faith and Science|Harmony of religion and science]]
:*Independent investigation of truth
:*The need for [[Bahá'í Faith and Education|universal compulsory education]]
:*The need for a [[Bahá'í Faith and Language Policy|universal auxiliary language]]
:*Obedience to government and non-involvement in politics
:*Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty
The first three of this list are commonly referred to as the [[Three Onenesses]], and form a fundamental part of Bahá'í beliefs.
===Mystical teachings===
Shoghi Effendi has called the ''[[Seven Valleys]]'' Bahá'u'lláh's "greatest mystical composition." It was first translated into [[English language|English]] in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Bahá'u'lláh to the [[Western world|West]]. In it, he follows the path of a wayfarer on a spiritual journey passing through different stages, calling them "Seven Valleys" or "Seven Cities". The goal of the journey is to follow "the Right Path", "abandon the drop of life and come to the sea of the Life-Bestower", and "gaze on the Beloved".
The [[meaning of life|purpose of life]] in the Bahá'í scriptures is to acquire [[virtue]]s, know [[God]], develop spiritually, and carry forward an advancing civilization. The personal development is conceived as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, assisted by God's [[Manifestation of God|Messengers]]. Bahá'u'lláh taught of an afterlife in which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms. [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]] are perceived as a reference to an individual's proximity to God, and not as exclusive or physical places.
Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "[[Names of God|names]] and attributes." These are likened to gems and include such divine qualities as compassion or wisdom. The purpose of God in revealing himself to mankind is to bring out "the Mystic Gems out of the mine of man." [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/ESW/esw-1.html]
===Study and worship===
Bahá'í [[spirituality]] tends to consist of textual study, [[prayer]], and recitation. [[Monasticism]] is forbidden, and Bahá'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life. Performing useful work, for example, is not only required but considered a form of [[worship]].
==History==
[[Image:Babshrinenight.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shrine of the Báb in [[Haifa]], [[Israel]].]]
{{main|Bahá'í history}}
Bahá'ís regard the period from the [[Báb]]'s 1844 declaration in Shiraz, to the 1921 passing of [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], as the Heroic, or the Apostolic Age of the Faith. This was the age when its founders lived, its martyrs died, and its foundations were established in several countries around the world.
After `Abdu'l-Bahá's passing, the Faith entered the Formative Age, which would be characterized by its rising administrative institutions, worldwide expansion, and a transition into the future Golden Age, the consummation of the Bahá'í dispensation.
===The Báb===
{{main|Báb}}
:''See also: [[Bahá'í/Bábí split]]''
In 1844 Siyyid `Alí-Muhammad of [[Shiraz, Iran]] proclaimed that he was "the Báb" ("the Gate" in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), after a [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] religious concept. His followers were therefore known as [[Bábís]].
Although the Bábí Faith has its own scriptures and religious teachings, Bahá'ís believe its duration was intended to be very short. The Báb's writings introduced the concept of "He whom God shall make manifest", the one promised in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions. The Bahá'ís believe that the Báb's purpose was fulfilled in Bahá'u'lláh, when he made his claim to be this messianic figure in 1863.
As the Báb's teachings spread, the Islamic government saw it as a threat to state religion. Several military confrontations took place between government and Bábí forces. The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed by a firing squad in [[Tabriz]] on [[July 9]], [[1850]]. His mission lasted six years.
His tomb, the [[Shrine of the Báb]], located on the slope of [[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]] in [[Haifa]] is an important place of [[Bahá'í pilgrimage|pilgrimage]] for Bahá'ís. The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Persia to the Holy Land and were eventually interred in the Shrine built for them in a spot specifically designated by Bahá'u'lláh.
===Bahá'u'lláh===
{{main|Bahá'u'lláh}}
Husayn `Alí of Nur was one of the early followers of the Báb, who later took the title of Bahá'u'lláh. He was arrested and imprisoned for this involvement in 1852. He claimed that while incarcerated in the dungeon of the [[Síyáh-Chál]] in [[Tehran]], he received the first intimations that he was the One anticipated by the Báb. (He shared this privately in 1863, and publicly in 1866.)
Shortly therefter he was expelled from [[Persian Empire|Persia]] to [[Baghdad]], in the [[Ottoman Empire]]; then to [[Istanbul|Constantinople]]; then to [[Edirne|Adrianople]]. During this time tensions grew between Bahá'u'lláh and [[Subh-i-Azal]], the appointed leader of the Bábís, culminating in Bahá'u'lláh's 1866 declaration. While in Adrianople, he wrote letters to several rulers of the world, including Sultan [[Abd-ul-Aziz]], declaring his mission as a Messenger of God. As a result Bahá'u'lláh was moved one final time, to the penal colony of [[Akko|Akká]] (in present-day [[Israel]]).
Towards the end of his life, the strict and harsh confinement was gradually relaxed, and he was allowed to live in a home near Akká, while still officially a prisoner of that city. He died there in 1892. Bahá'ís regard his resting place, the [[Mansion of Bahji]], as the [[Qiblih]] to which they turn in prayer each day.
During his lifetime, Bahá'u'lláh left a large volume of writings. The ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'', and the [[Kitáb-i-Íqán|Book of Certitude]] are recognized as primary Bahá'í theological works, and the [[Hidden Words]] and the [[Seven Valleys]] as primary mystical treatises.
===`Abdu'l-Bahá===
{{main|`Abdu'l-Bahá}}
Bahá'u'lláh was succeeded by his eldest son, `Abdu'l-Bahá. Designated as the "Centre of the Covenant" and "Head of the Faith," Bahá'u'lláh designated him in his will as the sole authoritative interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings. [http://www.bahai-library.com/writings/bahaullah/tb/13.html]
`Abdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment. This imprisonment continued until `Abdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the "[[Young Turk]]" revolution in 1908.
Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Bahá'í Faith. `Abdu'l-Bahá died in [[Haifa]] on [[November 28]], [[1921]] and is now buried in one of the front rooms in the Shrine of the Báb.
===Bahá'í administration===
{{main|Bahá'í administration}}
Bahá'u'lláh's ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' and ''The [[Will and Test |
applicability of these above convictions."
==Origins==
'''Classical liberalism''' is a political and economic philosophy. With roots in [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] and medieval thought, it received an early expression in the 16th century by the [[School of Salamanca]] in Spain and its classic formulation in the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] tradition. ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776) by [[Scotland|Scottish]] philosopher [[Adam Smith]] is one of the classic works that rejects the philosophy of [[mercantilism]], which advocated state [[economic interventionism|interventionism]] in the economy and [[protectionism]]. The classical liberals saw mercantalism as enriching privileged elites at the expense of well being of the populace. Another early expression is the tradition of a [[Nordic]] school of [[liberalism]] set in motion by a [[Finland|Finnish]] parliamentarian [[Anders Chydenius]]. Classical liberalism tries to circumscribe the limits of [[political power]] and to define and support individual [[liberty]] and [[private property]]. The phrase is often used as a means of delineating the older [[philosophy]] called ''[[liberalism]]'' from ''[[modern liberalism]]'', in order to avoid semantic confusion.
[[Image:Adam Smith.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Adam Smith]]]] Classic Liberalism is close to 18th century Liberalism. [[The Wealth of Nations]] (1776) by Adam Smith is considered one of the classic foundations of liberalism. While Adam Smith provides an explanation of liberalism and economics, the legal and philosophical understanding originates with scholars like John Locke and evolves through Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. [[Immanuel Kant]], in the [[Perpetual Peace]], creates an international liberal framework to foster a sustainable world peace.
The term "liberal" derived from this time period (generally the 18th and 19th century) with its origination stemming from the belief in individual freedom, economic freedom (including free markets), and limited representative government. This original understanding of the word "liberal" carries the same meaning in a few countries, but in most countries the meaning and ideology behind liberalism differ to certain degrees (e.g. social security, tariffs, intervention and regulation into the economy, wage and price controls) from its meaning in the eighteenth century. In many countries liberalism holds a position between classical liberalism and American liberalism. Only a few major parties adhere to classical liberalism, most of the liberal parties accept limited government intervention in economics.
[[Image:kant.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Classic Liberals include all original liberals such as [[John Locke]], [[Adam Smith]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], [[John Stuart Mill]] with his work ''[[On Liberty]]'', and even more modern liberals such as [[Von Mises]], [[Hayek]], and [[Milton Friedman]]. Classical liberal institutions include the [[Frasier Institute]] (Canada), The [[Hoover Institution]] (Stanford University), and [[The Cato Institute]] to name a few.
==Classical liberal philosophy==
Classical liberals subscribe to a very basic and universal understanding of the world and the rights of all humans. Classical Liberals believe in private property, free markets, economic competition, freedom from coercion, limited government (all [[economic freedom]]), the rule of law, and [[individual rights]] ([[natural rights]] is also used). These principals apply to all people, of all faiths, cultures, societies, ethnicities, and histories, and it is stated that all peoples are capable of achieving liberal government and liberal societies, not just western cultures. (Classical) liberals prefer a [[laissez-faire]] style of government with a [[microeconomic]] focus and understanding of economic operations.
Classical liberals reject [[wealth transfers]] (though admire the goal of helping the needy), [[tariffs]] or other [[trade barriers]] such as quotas, [[regulated markets]] (also known as a [[mixed economy]] ), [[capital controls]], and wage and [[price controls]]. As a general rule these [[macroeconomic]] policies are considered by them as reducing the [[general welfare]] of society. Social security and tariffs, for example, are viewed by Milton Friedman as [[perverse wealth transfers]], meaning wealth transfers from poor to rich. Hayek and Friedman also believed that economic freedom would help build and protect political and civil freedoms, while a loss in economic freedom meant a loss in civil and political freedoms.
Milton Friedman's [[Free to Choose]] and [[Capitalism and Freedom]] are examples of this philosophy updated for modern man and woman to understand (classical) liberalism.
==Key Thinkers==
Below is a list of Key liberal thinkers as Liberalism developed and maintained a laissez-faire political-economic outlook.
===John Locke===
{{main|John Locke}}
Locke's major works ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration]]'' and ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]'' were both published in 1689. Collectively they argue for greater religious toleration and for a state that respects the [[natural laws]] laid down in a [[Social Contract]].
===Immanuel Kant===
{{main|Immanuel Kant}}
Kant further advanced the idea of a liberal peace by demonstrating conditions and requisistes for international peace among states in his work, the [[Perpetual Peace]]
===The Founding Fathers===
{{main|Founding Fathers}}
===Adam Smith===
{{main|Adam Smith}}
Adam Smith believed that the government had only three and only three roles to play: 1.) "protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies...which can only be performed by means of a military force" 2.) "protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or oppression of every other member of it..." and 3.) "erecting and maintaining those public institutions and those public works, which...though most advantageious...are such that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual or small group of indviduals" which implies that governments should work to correct market externalities, but Smith did not argue for government run monopolies to permanently solve externality problems.
===Jeremy Bentham===
{{main|Jeremy Bentham}}
===John Stuart Mill===
{{main|John Stuart Mill}}
Quote from "On Liberty" (1859)''The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant - John Stuart Mill
===Joeseph Schumpeter===
{{main|Joseph Schumpeter}}
According to political scientist Michael Doyle, Schumpeter advanced and modernized Smith's economic assesment of capitalisms role in creating peaceful relations among states, in his work the [[Sociology of Imperialism]].
===Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises===
{{main|Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises}}
===Friedrich von Hayek===
{{main|Friedrich von Hayek}}
Hayek was a contemporary, though friendly, critic of [[John Maynard Keynes]] and believed that the outcomes of Keynes' interventionist policies would result in the destruction of civil liberal society. He further demonstrated this thesis in his work, the [[Road to Serfdom]] arguing that restrictions among economic freedom result in a loss of civil and political freedom.
===Milton Friedman===
{{main|Milton Friedman}}
Economically, Friedman is known for his [[monetarist]] and [[shock therapy]] theories. Friedman, like Hayek believed that economic freedom created and protected civil and political freedom and that the loss of economic freedom lead to a loss in civil and political freedom. His most famous popular works include [[Capitalism and Freedom]] and [[Free to Choose]] where he advances the ideas of [[laissez-faire]] [[free market]] [[liberal]] government.
==(Classical) Liberalism and the great depression==
Classical liberals, including [[Friedrich August von Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman]], and [[Ludwig von Mises]], argued that the great depression was not a result of "laissez-faire" capitalism but a result of too much government intervention and regulation upon the market. In Friedman's work, "Capitalism and Freedom" he elucidated government regulation that occurred before the great depression including heavy regulations upon banks that prevented them, he argued, from reacting to the markets' demand for money. Furthermore, the U.S. Federal government had created a fixed currency pegged to the value of gold. This pegged value created a massive surplus of gold, but later the pegged value was too low which created a massive migration of gold from the U.S. Friedman and Hayek both believed that this inability to react to currency demand created a run on the banks that the banks - stifled by state unit banking laws - were no longer able to handle, and that and the fixed exchange rates between the dollar and gold both worked to cause the [[Great Depression]] by creating, and then not fixing, deflationary pressures. He further argued in this thesis, that the government caused more pain upon the American public by first raising taxes, then by printing money to pay debts (thus causing inflation), the combination of which helped to wipe out the savings of the middle class.
Others note that the rising tariffs and reduced trade and export industries and helped slow economic growth. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act passed in the summer of 1930 is regarded by some free market scholars as an important variable in worsening economic conditions at the onset of the depression.
Some economists since Milton Friedman have continued to argue that the causes of this great depression have been erased by populist myths from Keynesians and leftists in an attempt to legitimize their own economic prefrences at the ex |
uncil of Nicea had formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which declared that Jesus and God the Father were of the same substance (''[[ousia|homoousion]]'' in Greek, a term which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264-268). The Council of Nicea did not settle these controversies, and by the time of Theodosius' accession, there were still several different church factions that sought to impose their views on Christianity as a whole. While no mainstream churchmen within the Empire explicitly adhered to Arius or his teachings, there were those who still used the ''homoiousion'' formula, as well as those who attempted to bypass the debate by merely saying that Jesus was like (''homoi'' in Greek) God the Father. All these non-Nicenes were frequently labeled as [[Arians]] (i.e., followers of Arius) by their opponents, though they would not have identified themselves as such. (For a succinct survey of the situation just before Theodosius' accession, see ''Failure of Empire,'' Noel Lenski (U. of California Press, 2002, ISBN 0520233328) pp. 235-237)
The emperor Valens had favored the group who used the ''homoi'' formula; this theology was prominent in much of the East and had under the sons of Constantine the Great gained a foothold in the west. Theodosius, on the other hand, cleaved closely to the Nicene Creed: this was the line that predominated in the West and was held by the important Alexandrian church.
Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, [[November 24]], [[380]], Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop, [[Demophilus of Constantinople]], and surrendered the churches of that city to [[Gregory Nazianzus]], the leader of the small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith).
Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had held non-Nicene positions in the decades leading up to Theodosius' accession, he managed to impose Nicene uniformity during his reign. Later Nicene writers took special glee in the ignominious death of Valens, the Arians' protector, and indeed his defeat probably damaged the standing of the Homoian faction.
For the first part of his rule, Theodosius seems to have ignored the semi-official standing of the Christian bishops; in fact he had voiced his support for the preservation of temples or pagan statues as useful public buildings. Then, in a series of decrees called the '''Theodosian decrees''' he progressively declared that those pagan feasts that had not yet been rendered Christian ones were now to be workdays (in [[389]]). In [[391]], he outlawed [[Animal sacrifice|blood sacrifice]] and decreed "no one is to go to the sanctuaries, walk through the temples, or raise his eyes to statues created by the labor of man". The temples that were thus closed could be declared "abandoned" as Bishop [[Theophilus of Alexandria]] immediately noted in applying for permission to demolish a site and cover it with a Christian church, an act that must have received general sanction, for [[Mithraism|mithraea]] forming crypts of churches and temples forming the foundations of 5th century churches appear throughout the former Roman Empire. Theodosius participated in actions by Christians against major cult sites: the destruction of the gigantic [[Serapeum]] of Alexandria and its library by a mob in around [[392]], authorized by Theodosius (''extirpium malum'') and described in exultant detail by Christian propagandists, was only the most spectacular such occasion (Peter Brown, ''The Rise of Western Christendom,'' 2003, p. 73-74). The destruction of the greatest temple in Alexandria gave encouragement to Christian vigilantism and mob action in other centers, often spurred on by the local bishops, as early hagiographies proudly relate.
By decree in 391, Theodosius ended the subsidies that had still trickled to some remnants of Greco-Roman civic paganism too. The [[Sacred fire of Vesta|eternal fire]] in the [[Vesta|Temple of Vesta]] in the [[Roman Forum]] was extinguished, and the [[Vestal Virgins]] were disbanded. Taking the auspices and practicing witchcraft were to be punished. Pagan members of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] in Rome appealed to him to restore the [[Altar of Victory]] in the Senate House; he refused. After the last [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in [[393]], Theodosius cancelled the much-diminished games, and the reckoning of dates by [[Olympiad]]s soon came to an end.
Now Theodosius portrayed himself on his coins holding the [[labarum]].
The apparent change of policy that resulted in the "Theodosian decrees" has often been credited to the increased influence of [[Ambrose]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]]. The personal piety of Theodosius cannot be assessed. It is worth noting that in 390 Ambrose had excommunicated Theodosius, who had recently ordered the massacre of several thousand inhabitants of [[Thessalonica]], in response to the assassination of his military governor stationed in the city and that Theodosius performed several months of public penance. The specifics of the decrees were superficially limited in scope, specific measures in response to various petitions and accusations from the increasingly militant Christians throughout his administration. In 391 or 392 he officially sanctioned the destruction of the most famous of the temples in the East, the [[Serapeum]] at Alexandria. Bands of monks and Christian officials had long been accustomed to take the law into their own hands and destroy various centers of pagan worship, but the destruction of the Serapeum seemed to confirm that such actions enjoyed the emperor's tacit approval at least, and served to encourage such action in the future. Theodosius had been effectively manipulated into sanctioning the destruction of the Serapeum by local officials who had essentially engineered the crisis there for this very purpose.
Ambrose preached a [[panegyric]] at Theodosius' [[funeral]].
== Arianism in the early medieval Germanic kingdoms ==
However, during the time of Arianism's flowering in [[Constantinople]], the [[Goths|Goth]] convert [[Ulfilas]] (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic barbarians across the [[Danube River|Danube]], a mission favored for political reasons by emperor [[Constantius]]. Ulfilas' initial success in converting this Germanic people to an Arian form of Christianity was strengthened by later events. When the Germanic peoples entered the [[Roman Empire]] and founded successor-kingdoms in the western part, most had been Arian Christians for more than a century.
The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of the Church; in contrast, in the kingdoms these Arian Germans established on the wreckage of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers, the Germanic elites being Arians and the majority population being trinitarian. Many scholars see the persistence of the Germans' Arian religion as a strategy to differentiate the Germanic elite from the local inhabitants and maintain their group identity against the local culture.
While most Germanic tribes in general were tolerant regarding the trinitarian beliefs of their subjects, the Vandals tried for several decennia to force their Arian belief on their North African trinitarian subjects, exiling trinitarian clergy, dissolving monasteries and exercising heavy pressure on non-conforming Christians.
For more information on these Arian kingdoms, see the articles on the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Lombards]]. (The [[Franks]] were unique among the Germanic peoples in that they entered the empire as pagans and converted to Nicene Christianity directly.) By the beginning of the [[8th century]], these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors (Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity (Visigoths, Lombards).
== "Arian" as a polemical epithet ==
In many ways, the conflict around Arian beliefs in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries helped firmly define the centrality of the Trinity in mainstream Christian theology. As the first major intra-Christian conflict after Christianity's legalization, the struggle between Nicenes and Arians left a deep impression on the institutional memory of Nicene churches. Thus, over the past 1,500 years, some Christians have used the term ''Arian'' to refer to those groups that see themselves as worshipping Jesus Christ or respecting his teachings, but do not hold to the [[Nicene creed]].
Like the Arians, many groups have embraced the belief that Jesus is not the one God, but a separate being subordinate to the Father, and that Jesus at one time did not exist. Some of these profess, as the Arians did, that God made all things through the pre-existent Christ. Some profess that Jesus became divine, through exaltation, just as the Arians believed. Drawing a parallel between these groups and Arians can be useful for distinguishing a type of unbelief in the Trinity. But, despite the frequency with which this name is used as a polemical label, there has been no historically continuous survival of Arianism into the modern era. The groups so labelled do not hold beliefs identical to Arianism. For this reason, they do not use the name as a self-description, even if they acknowledge that their beliefs are at points in agreement with, or in broad terms similar to, Arianism.
Those whose religious beliefs have been compared to or la |
, a rave, or even a stadium.
====Notable Club/Rave DJs====
[[Image:Oakenfold@Nation.jpg|thumb|right|DJ Paul Oakenfold]]
*[[David Mancuso]] (born 1944), founder of [[New York City]]'s first underground party called [[The_Loft|The Loft]].
*[[Francis Grasso]] (1948-2001), popularized several new disc jockey techniques, including [[beatmatching]] and [[slip-cueing]].
*[[Larry Levan]] (1954-1992), an early and prolific re-mixer and the DJ at [[Paradise_Garage|The Paradise Garage]]
*[[Frankie Knuckles]] (born 1955), the godfather of [[house music]].
*[[Paul Oakenfold]] (born 1963), British record producer, remixer, and one of the best-known DJs worldwide, referred to as a Superstar DJ.
*[[Tiesto]] (born 1969), one of world's leading trance music DJs, voted ''DJ Magazine'''s 'No. 1 DJ in the World' for the third consecutive year in 2004.
*[[Keoki]] (born 1969), famous techno musician, portrayed in the [[2003]] film ''[[Party Monster]]''.
''See also: [[:Category:Club DJs]]''
===Hip Hop DJs===
{{Main|Turntablism}}
A hip hop disc jockey is one that selects, plays and creates music as a hip hop artist and/or performer, often backing up one or more [[Master of Ceremonies|MC]]s.
====Notable Hip Hop DJs====
*[[DJ Kool Herc]] (born 1955), inventor of [[breakbeat]] technique, "the father of hip hop culture".
*[[Grandmaster Flash]] (born 1958), one of the early pioneers of hip hop DJing, cutting, and scratching. Created the Quick Mix Technique which allowed a DJ to precisely extend a break using two copies of the same record; essentially invented modern turntablism.
*[[Afrika Bambaataa]] (born 1960), instrumental in the development of hip hop from its birth in the South Bronx to its international success. Created first hip hop track to feature synthesizers; "The godfather of Hip Hop"
*[[Jam Master Jay]] (1965-2002), founder and DJ of [[Run-DMC]], one of the most innovative hip hop groups of all time.
*[[DJ Clue]] (born Ernesto Shaw on January 8, 1975 in Queens, New York City) is a mix DJ known for his involvement in the mixtape circuit. He is signed as an artist on Roc-A-Fella Records
*[[Eric B. & Rakim|Eric B.]] (born 1965), one half of duo [[Eric B. & Rakim]], popularized the [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]-sampled funky hip hop of the late [[1980s]].
*[[Terminator X (DJ)|Terminator X]] (born 1966), DJ of the highly infuential hip hop group [[Public Enemy]].
*[[DJ Qbert]] (born 1969), founding member of the [[turntablism]] group the [[Invisibl Skratch Piklz]] and three-time winner of the International DMC Award.
*[[Mix Master Mike]] (born 1970), skilled DJ of hip hop group [[Beastie Boys]], three-time winner of the International DMC Turntablism Award.
*[[DJ Jazzy Jeff]] (born 1965), of '''DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince''' (also backed [[Will Smith]] on his solo efforts)
''See also: [[:Category:Hip hop DJs]]''
===Mobile DJs===
Mobile disc jockeys are an extension of the original radio disc jockeys. Unlike their radio counterparts, mobile DJing is primarily seen as a part-time or second career. Although it is often perceived this way, there are many mobile DJs around the world that use this as their primary career.
Mobile DJs travel or tour with their own sound systems and play from an extensive collection of pre-recorded music, on various media, for a targeted audience. Mobile DJs tend to work for hire at private functions such as wedding receptions, bar and bat mitzvah receptions, school dances, and so on, but they can occasionally be seen in bars, nightclubs, or even block parties. Unlike many club/rave DJs, mobile DJs often play more mainstream selections of music from multiple genres and they often take requests.
The definition and responsibilities of a mobile disc jockey have changed since Bob Casey's first two-turntable system for continuous playback was utilized for sock-hops in 1955. Bands had long dominated the wedding entertainment industry, but with the advent of the less expensive mobile DJ, the demand for live performers dwindled. Even so, in the early years, the mobile DJ industry was seen as a last-resort choice for entertainment, as the DJs were reputed to frequently be unreliable and unprofessional. Mobile DJs companies came and went. However, a few companies of this era did establish themselves as competent businesses and thrived; some even still exist today.
During the Disco era of the 1970s, demand for mobile DJs (called [[mobile discos]] in the UK) soared. Top mobile DJs in this era would have hundreds of vinyl records and/or cassette tapes to play from. The equipment used in this era was enormous and usually required roadies (similar to those who work for bands) to set up. Because of the high demand for mobile DJs, many people from all facets of life jumped into the industry, hoping to make a few extra dollars on the weekends. These "Weekend Warriors", as they are called by many, helped enhance the negative stereotype of the mobile DJ; many of the same complaints from the earlier era continued.
Some tried to improve this image by forming professional associations. The [[Canadian Disc Jockey Association]] (CDJA) was one of the original associations formed in 1976 as a not-for-profit trade association for disc jockeys across [[Canada]]. It was joined by a much broader online association called the [[Canadian Online Disc Jockey Association]] (CODJA), founded by Canadian mobile DJs Glenn Miller (not the famous bandleader) and Dennis Hampson.
[[United States]] Disc Jockeys were reluctant to form anything similar until 1992 when the [[American Disc Jockey Association]] (ADJA) was incorporated. The original Board of Directors were Bruce Keslar, Maureen Keslar, John Roberts, and Lori Jesse. In 1996, after being removed from the ADJA Board from a financial dispute, Keslar then went on to form the for-profit [[National Association of Mobile Entertainers]] (NAME), based in the Philadelphia area. Both associations thrive today, with an estimated 5,000 members combined as of November 2005.
As the late 1980s turned into the 1990s, new technologies emerged. [[Compact disc]] collections were becoming the standard to play music from. Many equipment manufacturers realized the potential market that existed for [[mobile DJ]]s and raced to make equipment that was smaller, easier to use, and of better quality. Dedicated mobile disc jockey trade publications such as ''[[DJ Times]]'' magazine and ''[[Mobile Beat magazine|Mobile Beat]]'' magazine were founded in this era. These publications helped to spread the word about the emerging technologies and published informational articles that were helpful to the mobile disc jockey. This is also the era when mobile disc jockeys became the top entertainment choice for most private parties including wedding receptions.
In the mid-1990s, computers and the Internet had a profound impact on the mobile DJ industry. Professor Jam, a [[Tampa Bay, Florida]] disc jockey already known in the industry for having performed for many celebrities and television networks, became one of the first mobile DJs in the United States to regularly use computer technology to play music at his shows, and was the first professionally endorsed computer disc jockey internationally. CODJA cofounder Glenn Miller became the first licensed MP3 DJ under new music licensing agreement that was introduced to Canada in 2000 by the AVLA, and had already pioneered online networking for mobile disc jockeys by starting the first [[bulletin board system]] for mobile DJs from all over North America (and eventually the world).[http://web.archive.org/web/19980125231124/www.glenn-miller.com/wwwboard/wwwboard.html]
In the 21st Century, the role of the mobile disc jockey has expanded. While there are still many conventional, "human jukebox" mobile DJs, many others have assumed more reponsibilities to ensure the success of the events where they perform. These responsibilities include emceeing, event coordination, lighting direction, and sound engineering.
The number of resources available for mobile DJs has also expanded. Aside from the many online community forums, there are now annual conventions, regional conferences, and many local seminars for mobile disc jockeys to attend.
====Notable Mobile DJs====
*In 1955, Bob Casey (born 1941), a well-known sock hop DJ, introduced the first two-turntable system for the purpose of alternating back and forth between records, creating continuous playback.
==Timeline of events related to the disc jockey==
*[[1857]] - [[Leon Scott]] invents the [[phonoautograph]], the first device to record arbitrary sound, in [[France]].
*[[1877]] - [[Thomas Alva Edison]] invents the [[phonograph cylinder]], the first device to playback recorded sound, in the [[United States]].
*[[1887]] - [[Germans|German]]-[[United States|American]] [[Emile Berliner]] invents the [[gramophone]], a [[lateral]] [[disc]] device to record and playback sound.
*[[1889]] - Coin-slot phonograph machines, the general public's first encounter with recorded sound, begin to be mass produced. The earliest versions played only a single record, but multiple record devices, called [[jukebox]]es, were soon developed.
*[[1892]] - Emile Berliner begins commercial production of his gramophone records, the first disc record to be offered to the public.
*mid-[[1890s]] to early [[1920s]] - Cylinder and disc recordings, and the machines to play them on, are widely mass marketed and sold. The disc system gradually becomes more popular due to its cheaper price and better marketing.
*[[1906]] - [[Reginald Fessenden]] transmits the first audio [[radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] in history when he plays Christmas music from [[Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts|Brant Rock]], [[Massachusetts]].
*[[1910s]] - Regular radio broadcasting begins, using "live" as well as prerecorded sound. In the early radio age, content typically includes comedy, drama, news, music |
იცით? || {{IPA|/ɪnglɪsʊrɪ ɪʦɪt/}} || (''Inglisuri itsit?'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|I don't speak Georgian || ქართული არ ვიცი|| {{IPA|/kartʊli ar vɪʦɪ/}} || (''Kartuli ar vitsi'') ||
|-
|Yes || დიახ || {{IPA|/dɪax/}} || (''Diakh'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|No || არა || {{IPA|/ara/}} || (''Ara'') ||
|-
|Georgia || საქართველო || {{IPA|/sakartvɛlɔ/}} || (''Sakartvelo'')
|}
== [[German language|German]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Sound
|- valign=top
|-
|German || ''Deutsch'' || {{IPA|/dɔjʧ/}} || (doytch) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Deutsch.ogg|listen]])
|-
|hello || Hallo || {{IPA|/ˈhaloː/}} || (HAH-loh) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Hallo.ogg|listen]])
|-
|good-bye || ''auf Wiedersehen'' || {{IPA|/aʊf 'viːdəzeːn/}} || (owf VEE-der-zayn) ||([[Media:CPIDL German - Auf Wiedersehen.ogg|listen]])
|-
|please || ''bitte'' || {{IPA|/'bɪtə/}} || (BIT-ta) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Bitte.ogg|listen]])
|-
|you're welcome || ''bitteschön'' || {{IPA|/'bɪtəʃøn/}} || (Bit-ta Shern) ||
|-
|thank you || ''danke'' || {{IPA|/'daŋkə/}} || (DAHNG-keh) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Danke.ogg|listen]])
|-
|that one || ''das'' || {{IPA|/dɑs/}} || (DAHSS) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Das.ogg|listen]])
|-
|how much? || ''wie viel?'' || {{IPA|/vi fiːl/}} || (vee feel?) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Wie viel.ogg|listen]])
|-
|English || ''Englisch'' || {{IPA|/'ʔɛŋglɪʃ/}} || (ENG-lish) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Englisch.ogg|listen]])
|-
|yes || ''ja'' || {{IPA|/jaː/}} || (yah) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Ja.ogg|listen]])
|-
|no || ''nein'' || {{IPA|/najn/}} || (nine) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Nein.ogg|listen]])
|-
|I need help || ''Ich brauche Hilfe'' || {{IPA|/iç braʊxə hɪlfə/}} ||ish BROW-ka HILL-fa ||
|-
|excuse me || ''Entschuldigen Sie '' || {{IPA|/ɛntʃuldigən ziː/}} || ent SHOOL dee gen Zee ||
|-
|pardon me || ''verzeihen Sie '' || {{IPA|/fɛrtsaɪən ziː/}} || fair TSEYE-en Zee ||
|-
|I am sick || ''ich bin krank'' || {{IPA|/ɪç bɪn kraŋk/}} || ish bin Krahnk ||
|-
|where's the bathroom? || ''Wo ist die Toilette?'' || {{IPA|/vo ʔɪst diː toi'lɛtə/}} || (vo ist dee toy-LET-tuh) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Wo ist die Toilette.ogg|listen]])
|-
|generic toast || ''prosit'' <br>''prost'' || {{IPA|/pʁo'zit/}} <br>{{IPA|/pʁoːst/}} || (PRO-zeet) <br> (PROAST) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Prosit.ogg|listen]]) <br>([[Media:CPIDL German - Prost.ogg|listen]])
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Sprechen Sie Englisch?'' || {{IPA|/'ʃpʁɛçən ziː 'ʔɛŋlɪʃ/}} || (SHPRE-khen zee ENG-lish) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Sprechen Sie Englisch.ogg|listen]])
|-
|I don't speak German || ''Ich spreche kein Deutsch'' || {{IPA|/'ɪç ʃprɛçə kaɪn dɔjʧ/}} || ish SHPRE-ka kine doytch ||
|-
|I don't understand || ''Ich verstehe nicht.'' || {{IPA|/ɪç fəʁ'ʃteːə nɪçt/}} || (ish fair-SHTAY-uh neekht) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Ich verstehe nicht.ogg|listen]])
|-
|Sorry || ''Entschuldigung'' || {{IPA|/ʔɛnt'ʃʊldɪgʊŋ/}} || (ent-SHOOL-dee-goong) ||([[Media:CPIDL German - Entschuldigung.ogg|listen]])
|-
|I don't know || ''Ich weiß nicht'' || {{IPA|/ɪç vajs nɪçt/}} || (ish vice neekht)
|-
|Happy birthday || ''Herzlichen Glückwunsch zum Geburtstag'' || {{IPA|/hɛʁtslɪçə glykvʊn tsʊm gəbʊʁtstaːg/}} || (heyrz-lee-khen GLUEK-wunsch tsoom ger-BOORTS-tahg)
|}
== [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Greek
| ελληνικά
| {{IPA|/ɛlini'ka/}}
|(eh lee nee KA)
|-
|hello
| γειά σας
||{{IPA|/ja sas/}}
|(YA sas) (formal/plural)
|-
|please
|παρακαλώ
|{{IPA|/paraka'lɔ/}}
|(pah rah kah LOH)
|-
|thank you
|ευχαριστώ
|{{IPA|/ɛfxarɪ'stɔ/}}
|(ef ha rees TOH)
|-
|that one
|εκείνο
|{{IPA|/e'kinɔ/}}
|(eh KEE no)
|-
|how much?
|πόσο κάνει;
|{{IPA|/'pɔsɔ 'kani/}}
|(POH so kah nee)
|-
|English
|αγγλικά
|{{IPA|/aŋgli'ka/}}
|(an glee KA)
|-
|yes
|ναι
|{{IPA|/nɛ/}}
|(neh) ''(this is a [[faux amis]] for many European language speakers)''
|-
|no
|όχι
|{{IPA|/'ɔxi/}}
|(OH hee)
|-
|sorry
|συγγνώμη
|{{IPA|/siŋ'nɔmi/}}
|(sig NOH mee) (g is guttural)
|-
|I don't understand
|δεν καταλαβαίνω
|{{IPA|/'ðɛn katala'vɛnɔ/}}
|(THEN ka ta la VENN oh)
|-
|where's the bathroom?
|πού είναι οι τουαλέτες;
|{{IPA|/'pu 'inɛ i tua'lɛtɛs/}}
|(POO EE neh ee toua LET tess)
|-
|generic toast
|γειά μας
|{{IPA|/'ja mas/}}
|(YAH mass)
|-
|Do you speak English?
|μιλάτε αγγλικά;
|{{IPA|/mi'latɛ aŋgli'ka/}}
|(mee LAH teh an glee KA)
|}
== [[Gujarati]] ([[Indo-Iranian_Languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase (pronounciation)
|-
|Gujarati || Gujarati
|-
|hello || Kem cho (lit. How are you?)
|-
|good-bye || Aujo (lit. Come again)
|-
|yes || huh
|-
|no || Nayee
|-
|how much money? || Kekla paisa?
|-
|Where your the restroom? || Tamaru bathroom kya che?
|-
|where are you? || Tame kya cho?
|-
|I would like to drink some water || Mane' pani piwu che
|-
|I am thirsty || Mane' taras lagi che
|}
== [[Haitian Creole]] ([[Romance_languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
|-
|Haitian || Ayisyen
|-
|hello || bonjou
|-
|good-bye || orevwa
|-
|please || souple, tanpri
|-
|thank you || mèsi
|-
|yes || wi
|-
|no || non
|-
|how much? || Konbyen?
|-
|Where is the restroom? || Kote twalèt la?
|-
|where are you? || Kote e la
|}
== [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Hawaiian || {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}} || {{IPA|/oːlelo hawaiʔi/}} || (ha va ee)
|-
|hello || {{Unicode|aloha}} || {{IPA|/aloha/}} || (a low ha)
|-
|good-bye || {{Unicode|A hui hou}} || {{IPA|/ahuihou/}} || (a hoo-ee hoe)
|-
|please || {{Unicode|e ʻolu ʻolu ʻoe}} || {{IPA|/eʔoluʔoluʔoe/}} || (ey owe-loo owe-loo owe-ay)
|-
|thank you || {{Unicode|mahalo}} || {{IPA|/mahalo/}} || (ma ha low)
|-
|yes || {{Unicode|ʻae}} || {{IPA|/ʔae/}} || (ah ay)
|-
|no || {{Unicode|ʻaʻole}} || {{IPA|/ʔaʔole/}} || (uh-oh lay)
|-
|how much? || {{Unicode|ʻehia?}} || {{IPA|/ʔehia/}} || (ay hee uh)
|-
|Where is the restroom? || {{Unicode|Aia i hea ka lumi hoʻopaupilikia?}} || {{IPA|/aiaiheakalumihoʔopaupilikia/}} || (ah ee ah ee ka loo mee hoe owe pow pee lee kee uh)
|-
|generic toast || {{Unicode|Ola}} || {{IPA|/ola/}} || (Oh la)
|}
== [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ([[semitic languages|Semitic]]) ==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Transliteration
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Hebrew||עברית||''ivrit''||{{IPA|/ɪv'ʁɪt/}}
|-
|hello/peace||שלום||''shalom''||{{IPA|/ʃʌ'lom/}}
|-
|good-bye||להתראות||''lehitraot''||{{IPA|/&lɛhitʁʌ'ot/}}
|-
|nice to meet you||נעים מאוד||''na’im me’od''||{{IPA|/nʌ'ɪm me'od}}
|-
|please/you're welcome||בבקשה||''bevakasha''||{{IPA|/&bɛvʌkʌ'ʃʌ/}}
|-
|thank you||תודה||''toda''||{{IPA|/&to'dʌ/}}
|-
|thank you very much||תודה רבה||''toda raba''
|-
|excuse me||סליחה||''slicha''
|-
||that one||את זה||''et zeh'' ||{{IPA|/ɛt zɛ/}}
|-
|how much?||?כמה||''kama''||{{IPA|/&'kʌmʌ/}}
|-
|how much does this cost?||?כמה זה עולה||''kama zeh oleh?''
|-
|English||אנגלית||''anglit'' ||{{IPA|/ʌn'glɪt/}}
|-
|yes||כן||''ken''||{{IPA|/&kɛn/}}
|-
|no/not||לא||''lo''||{{IPA|/&lo/}}
|-
|generic toast (literally, "to life")||לחיים||''le-chaim''||{{IPA|/&lɛ'Xaim/}}
|-
|good morning||בוקר טוב||''boker tov''
|-
|good noon||צהריים טובים||''tzahara'im tovim''
|-
|good afternoon||אחר צהריים טובים||''achar tzahara'im tovim''
|-
|good evening||ערב טוב||''erev tov''
|-
|good night||לילה טוב||''la&iacute;la tov''
|-
|what's happening?||?מה קורה||''ma koreh?''
|-
|one moment!||!רגע||''rega!''
|-
|what's up?||?מה נשמע||''ma nishma?''
|-
|what's up?||?מה עניינים||''ma einyanim?''
|-
|good||טוב||''tov''
|-
|where is the restroom?||איפה השרותים?||''eifo ha-sheirutim?''
|-
|I don't understand||אני לא מבין||''ani lo mevin''
|-
|bon appetit||בתיאבון||''beteavon''
|}
== [[Hindi language|Hindi]] ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Transliteration
|-
|Hindi||हिन्दी||<i>hindī</i>||
|-
|hello/goodbye (Hindu, north)||नमस्ते||<i>namaste</i>|||
|-
|hello/goodbye (Hindu, south)||नमस्कार||<i>namaskār</i>||
|-
|hello/goodbye (Sikh)||सत श्री अकाल||<i>sat śrī akāl</i>||
|-
|hello (Muslim)||अस्सलाम अलैकुम||<i>assalām alaikum</i>||
|-
|hello (Muslim reply)||वालैकुम अस्सलाम||<i>vālaikum assalām</i>||
|-
|goodbye (Muslim)||ख़ुदा हाफ़िज़||<i><u>kh</u>uda hāfiz</i>||
|-
|please* (Urdu)||मेहरबानी करके||<i>mehrbānī karke</i>||
|-
|please*||कृपया||<i>{{unicode|kṛipaya}}</i>||
|-
|thank you*||धन्यवाद||<i>dhanyavād</i>||
|-
|thank you* (Urdu)||शुक्रिया||<i>śukriyā</i>||
|-
|thank you very much||बहुत बहुत ...||<i>bahut bahut ...</i>||
|-
|you're welcome (don't mention it)||कोई बात नहीं||<i>koī bāt nahī<sup>n</sup><i>||
|-
|excuse me||माफ़ कीजिये||<i>māf kījiye</i>||
|-
|excuse me||ज़रा सुनिये||<i>zarā suniye</i>||
|-
|yes||जी हाँ||<i>jī hā<sup>n</sup></i>||
|-
|no/not||जी नहीं||<i>jī nahī<sup>n</sup><i>
|-
|good!/awesome!/oh.../really?!/well!||अच्छा!||<i>acchā!</i>||
|-
|(all-purpose adj./interj.)||
|-
|How are you?||आप कैसे/कैसी हैं?||<i>āp kaise/kaisī hai?||
|-
|||||(male speak |
)]
sex-angry [OED (see "sex")]
sex-hungry [OED (see "cave")]
Shchigry [CLG:1747; Johnson:594; OSN:97,206; Times:185,pl.45]
shiggry [EDD]
Shtchigry [LG/1:2045; LG/2:1701]
Shtshigry [Lipp]
sight-hungry [OED (see "sight")]
skugry [OED:9/2:156, 9/1:297; Jamieson:4:266]
Sygry [Andree]
Tangry [France]
Tchangry [Johnson:594; LG/1:435,1117]
Tchigry [Johnson:594]
tear-angry [W2]
th'angry [OED (see "shot-free")]
tike-hungry [CSD]
Tingry [France; EB11 (under "Princesse de Tingry"); OED (see "parquet")]
toggry [Simmonds (as "Toggry", but all entries are capitalized)]
ulgry [Partridge; Smith:24-25]
unangry [OED; W2]
vergry [OED:12/1:123]
Vigry [CLG:2090]
vngry [OED (see "wretch")]
war-hungry [OED (see "war")]
Wigry [CLG:2090; NAP:xxxix; Times:220, pl.62; WA:948]
wind-hungry [W2]
yeard-hungry [CED (see "yird")]
yerd-hungry [CED (see "yird"); OED]
yird-hungry [CED (see "yird")]
Ymagry [OED:1:1009 (col. 3, 1st "boss" verb), (variant of "imagery")]
</pre>
This list was gathered from the following articles:
*Ralph G. Beaman, Kickshaws, ''Word Ways'' 9:1 (Feb. 1976) p. 43<br>
*George H. Scheetz, In Goodly Gree: With Goodwill, ''Word Ways'' 22:4 (Nov. 1989)<br>
*Murray R. Pearce, Who's Flaithbhertach MacLoingry?, ''Word Ways'' 23:1 (Feb. 1990)<br>
*Harry B. Partridge, Gypsy Hobby Gry, ''Word Ways'' 23:1 (Feb. 1990)<br>
*A. Ross Eckler, -Gry Words in the OED, ''Word Ways'' 25:4 (Nov. 1992)<br>
*Darryl Francis, Some New -Gry Words, ''Word Ways'' 30:3 (Aug. 1997)
==References==
(Many references are of the form [Source:volume:page] or [Source:page].)
<pre>
Andree, Richard. Andrees Handatlas (index volume). 1925.
Bartholomew, John. Gazetteer of the British Isles: Statistical and Topographical. 1887.
BBC = BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of English Names.
Bio-Base. (Microfiche) Detroit: Gale Research Company. 1980.
CE = Catholic Encyclopedia. 1907.
CED = Chambers English Dictionary. 1988.
Century = "India, Northern Part." The Century Atlas of the World. 1897, 1898.
CLG = The Colombia Lippincott Gazetteer of the World. L.E.Seltzer, ed. 1952.
CSD = Chambers Scots Dictionary. 1971 reprint of 1911 edition.
Daily Illini (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign).
DFC = Dictionary of Fictional Characters. 1963.
EB11 = Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.
EDD = The English Dialect Dictionary. Joseph Wright, ed. 1898.
France = Map Index of France. G.H.Q. American Expeditionary Forces. 1918.
FW = Funk & Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary of the English Language. 1943.
HPS = The Handbook of Private Schools: An Annual Descriptive Survey of Independent Education, 66th ed. 1985.
Indians = Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. F. W. Hodge. 1912.
Jamieson, John. An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language. 1879-87.
Johnston, Keith. Index Geographicus... 1864.
LG/1 = Lippincott's Gazetteer of the World: A Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer or Geographical Dictionary of the World. 1888.
LG/2 = Lippincott's New Gazetteer: ... 1906.
Lipp = Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World. 1861, undated edition from late 1800's; 1902.
NAP = Narodowy Atlas Polski. 1973-1978 [Polish language]
OED = The Oxford English Dictionary. 1933. [Form: OED:volume/part number if applicable:page]
OSN: U.S.S.R. Volume 6, S-T. Official Standard Names Approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names. Gazetteer #42, 2nd ed. June 1970.
Partridge, Harry B. "Ad Memoriam Demetrii." Word Ways, 19 (Aug. 1986): 131.
Phillips, Lawrence. Dictionary of Biographical Reference. 1889.
RD = The Reader's Digest Complete Atlas of the British Isles, 1st ed. 1965.
RH1 = Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. 1966.
RH2 = Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition Unabridged. 1987.
Simmonds, P.L. Commercial Dictionary of Trade Products. 1883.
Smith, John. The True Travels, Adventvres and Observations: London 1630.
Stieler, Adolph. Stieler's Handatlas (index volume). 1925.
TIG = The Times Index-Gazetteer of the World. 1965.
Times = The Times Atlas of the World, 7th ed. 1985.
W2 = Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged. 1934.
W3 = Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. 1961.
WA = The World Atlas: Index-Gazetteer. Council of Ministries of the USSR, 1968.
Worcester, J.E. Universal Gazetteer, Second Edition. 1823.
</pre>
==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/loisnotlane/gry.html The ''gry'' riddle extensively explored by a librarian who's answered the question one too many times]
*[http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutwords/gry Oxford Dictionaries &ndash; Ask the experts]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_251.html The Straight Dope: What are the three English words ending in -gry?]
[[Category:Word puzzles]]
[[Category:Lists of English words]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giosuè Carducci</title>
<id>13032</id>
<revision>
<id>38668693</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T21:39:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josteinn</username>
<id>570474</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Giosuè Carducci''' ([[July 27]], [[1835]] &ndash; near [[Lucca]], [[February 16]], [[1907]]) was an Italian poet, one of Italy's greatest, and a teacher. He was very influential and was regarded as the unofficial [[national poet]] of modern [[Italy]].
He was born in [[Val di Castello]], a small town in the northwest corner of [[Tuscany]] near [[Pisa]]. His father, a doctor, was an advocate of the unification of Italy. Because of his politics, the family was forced to move several times during Giosuè's childhood, eventually settling for a few years in [[Florence]].
From the time he was in college, he was fascinated with the restrained style of Greek and Roman antiquity, and his mature work reflects a restrained classical style. He translated Book&nbsp;9 of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' into Italian.
He received his Ph.D. in [[1856]] from the [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] and began teaching school. The following year, he published his first collection of poems, ''Rime''. These were difficult years for Carducci; his father died, and his brother committed suicide.
In 1859, he married Elvira Menicucci, and they had four children. He briefly taught Greek at a high school in Pistoia, and then was appointed Italian professor at the university in [[Bologna]]. He was a popular lecturer and a fierce critic of literature and society. His political views were consistently opposed to Christianity generally and the secular power of the Catholic Church in particular.
“I know neither truth of God nor peace with the Vatican or any priests. They are the real and unaltering enemies of Italy.” he said in his later years.{{ref|nopeace}}
This anti-clerical revolutionary zeal is prominently showcased in his most famous poem, the deliberately blasphemous and provocative "Inno a Satana" (or "Hymn to Satan".) The poem was composed in 1863 as a dinner party toast, published in 1865, then republished in 1869 by Bologna’s radical newspaper, ''Il Popolo'', as a provocation timed to coincide with the 20th Vatican Ecumenical Council, a time when revolutionary fervor directed against the papacy was running high as republicans pressed both politically and militarily for an end of the Vatican’s domination over the papal states.{{ref|Satana}}
While "Inno a Satana" had quite a revolutionary impact, Carducci's finest poetry came in later years. His collections ''Rime Nuove'' (“New Rhymes”) and ''Odi Barbare'' (“Barbaric Odes”) contain his greatest works.
He was the first Italian to win the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1906]]. He was also elected a Senator of Italy. {{ref|Senate}}Although his reputation rests primarily on his poetry, he also produced a large body of prose works. Indeed, his prose writings including literary criticism, biographies, speeches and essays filled some 20 volumes. {{ref|prose}}
==Notes==
# {{note|nopeace}}Carelle, A., ''Naturalismo Italiano'', Draghi, Padova 1911, cited at http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/dictionary.html
# {{note|satana}}''Carducci, Giosue, Selected Verse/ Giosue Carducci: edited with a translation, introduction and commentary by David H. Higgins'', (Aris & Phillips; Warminster, England), 1994. See also: Bailey, John Cann, "Carducci - The Taylorian Lecture," (Clarendon Press, Oxford) 1926.
# {{note|Senate}}Scalia, Samuel Eugene, ''Carducci'', (S.F. Vanni, Inc., New York) 1937.
# {{note|prose}}''Selections from Carducci; Prose and Poetry with introduction, notes and vocabulary by A.
Marinoni'', (William R. Jenkins Co.; New York) 1913. pp vii - ix
==Trivia==
In [[Thomas Mann]]'s novel, [[The Magic Mountain]], the character of Herr Settembrini is described as a student of Carducci and describes him as a great poet and [[free thinker]], even quoting from Carducci's "Hymn to [[Satan]]".
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1906 | after = [[Rudyard Kipling]]
}}
{{end box}}
'''Also See'''
* [[Jessie White Mario]]
==External links==
[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1906/carducci-bio.html Nobel Prize Biography page]
[[Category:1835 births|Carducci]]
[[Category:1907 deaths|Carducci]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Carducci]]
[[Category:Italian poets|Carducci]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Carducci]]
[[Category:National poets|Carducci]]
[[bg:Джозуе Кардучи]]
[[de:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[es:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[eo:Giosuè CARDUCCI]]
[[fr:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[hr |
western Pennsylvania.
In [[1770]] St. Clair became a justice of the court, of quarter sessions and of common pleas, a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans' court, and prothonotary of [[Bedford County, Pennsylvania|Bedford]] and [[Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania|Westmoreland]] counties.
In [[1774]], the colony of [[Virginia]] took claim of the area around [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], and some residents of western Pennsylvania took up arms to reject them. St. Clair issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. [[Lord Dunmore's War]] eventually settled the boundary dispute.
==Revolutionary War==
After this event St. Clair broke with the British government and, in January, [[1776]], took a commission in the [[Continental Army]], as a Colonel of Pennsylvania militia ([[3rd Pennsylvania Regiment]]). He was appointed a Brigadier General in August of 1776, and was sent by [[George Washington]] to help organize the [[New Jersey]] militia. He took part in Washington's crossing of the [[Delaware River]] on [[Christmas]] night [[1776]] before the [[Battle of Trenton]]. Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy which led to Washington's capture of [[Princeton, New Jersey]] in the following days.
In April of the same year, St. Clair was sent to defend [[Fort Ticonderoga]]. Unfortunately, his small garrison, could not resist [[John Burgoyne]]'s force in the [[Saratoga Campaign]]. He was foced to withdraw at the [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1777)|Battle of Ticonderoga]] on [[July 5]], [[1777]]. He was able to withdraw his foces and continue resisting the advance. In [[1778]] he was court martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. The court exonerated him, and he was returned to duty. St. Clair was at [[Yorktown, Virginia]] when [[Charles Cornwallis]] surrendered.
St. Clair was a member of the Pennsylvania council of censors in [[1783]] and was elected a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] from [[November 2]], [[1785]] until [[November 28]], [[1787]]. He was President of the United States in Congress assembled when [[Shays' Rebellion]] took place.
==Northwest Territory==
Under the [[Northwest Ordinance]] of [[1787]] which created the [[United States Northwest Territory|Northwest Territory]], General St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Michigan]], along with parts of [[Wisconsin]] and [[Minnesota]]. He named [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] after the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], and it was there that he made his seat. When the territory was divided in [[1800]], he served as governor of the [[Ohio Territory]].
As Governor he formulated Maxwell's Code, the first laws of the territory. He also sought to end Native American claims to Ohio land and clear the way for white settlement. In [[1789]] he succeeded in getting certain Indians to sign the [[Treaty of Fort Harmar]], but many Native leaders had not been invited to participate in the negotiations, or had refused to do so. Rather than settling the Indian's claims, the treaty provoked them to further resistance in what is sometimes known as the "[[Northwest Indian War]]" (or "Little Turtle's War"). Mutual hostilites led to a campaign by General [[Josiah Harmar]], whose 1,500 militiamen were defeated by the Indians in October [[1790]].
In [[1791]], St. Clair personally led a punitive expedition comprised of militia and two Regular Army regiments. This force advanced to the location of Indian settlements on the [[Wabash River]], but on [[November 4]] they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by [[Miami tribe|Miami]] Chief [[Michikinikwa|Little Turtle]] and Shawnee chief [[Blue Jacket]]. More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, called [[St. Clair's Defeat]], the "Columbia Massacre," or the "Battle of the Wabash." It was the greatest defeat of the American army by Native Americans in history. After this debacle, he resigned from the Army at the demand of President George Washington, but he continued to serve as Governor of the Northwest Territory.
A [[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]], he hoped to see two states made of the Ohio Territory in order to increase Federalist power in Congress. In [[1802]], his partisan opposition to plans for Ohio statehood led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him from office as territorial governor. He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in [[1803]].
St. Clair died in [[Greensburg, Pennsylvania]] on [[August 31]], [[1818]], in poverty, his vast wealth dissipated by liberal gifts and loans, and by business reverses.
A portion of the ''Hermitage'', St. Clair's home in [[Youngstown, Pennsylvania]] was later moved to [[Ligonier, Pennsylvania]] where it is now preserved as a museum. [[Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania]], [[St. Clair County, Illinois]] and [[St. Clair County, Missouri]] are named in his honor.
== External links ==
*[http://www.arthurstclair.com/ http://www.arthurstclair.com/]
*[http://www.arthurstclair.com/stclair/ St. Clair's Lineage] - convincing argument that St. Clair was born as Arthur Sinclair on March 23, 1736
*[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=354 Ohio History Central]
*[http://www.fortligonier.org/hermitag.htm The Hermitage - home of Arthur St. Clair]
{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the United States in Congress Assembled]]| before=[[Nathaniel Gorham]]| after=[[Cyrus Griffin]]| years=[[February 2]], [[1787]] &ndash; [[November 4]], [[1787]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]|before=[[Josiah Harmar]]|after=[[Anthony Wayne]]|years=1791-1792}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1734 births|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:1818 deaths|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:British Army officers|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:Continental Army generals|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:History of Ohio|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[de:Arthur St. Clair]]
[[fr:Arthur Saint Clair]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ajaccio</title>
<id>2640</id>
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<id>41639176</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:42:36Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|
nomcommune=Ajaccio|
région=[[Corse]] (capital) |
département=[[Corse-du-Sud]]<br />(''[[préfecture]]'') |
arrondissement=Ajaccio|
canton=Chief town of 7 cantons |
insee=2A004 (ex 20004)|cp=20000 |
gentilé=Ajacciens|devise=|
maire=[[Simon Renucci]] |mandat=[[2001]]-[[2008]] |
intercomm=[[Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Ajaccien]] |
longitude=08° 44' 13" E|
latitude=41° 55' 36" N|
alt moy=38 m |alt mini=0 m |alt maxi=787 m |
hectares=8,203 |
km²=82.03 |
sans=52,880 (''Ajacciens'')|date-sans=1999|dens=645 |date-dens=1999}}
{{FRdot|Ajaccio}}
'''Ajaccio''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Ajaccio''; [[Corsican language|Corsican]]: ''Aiacciu''), pronounced "ah-YAH-cho", is a city ([[commune in France|commune]]) of [[France]]. It is the [[capital]] of the territorial collectivity of [[Corsica]] and the ''[[préfecture]]'' (capital) of the ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Corse-du-Sud]].
==Geography==
Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, 210 m. southeast of [[Marseille]]. It occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the [[Gulf of Ajaccio]]. The harbour lies to the east of the town and is protected on the south by a [[peninsula]].
==History==
The present town of Ajaccio lies about two miles to the south of its original site, from which it was transferred by the [[Genoa|Genoese]] indf [[1492]]. Occupied from [[1553]] to [[1559]] by the French, it again fell to the Genoese after the [[Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis]] in the later year. The town finally passed to the [[France|French]] in [[1768]].
==Sights==
The peninsula carries the [[citadel]] and terminates in the Citadel jetty. To the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town. Apart from one or two fine thoroughfares converging on the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean and narrow and the town has a deserted appearance.
The house in which [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] was born in [[1769]] is preserved, and his associations with the town are everywhere emphasized by street-names and statues.
==Economy==
Ajaccio has a small manufacturing economy of [[cigar]]s, [[macaroni]], and similar products, and carries on [[shipbuilding]], [[sardine]]-fishing and [[coral]]-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins, chestnuts and gallic acid.
The port is accessible by the largest ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In [[1904]] there entered 603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 608 vessels with a tonnage of 202,502.
==Miscellaneous==
The town is the seat of a [[bishop|bishopric]] dating at least from the [[7th century]]. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by [[Cardinal Fesch]], who was born at Ajaccio in [[1763]].
Ajaccio was the birthplace of:
* [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] ([[1769]]–[[1821]]), Emperor of France
* [[Joseph Fesch]] (1763-[[1839]]), [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]
* [[Tino Rossi]] ([[1907]]-[[1983]]), singer, actor
* [[Fred Scamaroni]] ([[1914]]-[[1943]]), WW II Resistance hero
* [[Alizée]] (born [[1984]]), pop sing |
n the art car community.
* John Carpenter and Kurt Russell teamed up again for the belated sequel, ''[[Escape from L.A.]]'' ([[1996]]) set in [[2013]]. Another sequel has also been proposed (it was ''Escape from Earth''), but will not likely materialize due to the poor box office performance of ''...L.A''.
* Escape From New York is a legendary pizza parlor on Portland, OR's artistic 23rd St. It features huge wall murals with a New York City theme and pizzas (whole or by the slice) with slices over a foot in length. It's popular among Portlanders and tourists from all walks of life.
* [[Debra Hill]] has an uncredited part as the voice-over in the intro.
* The woman in the diner is played by [[Season Hubley]], who was, at the time, Kurt Russell's wife.
*Snake Plissken was the inspiration for [[Solid Snake]], hero of the ''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]]'' series, and the plot was also the inspiration for ''[[Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake]]'' (sneak into an indomitable fortress to rescue a VIP and an important tape/cartridge that determines the fate of the world). To push it even more, in the sequel (''[[Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty]]''), Solid Snake goes by the alias of Iroquois Pliskin. ''Metal Gear'' also uses the same font in its logo for the first game as ''[[Escape From New York]]''. There are several other references to ''[[Escape from New York]]'' in the ''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]]'' series. Otacon, the scientist ally of Solid Snake is based off of Brain. In every ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'' game, there is a part where your character is left with nothing after being knocked out and tortured, very similar to how Snake Plisskin escaped from The Duke. A mined area is also a trend in the ''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]]'' series.
* [[United Kingdom|British]] actor [[Donald Pleasence]] plays the President of the United States without putting on an American accent. The United States constitution requires that the President be a native born citizen of the United States. Pleasence came up with an explanation for how the character came to be both born in the United States and have an English accent, but John Carpenter said that film audiences would not care and would just accept what was depicted.
== External links ==
* {{imdb title | id = 0082340 | title = Escape from New York}}
* [http://www.theofficialjohncarpenter.com/pages/themovies/ny/ny.html ''Escape from New York'' at theofficialjohncarpenter.com]
[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:Dystopian films]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[Category:Independent films]]
[[Category:Films directed by John Carpenter]]
[[de:Die Klapperschlange]]
[[fr:New York 1997]]
[[pl:Ucieczka z Nowego Jorku]]
[[ru:Побег из Нью-Йорка (фильм)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emulator</title>
<id>9836</id>
<revision>
<id>40598560</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T18:59:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wisegoldfish</username>
<id>946085</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about '''emulation''' in [[computer science]]. See [[E-mu Emulator]] for a line of digital musical instruments, [[Emulation (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.''
[[Image:KEGAFUSIONTITLE.PNG|200px|thumb|An emulator reproducing a [[console game]]'s playable atmosphere on a Windows computer.]]
A '''software emulator''' allows [[computer program]]s to run on a platform ([[computer architecture]] and/or [[operating system]]) other than the one for which they were originally written. Unlike a [[simulation]], which only attempts to reproduce a program's behavior, an emulation generally attempts to model to various degrees the state of the device being emulated.
A popular use of emulators is to mimic the experience of running [[arcade game]]s or [[console game]]s on [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Microsoft Windows]]. Emulating these on modern desktop computers is usually less cumbersome than relying on the original machines. However, software licensing issues may require emulator authors to write original software that duplicates the functionality of the original computer's [[bootstrap]] [[read only memory|ROM]] and [[BIOS]], often through [[high-level emulation]].
In a theoretical sense, the [[Church-Turing thesis]] implies that any operating environment can be emulated within any other. In practice, it can be quite difficult, particularly when the exact behavior of the system to be emulated is not documented and has to be deduced through [[reverse engineering]]. It also says nothing about timing constraints; if the emulator does not perform as quickly as the original hardware, the emulated software may run much more slowly than it would have on the original hardware.
==Structure==
Most emulators just emulate a hardware architecture &mdash; if a specific operating system is required for the desired software, it must be provided as well (and may itself be emulated). Both the OS and the software will then be [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreted]] by the emulator, rather than being run by native hardware. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated [[machine language|machine's language]], some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well: if writing to a specific memory location should influence the screen, for example, this will have to be emulated as well.
Instead of full emulation of the hardware, a [[compatibility layer]] may suffice. This translates system calls for the emulated system into system calls for the host system.
Developers of software for [[embedded system|embedded systems]] or [[video game console]]s often design their software on especially accurate emulator called a [[Simulation#Simulation in computer science|simulator]] before trying it on the real hardware. This is so that software can be produced and tested before the final hardware exists in large quantities, so that it can be tested without taking the time to copy the program to the hardware, or so that it can be debugged at a low level without introducing the side effects of a [[debugger]].
Typically, an emulator is divided into [[module (computing)|modules]] that correspond roughly to the emulated computer's subsystems.
Most often, an emulator will be composed of the following modules:
* a CPU emulator or CPU simulator (the two terms are mostly interchangeable)
* a memory subsystem module
* various I/O devices emulators
Buses are often not emulated, either for reasons of performance or simplicity, and virtual peripherals communicate directly with the CPU or the memory subsystem.
A detailed description of the internals of a specific emulator can be found in the [[ElectrEm]] article.
===Memory subsystem===
It is possible for the memory subsystem emulation to be reduced to simply an array of elements each sized like an emulated word; however, this model falls very quickly as soon as any location in the computer's logical memory does not match physical memory.
This clearly is the case whenever the emulated hardware allows for advanced memory
management (in which case, the [[Memory management unit|MMU]] logic can be embedded in the memory emulator, made a module of its own, or sometimes integrated into the CPU simulator).
Even if the emulated computer does not feature an MMU, though, there are usually other factors that break the equivalence between logical and physical memory: many (if not most) architecture offer [[memory-mapped I/O]]; even those that do not almost invariably have a block of logical memory mapped to [[Read-only memory|ROM]], which means that the memory-array module must be discarded if the read-onlyness of ROM is to be emulated.
As a result, most emulators implement at least two procedures for writing to and reading from logical memory, and it is these procedures' duty to map every access to the correct location of the correct object.
On a [[base-limit addressing]] system where memory from address ''0'' to address ''ROMSIZE'' is read-only memory, while the rest is RAM, something along the line of the following procedures would be typical:
void WriteMemory(word Address, word Value) {
word RealAddress;
RealAddress=Address+BaseRegister;
if(RealAddress<LimitRegister) {
if(RealAddress>ROMSIZE) Memory[RealAddress]=Value;
} else {
RaiseInterrupt(INT_SEGFAULT);
}
}
word ReadMemory(word Address) {
word RealAddress;
RealAddress=Address+BaseRegister;
if(RealAddress<LimitRegister) {
return Memory[RealAddress];
} else {
RaiseInterrupt(INT_SEGFAULT);
return NULL;
}
}
===CPU simulator===
The CPU simulator is often the most complicated part of an emulator. Many emulators are written using "pre-packaged" CPU simulators<!--- (see [[Emulator#External Links]]) --->, in order to concentrate on good and efficient emulation of a specific machine.
The simplest form of a CPU simulator is an [[interpreter_(computing)|interpreter]], which follows the execution flow of the emulated program code and, for every machine code instruction encountered, executes operations on the host processor that are semantically equivalent to the original instructions.
This is made possible by assigning a [[variable]] to each [[processor register|register]] and [[Flag (computing)|flag]] of the simulated CPU. The logic of the simulated CPU can then more or less be directly translated into software algorithms, creating a software re-implementation that basically mirrors the original hardware implementation.
The following example illustrates how CPU simulation is accomplished by an interpreter. In this case, interrupts are checked-for before every instruction executed, though this behavior is rare in real emulators for performance reasons.
void Execute(void) {
if(Interrupt!=INT_N |
ays|February 04]]
[[Category:Days]]
[[af:4 Februarie]]
[[ar:4 فبراير]]
[[an:4 de frebero]]
[[ast:4 de febreru]]
[[bg:4 февруари]]
[[be:4 лютага]]
[[bs:4. februar]]
[[ca:4 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 4]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 4]]
[[co:4 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:4. únor]]
[[cy:4 Chwefror]]
[[da:4. februar]]
[[de:4. Februar]]
[[et:4. veebruar]]
[[el:4 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:4 de febrero]]
[[eo:4-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 4]]
[[fo:4. februar]]
[[fr:4 février]]
[[fy:4 febrewaris]]
[[ga:4 Feabhra]]
[[gl:4 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 4일]]
[[hr:4. veljače]]
[[io:4 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 4]]
[[id:4 Februari]]
[[ia:4 de februario]]
[[ie:4 februar]]
[[is:4. febrúar]]
[[it:4 febbraio]]
[[he:4 בפברואר]]
[[jv:4 Februari]]
[[ka:4 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:4 gromicznika]]
[[ku:4'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 4]]
[[lb:4. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 4]]
[[mk:4 февруари]]
[[ms:4 Februari]]
[[nap:4 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:4 februari]]
[[ja:2月4日]]
[[no:4. februar]]
[[nn:4. februar]]
[[oc:4 de febrièr]]
[[os:4 февралы]]
[[pl:4 lutego]]
[[pt:4 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:4 februarie]]
[[ru:4 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 4.]]
[[sco:4 Februar]]
[[sq:4 Shkurt]]
[[scn:4 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 4]]
[[sk:4. február]]
[[sl:4. februar]]
[[sr:4. фебруар]]
[[fi:4. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:4 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 4]]
[[tt:4. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 4]]
[[th:4 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:4 tháng 2]]
[[tr:4 Şubat]]
[[uk:4 лютого]]
[[wa:4 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 4]]
[[zh:2月4日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 4]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 8</title>
<id>11360</id>
<revision>
<id>41967185</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:01:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elizabeth M Ross</username>
<id>891688</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Events */ better wordage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=8}}
|}
'''[[February 8]]''' is the 39th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 326 days remaining, 327 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[421]] - [[Constantius III]] becomes co-[[Emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]].
*[[1555]] - [[Laurence Saunders]] is led barefoot to his [[Execution (legal)|execution]] and [[Execution by burning|burned at the stake]].
*[[1587]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]] is executed.
*[[1601]] - [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], rebels against [[Elizabeth I of England]] - revolt is quickly crushed.
*[[1622]] - King [[James I of England]] disbands the [[British Parliament|English Parliament]].
*[[1692]] - A doctor in [[Danvers, Massachusetts|Salem Village]], [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] declares that three teenage girls are under domination of [[Satan]], leading to the [[Salem witch trials]].
*[[1693]] - The [[College of William and Mary]] in [[Williamsburg, Virginia]] is granted a charter by [[William III of England|King William III]] and [[Mary II of England|Queen Mary II]].
*[[1807]] - [[Battle of Eylau]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] defeats [[Russia]]ns under [[General]] [[Benigssen]].
*[[1837]] - [[Richard Mentor Johnson|Richard Johnson]] becomes the first [[Vice President of the United States]] chosen by the [[United States Senate]].
*[[1849]] - [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] established.
*[[1855]] - [[The Devil's Footprints]] mysteriously appear in southern [[Devon]].
*[[1867]] - The ''[[Ausgleich]]'' results in the establishment of the [[Monarchy|Dual Monarchy]] of [[Austria-Hungary]].
*[[1879]] - [[Sandford Fleming]] first proposes adoption of [[Universal Standard Time]] at a meeting of the [[Royal Canadian Institute]].
*[[1887]] - The [[Dawes Act]] authorized the [[President of the United States]] to survey [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribal land and divide it into individual allotments.
*[[1900]] - [[United Kingdom|British]] troops are defeated by [[Boer]]s at [[Ladysmith, South Africa|Ladysmith]], [[South Africa]].
*[[1904]] - [[Battle of Port Arthur]]: A surprise [[torpedo]] attack by the [[Japan]]ese at [[Lushun|Port Arthur]], [[China]] starts the [[Russo-Japanese War]].
*[[1910]] - The [[Boy Scouts of America]] is incorporated by [[William D. Boyce]].
*[[1915]] - [[D.W. Griffith]]'s controversial film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' premieres in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].
*[[1918]] - The ''[[Stars and Stripes]]'' [[newspaper]] publishes for the first time.
*[[1922]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Warren G. Harding]] introduces the first [[radio]] in the [[White House]].
*[[1924]] - [[Death penalty]]: The first state execution using [[gas]] in the [[United States]] takes place in [[Nevada]].
*[[1936]] - [[Jay Berwanger]] becomes the first person to be selected by a [[National Football League]] draft, by the [[Philadelphia Eagles]].
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Kursk]] - the [[Russia]]n army captures the city.
*1943 - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] - [[United States]] forces defeat [[Japanese people|Japanese]] troops.
*[[1949]] - [[Cardinal Mindszenty]] of [[Hungary]] sentenced for [[treason]].
*[[1955]] - The [[Government]] of [[Sindh]] abolished [[Feudalism|Jagirdari system]] in the province. One [[million]] [[acres]] of land thus acquired is to be distributed among the landless [[peasant|peasants]].
*[[1960]] - [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] of the [[United Kingdom]] issued an [[Order-in-Council]], stating that she and her family would be known as the [[House of Windsor]], and that her descendants will take the name "[[Mountbatten-Windsor]]".
*[[1963]] - Travel, financial and commercial transactions by [[United States]] citizens to [[Cuba]] are made illegal by the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration.
*[[1968]] - [[American civil rights movement]]: A [[civil rights]] protest staged at a white-only [[bowling alley]] in [[Orangeburg, South Carolina]] is broken-up by highway patrolmen leading to the [[Orangeburg Massacre|deaths of three college students]].
*[[1969]] - The last weekly issue of the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' hits [[magazine]] stands.
*[[1971]] - The [[Nasdaq]] [[stock market index]] debuts.
*[[1974]] - After 84 days in [[outer space|space]], the crew of the temporary [[United States|American]] [[space station]] [[Skylab]] return to [[Earth]].
*1974 - Military [[coup]] in [[Burkina Faso|Upper Volta]].
*[[1978]] - Proceedings of the [[United States Senate]] are broadcast on [[radio]] for the first time.
*[[1979]] - [[Denis Sassou-Nguesso]] became the [[Heads of State of the Republic of the Congo|President]] of the [[Republic of the Congo]] for the first time.
*[[1983]] - Racehorse [[Shergar]] is kidnapped in [[County Kildare]], [[Ireland]]. The fate of the horse is still unknown.
*[[1984]] - [[1984 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Sarajevo]].
*[[1985]] - After 6-1/2 years, the [[television series]] ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard]]'' goes off the air.
*[[1986]] - [[1984 Summer Olympics]] head of the [[LAPD]] bomb squad, [[Arleigh Mccree]], and his partner [[Police officer|Officer]] [[Ronald Ball]] of the [[Firearms]] and explosives unit were killed while trying to dismantle two pipe bombs when they responded to a call. [[McCree]] was recognized as one of the top explosive experts in the world.
*[[1989]] - An [[Independent Air]] [[Boeing 707]] crashes into [[Santa Maria]] mountain in [[Azores Islands]] off the coast of [[Portugal]], killing 144.
*[[1990]] - The first recorded use of the [[chatspeak]] term "[[troll]]", found in the [[Google#Google_Groups|Google Usenet archive]].
*[[1991]] - [[Roger Clemens]] signs record $5,380,250 per year [[Red Sox]] contract.
*[[1993]] - [[General Motors]] sues [[NBC]] after ''[[Dateline NBC]]'' allegedly rigs two crashes intended to demonstrate that some [[General Motors|GM]] pickups can easily catch fire if hit in certain places. [[NBC]] settles the lawsuit the next day.
*[[1996]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Communications Decency Act]].
*[[1998]] - First female [[ice hockey]] game in [[Olympic]] history: [[Finland]] beats [[Sweden]] 6-0.
*[[2001]] - [[Disney's California Adventure Park]], the [[Disneyland Resort]]'s second park in its 46-year history, opens.
*[[2002]] - Opening ceremony of the [[Salt Lake City]] [[2002 Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympic Games]].
*[[2005]] - [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian|Palestinians]] agree to cease-fire.
*[[2006]] - Palestinians attack [[Temporary International Presence in Hebron]] offices in [[Hebron]]; International observers end decade-long presence
==Births==
*[[412]] - [[Proclus]], Greek philosopher (d. [[487]])
*[[1191]] - [[Yaroslav II of Russia]] (d. [[1246]])
*[[1291]] - King [[Afonso IV of Portugal]] (d. [[1357]])
*[[1487]] - [[Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1550]])
*[[1552]] - [[Agrippa d'Aubigné]], French poet and soldier (d. [[1630]])
*[[1577]] - [[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton]], English cleric and writer (d. [[1640]])
*[[1586]] - [[Jacob Praetorius]], German composer (d. [[1651]])
*[[1649]] - [[Gabriel Daniel]], French Jesuit historian (d. [[1728]])
*[[1677]] - [[Jacques Cassini]], French astronomer (d. [[1756]])
*[[1685]] - [[Charles-Jean-François Hénault]], French historian (d. [[1770]])
*[[1700]] - [[Daniel Bernoulli]], Dutch-born mathematician (d. [[1782]])
*[[1720]] - [[Emperor Sakuramachi]] of Japan (d. [[1750]])
*[[1804]] - [[Richard Lemon Lander]], British explorer (d. [[1834]])
*[[1807]] - [[Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins]], English sculptor and naturalist (d. [[1889]])
*[[1819]] - [[John Ruskin]], English author
*[[1820]] - [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], American Union general (d. [[1891]])
*[[1828]] - [[Jules Verne]], French author (d. [[1905]])
*[[1834]] - [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], Russian chemist (d. [[1907]])
*[[1851]] - [[Kate Chopin]], American author (d. [[1904]])
*[[1878]] - [[Martin Buber]], German philosopher (d. [[1965] |
''Exchange rates:'''
kuna per US$1 -
6.0358 (2004),
6.7035 (2003),
7.8687 (2002),
8.34 (2001),
8.2766 (2000),
7.112 (1999),
6.362 (1998),
6.157 (1997),
5.434 (1996),
5.230 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Croatia]]
* [[Croatian brands]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Croatia]]
[[Category:Economy of Croatia| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Croatia]]
[[pt:Economia da Croácia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Croatia</title>
<id>5579</id>
<revision>
<id>41573466</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:00:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.131.227.160</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
1.750 million (1.600.000 POTS,150.000 ISDN) (2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2.5 million (2005)
'''ADSL lines:'''
100.000 (2005)
Mobile operators:
* [[T-Mobile]] Croatia (prefixes +38598,+38599;900MHz only)
* VIPnet (prefix +38591;900MHz only)
* [[Tele2]], due to activate its network by fall 2005 (prefix +38595;900MHz only)
* A fourth mobile license is being offered in 2006
'''Telephone system (fixed line; as of 2000):'''
* ''domestic:''
** reconstruction plan calls for replacement of all analog circuits with digital and enlarging the network
** a backup will be included in the plan for the main trunk
** main operator: [[T-Hrvatski telekom]]
** other operators: Optima Telekom, Portus Telekom (H-1)
* ''international:''
** country code - +385
** digital international service is provided through the main switch in [[Zagreb]]
** Croatia participates in the [[TEL project|Trans-Asia-Europe (TEL) fiber-optic project]], which consists of two [[fiber-optic]] trunk connections with [[Slovenia]] and a fiber-optic trunk line from [[Rijeka]] to [[Split]] and [[Dubrovnik]]
** Croatia is also investing in [[ADRIA 1]], a joint fiber-optic project with [[Germany]], [[Albania]], and [[Greece]]
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 16, FM 98, shortwave 5 (1999)
'''Radios:'''
1.51 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
36 (plus 321 repeaters) (September 1995)
'''Televisions:'''
1.22 million (1997)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]]:''' HR
<br />
'''Internet top-level domain:''' .hr
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
12 (2004)
'''Internet hosts:'''
29,644 (2004)
'''[[Internet]] users:'''
1.2 million (2004)
==See also==
* [[Croatia]]
[[Category:Communications in Croatia| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Croatia</title>
<id>5580</id>
<revision>
<id>39590474</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T14:25:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.131.15.168</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Airports==
There are international [[airport]]s in [[Zagreb]],[[Zadar]],[[Split]], [[Dubrovnik]] and [[Rijeka]] (on the island of [[Krk]]). Recently, [[Osijek]] airport in [[Slavonia]] has been renovated for regional traffic. It is also being considered to revitalize [[Pula]] airport ([[Istria]]) as a destination for low cost airlines. Currently, the following low cost airlines are flying to Croatia: [[Germanwings]], [[Hapag-Lloyd Express]] (HLX) and [[SkyEurope]]. Major established companies that fly to Croatia are the domestic [[Croatia Airlines]] (now a regional member of the [[Star Alliance]]), [[Lufthansa]] and [[British Airways]]. In the near future, an intercontinental link between Zagreb and North America will be reintroduced.
'''Statistics:'''
Overall: 68 airports (2004 est.)
Airports with paved [[runway]]s (2004 est.):
* total: 23
* 10,000 ft (3,047 m) or more: 2
* 8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m): 6
* 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 2
* 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 4
* under 3,000 ft (914 m): 9
Airports with unpaved runways (2004 est.):
* total: 45
* 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 1
* 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 7
* under 3,000 ft (914 m): 37
[[Heliport]]s: 1 (2002)
== Rail transport ==
There are several major [[railway]] routes in the country:
* from Zagreb to [[Vinkovci]] (and on to [[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]])
* from Zagreb to [[Osijek]] via [[Koprivnica]]
* from Zagreb to [[Rijeka]]
* from Zagreb to [[Split]]
There are also other routes to [[Slovenia]], [[Hungary]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Serbia]].
The railways urgently need to be modernized, since during [[SFRY|communism]] there have been hardly any investments into the railway infrastructure. Many important routes are still not electrified and allow only single track traffic along series of bends. The aforementioned routes have been in constant renovation for the last ten years, with the result of increased maximum speed: on the Zagreb-Novska-Vinkovci line, there are sections where the limit was raised from 80 km/h to 120 km/h, and there are plans to go to 160 km/h on certain sections with the same rail tracks.
Recently, the Croatian railways introduced an initial series of modern [[tilting train]]s ordered from the German branch of [[Bombardier Transportation]]. They are normally deployed on the mountainous route between the two largest Croatian cities, route [[Zagreb]] - [[Split]], but are also sometimes on the [[InterCity]] routes in the continental part of the country. In the case of the Zagreb-Split route, this offers passengers a much more comfortable and time-saving journey with regard to previous trains whose journey took 9 hours, whereas the tilting trains take no more than 5.5 h, and are more quiet and better equipped as well.
The Croatian railways hope to revitalize rail traffic through further improvements and to establish the rail as serious competitor to rising car traffic, particularly during the summer months.
'''Statistics:'''
Railway length (as of 2004):
* total: 2,726 km
* standard gauge, 1.435 m: 2,726 km (984 km electrified)
Rail links with adjacent countries:
* [[Transportation in Slovenia]]
* [[Transportation in Hungary]]
* [[Transportation in Serbia and Montenegro]]
* [[Transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
== Road transport ==
According to recent statements of European traffic experts, the Croatian [[highway]]s belong to the most modern and safest highways in Europe. This is also due to the fact that the largest part of the Croatian motorway system has just recently been constructed, and construction works are rapidly continuing.
A major reason for the current highway construction mania is that in the last 20 years under Communist rule, when Croatia formed part of the [[SFRY|former Yugoslavia]], no major projects had been realized (in 1991 when Croatia seceded, the only highways were Zagreb-[[Karlovac]] and Zagreb-[[Slavonski Brod]]). It was long ago (back to the times of the [[Croatian Spring]]) when the dream was born to connect the two largest Croatian cities, [[Zagreb]] and [[Split]], with a highway. The construction of this enormously important project, however, has always been blocked by the ruling [[Communist Party of Yugoslavia|Communist Party]]. Nowadays, in Croatia highway construction is considered as a symbol of unity, economic prosperity and cohesion and it is being systematically pursued.
[[Tourism]] is of major importance for the Croatian economy, and most tourists come to vacation in Croatia in their own cars. Without adequate roads, the traffic would get rather jammed during the summer months. For this reason, and as a means for stimulating urgently needed economic growth, highways have become indispensable for the sustainable development of this country. Croatia already has a considerable highway density for a country that still has to cope with the consequences of [[Communism]] and the [[war in Croatia|recent war]].
'''Statistics:'''
Roads and highways (as of 2002):
* total: 28,344 km
* paved: 23,979 km (including 455 km of expressways)
* unpaved: 4,365 km
===Road rules===
In 2004, a controversial new traffic law has been introduced, which provides for drastic safety measures for drunken or dangerous driving: it reduced the blood alcohol limit to 0.
Some of the more technical safety measures include that all new Croatian [[tunnel]]s have modern safety equipment and there are several control centers, which monitor highway traffic.
===Constructed highways and expressways===
*(A7) [[Slovenia|Slovenian border]]/Border crossing at [[Rupa]] - [[Rijeka]] (11 km): Opened on June 30, [[2005]] (E61)
*(A1) [[Zagreb]] - [[Split]]: Opened on June 26, [[2005]]. 380 km.
** traffic narrowed to a single two-way lane in the ''Mala Kapela'' and ''Sveti Rok'' tunnels.
** Three additional lanes at toll gate ''Lučko'' near Zagreb.
** E71 and E65: Section Zagreb-Karlovac {{fn|1}}
** Toll gates at ''Bosiljevo'' have been removed (junction to the A6 in direction [[Rijeka]]).
*(A9) Slovenian border - [[Umag]] - [[Rovinj]] - [[Kanfanar]] - [[Vodnjan]] (expressway, 50 km, since June [[2005]]) (E751)
**Kanfanar ([[Istria]]) - [[Rijeka]] (expressway) &mdash; together with E751 this is A9
*(A6, A1) [[Zagreb]] - [[Rijeka]]: Partly expressway (55 km in mountaneous rgion from [[Kupjak]] to [[Vrbovsko]])
*(A4) [[Hungary|Hungarian border]] (border crossing at [[Letenye]]) - [[Varaždin]]/[[Čakovec]] - [[Zagreb]] (E71)
*(A2) [[Krapina]] - [[Zagreb]] (E59)
*(A3) [[Slovenia|Slovenian border]] ([[Bregana]] border crossing) - [[Zagreb]] - [[Županja]] ([[Slavonia]]) (E70)
Legend:
* "Highway" means what is called ''autocesta'' in Croatia: a road with two lanes in each direction, plus a side-lane for emergencies.
* "Expressway" means what is called ''polu-autocesta'' in Croatia: a road with two lanes in each direction, without any side-lane for emergencies.
* A1 and other A*: designations of national routes
* E70 and other E*: designations of [[European route]]s
{{fnb|1}} In Karlovac, E71 turns to [[Bihać]] and [[Knin]], a road that is not a highway. E65 turns to Rijeka on an old road tha |
d>[[Carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>)</td><td align=center>31.2</td><td align=center>77</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Carbon monoxide]] (CO)</td><td align=center>-141</td><td align=center>35.9</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Ethanol]] (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O)</td><td align=center>216</td><td align=center>65</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Methane]] (CH<sub>4</sub>)</td><td align=center>-82</td><td align=center>45.8</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Propane]] (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td><td align=center>97</td><td align=center>42</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>)</td><td align=center>157</td><td align=center>77.8</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Water]] (H<sub>2</sub>O)</td><td align=center>374</td><td align=center>217.8</td></tr>
</table></td></tr>
</table>
==See also==
*[[Critical phenomena]]
*[[Critical exponent]]
*[[Critical point (chemistry)|critical point]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:Phase changes]]
[[ca:Temperatura crítica]]
[[bg:Критична температура]]
[[de:Kritische Temperatur]]
[[eo:Kritika temperaturo]]
[[pl:Temperatura krytyczna]]
[[ru:Критическая температура]]
[[sl:Kritična temperatura]]
== Literature ==
* [[Hagen Kleinert]] and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, ''Critical Properties of &phi;<sup>4</sup>-Theories'', [http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/4733.html World Scientific (Singapur, 2001)]; Paperback ISBN 981-02-4658-76 '' (readable online [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b8 here])''</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>The Cluetrain Manifesto</title>
<id>6044</id>
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<id>38687504</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T23:53:56Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Remove refs from Amazon URL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
'''''The Cluetrain Manifesto''''' is a set of 95 theses organised and put forward as a manifesto, or call to action, for all businesses operating within what is suggested to be a newly connected marketplace.
The ideas put forward within the manifesto aim to examine the impact of the Internet on both markets (consumers) and organisations. In addition, as both consumers and organisations are able to utilise the Internet and Intranets to establish a previously unavailable level of communication both within and between these two groups, the manifesto suggests that the changes that will be required from organisations as they respond to the new marketplace environment.
The manifesto was authored by [[Rick Levine]], [[Christopher Locke]], [[Doc Searls]], and [[David Weinberger]]. A printed publication which elaborated on the manifesto was published by Perseus Books (ISBN 0738204315) under the same name.
The authors assert that the Internet is unlike the ordinary media used in [[mass marketing]] as it enables people to have "human to human" conversations, which have the potential to transform traditional business practices radically.
The book and website both challenge what it calls outmoded, 20th-century thinking about business in light of the emergence of the Web, clearly listing "[[95 theses]]", as a reference to [[Martin Luther]]'s manifesto which heralded the start of the [[Protestant]] movement.
The term ''cluetrain'' stems from this quote:
:"The clue train stopped there four times a day for ten years and they never took delivery." — Veteran of a firm now free-falling out of the [[Fortune 500]]
==The main idea of the 'Cluetrain' theses==
A single paragraph summarises the essential position taken by the writers:
:"A powerful global conversation has begun. Through the Internet, people are discovering and inventing new ways to share relevant knowledge with blinding speed. As a direct result, markets are getting smarter—and getting smarter faster than most companies."
<b>The 95 Theses</b>
Although a reading of the 95 theses can lead to a number of divisions or aggregations, it is possible to make a somewhat arbitrary split of the listed theses as a basis for understanding the content of the printed publication and a simplified structural view of the main suppositions of the authors.
<u>Theses 1 – 6: Markets are Conversations</u>
Historically, the authors state, the marketplace was a location where people gathered and talked to each other (thesis 1): they would discuss available products, price, reputation and in doing so connect with others (theses 2-5.)
The authors then assert that the internet is providing a means for anyone connected to the internet to re-enter such a virtual marketplace and once again achieve such a level of communication between people. This, prior to the internet, had not been available in the age of mass media (thesis 6.)
<u>Thesis 7: Hyperlinks Subvert Hierarchy</u>
The ability of the internet to link to additional information – information which might exist beyond the formal hierarchy of organisational structure or published material from such an organisation – acts as a means of subverting, or bypassing, formal hierarchies.
<u>Theses 8-13: Connection between the new markets and companies</u>
The same technology connecting people into markets outside of organisations, is also connecting employees within organisations (thesis 8.) The authors suggest that these networks create a more informed marketplace/consumer (thesis 9) through the conversations being held and the information available in the marketplace is superior to that available from the organisations themselves (thesis 10-12.)
The authors, through the remaining theses, then examine the impact that these changes will have on organisations and how, in turn, organisations will need to respond to the changing marketplace to remain viable.
<u>Theses 14 – 25: Organisations entering the marketplace</u>
With the emergence of the virtual marketplace, the authors indicate that the onus will be on organisations to enter the marketplace conversation (thesis 25) and do so in a way that connects with the ‘voice’ of the new marketplace (thesis 14-16) or risk becoming irrelevant (thesis 16).
<u>Theses 26-40: Marketing & Organisational Response</u>
The authors then list of a number of theses that deal with the approach that they believe organisations will need to adopt if they are to successfully enter the new marketplace (thesis 26) as it is claimed that those within the new marketplace will no longer respond to the previously issued mass-media communications as such communication is not ‘authentic’ (thesis 33.)
<u>Theses 41-52: Intranets and the impact to organisation control and structure</u>
More fully exploring the impact of the intranet within organisations, theses forty-one through fifty-two elaborate on the subversion of hierarchy initially listed as thesis seven.
When implemented correctly (theses 44-46), it is suggested that such intranets re-establish real communication amongst employees in parallel with the impact of the internet to the marketplace (thesis 48) and this will lead to a ‘hyperlinked’ organisational structure within the organisation which will take the place (or be utilised in place of) the formally documented organisation chart (thesis 50).
<u>Theses 53:71: Connection the internet marketplace with corporate Intranets</u>
The ideal, according the manifesto, is for the networked marketplace to be connected to the networked intranet so that full communication can exist between those within the marketplace and those within the company itself (thesis 53.)
Achieving this level of communication is hindered by the imposition of ‘command and control’ structures (thesis 54-58) but, ultimately, organisations will need to allow this level of communication to exist as the new marketplace will no longer respond to the mass-media ‘voice’ of the organisation (theses 59-71)
<u>Theses 72: 95: New Market Expectations</u>
Theses seventy-two through ninety-five aim to identify the expectations (thesis 76, 77,78,95) and changes (thesis 72) that exist within the new marketplace and how those expectations and changes will require a corresponding change from organisations (thesis 79, 84, 91, 92,94).
==The Technology to Facilitate Communication==
Rather than the existing forms of mass-media communication, the authors proposed that the Internet provided new means for both the markets and organisations to communicate. Technologies listed within the printed publication and used as examples of the style of communication available were:
• Email
• News groups
• Mailing Lists
• Chat
• Web Pages
Newer technologies (such as blogs) could be added to the list. However, according to the manifesto, it is within the new Internet-enabled conversations that the new marketplace would join in conversation with networked employees.
==The Impact of the Internet and the Manifesto's Expectations==
There is little doubt that the Internet has changed the way people communicate across the world; whether the world has been changed exactly as the 'cluetrain manifesto' charges is another thing. There are certainly new ways of communicating; in some cases businesses have benefited and in some others businesses have been hurt badly.
Whether human beings have gained the type of power ascribed to them when they talk human to human across the Internet is still to be proven. Some bloggers have caught the limelight f |
n history of knowledge acquisition, spelled out in broadly Popperian terms. The resulting epistemological niche lends stability and reliability to knowledge in each universe. [[Life]] is a similar trans-universe structure, molded by natural selection rather than rational criticism. What distinguishes genuine replicating [[DNA]] from junk DNA is that the former but not the latter is representative of a niche of replicators that extends across worlds. Indeed [[personal identity]] is inseparable from such a niche, which Deutsch picks out with the word "copies". A person is a set of copies in nearby parallel worlds. This comes out in his analysis of [[free will]]: ''I could have chosen otherwise'' is analysed as ''Other copies of me chose otherwise.'' And in the denouement to a dramatic chapter that rehearses interference experiments from a multiverse
viewpoint, he writes of his copies, "Many of those Davids are at this moment writing these very words. Some are putting it better. Others have gone for a cup of tea."
Not only are persons spread out through worlds, but they, like everything else, are quantized through time in any given world. Time is a series of moments, and a person who exists at a moment exists there forever in four-dimensional spacetime, rather than being transformed continuously through the flow of time. Such change and flow are mythical, Deutsch argues. Since "other times are just special cases of other universes", this temporal granularity of personhood is a special case of being spread out through worlds. In addition to one's identically time-stamped copies at a moment across parallel worlds transversely, there are the differently time-stamped copies across parallel worlds longitudinally, linked by natural law so as to give the individual's experience of one world and a continuous self.
An intellectual descendant of [[David Hume]] via the paternity of Popper, Deutsch is not only a critic of [[induction (philosophy)|induction]] but also a Humean about [[Causality|causation]], to the degree that he rejects the idea of a causal power effecting a change, in favor of construing it as a multiverse regularity. So ''A causes B'' means something like ''After A-copies occur in many nearby parallel worlds, including the one in this world, B-copies occur''. This regularity supports counterfactuals that accompany true causal claims, such as ''If A hadn't happened, B would not have taken place.'' There are affinities to Hume's constant-conjunction understanding of causation and Popper's [[deductive-nomological]] account.
Politically, Deutsch is known to be sympathetic to [[Libertarian]]ism, and was a founder of the ''[[Taking Children Seriously]]'' movement. He is also an [[atheist]].
[[Image:deutsch2.jpg|thumb|cartoon representation of Deutsch]]
He was awarded the [[Dirac Prize]] of the [[Institute of Physics]] in [[1998]], and the [[Edge of Computation Science Prize]] in [[2005]].
==Popular publications==
* ''The Fabric of Reality'', ISBN 0140146903
==External links==
* [http://www.qubit.org/people/david/ David Deutsch's homepage]
* [http://www.takingchildrenseriously.com ''Taking Children Seriously'' homepage]
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:1953 births|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:British_physicists|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:Israeli_physicists|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:Atheists|Deutsch, David]]
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[[ja:デイヴィッド・ドイッチュ]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Volkssturm</title>
<id>8730</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-16T16:02:42Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:VSARM.jpg|thumb|300px|right|"German People's Storm Defense Force"]]
The '''Volkssturm''', literally translated as ''People's Storm'' in the meaning of ''National Storm'', was a German national militia of the last months of the [[Nazism|Nazi's]] [[Third Reich]]. It was founded on [[Adolf Hitler]]'s orders on [[October 18]], [[1944]] and effectively conscripted all males between the ages of 16 to 60 years of age (who did not already serve in some military unit) as part of the German [[Home Guard]].
==Origins==
The Volkssturm had existed, on paper, since approximately 1935, however it was only after Hitler ordered [[Martin Bormann]] to recruit 6 million men for this militia that the group became a physical reality. The basic unit was a [[battalion]] of 642 men and the units were mostly composed of members of the [[Hitler Youth]], invalids, or men who had previously been considered unfit for military service. The Volkssturm was under the ultimate command of the [[Home Army]] which, in late 1944 and early 1945, was commanded by [[Heinrich Himmler]].
==Uniforms and insignia==
The Volkssturm "uniform" was only a black armband with words ''Deutscher Volkssturm'' with a series of silver collar pips pinned to the wearer's collar. Because the [[Wehrmacht]] could not provide uniforms to all its members, some members of the Volkssturm wore makeshift paramilitary uniforms or uniforms from their civilian jobs (such as train conductors of the [[Reichsbahn]]). The simple [[Nazi party paramilitary ranks|paramilitary insignia]] of the Volkssturm was as follows:
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
|align="center" rowspan="2"| '''Volkssturm Rank'''
|align="center"| '''Translation'''
|align="center"| '''Collar Insignia'''
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| [[Bataillionsführer]]
|align="center"| Battalion Leader
|align="center"| [[Image:SSmajEarly.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| [[Kompanieführer]]
|align="center"| Company Leader
|align="center"| [[Image:SS2ndLTptch.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| [[Zugführer]]
|align="center"| Section Leader
|align="center"| [[Image:SSSrg1ptch.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| [[Gruppenführer]]
|alien="center"| Group Leader
|align="center"| [[Image:SSsrgptch.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align="center"| [[Volkssturmmann]]
|alien="center"| Peoples Storm Trooper
|align="center"| '''No Insignia'''
|-
|}
==Training and Impact==
Typically, members of the Volkssturm received a brief indoctrindation training, on use of basic weapons such as the [[rifle]] and [[Panzerfaust]], before taking a customary oath to Hitler and then dispatched to face the enemy. Unlike most English speaking countries, Germany did have universal military service for all young men for several generations, so many of the older members of the Volkssturm would have had at least basic military training when they served in the German army and many would have been veterans of the [[First World War]].
Volkssturm units were supposed to be used only in their own districts, but many were sent directly to the front lines. The most extensive use of the Volkssturm was during the [[Battle of Berlin]], during which Volkssturm units fought the best they could. The Battle of Berlin was particular devastating to the Volkssturm, since many Volkssturm members fought to the death when facing [[Red Army]] troops, mostly out of fear of what awaited any German combatant who fell into Russian hands.
Most war historians agree that Volkssturm had negligible strategic effect on the outcome of the war.
==Books==
* '''David K. Yelton''': ''Hitler's Volkssturm'' (2002)
==External links==
*[http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/volkssturm/index.html U.S. Wartime Intelligence Report on German Volkssturm]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:World War II groups]]
[[de:Volkssturm]]
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<page>
<title>Director's cut</title>
<id>8731</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:10:18Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Director's cut''' is a specially edited version of a [[film|movie]] that is supposed to represent the [[film director|director]]'s own approved edit of the movie. It is often released some time after the original release of the film, where the original release was released in a version different from the director's approved edit. 'Cut' is synonymous with 'edit' in this context.
With most studio films the director does not have [[Final cut privilege|final cut]], rather the studio can insist on changes to make the film more likely to succeed at the box office. This sometimes means happier endings or less ambiguity. Most common, however, is that studios ask that the film be shortened. The most common form of director's cut is thus to have extra scenes added making films often considerably longer.
The director's cut was first introduced in the early [[1980s]] alongside the rise of the home video industry. Video releases of director's cuts were originally created for the small but dedicated cultfans market. Two of the first films to be re-released as a director's cut were [[Michael Cimino]]'s [[Heaven's Gate (film)|''Heaven's Gate'']] & [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Blade Runner]]''. Many feel that the director's cut version is the better film.
When it was discovered that the market for alternate versions of films was substantial, director's cuts for a wide array of films were introduced, even some where the director had final cut. These mostly contained deleted scenes, often adding a full half-hour to the length of the film. Rarely are these dire |
ve permanent members of the Security Council ([[France]], [[China and the United Nations|China]], [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]) have always had a judge on the Court. The exception was China (the [[Republic of China]] until [[1971]], the [[People's Republic of China]] from 1971 onwards), which did not have a judge on the Court from [[1967]]-[[1985]], because it did not put forward a candidate. The rule on a [[geopolitical]] composition of the bench exists despite the fact that there is no provision for it in the Statute of the ICJ.
Article 2 of the Statute provides that all judges should be "elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high [[moral]] character", who are either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt specifically with in Articles 16-18. Judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post, nor act as [[counsel]]. A judge can only be dismissed by [[unanimous]] vote of other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned. For example, during the ''[[Nicaragua v. United States|Nicaragua Case]]'', the [[USA]] issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the Court because of the presence of judges from [[Eastern bloc]] states.{{ref|2}}
Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are by majority and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive.{{ref|3}} Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.
===''Ad hoc'' judges===
Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ''[[ad hoc]]'' judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. This system allows any party to a contentious case to nominate a judge of their choice (usually of their nationality), if a judge of their nationality is not already on the bench. ''Ad hoc'' judges participate fully in the case and the deliberations, along with the permanent bench. Thus, it is possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case.
This system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases to the Court. For example, if a state knows it will have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local knowledge and an understanding of the state's perspective, that state may be more willing to submit to the Court's jurisdiction. Although this system does not sit well with the judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence. ''Ad hoc'' judges usually (but not always) vote in favour of the state that appointed them and thus cancel each other out.
===Chambers===
Generally, the Court sits as a full bench, but in the last fifteen years it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26-29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually three or five judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ''ad hoc'' chambers to hear particular disputes. In [[1993]] a special chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with [[Natural environment|environmental]] matters (although this chamber has never been used).
''Ad hoc'' chambers are more frequently convened. For example, chambers were used to hear the ''Gulf of Maine Case'' ([[USA]] v [[Canada]]).{{ref|4}} In that case, the parties made clear they would withdraw the case unless the Court appointed judges to the chamber who were acceptable to the parties. Chambers judgments may have less authority than full Court judgments, or may diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives. On the other hand, the use of Chambers might encourage greater recourse to the Court and thus enhance international [[dispute resolution]].{{ref|5}}
===Current composition===
[[Image:Rosalyn Higgins.jpg|thumb|Judge Higgins, President of the ICJ.]]
As of [[6 February]] [[2006]] the composition of the court is as follows:
*President: Dame [[Rosalyn Higgins]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*Vice-President: [[Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh]] ([[Jordan]])
In addition to the President and Vice-President, the ICJ judges are:
*[[Raymond Ranjeva]] ([[Madagascar]])
*[[Shi Jiuyong]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
*[[Abdul G. Koroma]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
*[[Gonzalo Parra Aranguren]] ([[Venezuela]])
*[[Thomas Buergenthal]] ([[United States|United States of America]])
*[[Hisashi Owada]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Bruno Simma]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Peter Tomka]] ([[Slovakia]])
*[[Ronny Abraham]] ([[France]])
*Sir [[Kenneth Keith]] ([[New Zealand]])
*[[Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor]] ([[Mexico]])
*[[Mohamed Bennouna]] ([[Morocco]])
*[[Leonid Skotnikov]] ([[Russia|Russian Federation]])
==Jurisdiction==
''See main article: [[Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice]].''
As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 191 UN members are automatically [[Party (law)|parties]] to the Court's statute. Non-UN members may also become parties to the Court's statute under the Article 93(2) procedure. For example, [[Switzerland]] used this procedure in [[1948]] to become a party; [[Nauru]] also became a party in [[1988]]. Once a state is a party to the Court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the Court. However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the Court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties. The issue of [[jurisdiction]] is considered in the two types of ICJ cases: contentious issues and advisory opinions.
===Contentious issues===
In contentious cases, the ICJ produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court. Only [[state]]s may be parties in contentious cases. [[Individual]]s, [[corporation]]s, parts of a [[federal state]], [[NGO]]s, UN organs and [[self-determination]] groups are excluded from direct participation in cases, although the Court may receive information from public [[international organisations]]. This does not preclude non-state interests from being the subject of proceedings if one state brings the case against another. For example, a state may, in case of "diplomatic protection", bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or corporations.{{ref|6}}
Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the Court in contentious cases. (See [[International Court of Justice#Procedure|Procedure]] below.) The key principle is that the ICJ only has jurisdiction on the basis of consent. Article 36 outlines four bases on which the Court's jurisdiction may be founded.
*First, 36(1) provides that parties may refer cases to the Court (jurisdiction founded on "special agreement" or "''compromis''"). This method is based on explicit consent rather than true compulsory jurisdiction. It is, perhaps, the most effective basis for the Court's jurisdiction because the parties concerned have a desire for the dispute to be resolved by the Court and are thus more likely to comply with the Court's judgment.
*Second, 36(1) also gives the Court jurisdiction over "matters specifically provided for ... in treaties and conventions in force". Most modern [[treaty|treaties]] will contain a [[compromissory clause]], providing for dispute resolution by the ICJ.{{ref|7}} Cases founded on compromissory clauses have not been as effective as cases founded on special agreement, since a state may have no interest in having the matter examined by the Court and may refuse to comply with a judgment. For example, during the [[Iran hostage crisis]], [[Iran]] refused to participate in a case brought by USA based on a compromissory clause contained in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]], nor did it comply with the judgment.{{ref|8}} Since the [[1970s]], the use of such clauses has declined. Many modern treaties set out their own dispute resolution regime, often based on forms of [[arbitration]].{{ref|9}}
*Thirdly, Article 36(2) allows states to make optional clause declarations accepting the Court's jurisdiction. The tag of "compulsory" which is sometimes placed on Article 36(2) jurisdiction is misleading since declarations by states are voluntary. Furthermore, many declarations contain reservations, such as exclusion from jurisdiction certain types of dispute ("''ratione materia''").{{ref|10}} The principle of [[reciprocity]] may further limit jurisdiction. As of [[December 2005]], sixty-five states had a declaration in force.{{ref|11}} Out of the [[Security Council]] members, only the [[United Kingdom]] has a declaration. In the Court's early years, most declarations were made by industrialised countries. Since the ''[[Nicaragua v. United States|Nicaragua Case]]'', declarations made by developing countries have increased, reflecting a growing confidence in the Court since the [[1980s]].
*Finally, 36(5) provides for jurisdiction on the basis of declarations made under the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]'s statute. Article 37 of the ICJ's statute similarly transfers jurisdiction under any compromissory clause in a treaty that gave jurisdiction to the PCIJ.
In addition, the Court may have jurisdiction on the basis of tacit consent (''[[forum prorogatum]]''). In the absence of clear jurisdiction under Article 36, jurisdiction will be established if the respondent accepts its jurisdiction explicitly or simply pleads to the merits. The notion arose in the ''Corfu Channel Case'' (UK v Albania) in which it was held that letter from [[Albania]] stating that it submitted to the jurisdiction of the ICJ was sufficient to found jurisdiction.
===Advisory opinion===
An advisory opinion is a function of t |
s of "proximate power" (Letter I) and "sufficient grace" (Letter II), and explain why they are not heretical. The later letters find Pascal more on the defensive—pressure on the Port Royal Jansenists to renounce their teachings was constantly growing through this time—and contain the assault on casuistry. Letter XIV contains the unique apology, "I would have written a shorter letter, but I did not have the time."
Wide praise has been given to the ''Provincial Letters''. [[Voltaire]] called the ''Letters'' "the best-written book that has yet appeared in France."{{ref|VoltaireLetters}} And when [[Bossuet]] was asked what book he would rather have written had he not written his own, he answered, the ''Provincial Letters'' of Pascal.{{ref|BossuetLetters}}
===Miracle===
When Pascal was back in Paris just after overseeing the publication of the last ''Letter'', his religion was reinforced by the close association to an apparent miracle in the chapel of the Port-Royal nunnery. His 10-year-old niece, Marguerite Périer, was suffering from a painful [[fistula]] lacrymalis that exuded noisome pus through her eyes and nose—an affliction the doctors pronounced hopeless. Then on [[March 24]], [[1657]], a believer had presented to Port-Royal what he and others claimed to be a thorn from the crown that had tortured Christ. The nuns, in solemn ceremony and singing psalms, placed the thorn on their altar. Each in turn kissed the relic, and one of them, seeing Marguerite among the worshipers, took the thorn and with it touched the girl's sore. That evening, we are told, Marguerite expressed surprise that her eye no longer pained her; her mother was astonished to find no sign of the fistula; a physician, summoned, reported that the discharge and swelling had disappeared. He, not the nuns, spread word of what he termed a miraculous cure. Seven other physicians who had had previous knowledge of Marguerite's fistula subscribed a statement that in their judgment a miracle had taken place. The diocesan officials investigated, came to the same conclusion, and authorized a Te Deum Mass in Port-Royal. Crowds of believers came to see and kiss the thorn; all Catholic Paris acclaimed a miracle. Later both Jansenists and Catholics used this well-documented miracle to their defense. In 1728, [[Pope Benedict XIII]] referred to the case as proving that the age of miracles had not passed.
Pascal made himself an armorial emblem of an eye surrounded by a crown of thorns, with the inscription ''Scio cui credidi''—"I know whom I have believed." {{ref|ThornMiracle}} His beliefs renewed, he set his mind to write his final, and alas, unfinished testament, the ''Pensées''.
===The ''Pensées''===
{{main|Pensées}}
Unfortunately, Pascal couldn't finish his most influential theological work, the ''Pensées'', before his death. It was to have been a sustained and coherent examination of and defense of the [[Christianity|Christian faith]], with the original title ''Apologie de la religion Chrétienne'' ("Defense of the Christian Religion"). What was found upon sifting through his personal items after his death were numerous scraps of paper with isolated thoughts, grouped in a tentative, but telling, order. The first version of the detached notes appeared in print as a book in 1670 titled ''Pensées de M. Pascal sur la réligion, et sur quelques autres sujets'' ("Thoughts of M. Pascal on religion, and on other subjects") and soon thereafter became a classic. Because his friends and the scholars at Port-Royal were concerned that these fragmentary "thoughts" might lead to skepticism rather than to piety, they concealed the skeptical pieces and modified some of the rest, lest King or Church should take offense{{ref|peity}} for at that time the persecution of Port-Royal had ceased, and the editors were not interested in a renewal of controversy. Not until the nineteenth century were the ''Pensées'' published in their full and authentic text.
Pascal's ''Pensées'' is widely considered to be a masterpiece, and a landmark in French prose. When commenting on one particular section, [[Sainte-Beuve]] praised it as the finest pages in the French language.{{ref|finest}} [[Will Durant]], in his 11-volume, comprehensive [[The Story of Civilization]] series, hailed it as "the most eloquent book in French prose."{{ref|eloquent}} In ''Pensées'', Pascal surveys several philosophical paradoxes: infinity and nothing, faith and reason, soul and matter, death and life, meaning and vanity—seemingly arriving at no definitive conclusions besides humility, ignorance, and grace. Rolling these into one he develops [[Pascal's Wager]].
===Last works and death===
[[T.S. Eliot]] described him during this phase of his life as "a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world." Pascal's ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for man to suffer. In 1659 Pascal, whose health had never been good, fell seriously ill. During his last years of bad health, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, "Sickness is the natural state of Christians." {{ref|M104-}}
Louis XIV suppressed the Jansenist movement at Port-Royal in 1661. In response, Pascal wrote one of his final works, ''Écrit sur la signature du formulaire'', exhorting the Jansenists not to give in. Later that year, his sister Jacqueline died, which convinced Pascal to cease his polemics on Jansenism. Pascal's last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating perhaps the first [[bus]] line, moving passengers within Paris in a carriage with many seats.
In 1662, Pascal's illness became more violent. Aware that he had little chance to survive, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried. In [[Paris]] on [[August 18]], [[1662]], Pascal went into convulsions and received [[extreme unction]]. He died the next morning, his last words being "May God never abandon me," and was buried in the cemetery of [[Saint-Étienne-du-Mont]].{{ref|M104}}
An [[autopsy]] performed after his death revealed grave problems with his stomach and other organs of his abdomen, along with damage to his [[brain]]. Despite the autopsy, the cause of his continual poor health was never precisely determined, though speculation focuses on [[tuberculosis]], stomach [[cancer]], or a combination of the two.{{ref|M103}} The headaches which afflicted Pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion.
==Legacy==
In honor of his scientific contributions, the name '''Pascal''' has been given to the [[pascal (unit)|SI unit of pressure]], to a [[Pascal programming language|programming language]], and [[Pascal's law]] (an important principle of hydrostatics), and as mentioned above, Pascal's triangle and Pascal's wager still bear his name.
In Canada, there is an annual math contest named in his honour. The Pascal Contest is open to any student in Canada that is 14 years or under and is in grade 9 or lower.
Pascal's development of probability theory was his most influential contribution to mathematics. Originally applied to [[gambling]], today it is extremely important in [[economics]], especially in [[actuarial science]]. John Ross writes, "Probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision-making, and an individual's and society's ability to influence the course of future events." [http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v5/n1s/full/7400229.html] However, it should be noted that Pascal and Fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far. [[Christiaan Huygens]], learning of the subject from the correspondence of Pascal and Fermat, wrote the first book on the subject. Later figures who continued the development of the theory include [[Abraham de Moivre]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]].
In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French Classical Period, and is read today as one of the greatest masters of French prose. His use of satire and wit influenced later [[polemic]]ists. The content of his literary work is best remembered for its strong opposition to the [[Continental rationalism|rationalism]] of [[René Descartes]] and simultaneous assertion that the main countervailing philosophy, [[empiricism]], was also insufficient for determining major truths.
A discussion of Pascal figures prominently in the movie ''[[My Night At Maud's]]'' by the French director [[Éric Rohmer]].
==Works==
* ''Essai pour les coniques'' (1639)
* ''Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide'' (1647)
* ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'' (1653)
* ''[[Lettres provinciales]]'' (1656–57)
* ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' (1657 or 1658)
* ''Écrit sur la signature du formulaire'' (1661)
* ''[[Pensées]]'' (incomplete at death)
==References==
* Broome, JH. ''Pascal''. ISBN 0713150211
* (1)Davidson, Hugh M.,'''Blaise Pascal'''.Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983.
* Muir, Jane. ''Of Men and Numbers''. New York: Dover Publications, Inc, 1996. ISBN 0486289737
* ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 1967 edition, s.v. "Pascal, Blaise." <!-- vol. 6, p.51-55, New York: Macmillan, Paul Edwards (ed.), Richard H. Popkin (article author) -->
* Pascal, Blaise. ''Oeuvres compl&egrave;tes''. Paris: Seuil, 1960.
==Notes==
# {{note|sickness}} Sainte-Beuve, ''Port-Royal'', I, 89.
# {{note|M93}} Muir, 93.
# {{note|Sappho}} Pascal, ''[[Pensées]]'', Havet ed. Introd., p. ''civ''.
# {{note|marriage}} Mesnard, ''Pascal'', 57.
# {{note|EP52}} ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 52.
# {{note|OC618}} ''Oeuvres compl&egrave;tes'', 618.
# {{note|VoltaireLetters}} Voltaire, ''Age of Louis XIV'' 424, 358.
# {{note|BossuetLetters}} Voltaire, ''Age of Louis XIV'' 359.
# |
rmer [[president]] of [[Malawi]].
*[[Banda, Ghana|Banda town]] in [[Ghana]].
*[[Banda (CAR)|Banda people]] of the [[Central African Republic]].
*[[spirit duplicator|Banda machine]], a type of copying machine also known as a ditto machine or spirit duplicator
{{disambig}}
[[id:Banda]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bladder</title>
<id>4796</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2005-10-22T09:23:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robodoc.at</username>
<id>43492</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>de:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* A '''bladder''' is a pouch or other flexible enclosure with waterproof or gasproof walls.
* In the context of [[animal]]s and [[anatomy]], "bladder" usually refers to the '''[[urinary bladder]]'''. The term is generic and can also be used for other enclosures, such as the [[gallbladder]].
* [[Zeppelin]]s are kept buoyant by '''gas bladders''', as are many species of [[kelp]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:Blase]]
[[nl:Blaas]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Young</title>
<id>4797</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-20T19:16:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.59.196.38</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bob_young.jpg|right|frame|Bob Young]]
'''Robert "Bob" Young''' was born in [[Ancaster, Ontario]], [[Canada]] and graduated from the [[University of Toronto]]. He created the [[ACC Corporation]] which merged with [[Red Hat]] in [[1995]]. From the merger to [[1999]] Bob Young was Red Hat's CEO. After leaving Red Hat he started [[Lulu.com]], a self-publishing web-site that claims to be the world's fastest-growing provider of print-on-demand books. He is [[Lulu.com]]'s CEO. He also owns the [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]], [[Hamilton, Ontario]]'s [[Canadian Football League]] franchise.
{{canada-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Young, Bob]]
[[Category:Red Hat|Young, Bob]]
[[Category:University of Toronto alumni|Young, Bob]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bronze age</title>
<id>4798</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bronze Age]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bicameral mind</title>
<id>4799</id>
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<timestamp>2005-07-06T19:25:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Tom</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bicameralism (psychology)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Babylon 5</title>
<id>4800</id>
<revision>
<id>41948913</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:50:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shsilver</username>
<id>637</id>
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<comment>/* Concept */ avoid redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Babylon 5
| image = [[Image:Smb5-s4.jpg|200px|Season 4 poster]]
| caption = Season 4 poster
| format = [[Science fiction]]
| runtime = 42 minutes
| creator = [[J. Michael Straczynski]]
| starring = [[Bruce Boxleitner]]<br>[[Claudia Christian]]<br>[[Jerry Doyle (actor)|Jerry Doyle]]<br>[[Mira Furlan]]
| country = [[United States]]
| network = [[Prime Time Entertainment Network|PTEN]] / [[Turner Network Television|TNT]]
| first_aired = [[February 22]], [[1993]]
| last_aired = [[November 25]], [[1998]]
| num_episodes = [[List of Babylon 5 episodes|110]]
| imdb_id = 0105946
| tv_com_id = 11
|}}
'''''Babylon 5''''' is an epic [[science fiction on television|science fiction television series]] created, produced, and largely written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]]. The music for the TV series and related TV movies was composed by [[Christopher Franke]]. The pilot movie, ''The Gathering,'' aired on [[February 22]], [[1993]], and the regular series initially aired from [[January 26]], [[1994]] through [[November 25]], [[1998]], first in syndication on the short-lived [[Prime Time Entertainment Network]], then on cable network [[Turner Network Television|TNT]]. Because the show was aired every week in the [[United Kingdom]] on [[Channel 4]] without a break, the last four or five episodes of the early seasons were shown in the UK before the US.
The series won several awards [http://babylon5.isnnews.net/info/b5awards.shtml], including two [[Hugo Award|Hugos]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation|Best Dramatic Presentation]].
==Concept==
{{spoiler}}
{{B5}}
[[Image:Old School.gif|thumb|50pix|left|Original B5 promo logo]]
The series, often held as a good example of [[space opera]], consists of a five-year [[story arc]] taking place over five seasons of 22 episodes each. The hub of the story is a large [[space station]] named Babylon 5; the five mile (8 km) long, 2.5 million ton rotating colony is built to be a gathering place for fostering peace through [[diplomacy]], trade, and cooperation. Babylon 5 is a center of political intrigue and conflict, and eventually becomes a pawn in a massive interstellar conflict from which it emerges with a victory over forces of darkness and chaos, albeit at great cost. This is reflected in the opening monologue of each episode which includes "last, best hope for peace" in season one but changes to "last, best hope for victory" by season three.
Having long been a science fiction fan himself, Straczynski was determined to produce a science fiction series for adults where, for once, things would be done properly: consistent technology, "no kids or cute robots", no new "particle of the week" to tie up a plot. It was not a utopian future &mdash; there is greed and homelessness. It was not a place where everything was the same at the end of the day &mdash; main characters grow, develop, live, and die. An unabashedly political show, it was always ready to deal with politics, sex, religion, and philosophy.
[[Image:Babylon5_02.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The ''Babylon 5'' Station]]
Unlike most television shows, this series was conceived as a [[novel]], with a defined beginning, middle, and end. In addition, even tie-in novels, comic books, and short stories play a significant part of the overall story.
The overall story of the show was plotted out in some detail before the first episode was ever shot. Having a (loosely) predetermined plot was advantageous in many respects, as longer-term planning greatly reduced the working budget required on sets and costumes. The planned plot arc, allowing largely fixed sets and economies of scale, favorably compared with more episodic series which might require an entirely new set of props or costumes for each episode.
Though conceived as a whole, and with Straczynski writing most of the episodes (including all of the episodes of the third and fourth seasons, a feat never before accomplished in American television), it was necessary to adjust the plotline to accommodate external influences. The replacement of [[actor]] [[Michael O'Hare]] as the station commander after the first season, the unexpected departure of actresses [[Claudia Christian]] and [[Andrea Thompson]], and the necessity to compress the fourth season story arc due to fears of cancellation proved to be major challenges. Consequently, season four is loaded with a dizzying amount of plot, and the final episode shot for season four was held back to be the ending for the fifth season, and thus the entire series.
''Babylon 5'' is often cited as raising the bar for science fiction television, using an arc-driven storytelling style now prevalent in science fiction and in mainstream drama. Straczynski anticipated the rise of digital television, shooting the series in 16:9 format rather than the normal 4:3 - a full six years before ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' and many other dramas began doing the same thing. ''Babylon 5'' also revolutionized the use of computer technology in creating [[visual effects]] at a time when using models and miniatures was the norm. It was also the first sci-fi series to respect [[Newtonian physics]] in its space battle sequences, since utilised in other series such as [[Joss Whedon]]'s [[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]] and the [[Sci-Fi Channel]] version of [[Battlestar Galactica (2003)]].
==Cast and primary characters ==
===Regular cast===
* [[Jeffrey Sinclair]] ([[Michael O'Hare]], season 1, recurring in seasons 2&ndash;3)
* [[John Sheridan (Babylon 5)|John Sheridan]] ([[Bruce Boxleitner]], seasons 2&ndash;5)
* [[Susan Ivanova]] ([[Claudia Christian]], seasons 1&ndash;4, last episode of season 5)
* [[Michael Garibaldi]] ([[Jerry Doyle (actor)|Jerry Doyle]])
* [[Delenn]] ([[Mira Furlan]])
* [[Londo Mollari]] ([[Peter Jurasik]])
* [[G'Kar]] ([[Andreas Katsulas]])
* [[Dr. Stephen Franklin]] ([[Richard Biggs]])
* [[Vir Cotto]] ([[Stephen Furst]])
* [[Lennier]] ([[Bill Mumy]])
* [[Na'Toth]] ([[Julie Caitlin Brown]], season 1 (also appears in one episode of season 5); [[Mary Kay Adams]], season 2)
* [[Warren Keffer]] ([[Robert Rusler]], season 2)
* [[Elizabeth Lochley]] ([[Tracy Scoggins]], season 5)
* [[Zack Allan]] ([[Jeff Conaway]], recurring in season 2, seasons 3&ndash;5)
* [[Lyta Alexander]] ([[Patricia Tallman]], pilot, recurring in seasons 2&ndash;3, starring in seasons 4&ndash;5)
* [[Talia Winters]] ([[Andrea Thompson]], seasons 1&ndash;2)
* [[Marcus Cole]] ([[Jason Carter]], seasons 3&ndash;4)
===Recurring guest characters===
* [[Alfred Bester (Babylon 5)|Alfred Bester]] ([[Walter Koenig]])
* [[Morden (Babylon 5)| Morden]] ([[Ed Wasser]])
* [[David Corwin (Babylon 5)|David Cor |
low?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the scalar product or dot product of spatial vectors see [[dot product]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''inner product space''' is a [[vector space]] with additional structure, an '''inner product''' (also called '''scalar product'''), which allows us to introduce geometrical notions such as [[angle]]s and [[length]]s of vectors. Inner product spaces generalize [[Euclidean space]]s (with the [[dot product]] as the inner product) and are studied in [[functional analysis]].
An inner product space is sometimes also called a '''''pre-Hilbert space''''', since its [[Complete space#Completion|completion]] with respect to the [[Metric space#Formal definition|metric]] [[Normed vector space#Distances in normed vector spaces|induced]] by its inner product is a [[Hilbert space]].
Inner product spaces were referred to as '''unitary spaces''' in earlier work, although this terminology is now rarely used.
== Definitions ==
In the following article, the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[scalar]]s denoted '''F''' is either
the field of [[real number]]s '''R''' or the field of [[complex number]]s '''C'''. See below.
Formally, an inner product space is a vector space ''V'' over the field '''F''' together with a map, called an ''inner product''
:<math> \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle : V \times V \rightarrow \mathbf{F} </math>
satisfying the following [[axiom]]s:
* [[complex conjugate|Conjugate]] symmetry:
::<math>\forall x,y\in V,\ \langle x,y\rangle =\overline{\langle y,x\rangle}.</math>
:This condition implies that <math> \langle x,x\rangle \in \mathbf{R} </math> for all <math> x \in V </math>, because <math>\langle x,x\rangle = \overline{\langle x,x\rangle} </math>.
:''(Conjugation is also often written with an asterisk, as in <math> \langle y,x\rangle^{*} </math>, as is the [[conjugate transpose]].)''
* [[Sesquilinear]]ity:
::<math>\forall b\in F,\ \forall x,y\in V,\ \langle x,by\rangle= b \langle x,y\rangle.</math>
::<math>\forall x,y,z\in V,\ \langle x,y+z\rangle= \langle x,y\rangle+ \langle x,z\rangle.</math>
:By combining these with conjugate symmetry, we get:
::<math>\forall a\in F,\ \forall x,y\in V,\ \langle ax,y\rangle= \overline{a} \langle x,y\rangle.</math>
::<math>\forall x,y,z\in V,\ \langle x+y,z\rangle= \langle x,z\rangle+ \langle y,z\rangle.</math>
* Nonnegativity:
::<math>\forall x \in V,\ \langle x,x\rangle \ge 0.</math>
:''(This makes sense because <math> \langle x,x\rangle \in \mathbf{R} </math> for all <math> x\in V </math>.)''
* Nondegeneracy:
::<math>\forall x \in V,\ \langle x,x\rangle = 0 \mbox{ iff } x = 0. </math>
:Hence, the inner product is a [[Hermitian form]].
The property of an inner product space <math> V </math> that
::<math> \langle x+y,z\rangle= \langle x,z\rangle+ \langle y,z\rangle </math> and <math> \langle x,y+z\rangle = \langle x,y\rangle + \langle x,z\rangle </math>
for all <math>x, y, z \in V </math> is known as ''additivity''.
Note that if '''F'''='''R''', then the conjugate symmetry property is simply ''symmetry'' of the inner product, i.e.
:: <math> \langle x,y\rangle=\langle y,x\rangle.</math>
In this case, sesquilinearity becomes standard [[linear]]ity.
'''Remark'''. Many mathematical authors require an inner product to be linear in the first argument and conjugate-linear in the second argument, contrary to the convention adopted above. This change is immaterial, but the definition above ensures a smoother connection to the [[bra-ket notation]] used by physicists in [[quantum mechanics]] and is now often used by mathematicians as well. Some authors adopt the convention that < , > is linear in the first component while < | > is linear in the second component, although this is by no means universal. For instance the G. Emch reference does not follow this convention.
There are various technical reasons why it is necessary to restrict the basefield to '''R''' and '''C''' in the definition. Briefly, the [[basefield]] has to contain an [[ordered field|ordered subfield]] (in order for non-negativity to make sense) and therefore has to have [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] equal to 0. This immediately excludes finite fields. The basefield has to have additional structure, such as a distinguished automorphism.
In some cases we need to consider non-negative ''semi-definite'' sesquilinear forms. This means that <''x'', ''x''> is only required to be non-negative. We show how to treat these below.
== Examples ==
A trivial example are the [[real numbers]] with the standard multiplication as the inner product
:<math>\langle x,y\rangle := xy</math>
More generally any Euclidean space '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> with the [[dot product]] is an inner product space
:<math>\langle (x_1,\ldots, x_n),(y_1,\ldots, y_n)\rangle := \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i y_i = x_1 y_1 + \cdots + x_n y_n</math>
The general form of an inner product on '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> is given by:
:<math>\langle \mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}\rangle := \mathbf{x}^*\mathbf{M}\mathbf{y}</math>
with '' M'' any [[positive-definite matrix]], and '''x'''<sup>*</sup> the [[conjugate transpose]] of '''x'''. For the real case this corresponds to the dot product of the results of directionally differential [[Scaling (geometry)|scaling]] of the two vectors, with positive [[scale factor]]s and orthogonal directions of scaling. Apart from an orthogonal transformation it is a [[Weight function|weighted-sum]] version of the dot product, with positive weights.
The article on [[Hilbert space]] has several examples of inner product spaces wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a [[complete]] metric space. An example of an inner product which induces an incomplete metric occurs with the space ''C''[''a'', ''b''] of continuous complex valued functions on the interval [''a'',''b'']. The inner product is
:<math> \langle f , g \rangle := \int_a^b \overline{f(t)} g(t) \, dt </math>
This space is not complete; consider for example, for the interval [0,1] the sequence of functions { ''f''<sub>''k''</sub> }<sub>''k''</sub> where
* ''f''<sub>''k''</sub>(''t'') is 1 for ''t'' in the subinterval [0, 1/2]
* ''f''<sub>''k''</sub>(''t'') is 0 for t in the subinterval [1/2 + 1/''k'', 1]
* ''f''<sub>''k''</sub> is affine in [1/2, 1/2 + 1/''k'']
This sequence is a Cauchy sequence which does not converge to a ''continuous'' function.
== Norms on inner product spaces ==
Inner product spaces have a naturally defined [[Normed vector space|norm]]
:<math> \|x\| =\sqrt{\langle x, x\rangle}.</math>
This is well defined by the nonnegativity axiom of the definition of inner product space. The norm is thought of as the length of the vector ''x''.
Directly from the axioms, we can prove the following:
*[[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]]: for ''x'', ''y'' elements of ''V''
:: <math> |\langle x,y\rangle| \leq \|x\| \cdot \|y\| </math>
:with equality if and only if ''x'' and ''y'' are [[linearly independent|linearly dependent]]. This is one of the most important inequalities in mathematics. It is also known in the Russian mathematical literature as the ''Cauchy-Bunyakowski-Schwarz inequality''.
:Because of its importance, its short proof should be noted. To prove this inequality note it is trivial in the case ''y'' = 0. Thus we may assume <''y'', ''y''> is nonzero. Thus we may let
::<math> \lambda = \langle y , y \rangle^{-1} \langle y, x\rangle</math>
:and it follows that
::<math> 0 \leq \langle x -\lambda y, x -\lambda y \rangle = \langle x, x\rangle - \langle y , y \rangle^{-1} | \langle x,y\rangle|^2. </math>
:multiplying out, the result follows.
[[Image:Inner-product-angle.png|thumb|Geometric interpretation of inner product]]
:The geometric interpretation of the inner product in terms of angle and length, motivates much of the geometric terminology we use in regard to these spaces. Indeed, an immediate consequence of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality is that it justifies defining the [[angle]] between two non-zero vectors ''x'' and ''y'' (at least in the case ''F'' = '''R''') by the identity
:<math>\operatorname{angle}(x,y) = \arccos \frac{\langle x, y \rangle}{\|x\| \cdot \|y\|}.</math>
:We assume the value of the angle is chosen to be in the interval <nowiki>(&minus;&pi;, +&pi;]</nowiki>. This is in analogy to the familiar situation in two-dimensional [[Euclidean space]]. Correspondingly, we will say that non-zero vectors ''x'', ''y'' of ''V'' are orthogonal iff their inner product is zero.
*[[Homogeneity]]: for ''x'' an element of ''V'' and ''r'' a scalar
::<math> \|r \cdot x\| = |r| \cdot \| x\|.</math>
:The homogeneity property is completely trivial to prove.
*[[Triangle inequality]]: for ''x'', ''y'' elements of ''V''
::<math> \|x + y\| \leq \|x \| + \|y\|. </math>
:The last two properties show the function defined is indeed a norm.
:Because of the triangle inequality and because of axiom 2, we see that ||·|| is a norm which turns ''V'' into a [[normed vector space]] and hence also into a [[metric space]]. The most important inner product spaces are the ones which are [[completeness (topology)|complete]] with respect to this metric; they are called [[Hilbert space]]s. Every inner product ''V'' space is a [[dense]] subspace of some Hilbert space. This Hilbert space is essentially uniquely determined by ''V'' and is constructed by completing ''V''.
*[[Parallelogram law]]:
::<math> \|x + y\|^2 + \|x - y\|^2 = 2\|x\|^2 + 2\|y\|^2. </math>
*[[P |
;; in the sciences this extension is made [[tongue-in-cheek]].
Heretics usually do not define their own beliefs as heretical. Heresy is a value-judgment and the expression of a view from within an established [[belief system]]. For instance, Roman Catholics held Protestantism as a heresy while some non-Catholics considered Catholicism the "[[Great Apostasy]]."
For a heresy to exist there must be an authoritative system of dogma designated as orthodox, such as those proposed by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]. The term ''orthodox'' is used in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches, in [[Islam]], some [[Judaism|Jewish denominations]], and to a lesser extent in other [[religion|religions]]. Variance from orthodox [[Marxism-Leninism]] is described as "right" or "left deviationism." The [[Church of Scientology]] uses the term "squirreling" to refer to unauthorized alterations of its teachings or methods.
==Religious heresy==
===Christianity===
The use of the term ''heresy'' in the context of Christianity is less common today, with some notable exceptions: see for example [[Rudolf Bultmann]] and the ''character'' of debates over [[ordination of women]] and gay priests. Popular imagination relegates "heresy" to the [[Middle Ages]], when the Church's power in Europe was at its height, but the case of the scholar and humanist [[Giordano Bruno]] was not the last execution for heresy. Heresy remained an officially punishable offense in Roman Catholic nations until the late 18th century. In Spain, heretics were prosecuted and punished during the [[Counter-Enlightenment]] there after the Napoleonic Era.
====Roman background====
A concern for uniform practice of ritual, which Romans conceived as a duty entirely of a civic and public nature, distinguished the Roman approach to religion from the Greeks', where each locality preserved its archaic characteristics. [[Plutarch]], in his ''Life of [[Numa Pompilius]]'' ascribes to the legendary [[King of Rome]] the institution of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' which, from Plutarch's 2nd century AD point of view "was to declare and interpret the divine law, or, rather, to preside over sacred rites; he not only prescribed rules for public ceremony, but regulated the sacrifices of private persons, not suffering them to vary from established custom, and giving information to every one of what was requisite for purposes of worship or supplication."
The Romans welcomed new gods into the [[Pantheon%2C_Rome|pantheon]]. But more important than belief in some or none of the gods was participation in Roman rituals. For example, Christians were not persecuted for believing in one God, nor were they persecuted for disbelieving in the [[Pantheon_%28gods%29|pantheon]] of [[Roman_gods|roman gods]]. Instead, they were persectued because they refused to participate in civic and public rituals and duty, such as their refusal to burn incense to the Roman emperor. Deviation from the official norm amounted to [[impiety]]: heresy was foreign to the pagan worldview.
====Early Christian heresies====
Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and practice have characterized Christianity from the outset. The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was set in full swing when Paul wrote the epistles that comprise a large part of the New Testament. On many occasions in Paul's epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urges Christians in various places to beware of false teachers, or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false teachers, as does the writer of the ''[[Book of Revelation]]''.
In the middle of the 2nd century, three unorthodox groups of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided the Christian communities of Rome: the teacher [[Marcion]], the [[pentecostal]] outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophets of a [[continuing revelation]], in a movement that was called "[[Montanism]]" because it had been initiated by [[Montanus]] and his female disciples, and the [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] teachings of [[Valentinius|Valentinus]]. Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter of [[Tertullian]]'s ''Prescription Against Heretics'' (in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of [[Irenaeus]]' ''Against Heresies'' (''ca'' 180, in five volumes), written in Lyon after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters of [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[Polycarp of Smyrna]] to various churches warned against false teachers, and the ''[[Epistle of Barnabas]]'' accepted by many Christians as part of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned about [[Judaizing|mixing Judaism with Christianity]], as did other writers, leading to decisions reached in the [[first ecumenical council]], which was convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325, in response to further disruptive polemical controversy within the Christian community, in that case [[Arianism|Arianist]] disputes over the nature of the Trinity.
During those first three centuries, Christianity was effectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when the Church labeled its enemies as heretics and cast them out of its congregations or severed ties with dissident churches, it remained without the power to persecute them. However, those called "heretics" were also called a number of other things (e.g. "fools," "wild dogs," "servants of Satan"), so the word "heretic" had negative associations from the beginning, and intentionally so.
Before 325 AD, the "heretical" nature of some beliefs was a matter of much debate within the churches. After 325 AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through the ''canons'' promulgated by the councils. Each phrase in the [[Nicene Creed]], which was hammered out at the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]], addresses some aspect that had been under passionate discussion and closes the books on the argument, with the weight of the agreement of the over 300 bishops in attendance. [Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250.] In spite of the agreement reached at the council of 325 the [[Arianism|Arians]] who had been defeated dominated most of the church for the greater part of the fourth century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favored them. In the East, the successful party of [[Cyril of Jerusalem|Cyril]] cast out [[Nestorius]] and his followers as heretics and [[Book burning|collected and burned his writings]].
Irenaeus was the first to argue that his "proto-orthodox" position was the same faith that [[Jesus]] gave to the [[apostle]]s, and that the identity of the apostles, their successors, and the teachings of the same were all well-known public knowledge. This was therefore an early argument supported by [[apostolic succession]]. Irenaeus first established the doctrine of four gospels and no more, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the light of ''[[Gospel of John|John]]''. Irenaeus' opponents, however, claimed to have received secret teachings from Jesus via other apostles which were not publicly known. ([[Gnosticism]] is predicated on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived in the canonic Scripture.) Irenaeus' opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine of [[continuing revelation]].
The Hispanic ascetic [[Priscillian of Avila]] was the first person to be executed for heresy, only sixty years after the First Council of Nicaea, in [[385]]. He was executed at the orders of Emperor [[Magnus Maximus]], over the procedural objections of bishops [[Ambrose of Milan]] and [[Martin of Tours]], who claimed the Churches' right to punish its own.
A number of the beliefs the Catholic Church has come to regard as heretical have to do with [[Christology]], that is, with the nature of Jesus Christ and the relationship between Christ and God the Father. The [[orthodox]] teaching, as it developed, is that Christ was fully divine and at the same time fully human, and that the three persons of the [[Trinity]] are co-equal and co-eternal. This position, it should be noted, was not formally established as the orthodox position until it was challenged in the fourth century by [[Arius]] ([[Nicene creed]] in 325); nor was the [[New Testament]] put into its present form until the end of the 4th century ([[Athanasius]] first lists the 27 books we have in the current New Testament circa 367, but disputes continued; see [[Biblical Canon]]).
Over the years, numerous Christian scholars and preachers have disagreed with the Church on various issues or doctrines. When the Church has become aware of these beliefs, they have been condemned as heretical, and with the [[East-West Schism]] finalized in the 11th century, and the split in the Western Church in the 16th, each section has identified the others as "heretical". Historically, this often happened when the belief challenged, or was seen to challenge, Church authority, or drew a movement of followers who challenged the established order socially. Unfortunately, for entirely secular reasons, some influential people have had an interest in maintaining the [[status quo]] or condemning a group they wished to be removed. The Church's internal explanations for its actions were based purely on objection to beliefs and philosophies that ran contrary to its interpretation of [[scripture]] and its official interpretation of holy tradition.
*[[Adoptionism]]
*[[Antinomianism]]
*[[Apollinarism]]
*[[Arianism]]
*[[Audianism] |
Austrian musicologist
*[[1911]] - [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], chess player (d. [[1995]])
*[[1913]] - [[W. Mark Felt]], [[FBI]] associate director and [[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]] [[Watergate]] informant
*1913 - [[Rudy York]], baseball player (d. [[1970]])
*[[1920]] - [[Maureen O'Hara]], actress
*[[1926]] - [[Jiang Zemin]], former [[President of the People's Republic of China]]
*[[1929]] - [[Francis Gary Powers]], U-2 pilot (d. [[1977]])
*[[1930]] - [[Glenn Corbett]], actor (d. [[1993]])
*1930 - [[Ted Hughes]], English poet (d. [[1998]])
*[[1932]] - [[V. S. Naipaul]], West Indian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1935]] - [[Oleg Tabakov]], Russian actor
*[[1939]] - [[Luther Allison]], blues musician, guitarist
*[[1943]] - [[Robert De Niro]], actor
*[[1948]] - [[Rod MacDonald]], musician
*[[1951]] - [[Alan Minter]], boxer
*[[1952]] - [[Nelson Piquet]], Brazilian formula one driver
*1952 - [[Guillermo Vilas]], Argentinian tennis player
*[[1954]] - [[Eric Johnson]], guitarist
*[[1958]] - [[Belinda Carlisle]], singer and guitarist
*1958 - [[Kirk Stevens]], Canadian snooker player
*[[1959]] - [[David Koresh]], American cult leader (d. [[1993]])
*[[1960]] - [[Sean Penn]], actor, director
*[[1962]] - [[Gilby Clarke]], American musician [[Guns N' Roses]]
*[[1964]] - [[Colin James]], blues musician
*[[1966]] - [[Rodney Mullen]], American skateboarder
*1966 - [[William E. Dudley]], American poet
*[[1968]] - [[Ed McCaffrey]], American football player
*[[1969]] - [[Donnie Wahlberg]], American actor and singer
*[[1970]] - [[Jim Courier]], American tennis player
*[[1971]] - [[Jorge Posada]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1977]] - [[Thierry Henry]], French footballer
*1977 - [[Tarja Turunen]], Finnish singer ([[Nightwish]])
*1977 - [[William Gallas]], French footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Lene Marlin]], Norwegian singer
==Deaths==
*[[1153]] - [[Eustace IV of Boulogne]], son of [[Stephen of England]]
*[[1304]] - [[Emperor Go-Fukakusa]] of Japan (b. [[1243]])
*[[1510]] - [[Edmund Dudley]], English statesman
*[[1657]] - [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]], British admiral (b. [[1599]])
*[[1676]] - [[Hans Jakob Christoph von Grimmelshausen]], German novelist
*[[1673]] - [[Regnier de Graaf]], Dutch physician and anatomist (b. [[1641]])
*[[1720]] - [[Anne Lefèvre]], French scholar (b. [[1654]])
*[[1723]] - [[Joseph Bingham]], English scholar (b. [[1668]])
*[[1768]] (N. S.) - [[Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky]], Russian poet (b. [[1703]])
*[[1785]] - [[Jonathan Trumbull]], Governor of the Colony and the state of Connecticut (b. [[1710]])
*[[1786]] - King [[Frederick II of Prussia]] (b. [[1712]])
*[[1834]] - [[Husein Gradaščević]], Bosniak rebel leader (b. [[1802]])
*[[1850]] - [[Don José de San Martín]], Argentine general (b. [[1778]])
*[[1875]] - [[Wilhelm Bleek]], linguist (b. [[1827]])
*[[1880]] - [[Ole Bull]], Norwegian violinist (b. [[1810]])
*[[1896]] - [[Bridget Driscoll]], world's first automobile fatality
*[[1901]] - [[Edmond Audran]], French composer (b. [[1842]])
*[[1925]] - [[Ioan Slavici]], Transylvanian writer of Romanian origin (b. [[1848]])
*[[1954]] - [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]], recording artist (b. [[1877]])
*[[1969]] - [[Otto Stern]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]])
*[[1973]] - [[Jean Barraqué]], French composer (b. [[1928]])
*1973 - [[Paul Williams (The Temptations)|Paul Williams]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (b. [[1939]])
*1973 - [[Conrad Aiken]], American author (b. [[1889]])
*[[1979]] - [[Vivian Vance]], actress (b. [[1909]])
*[[1983]] - [[Ira Gershwin]], American lyricist (b. [[1896]])
*[[1987]] - [[Rudolf Hess]], Nazi deputy (b. [[1894]])
*[[1988]] - [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1924]])
*[[1990]] - [[Pearl Bailey]], American singer and actress (b. [[1918]])
*[[1992]] - [[Al Parker]], actor (b. [[1952]])
*[[2004]] - [[Gérard Souzay]], French baritone (b. [[1918]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Bahcall]], astrophysicist (b. [[1934]])
== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/17 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 16]] - [[August 18]] - [[July 17]] - [[September 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:17 Augustus]]
[[ar:17 أغسطس]]
[[an:12 d'agosto]]
[[ast:17 d'agostu]]
[[bg:17 август]]
[[be:17 жніўня]]
[[bs:17. avgust]]
[[ca:17 d'agost]]
[[cs:17. srpen]]
[[cy:17 Awst]]
[[da:17. august]]
[[de:17. August]]
[[et:17. august]]
[[el:17 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:17 de agosto]]
[[eo:17-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 17]]
[[fo:17. august]]
[[fr:17 août]]
[[fy:17 augustus]]
[[ga:17 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:17 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 17일]]
[[hr:17. kolovoza]]
[[io:17 di agosto]]
[[id:17 Agustus]]
[[ia:17 de augusto]]
[[ie:17 august]]
[[is:17. ágúst]]
[[it:17 agosto]]
[[he:17 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:17 Agustus]]
[[ka:17 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:17 zélnika]]
[[ku:17'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 17]]
[[lb:17. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 17]]
[[mk:17 август]]
[[nl:17 augustus]]
[[ja:8月17日]]
[[no:17. august]]
[[nn:17. august]]
[[oc:17 d'agost]]
[[pl:17 sierpnia]]
[[pt:17 de Agosto]]
[[ro:17 august]]
[[ru:17 августа]]
[[scn:17 di austu]]
[[simple:August 17]]
[[sk:17. august]]
[[sl:17. avgust]]
[[sr:17. август]]
[[fi:17. elokuuta]]
[[sv:17 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 17]]
[[tt:17. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 17]]
[[th:17 สิงหาคม]]
[[tr:17 Ağustos]]
[[uk:17 серпня]]
[[wa:17 d' awousse]]
[[zh:8月17日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 12</title>
<id>1491</id>
<revision>
<id>41775777</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:43:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=12}}
|}
'''[[August 12]]''' is the 224th day of the year (225th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 141 days remaining. It is the peak of the [[Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]]. It is also known as the "[[Glorious Twelfth]]" in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], as it marks the traditional start of the [[grouse]] shooting season.
==Events==
*[[490 BC]] - the [[Battle of Marathon]], in which [[Athens]] defeated an invasion army of [[Iran|Persians]], may have been fought on this date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] - but see [[12 September]].
* [[1099]] - The [[First Crusade]] concluded with a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Ascalon]] over [[Fatimid]] forces under [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]].
* [[1121]] - The [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] army under King [[David the Builder]] won a decisive victory over the famous [[Seljuk]] commander [[Ilghazi]] at the [[Battle of Didgori]].
*[[1323]] - [[Treaty of Nöteborg]] - [[Sweden]] and [[Novgorod]] ([[Russia]]) regulates the border for the first time
*[[1332]] - [[Battle of Dupplin Moor]] - Scots under the [[Donald Mormaer, 8th Earl of Mar|Earl of Mar]] routed by [[Edward Balliol]]
*[[1676]] - [[Praying Indian]] [[John Alderman]] shot and killed [[Metacomet]] the [[Wampanoag]] war chief, ending [[King Philip's War]].
*[[1851]] - [[Isaac Singer]] granted a patent for his [[sewing machine]]
*[[1854]] - Count [[Gaston de Raousset Boulbon]] is executed by shooting, in regard to the [[Battle of Guaymas]].
*[[1877]] - [[Asaph Hall]] discovers [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]]
*[[1883]] - The last [[quagga]] dies at the [[Artis Magistra zoo]] in [[Amsterdam]]
*[[1898]] - Armistice ends the [[Spanish-American War]]
*1898 - The [[flag of Hawaii|Hawaiian flag]] is lowered from [[Iolani Palace]] in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the American flag to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the [[Republic of Hawaii]] to the [[United States]].
*[[1908]] - First [[Ford Model T|Model T]] [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] built
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]] - Britain declares war on [[Austria-Hungary]]; British Empire countries automatically included.
*1914 - World War I: Beginning of the [[Battle of Cer]] between Austria-Hungary and [[Serbia]]
*[[1952]] - The [[Night of the Murdered Poets]] - Prominent Jewish intellectuals were murdered in Moscow.
*[[1953]] - [[Nuclear testing]]: The [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] proceeded with the detonation of ''[[Joe 4]]'', the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[thermonuclear weapon]].
*[[1960]] - ''[[Echo satellite|Echo I]]'', the first [[communications satellite]], launched
*[[1966]] - [[Massacre of Braybrook Street]] as three policemen are shot dead in East Acton, London.
*[[1978]] - [[Japan]] and [[China]] sign the [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China]].
*[[1985]] - [[Japan Airlines Flight 123]], a [[Boeing 747]] jumbo jet, crashes into Mount Ogura in [[Gunma Prefecture]] [[Japan]] killing 520 in the world's worst single-plane air disaster. Four people miraculously survive.
*[[1990]] - ''[[Sue]]'', the most complete [[skeleton]] of a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', was discovered near [[Faith, South Dakota|Faith]], [[South Dakota]].
*[[1992]] - Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]].
*[[1994]] - The [[Woodstock '94]] rock concert takes place.
*1994 - [[Major League Baseball]] players go on strike. The work stoppage will force the cancellation of the [[World Series]].
*[[2000]] - The [[Oscar class submarine]] [[Russian submarine Kursk|K-141 ''Kursk'']] of the [[Russian Navy]] [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion|exploded and sank]] in the [[Barents Sea]] during a [[War exercise|military exercise]].
*[[2004]] - [[Sweden]]'s nine millionth inhabitant is born.
*2004 - [[Lee Hsien Loong]] is sworn in as [[Singapore]]'s 3rd [[Prime Minister]].
*[[2005]] - [[Sri Lanka]]'s foreign minister, [[Lakshman Kadirgamar]], is fatally shot by a sniper in his home.
*2005 - An F2 rated tornado strikes the coal mining town of [[Wright, |
<title>Atomic orbital</title>
<id>1206</id>
<revision>
<id>41797829</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:45:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karol Langner</username>
<id>60759</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Electron orbitals.png|right|thumb|350px|[[Electron]] atomic and [[molecular orbital|molecular]] orbitals]]
'''Atomic orbitals''' are the [[quantum state]]s of the individual electrons in the [[electron cloud]] around a single atom. Classically, the atomic orbitals can be thought of as similar to the orbits of the planets around the Sun. However, it is important to note that the atomic orbitals cannot actually be described classically. In fact, explaining the behaviour of the electrons that orbit an atom was one of the driving forces behind quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the atomic orbitals are the quantum states that electrons surrounding an atom may exist in. These can be described as a [[wave function]] over space, as shown in the diagram on the right, by the ''n'', ''l'', and ''m'' [[quantum numbers]] of the orbital, or by the names of the orbitals, as used in [[electron configuration]]s.
== Historical Background ==
See the article [[atomic orbital model]] for details on how the current model of atomic orbitals was developed. This article also gives a less technical description of the model.
== Formal Quantum Mechanical Definition ==
In [[quantum mechanics]], the state of an atom, i.e. the [[eigenstate]]s of the atomic [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], are expanded (see [[configuration interaction]] expansion and [[basis (linear algebra)]]) into [[linear combination]]s of anti-symmetrized products ([[Slater determinant]]s) of one-[[electron]] functions. The spatial components of these one-electron functions are called '''atomic orbitals'''. (When one considers also their [[spin (physics) | spin]] component, one speaks of '''atomic spin orbitals'''.)
In [[atomic physics]], the [[atomic spectral line]]s correspond to transitions ([[quantum leap]]s) between [[quantum state]]s of an [[atom]]. These states are labelled by a set of [[quantum number]]s summarized in the [[term symbol]] and usually associated to particular [[electron configuration]]s, i.e. by occupations schemes of '''atomic orbitals''' (e.g. <math>1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 </math> for the ground state of [[neon]] -- term symbol: <math>{}^1S_0</math>). This notation means that the corresponding [[Slater determinant]]s have a clear higher weight in the [[configuration interaction]] expansion. The atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process associated to a given transition. One can say for example for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital. Nevertheless one has to keep in mind that electrons are [[fermion]]s ruled by [[Pauli exclusion principle]] and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the atom. Moreover, it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that one cannot speak about simple one-determinantal wave function at all. This is the case when [[electron correlation]] is large.
== Hydrogen-like atoms ==
{{main|Hydrogen-like atom}}
The simplest atomic orbitals are those that occur in an atom with a single electron, such as the [[hydrogen atom]]. In this case the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the hydrogen Hamiltonian. They can be obtained analytically (see [[Hydrogen atom]]). An atom of any other element [[ion]]ized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the orbitals take the same form.
For atoms with two or more electrons, the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of iterative approximation. Orbitals of multi-electron atoms are ''qualitatively'' similar to those of hydrogen, and in the simplest models, they are taken to have the same form. For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical approximations must be used.
A given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three [[quantum number]]s: [[Principal quantum number|''n'']], [[Azimuthal quantum number|''l'']], and [[magnetic quantum number|''m<sub>l</sub>'']]. The rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the [[electron configuration]] of the atoms and the [[periodic table]].
The stationary states ([[quantum state]]s) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbital. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending "mixtures" ([[linear combination]]s) of multiple orbitals. See [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method]].
The quantum number ''n'' first appeared in the [[Bohr model]]. It determines, among other things, the distance of the electron from the nucleus; all electrons with the same value of ''n'' lay at the same distance. Modern quantum mechanics confirms that these orbitals are closely related. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of ''n'' are said to comprise an "[[electron shell|shell]]". Orbitals with the same value of ''n'' and also the same value of ''l'' are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a "[[electron subshell|subshell]]".
== Qualitative characterization ==
=== Limitations on the quantum numbers ===
An atomic orbital is uniquely identified by the values of the three quantum numbers, and each set of the three quantum numbers corresponds to exactly one orbital, but the quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values. The rules governing the possible values of the quantum numbers are as follows:
The [[principal quantum number]] ''n'' is always a [[positive integer]]. In fact, it can be any positive integer, but for reasons discussed below, large numbers are seldom encountered. Each atom has, in general, many orbitals associated with each value of ''n''; these orbitals together are sometimes called a ''[[Electron shell|shell]]''.
The [[azimuthal quantum number]] <math>\ell</math> is a non-negative integer. Within a shell where ''n'' is some integer ''n''<sub>0</sub>, <math>\ell</math> ranges across all (integer) values satisfying the relation <math>0 \le \ell \le n_0-1</math>. For instance, the ''n'' = 1 shell has only orbitals with <math>\ell=0</math>, and the ''n'' = 2 shell has only orbitals with <math>\ell=0</math>, and <math>\ell=1</math>. The set of orbitals associated with a particular value of <math>\ell</math> are sometimes collectively called a ''subshell''.
The [[magnetic quantum number]] <math>m_\ell</math> is also always an integer. Within a subshell where <math>\ell</math> is some integer <math>\ell_0</math>, <math>m_\ell</math> ranges thus: <math>-\ell_0 \le m_\ell \le \ell_0</math>.
The above results may be summarized in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values of <math>m_\ell</math> available in that subshell. Empty cells represent subshells that do not exist.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! <math>l=0</math>
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! ...
|-
! <math>n=1</math>
| <math>m_l=0</math>
| || || || ||
|-
! 2
| 0 || -1, 0, 1
| || || ||
|-
! 3
| 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
| || ||
|-
! 4
| 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 || -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
| ||
|-
! 5
| 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 || -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 || -4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
|
|-
! ...
| ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ...
|}
Subshells are usually identified by their <math>n</math>- and <math>\ell</math>-values. <math>n</math> is represented by its numerical value, but <math>\ell</math> is represented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's', 1 by 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'. For instance, one may speak of the subshell with <math>n=2</math> and <math>\ell=0</math> as a '2s subshell'.
=== The shapes of orbitals ===
Any discussion of the shapes of electron orbitals is necessarily imprecise, because a given electron, regardless of which orbital it occupies, can at any moment be found at any distance from the nucleus and in any direction due to the [[Uncertainty Principle]].
However, the electron is much more likely to be found in certain regions of the atom than in others. Given this, a ''boundary [[surface]]'' can be drawn so that the electron has a high probability to be found anywhere within the surface, and all regions outside the surface have low values. The precise placement of the surface is arbitrary, but any reasonably compact determination must follow a pattern specified by the behavior of <math>\psi^2</math>, the square of the wavefunction. This boundary surface is what is meant when the "shape" of an orbital is mentioned.
Generally speaking, the number <math>n</math> determines the size and energy of the orbital: as <math>n</math> increases, the size of the orbital increases.
Also in general terms, <math>\ell</math> determines an orbital's shape, and <math>m_\ell</math> its orientation. However, since some orbitals are described by equations in [[complex number]]s, the shape sometimes depends on <math>m_\ell</math> also. <math>s</math>-orbitals (<math>\ell=0</math>) are shaped like spheres. <math>p</math>-orbitals have the form of two [[ellipsoid]]s with a [[point of tangency]] at the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] |
er such opposition is a legitimate moral stance or indefensible discrimination, and whether or not there are reasons other than fear and misunderstanding that might justify such positions. As in cases such as the [[Santorum controversy]], many have alleged that the term is often used as a means of demonizing and silencing political opponents without regard to their actual motives; those on the other side of the debate argue that the motives in such cases are always connected with bigotry or fear.
==Internalized homophobia==
''Internalized homophobia'' (or ''ego-dystonic homophobia'') usually refers to homophobia as a prejudice carried by homosexuals against themselves and others like them. It includes a discomfort with or disapproval of one's own [[sexual orientation]].
Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong emotional desires and needs. This discordance often causes [[clinical depression]], and the unusually high [[suicide]] rate among homosexual teenagers may be partly attributed to this phenomenon (the opinions and actions of others may also be a factor).
Many people in this situation attempt to resolve it, at least for a period of time, through [[chastity]]. This is an attractive option because many belief systems are neutral or only mildly disapprove of, for example, homosexual feelings, but strongly disapprove of acting on those feelings. Advocates of the [[ex-gay]] movement believe that in addition to behavior, [[sexual orientation]] is a malleable attribute, and advocate attempting to change it (this is highly controversial, and many mental health professionals warn that such therapies have not been proven to be effective, and that they may be psychologically harmful).
The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of [[heteronormativity]] or [[heterosexism]]. This might include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.
Some claim (including Sigmund Freud in his [[psychoanalytic theory]]) that some or most homophobes are repressed homosexuals, but this claim is highly controversial. The notion, however, suffers from a serious logical fallacy known as [[post hoc ergo propter hoc]]. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual (by experience and self-reported orientation) men at the University of Georgia {{ref|arousal}} found the allegedly homophobic men (as measured by the Index of Homophobia {{ref|index}}) considerably more likely to experience more erectile response when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.
However, the homophobic men also tended to report more negative emotions in response to those particular images (not sexual arousal), and the researchers noted that general anxiety has been shown to enhance erectile response. There was no significant difference in results on the [[Homophobia#References|Aggression Questionnaire]]. The group recommended further research.
==Fear of being identified as a homosexual==
A component considered to play into homophobia, as considered by some theorists, such as [[Calvin Thomas]] and [[Judith Butler]], is an individual's fear of being identified as homosexual him or herself.
This notion suggests that when expressing homophobic viewpoints and emotions, the individual who does so is not only expressing his thoughts as to homosexuals, but also actively attempting to distance himself from this category and attributed social status. Therefore, by distancing him or herself from the people in question, he/she is reaffirming his/her role as a [[heterosexual]], within [[heteronormativity]], and contributing to the avoidance of his/her potential labeling and consequent treatment as a homosexual.
This interpretation plays into notions of violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing one's identity as part of the majority and therefore, validated by society. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of [[racism]] and [[xenophobia]].
==Homophobia as leading to a climate of prejudice==
Whether viewed as unfounded prejudices or legitimate moral opinions, attitudes frowning on LGBT orientations and lifestyles have been reflected in [[:Category:Anti-gay rights legislation|legislation]] and these attitudes have had a profound impact on political debates over [[:Category:LGBT civil rights|LGBT civil rights]] in general. Some look at people holding negative attitudes about LGBT people and assign blame to them for a creating or perpetuating a climate of prejudice that has resulted in [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered|violence against LGBT people]], by individuals, states or other organizations.
Many social and religious attitudes toward homosexuality are negative, which some might describe as a form of prejudice. See [[Societal attitudes towards homosexuality]] and [[Religion and homosexuality]].
[[Social Psychology|Psychology]] researchers have used measures such as the [[Social Dominance Orientation|Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)]] and [[Right Wing Authoritarianism|Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)]] to predict homophobic attitudes. These measures are traditionally used to measure other forms of prejudice.
===Sexist beliefs===
Some [[gender theorist]]s interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in a homophobic person than female-to-female ([[lesbian]]) as meaning that the homophobic person feels threatened by the perceived subversion of the [[gender paradigm]] in male-to-male sexual activity. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also, and more importantly, by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of limiting those who they view as displaced in heteronormativity, and also of accenting their male nature, by isolating the threatening concept of their own potential feminity in gay men, and consequently belittling them, as not ''real'' males. They regard the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality as [[sexist]] in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to ''"replace"'' a woman during intercourse with another man is his own subjection to (non-male) inferiority.
However, this view would imply that only the receptive male partner in homosexual acts would be thought of as "offensive". Miller's specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require "desire for women" would seem to preclude the possibility of [[asexuality]] or [[bisexuality]]. Nor is it clear why male heterosexuals would "need" or even fear homosexuals in order to affirm maleness &ndash; unless their sexuality was already experienced as threatened by some other cause.
===Opposition to homophobia===
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as [[pride parade]]s and [[political activism]] (''See [[gay pride]]).'' Some parts of the festivities are criticized for reinforcing stereotypes about LGBT people (e.g. [[Dykes on Bikes]], the prominence of cross-dressing, a gay male fascination with musicals, the colour [[pink]], a sex-positive atmosphere that may seem to give endorsement to a promiscuous lifestyle which in turn relates to the problem of AIDS, etc). Other portions tend to challenge stereotypes, including the presence of religious organizations who support gay rights and oppose homophobia (''See [[Religion and homosexuality]]''), the families of LGBT people, and LGBT people with children. Much of the colour, glamour, and noise of pride parades can also be seen as a simple celebration of LGBT culture, or of life in general.
One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the ''[http://www.idahomophobia.org/ International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO)]'', {{ref|idaho}} first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries. {{ref|idaho2}}
Some activists also call homophobia ''straight supremacism'' equating it to [[white supremacy|white supremacism]]. Anti-gay groups see this as an attempt to marginalize those who disapprove of homosexuality.
Besides public expression, specific laws have been made to oppose homophobia, as in [[hate speech]], [[hate crime]], and laws against [[discrimination]] on the basis of sexual orientation.
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral or unwise above and beyond the effects on that class of people. [[Warren J. Blumenfeld]] argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme far-right conservative and religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly. Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:
:Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behaviour earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias inhibits the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs. {{ref|blumenfield}}
=="Homophobia" as applied to political figures==
The term "homophobe" has also been used to describe opponents of laws considered favorable to gay rights causes. {{dubious}}
Opponents of [[same se |
market conditions and [[pressure group]]s. It has itself drawn criticism from those adults who view it as tampering with an important piece of the history of [[children's literature]]. The Druce book brings up a single case of a story, ''[[The Little Black Doll]]'', which could be interpreted as a racist message (the doll wanted to be pink) and which was turned on its head in a reprint.
==Trivia==
An oblique critique of a Blyton work is found in [[Jasper Fforde]]'s novel ''The Well of Lost Plots'' (2003). The heroine, Thursday Next should change the ending of ''Shadow the Sheepdog'' by entering the novel's world. Thursday is surprised at the one-dimensionality of the characters who have limited vocabulary, intelligence and emotional scope, even their movement is confined to designated paths. Even stranger that the characters attack Thursday and want to kill her simply because they are hungry for feelings and emotions. Thursday finally escapes by showing the characters how to feel guilt, enmity, hate, anger etc., missing from Blyton's world according to Fforde.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Enid Blyton's books]] for chronological listings
*[[Enid Blyton's illustrators]]
==References==
[[Image:Biography.jpeg|thumb|100px|right|Enid Blyton Biography]]
*Enid Blyton (1952) ''The Story of My Life''
*Barbara Stoney (1974) ''Enid Blyton'', 1992 ''The Enid Blyton Biography'', Hodder, London ISBN 0340583487 (paperback) ISBN 0340165146
*S. G. Ray (1982) ''The Blyton Phenomenon''
*Bob Mullan (1987) ''The Enid Blyton Story''
*George Greenfield (1998) ''Enid Blyton''
*Robert Druce (1992) ''This Day Our Daily Fictions: An Enquiry into the Multi-Million Bestseller Status of Enid Blyton and Ian Fleming''
==External links==
*[http://www.enidblytonsociety.co.uk/index.php The Enid Blyton Society]
*[http://www.enidblyton.net EnidBlyton.net]
*[http://www.heathersblytonpages.com Heather's Blyton Pages]
*[http://masonwilley.tripod.com/ Enid Blyton Collectors' and Enthusiasts' Guide to First Editions]
[[Category:1897 births|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:1968 deaths|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:English children's writers|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:Mystery writers|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:People of Buckinghamshire|Blyton, Enid]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Epipaleolithic</title>
<id>10259</id>
<revision>
<id>39518310</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T01:22:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Old World Stone Age]] → [[Category:Stone Age]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin:5px; border:3px solid;"
|-
| style="border-bottom:3px solid; background:#efefef;" | <small>This time period is part of the<br />[[Holocene]] epoch.</small>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" | [[Holocene]]<br />
:[[Neolithic]]
:[[Mesolithic]] or '''Epipaleolithic'''<br />
::[[9th millennium BC|8,000s BC]] (until ca. 8350)<br />
::[[10th millennium BC|9,000s BC]]<br />
|-
|[[Pleistocene]]<br />
:[[Paleolithic]]<br />
|}
The '''Epipaleolithic''' or '''Epipalaeolithic''' was a period in the development of [[human]] [[technology]] that precedes the [[Neolithic]] period of the [[Stone Age]]. It is preferred as an alternative to [[Mesolithic]] in areas with limited glacial impact. The period began at the end of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch around 10,000 years ago and ended with [[Agriculture#History|the introduction of farming]] around 8,000 years ago.
The Epipalaeolithic is distinguished at least in the [[Middle East]], [[Anatolia]] and on [[Cyprus]], that is, in areas where the [[Neolithic Revolution]] (neolithisation) occurs early and the post-glacial climatic change is not very marked.
Epipalaeolithic [[hunter-gatherer]]s made relatively advanced tools made from small [[flint]] or [[obsidian]] blades, known as [[microlith]]s that were hafted in wooden implements.
They were hunters and gatherers and generally nomadic, although the [[Natufian culture]] of the [[Levant]] established
permanent settlements.
[[Category:Holocene]]
[[Category:Stone Age]]
[[de:Epipaläolithikum]]
[[el:Επιπαλαιολιθική περίοδος]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Euphonium horn</title>
<id>10262</id>
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<id>15908084</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-31T19:52:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
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<comment>removed old copy of article, it's already been moved</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euphonium]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Executive (government)</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-22T17:04:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Atlant</username>
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<comment>Revert further (past some uncommented deletions by an anonymous(?) editor)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Under the doctrine of the [[separation of powers]], the '''executive''' is the branch of a [[government]] charged with implementing, or ''executing'', the [[law]] and running the day-to-day affairs of the government or [[state]]. The ''[[de facto]]'' most senior figure in an executive is referred to as the [[head of government]]. The executive may be referred to as the '''administration''', in [[presidential system]]s, or simply as the '''''government''''', in [[parliamentary system]]s.
In some [[constitutional monarchies]], such as the [[United Kingdom]], the monarch, who is the [[Head of State]], is the ''[[de jure]]'' and ''theoretical'' head of the executive, and the Prime Minister, who he or she technically appoints, is the head of the monarch's government (i.e. "[[Her Majesty's Government]]"). In practice, however, a symbolic or [[figurehead (political)|figurehead]] Head of State does not actively exercise executive power, though decisions may be ''formally'' made in his or her name.
Along with the [[Prime Minister]] or executive [[President]], the executive branch consists of the [[cabinet]] and the executive [[department]]s or [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]] of the government.
==Executives under different systems==
Executive authority within a [[presidential system]] is exercised by a president who is also head of state. The president will not usually be designated by the legislature, and may instead be elected directly, or in the case of the [[President of the United States]], indirectly, by an [[electoral college]]. Under presidential systems the legislature and the executive are formally distinct, and it is usually expressly forbidden for the president and other executive officers to be members of the legislature.
In [[parliamentary system]]s, the executive branch is generally comprised of a [[prime minister]] and a [[cabinet]], who must directly or indirectly secure the support of the legislature.
In a [[semi-presidential system]] (such as [[France]], for example) executive powers are shared between the president and a prime minister.
==Role of the executive==
It is usually the role of the executive to:
*Enforce the law. To achieve this the executive administers the prisons and the police force, and prosecutes criminals in the name of the state.
*Conduct the foreign relations of the state.
*Command the armed forces.
*Appoint state officials, including judges and diplomats.
*Administer government [[department|departments]] and [[public service|public services]].
*Issue [[executive order|executive orders]] (also known as [[secondary legislation]], [[ordinance|ordinances]], [[edict|edicts]] or [[decree|decrees]]).
Most [[constitution|constitutions]] require that certain executive powers may only be exercised in conjunction with the [[legislature]]. For example, often the consent of the legislature is required to ratify [[treaty|treaties]], appoint important officials, or to declare war. In the [[United Kingdom]], however, the executive is exempt from most such limitations under the [[royal prerogative]].
==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Head of state]]
*[[Head of government]]
*[[Separation of powers]]
**[[Legislature]]
**[[Judiciary]]
**[http://www.whitehouse.gov White house]
[[Category:Institutions of government]]
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<page>
<title>Enrico Fermi</title>
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<username>Antandrus</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.102.21.139|71.102.21.139]] ([[User |
r parenting, betrays their innocence, and places ''pathological'' demands on them to deal with what are their ''parents''' obligations. Psychologists who research covert incest, indicate that in most of these cases, the child will come to feel great resentment towards the parent, and yet feel [[shame]] about those feelings, not being able to articulate how the parent has wronged him or her. The demands of this type of parent-child relationship can continue into the child's adulthood, and in extreme cases, for the rest of the parent's life. Covert incest is known, by therapists, to cause damage similar to that associated with what they call ''overt'' or contact incest.
In America (1991), there were an estimated 28 million children of alcoholic parents, in addition to an unknown number of children of parents physically addicted to other chemical substances or children of parents psychologically addicted to various forms of religion, gambling, and sex. Many of these children were believed to have become victims of covert parental incest as their predatory parent used them to fill in for a physically or psychologically absent spouse, partner, and parent. Thus, although largely unknown outside the psychological profession, covert parental incest is seen as a widespread form of child abuse to therapists who research this phenomenon.
===Incest by grandparents, aunts, uncles and siblings in parental roles===
Other elder relatives can commit either overt or covert incest against children alone, or, in extreme cases, in combination with the child's incestuous parent. In cases where siblings are used by parents to parent other siblings, incest against the dependent siblings by the pseudo-parent siblings can occur. The effects to children of incest by other elder or elder-appearing relatives can approach those associated with parent-child incest.
===Incestuous abuse by other adults in responsible roles===
Sexual predation by priests, nuns or other religious authorities against parishioners, by teachers against students, by therapists against clients, and by a host of other authorities against people in dependent roles is seen by therapists as incestuous in nature, although not in form. Clinical psychologist and incest researcher, Ken Adams states that "Sexual contact in dependent relationships is never justifiable because there is always a loss of choice.". As a host of media stories on church related sexual abuse show, the consequences to children, (and on occasion dependent adults too) of this form of incestuous sexual predation are similar to those associated with parent-child incest (see Effects of Incest below.)
===Sibling incest in children===
Incest between siblings is a fairly common part of sexual exploration by children, especially in families with children who are close in age. A study by [[Floyd Martinson]] found that 10-15% of college students had childhood sexual experiences with a brother or sister, a form of child [[sexuality]]. However, where significant differences in age or capabilities occur between siblings, childhood sibling incest can cause serious psychological damage to the younger or less capable sibling according to researcher Richard Niolon. It can also damage or destroy the sibling bond in such a case.
Author Jane Leder estimates that "23,000 women per million in (America) may have been victimized by a sibling" before age 18. Researcher Andrea Peterson notes that "This may be, at best, a conservative estimate when one considers the scarcity of data, particularly where males are the victims."
===Consensual adult incest===
Consensual incest between adults occurs where there is no dependence on the adults as parent-child or sibling-sibling dependence precludes independent consent. Consensual incest is commonly seen between adult siblings as in the English film ''Sister my Sister'', screened in 1994, which is based on a true story. The French film, ''La Petite Lilly'', which was screened in 2005, shows a fictional case of incipient consensual mother-son incest between ostensibly independent adults.
===Sex between cousins and other distant relatives===
In most of the Western world incest generally refers to forbidden sexual relations within the family. However, even here, definitions of family vary. Within the United States, marriage between (first) cousins is illegal in some states, but not in others, and sociologists have classified marriage laws in the United States into two categories: One, used mainly in southern states, in which the definitions of incest are taken from the Bible, and which frowns upon marriage within one's lineage but less so on one's blood relatives, and the other known which frowns more on marriage between blood relatives (such as cousins), but less on one's lineage.
Twenty-four states prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances. Utah, for example, permits first cousins to marry only provided both spouses are over age 65, or at least 55 with evidence of sterility. North Carolina permits first cousins to marry unless they are "double first cousins" (cousins through more than one line). Maine permits first cousins to marry only upon presentation of a certificate of genetic counseling. The remaining nineteen states and the District of Columbia permit first-cousin marriages without restriction.
==Laws and mores regarding incest in industrialized societies==
===Degrees of criminality===
The laws of many U.S. states recognize two separate degrees of incest, the more serious degree covering the closest blood relationships such as father-daughter, mother-son and brother-sister, with the less-serious charge being pressed against more distantly-related individuals who engage in sexual intercourse, usually down to and including first cousins and sometimes half cousins. In [[New York state]] for example, the maximum penalty is four years in prison, while the less serious charge is usually only a [[misdemeanor]]. Curiously, many incest laws do not expressly proscribe sexual conduct other than vaginal intercourse — such as [[oral sex]] — or, for that matter, any sexual activity between relatives of the same gender, so long as neither party is a minor. This legal position is in stark contrast with that in [[Australia]], where incest is punishable by a maximum of 25 years imprisonment for the more serious form of [[sexual penetration|penetrating]] a [[child]], even if that child is over 18, and 5 years for the less serious charge of sexual penetration of a sibling or half-sibling.
=== Consensual adult incest ===
Consensual incestuous relations between adults, such as between an adult brother and sister, is illegal in most parts of the industrialized world. These laws are sometimes questioned on the grounds that such relations do not harm other people (provided the couple have no children) and so should not be criminalized. Proposals have been made from time to time to repeal these laws — for example, the proposal by the Australian Model Criminal Code Officer's Committee discussion paper "Sexual Offenses against the Person" released in November [[1996]]. (This particular proposal was later withdrawn by the committee due to a large public outcry. Defenders of the proposal argue that the outcry was mostly based on the mistaken belief that the committee was intending to legalize sexual relations between parents and their minor children.)
In the wake of the [[Lawrence v. Texas]] decision by the US Supreme Court, striking down laws criminalizing homosexual sodomy as unconstitutional, some have argued that by the same logic laws against consensual adult incest should be unconstitutional. Some civil libertarians argue that all private sexual activity between consenting adults should be legal, and its criminalization is a violation of human rights — thus, they argue that the criminalization of consensual adult incest is a violation of human rights. In [[Muth v. Frank]], the [[7th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals|7th Circuit Court]] interpreted the case applying to homosexual activity, and refused to draw this conclusion from Lawrence, however, a decision that attracted mixed opinions.
In France, incest isn't a crime in itself. Incestuous relations between an adult and a minor are prohibited and punished by law, but not between two minors or two adults.
===Incest as a topic in fiction===
The degree to which even the topic of incest is forbidden varies between societies. In the United States incest is infrequently described in books or the media and then usually as a very traumatic and perverse experience (e.g. the 1994 film ''Spanking The Monkey'' in which mother-son incest takes place, leading to the latter's suicide attempt). Also in ''The House of Yes'', a late 90's film where incest again leads only to tragedy. A depiction of incestuous word in [[science fiction]] is [[Theodore Sturgeon]]'s story [[If All Men Were Brothers Would You Let One Marry Your Sister?]]. Meanwhile in Japanese [[manga]] and [[anime]] the topic of incest is often covered in a more neutral and tolerant, sometimes even sympathetic, way. Notable series dealing with incest between major characters (to wit, siblings; most often an older brother with younger sister pairing) include ''[[Koi Kaze]]'', ''[[Angel Sanctuary]]'', ''[[Marmalade Boy]]'' (between step-siblings), ''[[Onegai Twins]]'', and ''[[Cream Lemon]]'' (which was one of the first and most notable [[hentai]] anime).
==Effects of incest==
===Parental incest===
Recent findings by psychologists view non-consenting parent-child incest as a form of predation. Child abuse [[attorney]], Andrew Vachss, calls parental incest a form of [[rape]] of a child by the child's parent. Therefore, along with the effects associated with child-rape, parental incest is seen by therapists as a double-bind form of [[betrayal]] by his or her closest |
harles was praised for his handling of the situation, which included taking Harry to visit a drug rehabilitation facility in [[London]]. However, the basement of Charles's [[Highgrove]] home is rumoured to be a private nightclub nicknamed "Club H", where Harry and his friends can entertain themselves free of observation by the press.
===Altercation with paparazzo===
On the morning of [[October 21]], [[2004]], HRH Prince Harry had an altercation with [[paparazzi|paparazzo]] photographer Chris Uncle as he left [[Pangaea Nightclub|Pangaea]], a [[Piccadilly Circus]] nightclub. The photographer was left with a cut lip whilst the Prince left unharmed. After the story appeared in the tabloids, he issued a statement in which he stated that his behaviour had been "disappointing" and in which he publicly apologised to Charles.
===Nazi costume===
[[Image:Sun harry the nazi.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The "Harry the Nazi" photo on the cover page of ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]''.]] On [[January 8]], [[2005]], Harry attended a [[costume party|fancy-dress party]] (costume party) on the theme of "Colonials and Natives" at the country estate of Olympic show jumper Richard Meade in [[Wiltshire]]. Choosing not to use any British reference, Harry came to the party wearing a [[military uniform|military tunic]] with a [[Flag of Germany|German flag]] on the arm; when he took it off, the pale [[khaki]] shirt underneath showed a [[Wehrmacht]] national emblem on the collar and a [[swastika]] armband. A reporter from ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' who had been tipped off previously took a photo of Harry that also showed him holding a [[cigarette]] and a [[Alcoholic beverage|drink]]. The incongruity of his costume was punctuated by the fact that the swastika on the armband was of the type used by the [[Finnish Defence Forces|Finnish military]]. After the photo was published in the [[January 13]], [[2005]] issue of ''The Sun'', an intense controversy resulted, including demands that the prince be barred from entering the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] (as well as contrary demands that he join the Army as soon as possible). The uproar was caused not by a simple distasteful choice of costume, but because of Harry's apparent ignorance of historical sensitivities and the alleged message of disrespect for British [[World War II]] veterans and their families, which included his own grandparents: the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh. The controversy was exacerbated because the party took place exactly two weeks before the [[Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)|Holocaust Memorial Day]], the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] in [[Poland]] by the [[Red Army]].
Prince Harry responded with a written apology in which he said that he was "very sorry if I have caused offence" for his "poor choice." Prince Charles, who was reportedly "incandescent with rage" over the incident, ordered Harry and his brother William&mdash;who was present when Harry chose his outfit&mdash;to visit Auschwitz privately, with members of a Jewish charity, to learn about the Holocaust, its causes, and consequences. However, ''[[The Times]]'' called the apology "feeble" and denounced his involvement with a "dubious group of self-indulgent young men who are apparently content with a life of pointless privilege." ''[[The Guardian]]'' was even sharper in its condemnation, observing that "Prince Harry seems less interested in preparing for a life of royal service than auditioning for the role of [[village idiot]]," although other newspapers and other media were more deferential.
==Style and arms==
[[image:COA Prince Harry Wales.gif|thumb|left|Coat of Arms of HRH Prince Harry of Wales]]
Prince Harry has the title of [[British prince|Prince of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] with the style [[HRH|''His Royal Highness'']].
On his 18th birthday, his grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II granted Prince Harry his own personalised [[coat of arms]], the [[Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom]] with a label for difference: ''Quarterly, 1st and 4th Gules three Lions passant guardant in pale Or (England), 2nd Or a Lion rampant within a Double Tressure flory counterflory Gules (Scotland), 3rd Azure a Harp Or stringed Argent (Ireland), the whole differenced by a Label of five points Argent the first third and fifth points charged with an Escallop Gules''.
Prince Harry's coat of arms has a label of five points, as the grandchild of the sovereign. The ''escallops'' (seashells) allude to his late mother Diana, Princess of Wales, whose [[Earl Spencer|Spencer]] coat of arms includes three ''escallops argent''.
===Titles from birth===
* His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales ([[15 September]] [[1984]]&mdash;)
==See also==
*[[List of British princes]]
*[[British Royal Family]]
*[[Line of Succession to the British Throne]]
==Footnotes==
# {{Note|Parents}} His parents, the Prince and Princess of Wales, announced when revealing his name that though officially ''Prince Henry of Wales'' he would be called in practice ''Prince Harry''.
==External links==
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page465.asp Royal.gov.uk- Prince Harry]
* [http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/princes/harry/harry_index.html About the Prince] - From Prince of Wales official Site
* [http://www.princeharry.co.uk Prince Harry] - Unofficial Fan Site
* [http://whu.teamhighgrove.com Will and Harry Unlimited] - Fan Site
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{{succession box one to two|title1=[[Line of Succession to the British Throne]]|title2=[[United Kingdom order of precedence]]<br>''Gentlemen''|before=[[Prince William of Wales]]|after1=[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York]]|after2=[[Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester]]|years1=|years2=}}
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[[Category:1984 births|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:English & British princes|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Living people|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Londoners|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Mountbatten-Windsor family|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Henry of Wales, Prince]]
[[cy:Tywysog Harri o Gymru]]
[[de:Henry Mountbatten-Windsor]]
[[es:Enrique de Gales]]
[[fr:Henri de Galles]]
[[he:הנסיך הארי מווילס]]
[[it:Principe Henry del Galles]]
[[ja:ヘンリー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー]]
[[nl:Henry Mountbatten-Windsor]]
[[no:Henry av Wales]]
[[pl:Książę Harry]]
[[pt:Príncipe Harry de Gales]]
[[sv:Henry av Storbritannien]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hail</title>
<id>14458</id>
<revision>
<id>42128441</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:28:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elf</username>
<id>40082</id>
</contributor>
<comment>see also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:large_hailstone.jpg|thumb|A large hailstone]]
'''Hail''' is a type of [[graupel]], a form of [[precipitation]], composed of spears or irregular lumps of [[ice]]. It occurs when [[supercooled]] [[water]] [[Drop (liquid)|droplet]]s (remaining in a [[liquid]] state despite being below the [[freezing point]], 0 °C/32 °F) in a [[storm]] [[cloud]] [[aggregate]]s around some solid object, such as a [[dust]] [[particle]] or an already-forming hailstone. The water then freezes around the object. Depending on the [[wind]] patterns within the cloud, the hailstone may continue to circulate for some time, increasing in size. Eventually, the hailstone falls to the ground, when the updraft is no longer strong enough to support its [[weight]].
[[image:hailstorm.jpg|left|thumb|Hailstorm]]
Hail often forms in strong [[thunderstorm]]s, often along a [[cold front]], where the layer of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] on top is much colder than that on the bottom. The smaller hailstones can bounce up and down between the warm and cold layers due to [[updraft]]s and [[gravity]]. The longer the stones bounce around, the larger they grow. For the same reason, larger hail can occur in warmer [[region]]s of the [[world]] due to stronger updrafts. These strong, severe, or even [[supercell]] thunderstorms usually occur in [[summer]], and don't require a cold front.
[[Image:Queensland HailStorm 260305.JPG|right|thumb|After a mild hailstorm in Brisbane, Australia - a subtropical region]]
Hail can do serious damage, notably to [[automobile]]s, [[skylight]]s, and [[glass]]-[[roof]]ed [[structure]]s. Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause [[concussion]]s or [[fatal]] [[head (anatomy)|head]] [[physical trauma|trauma]].
Hailstones, while most commonly only a few [[millimetre]]s in [[diameter]], can sometimes grow to several [[centimetre]]s or occasionally even bigger. [[Pea]] or [[golf#Golf_balls|golf]]ball-size hailstones are not uncommon in severe [[storm]]s. The image to the right shows an aggregate hailstone with smaller stones visible. The [[ruler]] shows the size of this hailstone as approximately 6 [[Metre#SI_multiples|cm]], almost the size of a tennis ball.
[[Image:P3030054 Hail crwb.jpg|thumb|Small hail from a [[thunderstorm]], compared to a [[Quarter (United States coin)|U.S. quarter]], in [[San Jose, California]].]]
One of the most notorious regions for large hail is northern [[ India ]] and [[ Bangladesh ]] , which have reported more hail related deaths than anywhere else in the world and also some of the largest hailstones ever measured. [[ China ]] is also notorious for killer hailstorms. [[ Russia ]] and much of Eastern Europe is prone to large hail. The plains states of the [[ United States ]] and the adjacent provinces in [[ Canada ]] are also subjected to violent thunderstorms which produce large hail. The states of [[ Wyoming ]], [[ Colorado ]], [[ Kansas ]] and [[ Nebraska ]] are particularly prone to severe hailstorms. Tremendous damage can be inflicted on crops and some of the largest hailstones ever measured have fallen in this region. Sout |
ctober 15, 2005.</ref> laws. Both faiths allow cheese made with vegetable-based rennet or with rennet made from animals that were processed in a kosher or halal manner. Many less-orthodox Jews also believe that rennet undergoes enough processing to change its nature entirely, and do not consider it to ever violate kosher law. (See ''[[Kosher foods#Cheese|Cheese and kashrut]]''.) As cheese is a dairy food under kosher rules it cannot be eaten in the same meal with any meat.
Many [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]]s avoid any cheese made from animal-based rennet. Most widely available vegetarian cheeses are made using rennet produced by fermentation of the [[fungus]] ''Mucor miehei''. [[Vegan]]s and other dairy-avoiding vegetarians cannot eat real cheese at all, but some vegetable-based substitute cheeses (usually [[soybean|soy]] based) are available.
Even in cultures with long cheese traditions, it is not unusual to find people who perceive cheese &mdash; especially pungent-smelling or mold-bearing varieties such as [[Limburger cheese|Limburger]] or [[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]] &mdash; as unappetizing, unpalatable, or disgusting. Food-science writer [[Harold McGee]] proposes that cheese is such an acquired taste because it is produced through a process of controlled [[Decomposition|spoilage]] and many of the odor and flavor molecules in an aged cheese are the same found in rotten foods. McGee notes "An aversion to the odor of decay has the obvious biological value of steering us away from possible food poisoning, so it's no wonder that an animal food that gives off whiffs of shoes and soil and the stable takes some getting used to."<ref>McGee p 58, "Why Some People Can't Stand Cheese."</ref>
==Types of cheese==
{{main|List of cheeses}}
No one categorization scheme can capture all the diversity of the world's cheeses. These are some commonly used classifications.
[[Image:Cheese platter.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A cheese platter with many types of cheese.]]
===Fresh===
For these simplest cheeses, milk is curdled and drained, with little other processing. Examples include [[Cottage cheese]], Romanian [[romanian cas|Caş]], [[Neufchâtel]] (the model for American-style [[cream cheese]]), and fresh goats' milk [[Chèvre cheese|chèvre]]. Such cheeses are soft and spreadable, with a mild taste. Fresh cheeses without additional [[preservative]]s can spoil in a matter of days.
Whey cheeses are fresh cheeses made from the [[whey]] discarded while producing other cheeses. [[Ricotta]], [[Romania|Romanian]] [[Romanian Urda|Urda]] and [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Geitost]] are examples.
Traditional [[Mozzarella]] also falls into the fresh cheese category. Fresh curds are stretched and kneaded in hot water to form a ball of Mozzarella, which in southern [[Italy]] is usually eaten within a few hours of being made. Other firm fresh cheeses include [[paneer]] and [[queso fresco]].
===Distinctively aged===
Soft-ripened cheeses such as [[Brie (cheese)|Brie]] and [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]] are made by allowing white ''[[Penicillium candida]]'' or ''[[Penicillium camemberti|P. camemberti]]'' mold to grow on the outside of a soft cheese for a few days or weeks. The mold forms a white crust and contributes to the smooth, runny, or gooey textures and more intense flavors of these aged cheeses. Goats' milk cheeses are often treated in a similar manner, sometimes with white molds and sometimes with blue.
Blue-mold cheeses like [[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]], [[Gorgonzola (cheese)|Gorgonzola]], and [[Stilton (cheese)|Stilton]] are produced by inoculating loosely pressed curds with ''[[Penicillium roqueforti]]'' or ''[[Penicillium glaucum]]'' molds. The mold grows within the cheese as it ages. These cheeses have distinct blue veins and, often, assertive flavors. Their texture can be soft or firm.
Washed-rind cheeses are periodically bathed in a saltwater [[brine]] as they age, making their surfaces amenable to a class of bacteria (the reddish-orange "smear bacteria") which impart pungent odors and distinctive flavors. Washed-rind cheeses can be soft ([[Limburger cheese|Limburger]]), semi-hard ([[Munster (cheese)|Munster]]), or hard ([[Appenzeller (cheese)|Appenzeller]]).
===Other categories===
[[Image:Kaasmarkt2 close.jpg|thumb|A [[Gouda]] cheese market]]
Categorizing cheeses by firmness is a common but inexact practice. The lines between "soft", "semi-soft", "semi-hard", and "hard" are arbitrary, and many types of cheese are made in softer or firmer variations. Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into molds under more pressure and aged for a longer time.
The familiar [[Cheddar cheese|cheddar]] is one of a family of semi-hard or hard cheeses (including [[Cheshire cheese|Cheshire]] and [[Gloucester cheese|Gloucester]]) whose curd is cut, gently heated, piled, and stirred before being pressed into forms. [[Colby cheese|Colby]] and [[Monterey Jack]] are similar but milder cheeses; their curd is rinsed before it is pressed, washing away some acidity and [[calcium]]. A similar curd-washing takes place when making the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] cheeses [[Edam (cheese)|Edam]] and [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]].
Swiss-style cheeses like [[Emmental (cheese)|Emmental]] and [[Gruyère (cheese)|Gruyère]] are generally quite firm. The same bacteria that give Emmental its holes contribute to their aromatic and sharp flavors. The hardest cheeses &mdash; "grating cheeses" such as [[Parmesan cheese|Parmesan]], [[Pecorino]], and [[Romano cheese|Romano]] &mdash; are quite firmly packed into large forms and aged for months or years.
[[Processed cheese]] is made from traditional cheese and [[emulsifier]]s, often with the addition of milk, more salt, [[preservative]]s, and [[food coloring]]. It is inexpensive, consistent, and melts smoothly. This is the most-consumed category of cheese in the [[United States]]. The most familiar processed cheese may be pre-sliced mild yellow American Cheese or [[Velveeta]]. Many other varieties exist, including [[Easy Cheese]], a [[Kraft Foods]] brand sold in a spray can.
==Health and nutrition==
[[Image:Cheese market Basel.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Cheese selection on market stand in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]].]]
In general, cheese supplies a great deal of [[calcium]], [[protein]], and [[phosphorus]]. A 30&nbsp;gram (one&nbsp;ounce) serving of cheddar cheese contains about seven&nbsp;grams of protein and 200&nbsp;milligrams of calcium. Nutritionally, cheese is essentially concentrated milk: it takes about 200&nbsp;grams (seven&nbsp;ounces) of milk to provide that much protein, and 150&nbsp;grams to equal the calcium.<ref>Nutritional data from [http://www.cnn.com/FOOD/resources/food.for.thought/dairy/compare.dairy.html CNN Interactive]. Retrieved October 20, 2004.</ref>
Cheese shares milk's nutritional disadvantages as well. The [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] condemns cheese as America's number one source of [[saturated fat]], adding that the average American ate 30&nbsp;pounds (13.6&nbsp;kg) of cheese in the year 2000, up from 11&nbsp;pounds (5&nbsp;kg) in 1970.<ref>Center for Science in the Public Interest (2001). [http://www.cspinet.org/new/cheese.html Don't Say Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.</ref> Their recommendation is to limit full-fat cheese consumption to two&nbsp;ounces (60&nbsp;grams) a week. Whether cheese's highly saturated fat actually leads to an increased risk of heart disease is called into question when considering [[France]] and [[Greece]], which lead the world in cheese eating (more than 14&nbsp;ounces (400&nbsp;grams) a week per person, or over 45&nbsp;pounds (20&nbsp;kg) a year) yet have relatively low rates of heart disease.<ref>McGee, p 67. McGee supports both this contention and that more food poisonings in Europe are caused by pasteurized cheeses than raw-milk.</ref>
A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risks of raw-milk cheeses. The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] states that soft raw-milk cheeses can cause "serious infectious diseases including [[listeriosis]], [[brucellosis]], [[salmonellosis]] and [[tuberculosis]]".<ref>[http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/fda_cheese.html FDA Warns About Soft Cheese Health Risk]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.</ref> It is U.S. law since 1944 that all raw-milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60 days. [[Australia]] has a wide ban on raw-milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions have been made for Swiss [[Gruyère (cheese)|Gruyère]], [[Emmental (cheese)|Emmental]] and [[Sbrinz]], and for French [[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]].<ref>Chris Mercer (2005). [http://www.ap-foodtechnology.com/news/ng.asp?id=62799-fsanz-roquefort-speciality-cheese Australia lifts Roquefort cheese safety ban]. Retrieved October 22, 2005.</ref> Some say these worries are overblown, pointing out that [[pasteurization]] of the milk used to make cheese does not ensure its safety in any case.<ref>Janet Fletcher. [http://www.specialtyfood.com/do/news/ViewNewsArticle?id=1841 The Myths About Raw-Milk Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.</ref> This is supported by statistics showing that in Europe (where young raw-milk cheeses are still legal in some countries), most cheese-related [[food poisoning]] incidents were traced to pasteurized cheeses. Pregnant women may face an additional risk from cheese; the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control]] has warned pregnant women against eating soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses, due to the [[listeria]] risk to the unborn baby.<ref>[http://www.americanpregnancy.org/pregnancycomplications/listeri |
[[Emperor (band)|Emperor]], who began with the earlier style and introduced elements from mainstream heavy metal, [[European classical music|classical music]] and popularised the style to a growing underground audience. Their influence is most apparent in the Satanic (or other various pagan) imagery, anti-Christian lyrics and occult themes.
==Characteristics==
Black metal may have the following characteristics:
*Fast and guitars with [[tremolo]] picking
*Lyrics that take the form of [[Satanism|Satanic]], [[paganism|Pagan]], or [[occult]] themes which [[blasphemy|blaspheme]] [[Christianity]]. Bands such as [[Slayer]], [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]], and [[Immolation (band)|Immolation]] overlap lyrically with black metal somewhat, but are musically defined as [[death metal]] (Immolation, Deicide), [[thrash metal]] (Slayer)
*Relatively thin guitar sound or relatively thick guitar sound, usually not in the middle.
*Limited production used intentionally as a statement against mainstream music and/or to reflect the mood of the music, to create atmosphere. This 'underproduced' effect is often achieved by cutting out low and high frequencies, leaving just the mid frequency range.
*Fast, aggressive [[drums]], often with [[blast beat]]s. At other times, the drums can take a slower role usually accompanied by a very dry and empty tone —especially for the effect of the atmosphere of the music.
*Occasional [[electronic keyboard]] use. The harpsichord, violin, organ, and choir settings are most common, which gives the music an orchestral feel or a cathedral-like setting. Some bands tend to use keyboards very frequently, whether it be as an instrument or even as the basis of their entire sound. They are generally placed under the [[symphonic black metal]] label.
*High-[[pitch (music)|pitched]]/distorted screeching [[vocals]]. Contrary to popular belief, these are not essential as there have been many black metal bands old and new employing different vocal styles.
*Swift [[percussion instrument|percussion]].
*Cold, dark, sad, melancholy, or gloomy atmosphere.
[[Image:Mayhem-DeMysteriisDomSathanas.jpg|thumb|Cover of "De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas" by Mayhem]]
An abraded, very [[low fidelity]] recording style is common in most black metal. Modern evolution of many of the older 'genre leading' bands have had a vast change in sound, and by many - and most of the times, even the band - are no longer considered black metal. Such examples include Mayhem's career that began mostly in the death/black roots, moved to almost pure black, then towards death again in their later career. Also, [[Satyricon (band)|Satyricon]] who started off as black metal but now play a very industrial heavy hybrid of the music. Modern offshoots of this original black metal sound have incorporated atmospheric elements using ambient guitar and keyboard passages such as organ sounds or other miscellaneous instruments.
A distinct (but not intrinsic) feature of the black metal is the use of [[corpse paint in heavy metal|corpse paint]], a special kind of black and white make-up which was used to make the wearer look like a decomposing corpse or plague victim. It should be noted that [[Immortal (band)|Immortal]] referred to their make-up as "war paint", not carrying the same connotation as corpse paint. Another distinct feature of black metal is the use of dark or Satanic monikers pioneered by Venom (the original line up being Cronos, Mantas & Abbadon). Examples of this are: Quorthon ([[Bathory]]), Darken ([[Graveland]]), Euronymous ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Goat, Count Grishnackh ([[Burzum]]), Fenriz ([[Darkthrone]]), Nergal, Inferno ([[Behemoth (band)|Behemoth]]), Zephyrous ([[Darkthrone]]), Frost ([[1349 (band)|1349]]), Abbath ([[Immortal (band)|Immortal]]), Demonaz ([[Immortal (band)|Immortal]]), Horgh ([[Immortal (band)|Immortal]]), Iscariah, Hellhammer ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Maniac ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Necrobutcher ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Blasphemer ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Dead ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Hoest, Ihsahn ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Samoth ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Faust ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Trym ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Nattefrost ([[Carpathian Forest]]), Nordavind and Tchort ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Malefic ([[Xasthur]]), Wrest ([[Leviathan (band)|Leviathan]]) to name a few.
Earlier bands tended to dwell on themes of fantasy, mythology, and folklore in their songs, as well as Satanism, darkness, evil, and so on as many of their direct musical and cultural roots included these topics.
== History ==
In the late 1980's and early 1990's, one of the most prominent figures of the Norwegian scene was [[Øystein Aarseth]], better known as Euronymous, the guitarist in Mayhem.
The scene was deeply anti-Christian: it had a stated goal of removing the influence of [[Christianity]] and other non-[[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] religions from Norwegian culture and effecting a return to the nation's [[Norse mythology|Norse]] roots. One minority current, associated with [[NSBM]], included an element of unashamed anti-Semitism. The movement was largely directed by an 'Inner Circle', made up of Aarseth and a few close friends, from the basement of Aarseth's record store, Helvete (''Hell''). That location also housed a recording studio, where records were made by [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]] and a number of other bands that were signed to Aarseth's [[Independent record label|independent label]], [[Deathlike Silence Productions]]. Deathlike Silence's stated goal was to release records by bands "that incarnated evil in its most pure state."
Also around this time, there was a rash of [[arson]]s directed at Christian churches in Norway—many of the buildings were hundreds of years old, and widely regarded as important historical landmarks—that Aarseth's circle claimed responsibility for inspiring, if not necessarily perpetrating. The most notable church was Norway's [[Fantoft stave church]], which was burned by a member of Euronymous's inner circle; the man behind the one-man band [[Burzum]], [[Varg Vikernes]], aka "[[Count Grishnackh]]", who also played bass guitar for [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]. Black metal enthusiasts also started to terrorize other notable "death metal" bands that were touring their country or in neighboring countries, on the basis of their lack of apparent "evilness". Many recall a strong Swedish death metal and Norwegian black metal rivalry.
The black metal scene gained some unsought [[mass media]] attention in [[1991]] when Mayhem's frontman [[Per Yngve Ohlin|Dead]] committed [[suicide]] by a [[shotgun]] blast to his head. His note simply read "Excuse all the blood". The ammunition was supplied by [[Varg Vikernes]].
His body was discovered by Aarseth who, instead of calling the police, ran to a nearby convenience store and bought a disposable camera which he used to photograph the corpse for a future Mayhem album cover ([[Dawn of the Black Hearts]]). Apocryphal reports also claim that he then took some pieces of Dead's splattered brains and made a stew out of them and/or members of the band took bone fragments from their friend's skull and made necklaces out of them.
The 'Inner Circle' received even more exposure in [[1993]], when Vikernes killed Aarseth in Aarseth's home, stabbing him 23 times, although Vikernes claims that Aarseth fell on broken glass while running from him and that he really stabbed him only 4 or 5 times. The circumstances surrounding the reason for the murder are not entirely clear, but have mainly been attributed to ideological differences and a power struggle between Vikernes and Aarseth. Vikernes claimed that Aarseth had plotted to kill him and that the killing was committed in partial self-defence. Vikernes also claimed that there was a financial dispute over the profits from Burzum's first two full-length records (Burzum and Det Som Engang Var) as well as the first Burzum EP (Aske) that were released through Aarseth's record label, Deathlike Silence Records. Some sources say that Aarseth intentionally delayed the release of Burzum's records, because Burzum was getting more attention than Mayhem. Vikernes was sentenced to 21 years in prison and has since distanced himself from the black metal movement, becoming involved in the [[Neo-Nazi]] movement and writing extensively on the subject. Many credit Vikernes' professed beliefs as contributing to the rise of [[National Socialist black metal]], a variant that employs the genre's typically Nordic, Pagan, and anti-Christian themes as an expression of [[White Power]] ideology. While in prison, Vikernes has released two albums of a much more ambient and electronic kind of music, ''Dauði Baldrs'' in 1997 and ''Hliðskjálf'' in 1999, although he implied in a recent interview that he would write material similar to his older works upon his release from prison.
By the last few years of the 1990s, the black metal scene had lost much of the violence that seemed to be attached to it in the early days of the scene. Also, bands begun to make records with higher production-quality.
However, since the mid-90s, an Eastern European black metal scene has been developing. Bands from these former Iron Curtain lands are recording albums more in keeping with the primitive nature of the early Norwegian artists. Many of these bands' lyrics glorify the [[Paganism|pagan]] roots of their home countries, occasionally injecting elements of indigenous folk music into their arrangements. The [[Latvia|Latvian]] band [[Skyforger]] is a prime example of this new aesthetic. The black metal scene in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]] has produced many bands more in keeping with the carefully arranged sounds coming from Scandinavia, but with more appreciation for the low fidelity aesthetic of early black metal. The [[Czech Republic|Czech]] band [[Trollech]] are a perfect example of the " |
the Spanish-language Wikipedia.
*http://www.nationbynation.com/Chile/History2.html is moderately useful to validate some of the information in this article, but the site has annoyingly many ads. <!--This was an after-the-fact reference in any case; if someone can come up with a better link to replace this, great. -- [[User:Jmabel|Jmabel]] | [[User talk:Jmabel|Talk]] 23:28, Jan 6, 2005 (UTC) -->
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chile}}
'''Politics of Chile''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Chile]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of the [[National Congress of Chile|National Congress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Executive branch==
Chile elects its [[President of Chile|President]] by popular vote for a four-year term{{fn|1}}. The President appoints the cabinet.
[[Michelle Bachelet]] won 53.5% of the vote in a run-off election on [[15 January]] [[2006]] and is the current President-elect. Bachelet is head of [[Chile|Chile's]] [[Socialist]] party (part of the [[Coalition of Parties for Democracy]]) and, under the current administration, served as Defense Minister since 2002, and previously as Health Minister.
Current President [[Ricardo Lagos|Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] had held this office since [[11 March]] [[2000]].
==Legislative branch==
The bicameral [[National Congress of Chile|National Congress]] ''(Congreso Nacional)'' consists of the [[Senate of Chile|Senate]] ''(Senado)'' and the [[Chamber of Deputies of Chile|Chamber of Deputies]] ''(Cámara de Diputados).''
Chile's congressional elections are governed by a unique binomial system that rewards coalition slates. Each coalition can present two candidates for the two Senate and two lower-chamber seats apportioned to each chamber's electoral districts. Typically, the two largest coalitions split the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket outpolls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. The political parties with the largest representation in the current Chilean Congress are the centrist [[Christian_Democratic_Party_of_Chile|Christian Democrat Party]] and the conservative [[Independent Democratic Union]] ''(Unión Demócrata Independiente)''. The [[Communist Party of Chile|Communist Party]] and the small [[Humanist Party of Chile|Humanist Party]] failed to gain any seats in the 1997 elections.
Elections are very labor intensive but efficient, and vote counting normally takes place the evening of the election day. One voting table, with a ballot-box each, is set up for at-most 200 names in the voting registry. Each table is manned by five people (''vocales de mesa'') from the same registry. Vocales have the duty to work as such during a cycle of elections, and can be penalized legally if they do not show up. A registered citizen can only vote after his identity has been verified at the table corresponding to his registry. Ballots are manually counted by the five vocales, after the table has closed, at least eight hours after opening, and the counting witnessed by representatives of all the parties who choose to have observers.
The Senate is made up of 48 members. 38 of these are elected from regions or subregions. Those elected members serve eight-year staggered terms.
Nine senators are appointed {{fn|2}}:
*two former members of the Supreme Court, chosen by their working peers.
*one ex-contralor (head of the Contraloría General de la Republica, the institution that audits the legality of all the actions of the administration), also selected by the Supreme Court.
*one former Commander in Chief of the Army, one former Commander of the Navy, one former Commander of the Air Force and one former Director General of the Carabineros, all selected by the National Security Council.
*one former president of an accredited University, designated by the President of the Republic.
*one former Minister of State (head of a ministry or cabinet secretary), also designated by the President of the Republic.
Appointed Senators also have eight-year terms.
Former Presidents who have served at least six years can join the Senate, becoming ''senadores vitalicios'', senators for life. General [[Augusto Pinochet]] was senator for life, but resigned because of his age.
The Chamber of Deputies has 120 members, who are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last congressional elections were held in [[October 2001]]. The next congressional elections are scheduled for 2006.
The current Senate composition is nineteen from the governing coalition, eighteen from the opposition, one independent (who was part of one of the governing parties, but resigned), nine appointed and one for life. In March 1998, nine newly appointed institutional senators appointed in 1999, and one "senator for life," former President [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle|Frei]].
The current lower house &mdash; the Chamber of Deputies &mdash; contains 58 members of the governing coalition and 53 from the rightist opposition and eight "independents" (many of whom ran on opposition tickets in the last elections or others who where expelled from the Christian Democrats because they where accused of frauds).
Since 1987 the Congress operates in the port city of [[Valparaíso]], about 110 kilometers (~70 mi.) northwest of the capital, [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]]. However some commissions are allowed to meet in other places, especially Santiago. Congressional members have tried repeatedly to relocate the Congress back to Santiago, where it operated until the [[Chilean coup of 1973|1973]], but have not been successful. The last attempt was in 2000, when the project was rejected by the Constitutional Court, because it allocated funds from the national budget, which, under the Chilean Constitution, is a privilege of the President.
==Legal system==
Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the [[Supreme Court of Chile|Supreme Court]]. The judges on the Supreme Court or Corte Suprema are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself. The president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court.
Chile's legal system is [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] based. It is primarily based on the [[Civil code]] of 1855, derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by European law of the last half of the [[19th Century]] . Chile provides for a very limited judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court. It does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.
From the year 2000 onward, Chile completely overhauled its criminal justice system; a new, US-style adversarial system has been gradually implemented throughout the country with the final stage of implementation in the Santiago metropolitan region completed on June 17th, 2005.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Chile|Elections in Chile}}
{{chilean presidential election, 2005}}
{{Main|Chilean presidential election, 2005}}
{{chilean parliamentary election, 2005}}
{{Main|Chilean parliamentary election, 2005}}
==Pressure groups==
* Student federations at all major universities
* [[Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[United Labor Central]] (CUT), trade unionists from Chile's five largest labor confederations.
==Notes==
{{fnb|1}} The current president, [[Ricardo Lagos]]. is serving a six-year term, but in [[September 17]] [[2005]] the Constitution was modified and the future presidents will serve just a four-year term.
{{fnb|2}} From [[March 11]] [[2006]] when the new parliamentary term is due to begin, there will be no more appointed senators or former presidents serving as senators for life.
==International organization participation==
Chile or Chilean organizations participate in the following international organizations:
<table width=100%><tr><td width=50% align=left valign=top>
* [[Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean]] (OPANAL)
* [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC)
* [[Bank for International Settlements]] ( |
004]]. "Regardless of whether you think it is a credible source or not, the Wikipedia, and other projects like it, give a voice to many people who would not have been able to contribute their own knowledge to the creation of an encyclopedia."
* '''[http://www.thetriangle.org/news/2004/10/01/SciTech/No.More.Paper-738960.shtml No more paper: Wikipedia, evolving open-source online encyclopedia, reaches one million hits]''', The Triangle ([[Drexel University]] student newspaper), [[1 October]] [[2004]]. "Wikipedia is the modern day encyclopedia, updated almost as quickly and as often as news happens. Gone are the days of sifting through massive volumes of encyclopedias to find the one piece of information you need. Now it's all on the web in one accurate, constantly expanding database."
=== October ===
* '''"Internet encyclopedia has stamp-collecting links"''' is the "Stamps on the Internet" column by [[William F. Sharpe]] in ''[[Linn's Stamp News]]'' for [[October 4]], [[2004]]. "Did you know that Michael Dell, founder of Dell Computers, advertised stamps for sale in ''Linn's'' classified section at age 12? That's one of the unusual facts you can discover by browsing the Wikipedia site at http://en.wikipedia.org. [...] The stamp collecting page is relatively short, but the links it provides take you to other areas. The page called [[Philatelic Investment]], for example, goes into great detail on how to invest in stamps. [...] I find Wikipedia fascinating, not only from the stamp-collecting aspect but also for the overall approach of providing free knowledge in many areas as a collaborative effort. As far as I'm concerned, this is what the Internet was intended for. [...]" He also discusses some of the community pages, and has a screenshot of the main page and what was supposed to be a image of the [[stamp collecting]] article, but a production snafu seems to have resulted in an Excel chart or something. Reading between the lines of his experience, it looks as though he didn't click deep enough to see the bulk of WP's philatelic info, and probably only saw unillustrated articles. So the takeaway is to improve the appearance and appeal of the top-level articles on a subject, and make sure to highlight routes into the depth of the content.
*'''[http://www.thelantern.com/news/2004/10/04/Campus/Larouche.Pac.Group.Sings.Shouts.Argues.With.Bush.Supporters-740977.shtml?page=2 LaRouche PAC group sings, shouts, argues with Bush supporters]''', The Lantern ([[Ohio State University]] student newspaper), [[4 October]] [[2004]]. Article makes bizarre claim that LaRouche "started Wikipedia.com, a Web site functioning as both a free encyclopedia and a wiki community, which allows users to add information to posted articles." [[Howard Rheingold]] is one thing, but [[Lyndon LaRouche]]? Where do they get this stuff?
* '''[http://www.sacbee.com/content/shopping/on_computers/story/10974230p-11891577c.html Hiking, boating, and powerline maps]''', Sacramento Bee, [[4 October]] [[2004]]. Mentioned in an internet and computer shopping column: "A collection of articles written and edited by anyone. Despite the chaos this might bring to mind, the articles tend to be learned, though unchecked unless through subsequent editing."
* The WIPO adopts a development agenda that recognizes collaborative projects to create public goods, in response to the [http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/futureofwipodeclaration.html Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization]:
**'''[http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/64118/un-body-promises-greater-recognition-for-open-source-licencing.html UN body promises greater recognition for open source licencing]''', PC Pro, [[5 October]] [[2004]]. Quoting the Geneva Declaration: "We are witnessing ... hundreds of innovative collaborative efforts to create public goods, including the Internet, the World Wide Web, Wikipedia, the Creative Commons, GNU Linux and other free and open software projects".
**'''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/FJ15Dj01.html Putting the brakes on intellectual property rights]''', Asia Times, [[15 October]] [[2004]]. Mentions Wikipedia in a paraphrase of the Geneva Declaration.
**'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3752354.stm The fight for your right to share]''', BBC News [[18 October]] [[2004]]. "The net's open source movement, which revolves around Linux, and its collaborative encyclopaedia, the Wikipedia, also shows how well alternative creative systems can work when rights and access are almost unlimited."
* '''[http://www.redherring.com/Article.aspx?a=10897&hed=Wild+about+wiki&sector=Capital&subsector=VentureCapital Wild about wiki]''', Red Herring, [[7 October]] [[2004]]. "One of the best-known wikis is wikipedia.com, a free encyclopedia where the information is uploaded by users. Though generally known to contain an enormous amount of information on an endless variety of topics, the listed facts are edited by readers, and may not be as reliable as those in more official and less-pliable sources of information."
* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/prius/partthree/story/0,,1322071,00.html Always connect],''' [[The Guardian]], ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[7 October]] 2004, in a supplement called ''The Spark''. Good paragraph on Wikipedia, in the context of a longer article on [[Open Source]].
* '''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/10/13/viral_yelp/ Yelp! A viral recommendation system you can't resist?]''', The Register, [[13 October]] [[2004]]. "As we've seen with Google and the Wikipedia, there's an incentive to rig any system".
* '''[http://www.redherring.com/Article.aspx?a=10909&hed=Wiki+wars Wiki wars: Think this year's presidential debates have been rough? Check out Wikipedia.]''' Red Herring, [[14 October]] [[2004]]. "Mr. Bush and Mr. Kerry have created even more debate than entries for sex and religion. As of October 8, Wikipedia&#8217;s President Bush entry had been tweaked 3,953 times. Its entry for Senator Kerry had been modified 3,230 times. By contrast, Wikipedia&#8217;s article on Jesus has only been edited 1,855 times since the site&#8217;s inception in 2001."
* '''[http://www.thetranscript.com/Stories/0,1413,103~9054~2471955,00.html Megabits & Pieces]''', North Adams (MA) Transcript, [[16 October]] [[2004]]. Article about the wiki concept. "There is a movement about to use Wikis in order to transform research and Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org), an open source encyclopedia available in numerous languages, including Esperanto, is certainly the leader." Also discusses several other wikis, including Wiktionary and Wikibooks.
* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,,1331525,00.html Public domain],''' [[The Guardian]] Online section, ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[21 October]] 2004, in a article on the UK's Digital Divide. Uses Wikipedia as an example to suggest the UK's Digital Inclusion Panel is sighting a war long ago won: "My bet is that quite soon, we will notice that the web has been taken over by oldies. Wikipedia isn't being compiled by teenagers".
* '''[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20041025/CHINACYBER25/TPInternational/TopStories Human rights at risk, group tells Ottawa]''', The Globe and Mail, [[25 October]] [[2004]]. "Reporters Without Borders says that in September the authorities blocked access to the Chinese version of the Wikipedia on-line encyclopedia, which relies on contributions and carries articles about human-rights abuses in China."
* '''[http://www.onlamp.com/pub/wlg/5794 Where's the Movable Type of the Wiki World?]''', Scot Hacker, [[25 October]] [[2004]], discussing the end-user experience of setting up and customizing a wiki. Hacker chose MediaWiki as the best available option to run a course project wiki, noting that Wikipedia had inspired the course to begin with. Still he found the software's documentation "scattered and obtuse", its customizations difficult, and its attempts at a user manual lacking, and suggests the time is ripe for someone to provide a coherent, actively-developed, well-supported wiki solution.
* '''[http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid=24&theme=&usrsess=1&id=58137 Tap in, get smart]''', Swarat Chaudhury, ''[[The Statesman]]'', [[25 October]] [[2004]] - A passionate article in one of India's oldest papers disscusses the dictionaries and encyclopedias the author uses.
:"Wikipedia has spawned a sister project called Wiktionary (http://www.wiktionary.org), a collaborative multilingual dictionary with pronunciations, etymology and quotations. The grand ambition of these projects is nothing short of letting the demos beat the experts at their own game..."
:"Personally, I still rely on the OED most of the time, but I also look forward to a day when Wiktionary beats it hands down."
* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/news/0,12597,1335892,00.html Who knows?]''', ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[October 26]], [[2004]], lead article in "G2" supplement about the 4-year-wonder that is Wikipedia. Broad article, that includes details about Wikipedia policies, an interview with [[Jimmy Wales]], comments from librarians and from the executive staff of [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]. "The truth is that Wikipedia reveals what is normally hidden in an encyclopedia: the countless decisions that lie behind each entry. The only difference is that in Wikipedia, the decision-making never stops and the debates are often robust to say the least. " ([[:Image:The Guardian 26-10-04 Wikipedia front page.jpg|Shot of G2 cover]], [[:Image:The Guardian 26-10-04 Wikipedia pages 2-3.jpg|shot of article itself]])
**Reprinted in '''[http://www.mg.co.za/Content/l3.asp?cg=Leisure-Online&o=140475&sa=106 The success of Wikipedia]''' , ' |
''basement''; stable igneous and metamorphic rocks such as [[granulite]], [[granite]] and various other intrusive rocks. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of [[basalt]], [[gabbro]] and [[peridotite]].
The crust floats on the [[asthenosphere|asthenospheric mantle]], which is convecting due to the forces of [[plate tectonics]]. The [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers is the source of all magma. Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 &deg;C.
Melting of rocks requires temperature, water and pressure. The mantle is generally over 1000 to 1200 &deg;c beneath the crust, at depths of between 7 and 70km. However, most magma is generated at depths of between 20 and 50 km. Melting begins because of upwelling of hot mantle from deeper portions of the earth, nearer the [[Planetary core]]; because of water driven off subducted oceanic crust at [[subduction zone]]s (providing water to lower the melting point of the rocks) and because of decompression caused by [[rift (geology)|rifting]].
Melting of the continental crust occurs rarely because it is usually dry, and composed of minerals and rocks which are resistant to melting such as [[pyroxene]] [[granulite]]. However, addition of heat from the mantle or from [[mantle plume]]s, subduction related compression and burial as well as some rifting, can prompt the continental crust to melt.
As magma cools, [[mineral]]s [[crystallize]] from the melt at different temperatures ([[fractional crystallization]]). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: [[silicon]], [[oxygen]], [[aluminium]], [[sodium]], [[potassium]], [[calcium]], [[iron]], and [[magnesium]]. These are the elements which combine to form the [[silicate minerals]], which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.
[[Bowen's reaction series]] is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.
Igneous rocks make up approximately ninety five percent of the upper part of the Earth's crust, but their great abundance is hidden on the Earth's surface by a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rock are geologically important because:
* their minerals and global chemistry gives information about the composition of the mantle, from where some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted;
* their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of [[radiometric dating]] and thus can be compared to adjacent geological [[stratum|strata]], allowing a time sequence of events;
* their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see [[plate tectonics]]);
* in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits ([[ore]]s): for example, [[tungsten]], [[tin]], and [[uranium]], are commonly associated with [[granite]]s.
==Morphology and Setting==
In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either [[intrusion|intrusive]] (plutonic) or [[extrusive (geology)|extrusive]] ([[volcanic rock|volcanic]]).
===Intrusive Igneous Rocks===
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. [[Intrusion (geology)|Intrusive]] rocks can also classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are [[batholith]]s, stocks, [[laccolith]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sill]]s and [[dike (geology)|dikes]]. The extrusive types usually are called lavas.
The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called ''[[batholith]]s'') may occupy huge areas of the surface.
Coarse grained intrusive igneous rocks which form at depth within the earth are termed as abyssal; intrusive igneous rocks which form near the surface are termed ''hypabyssal''.
===Extrusive Igneous Rocks===
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the Earth's surface as a result of the melting of rocks within the [[mantle (geology)|mantle.]]
The melted rock, called [[magma]] rises due to contrasting density with the surrounding mantle. When it reaches the surface, magma extruded onto the surface either beneath water or air, is called [[lava]]. Eruptions of volcanoes under the air are termed ''subaerial'' whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed ''submarine''. [[Black smokers]] and mid ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity.
Magma which erupts from a [[volcano]] behaves according to its temerature and composition, which cause a highly different range of [[viscosity]]. High temperature magma, which is usually basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. This forms [[pahoehoe]] type lava. Intermediate composition magma such as [[andesite]] tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have viscosity similar to thick, cold mollasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma such as rhyolite is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. These volcanoes rarely form lava flows, and usually erupt explosively.
Felsic and intermediate rocks which erupt at surface often do so violently, with explosions driven by release of gases such as [[carbon dioxide]] trapped in the magma. Such volcanic deposits are called [[pyroclastic]] deposits, and include [[tuff]], [[agglomerate]] and [[ignimbrite]]. Fine [[volcanic ash]] is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits which can often cover vast areas.
Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals the resulting rock may be a glass (such as the rock [[obsidian]]).
Because of this fine grained texture it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field.
==Classification==
Igneous rock are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body.
The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends upon the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. [[Feldspar]]s, [[quartz]], [[olivine]]s, [[pyroxene]]s, [[amphibole]]s, and [[mica]]s are all important minerals in the formation of igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential (called ''accessory minerals'').
In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.
Igneous rocks which have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one.
The crystals embedded in fine grained igneous rocks are termed porphyritic. The porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma consolidates into the finer grained uniform material.
===Texture===
:'' main article [[Rock microstructure]]''
Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The [[rock microstructure|texture]] of volcanic rocks, including the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a [[tuff]], a [[pyroclastic]] lava or a simple [[lava]].
However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or which are airfall tuffs which may be formed from [[volcanic ash]].
Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks tend also to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance [[porphyritic]] margins to large intrusive bodies, [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] stocks and subvolcanic apophyses. Mineralogical classification is used most often to classify plutonic rocks and chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, eg; "olivine-bearing picrite" or "orthoclase-phyric rhyolite".
* see also [[List of rock textures]]
===Chemical Classification===
Igneous rocks can be classified according to chemical or mineralogical parameters:
Chemical - Total alkali - silica content (TAS diagram) for [[volcanic rock]] classification |
imply being ignored in real-world use. They realized that by making the computer simpler and less orthogonal, they could make it faster and less expensive at the same time.
At the same time, CPUs were growing faster in relation to the memory they addressed. Designers also experimented with using large sets of internal registers. The idea was to [[cache]] intermediate results in the registers under the control of the compiler.
This also reduced the number of [[addressing mode]]s and orthogonality.
The computer designs based on this theory were called [[Reduced Instruction Set Computer]]s, or RISC. RISCs generally had larger numbers of registers, accessed by simpler instructions, with a few instructions specifically to load and store data to memory. The result was a very simple core CPU running at very high speed, supporting the exact sorts of operations the compilers were using anyway.
A common variation on the RISC design employs the [[Harvard architecture]], as opposed to the [[Von Neumann architecture|Von Neumann]] or Stored Program architecture common to most other designs. In a Harvard Architecture machine, the program and data occupy separate memory devices and can be accessed simultaneously. In Von Neumann machines the data and programs are mixed in a single memory device, requiring sequential accessing which produces the so-called "Von Neumann bottleneck."
One downside to the RISC design has been that the programs that run on them tend to be larger. This is because [[compiler]]s have to generate longer sequences of the simpler instructions to accomplish the same results. Since these instructions need to be loaded from memory anyway, the larger code size offsets some of the RISC design's fast memory handling.
Recently, engineers have found ways to compress the reduced instruction sets so they fit in even smaller memory systems than CISCs. Examples of such compression schemes include [[ARM architecture|the ARM]]'s "Thumb" instruction set. In applications that do not need to run older binary software, compressed RISCs are coming to dominate sales.
Another approach to RISCs was the [[MISC]], "[[niladic]]" or "zero-operand" instruction set. This approach realized that the majority of space in an instruction was to identify the operands of the instruction. These machines placed the operands on a push-down (last-in, first out) [[stack (computing)|stack]]. The instruction set was supplemented with a few instructions to fetch and store memory. Most used simple caching to provide extremely fast RISC machines, with very compact code. Another benefit was that the interrupt latencies were extremely small, smaller than most CISC machines (a rare trait in RISC machines). The first zero-operand computer was developed by [[Charles H. Moore]]. It placed six 5-bit instructions in a 32-bit word, and was a precursor to [[VLIW]] design (see below: 1990 to Today).
Commercial variants were mostly characterized as "[[Forth]]" machines, and probably failed in the market place because the power and advantages of that language were not commonly understood. Also, the machines were developed by defense contractors at exactly the time that the cold war ended. Loss of funding may have broken up the development teams before the companies could perform adequate commercial marketing.
RISC chips now dominate the market for 32-bit embedded systems. Smaller RISC chips are even becoming common in the cost-sensitive 8-bit embedded-system market. The main market for RISC CPUs has been systems that require low power or small size.
Even some CISC processors (based on architectures that were created before RISC became dominant) translate instructions internally into a RISC-like instruction set. These CISC chips include newer [[X86|x86]] and [[VAX]] models.
These numbers may surprise many, because the "market" is perceived to be desktop computers. With Intel x86 designs dominating the vast majority of all desktop sales, RISC is found in the [[Apple Computer|Apple]], [[Sun_Microsystems|Sun]] and [[SGI]] desktop computer lines. However, desktop computers are only a tiny fraction of the computers now sold. Most people own more computers in embedded systems in their car and house than on their desks.
=== Mid-1980s to today: exploiting instruction level parallelism ===
In the mid-to-late 1980s, designers began using a technique known as "[[instruction pipelining]]", in which the processor works on multiple instructions in different stages of completion. For example, the processor may be retrieving the operands for the next instruction while calculating the result of the current one. Modern CPUs may use over a dozen such stages. [[Misc|MISC]] processors achieve single-cycle execution of instructions without the need for pipelining.
A similar idea, introduced only a few years later, was to execute multiple instructions in parallel on separate arithmetic-logic units ([[ALU]]s). Instead of operating on only one instruction at a time, the CPU will look for several similar instructions that are not dependent on each other, and execute them in parallel. This approach is known as [[superscalar]] processor design.
Such techniques are limited by the degree of [[instruction level parallelism]] (ILP), the number of non-dependent instructions in the program code. Some programs are able to run very well on superscalar processors due to their inherent high ILP, notably graphics. However more general problems do not have such high ILP, thus making the achievable speedups due to these techniques to be lower.
Branching is one major culprit. For example, the program might add two numbers and branch to a different code segment if the number is bigger than a third number. In this case even if the branch operation is sent to the second ALU for processing, it still must wait for the results from the addition. It thus runs no faster than if there were only one ALU. The most common solution for this type of problem is to use a type of [[branch prediction]].
To further the efficiency of multiple functional units which are available in superscalar designs, operand register dependencies was found to be another limiting factor. To minimize these dependencies, [[out-of-order execution]] of instructions was introduced. In such a scheme, the instruction results which complete out-of-order must be re-ordered in program order by the processor for the program to be restartable after an exception. ''Out-of-Order'' execution was the main advancement of the computer industry during the [[1990s]].
A similar concept is [[speculative execution]], where instructions from both sides of a branch are executed at the same time, and the results of one side or the other are thrown out once the branch answer is known.
These advances, which were originally developed from research for RISC-style designs, allow modern CISC processors to execute twelve or more instructions per clock cycle, when traditional CISC designs could take twelve or more cycles to execute just one instruction.
The resulting instruction scheduling logic of these processors is large, complex and difficult to verify. Furthermore, the higher complexity requires more transistors, increasing power consumption and heat. In this respect RISC is superior because the instructions are simpler, have less interdependence and make superscalar implementations easier. However, as Intel has demonstrated, the concepts can be applied to a CISC design, given enough time and money.
:Historical note: Some of these techniques (e.g. pipelining) were originally developed in the late [[1950s]] by [[International Business Machines|IBM]] on their [[IBM 7030|Stretch]] mainframe computer.
=== 1990 to today: looking forward ===
====VLIW and EPIC====
The instruction scheduling logic that makes a superscalar processor is just boolean logic. In the early 1990s, a significant innovation was to realize that the coordination of a multiple-ALU computer could be moved into the [[compiler]], the software that translates a programmer's instructions into machine-level instructions.
This type of computer is called a '''[[very long instruction word]]''' (VLIW) computer.
Statically scheduling the instructions in the compiler (as opposed to letting the processor do the scheduling dynamically) can reduce CPU complexity. This can improve performance, reduce heat, and reduce cost.
Unfortunately, the compiler lacks accurate knowledge of runtime scheduling issues. Merely changing the CPU core frequency multiplier will have an effect on scheduling. Actual operation of the program, as determined by input data, will have major effects on scheduling. To overcome these severe problems a VLIW system may be enhanced by adding the normal dynamic scheduling, losing some of the VLIW advantages.
Static scheduling in the compiler also assumes that dynamically generated code will be uncommon. Prior to the creation of [[Java_virtual_machine|Java]], this was in fact true. It was reasonable to assume that slow compiles would only affect software developers. Now, with [[Just-in-time_compilation|JIT]] virtual machines for Java and [[.net]], slow code generation affects users as well.
There were several unsuccessful attempts to commercialize VLIW. The basic problem is that a VLIW computer does not scale to different price and performance points, as a dynamically scheduled computer can. Another issue is that compiler design for VLIW computers is extremely difficult, and the current crop of compilers (as of 2005) don't always produce optimal code for these platforms.
Also, VLIW computers optimise for throughput, not low latency, so they were not attractive to the engineers designing controllers and other computers embedded in machinery. The [[embedded system]]s markets had often pioneered other computer improvements by providing a large market that did not care about compatibility with older so |
ture in Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1897). Subsequent anarchist communists include Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. Many in the anarcho-syndicalist movements (see below) saw anarchist communism as their objective. Isaac Puente's 1932 Comunismo Libertario was adopted by the Spanish CNT as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society.
Some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism. Several individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty. For example, Benjamin Tucker, whilst professing respect for Kropotkin and publishing his work[http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/apx1pubs.html], described communist anarchism as "pseudo-anarchism".<ref name="tucker-pay"/>
==Propaganda of the deed==
[[Image:JohannMost.jpg|left|150px|thumb|[[Johann Most]] was an outspoken advocate of violence]]
{{main|Propaganda of the deed}}
Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts, including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[insurrection]]s, and [[terrorism]] by some anarchists. Some [[revolution]]aries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence, such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called '[[propaganda by the deed]]'.
One of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was [[Johann Most]], who said "the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion."{{fact}} Most's preferred method of terrorism, dynamite, earned him the moniker "Dynamost."
However, there is no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings. But at the same time, they denounced acts of individual terrorism. (Malatesta in "On Violence" and Bakunin when he refuted Nechaev).
Other anarchists, sometimes identified as [[anarcho-pacifists|pacifist anarchists]], advocated complete [[nonviolence]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]], whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchism]] ''(see below)'', was a notable exponent of [[nonviolent resistance]].
==Anarchism in the labour movement==
{{seealso|Anarcho-syndicalism}}
[[Image:Flag of Anarcho syndicalism.svg|thumb|175px|The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism.]]
[[Anarcho-syndicalism]] was an early 20th century working class movement seeking to overthrow capitalism and the state to institute a worker controlled society. The movement pursued [[industrial action]]s, such as [[general strike]], as a primary strategy. Many anarcho-syndicalists believed in [[anarchist communism]], though not all communists believed in syndicalism.
After the [[Paris Commune|1871 repression]] French anarchism reemerged, influencing the ''Bourses de Travails'' of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. From this movement the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]] (General Confederation of Work, CGT) was formed in 1895 as the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. [[Emile Pataud]] and [[Emile Pouget]]'s writing for the CGT saw [[libertarian communism]] developing from a [[general strike]]. After 1914 the CGT moved away from anarcho-syndicalism due to the appeal of [[Bolshevism]]. French-style syndicalism was a significant movement in Europe prior to 1921, and remained a significant movement in Spain until the mid 1940s.
The [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), founded in 1905 in the US, espoused [[industrial unionism|unionism]] and sought a [[general strike]] to usher in a stateless society. In 1923 100,000 members existed, with the support of up to 300,000. Though not explicitly anarchist, they organized by rank and file democracy, embodying a spirit of resistance that has inspired many Anglophone syndicalists.
[[Image:CNT_tu_votar_y_ellos_deciden.jpg|thumb|175px|CNT propaganda from April 2004. Reads: Don't let the politicians rule our lives/ You vote and they decide/ Don't allow it/ Unity, Action, Self-management.]]
Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's, 1900 and 1910. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Prior to the 1940s the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics. With a membership of 1.58 million in 1934, the CNT played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ''See also:'' [[Anarchism in Spain]].
Syndicalists like [[Ricardo Flores Magón]] were key figures in the [[Mexican Revolution]]. [[Latin America|Latin American]] anarchism was strongly influenced, extending to the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebellion and the [[factory occupation movements]] in Argentina. In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was joined with the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the [[First International]].
Contemporary anarcho-syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities; much smaller than in the 1910s, 20s and 30s.
The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] and the [[CNT]]. The CGT claims a paid-up membership of 60,000, and received over a million votes in Spanish [[syndical]] elections. Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]], and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]] also exists, claiming 2,000 paid members. Contemporary critics of anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are [[workerist]] and fail to deal with economic life outside work. Post-leftist critics such as [[Bob Black]] claim anarcho-syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures, such as [[Manual labour|work]] and the [[workplace]].
Anarcho-syndicalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity, [[direct action]], and self-management.
==The Russian Revolution==
{{main|Russian Revolution of 1917}}
The [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy.
Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolsheviks]] in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1918 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In [[Ukraine]] anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by [[Nestor Makhno]]).
Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, [[Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true.
The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the [[CGT]] and [[IWW]] began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the [[Comintern|Communist International]].
In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles which included [[Nestor Makhno]] concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, known as the [[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists]], was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others.
The ''Platform'' continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of 'theoretical unity', 'tactical unity', 'collective responsibility' and 'federalism'. Platformist groups today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland, the UK's [[Anarchist Federation]], and the late [[North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] in the northeastern United States and bordering Canada.
==The fight against fascism==
{{main articles|[[Anti-fascism]] and [[Anarchism in Spain]]}}
[[Image:CNT-armoured-car-factory.jpg|right|thumb|270px|[[Spain]], [[1936]]. Members of the [[CNT]] construct [[armoured car]]s to fight against the [[fascist]]s in one of the [[collectivisation|collectivised]] factories.]]
In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in [[popular front]]s with reformist democrats and Soviet-led [[Communists]] against a common fascist enemy? Luigi Fabbri, an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different:
:"Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority." {{fact}}
In France, where the fascists came close to insurrectio |
;
[[Petar Mutafchiev]] - Minister of Transport
</li>
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[[Rumen Petkov (politician)|Rumen Petkov]] - Minister of Interior
</li>
<li>
[[Stefan Danailov]] - Minister of Culture
</li>
<li>
[[Assen Gagauzov]] - Minister of Regional Development and Public Works
</li>
<li>
[[Radoslav Gaydarski]] - Minister of Health
</li>
<li>
[[Emilia Maslarova]] - Minister of Labour and Social Policy
</li>
<li>
[[Nikolay Vassilev]] - Minister for the Civil Service
</li>
<li>
[[Georgi Petkanov]] - Minister of Justice
</li>
<li>
[[Veselin Bliznakov]] - Minister of Defence
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[[Meglena Kuneva]] - Minister of European Affairs
</li>
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[[Nihat Kabil]] - Minister of Agriculture and Forestry
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[[Dzhevdet Chakarov]] - Minister of Environment and Water
</li>
</ul>
==[[Legislative branch]]==
The legislative body is the unicameral [[National Assembly of Bulgaria | National Assembly]] of 240 members elected to 4-year terms. Political parties must garner a minimum of 4% of the national vote in order to enter the Assembly. The Assembly is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the [[Prime Minister of Bulgaria | Prime Minister]] and other ministers, declaration of war and deployment of troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|1=List of political parties in Bulgaria|2=Elections in Bulgaria}}
{{Bulgarian parliamentary election, 2005}}
More info: [[Bulgarian parliamentary election, 2005]]''
{{Bulgarian presidential election, 2001}}
==[[Judicial branch]]==
Bulgaria's judicial system is independent and is managed by the [[Supreme Judicial Council of Bulgaria | Supreme Judicial Council]]. Its principal elements are the Supreme Court of Administration and the Supreme Court of Cassation, which oversee application of all laws by the lower courts and judge the legality of government acts. There is a separate Constitutional Court, which interprets the Constitution and rules on the constitutionality of laws and treaties.
==International relations==
'''International organisation participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[Australia Group]], [[BSEC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Central European Initiative|CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-9]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]] (pending member), [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], [[UN]], [[UN Security Council]] (temporary), [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNMEE]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOP]], [[UPU]], [[World Confederation of Labour|WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WEU]] (associate partner), [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee|ZC]]
==Other data==
'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
*[[Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria]] or CITUB
*[[Podkrepa Labour Confederation]]
*numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
==See also==
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Bulgaria]]
* [[Flag of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Politics of Bulgaria| ]]
[[fr:Politique de la Bulgarie]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Bułgarii]]
[[pt:Política da Bulgária]]
[[ro:Politica Bulgariei]]
[[sv:Bulgariens politik]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Bulgaria</title>
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<comment>Dab. sanctions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Bulgaria table}}
The '''economy of Bulgaria''' has contracted dramatically after [[1989]] with the collapse of the [[COMECON]] system and the loss of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] market, to which the [[Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] [[economic system|economy]] had been closely tied. The [[standard of living]] fell by about 40%, only to regain pre-[[1989]] levels in June of [[2004]]. In addition, [[United Nations|UN]] [[economic sanctions|sanctions]] against [[Serbia]] (1992-95) and [[Iraq]] took a heavy toll on the Bulgarian economy. First signs of recovery emerged when [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] grew 1.4% in [[1994]] for the first time since [[1988]], and 2.5% in [[1995]]. Inflation, which surged in 1994 to 122%, fell to 32.9% in 1995. During [[1996]], however, the economy collapsed due to the [[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]'s go-slow, mismanaged economic reforms, its disastrous [[agricultural policy]], and an unstable and decapitalized banking system, which led to inflation of 311% and the collapse of the [[lev]]. When pro-reform forces came into power in spring [[1997]], an ambitious economic reform package, including introduction of a currency board regime, was agreed with the [[IMF]] and the [[World Bank]], and the economy began to stabilize. As of [[2006]] the economy is growing at a steady pace of around 5% a year with inflation well under control. Future prospects are tied with the country's ever greater integration with EU's economic structures.
== External trade & Investment ==
Since [[1990]], the bulk of Bulgarian trade has shifted from former COMECON countries primarily to the [[European Union]], although [[Russia]]n oil exports to Bulgaria make it Bulgaria's largest single trading partner. In December 1996, Bulgaria joined the [[World Trade Organization]]. Bulgaria's slow pace of cash privatization, contradictory government tax and investment policies, and bureaucratic red tape have kept [[foreign]] investment among the lowest in the region. Total direct foreign investment from [[1991]] through [[1996]] was $831 million. [[Germany]] was the largest investor.
== Economic reforms ==
The BSP promised to move forward on cash and mass [[privatization]] upon taking office in January [[1995]] but was slow to act. The first round of mass privatization finally began in January 1996, and auctions began toward the end of that year. The second and third rounds were conducted in Spring [[1997]] under a new government. In July [[1998]], the UDF-led government and the IMF reached agreement on a 3-year loan worth about $800 million, which replaced the 14-month stand-by agreement that expired in June 1998. The loan вас used to develop financial markets, improve social safety net programs, strengthen the tax system, reform agricultural and energy sectors, and further liberalize trade. As of 2006 Bulgaria is considered a working market economy and has finalized many of the required reforms.
== Overview ==
In April 1997, the [[Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)|Union of Democratic Forces]] (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official [[growth]], but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.
==Statistics==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $66.96 billion (2005 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.4% (2005 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $9,000 (2005 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
10.1%
<br>''industry:''
30.2%
<br>''services:''
59.7% (2005)
'''Population below [[poverty line]]:'''
13.4% (2002 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
5.6%
<br>''highest 10%:''
22.8% (1997)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
26.4% (2001)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4.4% (2005 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
3.34 million (2005 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 11%, industry 32.5%, services 56.3% (2004, 3rd quarter)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
11.5% (2005)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$11.18 billion
<br>''expenditures:''
$10.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.)
'''Public debt:'''
32.4% of GDP (2005 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[electricity]], [[machine building]] and [[metal working]], [[food processing]], [[chemicals]], [[construction materials]], ferrous and nonferrous metals, [[nuclear fuel]]
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
7% (2005 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
43.07 [[TWh]] (2002)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
48%
<br>''hydro:''
8%
<br>''nuclear:''
44%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
32.71 TWh (2002)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
8.3 TWh (2002)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0.96 TWh (2002)
'''Oil - production:'''
603 ba |
kiquote}}
'''Television databases'''
* [http://www.sitcom.co.uk/fawlty_towers/ ''British Sitcom Guide'']
* [http://www.bbcamerica.com/genre/comedy_games/fawlty_towers/fawlty_towers.jsp BBC America]
* [http://tviv.org/wiki/Fawlty_Towers TV IV]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459034/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/F/htmlF/fawltytowers/fawltytowers.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
'''Fansites'''
* [http://www.btinternet.com/~c.tomlinson/fawlty1.html Unofficial Guide to ''Fawlty Towers'']
* [http://www.40towers.co.uk 40 Towers]
* [http://www.fawltytowersonline.com ''Fawlty Towers'' - Online]
* [http://www.fawltysite.net Fawltysite.net]
[[Category:British television sitcoms]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
[[da:Halløj på Badehotellet]]
[[de:Fawlty Towers]]
[[fr:L'Hôtel en folie]]
[[he:המלון של פולטי]]
[[nl:Fawlty Towers]]
[[ja:フォルティ・タワーズ]]
[[no:Hotell i særklasse]]
[[nn:Fawlty Towers]]
[[pl:Hotel Zacisze]]
[[simple:Fawlty Towers]]
[[sv:Pang i bygget]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>False friend</title>
<id>11675</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''False friends''' are pairs of words in two [[language]]s (or letters in two alphabets) that look and/or sound similar, but differ in meaning.
[[False cognate]]s, by contrast, are similar words in different languages that appear to have a common historical linguistic origin (regardless of meaning) but actually do not. The phrase ''false cognates'' is also sometimes used to mean ''false friends''.
== The problem ==
Both false friends and false cognates can cause difficulty for students learning a foreign language, particularly one that is related to their [[native language]], because the students are likely to misidentify the words due to [[language interference]]. Since false friends are a common problem for language learners, teachers sometimes compile lists of false friends as an aid for their students.
Even compilers of bilingual dictionaries are sometimes fooled by false friends, particularly when they are cognates. For example, the Spanish ''embarazada'' at first glance looks like "embarrassed," but actually means "pregnant." The best defense for the language student is to use a monolingual dictionary in the target language as a final authority.
[[Comedy]] sometimes includes [[pun]]s on false friends, which are considered particularly amusing if one of the two words is [[obscene]]; when an obscene meaning is produced in these circumstances, it is called [[cacemphaton]] (κακεμφάτον), Greek for 'bad-looking'.
== Causes ==
From the [[etymology|etymological]] point of view, false friends can be created in several ways:
* '''[[Cognate]]s'''. If Language A borrowed a word from Language B, then in one language the word shifted in meaning or had more meanings added, a [[native speaker]] of one language will face a false friend when learning the other.
:: For example, the words ''preservative'' (English), ''Präservativ'' (German), ''prezervativ'' (Romanian), ''preservativo'' (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese) and ''prezerwatywa'' (Polish) are all derived from the French ''préservatif''. However, in all of these languages except English, the predominant meaning of the word has become "[[condom]]", while the most common French word for "preservative" is now ''conservateur''. ''Actual'' has a different meaning in English than in other European languages, where it means ''current'' or ''up-to-date'', and has the logically derivative [[verb]] ''to actualize'' meaning ''to make current'' or ''to update''.
* '''[[Homonym]]s'''. In certain cases, false friends evolved separately in the two languages. Words usually change by small shifts in pronunciation accumulated over long periods and sometimes converge by chance on the same pronunciation or look despite having come from different roots.
:: For example, [[German language|German]] ''Rat'' (= ''[[council]]'') is cognate with English ''[[reading (activity)|read]]'' and German ''Rede'' (= ''[[speech]]''), while English ''[[rat]]'' for the mammal, has its German cognate ''Ratte''.
* '''Different [[alphabets]]''' / '''[[Homograph]]s'''.
:: For example, [[Roman alphabet|Roman]] "P" came to be written like [[Greek Alphabet|Greek]] "[[Rho_(letter)|Rho]]" (written "&Rho;" but pronounced as English "R"), so the Roman letter equivalent to rho was modified to "R" to keep it distinct. <!-- Chemists beware! -->
* '''[[Pseudo-anglicism]]s'''. These are artificially created words constructed from elements borrowed from English, but whose [[morpheme]]s do not actually exist in English.
::For example, in [[German language|German]]: ''Oldtimer'' refers to an old car rather than an old person, ''handy'' refers to a [[mobile telephone]], while ''Beamer'' refers to a video projector, and not a [[Beamer (cricket)|type of cricket delivery]] or a [[BMW]] automobile.
::[[Japanese language|Japanese]] is replete with pseudo-anglicisms, known as ''[[wasei-eigo]]'' ("Japan-made English"). A particularly complicated one is the word ''naitā'' which means night-time baseball game. It is derived from the American ''twi-nighter'' which is short for ''twi-night doubleheader'', baseball slang meaning two games played by the same teams in a single day, one in the afternoon and the other in the evening, usually starting at twilight and continuing into the night. The Japanese ''naitā'' is strictly Japanese baseball slang, and is unknown to American baseball fans. In English ''niter'' is a name for [[potassium nitrate]].
* '''Slang Phrases'''. Some phrases commonly used in one culture and language, may lose context when translated to another language, conveying a totally different meaning.
::For example ''I'll call you back'' means that I will call you at a later time, in reply to your call, or in a later attempt to call. However, translating literally to Spanish would end up in ''Te hablo para atras'', which actually means: ''I'll call you backwards'' or ''I talk you backwards''.
==Examples==
The [[The Parker Pen Company|Parker Pen Company]] may have experienced a case of such confusion when they were trying to translate their slogan "It won't leak in your pocket and embarrass you" for the [[Latino]] [[market]]. As they mistakenly thought ''embarazar'' meant ''to embarrass'', the Spanish slogan was proudly displayed across Latin communities as: "It won't leak in your pocket and make you pregnant".
Words like "[[hot dog]]" can come out lost in translation; [[Richard Lederer]], an author and professor of English, once went to [[Germany]] and asked a vendor for a ''heißer Hund'' (a literal translation of "hot dog"). The vendor broke out laughing, for in German, ''heißer Hund'' suggests a dog [[Estrus cycle|in heat]].
This effect may also occur, where someone with little experience of English could embarrass herself by using a false cognate when speaking with a native English-speaker. For example, a Swede could mistakenly believe that the English equivalent to the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] word ''kock'' (which means "[[cooking|cook]]" in English) is "cock". This could lead to an embarrassing situation if the Swede said something like "I like your cock" when attempting to express appreciation for the chef's cooking.
This could also happen if a person is unaware that the same word may have several different meanings. A person who likes [[steak]] rare might order a "bloody steak", because the Swedish equivalent of "rare steak" is ''blodig stek'' (''blodig'' meaning "bloody"). This might raise eyebrows at a [[restaurant]] in the [[United Kingdom]], since "bloody" is also a mild expletive in that country, although most British waiters would understand the customer's request. Another example is that the Japanese word "大出血" means [[big sale]], while the same words in Chinese means heavy bleeding.
Mistakes can also occur between very closely related languages. In German, ''Huren'' means "[[whore]]s", in Dutch ''huren'' means "to rent", and ''Huursoldat'' means "[[mercenary]]", not "whore soldier".
==See also ==
*[[List of false friends]]
*[[Embarazado]]
== External links ==
* [http://german.about.com/library/weekly/aa030199.htm German/English false friends]
* [http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa101899.htm Spanish/English false friends]
* [http://french.about.com/library/fauxamis/blfauxam_a.htm French/English false friends]
* [http://home.att.net/~keiichiro/janglish/list.html Japanese/English false friends]
* [http://www.btk.elte.hu/delg/people/core/lazar/falsefriends.html Hungarian/English false friends]
* [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words/false_friends.htm List of German/English false friends]
* [[wikibooks:False Friends of the Slavist|Bilingual lists of Slavic false friends]] (a comprehensive collection at Wikibooks)
== References ==
* Geoff Parkes and Alan Cornell (1992), 'NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates', National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group.
[[Category:Language comparison]]
[[bg:Фалшиви приятели]]
[[de:Falscher Freund]]
[[es:Falso amigo]]
[[eo:Falsa amiko]]
[[fr:Faux-ami]]
[[hu:Hamis barát]]
[[nl:Valse vriend]]
[[no:Falske venner]]
[[fi:Väärät ystävät]]
[[sv:Falska vänner]]
[[zh:伪友]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>False cognate</title>
<id>11676</id>
<revision>
<id>40405608</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T08:41:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jake |
.
* [[Algebra]]
** Every [[vector space]] has a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]]. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** Every unital [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] other than the trivial ring contains a [[maximal ideal]].
** Every [[field (mathematics)|field]] has an [[algebraic closure]].
** Every [[field extension]] has a [[transcendence basis]].
** Every [[category (category theory)|category]] has a [[skeleton (category theory)|skeleton]].
** [[Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras]] needs the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]].
** The [[Nielsen-Schreier theorem]], that every subgroup of a free group is free.
** The [[additive group]]s of '''[[real numbers|R]]''' and '''[[complex numbers|C]]''' are isomorphic. [http://www.cs.nyu.edu/pipermail/fom/2006-February/009959.html]
* [[Functional analysis]]
** The [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] in [[functional analysis]], allowing the extension of [[linear map|linear functionals]]
** The theorem that every [[Hilbert space]] has an orthonormal basis.
** The [[Banach-Alaoglu theorem]] about [[compactness]] of sets of functionals.
** The [[Baire category theorem]] about [[complete space|complete]] [[metric space]]s, and its consequences, such as the [[open mapping theorem]] and the [[closed graph theorem]].
* [[General topology]]
** [[Tychonoff's theorem]] stating that every [[product topology|product]] of [[compact]] [[topological space]]s is compact. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** In the product topology, the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures.
** Any product of [[complete space|complete]] [[uniform space]]s is complete.
** A uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded.
** Every [[Tychonoff space]] has a [[Stone-Cech compactification]].
== Results requiring ¬AC ==
There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false. We will abbreviate "Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice" by ZF¬C. For certain models of ZF¬C, it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts.
Note that any model of ZF¬C is also a model of ZF, so for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true.
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a function ''f'' from the real numbers to the real numbers such that ''f'' is not continuous at ''a'', but for any sequence {''x<sub>n</sub>''} converging to ''a'', lim<sub>''n''</sub> f(''x<sub>n</sub>'')=f(a).
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which real numbers are a countable union of countable sets.
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a field with no algebraic closure.
*In all models of ZF¬C there is a vector space with no basis.
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities.
For proofs, see Thomas Jech, ''The Axiom of Choice'', American Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, 1973.
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which every set in R<sup>''n''</sup> is [[measurable]]. Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] which are provable in ZFC. Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the [[Axiom of dependent choice]], which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of [[real analysis]].
*In all models of ZF¬C, the [[Continuum hypothesis|generalized continuum hypothesis]] does not hold.
== Results requiring choice in intuitionistic logic, though not classically ==
Interestingly, in various varieties of [[constructive logic]] (in particular, [[intuitionistic logic]]) in which the [[law of excluded middle]] is not assumed, the assumption of the axiom of choice is sufficient to obtain the law of excluded middle as a theorem. To see this, for any proposition <math>P\,,</math> let <math>U\,</math> be the set <math>\{x \in \{0, 1\} : (x = 0) \vee P\}</math> and let <math>V\,</math> be the set <math>\{x \in \{0, 1\} : (x = 1) \vee P\}</math> (see [[Set-builder notation]]). By the axiom of choice, there will exist a choice function <math>f\,</math> for the set <math>\{U, V\}\,</math> (note that, although the axiom of choice isn't classically required in order to obtain choice functions for finite sets, it is necessary here in intuitionistic logic). Since <math>f(U) \in U</math> and <math>f(V) \in V</math>, this implies <math>[(f(U) = 0) \vee P] \wedge [(f(V) = 1) \vee P]</math>, which implies <math>f(U) \neq f(V) \vee P</math>. Since <math>P\,</math> implies <math>U = V = \{0, 1\}\,</math>, it must be that <math>P\,</math> implies <math>f(U) = f(V)\,</math>, so <math>f(U) \neq f(V) \vee P</math> would imply <math>\neg P \vee P</math>. As this could be done for any proposition <math>P\,</math>, this completes the proof that the axiom of choice implies the law of the excluded middle.
The above proof is not valid in all intuitionistic deductive systems. For example, in the [[intuitionistic type theory]] of [[Per Martin-Löf]], the axiom of choice is a theorem, yet excluded middle is not.
== Quotes ==
:The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the [[Well-ordering theorem|well-ordering principle]] obviously false, and who can tell about [[Zorn's lemma]]?
::&mdash;&nbsp;[[Jerry Bona]]
:::This is a joke that although the axiom of choice, the well-ordering principle, and Zorn's lemma are mathematically equivalent, most mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-ordering principle to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex for any intuition.
:The Axiom of Choice is necessary to select a set from an infinite number of socks, but not an infinite number of shoes.
::&mdash;&nbsp;[[Bertrand Russell]]
:::The observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example, to choose the left shoe. Without the axiom of choice, one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks, because left and right socks are (presumably) identical to each other.
:The axiom gets its name not because mathematicians prefer it to other axioms.
::&mdash;&nbsp;[[A. K. Dewdney]]
:::From the famous [[April Fool's Day]] article in the ''computer recreations'' column of the ''[[Scientific American]]'', April 1989.
== External links ==
* There are many people still doing work on the axiom of choice and its consequences. If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ Paul Howard at EMU].
== References ==
* Zermelo, Ernst, "Beweis, dass jede Menge wohlgeordnet werden kann", ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'', '''59''', 514-516, 1904
* Zermelo, Ernst, "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I", ''Mathematische Annalen'', '''65''', 261-281, 1908
[[Category:Axioms of set theory]]
[[Category:Model theory]]
[[cs:Axiom výběru]]
[[da:Udvalgsaksiomet]]
[[de:Auswahlaxiom]]
[[fr:Axiome du choix]]
[[ko:선택공리]]
[[it:Assioma della scelta]]
[[he:אקסיומת הבחירה]]
[[hu:Kiválasztási axióma]]
[[nl:Keuzeaxioma]]
[[ja:選択公理]]
[[pl:Aksjomat wyboru]]
[[pt:axioma da escolha]]
[[ru:Аксиома выбора]]
[[sv:Urvalsaxiomet]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Attila the Hun</title>
<id>841</id>
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<revision>
<id>41933099</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:47:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ghirlandajo</username>
<id>147410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Appearance, character, and name */ [[List of Hunnish rulers]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''For other uses, see [[Attila (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Checa-HunCharge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Huns]], led by Attila (right, foreground), ride into [[Italy]].]]
'''Attila the Hun''' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Atle, Atli''; [[Middle High German]]: ''Etzel''; ca. [[406]]&ndash;[[453]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]) was the last and most powerful king of the [[Huns]]. <!--He was from [[Bulgars]] [[clan]] of [[Dulo]]. This information looks bogus. References please--> He reigned over what was then [[Europe]]'s largest [[empire]], from [[434]] until his death. His empire stretched from [[Central Europe]] to the [[Black Sea]] and from the [[Danube|Danube River]] to the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]. During his rule he was among the direst enemies of the Eastern and Western [[Roman Empire]]s: he invaded the [[Balkans]] twice and encircled [[Constantinople]] in the second invasion. He marched through [[Gaul]] (later [[France]]) as far as [[Orleans]] before being turned back at [[Battle of Chalons|Chalons]]; and he drove the western emperor [[Valentinian III]] from his [[capital]] at [[Ravenna]] in [[452]].
Though his empire died with him and he left no remarkable [[legacy]], he has become a legendary figure in the [[history of Europe]]. In much of [[Western Europe]], he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. In contrast, some histories lionize him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three [[Norse saga]]s.
==Background and beginnings==
:''Main article: [[Huns]]''
The European [[Huns]] are often thought to have been a western extension of the [[Xiongnu]] (''Xiōngnú''), (匈奴) n., a group of [[nomad]] tribes from north-eastern [[China]] and [[Central Asia]]. These people achieved military superiority over their rivals (most of them highly cultured and civilized) by their state of readiness for combat, amazing mobility, and weapons like the [[Hun bow]].
Attila was born around 406. Nothing certain is known about his childhood; the supposition that at a young age he was al |
pal '''symbols''' always found in a lodge are the ''square and [[Compass (drafting)|compasses]]''. However, as Freemasonry is non-dogmatic, there is no general interpretation for any of these symbols. <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref>
The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open ''Volume of the Sacred Law'' (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually the [[King James Version of the Bible]] or another standard translation (there is no such thing as an exclusive "Masonic Bible". <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> It is otherwise whatever book a particular jurisdiction authorizes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used.
A candidate for a degree will normally be given his choice of VSL for his Obligation according to his beliefs. Christian candiates will typically use the Lodge's Bible. Those of other religions may choose another holy book, which can be but is not necessarily limited to the [[Torah]] for Jewish candidates, the [[Qur'an]] for Moslem canidates, the [[Vedas]] for Hindu candidates, or another appropriate scripture. Buddhist candidates can select from the [[Tipitaka]] or [[Mahayana]][[Sutras]], many selecting the [[Dhammapada]]. In these situations the Lodge's usual VSL is displayed alongside the candidate's. In lodges with a mixed religious membership it is not uncommon to find more than one sacred text displayed, each representing the religious beliefs of the individuals present.
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual by the attributes of ''Grand Geometer,'' or ''Great Architect of the Universe'' (G.A.O.T.U.). Freemasons use a variety of forms of words in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.
===Degrees===
The degrees of ''Craft'' or ''Blue Lodge'' Freemasonry are those of:
# Entered Apprentice (EA)
# Fellow Craft (FC)
# Master Mason (MM)
As a Freemason works through the '''degrees''', and studies the lessons they contain, he interprets them for himself. No Mason is dictated to as to the interpretation he personally gives, bounded only by the Constitution within which he works. <ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> A common structure of speaking symbolically, and universal human archetypes, provides for each Freemason a means to come to his own answers to life's important philosophical questions. Especially in Europe, Freemasons working through the degrees are asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present these papers in an open Lodge.
There is no Masonic degree higher than that of Master Mason<ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft</ref>. Although some Masonic bodies and orders have degrees named with higher numbers, these degrees are considered to be supplements to the Master Mason degree rather than promotions from it<ref>Beyond the Craft: The Indispensable Guide to Masonic Orders Practised in England and Wales, Kieth B Jackson</ref> . Nevertheless, it is essential for one to be a Master Mason in order to qualify for these further degree bodies, each of which is organized and administered more or less similarly to Freemasonry itself. In each organization there is a system of offices which confer rank within that degree or order alone.
====Signs of the three Degrees====
As published in Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827
<gallery>
Image:Masonsigns1.gif
Image:Masonsigns2.gif
Image:Masonsigns3.gif
Image:Masonsigns4.gif
</gallery>
====Oaths of the three Degrees====
According to Capt. Wm Morgan in his Illustrations of Masonry, the oaths of the three Degrees are
=====In the First Degree, Apprentice =====
He swears, with his hand on the Bible, "I (name), in the presence of Almighty God, most solemnly promise and swear that I will always hail, ever conceal, and never reveal any of the arts, parts of points of the hidden mysteries of Freemasonry... binding myself under the penalty than that of having my throat cut across, my tongue torn out, and my body buried in the rough sands of the see..." <ref>[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/captmorgansfreemasonrycontents.htm Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827]</ref>
=====The Second Degree, Fellow Craft =====
He swears on the Bible, in the presence of Almighty God, "under the penalty than of having my breast open... and my heart and lungs thrown over my left shoulder... so help me God". <ref>[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/captmorgansfreemasonrycontents.htm Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827]</ref>
=====The Third Degree, Master Mason =====
He swears "under the penalty than that of having my body severed in two, my bowels taken from thence and burn to ashes... so help me God". <ref>[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/captmorgansfreemasonrycontents.htm Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827]</ref>
===Landmarks===
The '''Landmarks''' are the ancient and unchangeable precepts of Masonry, the standards by which the regularity of a Freemasonic Lodge and Grand Lodges are judged. Each Grand Lodge is self-governing and no single authority exists over the whole of Freemasonry. The interpetation of these principles can and do vary, leading to controversies of recognition.
The concept of Masonic Landmarks appears in Masonic regulations as early as 1723, and seems to have been adopted from the regulations of operative masonic guilds. Nowadays the term ''Landmark'' is generally understood by the definition of Dr. Albert Gallatin Mackey, who laid down three requisite characteristics, namely: (1) immemorial antiquity (2) universality (3) absolute irrevocability.
In 1856, Mackey attempted to set down the actual Landmarks as he saw them. He determined there were 25 in all. Seven years later, in 1863, George Oliver published Freemason's Treasury in which he listed 40 Landmarks. In the last century, a number of American Grand Lodges attempted the daunting task of enumerating the Landmarks, ranging from West Virginia (7) and New Jersey (10) to Nevada (39) and Kentucky (54). <ref>[http://www.srmason-sj.org/web/journal-files/Issues/Feb02/botelho.htm ''Masonic Landmarks''], by Bro. Michael A. Botelho. Accessed [[7 February]] [[2006]].</ref>
{{Endspoiler}}
==History of Freemasonry==
{{Mergeto|History of Freemasonry}}
{{main|History of Freemasonry}}
===Origin theories===
Freemasonry is a ''system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbol'' and in the ritual context employs an ellegorical foundation myth of foundation of the fraternity by the builders of King Solomon’s Temple.
Beyond myth, there is a distinct absence of documentation as to Freemasonry’s origins, which has led to a great deal of speculation among historians, both from within and from outside the fraternity. Hundreds of books have been written on the subject. Much of the content of these books is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may very well be permanently lost to history.
Freemasonry has variously been attributed to <ref>''A History of Freemasonry'' by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''ca'' 1927 </ref> :
*an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons, <ref>''The Origins of Freemasonry: Scotland's Century, 1590-1710'' by David Stevenson, pub ''Cambridge'' 1990</ref><ref>''English Speculative Freemasonry: Some possible Origins, Themes and Developments. The Prestonian Lecture for 2004 in Ars Quatuor Coronatum 2004'' by Trevor Stewart, pub ''London'' 2005</ref>
*a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the [[Knights Templar]])<ref>''The History of Freemasonry'' by Albert G. Mackey, Gramercy Books, 1996 , pp.217-266, secs. "Freemasonry and the Crusades" & "The Story of the Scottish Templars"</ref><ref name="knighttemplars">Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, pp. 203-208, sec. "A crash course in Templar history"</ref>
*an offshoot of the ancient [[Mystery schools]], <ref>''The Hiram Key: Pharoahs, Freemasons and the Discovery of the Secret Scrolls of Christ'' by Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas, pub ''London'' 1997</ref>
*an administrative arm of the [[Priory of Sion]],<ref>''The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail'' by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, pub ''London'', 2005</ref>
*the intellectual descendants of the Roman Collegia<ref>''Freemasonry and the Roman Collegia'' by H.L. Haywood, The Builder, 1923 [http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/collegia.html &mdash; Freemasonry and the Roman Collegia]</ref>,
*the intellectual descendants of the [[Comacine masters]]<ref>''Freemasonry and the Comacine masters'' by H.L. Haywood, The Builder, 1923 [http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/comacine.html &mdash; Freemasonry and the Comacine Masters]</ref>,
*the intellectual descendants of [[Noah]]<ref>''The History of Freemasonry'' by Albert G. Mackey, Gramercy Books, 1996 , pp.406-411, sec. "Noah and the Noachites"</ref> or [[Enoch]]<ref>''The History of Freemasonry'' by Albert G. Mackey, Gramercy Books, 1996 , pp.396-405, sec. "The Legend of Enoch"</ref>,
*survivor of late 17th Century, enlight |
eatures/index/country.cfm?id=Belarus Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom - Belarus]
# {{Note|demographics}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bo.html#People CIA World Factbook (2005) - Belarus - People]
# {{Note|census}} [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbpyrs.pl?cty=BO&out=s&ymax=250 US Census Bureau Populatiom Pyramid - Belarus]
# {{note|festivals}} [http://www.belarusembassy.org/belarus/culture.htm Belarusian festivals]
# {{Note|UNSECO}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/by UNESCO list of Belarusian World Heritage Sites]
</div>
==External links==
{{portal}}
{{Sisterlinks|Belarus}}
*[http://www.osw.waw.pl/files/report_bielarus_eng.pdf Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, OSW; Centre for Eastern Studies, Warsaw: Belarus – The EU’s unknown neighbour The political, social and economic situation of Belarus]
===Governmental websites===
* [http://www.president.gov.by/eng/ President's official site]
* [http://www.government.by/ru/rus_news.html Government of Belarus (ru)]
* [http://www.belarusembassy.org/ Embassy of Belarus in the United States (en)]
===Informational/Cultural===
* [http://www.belarus-misc.org/ A Belarus Miscellany]
* [http://www.belarusguide.com/ The Virtual Guide of Belarus]
* [http://www.belarusinside.org/index_en.html Belarus Inside - Belarus by Belarusians]
* [http://www.about-belarus.info/ Web directory of Belarusian topics]
* [http://imc-by.hardcore.lt Indymedia Belarus]
* [http://aci.byelarus.com/ ACI Minsk. Info Guides]
* [http://cp.settlement.org/english/belarus/eating.html Eating the Belarusian way]
* [http://www.belarusembassy.org/belarus/culture.htm Belarusian festivals]
<!--Templates-->
{{Commonwealth of Independent States}}
{{Eurasian Economic Community}}
{{Europe}}
<!--Category-->
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[[be:Беларусь]]
[[bn:বেলারুশ]]
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[[cv:Белоруси]]
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[[da:Hviderusland]]
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[[gl:Bielorrusia - Беларусь]]
[[ko:벨라루스]]
[[hy:Բելառուս]]
[[hi:बेलारूस]]
[[hr:Bjelorusija]]
[[io:Bielorusia]]
[[id:Belarus]]
[[is:Hvíta-Rússland]]
[[it:Bielorussia]]
[[he:בלארוס]]
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[[lb:Wäissrussland]]
[[li:Wit-Rösland]]
[[hu:Belarusz]]
[[mr:बेलारूस]]
[[ms:Belarus]]
[[mo:Беларус]]
[[na:Belarus]]
[[nl:Wit-Rusland]]
[[nds:Wittrussland]]
[[ja:ベラルーシ]]
[[no:Hviterussland]]
[[nn:Kviterussland]]
[[oc:Bielorussia]]
[[pl:Białoruś]]
[[pt:Bielorrússia]]
[[ro:Belarus]]
[[ru:Белоруссия]]
[[sa:बेलारूस]]
[[sq:Bjellorusia]]
[[sh:Belorusija]]
[[simple:Belarus]]
[[sk:Bielorusko]]
[[sl:Belorusija]]
[[sr:Белорусија]]
[[fi:Valko-Venäjä]]
[[sv:Vitryssland]]
[[tl:Belarus]]
[[th:ประเทศเบลารุส]]
[[vi:Belarus]]
[[tr:Beyaz Rusya]]
[[uk:Білорусь]]
[[ur:بیلاروس]]
[[yi:בעלאָרוסיע]]
[[zh:白俄罗斯]]
[[fiu-vro:Valgõvinne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belize</title>
<id>3458</id>
<revision>
<id>42160047</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:28:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stangoldsmith</username>
<id>944646</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Belize infobox}}
'''Belize''' is a small nation on the eastern coast of [[Central America]], on the [[Caribbean Sea]] bordered by [[Mexico]] to the northwest and [[Guatemala]] to the west and south. The country is a [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[constitutional monarchy]] which recognizes [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] as Sovereign. The nation of [[Honduras]] lies 75 [[kilometre|km]] away (47&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) across the [[Gulf of Honduras]] to the east. The name is derived from the [[Belize River]] which [[Belize City]], the former capital and largest city, is also named after. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] it is usually called ''Belice''. Known as [[British Honduras]] until 1973, Belize was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colonialism|colony]] for more than a century. It became an independent nation in 1981. Belize is a member of [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM) and the [[Sistema de Integracion Centro Americana]] (SICA) and considers itself to be both [[Caribbean]], and [[Central American]].
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Belize]]''
[[Image:Xunantunich1976.jpg|thumb|left|Xunantunich, Belize]]
The [[Maya civilization]] spread over Belize between [[1500 BC]] and [[Anno Domini|AD]] 300 and flourished until about AD 900.
The first [[Europe]]ans arrived in the area in the early [[16th century]] and settlement began with British [[privateer]]s and [[shipwreck]]ed [[England|English]] seamen as early as 1638.
The origin of the name '''Belize''' is not clear but one explanation is that it derives from the Spanish [[pronunciation]] of Wallace, the name of the pirate who created the first settlement in Belize in 1638. Another possibility is that the name is from the Maya word belix, meaning "muddy water", applied to the Belize River.
The early "settlement of Belize in the Bay of Honduras" grew from a few habitations located at Belize Town and St George's Caye, into a de-facto colony of the [[United Kingdom]] during the late [[18th century]]. In the early [[19th century]], the settlement was called the British Honduras, and in 1862 it became a Crown Colony.
[[Hurricane]] [[Hattie]] inflicted significant damage upon Belize in 1961. The government decided that a coastal capital city lying below sea level was too [[risk]]y. Over several years, the British colonial government designed a new capital [[Belmopan]] at the exact geographic centre of the country, and in 1970 began slowly moving the governing offices there.
British Honduras became a [[self-governing colony]] in January 1964 and was renamed ''Belize'' in June 1973; it was the United Kingdom's last colony on the American mainland. [[George Cadle Price|George Price]] led the country to full independence on [[21 September]], [[1981]] after delays caused by territorial disputes with neighbouring [[Guatemala]], which did not formally recognise the country until 1992.
Throughout Belize's history, [[Guatemala]] has claimed ownership of all or part of the territory. This claim is occasionally reflected in [[map]]s showing Belize as Guatemala's most eastern [[province]]. As of 2005, the border dispute with Guatemala remains unresolved and quite contentious, at various times the issue has involved mediation assistance from the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Caribbean Community|CARICOM]] heads of Government. Since independence, a British garrison has been retained in Belize at the request of the Belizean Government. Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project (for more information see: www.guatemalabelize.com ).
Belize was recently the site of [[2005 Belize unrest|unrest]] directed at the country's ruling party concerning tax increases in the national budget.
== Politics ==
[[Image:Protest 0082.JPG|thumb|Belizian protests, 21st January 2005]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Belize]]''
Belize is a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[democracy]] and a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The [[head of state]] is currently [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], represented in the country by a [[governor-general]], who must be a Belizean.
The primary [[executive (government)|executive]] organ of government is the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], led by a [[Prime Minister of Belize|prime minister]] who is [[head of government]]. Cabinet ministers are members of the majority political party in parliament and usually hold elected seats within it concurrently with their cabinet positions.
The bicameral Belizean [[parliament]] is the National Assembly, which consists of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[Senate]]. The 29 members of the House are popularly elected to a maximum 5-year term. Of the Senate's eight members, five are chosen by the prime minister, two by the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general on the advice of the Belize Advisory Council. The Senate is headed by a president, who is a nonvoting member appointed by the governing party.
Belize is a full participating member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]].
== Districts ==
[[Image:BelizeNumbered.png|125px|framed|]]
:''Main article: [[Districts of Belize]]''
Belize consists of six districts:
# [[Belize District]]
# [[Cayo District]]
# [[Corozal District]]
# [[Orange Walk District]]
# [[Stann Creek District]]
# [[Toledo District]]
== Geography ==
[[Image:Belize_map.png|thumb|left|Map of Belize]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Belize]]''
Belize is located between the [[Hondo River|Hondo]] and [[Sarstoon River]]s, with the [[Belize River]] flowing down in the centre of the country. The north of Belize consists mostly of flat, swampy coastal plains, in places heavily forested. The south contains the low [[mountain range]] of the [[Maya Mountains]], whose [[Victoria Peak]] is the highest point in Belize at 1,160 [[metre]]s (3,806&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length|ft]]). The [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] coast is lined with a [[coral reef]] and islands known locally as ''cayes'', pronounced "keys". Belize is home to the longest barrier reef in the western hemisphere and the second longest in the world after the [[Great Barrier Reef]].
The [[climate]] is [[Tropics|tropical]] and generally very hot and humid. The rainy season lasts from |
n>
<id>40629937</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:07:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.106.252.32</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed "Sport" to "Equistrian" to avoid ambiguities. There are plenty on non-equistrian sports that have exhibition events. And some sports, like ice skating, the performance is an exhibition.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
'''Exhibition''' is a word with several meanings.
==Display==
An '''exhibition''' is a display of items. This can be an art exhibition, computer exposition or an industrial exhibition like a [[World's Fair]]. A more recent word for this is [[expo]].
===Kinds of exhibition===
*[[art exhibition]] &mdash; see category [[:category:Art exhibitions|art exhibitions]]
*[[computer expo]] &mdash; see category [[:category:Computer-related events and awards|computer-related events and awards]]
*[[Exhibition (film)|film exhibition]]
*[[marketing]]
*[[museum]]s have limited engagement displays, called exhibitions; &mdash; see [[:Category:Museums|Museums]]
*[[science fair]]
*[[state fair]]
*[[trade fair]] &mdash; see category [[:category:trade shows|trade shows]]
*[[world exhibition]] &mdash; see category [[:category:World's Fairs|World's Fairs]]
*[[traveling exhibit]]s &mdash; see category [[:category:traveling exhibits|traveling exhibits]]
==Equistrian==
'''Exhibition''' is a sport involving horse and riders. Rather than being exhibition sports, these equestrian events are more usually considered as competitive events. There are a range of competitive equestrian events, but the so-called "English" events are dressage, showjumping (and hunter jumpers in the US), the three-day event (or horse trials), and showing (pleasure horse events, where the event is judged on presentation, equitation, and rideablity of the horse). Showjumping, eventing and dressage are the Olympic events, because they are the equestrian sports included in the Olympic Games. The Western competition events include the working cattle events, cutting and [[Campdrafting|campdrafting]] (an Australian sport), [[barrel racing|barrel-racing]] and reining (sometimes called the Western version of dressage), amongst others. The trail events are endurance riding, and the judged trail events.
==Grant to a student==
At the universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], an '''exhibition''' is a financial award or grant to an individual student (an "[[exhibitioner]]"), normally on grounds of merit. The amount is less than a [[scholarship]].
==Exhibition game==
An [[exhibition game]] is a sports game played without competitive implications.
==See also==
*[[exhibitionism]]
*[[Exhibition hall|Convention center]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/1492.exhibit/Intro.html 1492 Exhibit]
*[http://exhibits.aculture.info Digital Photography Exhibit]
[[Category:Exhibitions|*]]
[[de:Ausstellung]]
[[he:תערוכה]]
[[nl:Tentoonstelling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Embedded systems</title>
<id>9965</id>
<revision>
<id>15907814</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-29T16:39:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>singular =&gt; Embedded system</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Embedded system]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elliptic curve cryptography</title>
<id>9966</id>
<revision>
<id>39379450</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T20:00:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davidgothberg</username>
<id>109101</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Template:Public-key cryptography</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)''' is an approach to [[public-key cryptography]] based on the [[mathematics]] of [[elliptic curve]]s over [[finite field]]s. The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested independently by [[Neal Koblitz]] {{ref|koblitz}} and [[Victor S. Miller]] {{ref|miller}} in [[1985]].
Elliptic curves are also used in several [[integer factorization]] [[algorithm]]s that have applications in cryptography, such as, for instance, [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]], but this use of elliptic curves is ''not'' usually referred to as "elliptic curve cryptography."
==Introduction==
[[Elliptic curve]]s used in cryptography are defined over two types of [[finite field]]s: fields of odd [[Characteristic_(algebra)#The case of fields|characteristic]] (<math>\mathbb{F}_p</math>, where <math>p > 3</math> is a large prime number) and fields of characteristic two (<math>\mathbb{F}_{2^m}</math>). When the distinction is not important we denote both of them as <math>\mathbb{F}_q</math>, where <math>q=p</math> or <math>q=2^m</math>. In <math>\mathbb{F}_p</math> the elements are [[integer]]s (<math>0 \le x < p</math>) which are combined using [[modular arithmetic]]. The case of <math>\mathbb{F}_{2^m}</math> is slightly more complicated (see [[finite field arithmetic]] for details): there are several possible representations of the field elements as bitstrings and thus an irreducible binary polynomial <math>f(x)</math> of degree <math>m</math> shall be specified.
Pairs of affine coordinates <math>(x,y)</math>, where <math>x \in \mathbb{F}_q</math> and <math>y \in \mathbb{F}_q</math>, form a plane <math>\mathbb{F}_q \times \mathbb{F}_q</math>. Among all of them we consider only those which satisfy the elliptic curve equation and the point at infinity <math>O</math>. In the prime case the ''defining equation'' of <math>E(\mathbb{F}_p)</math> is as follows: <math>y^2 = x^3 + a x + b</math>, where <math>a \in \mathbb{F}_p</math> and <math>b \in \mathbb{F}_p</math> are constants such that <math>4 a^3 + 27 b^2 \ne 0</math>. In the binary case the defining equation <math>E(\mathbb{F}_{2^m})</math> is <math>y^2 + x y = x^3 + a x^2 + b</math>, where <math>a \in \mathbb{F}_{2^m}</math> and <math>b \in \mathbb{F}_{2^m}</math> are constants and <math>b \ne 0</math>. Although the point at infinity <math>O</math> has no affine coordinates, it is convenient to use some pair of coordinates which does not satisfy the defining equation, for example, <math>O=(0,0)</math> if <math>b \ne 0</math> and <math>O=(0,1)</math> otherwise. According to the [[Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves]] the number of point on a curve is roughly the same as the size of the underlying field: <math>|E(\mathbb{F}_q)| = q + 1 \pm 2\sqrt{q}</math>.
For every two points on a curve (<math>P \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math> and <math>Q \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math>) it is possible to find the third point <math>R = P + Q \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math> such that certain relations hold for all points on the curve
* <math>(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)</math>
* <math>A+O = O+A = A</math>
* there exists <math>(-A)</math> such that <math>-A + A = A + (-A) = O</math>
* A+B = B+A
and thus the set of all the points is an additive [[abelian group]] <math>(E(\mathbb{F}), +)</math>.
We already specified how <math>O</math> is defined. The negative of the point <math>P = (x,y)</math> is defined as <math>-P = (x,-y)</math> for <math>P \in E(\mathbb{F}_p)</math> and <math>-P = (x,x+y)</math> for <math>P \in E(\mathbb{F}_{2^m})</math>. The exact addition rules are as follows:
* if <math>Q = O</math> then <math>P + Q = P</math>
* if <math>Q = -P</math> then <math>P + Q = O</math>
* if <math>Q = P</math> then <math>P + Q = R</math>, where
** in the prime case <math>x_R = \lambda^2 - 2 x_P</math>, <math>y_R = \lambda(x_P - x_R) - y_P</math>, and <math>\lambda = \frac{3 x_P^2 + a}{2 y_P}</math>, or
** in the binary case <math>x_R = \lambda^2 + \lambda + a</math>, <math>y_R = x_P^2 + (\lambda + 1) x_R</math>, and <math>\lambda = x_P + \frac{y_P}{x_P}</math>
* if <math>Q \ne P</math> then <math>P + Q = R</math>, where
** in the prime case <math>x_R = \lambda^2 - x_P - x_Q</math>, <math>y_R = \lambda(x_P - x_R) - y_P</math>, and <math>\lambda = \frac{y_Q-y_P}{x_Q-x_P}</math>, or
** in the binary case <math>x_R = \lambda^2 + \lambda + x_P + x_Q + a</math>, <math>\lambda (x_P + x_R) + x_R + y_P</math>, and <math>\lambda = \frac{y_P + y_Q}{x_P + x_Q}</math>
[http://www.certicom.com/index.php?action=ecc_tutorial,home Certicom's Online ECC Tutorial] contains a Java applet that can be used to experiment with addition in different EC groups.
We already described the underlying field <math>\mathbb{F}_q</math> and the group of points of elliptic curve <math>E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math> but there is yet another mathematical structure commonly used in cryptography &mdash; a [[cyclic group|cyclic]] [[subgroup]] of <math>E(\mathbb{F}_q)</math>. For any point <math>G</math> the set <math>(O, G, G+G, G+G+G, G+G+G+G, \ldots)</math> is a cyclic group. It is convenient to use the following notation: <math>0 G = O</math>, <math>1 G = G</math>, <math>2G = G+G</math>, <math>3G = G+G+G</math> |
toes.
==A classification of dogs==
Note that the subdivision of Canidae into "foxes" and "true dogs" may not be in accordance with the actual relations, and that the [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomic]] classification of several canines is disputed. Recent [[DNA]] analysis has shown, however, that Canini and Vulpini are valid [[cladistics|clades]], with the exception of two [[genus|genera]]: ''Nyctereutes'' and ''Otocyon''. These are canid "[[outgroup]]s" and are not closely related to vulpines nor canines. ''Speothos'' and ''Chrysocyon'' are primitive members of Canini, but might be placed in their own clade. ''Cuon'' may in fact be part of ''Canis'' and there is evidence that ''Alopex'' and ''Fennecus'' are not valid clades, but are both part of ''Vulpes''. The [[dog|Domestic Dog]] is listed by some authorities as ''Canis familiaris'' and others (including the [[Smithsonian Institution]] and the American Society of Mammalogists) as a subspecies of the Wolf (i.e., ''Canis lupus familiaris''); the [[Red Wolf]] may or may not be a full species; and the [[Dingo]], which is variously classified as ''Canis lupus dingo'', ''Canis dingo'' and ''Canis familiaris dingo''.
* '''True dogs''' - Tribe Canini
** Genus ''[[Canis]]''
*** [[Coyote]], ''Canis latrans''
*** [[Wolf]], ''Canis lupus''
**** [[dog|Domestic Dog]], ''Canis lupus familiaris''
**** [[Dingo]], ''Canis lupus dingo'' or ''Canis lupus familiaris dingo''
**** many other proposed subspecies
*** [[Red Wolf]], ''Canis rufus'' or ''Canis lupus rufus''
*** [[Ethiopian Wolf]], ''Canis simensis'' (also called Abyssinian Wolf, Simien Fox and Simien Jackal)
*** [[Jackal]]
**** [[Golden Jackal]], ''Canis aureus''
**** [[Side-striped Jackal]], ''Canis adustus''
**** [[Black-backed jackal]], ''Canis mesomelas''
** Genus ''Lycaon''
*** [[African Hunting Dog]], ''Lycaon pictus'' (also called African Wild Dog)
** Genus ''Cuon''
*** [[Dhole]], ''Cuon alpinus''
** Genus ''Nyctereutes''
*** [[Raccoon Dog]], ''Nyctereutes procyonoides''
** Genus ''Atelocynus''
*** [[Short-eared Dog]], ''Atelocynus microtis''
** Genus ''Speothos''
*** [[Bush Dog]], ''Speothos venaticus''
** Genus ''Chrysocyon''
*** [[Maned Wolf]], ''Chrysocyon brachyurus''
** (Genus ''Dusicyon'' extinct)
*** ([[Falkland Island fox|Falkland Island Fox]], ''Dusicyon australis'' extinct)
** Genus ''[[Pseudalopex]]''
*** [[Culpeo]], ''Pseudalopex culpaeus''
*** [[Darwin's Fox]], ''Pseudalopex fulvipes''
*** [[Argentine Grey Fox]], ''Pseudalopex griseus''
*** [[Pampas Fox]], ''Pseudalopex gymnocercus''
*** [[Sechura Fox]], ''Pseudalopex sechurae''
*** [[Hoary Fox]], ''Pseudalopex vetulus''
** Genus ''Cerdocyon''
*** [[Crab-eating Fox]], ''Cerdocyon thous''
* '''Foxes''' - Tribe Vulpini
** Genus ''[[Vulpes]]''
*** [[Red Fox]], ''Vulpes vulpes''
*** [[Swift Fox]], ''Vulpes velox''
*** [[Kit Fox]], ''Vulpes macrotis''
*** [[Corsac Fox]], ''Vulpes corsac''
*** [[Cape Fox]], ''Vulpes chama''
*** [[Pale Fox]], ''Vulpes pallida''
*** [[Bengal Fox]], ''Vulpes bengalensis''
*** [[Tibetan Fox]], ''Vulpes ferrilata''
*** [[Blanford's Fox]], ''Vulpes cana''
*** [[Rueppel's Fox]], ''Vulpes rueppelli''
*** [[Steppe Fox]], ''Vulpes corsac''
*** [[Fennec]], ''Fennecus zerda''
** Genus ''Alopex''
*** [[Arctic Fox]], ''Alopex lagopus''
** Genus ''Otocyon''
*** [[Bat-eared Fox]], ''Otocyon megalotis''
** Genus ''[[Urocyon]]''
*** [[Gray Fox]], ''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''
*** [[Island fox|Island Fox]], ''Urocyon littoralis''
==Dentition==
Canines have 42 [[teeth]] - their [[dentition|dental formula]] is:
{{dentition2 | 3.1.4.2|3.1.4.3}}
The deciduous or baby teeth formula is 3 1 3, where molars are completely absent.
==Canine copulation==
When [[copulating]], a male canine initially mounts the female from behind, as with most [[tetrapod]]s. The male dog has a ''[[bulbus glandis]]'' at the base of the [[penis]], a spherical [[erectile tissue]] which traps the penis inside the female's [[vagina]] during [[copulation]] as it becomes engorged with blood. <sup>[http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/semeneval/dog.html]</sup> Once the penis is locked into the vagina by the bulbus glandis, the male lifts a leg and swings it over the female's back while turning around. The two stand with their hind ends touching and the penis locked inside the vagina while [[ejaculation]] occurs, decreasing leakage of [[semen]] from the vagina. Then the bulbus glandis disengorges, allowing the mates to separate.
[[Virgin]] dogs can become quite distressed at finding themselves unable to separate during their first copulation.
Note that the term "[[doggy style]]" is a misnomer. The canine mounting behavior with pelvic thrust is a dominance gesture, and does not depend on the sex of the animals involved - it should not be confused with canine copulation.
[[Category:Canines| ]]
<!--- en:Canidae --->
[[ast:Canidae]]
[[bg:Кучета]]
[[cs:Psovití]]
[[da:Hundefamilien]]
[[de:Hunde]]
[[eo:Kanisedoj]]
[[es:Canidae]]
[[fa:سگسانان]]
[[fi:Koiraeläimet]]
[[fr:Canidae]]
[[he:כלביים]]
[[is:Hundaætt]]
[[it:Canidae]]
[[ja:イヌ科]]
[[ko:갯과]]
[[la:Canidae]]
[[lb:Hënn]]
[[lt:Šuniniai]]
[[nds:Hund]]
[[nl:Hondachtigen]]
[[nn:Hundefamilien]]
[[no:Hundefamilien]]
[[oc:Canidae]]
[[pl:Psowate]]
[[pt:Canidae]]
[[ru:Псовые]]
[[sv:Hunddjur]]
[[zh:犬科]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuon alpinus</title>
<id>6737</id>
<revision>
<id>15904858</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dhole]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canis rufus</title>
<id>6738</id>
<revision>
<id>15904859</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:32:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Red Wolf]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canis lupus</title>
<id>6739</id>
<revision>
<id>22139791</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-30T00:37:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gray Wolf]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canis latrans</title>
<id>6740</id>
<revision>
<id>15904861</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coyote]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canis familiaris</title>
<id>6741</id>
<revision>
<id>15904862</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dog]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Asia</title>
<id>6742</id>
<revision>
<id>41775662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:42:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garzo</username>
<id>140345</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>avoid redirect [[Turkic Languages]] -> [[Turkic languages]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
[[Image:Central Asia borders.png|frame|Map of '''Central Asia''' showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region]]
[[Image:Central Asia world region2.png|thumb|326px|'''Central Asia''' located as a region of the world]]
'''Central Asia''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Средняя Азия/"Srednyaya Azia" for "Middle Asia" or Центральная Азия/"Tsentral'naya Azia" for "Central Asia"; in [[Turkic languages]] "Orta Asya"; in [[Persian language|Persian]] آسياى مرکزی; [[Standard Mandarin]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 中亚/ [[pinyin]]: "Zhōngyà"; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: آسيا الوسطى/"Asya al Wusta") is a vast [[landlocked]] region of [[Asia]]. Though various definitions of its exact composition exist, no one definition is universally accepted. Despite this uncertainty in defining borders, it does have some important overall characteristics. For one, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its [[nomad]]ic peoples and the [[Silk Road]]. As a result, it has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Asia]]. It is also sometimes known as '''Middle Asia''' or '''Inner Asia''', and is within the scope of the wider [[Eurasian|Eurasian]] continent. It is also sometimes known as [[Turkestan]].
== Definitions ==
The idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Many text books still refer to this area as [[Turkestan]], which was the name used prior to Stalin's rule.
The most limited definition was the official one of the [[Soviet Union]] that defined the "Middle Asia" as consisting solely of [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Kyrgyzstan]], but did not include [[Kazakhstan]]. This definition was also often used outside the USSR in this period. However, the [[Russian language]] has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия (''Srednyaya Azia'' or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, "Central Asian" lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия |
within a day and slew Höðr.
The [[Denmark|Danish]] [[history|historian]] [[Saxo Grammaticus]] recorded an alternative version of this myth in his ''[[Gesta Danorum]]''. In this version the mortal hero '''Høtherus''' and the demi-god ''Balderus'' compete for the hand of [[Nanna]]. Ultimately Høtherus slays Balderus.
==The Prose Edda==
In the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' part of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] Höðr is introduced in an ominous way.
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''Höðr heitir einn ássinn, hann er blindr. Œrit er hann styrkr, en vilja mundu goðin at þenna ás þyrfti eigi at nefna, þvíat hans handaverk munu lengi vera höfð at minnum með goðum ok mönnum.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
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"One of the [[Æsir]] is named Hödr: he is blind. He is of sufficient strength, but the gods would desire that no occasion should rise of naming this god, for the work of his hands shall long be held in memory among gods and men." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php Brodeur's translation]
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Höðr is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr's death is described. All things except
the mistletoe have sworn an oath not to harm Baldr and the Æsir throw missiles at him for sport.
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''En Loki tók mistiltein ok sleit upp ok gekk til þings. En Höðr stóð útarliga í mannhringinum, þvíat hann var blindr. Þá mælti Loki við hann: "Hví skýtr þú ekki at Baldri?" Hann svarar: "Þvíat ek sé eigi hvar Baldr er, ok þat annat at ek em vápnlauss." Þá mælti Loki: "Gerðu þó í líking annarra manna ok veit Baldri sœmð sem aðrir menn. Ek mun vísa þér til hvar hann stendr. Skjót at honum vendi þessum."''
''Höðr tók mistiltein ok skaut at Baldri at tilvísun Loka. Flaug skotit í gögnum hann ok fell hann dauðr til jarðar. Ok hefir þat mest óhapp verit unnit með goðum ok mönnum.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar49.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
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"Loki took Mistletoe and pulled it up and went to the Thing. Hödr stood outside the ring of men, because he was blind. Then spake Loki to him: 'Why dost thou not shoot at Baldr?' He answered: 'Because I see not where Baldr is; and for this also, that I am weaponless.' Then said Loki: 'Do thou also after the manner of other men, and show Baldr honor as the other men do. I will direct thee where he stands; shoot at him with this wand.'
Hödr took Mistletoe and shot at Baldr, being guided by Loki: the shaft flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the earth; and that was the greatest mischance that has ever befallen among
gods and men." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/069072.php Brodeur's translation]
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The ''Gylfaginning'' does not say what happens to Höðr after this. In fact it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately.
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''Þá er Baldr var fallinn, þá fellusk öllum ásum orðtök ok svá hendr at taka til hans, ok sá hverr til annars ok váru allir með einum hug til þess er unnit hafði verkit. En engi mátti hefna, þar var svá mikill griðastaðr.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar49.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
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"Then, when Baldr was fallen, words failed all the Æsir, and their hands likewise to lay
hold of him; each looked at the other, and all were of one mind as to him who had wrought
the work, but none might take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was in that place." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/069072.php Brodeur's translation]
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It does seem, however, that Höðr ends up in [[Hel (realm)|Hel]] one way or another for the last mention of him in Gylfaginning is in the description of the post-[[Ragnarök]] world.
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''Því næst koma þar Baldr ok Höðr frá Heljar, setjask þá allir samt ok talask við ok minnask á rúnar sínar ok rœða of tíðindi þau er fyrrum höfðu verit, of Miðgarðsorm ok um Fenrisúlf.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar51.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
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"After that Baldr shall come thither, and Hödr, from Hel; then all shall sit down together
and hold speech with one another, and call to mind their secret wisdom, and speak of those
happenings which have been before: of the [[Midgard Serpent]] and of [[Fenrir|Fenris-Wolf]]." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/081085.php Brodeur's translation]
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Snorri's source of this knowledge is clearly ''[[Völuspá]]'' as quoted below.
In the ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'' section of the Prose Edda several [[kenning]]s for Höðr are related.
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''Hvernig skal kenna Höð? Svá, at kalla hann blinda ás, Baldrs bana, skjótanda Mistilteins, son Óðins, Heljar sinna, Vála dólg.'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/snorre/skaldskaparmal.php Guðni Jónsson's edition]
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"How should one periphrase Hödr? Thus: by calling him the Blind God, Baldr's Slayer, Thrower
of the Mistletoe, Son of Odin, Companion of Hel, Foe of Váli." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/113116.php Brodeur's translation]
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None of those kennings, however, are actually found in surviving [[skaldic poetry]]. Neither are Snorri's kennings for [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]] which are also of interest in this context.
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''Hvernig skal kenna Vála? Svá, at kalla hann son Óðins ok Rindar, stjúpson Friggjar, bróður ásanna, hefniás Baldrs, dólg Haðar ok bana hans, byggvanda föðurtófta.'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/snorre/skaldskaparmal.php Guðni Jónsson's edition ]
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"How should Váli be periphrased? Thus: by calling him Son of Odin and Rindr, Stepson of Frigg, Brother of the Æsir, Baldr's Avenger, Foe and Slayer of Hödr, Dweller in the Homesteads of the Fathers." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/113116.php Brodeur's translation]
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It is clear from this that Snorri was familiar with the role of Váli as Höðr's slayer, even though he does not relate that myth in the ''Gylfaginning'' prose. Perhaps he found it distasteful since Höðr is essentially innocent in his version of the story.
== The Poetic Edda ==
Höðr is referred to several times in the [[Poetic Edda]], always in the context of Baldr's death. The following strophes are from ''[[Völuspá]]''.
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:''Ek sá Baldri,''
:''blóðgom tívur,''
:''Óðins barni,''
:''ørlög fólgin:''
:''stóð um vaxinn''
:''völlum hærri''
:''mjór ok mjök fagr''
:''mistilteinn.''
:''Varð af þeim meiði,''
:''er mær sýndisk,''
:''harmflaug hættlig:''
:''Höðr nam skjóta.''
:''Baldrs bróðir var''
:''of borinn snemma,''
:''sá nam, Óðins sonr,''
:''einnættr vega.''
:''Þó hann æva hendr''
:''né höfuð kembði,''
:''áðr á bál um bar''
:''Baldrs andskota.''
:''En Frigg um grét''
:''í Fensölum''
:''vá Valhallar -''
:''vituð ér enn, eða hvat?''
:
:- [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html EB's edition]
|
:I saw for Baldr,
:the bleeding god,
:The son of Othin,
:his destiny set:
:Famous and fair
:in the lofty fields,
:Full grown in strength
:the mistletoe stood.
:From the branch which seemed
:so slender and fair
:Came a harmful shaft
:that Hoth should hurl;
:But the brother of Baldr
:was born ere long,
:And one night old
:fought Othin’s son.
:His hands he washed not,
:his hair he combed not,
:Till he bore to the bale-blaze
:Baldr’s foe.
:But in [[Fensalir]]
:did Frigg weep sore
:For [[Valhall]]’s need:
:would you know yet more?
:
:- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe03.htm HAB's translation]
|
:I saw for Baldr&mdash;
:for the bloodstained sacrifice,
:Óðinn's child&mdash;
:the fates set hidden.
:There stood full-grown,
:higher than the plains,
:slender and most fair,
:the mistletoe.
:There formed from that stem
:which was slender-seeming,
:a shaft of anguish, perilous:
:Hǫðr started shooting.
:A brother of Baldr
:was born quickly:
:he started&mdash;Óðinn's son&mdash;
:slaying, at one night old.
:He never washed hands,
:never combed head,
:till he bore to the pyre
:Baldr's adversary&mdash;
:while Frigg wept
:in Fen Halls
:for Valhǫll's woe.
:Do you still seek to know? And what?
:
:- UD's translation
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This account seems to fit well with the information in the Prose Edda, but here the role of Baldr's avenging brother is emphasized.
Baldr and Höðr are also mentioned in ''Völuspá'''s description of the world after Ragnarök.
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:''Munu ósánir''
:''akrar vaxa,''
:''böls mun alls batna,''
:''Baldr mun koma.''
:''Búa þeir Höðr ok Baldr''
:''Hropts sigtóptir''
:''vel, valtívar -''
:''vituð ér enn, eða hvat?'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
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:Unsown shall
:the fields bring forth,
:all evil be amended;
:Baldr shall come;
:Hödr and Baldr,
:the heavenly gods,
:[[Odin|Hropt]]´s glorious dwellings shall inhabit.
:Understand ye yet, or what? - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/001_05.php Thorpe's translation]
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Interestingly the poem ''[[Vafþrúðnismál]]'' informs us that the gods who survive Ragnarök are [[Viðarr]], [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]], [[Móði and Magni]] with no mention of Höðr and Baldr.
The myth of Baldr's death is also referred to in another Eddic poem, ''[[Baldrs draumar]]''.
{|
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:''Óðinn kvað:
:''"Þegj-at-tu, völva,
:''þik vil ek fregna,
:''unz alkunna,
:''vil ek enn vita:
:''Hverr mun Baldri
:''at bana verða
:''ok Óðins son
:''aldri ræna?"
:''Völva kvað:
:''"Höðr berr hávan
:''hróðrbaðm þinig,
:''hann mun Baldri
:''at bana verða
:''ok Óðins son
:''aldri ræna;
:''nauðug sagðak,
:''nú mun ek þegja."
:' |
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