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al would be likely to suffer significant symptoms secondary to their ongoing illness, yet both are still afflicted.
[[Image:King alcohol.jpg|frame|right|"King Alcohol and his Prime Minister" circa 1820]]
==Diagnosis==
There have been many efforts at diagnostic approaches to alcoholism.
In a 1992 [[JAMA]] article, the [[Joint Committee of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence]] and the [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]] published this definition for alcoholism: "Alcoholism is a primary chronic disease with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. The disease is often progressive and fatal. It is characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with
the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking, mostly denial. Each of these symptoms may be continuous or periodic."
The [[DSM IV]] diagnosis of alcohol dependence represents another approach to the definition of alcoholism, one more closely based on specifics than the 1992 JAMA article. In part this is to assist in the development of research protocols in which findings can be compared with one another, but the DSM definition is the one in general use from a diagnostic standpoint. That definition is: Maladaptive alcohol use with clinically significant impairment as manifested by at least three of the following within any one-year period: Tolerance; Withdrawal; Taken in greater amounts or over longer time course than intended; Desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control use; Great deal of time spent obtaining, using, or recovering from use; Social, occupational, or recreational activities given up or reduced; Continued use despite knowledge of physical or psychological sequelae.
Note that many [[sedative]] agents are cross-tolerant with alcohol (meaning that these agents can be taken instead of alcohol to relieve withdrawal symptoms or to maintain the level of sedation provided by alcohol). A more general diagnosis than alcohol dependence is that of sedative dependence. Whether an individual uses alcohol or another sedative, if they meet the criteria above, the process is likely the same.
==Biological mechanism==
The biological mechanism of alcoholism is unknown, although the biologic mechanism of alcohol metabolism and alcohol-induced behavioral change is well-described in the literature. Alcohol itself is not a factor in the development of this condition, however, or one would be able to turn a non-alcoholic into an alcoholic through the provision of alcohol (the literature has demonstrated that this is impossible).
==As a "disease"==
The American Society of Addiction Medicine and the American Medical Association both maintain extensive policy regarding alcoholism. The [[American Psychiatric Association]] recognizes the existence of "alcoholism" as the equivalent of alcohol dependence. With the publication of the DSM-III in 1980, two separate syndromes of ''alcohol dependence'' and ''alcohol abuse'' replaced the earlier category of alcoholism. The World Health Organization dropped the diagnostic category "alcoholism" in 1979, replacing it with the diagnostic categories "alcohol dependence" and "harmful use" (ICD-9,
ICD-10)[http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/alerts/l/blnaa30.htm]. The [[American Hospital Association]], the [http://www.apha.org American Public Health Association], the [[National Association of Social Workers]], and the [[American College of Physicians]] classify "alcoholism" as a [[disease]].
[[Image:Stop_drinking.jpg|thumb|250px|Polish propaganda poster saying: "Stop drinking! Come with us and build a happy tomorrow."]] The causes for alcohol abuse and dependence cannot be easily explained. However, the belief that the roots are from moral or ethical weakness on the part of the sufferer has been largely altered. A 1995 [[Gallup Poll]] found that 90% of Americans currently believe that "alcoholism" is a [[disease]].{{fact}}
In contrast, in a 1988 U.S. Supreme Court decision on whether alcoholism is a condition for which the U.S. Veterans Administration should provide benefits, Justice Byron R. White agrees with the U.S. District Court that there exists "a substantial body of medical literature that even contests the proposition that alcoholism is a disease, much less that it is a disease for which the victim bears no responsibility." [4][5]
Whether or not alcoholism is a disease remains a controversial subject, and not all participants in the debate are without self-interest. For example, if alcoholism is not considered a disease, third-party payments to physicians and hospitals for its treatment might cease.
==Effects==
{{seealso2|Effects of alcohol on the body|Alcohol consumption and health}}
The use of alcohol in alcoholic conditions may have impact upon physical, occupational, marital, educational, and other areas of function. The condition can be lifelong but can be sometimes treated through ongoing therapy accompanied by attendance at self-help meetings.
== Social impact ==
Today, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are major [[public health]] problems in [[North America]], costing the region's inhabitants, by some estimates, as much as [[US dollar|US$]]170 [[billion]] annually. Alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are life-threatening problems that sometimes end in death, particularly through [[liver]], [[pancreas|pancreatic]], or [[kidney]] disease, internal bleeding, [[brain]] deterioration, [[alcohol poisoning]], and [[suicide]]. Heavy alcohol consumption by a pregnant mother can also lead to [[fetal alcohol syndrome]], an incurable and damaging condition.
Additionally, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are major contributing factors for [[head injury|head injuries]], [[motor vehicle accident]]s (MVA), violence and assaults, [[neurology|neurological]], and other [[medicine|medical]] problems ([[cirrhosis]], etc.).
Of the one half of the North American population who consume alcohol, it has been estimated by some that 10% are alcohol abusers and alcohol dependents, and 6% consume more than half of all alcohol.
[[Stereotype]]s of alcohol abusers and alcohol dependents are often found in [[fiction]] and [[popular culture]]: for example the "[[town drunk]]," or the [[stereotype]] of [[Russians]] and the [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] as alcoholics. In modern times, the recovery movement has led to more realistic portraits of abusers and dependents and their problems, such as in [[Charles R. Jackson]]'s ''[[The Lost Weekend]]'', or the films ''[[Days of Wine and Roses (movie)|Days of Wine and Roses]]'', and ''[[My Name is Bill W]]'' or the extreme "[[Leaving Las Vegas]]". [[Charles Bukowski]] describes honestly his alcohol addiction in the movie ''[[Barfly]]'' and in his other writings.
Alcohol dependence can be harder to break and significantly more damaging than dependence on most other addictive substances. The physical symptoms when withdrawing from alcohol can be quite severe and dangerous, with death reported in extreme cases.
The alcoholic personality can exhibit a radical change when they drink, from passive when sober to aggressive when drunk, though the reverse can also be true.
An alcoholic does not have to be someone who is drunk every night, and a functional alcoholic can have largely normal work and family relationships. However, alcohol represents a major or the major focus of their lives.
===Long-term===
The long-term effects of high quantity alcohol use can include:
* [[pancreatitis]], or inflammation of the [[pancreas]] (but the [[acute pancreatitis|acute]] and [[chronic pancreatitis|chronic]] form)
* [[heart disease]], including [[dilated cardiomyopathy]]
* [[polyneuropathy]], or damage to the [[nerves]] leading to poor sensation or pain
* [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]], a chronic disease characterized by destruction of liver cells and loss of liver function, and its numerous complications, including bleeding from [[esophageal varices]]
* [[clinical depression|depression]], [[insomnia]], [[anxiety]], and [[suicide]]
* [[hypertension]] (high blood pressure)
* increased incidence of many types of [[cancer]], including [[breast cancer]], [[head and neck cancer]], [[esophageal cancer]] and [[colorectal cancer]]
* [[nutritional deficiency]] of [[folic acid]], [[thiamine]] (vitamin B1) and several others
* [[Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome]], a neuropsychiatric disorder caused by thiamine deficiency that results from poor nutrition in alcoholics
*[[personality]] changes toward others, especially those who are close
* significant damage to occupational, social, and interpersonal areas, including [[sexual dysfunction]]
*[[gait ataxia]] due to damage to the [[superior vermis]]
==Screening==
Several tools may be used to detect the habitual abuse of alcohol. The CAGE questionnaire, developed by Dr. John Ewing and named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office.
Two "yes" responses indicate that the respondent should be investigated further.
The questionnaire asks the following questions:
# Have you ever felt you needed to '''C'''ut down on your drinking?
# Have people '''A'''nnoyed you by criticising your drinking?
# Have you ever felt '''G'''uilty about drinking?
# Have you ever felt you needed a drink first thing in the morning ('''E'''ye-opener) to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover?
Another screening questionnaire is the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), developed by the World Health Organization.
The Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire [http://eib.emcdda.eu.int/index.cfm?fuseaction=public.Content&nNodeID=3556&sLanguageISO=EN] is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE test. The Alcohol Dependence Data Question |
ἀρχή}}||arche||{{polytonic|ἀρχη}}-||archi-||chief, authority||[[archbishop]], [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]], [[archidiptera]], [[archigram]], [[archipelago]], [[architeuthidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρχιτέκτων}}||arkhitektōn||{{polytonic|ἀρχιτεκτ}}-||architect-||chief builder||[[architecture]], [[architect]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρχων}}||arkhōn||{{polytonic|ἀρχω}}-||archo-||ruler||[[archon]], [[archosaur]], [[archostemata]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρωμα}}||arōma||{{polytonic|ἀρωμα}}-||aroma-||spice||[[aroma]], [[aromatic compounds]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσθένεια}}||astheneia||{{polytonic|ἀσθεν}}-||asthen-||weakness||[[asthenia]], [[asthenopia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄσθμα}}||asthma||{{polytonic|ἀσθμα}}-||asthma-||asthma||[[asthmatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀσία}}||Asia||{{polytonic|ἀσια}}-||Asia-||Mythological daughter of [[Iapetos]]||[[Asia Minor]], [[Asian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσπάραγος}}||aspharagos||{{polytonic|ἀσπαραγ}}-||asparag-||asparagus||[[asparagine acid]], [[aspartame]], [[aspartate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσπίς}}||aspis||{{polytonic|ἀσπ}}-||asp-||shield||[[asp (reptile)|asp]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀστήρ}}||astēr||{{polytonic|ἀστερ}}-||aster-||star||[[asteroid]], [[asterisk]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀστιγματισμός}}||astigmatismos||{{polytonic|ἀστιγματ}}-||astigmat-||without focus||[[astigmatism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀστράγαλος}}||astragalos||{{polytonic|ἀστράγαλ}}-||astigmat-||vertebra, knucklebone||[[astragalus]], [[astragal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄστρον}}||astron||{{polytonic|ἀστρο}}-||astro-||constellation||[[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[astrophysics]], [[astrodynamics]], [[astronaut]], [[astrolabe]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄσυλον}}||asulon||{{polytonic|ἀσυλ}}-||asyl-||sanctuary||[[asylum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσφυξία}}||asphuxia||{{polytonic|ἀσφυξ}}-||asphyx-||stopping of the pulse||[[asphyxiant]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀτμόσφαιρα}}||atmosphaera||{{polytonic|ἀτμοσφαιρ}}-||atmospher-||vapor + sphere||[[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]], [[atmospheric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἂτλας}}||Atlas||{{polytonic|ἀτλα}}-||atla-||name of a Titan||[[atlas]], [[Atlantic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτομος}}||atomos||{{polytonic|ἀτομ}}-||atom-||un + cut||[[atomic]], [[atomizer]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτονία}}||atonia||{{polytonic|ἀτον}}-||aton-||slack||[[atony]], [[atonal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτροπος}}||atropos||{{polytonic|ἀτροπ}}-||atrop-||inexorable||[[atropos]], [[atropine]], [[atropa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτροφος}}||atrophos||{{polytonic|ἀτροφ}}-||atroph-||ill-nourished||[[atrophy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀττική}}||Attiki||{{polytonic|Ἀττικ}}-||attic-||A region of east-central Greece ||[[attic]], [[atticism]]
|-
| {{polytonic|αὐθεντικός}}||authentikos||{{polytonic|αὐθεντικ}}-||authentic-||original||[[authentication]], [[authentic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐστηρός}}||austēros||{{polytonic|αὐστηρ}}-||auster-||harsh, bitter||[[austerity]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐταρχία}}||autarchia||{{polytonic|αὐταρχ}}-||autarch-||absolute governing||[[autarchy]], [[autarchic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐτάρκεια}}||autarkia||{{polytonic|αὐτάρκ}}-||autark-||self-sufficiency||[[autarky]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐτόχθων}}||autochthōn||{{polytonic|αὐτόχθ}}-||autochth-||of the land itshelf||[[autochton]], [[autochthonic]], [[autochthonous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐτοψία}}||autopsia||{{polytonic|αὐτοψ}}-||autops-||a seeing for oneself ||[[autopsy]], [[autopsic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐξάνειν}}||auxanein||{{polytonic|αὐξ}}-||aux-||to increase||[[auxin]], [[auxesis]],
|-
| {{polytonic|αὐτός}}||autos||{{polytonic|αὐτο}}-||auto-||self ''(reflexive pronoun)''||[[autonomy]], [[automatic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφαιρείν}}||aphairein||{{polytonic|ἀφαιρ}}-||apher-||take away|| [[apheresis]], [[hemaphairesis]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφανής}}||aphanēs||{{polytonic|ἀφαν}}-||aphan-||unseen||[[aphanes]], [[aphaniotis]], [[aphanite]], [[aphanitic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἄφατος}}||aphatos||{{polytonic|ἀφασ}}-||aphas-||speechless||[[aphasia]], [[aphasiology]], [[anomic aphasia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφή}}||aphē||{{polytonic|ἀφ}}-||aph-||sense of touch||[[aphenphosmphobia]], [[haphephobia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφιέναι}}||aphienai||{{polytonic|ἀφεσ}}-||aphes-||to let go||[[Elision|aphesis]], [[aphetic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|Ἀφροδίτη}}||Aphroditē||{{polytonic|ἀφροδι}}-||aphrodi-||risen from sea-foam, name of a goddess||[[aphrodisiac]], [[April]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀχαίνειν}}||khainein||{{polytonic|ἀχαιν}}-||achen-||without yawning||[[achene]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀχάτης}}||achātēs||{{polytonic|ἀχάτ}}-||agat-||a variety of mineral||[[agate]], [[agateware]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀχρώματος}}||akhrōmatos||{{polytonic|ἀχρωματ}}-||achrοmat-||without color||[[achromatic]], [[achromatin]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁψίς}}||hapsis||{{polytonic|ἁψ}}-||aps-||arch||[[apse]], [[apsis]],[[apsidal]], [[hassium]]
|}
===Β===
'''''b'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|βάρβαρος}}||barbaros|| {{polytonic|βαρβαρο}}-||barbaro-||stranger, non-Greek||[[barbarian]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βαρύς}}||barus||{{polytonic|βαρυ}}-||baru-||heavy||[[baritone]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βίος}}||bios||{{polytonic|βιο}}-||bio-||life||[[biology]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βορεας}}||boreas||{{polytonic|βορεαλ}}-||boreal-||north, the north wind||[[Aurora Borealis]],[[hyperborean]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βραχύς}}||brachus||{{polytonic|βραχυ}}-||brachu-||short||[[brachycephalic]]
|}
===Γ===
'''''g'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|γαῖα, γῆ}}||gaia, gē||{{polytonic|γεα}}-||gea-||earth||[[geology]], [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], [[geometry]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γάμος}}||gamos||{{polytonic|γαμ}}-||gam-||marriage||[[polygamy]], [[gamete]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γέννησις}}||genesis||{{polytonic|γέν}}-||gen-||to give birth, beget|| [[genetics|genetic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γιγνῶσκειν}}||gignōskein||{{polytonic|γνῶ}}-||gnō-<br>gnē-||to know|| [[diagnostic]], [[agnostic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γίγας}}||gigas||{{polytonic|γιγ}}-||giga-||huge, enormous|| Giga- (prefix) as in [[gigabyte]], [[gigantic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γράφειν}}||graphein||{{polytonic|γραφ}}-||graph-||to write|| [[graphics]], [[geography]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γυνή}}||gunē||{{polytonic|γυναικ}}-||gunaik-||woman||[[polygyny]], [[gynecology]] [[misogynist]]
|}
===Δ===
'''''d'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|δῆμος}}||dēmos|| {{polytonic|δημο}}-||dēmo-||district, its inhabitants, commoners||[[democracy]], [[demographic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|δόξα}}||doxa||{{polytonic|δοξ}}-||dox-||opinion||[[orthodox]], [[paradox]]
|-
| {{polytonic|δράσις}}||drasis||{{polytonic|δρασ}}-||dras-||action|| drastic, anadrastic
|}
===Ε===
'''''(h)e'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|εἰκών}}||eikon||{{polytonic|εἰκών}}||icon||icon, picture, painting||[[icon]], [[iconicity]], [[iconoclast]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἕλιξ}}||helix||{{polytonic|ἑλικ-}}||helic-||helix||[[helix]], [[helicopter]], [[helicity]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἑπτά}}||hepta||{{polytonic|ἑπτα}}-||hepta-||seven||[[heptarchy]], [[heptagon]], [[heptameter]]
|-
|{{polytonic|εὖ}}||eu||{{polytonic|εύ}}-||eu-||well||[[eulogy]], [[euphoria]]
|}
===Ζ===
'''''z'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ζῶον}}||zōon||{{polytonic|ζωο}}-||zōo-||animal||[[zoology]]
|}
===Η===
'''''(h)ē'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ἡγεμῶν}}||hēgemōn||{{polytonic|ἡγεμον}}-||hēgemon-||leader||[[hegemony]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἥλιος}}||hēlios||{{polytonic|ἡλιο}}-||hēlio-||sun||[[helion]], [[heliotropic]], [[heliocentric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἠώς}}||ēōs||{{polytonic|ἠο}}-||ēo-||dawn||[[eocene]]
|}
===Θ===
'''''th'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|θεός}}||theos||{{polytonic|θε}}-||the-||a god||[[theology]], [[atheism]]
|-
| {{polytonic|θερμός}}||thermos||{{polytonic|θερμ}}-||therm-||hot||[[isotherm]], [[thermoelectric]], [[Vacuum flask|Thermos (brand of vacuum flask)]])
|}
===Ι===
'''''(h)i'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ἰατρός}}||iatros||{{polytonic|ἰατρο}}-||iatro-||physician||[[psychiatrist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἴδιος}}||idios||{{polytonic|ἰδι}}-||idi-||one’s own, private||[[idiolect]], [[idiom]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἱερός}}||hieros||{{polytonic|ἱερο}}-||hiero-||sacred||[[hierarchy]], [[hieroglyph]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἰχθύς}}||ikhthus||{{polytonic|ἰχθυ}}-||ikhthu-||fish||[[ichthyology]], [[ikhthus]]
|}
===Κ===
'''''k, c'''''
{|border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2|Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|κακός}}||kakos||{{polytonic|κακο}}-||kako-||bad||[[cacophony]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Καλυψω}}||Kalypso||{{polytonic|καλυψε}}-||kalypse-||to cover, to hide||[[Calypso]],[[apocalypse]],[[eclipse]]
|-
|{{polytonic|κινεσθαι}}||kinesthai||{{polytonic|κινεσις}}-||kinesis-||to move, motion||[[psychokinesis]],[[kinetic energy]],[[kinesis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|κλῶνος}}||klōnos||{{polytonic|κακο}}-||klōn-||branch, twig||[[Cloning|clone]], [[cloning]]
|-
|{{polytonic|κόσμος}}||kosmos||{{polytonic|κοσμ}}-||kosm-||order, the universe, jewell||[[cosmography]], [[cosmetic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|κράτος}}||kratos||{{polytonic|κρατ}}-||krat-||power, rule||[[autocrat]], [[democracy]], [[bureaucracy]]
|}
===Λ===
'''''l'''''
{| border="1"
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|λεξις}}||lexis|| {{polytonic|λεξι}}-||lexi-||word||[[lithography]], [[dyslexia]], [[lexicon]], [[Alexia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|λίθος}}||lithos|| {{polytonic|λιθο}}-||litho-||stone||[[lithography]], [[neolithic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|λόγος}}||logos||{{polytonic|λογο}}-||logo-||thought, word ||[[theology]], [[logic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|λυειν}}||lyein|| {{polytonic|λυσις}}-||lysis-||to br |
- [[Macsyma]]
* [[Stephen Muggleton]]
== N ==
* [[Peter Naur]] - [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]], [[Algol 60]]
* [[Mihai Nadin]] - Anticipation Research
* [[Frieder Nake]] - Pioneer in Computer Arts
* [[Roger Needham]]
* [[John von Neumann]] - Early computers, [[von Neumann machine]]
* [[Allen Newell]] - [[Artificial intelligence]] ''Computer Structures''
* [[Nils Nilsson]] - [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Emmy Noether]]
* [[Arthur Norman]]
* [[Donald Norman]] - [[User interfaces]] and [[Usability]]
* [[Kristen Nygaard]] - [[Simula]]
== O ==
* [[John K. Ousterhout]] - [[Tcl]]
== P ==
* [[Christos Papadimitriou]]
* [[David A. Patterson|David Patterson]]
* [[Judea Pearl]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[Search]]
* [[Shoayb Peerbocus]]
* [[Alan Perlis]] - [[Programming Pearls]]
* [[Simon Peyton-Jones]] - [[Functional programming]]
* [[Gordon Plotkin]]
* [[Amir Pnueli]] - [[temporal logic]]
* [[Hayden Porter]]
* [[Emil Post]] - mathematics
* [[Jon Postel]] - Internet
* [[Edmond Prakash]] - Voxelization and Voxel Animation
* [[Terry Pratt]]
* [[Franco Preparata]]
== Q ==
== R ==
* [[Michael O. Rabin]]
* [[Brian Randell]] - [[dependability]]
* [[Timothy W. Rauenbusch]] - AI
* [[Raj Reddy]] - AI
* [[John C. Reynolds]]
* [[Joyce K. Reynolds]] - [[Internet]]
* [[Adam Riese]]
* [[Dennis Ritchie]] - [[C programming language|C]], [[Unix|UNIX]]
* [[Ron Rivest]] - [[RSA]]
* [[Saul Rosen]]
* [[Azriel Rosenfeld]]
* [[Lawrence A. Rowe]]
* [[Rudy Rucker]] - Writer, Educator
* [[Jeff Rulifson]]
* [[James Rumbaugh]] - [[Unified Modeling Language]], [[Object Management Group]]
== S ==
* [[Jean E. Sammet]] - [[Programming languages]]
* [[Wilhelm Schickard]]
* [[Doug Schmidt]]
* [[Norm Schryer]]
* [[Dana Scott]] - [[domain theory]]
* [[Ravi Sethi]] - [[Compilers]], 2nd [[Dragon Book]]
* [[Adi Shamir]] - [[RSA]]
* [[Claude Shannon]] - information theory
* [[Herbert Simon]] - AI
* [[Mike Sipser]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Daniel Sleator]] - [[Splay tree]]
* [[Robert Sproull]]
* [[Richard Stallman]]
* [[Richard Stearns]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Guy L. Steele, Jr.]] - [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]], [[Common Lisp]]
* [[Christopher Strachey]] - [[denotational semantics]]
* [[Michael Stonebraker]] - [[database practice and theory]]
* [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] - [[C++]]
* [[Madhu Sudan]] - [[computational complexity theory]], [[coding theory]]
* [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] - [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
* [[Ivan Sutherland]] - [[Graphics]]
* [[Richard Sweet]]
* [[Dan Swinehart]]
== T ==
* [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]] - Operating systems, Minix
* [[Robert Tarjan]] - splay tree
* [[Demetri Terzopoulos]]
* [[Larry Tesler]] - human-computer interaction, graphical user interface, Apple Macintosh
* [[Avie Tevanian]] - Mach kernel team, NeXT, Mac OS X
* [[Ken Thompson]] - Unix
* [[Walter F. Tichy]] - RCS
* [[Linus Torvalds]] - Linux
* [[Joseph Traub]]
* [[John Tukey]] - FFT
* [[Alan Turing]] - British pioneer
== U ==
* [[Jeffrey D. Ullman]] - Compilers, databases, Complexity theory
== V ==
* [[Salil Vadhan]] - [[computational complexity theory]], [[cryptography]]
* [[Leslie Valiant]] - [[computational complexity theory]], [[computational learning theory]]
* [[Vernor Vinge]] - Science fiction writer
* [[Srinidhi Varadarajan]] - VirginiaTech's [[Power Mac G5]] Supercluster
== W ==
* [[Philip Wadler]] - [[Functional programming]]
* [[David Wagner]] - [[Cryptography]]
* [[Jan Weglarz]]
* [[Peter Wegner]]
* [[Joseph Weizenbaum]] - [[Artificial_intelligence|AI]], [[ELIZA]]
* [[Richard Wexelblat]] - [[Programming languages]]
* [[Adriaan van Wijngaarden]] - Dutch pioneer; [[ARRA]], [[ALGOL]]
* [[David S. Wile]]
* [[Maurice Vincent Wilkes]] - Microprogramming, [[EDSAC]]
* [[James H. Wilkinson]] - [[Numerical analysis]]
* [[Sophie Wilson]]
* [[Shmuel Winograd]] - [[Coppersmith-Winograd algorithm]]
* [[Terry Winograd]] - [[Artificial_intelligence|AI]], [[SHRDLU]]
* [[Allen Wirfs-Brock]] - [[Smalltalk]]
* [[Niklaus Wirth]] - [[Pascal]], [[Modula]], and [[Oberon programming language|Oberon]] languages
* [[Stephen Wolfram]] - [[Mathematica]]
* [[Larry Wos]] - Resolution theorem proving
* [[William Wulf]] - [[Compilers]], President of [[National Academy of Engineering]]
== X ==
== Y ==
* [[Tao Yang(I)|Tao Yang]]
* [[Mihalis Yannakakis]]
* [[Andrew Chi-Chih Yao]]
== Z ==
* [[Lofti Zadeh]] - Fuzzy logic
* [[Egon Zakrajsek|Egon Zakraj&#353;ek]] - Slovenian pioneer
* [[Konrad Zuse]] - German pioneer of hardware and software
== See also ==
* [[List of programmers]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science]]
* [[List of computing people]]
==External links==
*[http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/mostcited.html Most cited authors in computer science]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Computer scientists]]
[[Category:Lists of scientists|Computer Scientists]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|*Computer scientists]]
<!--[[en:List of computer scientists]]-->
[[bn:&#2453;&#2478;&#2509;&#2474;&#2495;&#2441;&#2463;&#2494;&#2480; &#2476;&#2495;&#2460;&#2509;&#2462;&#2494;&#2472;&#2496; &#2468;&#2494;&#2482;&#2495;&#2453;&#2494;]]
[[es:Lista de científicos de la Computación]]
[[fa:&#1601;&#1607;&#1585;&#1587;&#1578; &#1662;&#1740;&#1588;&#1711;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1583;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588; &#1585;&#1575;&#1740;&#1575;&#1606;&#1607;]]
[[zh:&#35745;&#31639;&#26426;&#31185;&#23398;&#23478;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coracinus capensis</title>
<id>6835</id>
<revision>
<id>15904950</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black bream]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cultural production and nationalism</title>
<id>6836</id>
<revision>
<id>42091034</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:42:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Literature, visual arts, music, and scholarship have complex relationships with ideological forces.
===The 19th Century===
In the [[19th century]] [[nationalism]] was an especially potent influence on all of these fields. To summarize, every established national group used cultural productions to assert and strengthen a sense of national unity and destiny; less politically consolidated groups, especially those pursuing the goal of nationhood, used them in the same ways, though often with a note of determination that makes them easier to see from our contemporary point of reference.
Natural admiration for excellence and justifiable pride in a predecessor's achievements is sometimes difficult to sort out from other intentions. [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] was a great poet, the Societa Dantesca Italiana did great work in editing and publishing a usable and affordable text, but the ''Divine Comedy'' was certainly used by the newly unified Italian government (see [[History of Italy]]) to encourage a more homogeneous, Tuscan-influenced dialect for the whole peninsula (see [[Italian language]]).
===Literature===
:the [[Kalevala]]
:[[Ossian]]
:[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]
:folklore collections
:the [[Brothers Grimm]]
===Visual Arts===
:the [[Nazarene]] movement
:[[Gothic revival]]
:art history and nationalism
===Music===
:[[Richard Wagner]]
===The Academy===
This relationship between ideology and serious work is particularly ambiguous in the academic fields of historical importance. Much as 19th century science is often treated as the inventor of conceptions of evolution and [[race]] which had serious negative political and social consequences, many 19th century historians pursued what they intended as reasonably objective research projects in the history of their own and other regions either to end by themselves using the results to support nationalistic goals or to see their work used that way by others.
More politically consolidated nations sponsored historical research projects which produced results of permanent value - such as the ''[[Monumenta Gemaniae Historica]]'' ("Monuments of German History") project. The ''MGH'' is a vast series (it runs to hundreds of volumes and is still publishing) of edited primary source material essential for scholarly work on late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. However, the term "German" in the title was interpreted in the broadest possible sense, and its initial royal patronage made the connection clear between a perceived '''unity''' of Germanness in history and 19th century Germanness.
==See also==
*[[Romantic nationalism]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corn</title>
<id>6837</id>
<revision>
<id>41972831</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:45:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.77.245.27|68.77.245.27]] ([[User talk:68.77.245.27|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cornheap.jpg|right|300px|thumb| De-husked corn ]]
'''Corn''' is a term that originally referred to the kernel of any grain — that is, a fruit of a plant in the Grass Family ([[Poaceae]]), such as [[barleycorn]]. In various English-speaking countries, the term is generally used for a particular grain.
* In most Commonwealth countries, '''corn''' usually refers to any [[cereal]], including, but not limi |
impede his education; on the contrary, the young prince was a very bright child, already able to speak [[Latin]] at the age of seven. He later learned to speak [[French language|French]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]; by the age of thirteen, he found himself translating books into the latter language. His principal tutors were [[John Cheke|Sir John Cheke]], [[Leonard Cox]], and [[Jean Belmain]]. He was quite fond of his stepmother Catherine Parr. He wrote three letters to her, one in French, English and Latin. The rest of the letters he wrote were in latin to his sisters. He had strong feelings for his sister Mary.
''Alternatively, given that Jane Seymour passed away days after Edward VI's birth, it is natural that Henry VIII would seek remarriage, which act does not, therefore, necessarily substantiate claims that Edward VI was a sickly child. Indeed, Henry VIII only married Anne of Cleves on 6 January, 1540, over 2 years after Jane Seymour perished. In fact, Edward's journals mention no illness at all apart from a bout of measles in 1552, and the pulmonary tuberculosis which killed him. The policies of the Duke of Northumberland also indicate that he was building a foundation on which Edward was expected to build when he reached his majority, rather than expecting Edward to die young.
==Under Somerset==
{{House of Tudor}}
Henry VIII died on [[28 January]] [[1547]]. His [[will (law)|will]] named sixteen [[executor]]s, who were to act as a Council of [[Regent|Regency]] until Edward VI achieved majority at the age of eighteen (although it was agreed by the Council in 1552 that Edward would reach his majority at 16). These executors were to be supplemented by twelve assistants, who would only participate when the others deemed it fit. The executors were all inclined towards religious reformation, whose most prominent opponents, [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], [[Stephen Gardiner]] (the [[Bishop of Winchester]]) and [[Thomas Thirlby]] (the [[Bishop of Westminster]]), were excluded. Henry VIII also appointed [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford]] to serve as [[Lord Protector|Lord Protector of the Realm and Governor of the King's Person]] during Edward VI's minority. Lord Hertford, who was Edward VI's uncle, was only supposed to act on the advice of the other executors. A few days after Henry VIII's death, Lord Hertford was created [[Duke of Somerset]] and appointed to the influential positions of [[Lord High Treasurer]] and [[Earl Marshal]].
To allay all doubts regarding the validity of Henry VIII's will, all the executors sought reappointment from Edward. On [[13 March]] 1547, Edward VI created a new Council of twenty-six members. The Council consisted of all the executors and assistants, except for [[Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton]] (who, whilst serving as [[Lord Chancellor]], had illegally delegated some of his powers to other officials) and Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. The Duke of Somerset was no longer merely a "first among equals"; instead, he was allowed to act without the consent of the Council, the composition of which he was permitted to change at his whim. The Lord Protector, then, became the real ruler of England; Edward VI was demoted to a ceremonial role.
Another powerful influence on Edward VI was [[Thomas Cranmer]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Both Cranmer and the Duke of Somerset began the process of creating a 'Protestant England'. Various Catholic rites were replaced with Protestant ones. The Duke of Somerset, however, did not encourage persecution; rather, he refrained from it, as he feared the wrath of Europe's powerful Catholic monarchs, especially the Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].
One of the Duke of Somerset's primary aims was to achieve a union between [[England]] and [[Scotland]]. In late [[1547]], an English army marched into Scotland and took control of the [[Lowlands]]. In [[1548]], however, [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary]], the daughter of the Scottish King [[James V of Scotland|James V]], married the [[Dauphin]] [[Francis II of France|Francis]], the heir-apparent to the French Throne, thereby strengthening the alliance between [[France]] and Scotland.
The Duke of Somerset was hardly in a position to oppose both France and Scotland, as his own position was insecure. His brother, [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley]], the [[Lord High Admiral]], had hatched a plot to depose him. Lord Seymour's conspiracy, however, was exposed in [[1549]]. A [[bill of attainder]] was introduced and passed almost unanimously by Parliament; Lord Seymour was executed on [[20 March]].
Later in [[1549]], there was another uprising, this time by poor peasants. On [[8 August]], taking advantage of internal strife, the French formally declared war on England. The Duke of Somerset became extremely unpopular, and was deposed by [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|John Dudley, Earl of Warwick]]. Lord Northumberland did not make himself Lord Protector, and even encouraged Edward VI into declaring his majority as soon as he was sixteen. In [[1550]], Lord Northumberland conciliated the peasant rebels and made peace with France, giving up all of England's possessions in Scotland without compensation.
==Under Warwick (Northumberland)==
The rise of the Earl of Warwick was accompanied by the fall of Catholicism in England. Thomas Cranmer introduced the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' for use in all Church services. All official editions of the [[Bible]] were accompanied by anti-Catholic annotations. Catholic symbols in churches were desecrated by mobs. Religious [[dissenter]]s, moreover, were often persecuted and [[execution by burning|burnt at the stake]]. In [[1550]] and [[1551]], the most powerful Roman Catholic Bishops, [[Edmund Bonner]] (the [[Bishop of London]]), Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and [[Nicholas Heath]] (the [[Bishop of Worcester]]) included, were deposed; and their places taken by Protestant reformers such as [[Nicholas Ridley (martyr)|Nicholas Ridley]].
Meanwhile, the Duke of Somerset, who agreed to submit to Lord Warwick, was released from prison and readmitted to the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. Within a few months, he found himself powerful enough to demand the release of other political and religious prisoners. He opposed the Council's attempt to curtail the religious liberty of Edward's sister, Mary. The Duke of Somerset's opposition to the religious Reformation irked Lord Warwick.
Warwick attempted to increase his own prestige; on his advice, Edward created him [[Duke of Northumberland]] and bestowed honours on his numerous supporters. The Duke of Northumberland began a campaign to discredit the Duke of Somerset. The people of [[London]] were informed that the Duke of Somerset would destroy their city; Edward was told that the Duke would depose and imprison him and seize his Crown. It was also suggested that the Duke of Somerset had plotted to murder the Duke of Northumberland. In [[December]] of [[1551]], the Duke of Somerset was tried for [[treason]] on the grounds that he had attempted to imprison a member of the King's Council. The treason charge, however, could not be proven; instead, Somerset was found guilty of participating in unlawful assemblies, but was still sentenced to death. The Duke of Somerset was subsequently executed in January [[1552]].
On the day after the Duke of Somerset's execution, a new session of Parliament began. It passed the [[Act of Uniformity]] 1552, under which a second ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' was required for church services. Unauthorised worship was punishable by up to life imprisonment.
==Later years==
The fragile health of the King did not abate as his reign progressed. During his father's reign Edward had effectively been mollycoddled and kept in seclusion. Edward desperately wanted his own freedom, and indulged in the early years of his reign with other children of his age. He became extremely fond of sports such as tennis. During the winter of 1552&ndash;53, Edward VI, strained by physical activities in the bitter weather, contracted a cold, which was made more serious as it was compounded by other illnesses (tuberculosis, and according to some, syphilis). Doctors tried to help by administering various medicines, but their efforts were in vain, leaving Edward in perpetual agony. Edward, who was by now dying in early 1553, was enough the master of his own destiny to have concerns about the succession. Having been brought up a Protestant, he had no desire to be succeeded by his older half-sister, Mary.
At the same time, the Duke of Northumberland was eager to retain his own power. He did not find the next two individuals in the line of succession, Mary and [[Elizabeth_I_of_England|Elizabeth]], conducive to his aims. The third individual in the line of succession under Henry VIII's will was [[Lady Frances Brandon]] (the daughter of Henry's younger sister [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]] by [[Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk]]); she, too, was not to Northumberland's liking. Northumberland feared that the Frances' husband, [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]], would claim the Crown as his own.
The Duke of Northumberland then foolishly attempted to rule through the Duchess of Suffolk's daughter, the [[Lady Jane Grey]]. Jane was married off to the Duke of Northumberland's younger son, [[Guilford Dudley]]. On [[11 June]] 1553, Northumberland commanded senior judges to draw up a draft will for Edward. The plan was illegal for many reasons; firstly, a minor did not have the authority to make a will. Furthermore, Edward's will had not been authorised by any Act of Parliament, whilst Henry's will (which Northumberland sought to abrogate), had been specifically authorised by an Act passed in 1544. The judges at first resisted giving in to the Duke of Northumberla |
|-
|0111&nbsp;1010
|122
|7A
|z
|-
|0111&nbsp;1011
|123
|7B
|[[Bracket|<nowiki>{</nowiki>]]
|-
|0111&nbsp;1100
|124
|7C
|[[Vertical bar|&#124;]]
|-
|0111&nbsp;1101
|125
|7D
|[[Bracket|<nowiki>}</nowiki>]]
|-
|0111&nbsp;1110
|126
|7E
|[[Tilde|~]]
|}
|}
==Structural features==
* The digits 0-9 are represented with their values in binary prefixed with 0011 (this means that [[Binary-coded decimal|bcd]]-ASCII is simply a matter of taking each bcd nibble separately and prefixing 0011 to it.
* Lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit simplifying case conversion to a range test (to avoid converting characters that are not letters) and a single [[bitwise operation]].
==Aliases for ASCII==
RFC 1345 (published in June 1992) and the [http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets IANA registry of character sets] (ongoing), both recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet:
* ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name)
* ANSI_X3.4-1986
* ASCII
* US-ASCII (preferred MIME name)
* us
* ISO646-US
* ISO_646.irv:1991
* iso-ir-6
* IBM367
* cp367
* csASCII
Of these, only the aliases "US-ASCII" and "ASCII" have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some [[MIME]] messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some [[HTML]] documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some [[XML]] documents.
==Variants of ASCII==
As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII [[Extended ASCII|extensions]]", although some mis-apply that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range.
[[ISO 646]] (1972), the first attempt to remedy the pro-English-language bias, created compatibility problems, since it remained a 7-bit character-set. It made no additional codes available, so it reassigned some in language-specific variants. It thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway.
Eventually, improved technology brought out-of-band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte, freeing this bit to add another 128 additional character-codes for new assignments. For example, [[IBM]] developed 8-bit [[code page]]s, such as [[code page 437]], which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as [[smiley]] faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 bytes. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware.
Eight-bit standards such as [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]] and [[Mac OS Roman]] developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact and just adding additional values above the 7-bit range. This enabled the representation of a broader range of languages, but these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, [[ISO-8859-1]] its variant [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1) and original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today.
[[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII basically uses 7-bit codes, Unicode and the UCS use relatively abstract "code points": non-negative integer numbers that map, using different encoding forms and schemes, to sequences of one or more 8-bit bytes. To permit backward compatibility, Unicode and the UCS assign the first 128 code points to the same characters as ASCII. One can therefore think of ASCII as a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode and of the UCS. The popular [[UTF-8]] encoding-form prescribes the use of one to four 8-bit code values for each code point character, and equates exactly to ASCII for the code values below 128. Other encoding forms such as [[UTF-16]] resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but tend to use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility.
The [[blend (linguistics)|blend]] word ''ASCIIbetical'' has evolved to describe the [[collation]] of data in ASCII-code order rather than "standard" alphabetical order.<ref>Jargon File. [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/A/ASCIIbetical-order.html ASCIIbetical]. Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].</ref>
The abbreviation ASCIIZ or ASCIZ refers to a [[Character string (computer science)|null-terminated ASCII string]].
==See also==
*[[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]
*[[ASCII art]]
*[[ASCII game]]s
*[[Text file]]
*[[Bob Bemer]]
*[[EBCDIC]]
*[[Unicode]]
*[[ASCII ribbon]]
===ASCII extensions===
(where all ASCII printable characters are identical to ASCII)
*[[Extended ASCII]]
*[[UTF-8]]
*[[ISO 8859]]
*[[ISCII]]
*[[VISCII]]
*[[Windows code pages]]
===ASCII variants===
(where some ASCII printable characters have been replaced)
*[[ISO 646]]
*[[ATASCII]]
*[[PETSCII]]
*[[ZX Spectrum character set]]
==References==
===For specific points===
<references/>
===General===
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf Unicode.org chart on the ASCII range]
* Tom Jennings ([[October 29]] [[2004]]). [http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/index.html Annotated History of Character Codes.] Accessed [[December 17]] [[2005]].
*[[Alt codes]]
==External links==
<!--*[http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid], a [[FOSS]] [[Application software|Application]] for [[Microsoft Windows]] inserts any character with one click. >>> not relevant to this page [[User:Chris_Chittleborough]], [[8 February]] [[2006]] -->
*[http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/~sburke/stuff/pronunciation-guide.txt A pronunciation guide for ASCII characters] <!--good info but i'd like something more authoritive than a random personal website if at all possible [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)-->
*[http://www.jimprice.com/jim-asc.htm ASCII Chart, how to send documents "in ASCII", etc]<!-- i think this can stay at least for now it doesn't seem to contain misinformation about what ASCII is or extended ASCII though there is a small issue with its "IBM PC Extended ASCII" section (its only correct for English versions and sometimes not even for those) [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)-->
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Encoder/Decoder for ASCII, HEX, Binary, Base64, etc with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, CRC, and other hashing algorithms] <!-- note: this website originally started as a school project, I wanted to make something to help the other students in the class and I think it may really help others. I intend to stand behind this work and if you find any error please don't hesitate to notify me of them. -user:paulschou -->
[[Category:5-letter acronyms]]
[[Category:Character encoding]]
[[Category:Character sets]]
[[Category:Latin alphabet representations]]
[[als:ASCII]]
[[ar:ASCII]]
[[ast:ASCII]]
[[bg:ASCII]]
[[ca:ASCII]]
[[cs:ASCII]]
[[da:ASCII]]
[[de:ASCII]]
[[el:ASCII]]
[[eo:Askio]]
[[es:ASCII]]
[[fi:ASCII]]
[[fr:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]]
[[gl:ASCII]]
[[he:ASCII]]
[[hu:ASCII]]
[[ia:ASCII]]
[[id:ASCII]]
[[it:ASCII]]
[[ja:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]]
[[ko:ASCII]]
[[ku:ASCII]]
[[lv:ASCII]]
[[ms:ASCII]]
[[nl:ASCII (tekenset)]]
[[nn:ASCII]]
[[no:ASCII]]
[[pl:ASCII]]
[[pt:ASCII]]
[[ro:ASCII]]
[[ru:ASCII]]
[[sk:ASCII]]
[[sl:ASCII]]
[[sq:ASCII]]
[[sr:ASCII]]
[[sv:ASCII]]
[[th:ASCII]]
[[tr:ASCII]]
[[uk:ASCII]]
[[vi:ASCII]]
[[zh:ASCII]]
[[zh-min-nan:ASCII]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>America</title>
<id>587</id>
<revision>
<id>42091980</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:50:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acjelen</username>
<id>107326</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert confused vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''America''' is usually meant as either:
* The [[Americas]], the lands between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, usually subdivided into:
**[[North America]]
**[[South America]]
* The [[United States]] of America
''See also: [[Americas (terminology)]], [[United_States#endnote_America|Use of the word America]], and [[Use of the word American|Use of the word American]]''
----
America is also:
* [[America, Netherlands]] in Limburg
* America, a part of the parish of [[Sutton-in-the-Isle]] in Cambridgeshire, England
America is the title or name of:<br/>
''Entertainment:''
* [[América (Perales song)|"América"]], a song by Spanish singer and composer [[José Luis Perales]]
* [[America (Paul Simon song)|"America"]], a song by Simon and Garfunkel
* [[America (Prince song)|"America"]], a song by Prince
* [[America (Neil Diamond song)|"America"]], a song by [[Neil Diamond]]
* [[America (band)]], a rock and roll band
** ''[[America (album)|America]]'', the title of their debut album
* ''[[America (Havalina album)|America]]'', an album by the band Havalina
* ''[[America (movie)|America]]'', a 1924 film directed by [[D.W. Griffith]]
* ''[[America (The Book)]]'', a book written by the staff of ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart''
* ''[[America (book)|America]]'', a book by [[Jean Baudrillard]] examining the nation sociologically
* "America", a song from [[W |
)
*[[1592]]: [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]] ([[England]])
*[[1593]]: [[Richard Hawkins]] (England)
*[[1600]]: [[Sebald de Weert]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[1684]]: Cowley & Dampier (England) discovered [[Pepys Island]], renamed [[South Georgia]] by [[James Cook]] in [[1775]].
*[[1690]]: [[John Strong]] (England) landed, and named the sound and eventually the entire island group after [[Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland|Viscount Falkland]], Admiralty Commissioner
*[[1701]]: [[Gouin de Beauchesne]] ([[France]])
*[[1708]]: [[Roger Woodes]] ([[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]])
*[[1713]]: [[Treaty of Utrecht]] between Spain, France and Great Britain may have recognized Spanish sovereignty over the islands
*[[1740]]: [[George Anson, 1st Baron Anson|George Anson]] (Great Britain)
*[[1764]]: [[Louis de Bougainville]] (France) founded a naval base at Port Louis, East Falkland. The French named them the ''Îles Malouines'', so-called from when the islands were briefly occupied by fishermen from [[St Malo]]. Many of the settlers were [[Acadians]] left homeless by the [[Great Expulsion]] in [[Nova Scotia]].
*[[1765]]: Ignorant of de Bougainville's presence, [[John Byron]] (Great Britain) claims Saunders and other islands for Britain. Britain builds a settlement on Saunders the following year.
*[[1766]]: France and Spain reach agreement: French forces are to leave, and Spain agrees to pay for the installations built by de Bougainville.
*[[1770]]: Spain declared war on Great Britain in a fight over the islands.
*[[1771]]: That dispute was settled, with Spain retaining Puerto Soledad and Great Britain Port Egmont. The Spanish claimed that a secret agreement was reached assuring continuing Spanish sovereignty over the islands, but this was denied by the British.
*[[1774]]: The British abandoned the islands but left behind a plaque re-asserting British dominion.
*[[1776]]: Spain ruled the islands as part of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] after 1776.
*[[1790]]: [[Nootka Convention]]. Britain conceded Spanish sovereignty over all Spain's traditional territories in the Americas. Whether or not the islands were included is disputed.
[[Image:FalklandIslands.jpg|thumb|240px|Falkland Islands from Space]]
*[[1811]]: Spain abandoned the islands but left behind a plaque re-asserting Spanish dominion. The islands became uninhabited.
*[[1816]]: The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, later called [[Argentina]], gained independence from Spain, with the islands included in the national territory.
*[[1820]]: The Argentine frigate, the [[Heroina]], was sent to the islands to take possession of them. Argentina set up a penal colony on them.
*[[1825]]: The [[United Kingdom]] recognized Argentina's independence from Spain.
*[[1829]]: Argentina named [[Luis Vernet]] as the islands' governor. After a dispute over fishing rights with a [[United States]] vessel, the Argentine authorities arrested and detained the vessel's captain. The US responded by shelling the islands, destroying the main settlements.
*[[1833]]: The [[United Kingdom]] took over the islands again and expelled the Argentines, but Argentina maintained its claim. (See [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]].)
*December [[1965]]: [[United Nations]] Resolution 2065 called upon Britain and Argentina to "proceed without delay with negotiations [...] with a view to finding a peaceful solution to the problem [...] bearing in mind [...] the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas)."
*[[1982]]: Various tensions, but mainly the desire of the Argentine [[Leopoldo Galtieri|military junta]] to distract attention from domestic economic and political ills, led to an [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands|Argentine invasion]]. The islands were later retaken by the UK. (See [[Falklands War]].)
*November 1982: The [[United Nations General Assembly]] called on the UK and Argentina to resume sovereignty negotiations, but the UK opposes this.
==External links==
*[http://history.falklands.info Falkland Islands History] ''Early history adapted from the ninth edition of an encyclopedia (1879) and other sources.''
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/timeline.html Falklands Islands History - timeline]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1987/CRD.htm 1987 American report] by Richard D. Chenette, Lieutenant Commander, USN, laying out the history and background of the disputed claims
*[http://www.history.horizon.co.fk/chronology.html The History of the Falkland Islands - Chronology]
*[http://www.ussduncan.org/silas_page13.htm Silas Duncan and the Falkland Islands' Incident]
{{South_America_in_topic|History of}}
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<title>Geography of the Falkland Islands</title>
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<title>Demographics of the Falkland Islands</title>
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<title>Politics of the Falkland Islands</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Falkland Islands}}
The '''politics of the [[Falkland Islands]]''', an overseas [[British overseas territory|territory of the United Kingdom]] (also claimed by [[Argentina]]), is minimal, lacking any political parties and differing little from standard British governmental and legal proceedings. The constitution of the Falkland Islands was established [[October 3]], [[1985]] and amended in [[1997]]. [[English and Welsh law|English common law]] holds sway.
==Government==
Within the [[executive (government)|executive]] branch of the Falkland Islands, the chief of state has been [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] since [[February 6]], [[1952]]. The heads of the government since May 1999 have been [[Governor of the Falkland Islands|Governor]] [[Donald Lamont]] and Chief Executive D. F. Howatt. Lamont was succeeded by [[Howard Pearce]] at [[3 December]] [[2002]]. He will be succeeded by [[Alan Huckle]], the current governor of [[Anguilla]].
Howatt was succeeded by [[Chris Simpkins]] in March 2003. The cabinet concists of an Executive Council, with three members elected by the Legislative Council, two ''[[ex officio]]'' members (the chief executive and the financial secretary) and the governor.
The [[legislature|legislative]] branch consists of a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] Legislative Council, with 10 seats, two ''ex officio'' and 8 elected by popular votes. Members serve four-year terms.
The [[judiciary|judicial]] branch consists of a Supreme Court; the [[chief justice]] is a nonresident.
==Elections and parties==
There are no elections for the executive branch in the Falkland Islands. The monarch is hereditary, and the Governor is appointed by the monarch. For other elections, [[suffrage]] is universal, with the minimum voting age at 18.
The Falkland Islands elects a legislature on territorial level. The Legislative Assembly has 10 members, 8 of which are elected every 4 years and 2 members ex officio. As of the last elections, [[17 November]], [[2005]], only non-partisans have been elected; there are no active political parties in the Falkland Islands. The next elections will be held in November 2009.
{{Falkland Islands parliamentary election, 2005}}
==See also==
* [[Electoral system]]
{{South America in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Elections in the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Lists of political parties|Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Politics of the Falkland Islands]]
[[nl:Politiek van de Falklandeilanden]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Economy of the Falkland Islands</title>
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<comment>{{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Economy of the Falkland Islands table}}
The '''economy''' of the '''[[Falkland Islands]]''' was formerly based on [[agriculture]], mainly [[domestic sheep|sheep]] farming, but today [[fishing]] contributes the bulk of economic activity. In 1987 the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone. These license fees total more than $40 million per year, which goes to support the island's health, education, and welfare system. [[Squid]] accounts for 75% of the fish taken. [[Dairy farming]] supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. To encourage tourism, the Falkland Islands Development Corporation has built three lodges for visitors attracted by the abundant wildlife and trout fishing. The islands are now self-financing except for defence. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,00 |
ding]].
* Performing an [[Eigentransform|eigentransform]] on the image
** [[Fourier transform]]
* Doing [[Motion estimation|motion estimation]] for local regions of the image (also known as [[optical flow]] estimation).
* Estimating [[Disparity(Brain)|disparity]] in [[Stereo photography|stereo image]]s.
* [[Multiresolution analysis]]
===Feature extraction===
The aim of [[feature extraction]] is to further reduce the data to a set of [[feature]]s, which ought to be invariant to disturbances such as [[lighting|lighting conditions]], [[camera]] [[position]], [[noise]] and [[distortion]]. Examples of [[feature extraction]] are:
* Performing [[edge detection]] or estimation of [[orientation (computer vision)|local orientation]].
* Extracting [[corner detection|corner]] features.
* Detecting [[blob detection|blob]] features.
* Extracting [http://www.ri.cmu.edu/projects/project_94.html spin image]s from depth maps.
* Extracting [[Geon (psychology)|geons]] or other three-dimensional primitives, such as [[superquadrics]]
* Acquiring [[Contour|contour lines]] and maybe [[Curvature|curvature]] zero crossings.
* Generating features with the [[Scale-invariant feature transform]].
===Registration===
The aim of the [[image registration|registration step]] is to establish [[Correspondence (mathematics)|correspondence]] between the features in the acquired set and the features of known objects in a model-[[database]] and/or the features of the preceding image. The registration step has to bring up a final [[hypothesis]]. To name a few methods:
* [[Least squares|Least squares estimation]]
* [[Hough transform]] in many variations
* [[Geometric hashing]]
* [[Particle filter|Particle filtering]]
* [[RANSAC|RANdom SAmple Consensus]]
==Related Fields==
Advanced systems are often borrowing from many different fields like [[pattern recognition]], [[statistical learning]], [[projective geometry]], [[image processing]], [[graph theory]] and other.
[[Cognitive computer vision]] is strongly related to [[cognitive psychology]] and [[biological computation]].
===A University Video Communication on Model-Based Computer Vision===
[[Joseph Mundy]] in a [http://www.archive.org/details/JosephMu1987 University Video Communication on Model-Based Computer Vision (1987)]:
''"What do students need to learn to be prepared to meet the challenges?"'' -
<i>"I would like to comment on the necessary courses a student should take to really be prepared to carry out research in model-based vision.
As we can see the [[geometry]] of [[Perspective projection|image projection]] and the [[mathematics]] of [[Affine transformation|transformation]] is a very key element in studying this field, but there are many other issues the student has to be prepared for.
If we are going to talk about [[image segment|segmenting images]] and getting good geometric clues, we have to understand the relationship between the intensity of image data and its underlying geometry. And this would lead the student into such areas as [[optics]], [[illumination]] theory, theory of [[shadow]]s and the like. And also the mathematics underlying this kind of computations would of course require [[signal processing]] theory, [[fourier transform]] theory and the like. And in dealing with algebraic surfaces such as this curved [[surface]]s as we talked about here, courses in [[algebraic geometry]] and higher pure forms of [[algebra]] will prove to be necessary in order to make any kind of progress in research to handle curved [[surface]]s.
So, I guess the bottom line of what I'm saying is: math courses, particularly those associated with geometric aspects will be key in all of this."</i>
==Applications==
In the related fields [[machine vision]] and [[medical imaging]], systems using computer vision techniques are sold in markets worth billions of US dollars per year.
One interesting application of computer vision, commonly used in the creation of [[visual effects]] for cinema and broadcast, is [[camera tracking]] or matchmoving. Computer vision also finds its applications in medicine, military industry, security and surveillance, quality inspection, robotics, automotive industry and many other fields.
==See also==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
! Computer vision subcategories !! Related fields
|-
| valign="top" |
* [[:Category:Applications in Computer vision|Applications in Computer vision]]
* [[:Category:Commercial systems for Computer vision|Commercial systems for Computer vision]]
* [[:Category:People in Computer vision|People in Computer vision]]
* [[:Category:Software for Computer vision|Software for Computer vision]]
||
* [[Affective computing]]
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Digital image processing]]
* [[Image processing]]
* [[Machine learning]]
* [[Machine vision]]
* [[Medical imaging]]
* [[Morphological image processing]]
|}
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Computer Vision|Important publications in computer vision]]
== Further reading ==
{{cite book |
author=Olivier Faugeras |
title=Three-Dimensional Computer Vision, A Geometric Viewpoint |
publisher=MIT Press |
year=1993 |
id=ISBN 0-262-06158-9}}
{{cite book |
author=David A. Forsyth and Jean Ponce |
title=Computer Vision, A Modern Approach |
publisher=Prentice Hall |
year=2003 |
id=ISBN 0-12-379777-2}}
{{cite book |
author=Gösta H. Granlund and Hans Knutsson |
title=Signal Processing for Computer Vision |
publisher=Kluwer Academic Publisher |
year=1995 |
id=ISBN 0-7923-9530-1}}
{{cite book |
author=Richard Hartely and Andrew Zisserman |
title=Multiple View Geometry in computer vision |
publisher=Cambridge University Press|
year=2003 |
id=ISBN 0-521-54051-8}}
{{cite book |
author=Berthold Klaus Paul Horn |
title=Robot Vision |
publisher=MIT Press|
year=1986 |
id=ISBN 0-262-08519-8}}
{{cite book |
author=Bernd Jähne and Horst Haußecker |
title=Computer Vision and Applications, A Guide for Sudents and Practitioners | publisher=Academic Press |
year=2000 |
id=ISBN 0-13-085198-1}}
{{cite book |
author=Bernd Jähne |
title=Digital Image Processing |
publisher=Springer |
year=2002 |
id=ISBN 3-540-67754-2}}
{{cite book |
author=Tim Morris |
title=Computer Vision and Image Processing |
publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |
year=2004 |
id=ISBN 0-333-99451-5}}
{{cite book |
author=Linda G. Shapiro and George C. Stockman |
title=Computer Vision |
publisher=Prentice Hall |
year=2001 |
id=ISBN 0-13-030796-3}}
{{cite book |
author=Milan Sonka, Vaclav Hlavac and Roger Boyle |
title=Image Processing, Analysis, and Machine Vision |
publisher=PWS Publishing |
year=1999 |
id=ISBN 0-534-95393-X}}
==External links==
'''General resources'''
* {{wikicities|computervision|Computer Vision}}
* [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~cil/vision.html The Computer Vision Homepage]
* [http://iris.usc.edu/Vision-Notes/bibliography/contents.html Keith Price's Annotated Computer Vision Bibliography]
'''Computer vision laboratories'''
* [http://www.vision.ee.ethz.ch ETH Zürich Computer Vision Laboratory]
* [http://vision.eng.shu.ac.uk/mediawiki/ MMVL MediaWiki]
* [http://dircweb.king.ac.uk/dirc/ Kingston University's Digital Imaging Research Centre (DIRC)]
* [http://www.psi.toronto.edu/ Probilistic and Statistical Inference Group @ University of Toronto]
'''Tutorials'''
* [http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/CVonline/ On-Line Compendium of Computer Vision]
* [http://www.netnam.vn/unescocourse/computervision/comp_frm.htm Tutorial to Image Processing]
* [http://palantir.swarthmore.edu/maxwell/classes/e27/F03/E27_F03_Lectures.pdf Introduction to computer vision] (464KB pdf file)
'''Papers'''
* [http://www.packet.cc/files/mach-per-3D-solids.html Machine Perception of Three-Dimensional Solids - the paper mentioned by Joseph Mundy in the video]
[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Computer vision|*Computer vision]]
[[de:Computer Vision]]
[[es:Visión artificial]]
[[fa:بینایی رایانهای]]
[[fr:Vision artificielle]]
[[ja:コンピュータビジョン]]
[[sv:datorseende]]
[[th:คอมพิวเตอร์วิทัศน์]]
[[zh:计算机视觉]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Curry</title>
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<comment>/* Curries around the world */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the dish}}
[[Image:Chicken curry.jpg|right|250px|thumb|An [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] chicken curry]]
A '''curry''' is any of a great variety of distinctively [[spice]]d dishes, best-known in [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Thai cuisine]], but curry has been adopted into all of the mainstream cuisines of the Asia-Pacific area, from [[Pakistan]] in the west and even eventually to [[Japan]]. Along with [[tea]], curry is one of the few dishes or drinks that is truly "pan-Asian", although its roots are from [[India]]. Sandeep Bhateja ([[Punjabi]]) the world famous curry chef from Agra, India, is renowned for incorporating various roots into exotic curry dishes.
==Curries around the world==
The term ''curry'' derives from ''kari'', a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word meaning sauce and referring to various kinds of dishes common in [[South India]] made with [[vegetables|vegetables]] or [[meat]] and usually eaten with [[rice]]. The term is used more broadly, especially in the [[Western Hemisphere]], to refer to almost any spiced, sauce-based dishes cooked in various south and southeast Asian styles. This imprecise umbrella term is largely a legacy of the [[British Raj]]. There is a common misconception that all curries are made from [[curry powder]] or that a certain meat or vegetable is curried. In India, the word curry is in fact rarely used. Most dishes involving [[lentils]] are called ''dahl'', or else are referred to by a name specific to the [[spices]] used in the preparation. [[Meat]] or [[vegetable]] dishes are likewise gi |
s scarp made by the cutting of the ravine, and vary from 35 to 110 ft. in elevation above the bed of the torrent.
The monastic complex of Ajantā consists of several [[vihara|vihāras]] (monastic halls of residence) and [[chaitya]]-grihas ([[stupa]] monument halls) cut into the mountain scarp in two phases. The first phase is called the [[Hinayana|Hinayāna]] phase (referring to the Lesser Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, when the Buddha was revered symbolically). At Ajantā, cave numbers 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15A (the last one was re-discovered in 1956, and is still not officially numbered) were excavated during this phase. These excavations have enshrined the Buddha in the form of the stupa, or mound. The second phase of excavation started on the site after a lull of over three centuries. This phase is popularly known as the [[Mahāyāna]] phase (referring to the Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, which is less strict and encourages direct depiction of the Buddha through paintings and carvings). Some prefer to call this phase the [[Vakataka|Vākāţaka]] phase after the ruling dynasty of the house of the Vākāţakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The dating of the second phase has been debated among scholars. In recent years a consensus seems to be converging on fifth century dates for all the Mahāyāna phase caves. According to Walter M. Spink, a leading Ajantologist, all the Mahāyāna excavations were carried out from 462 to 480 CE. The caves created during the Mahāyāna phase are the ones numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29. Cave 8 was long thought to be a Hinayāna cave, however current research shows that it is in fact a Mahāyāna cave.
There were two chaitya-grihas excavated in the Hinayāna phase that are caves 9 and 10. Caves 12, 13, and 15A of this phase are vihāras. There were three chaitya-grihas excavated in the Vākāţaka or Mahāyāna phase that are caves 19, 26, and 29. The last cave was abandoned soon after its beginning. Caves 19 and 26 have a rather uncommon arrangement made to the central object of worship wherein the stupa is fronted by an image of the Buddha in standing and seated positions respectively. The rest of the excavations are vihāras: caves 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, and 28.
The vihāras are of various sizes the maximum being about 52 feet. They are often square-shaped. Their excavation exhibits a great variety, some with simple facade, others ornate; some have a porch and others do not. The hall was an essential element of a vihāras. In the Vākāţaka phase, early viharas were not intended to have shrines because they were purely meant to be halls of residence and congregation. Later, shrines were introduced in them in the back walls, which became a norm. The shrines were made to house the central object of reverence that is the image of the [[Buddha]] often seated in the ''dharmachakrapravartana mudra'' (the gesture of teaching). In the caves with latest features, we find subsidiary shrines added on the side walls, porch or the front-court. The facades of many vihāras are decorated with carvings, and walls and ceilings were often covered with paintings.
Changes in [[Buddhist]] thought in the first century BCE had made it possible for the Buddha to be deified and consequently the image of the Buddha as a focus of worship became popular marking the arrival of the Mahāyāna (the Greater Vehicle) sect.
In the past, scholars divided the caves in three groups, but this is now discredited in light of fresh evidence and research. This theory of dating believed that the oldest group of caves dated from [[second century BCE|200 BCE]] to [[third century|CE 200]], the second group belonged, approximately, to the [[sixth century|sixth]], and the third group to the [[seventh century]].
The expression ''Cave Temples'' used by [[Anglo-Indians]] for vihāras without the shrine is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery. [[Hsuan Tsang]] informs us that [[Dinnaga]], the celebrated Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books on logic, resided there. This, however, remains to be corroborated by further evidence. In their prime the vihāras were intended to afford accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and pupils combined. It is tragic that none of the caves in the Vākāţaka phase were ever fully completed. This was because the ruling Vākāţaka dynasty suddenly fell out of power leaving the dominion in a likely crisis, which forced all activities to a sudden halt at the time of Ajanta's last years of activities. This idea first pronounced by Walter M. Spink is increasingly gaining acceptance based on the archaeological evidence visible on site.
Most of the subjects have been identified by the leading Ajantologist from Germany, Dieter Schlingloff.
==Cave 1==
It is first approached by the visitor on site, and has no relation to the chronological sequence of the caves. It is the first cave on the eastern end of the horse-shoe shaped scarp. According to Spink, it is one of the latest caves to have begun on site and brought to near-completion in the Vākāţaka phase. Although there is no epigraphic evidence, it has been proposed that the Vākāţaka king Harisena may have been the benefactor of this better-preserved cave. A dominant reason for this is that King Harisena was not involved initially in patronizing Ajanta, but could not have remained aloof for long, as the site was burgeoning with activity under his rule, and the Buddhist laity would have loved to see the Hindu king participating in the pious act of patronage. Besides, most of the themes depicted are royal.
This cave has one of the most elaborate carvings on the facade with relief sculptures on entablature and fridges. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. There was once a two pillared portico visible in the 19th century photographs, which has since been perished. The cave has a front-court with cells fronted by pillared-vestibules on either side. These have high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on either end. The absence of pillared vestibules on ends suggest that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had became a necessity and norm. Most areas of the porch was once covered with murals of which notably high degree of fragments remain. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side-doorways. Between the main and the side-doorways, two square windows have been carved that lit the interiors.
Each wall of the hall inside is nearly 40 feet long and 20 feet high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall, which houses an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the ''dharmachakrapravartana mudra.'' There are four cells each on the left, rear, and the right wall. The walls are covered with paintings suggesting a fair state of preservation from decay. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental. The themes are from the Jataka stories (the stories of the Buddha's former existences as Boddhisattva), life of the Gautam Buddha, and those of his veneration.
[[Image:Cave 01 porch.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cave 1]]
==Cave 2==
Cave 2 is next to Cave 1. It looks similar to cave 1 in many respects. Like cave 1, it is relatively in a better state of preservation. It is known specially for the paintings preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars.
Facade: The cave's facade has a porch visibly different from cave 1. Even the facade does not have carvings as in cave 1. What we see here is an eave supported by robust pillars that are ornamented with designs. The size and general ground plan, however, shares many things in common with cave 1.
Porch: As first suggested by Walter M. Spink, the porch has cells fronted by pillared vestibules (hereinafter CPV in this article) on either ends. This architectural element is not found in the porch of cave 1. That cave has simple cells on porch-ends. The reason is, as evidences indicate, similar porch-end cells once existed not only in cave 2 but most other caves began early in the Vakataka phase and transformed later as CPVs in later years. In fact, all the porch-ends in various caves as wells as on the facade's side-walls were originally blank without even a cell in the earliest, the inaugural plans that were based on the prototype of a typical Hinayana vihara. The need of the cells on the previously "wasted areas" arose as a solution to greater housing requirements in later years. It became a norm subsequently to add porch-end cells in the planning of later Vakataka excavations. Still later, these simple single cells on porch-ends were converted into CPVs or were being planned as such in order to create accommodate more room, symmetry, and beauty.
The paintings on the ceilings and walls of this porch are widely published. They depict the [[Jataka]] tales that are stories of the Buddha's life in former existences as [[Bodhisattva]]. The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window carved to lit the interiors.
Hall: The hall has four colonnade making a square in the center of the hall. They support the ceiling. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to each of the respective wall of the hall making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative motifs that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine forms. Monika Zin's research on the decorative and devotional themes of Ajanta paintings should be consulted by readers wanting to learn in detail.
Paintings: Paintings are everywhere except the fl |
s. Their relations with southerners were generally hostile, but at other times cordial enough to support trade.
The first contact with Europeans came from the [[Viking]]s, who settled Greenland and explored the eastern Canadian coast. [[Norsemen|Norse]] literature speaks of ''[[skræling]]ar'', most likely an undifferentiated label for all the native peoples of the Americas the Norse contacted - Tuniit, Inuit and [[Beothuk]]s alike. Archeological evidence suggests that the Tuniit had abandoned Greenland around [[200]]. They reoccupied areas in the far north of Greenland sometime around [[1000]], but the Norse settlements were in the south and southwest of the island. It is likely that the area of the Norse settlements was unoccupied at the time they arrived.
Sometime in the [[13th century]], Inuit began arriving from what is now [[Canada]]. Norse accounts are scant, and there is no Inuit oral history discussing contact with the Norse. However, Norse-made items have been found at Inuit campsites in Greenland. It is unclear whether they are the result of trade or plunder. One old account speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. [[Ívar Bárðarson]]'s [[14th century]] account mentions that one of the two Norse settlement areas - the western settlement - had been taken over by the ''skrælings''. The reason why the Norse settlements failed is unclear, but the last record of them is from [[1408]] - roughly the same period as the earliest Inuit settlements in east Greenland.
After roughly [[1350]], the climate grew colder during the [[Little Ice Age]] and the Inuit were forced to abandon hunting and whaling sites in the high Arctic. [[Bowhead whale|Bowhead whaling]] disappeared in Canada and Greenland (but continued in Alaska) and the Inuit had to subsist on a much poorer diet. Without whales, they lost access to essential raw materials for tools and architecture that were derived from whaling. Although the Inuit had always been nomadic, they were forced to move more and more often to maximise their return from hunting. Semi-permanent sod and whalebone dwellings were replaced by what has now become the symbol of the Inuit in many minds: temporary snow houses known as [[igloo]]s.
The changing climate forced the Inuit to also look south, pressuring them into the marginal niches along the edges of the tree line that Indians had not occupied, or where they were weak enough to coexist with. It is hard to say with any precision when the Inuit stopped their territorial expansion. There is evidence that they were still moving into new territory in southern [[Labrador]] in the [[17th century]], when they first began to interact with colonial North American civilization.
==Inuit since the arrival of Europeans==
===Canada===
The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except for mutual trade (McGhee 1992:194). In the centuries to follow Inuit contact with explorers varied across the Arctic. Labrador Inuit have had the longest continuous contact with Europeans (Kleivan 1966:9). After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-[[16th century]], [[Basque people|Basque]] fishermen were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land. The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they raided the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs.
[[Martin Frobisher]]'s [[1576]] search for the [[Northwest Passage]] was the first well-documented post-[[Christopher Columbus|Columbian]] contact between Europeans and Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed on [[Baffin Island]], not far from the town now called [[Iqaluit]], but long known as ''Frobisher Bay''. This first contact went poorly. Martin Frobisher, attempted to find the Northwest Passage. He encountered Inuit on Resolution Island. Five sailors jumped ship and became part of Inuit mythology. The homesick sailors tired of their adventure attempted to leave in a small vessel and vanished. Frobisher brought an unwilling Inuk to England, doubtless the first Inuk ever to visit Europe. The Inuit oral tradition, in contrast, recounts the natives helping Frobisher's crewmen, who believed they had been abandoned.
The semi-nomadic eco-centred Inuit were fishers and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms and tundra. While there are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and English explorers, fishers and whalers, more recent research suggests that the early relations whaling stations along the Labrador coast and later James Bay were based on a mutual interest in trade (Mitchell 1996:49-62). In the final years of the [[18th century]], the [[Moravian church]] began missionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British who were tired of the raids on their whaling stations. The Moravian missionaries could easily provide the Inuit with the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from whaling outposts - materials whose real cost to Europeans was almost nothing, but whose value to the Inuit was enormous - and from then on contacts in Labrador were far more peaceful.
The European arrival caused a great deal of damage to the Inuit way of life, causing mass death through new diseases introduced by whalers and explorers, and enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting effect of Europeans' material wealth. Nonetheless, Inuit society in the higher latitudes had largely persisted in isolation in the [[19th century]]. Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such as Great Whale River (1820), today called ''Kuujjuarapik'', where whale products of the commercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The British Naval Expedition (1821-3) led by Admiral Parry, which twice overwintered in Foxe Basin, provided the first informed, sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of the Inuit. Parry stayed in Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings with pen and ink illustrations of Inuit everyday life (1824) and those of Lyon (1824) were widely read (D'Anglure 2002:205). Captain Comer's Inuit wife Shoofly known for her sewing skills and elegant attire (Driscoll 1980:6) was influential in convincing him to acquire more sewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit. A few traders and missionaries circulated among the more accessible bands, and after [[1904]] they were accompanied by a handful of policemen. But, unlike most [[Native Canadian]]s, the lands occupied by the Inuit were of little interest to European settlers. While southerners consider the Arctic as a hostile Hinterland to the Inuit it is their Homeland. While many southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucrats and service providers in the north, very few southerners chose to retire there. In the early years of the [[20th century]], Canada, with its more hospitable lands largely settled, began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral territories, especially the fur and mineral rich hinterlands. By the late [[1920s]], there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted by traders, missionaries or government agents.
Native customs were worn down by the actions of police - who enforced Canadian criminal law on Inuit who often could not understand what they had done wrong - and by missionaries who preached a moral code very different from the one they were used to.
[[World War II|WWII]] and the [[Cold War]] made Arctic Canada strategically important for the first time, and, thanks to the development of modern aircraft, accessible year-round. The construction of airbases and radar stations in the [[1940s]] and [[1950s|50s]] brought more intensive contacts with European society, particularly in the form of public education, which instilled and enforced foreign values disdainful of the traditional structure of Inuit society. By 1953 Canada's Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent publicly admitted: "Apparently we have administered the vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind. (Parker 1996:32)" The government began to establish about forty permanent administrative centres to provide education, health and economic development services for Inuit (Parker 1996:32). Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north, began to congregate in these hamlets (Mitchell 1996:118).
Furthermore, regular visits from doctors and access to modern medical care raised the birth rate enormously. Before long, the Inuit population was beyond what traditional hunting and fishing could support. By the mid-[[1960s]], encouraged first by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finally forced by hunger and required by police, all Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements. The nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had for the most part disappeared. The Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment, were in the span of perhaps two generations transformed into a small, impoverished minority lacking skills or resources to sell to the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for day to day survival.
Although anthropologists like [[Diamond Jenness]] (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facing extinction, Inuit political activism was already emerging as he wrote those words.
In the [[1960s]], the Canadian government funded the establishment of secular, government-operated [[high school]]s in the [[Northwest Territories]] and Inuit areas in [[Quebec]] and [[Labrador]]. The Inuit population was not large enough to support a full high school in every community, so this meant only a few schools were built, and students from across the territories were boarded there. These schools, in [[Iqaluit]], |
[[Origen]]'s ''Hexapla,'' and commentaries collected by Pamphilus, in an attempt to prepare a correct version.
In [[307]] Pamphilus was imprisoned, but Eusebius continued their project. The resulting defence of Origen, in which they had collaborated, was finished by Eusebius after the death of Pamphilus and sent to the [[martyr]]s in the [[Mining|mine]]s of [[Phaeno]] in [[Egypt]]. Eusebius then seems to have gone to [[Tyre]] and later to Egypt, where he first suffered persecution.
Eusebius is next heard of as [[bishop]] of [[Caesarea Palaestina]]. He succeeded [[Agapius]], whose time of office is not known, but Eusebius must have become bishop soon after [[313]]. Nothing is known about the early years of his tenure. When the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] met in [[325]], Eusebius was prominent in its transactions. He was not naturally a spiritual leader or theologian, but as a very learned man and a famous author who enjoyed the special favour of the emperor, he came to the fore among the 300 members of the council. The confession which he proposed became the basis of the [[Nicene Creed]].
Eusebius was involved in the further development of the [[Arianism|Arian controversies]]. For instance, in the dispute with [[Eustathius of Antioch]], who opposed the growing influence of Origen and his practice of an [[Exegesis|allegorical exegesis]] of scripture, seeing in his theology the roots of Arianism, Eusebius, an admirer of Origen, was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith, and was charged in turn with [[Sabellianism]]. Eustathius was accused, condemned and deposed at a [[synod]] in [[Antioch]]. The people of Antioch rebelled against this action, while the anti-Eustathians proposed Eusebius as the new bishop, but he declined.
After Eustathius had been removed, the Eusebians proceeded against [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], a much more dangerous opponent. In [[334]] Athanasius was summoned before a synod in Caesarea; he did not attend. In the following year he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius presided. Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to [[Constantinople]] to bring his cause before the emperor. Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius. Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of [[335]]. At the same synod, another opponent was successfully attacked: [[Marcellus of Ancyra]] had long opposed the Eusebians, and had protested against the reinstitution of Arius. He was accused of Sabellianism and deposed in [[336]]. Constantine died the next year and Eusebius did not long survive him. Eusebius died (probably at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]]), in [[340]] at the latest and probably on [[May 30]], [[339]].
==Works==
Of the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved. Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research. Hence much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been destroyed.
The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life. At first he occupied himself with works on Biblical criticism, under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of the School of Antioch. Afterward the persecutions under [[Diocletian]] and [[Galerius]] directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past. And this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which to him was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history.
Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and [[dogma]]tic questions came into the foreground. Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems&mdash;apologies of a different sort had to be prepared. Lastly, Eusebius, the court theologian, wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine. To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works which include both commentaries and treatises on Biblical archeology and extend over the whole of his life.
===Works on Biblical text criticism===
Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the text criticism of the [[Septuagint]] text of the [[Old Testament]] and especially of the [[New Testament]]. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to [[Jerome]], was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the [[pericope]]s that belong together.
===The ''Chronicle''===
The two greatest historical works of Eusebius are his ''[[Chronicon (Eusebius)|Chronicle]]'' and his ''[[Church History]]''. The former (Greek, ''Pantodape historia'', "Universal History") is divided into two parts. The first part (Greek, ''Chronographia'', "Annals") purports to give an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations. The second part (Greek, ''Chronikoi kanones'', "Chronological Canons") attempts to furnish a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel [[timeline]].
The work as a whole has been lost in the original, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work with untiring diligence, especially [[George Syncellus]]. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given an Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius's "Chronicle", of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entire in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. The "Chronicle" as preserved extends to the year 325. It was written before the "Church History."
===The ''Church History''===
In his ''Church History'' or ''Ecclesiastical History'' (''Historia Ecclesiastica''), Eusebius attempted according to his own declaration (I.i.1) to present the history of the Church from the apostles to his own time, with special regard to the following points:
:(1) the successions of bishops in the principal sees;
:(2) the history of Christian teachers;
:(3) the history of heresies;
:(4) the history of the Jews;
:(5) the relations to the heathen;
:(6) the martyrdoms.
He grouped his material according to the reigns of the emperors, presenting it as he found it in his sources. The contents are as follows:
* Book i: detailed introduction, on Jesus Christ
* Book ii: The history of the apostolic time to the [[destruction of Jerusalem]] by [[Roman Emperor Titus|Titus]]
* Book iii: The following time to [[Trajan]]
* Books iv and v: the second century
* Book vi: The time from [[Severus]] to [[Trajan Decius|Decius]]
* Book vii: extends to the outbreak of the persecution under [[Diocletian]]
* Book viii: more of this persecution
* Book ix: history to [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine's]] victory over [[Maxentius]] in the West and over [[Maximinus]] in the East
* Book x: The reestablishment of the churches and the rebellion and conquest of [[Licinius]].
In its present form the work was brought to a conclusion before the
death of [[Crispus]] (July, 326), and, since book x is dedicated to [[Paulinus of Tyre]] who died before 325, at the end of 323 or in 324. This work required the most comprehensive preparatory studies, and it must have occupied him for years. His collection of martyrdoms of the older period may have been one of these preparatory studies.
Eusebius blames the calamities which befell the Jewish nation on the Jews' role in the death of Jesus. This quote has been used to attack both Jews and Christians. See [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]].
:"that from that time seditions and wars and mischievous plots followed each other in quick succession, and never ceased in the city and in all Judea until finally the siege of Vespasian overwhelmed them. Thus the divine vengeance overtook the Jews for the crimes which they dared to commit against Christ." (''Hist. Eccles.'' II.6: The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the Jews after their Presumption against Christ) [http://web.cbn.org/bibleresources/theology/eusebius/churchhistory/eusebius-b2-7.asp]
===The ''Life of Constantine''===
Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' (''Vita Constantini'') is a [[eulogy]] and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the ''Church History.'' As the historian [[Socrates Scholasticus]] said, at the opening of his history that was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, "Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor, than on an accurate statement of facts." The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death.
===Minor historical works===
Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus. The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts. It contained:
:(1) an epistle of the congregation of [[Smyrna]] concerning the martyrdom of [[Polycarp]];
:(2) the martyrdom of Pionius;
:(3) the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike;
:(4) the martyrdoms in the congregations of [[Vienne]] and [[Lyon]];
:(5) the martyrdom of Apollonius.
Of the life of Pamphilus only a fragment s |
[[glycerol]]. See [[oleochemical]]s.
Reduction of fatty acids yields [[fatty alcohol]]s.
==Types of fatty acids==
[[Image:rasyslami.jpg|frame|Several fatty acid molecules]]
===Saturated fatty acids===
'''Saturated fatty acids''' do not contain any [[double bond]]s or other [[functional group]]s along the chain. The term "saturated" refers to [[hydrogen]], in that all carbons (apart from the [[carboxylic acid]] [-COOH] group) contain as many hydrogens as possible. In other words, the omega (&omega;) end contains 3 [[hydrogen]]s (CH<sub>3</sub>-) and each carbon within the chain contains 2 hydrogens (-CH<sub>2</sub>-).
Saturated fatty acids form straight chains and, as a result, can be packed together very tightly, allowing living organisms to store chemical energy very densly. The fatty tissues of animals contain large amounts of long-chain saturated fatty acids. In [[IUPAC nomenclature]], fatty acids have an [[-oic acid]] suffix. In [[common nomenclature]], the suffix is usually -ic.
Some saturated fatty acids are:
* [[Acetic acid|Acetic]]: CH<sub>3</sub>COOH
* [[Butyric acid|Butyric]]: CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>COOH
* [[Lauric acid|Lauric]] (dodecanoic acid): CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>10</sub>COOH
* [[Myristic acid|Myristic]] (tetradecanoic acid): CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>12</sub>COOH
* [[Palmitic acid|Palmitic]] (hexadecanoic acid): CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>14</sub>COOH
* [[Stearic acid|Stearic]] (octadecanoic acid): CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>16</sub>COOH
* [[Arachidic acid|Arachidic]] (eicosanoic acid): CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>18</sub>COOH
===Unsaturated fatty acids===
'''Unsaturated fatty acids''' are of similar form, except that one or more [[alkene]] [[functional group]]s exist along the chain, with each alkene substituting a singly-[[chemical bond|bond]]ed " -CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-" part of the chain with a [[Covalent bond|doubly-bonded]] "-CH=CH-" portion (that is, a carbon double bonded to another carbon).
The two hydrogen atoms (H) that are bound to the doubly-bonded carbon atoms (C) can occur in a ''[[cis]]'' or ''trans'' configuration.
A ''cis'' configuration means that the two hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the chain. Because of the polarization of the hydrogen atoms, the hydrogen atoms repel each other and cause the chain to bend. The more double-bonds the chain has in the ''cis'' configuration, the more bent it is. When a chain has many ''cis'' bonds, it becomes quite curved. For example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a "kink" in it, while linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend. Linolenic acid, with three double bonds, forms a hooked shape.
A ''trans'' configuration, by contrast, means that the two hydrogen atoms occur on ''opposite'' sides of the chain. As a result, they don't cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to the straight saturated fatty acids.
In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each double bond has 3''n'' carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are [[cis]] bonds. Most fatty acids in the ''trans'' configuration (trans fats) are unnatural and the result of human processing.
The differences in geometry between these various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, plays an important role is biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes).
====Nomenclature====
There are two different ways to make clear where the double bonds are located in molecules. For example:
* ''cis''/''trans''-Delta-''x'' or ''cis''/''trans''-&Delta;<sup>''x''</sup>: The double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon-carbon bond, counting from the carboxyl terminus. The ''cis'' or ''trans'' notation indicates whether the molecule is arranged in a [[cis]] or [[trans]] conformation. In the case of a molecule having more than one double bond, the notation is, for example, ''cis'',''cis''-&Delta;<sup>9</sup>,&Delta;<sup>12</sup>.
* Omega-''x'' or &omega;-''x'' : A double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon-carbon bond, counting from the &omega;, (methyl carbon) end.
Example of unsaturated fatty acids:
* (Alpha)-[[Linolenic acid]]: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH
* [[Docosahexaenoic acid]]
* [[Eicosapentaenoic acid]]
* [[Linoleic acid]]: CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH
* [[Arachidonic acid]] CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''CH<sub>2</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>COOH<sup>[http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=Arachidonic+Acid&Units=SI NIST]</sup>
* [[Oleic acid]]: CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>COOH
* [[Erucic acid]]: CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>7</sub>'''CH=CH'''(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>11</sub>COOH
Alpha-linolenic, docosahexaenoic, and eicosapentaenoic acids are examples of [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s. Linoleic acid and arachidonic acid are [[omega-6 fatty acid]]s. Oleic and erucic acid are [[omega-9 fatty acid]]s. Stearic and Oleic acid are both 18 [[Carbon|C]] fatty acids. They differ only in that stearic acid is saturated with hydrogen, while oleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid with two fewer hydrogens.
====Essential fatty acids====
'''[[Essential fatty acid]]s''' are the polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, which are the parent compounds of the [[omega-6 fatty acid|omega-6]] and [[omega-3 fatty acid|omega-3]] fatty acid series respectively. They are essential in the human diet since they cannot be synthesized by the body. We can easily make saturated fatty acids or monounsaturated fatty acids with a double bond at the omega-9 position, but we do not have the enzymes to introduce a double bond at the omega-3 or -6 position. As a result, these fatty acids must be obtained from food sources; hence, they are "essential."
The essential fatty acids are very important for our immune system and to help us regulate our blood pressure, since they are used to make compounds such as [[prostaglandin]]s. The brain is also highly enriched in derivatives of linolenic and alpha-linoleic acids. Changes in the levels and balance of these fatty acids caused with a western diet of processed food and high intensity agriculture has been associated with depression and behavioral change including violence. Changing diet to more natural food or taking supplements to compensate for dietary imbalance is associated with a reduction in violent behavior, and increases attention span, a finding has been replicated in studies within schools as well as a double blind study in a prison{{ref|lawrence}}{{ref|durham}}.
====Trans fatty acids====
{{main|Trans fat}}
A '''trans fatty acid''' (commonly shortened to '''trans fat''') is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a ''[[trans]]'' [[double bond]] between [[carbon]] atoms, which makes the molecule less kinked compared to fatty acids with ''[[cis]]'' double bonds. Research suggests a correlation between diets high in ''trans'' fats and diseases like [[atherosclerosis]] and [[coronary heart disease]].
==Free fatty acids==
Fatty acids can be bound or attached to other molecules, like [[triglyceride]]s or [[phospholipid]]s. When they are not attached to other molecules, they are known as "free" fatty acids.
The '''uncombined fatty acids''' or '''free fatty acids''' may come from the breakdown of a triglyceride into its components (fatty acids and glycerol).
Free fatty acids are an important source of fuel for many tissues since they can yield relatively large quantities of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Many cell types can use either [[glucose]] or fatty acids for this purpose. However, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids. On the other hand, the brain cannot use fatty acids as a source of fuel, relying instead on glucose, or on [[ketone bodies]] produced by the liver from [[fatty acid metabolism]] during starvation, or periods of low carbohydrate intake.
==pH==
[[Formic acid]] and [[Acetic acid]] are totally soluble in water and dissociate to form reasonably strong acids ([[pKa]] respectively 3.77 and 4.76). Longer chain fatty acids do not show a great change in pKa: Nonanic acid, for example, has a pKa of 4.96. However, as the chain length increases the solubility of the fatty acids decreases very rapidly, so that the longer chain fatty acids have very little effect on the [[pH]] of a solution. The significance of their pKa values therefore only has relevance to the types of reaction that they take part in.
Even those fatty acids that are insoluble in water will dissolve in warm [[ethanol]], and can be [[titration|titrated]] with [[sodium hydroxide]] solution using [[phenolphthalein]] as an indicator to a pale pink endpoint. This analysis is used to determine the free fatty acid content of fats, i.e. the proportion of the [[triglyceride]]s that have been [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]].
==Aut |
ual conspirators from the 'impossibility' that a chain of events lacked direction by a person''.
# Allots superhuman talents or resources to conspirators;<br>''May require conspirators to possess unique discipline, never to repent, to possess unknown technology, uncommon psychological insight, historical foresight, unlimited resources, etc''.
# Key steps in argument rely on [[Induction (philosophy)|inductive]], not [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]] reasoning;<br>''Inductive steps are mistaken to bear as much confidence as deductive ones''.
# Appeals to 'common sense';<br>''Common sense steps substitute for the more robust, academically respectable methodologies available for investigating sociological and scientific phenomena''.
# Exhibits well-established logical and methodological [[Logical fallacy|fallacies]];<br>''Formal and informal logical fallacies are readily identifiable among the key steps of the argument''.
# Is produced and circulated by 'outsiders', often anonymous, and generally lacking peer review;<br>''Story originates with a person who lacks any insider contact or knowledge, and enjoys popularity among persons who lack critical (especially technical) knowledge''.
# Is upheld by persons with demonstrably false conceptions of relevant science;<br>''At least some of the story's believers believe it on the basis of a mistaken grasp of elementary scientific facts''.
# Enjoys zero credibility in expert communities;<br>''Academics and professionals tend to ignore the story, treating it as too frivolous to invest their time and risk their personal authority in disproving''.
# Rebuttals provided by experts are ignored or accommodated through elaborate new twists in the narrative;<br>''When experts ''do'' respond to the story with critical new evidence, the conspiracy is elaborated (sometimes to a spectacular degree) to discount the new evidence, often incorporating the rebuttal as a part of the conspiracy.'
==Origins of conspiracy theories==
Humans naturally respond to events or situations which have had an emotional impact upon them by trying to make sense of those events, typically in spiritual, moral, political, or scientific terms.
Events which seem to resist such interpretation&mdash;for example, because they are, in fact, unexplainable&mdash;may provoke the inquirer to look harder for a meaning, until one is reached that is capable of offering the inquirer the required emotional satisfaction. As sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations of [[World War I]]:
:''Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from mythmakers and charlatans.''
This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose [[epistemology|epistemic]] 'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic.
===Psychological origins===
When conspiracy theories combine logical fallacies with lack of evidence, the result is a worldview known as [[conspiracism]]. Conspiracism is a worldview that sees major historic events and trends as the result of secret conspiracies. According to many [[psychologist]]s, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory is often a believer in other conspiracy theories.
Psychologists believe that the search for meaningfulness features largely in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories. That desire alone may be powerful enough to lead to the initial formulation of the idea. Once cognized, [[confirmation bias]] and avoidance of [[cognitive dissonance]] may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, [[communal reinforcement]] may equally play a part.
[[Evolutionary psychology]] may also play a significant role. Paranoid tendencies are associated with an animal's ability to recognize danger. Higher animals attempt to construct mental models of the thought processes of both rivals and predators in order to read their hidden intentions and to predict their future behavior. Such an ability is extremely valuable in sensing and avoiding danger in an animal community. If this danger-sensing ability should begin making false predictions, or be triggered by benign evidence, or otherwise become pathological, the result is paranoid delusions. A conspiracy theorist sees danger everywhere, and may simply be the victim of a malfunction in a valuable and evolutionarily-old natural ability.
====Epistemic bias?====
It is possible that certain basic human [[Epistemology|epistemic]] biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause.{{ref|bps}} The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events'&mdash;in which the president died&mdash;than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal.
Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is [[cui bono]]? (who stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people might be either an evolved or an encultured feature of human consciousness, but either way it appears to be universal. If the inquirer lacks access to the relevant facts of the case, or if there are structural interests rather than personal motives involved, this method of inquiry will tend to produce a falsely conspiratorial account of an impersonal event. The direct corollary of this epistemic bias in pre-scientific cultures is the tendency to imagine the world in terms of [[animism]]. Inanimate objects or substances of significance to humans are [[Fetishism|fetishised]] and supposed to harbor benign or malignant spirits.
====Clinical psychology====
For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: [[paranoia]], [[denial]], [[schizophrenia]], [[Mean world syndrome]]{{ref|columbia}}.
===Sociopolitical origins===
[[Christopher Hitchens]] represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables which may change within a democratic (or other type of) society.
Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group ''does not include'' the believer. The believer may then feel excused any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance. Alternatively, believers may find themselves committed to a type of activism, to expose the alleged conspirators; see, for example, the [[9/11 Truth Movement]].
Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or [[closure (psychology)|closure]] which such emotional ''challenges'' (after [[Erving Goffman]]) require. Like [[moral panic]]s, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities which are experiencing [[alienation|social isolation]] or political disempowerment.
Mark Fenster argues that "just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm" (1999: 67).
For example, the modern form of [[anti-Semitism]] is identified in Britannica 1911 as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European [[aristocracy]], whose social power waned with the rise of [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] society.{{ref|1911}}
A particularly political individual or group may respond skeptically or cynically towards an event or process which does not fit with his/its existing worldview. For example, a [[neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] or an anti-Israeli organization such as [[Hezbollah|Hizbollah]] might promote claims of Jewish involvement in [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] in order to incorporate that event into its own political narrative in a manner compatible to meeting its own ends.
====Disillusionment====
In the late 20th century, Western societies increasingly experienced a process of disengagement, disaffection or disillusionment with traditional political institutions among their general populations. Falling election participation and declines in other key metrics of social engagement were noted by several observers. For a prominent example, see [[Robert Putnam|Robert D. Putnam]]'s [[Bowling Alone]] thesis. Those who were most influenced by this period, the so-called "[[Generation X]]," are characterized by their [[cynicism]] towards traditional institutions and authorities, offering a case example of the con |
depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the [[World Bank]], the [[African Development Fund]], and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of [[agriculture]], especially [[livestock]] production. Due to lack of financing, the development of the [[Doba Basin]] [[oil field]]s, originally due to finish in 2000, has been substantially delayed.
In 2000, Chad's nominal [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] was estimated at just over $1.43 billion with [[per capita income]] at approximately $188. Cotton, cattle and gum arabic are Chad&rsquo;s major exports. More than 80% of the work force is involved in agriculture (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing). Like many other developing countries, Chad has a small formal sector and a large, thriving informal sector. Government statistics indicate the following distribution: Agriculture--38% (farming--23%, livestock--12%, fishing--3%); industry--13%; and services--45%. Chad is highly dependent on foreign assistance. Its principal donors include the European Union, France, and the multilateral lending agencies.
Primary markets for Chadian exports include neighboring Cameroon and Nigeria and France, Germany, and Portugal. At present, cotton plays the dominant role, accounting for 40% of total exports in 1999. Rehabilitation of CotonTchad, the major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by [[France]], the [[Netherlands]], the [[European Economic Community]] (EC), and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD). As of January 2002, the [[parastatal]] was undergoing [[privatization]].
The other major export is livestock, herded to neighboring countries. Herdsmen in the Sudanic and Sahelian zones raise cattle, sheep, goats, and, among the non-Muslims, a few pigs. In the Saharan region, only camels and a few hardy goats can survive. Chad also sells smoked and dried fish to its neighbors and exports several million dollars worth of gum arabic to Europe and the U.S. each year. Other food crops include millet, sorghum, peanuts, rice, sweet potatoes, manioc, cassava, and yams.
Chad&rsquo;s economic performance continues to depend on fluctuations in rainfall and in prices of its principal export commodities, especially cotton. Between 1996 and 1998, the Chadian economy averaged 4.7% growth from. However, unfavorable weather conditions contributed to disappointing harvests in 1999-2000, and GDP grew only by 1% and 0.6% respectively. Inflation was estimated 3.7% in 2000 after prices fell by 8% in 1999.
Since 1995, the Government of Chad (GOC) has made incremental progress in implementing structural reforms and improving government finances under two successive structural adjustment programs. Most state enterprises have been partially or completely privatized, nonpriority public spending has been lessened and the government has gradually liberalized some key sectors of the economy. Liberalization of the telecommunications, cotton and energy sectors is expected to proceed over the next several years. In May 2001, the IMF announced that Chad would qualify for the [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries]] (HIPC) debt relief initiative.
The effects on foreign investment of years of civil war are still felt today, as investors who left Chad between 1979-82 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. By early 1983, the return of internal security and a successful Geneva donors' conference had prompted a number of international business representatives to make exploratory visits to Chad. By far the most important venture to date is the oil extraction project in southern Chad.
Beginning in late 2000, the Doba Basin oil project has stimulated major investments into Chad and it is expected to double government tax revenues by 2004. It is hoped that this project will serve as a catalyst for the entire economy by helping to reduce energy costs and attract additional trade and investment in other sectors. The question remains whether Chad will continue to consolidate its economic reforms and invest its oil revenues wisely in order to encourage a wider range of economic initiatives. Recent political controversy surrounding the contested 2001 presidential election and a continuing rebellion in northern Chad have continued to dampen Chad's economic prospects by exposing the weaknesses in Chad's political institutions.
The [[International Monetary Fund]] has projected high growth rates during the next 3 years, as the Doba basin oil project in southern Chad accelerates. The [[Exxon Mobil]]-led project will pump oil from reserves in Chad through an underground pipeline to coastal Cameroon, where it will be loaded onto tankers. Following a crucial World Bank financing decision in June 2000, the Doba project officially began its construction phase in October 2000. Between 2000 and 2003, an American-led consortium will invest $3.7 billion into the project, approximately $2 billion of which will be invested in Chad. By the year 2003-04 the consortium plans to produce between 150,000 to 250,000 barrels of oil a day from three fields in southern Chad. The project is expected to provide between $80 and $100 million in annual government revenues during the 25-year production phase. However, despite this economic growth, many environmentalists and African NGOs fear that the project will lead to grave environmental damage and the dominance of the Chadian economy by foreign powers.
As of 2004 the economy of Chad has been subjected to further pressure due to fleeing [[refugees]] from the conflict in the neighbouring [[Darfur]] region of [[Sudan]].
==See also==
* [[Chad]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cd.html CIA World Factbook]
==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Chad/Business_and_Economy/Economic_Development Open Directory Project - Chad Economic Development] directory category
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTSITETOOLS/0,,contentMDK:20263700~menuPK:534320~pagePK:98400~piPK:98424~theSitePK:95474,00.html#6 World Bank -- Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Chad| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Chad]]
[[Category:WTO members|Chad]]
[[fr:Économie du Tchad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Chad</title>
<id>5334</id>
<revision>
<id>29727182</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-30T20:41:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tedernst</username>
<id>3700</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
11,800 (2002)
'''Telephones - mobile [[cellular phone]]:'''
65,000 (2003)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''general assessment:''
primitive system
<br>''domestic:''
fair system of [[radiotelephone]] [[communication]] stations
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 4, shortwave 5 (2002)
'''Radios:'''
1.67 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
10,000 ([[1997]])
'''Internet hosts:'''
8 (2004)
'''Internet users''':
15,000 (2002)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top level domain):''' .td
:''See also :'' [[Chad]]
{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Communications in Chad| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Chad</title>
<id>5335</id>
<revision>
<id>35665666</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T11:54:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morwen</username>
<id>17287</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
== Railways ==
0 km
=== Railway links with adjacent counties ===
* [[Transportation in Cameroon|Cameroon]] - no - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in the Central African Republic|Central African Republic]] - no
* [[Transportation in Niger|Niger]] - no
* [[Transportation in Nigeria|Nigeria]] - no - 1067mm
* [[Transportation in Sudan|Sudan]] - no - 1067mm
== Highways ==
''total:''
33,400 km
''paved:''
267 km
<br>''unpaved:''
33,133 km (1999 est.)
== Waterways ==
2,000 km navigable
<br>''note'': [[Chari]] and [[Logone River]]s are navigable only in wet season (2002). Both flow northwards, from the south of Chad, into [[Lake Chad]].
== Seaports and harbors ==
none (landlocked)
== Airports ==
50 (2003 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
''total:''
7
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
3
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (2003 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
54
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
13
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
20
<br>''under 914 m:''
10 (2003 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Chad]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Transport in Chad| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Chad]]
[[fr:Transport au Tchad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Chad</title>
<id>5336</id>
<revision>
<id>41643785</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:23:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldux</username>
<id>326243</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Military of Chad''' was dominated by members of [[Gourane]], [[Zaghawa]], [[Kanembou]], [[Hadjerai]], and [[Massa (African ethnic group)|Massa]] ethnic groups during the presidency of [[Hissene Habre]]. Current [[Chad]]ian president [[Idriss Déby]], a member |
he_Nisqually_Earthquake_FEB_2281854_ciim.gif|thumb|200px|Right|A Community Internet Intensity Map generated by the [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] that shows the intensity felt by humans by [[ZIP Code]] of the shaking of the [[Nisqually earthquake]] on [[February 28]] [[2001]].]]
The problem with these scales is the measurement is subjective, often based on the worst damage in an area and influenced by local effects like site conditions that make it a poor measure for the relative size of different events in different places. For some tasks related to engineering and local planning it is still useful for the very same reasons and thus still collected. If you feel an earthquake in the US you can report the effects to the USGS.
The first attempt to qualitatively define one value to describe the size of earthquakes was the magnitude scale (the name being taking from similar formed scales used on the brightness of stars). In the [[1930s]], a California seismologist named [[Charles F. Richter]] devised a simple numerical scale (which he called the [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]]) to describe the relative sizes of earthquakes in Southern California. This is known as the “[[Richter scale]]”, “Richter Magnitude” or “Local Magnitude” (M<sub>L</sub>). It is obtained by measuring the maximum amplitude of a recording on a Wood-Anderson torsion [[seismometer]] (or one calibrated to it) at a distance of 600km from the earthquake. Other more recent Magnitude measurements include: body wave magnitude (m<sub>b</sub>), surface wave magnitude (M<sub>s</sub>) and duration magnitude (M<sub>D</sub>). Each of these is scaled to gives values similar to the values given by the Richter scale. However as each is also based on the measurement of one part of the [[seismogram]] they do not measure the overall power of the source and can suffer from saturation at higher magnitude values (larger events fail to produce higher magnitude values).These scales are also empirical and as such there is no physical meaning to the values. They are still useful however as they can be rapidly calculated, there are catalogues of them dating back many years and are they are familiar to the public. [[Seismologist]]s now favor a measure called the [[seismic moment]], related to the concept of [[moment (physics)|moment]] in physics, to measure the size of a seismic source. The seismic moment is calculated from [[seismogram]]s but can also by obtained from geologic estimates of the size of the fault rupture and the displacement. The values of moments for different earthquakes ranges over several order of magnitude. As a result the moment magnitude (M<sub>W</sub>) scale was introduced by Hiroo Kanamori, which is comparable to the other magnitude scales but will not saturate at higher values.
Larger earthquakes occur less frequently than smaller earthquakes, the relationship being [[exponential function|exponential]], ie roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. For example it has been calculated that the average recurrence for the [[United Kingdom]] can be described as follows:
*an earthquake of 3.7 or larger every 1 year
*an earthquake of 4.7 or larger every 10 years
*an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years.
== Causes ==
Most earthquakes are powered by the release of the elastic strain that accumulate over time, typically, at the boundaries of the plates that make up the Earth's [[lithosphere]] via a process called [[Elastic-rebound theory]]. The Earth is made up of tectonic plates driven by the heat in the Earth's mantle and core. Where these plates meet stress accumulates. Eventually when enough stress accumulates, the plates move, causing an earthquake. [[Deep focus earthquake]]s, at depths of 100's km, are possibly generated as subducted lithospheric material catastrophically undergoes a [[phase transition]] since at the pressures and temperatures present at such depth elastic strain cannot be supported.
Some earthquakes are also caused by the movement of [[magma]] in [[volcano]]es, and such quakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions. A rare few earthquakes have been associated with the build-up of large masses of water behind [[dam]]s, such as the [[Kariba Dam]] in [[Zambia]], [[Africa]], and with the injection or extraction of fluids into the Earth's crust (e.g. at certain [[geothermal power]] plants and at the [[Rocky Mountain Arsenal]]). Such earthquakes occur because the strength of the Earth's crust can be modified by fluid pressure. Earthquakes have also been known to be caused by the removal of [[natural gas]] from subsurface deposits, for instance in the northern [[Netherlands]]. Finally, ground shaking can also result from the detonation of [[explosive]]s. Thus scientists have been able to monitor, using the tools of [[seismology]], [[nuclear weapon]]s tests performed by governments that were not disclosing information about these tests along normal channels. Earthquakes such as these, that are caused by human activity, are referred to by the term [[induced seismicity]].
Another type of movement of the Earth is observed by [[terrestrial spectroscopy]]. These oscillations of the earth are either due to the deformation of the Earth by [[tide]] caused by the [[Moon]] or the [[Sun]], or other phenomena.
A recently proposed theory suggests that some earthquakes may occur in a sort of [[earthquake storm]], where one earthquake will trigger a series of earthquakes each triggered by the previous shifts on the fault lines, similar to aftershocks, but occurring years later.
==Preparation for earthquakes==
*[[Emergency preparedness]]
*[[Household seismic safety]]
*[[Seismic retrofit]]
*[[Earthquake prediction]]
==Specific fault articles==
*[[Alpine Fault]]
*[[Calaveras Fault]]
*[[Hayward Fault Zone]]
*[[North Anatolian Fault Zone]]
*[[New Madrid Fault Zone]]
*[[San Andreas Fault]]
*[[Great Sumatran fault]]
==Specific earthquake articles==
*[[Shaanxi Earthquake]] (1556). Deadliest known earthquake in history, estimated to have killed 830,000 in [[China]].
*[[Cascadia Earthquake]] (1700).
*[[Kamchatka earthquakes]] (1737 and 1952).
*[[1755 Lisbon earthquake|Lisbon earthquake]] (1755).
*[[New Madrid Earthquake]] (1811).
*[[Fort Tejon earthquake|Fort Tejon Earthquake]] (1857).
*[[Charleston earthquake]] (1886). Largest earthquake in the Southeast and killed 100.
*[[1906 San Francisco Earthquake|San Francisco Earthquake]] (1906).
*[[Great Kanto earthquake]] (1923). On the Japanese island of [[Honshu]], killing over 140,000 in [[Tokyo]] and environs.
*[[Kamchatka earthquakes]] (1952 and 1737).
*[[Great Chilean Earthquake]] (1960). Biggest earthquake ever recorded, 9.5 on Moment magnitude scale.
*[[Good Friday Earthquake]] (1964) Alaskan earthquake.
*[[1970 Ancash earthquake|Ancash earthquake]] (1970). Caused a [[landslide]] that buried the town of [[Yungay]], [[Peru]]; killed over 40,000 people.
*[[Sylmar earthquake]] (1971). Caused great and unexpected destruction of freeway bridges and flyways in the [[San Fernando Valley]], leading to the first major [[seismic retrofit|seismic retrofits]] of these types of structures, but not at a sufficient pace to avoid the next California freeway collapse in 1989.
*[[Tangshan earthquake]] (1976). The most destructive earthquake of modern times. The official death toll was 255,000, but many experts believe that two or three times that number died.
*[[Great Mexican Earthquake]] (1985). 8.1 on the Richter Scale, killed over 6,500 people (though it is believed as many as 30,000 may have died, due to missing people never reappearing.)
*[[Whittier Narrows earthquake]] (1987).
*[[Spitak Earthquake|Armenian earthquake]] (1988). Killed over 25,000.
*[[Loma Prieta earthquake]] (1989). Severely affecting [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]], [[San Francisco]] and [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] in [[California]]. Revealed necessity of accelerated seismic retrofit of road and bridge structures.
*[[1994 Northridge Earthquake|Northridge, California earthquake]] (1994). Damage showed seismic resistance deficiencies in modern low-rise apartment construction.
*[[Great Hanshin earthquake]] (1995). Killed over 6,400 people in and around [[Kobe]], [[Japan]].
*[[1999 Izmit, Turkey Earthquake|&#x130;zmit earthquake]] (1999) Killed over 17,000 in northwestern Turkey.
*[[Düzce earthquake]] (1999)
*[[Chi-Chi earthquake]] (1999).
*[[Nisqually Earthquake]] (2001).
*[[2001 Gujarat Earthquake|Gujarat Earthquake]] (2001).
*[[2002 Dudley earthquake|Dudley Earthquake]] (2002).
*[[Bam, Iran#2003 earthquake|Bam Earthquake]] (2003).
*[[Parkfield earthquake|Parkfield, California earthquake]] (2004). Not large (6.0), but the most anticipated and intensely instrumented earthquake ever recorded and likely to offer insights into predicting future earthquakes elsewhere on similar slip-strike fault structures.
*[[2004 Chuetsu Earthquake|Chuetsu Earthquake]] (2004).
*[[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean Earthquake]] (2004). One of the largest earthquakes ever recorded at 9.0. Epicenter off the coast of the [[Indonesia]]n island [[Sumatra]]. Triggered a [[tsunami]] which caused nearly 300,000 deaths spanning several countries.
*[[2005 Sumatran earthquake|Sumatran Earthquake]] (2005).
*[[2005 Fukuoka earthquake|Fukuoka earthquake]] (2005).
*[[2005 Kashmir earthquake|Kashmir earthquake]] (2005). Killed over 79,000 people. Many more at risk from the Kashmiri winter.
*[[2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake|Lake Tanganyika earthquake]] (2005).
*[[Ottawa Earthquake]] (2006) Magnitude 4.5 , strongest earthquake to hit Canada's capital in 15 years. Caused minimal damage
==See also==
*[[Earthquake insurance]]
*[[Earthquake lights]]
*[[Elastic-rebound theory]]
*[[Catastrophe modeling]]
*[[Geophysics]]
*[[Interplate earthquake]]
*[[Intraplate earthquake]]
*[[Megathrust earth |
ancabur.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Licancabur]], Bolivia/Chile]]
|-
|[[Image:Llullaillaco.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Llullaillaco]], Chile/Argentina]]
|-
|[[Image:Aconcagua - Argentina - January 2005 - by Sergio Schmiegelow.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Aconcagua]], Argentina]]
|-
|[[Image:Chimborazo from southwest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chimborazo]], Ecuador]]
|-
|[[Image:Alpamayo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Alpamayo]], Peru]]
|-
|[[Image:El misti.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[El Misti]], Peru]]
|-
|[[Image:Huascaran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Huascarán]], Peru]]
|}
===Bolivia===
* [[Ancohuma]], 6,427 m
* [[Cabaray]], 5,860 m
* [[Chacaltaya]], 5,421 m
* [[Huayna Potosí]], 6,088 m
* [[Illampu]], 6,368 m
* [[Illimani]], 6,438 m
* [[Macizo de Larancagua]], 5,520 m
* [[Macizo de Pacuni]], 5,400 m
* [[Nevado Anallajsi]], 5,750 m
* [[Nevado Sajama]], 6,542 m
* [[Patilla Pata]], 5,300 m
* [[Tata Sabaya]], 5,430 m
===Bolivia/Chile===
* [[Cerro Minchincha]], 5,305 m
* [[Irruputuncu]], 5,163 m
* [[Licancabur]], 5,920 m
* [[Olca]], 5,407 m
* [[Paruma]], 5,420 m
* [[Pomerape]], 6,348 m
===Chile/Argentina===
* [[Aconcagua]], 6,962 m
* [[Acotango]], 6,052 m
* [[Cerro Bayo]], 5,401 m
* [[Cerro Escorial]], 5,447 m
* [[Cordón del Azufre]], 5,463 m
* [[Falso Azufre]], 5,890 m
* [[Lastarria]], 5,697 m
* [[Llullaillaco]], 6,739 m
* [[Maipo (volcano)|Maipo]], 5,264 m
* [[Marmolejo]], 6110 m
* [[Ojos del Salado]], 6,893 m
* [[Olca]], 5,407 m
* [[Parinacota]], 6,348 m
* [[Monte Pissis | Pissis]], 6,795 m
* [[Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas]], 6,127 m
* [[Socompa]], 6,051 m
===Colombia===
* [[Galeras]], 4,276 m
* [[Nevado del Ruiz]], 5,389 m
===Ecuador===
* [[Antisana]], 5,753 m
* [[Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]], 5,790 m
* [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]], 6,267 m
* [[Corazón]], 4,790 m
* [[Cotopaxi]], 5,897 m
* [[El Altar]], 5,320 m
* [[Illiniza]], 5,248 m
* [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]], 4,784 m
* [[Reventador]], 3,562 m
* [[Sangay]], 5,230 m
* [[Tungurahua]], 5,023 m
===Peru===
* [[Alpamayo]], 5,947 m
* [[Carnicero]], 5,960 m
* [[El Misti]], 5,822 m
* [[El Toro (Andes)|El Toro]], 5,830 m
* [[Huascarán]], 6,768 m
* [[Jirishanca]], 6,094 m
* [[Rasac]], 6,040 m
* [[Rondoy]], 5,870 m
* [[Sarapo]], 6,127 m
* [[Seria Norte]], 5,860 m
* [[Siula Grande]], 6,344 m
* [[Yerupaja]], 6,635 m
* [[Yerupaja Chico]], 6,089 m
==Suggested reading==
{{sect-stub}}
==External links==
{{commons|Andes}}
*[http://www.photoglobe.info/db_merced/ PhotoGlobe: Andes around Mt. Mercedario]
*[http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Andes/intro.html Andes geology Arizona Edu.]
*[http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm Climate and animal life of the Andes]
*[http://www.ancientperu.com/ Civilizations of Ancient Peru]
[[Category:Mountain ranges]]
[[Category:Mountains of South America]]
[[ar:أنديز]]
[[be:Анды]]
[[bg:Анди]]
[[ca:Andes]]
[[cs:Andy]]
[[da:Andesbjergene]]
[[de:Anden]]
[[es:Andes]]
[[eo:Andoj]]
[[eu:Andeak]]
[[fr:Cordillère des Andes]]
[[gl:Andes]]
[[ko:안데스 산맥]]
[[ia:Andes]]
[[is:Andesfjöll]]
[[it:Ande]]
[[he:הרי האנדים]]
[[la:Andes]]
[[lv:Andi]]
[[lt:Andai]]
[[mk:Анди]]
[[nl:Andes (gebergte)]]
[[ja:アンデス山脈]]
[[no:Andes]]
[[nn:Andes]]
[[pl:Andy]]
[[pt:Cordilheira dos Andes]]
[[ru:Анды]]
[[simple:Andes]]
[[sl:Andi]]
[[sr:Анди]]
[[fi:Andit]]
[[sv:Anderna]]
[[th:เทือกเขาแอนดีส]]
[[uk:Анди]]
[[zh:安地斯山脈]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anderida</title>
<id>1355</id>
<revision>
<id>42054031</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neddyseagoon</username>
<id>883252</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merge</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Pevensey Castle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancylopoda</title>
<id>1356</id>
<revision>
<id>40207398</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:34:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aranae</username>
<id>135342</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ancylopods
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| superfamilia = '''Chalicotherioidea'''
}}
'''Ancylopoda''', is a group of [[mammal]]s in the [[Perissodactyla]] that show long, curved and [[cleft]] [[claw]]s. [[Morphology (biology)|Morphological]] evidence indicates the Ancylopoda diverged from the [[tapir]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es and [[horse]]s ([[Euperissodactyla]]) after the [[Brontotheria]], however earlier authoritites such as [[Osborn]] sometimes considered the Ancylopoda to be outside Perissodactyla or, as was popular more recently, to be related to [[Brontotheria]].
{{paleo-stub}}
{{mammal-stub}}
[[Category:Odd-toed ungulates]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European anchovy</title>
<id>1357</id>
<revision>
<id>37290056</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:14:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = European anchovy
| image = anchovy-thumbnail.jpg
| image_caption = [[media:anchovy.jpg|''Original image'']]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Clupeiformes]]
| familia = [[Engraulidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Engraulis]]'''''
| species = '''''E. encrasicholus'''''
| binomial = ''Engraulis encrasicholus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
The '''European anchovy''' (''Engraulis encrasicholus'') is a [[fish]] somewhat related to the [[herring]]. Anchovies are placed in the family [[Engraulidae]].
It is easily distinguished by its deeply-cleft mouth, the angle of the gape being behind the eyes. The pointed snout extends beyond the lower jaw. The fish resembles a sprat in having a forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but
the body is round and slender. The maximum length is 8 1/8 in.
Anchovies are abundant in the [[Mediterranean]], and are
regularly caught on the coasts of [[Sicily]], [[Turkey]], [[Italy]], [[France]] and
Spain. The range of the species also extends along the
Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of [[Norway]]. In winter
it is common off Devon and Cornwall ([[Great Britain]]), but has not hitherto been caught in such numbers as to be of commercial importance.
Formerly they were caught in large numbers off the coast of the [[Netherlands]] in summer when they entered the [[Wadden Sea]] and [[Zuider Zee]]. After the closing of the [[Zuider Zee]] they were still found in the Wadden Sea until the [[1960s]]. They were also caught in the estuary of the [[Scheldt]].
There is reason to believe that the anchovies found at the western end of the English Channel in November and December are those which annually migrated from the [[Zuider Zee]] and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither in the following
spring; they were assumed to form an isolated stock, for none come up from the south in summer to occupy the [[English Channel]], though the species is resident on the coast of [[Portugal]].
The explanation appears to be that the shallow and landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea on the Dutch coast, become raised to a higher temperature in summer than any part of the sea about the British coasts, and that therefore anchovies were able to spawn and maintain their numbers in these waters.
Their reproduction and development were first described by a Dutch naturalist from observations made on the shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning takes place in June and July, and the eggs, like those of the majority of marine fishes, are buoyant and transparent, but they are peculiar in having an elongated, sausage-like shape, instead of being globular. They resemble those of the sprat and [[pilchard]] in having a segmented yolk and there is no oil globule.
The larva hatch two or three days after the fertilization of the egg, and are minute and transparent. In August young specimens 1&frac12; to 3&frac12; in. in length have been taken in the Zuider Zee, and these must derived from the spawning of the previous summer.
There is no evidence to decide the question whether all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there, it is probable that they do. The eggs have also been obtained from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast
of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire.
The occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been carefully studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and 1890. In the former year considerable numbers were taken off Dover in drift nets of small mesh used for the capture of sprats. In the following December large numbers were taken together with sprats at Torquay. In November 1890 a thousand of the fish were obtained in two days from the pilchard boats fishing near Plymouth; these were caught near the Eddystone.
[[Category:Anchovies]]
[[ca:Aladroc]]
[[es:Engraulis encrasicholus]]
[[lt:Ančiuvis]]
[[nl:Ansjovis]]
[[ru:Анчоус]]
[[tr:Hamsi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anchor</title>
<id>1358</id>
<revision>
<id>40758594</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:00:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Modern designs */ sp.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternate meanings see [[anchor (disambiguation)]]''
A ship's or boat's '''anchor''' is used to attach the vessel to the bottom at a specific point. There are two primary classes of anchors—temporary and permanent. A permanent anchor is oft |
d that their subjects (the Jews only excepted) sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity &mdash;a practice that Christianity (along with Judaism) rejected. Persecution in the Roman Empire ended with the [[Edict of Milan]], but it persisted or even intensified in other parts, such as [[Sassanides|Sassanid Persia]] or under [[Islam]]. In Europe it resurfaced during the [[French Revolution]] and its attempted [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|Dechristianisation]].
Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, which has been directed against members of other religions and also against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with the government support, have destroyed [[Paganism|pagan]] temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (reference the philosopher [[Hypatia of Alexandria]], who was murdered by Christians). Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands and have occasionally committed violence against Christians. Muslims, Jews, and Eastern Christians suffered persecution during the ear of the [[Crusades]]. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations, and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into [[Religious wars]] and [[Inquisition|inquisitions]]. [[Witch hunts]], carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America.
In discussing persecution, we should be careful to distinguish between:
*official persecution by the state;
*acts of popular violence (which may be tacitly permitted by the state), and
*the side-effects of war and other social upheaval.
State oppression of Christians today is generally associated with Muslim or Communist countries. For example, the [[People's Republic of China]] allows only government-regulated churches and regularly cracks down on [[house churches]] or underground Catholics, and the public practice of Christianity is outlawed in [[Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today. Some people cite anti-abortion violence in the United States and the ongoing "troubles" in [[Northern Ireland]] as examples of 'persecution by Christians', despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. Complaints of [[discrimination]] have also been made of and by Christians in various contexts.
==See also==
{|
| valign="top" |
* [[list of religions]]
* [[Jesus in the Christian Bible]]
* [[Christian apologetics]]
* [[Christian art]]
* [[Christian calendar]]
* [[Christian emigration]]
* [[Christian eschatology]]
* [[Christian music]]/[[Christian rock]]
* [[Progressive Christianity]]
* [[Virtue]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Christian mythology]]
* [[Christian Meditation]]
* [[Christian Anarchism]]
* [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
* [[Christianity by country]]
* [[The stories of Christianity|Christian stories]]
* [[Christian views of women]]
* [[Christian Symbolism]]
* [[Antinomianism]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Homosexuality and Christianity]]
* [[John 3:16]]
* [[Criticisms of Christianity]]
* [[Christian wikis]]
* [[List of Christians]]
* [[Religious ministry (Christian)|Religious ministries]]
* [[Sermon on the Mount]]
* [[Sabbath]]
* [[Judaism and Christianity]]
|}
===History and denominations===
* [[History of Christianity|Christian history]]
* [[Christian theological controversy]]
* [[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Eastern_Christianity|Eastern Christianity portal]]
* [[Great Schism]]
* [[List of Christian denominations]]
==Notes==
:{{fnb|1}}[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Religions by Adherents] ''Adherents.com''.
:{{fnb|2}}While sharing the Hebrew Scriptures or "Old Testament", Christianity nonetheless disagrees with many points of the Jewish understanding of these texts, or their significance for practice, based on the understanding found in the "New Testament" and predominantly understandings found within the Pauline epistles.
:{{fnb|3}}[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Christianity Christianity (2005)] ''Adherents.com''.
:{{fnb|4}}[http://www.jw-media.org/people/statistics.htm#Jehovah Witness Membership 2005].
:{{fnb|5}}Many Christians identify themselves as such not by the adherence to a set of religious rules or rites but instead by their personal relationship to Jesus Christ.
==References and select bibliography==
*2''A World History of Christianity''by Adrian Hastings (Editor) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802848753/102-0796906-9608913?v=glance&n=283155] (A through review of this book, in this ''Journal of Theology'':[http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/ejournal/aejt_2/Greg_Munro.htm]
*3 Rubenstein's, ''When Jesus Became God'', p. 179. [http://biblicalunitarian.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=41]
*{{cite book | title=The Story of Christianity | author=Gonzalez, Justo L. | year=1984, 1985, 1999 | id=ISBN 1565635221}}
*{{cite book | title=Christian Theology: An Introduction | author=McGrath, Alister | id=ISBN 0631225285}}
*{{cite book | title=Christian Theology Reader | author=McGrath, Alister | id=ISBN 063120637X}}
*{{cite book | title=Mere Christianity | author=Lewis, C.S}}
*Oden, Thomas. ''Systematic Theology'' (an [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical]] trilogy)
** Volume 1: ''The Living God'' (1992, ISBN 0060663634)
** Volume 2: ''The Word of Life'' (1992, ISBN 0060663642)
** Volume 3: ''Life in the Spirit'' (1994, ISBN 0060663626)
*1 Joseph McCabe, "A Rationalist Encyclopaedia: A book of reference on religion, philosophy, ethics and science," Gryphon Books (1971). Excerpts appear at: [http://www.christianism.com/articles/18.html]
*Pelikan, Jaroslav (5 Volumes published between 1971-1989).''The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine''.
*Tolstoy, Leo (1894). [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html ''The Kingdom of God is Within You'']. ISBN 0803294042.
*Tomkins, Stephen (2005). ''A Short History of Christianity'' (Lion).
*Francis Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. (1914), reprinted as two volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
*Thomas William Doane, 1882, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, is a bit outdated but a classic revelation of pagan antecedents of biblical myths and miracles.
*[[Edwin Johnson]], 1887, Antiqua mater. A Study of Christian Origins. English radical theologian identified the early Christians as the Chrestiani, followers of a good (Chrestus) God who had expropriating the myth of Dionysos Eleutherios ("Dionysos the Emancipator"), to produce a self-sacrificing Jesus.
*Gerardus Bolland, 1907, De Evangelische Jozua. Philosopher at Leiden identified the origin of Christianity in an earlier Jewish Gnosticism. In 1907 Pope Pius X took action and condemned the Modernists who were "working within the framework of the Church". An anti-Modernist oath was introduced in 1910.
*Arthur Drews, 1910, Die Christusmythe (The Christ Myth); 1910, Die Petruslegende (The Legend of St Peter); 1924, Die Entstehung des Christentums aus dem Gnostizismus (The Emergence of Christianity from Gnosticism).
*Edward Carpenter, 1920, Pagan and Christian Creeds. Elaborated the pagan origins of Christianity.
*John J. Jackson, 1938, Christianity Before Christ, Drew attention to the Egyptian precedents of Christian belief.
*Herbert Cutner, 1950, Jesus: God, Man, or Myth? Mythical nature of Jesus and a summary of the ongoing debate between mythicists and historicizers. Pagan origins of Christ discussed.
*Georges Ory, 1961, An Analysis of Christian Origins.
*Guy Fau, 1967, Le Fable de Jesus Christ.
*John Allegro, 1970, The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross. 1979, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth.
*Max Rieser, 1979, The True Founder of Christianity and the Hellenistic Philosophy. Christianity started by Jews of the Diaspora and then retroactively set in pre-70 Palestine. Christianity arrived last, not first, in Palestine – that's why Christian archeological finds appear in Rome but not in Judea until the 4th century.
*Alvar Ellegard, 1999, Jesus One Hundred Years Before Christ. Christianity seen as emerging from the Essene Church of God with the Jesus prototype the Teacher of Righteousness.
*Timothy Freke, Peter Gandy, 1999, The Jesus Mysteries. 2001, Jesus and the Lost Goddess: The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Examines the close relationship between the Jesus Story and that of Osiris-Dionysus. Jesus and Mary Magdalene mythic figures based on the Pagan Godman and Goddess.
*Burton Mack, 2001,The Christian Myth: Origins, Logic, and Legacy. Social formation of myth making.
*Tom Harpur, 2005, The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light. Canadian New Testament scholar and ex-Anglican priest re-states the Christianity, it was clear, had not fallen from heaven but was a man-made production.
*Vermes, Geza and Martin D. Goodman, eds. The Essenes according to the Classical Sources. Sheffield: Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies and JSOT Press, 1989.
==External links==
{{Commons|Jesus Christ}}
* [http://www.biblegateway.com Bible Gateway] The Bible online.
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/index.htm ReligionFacts.com: Christianity] Fast facts, glossary, timeline, history, beliefs, texts, holidays, symbols, people, etc.
* [http://www.wikichristian.org WikiChristian], a wiki book on Christianity, church history and doctrine, and Christian art and music
* [http://www.sor.cua.edu Syriac Orthodox Resources] Large compendium of information and links relating to Oriental Orthodoxy.
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/pamen010.htm Rosicrucian Interpretation of Christianity], an esoteric view of Christian teachings.
* |
tor are related, modern birds ''are'' dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Modern [[bird]]s are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup [[Maniraptora]], which are [[Coelurosauria|coelurosaur]]s, which are [[Theropoda|theropods]], which are [[Saurischia|saurischians]], which are dinosaurs.
However, referring to birds as "avian dinosaurs" and to all other dinosaurs as "non-avian dinosaurs" is clumsy. Birds are still birds, at least in popular usage and among [[ornithologist]]s. It is also technically correct to refer to birds as a distinct group under the older [[Linnaean classification]] system, which accepts [[paraphyletic]] taxa that exclude some descendants of a single common ancestor. Paleontologists mostly use [[cladistics]], which classifies birds as dinosaurs, to construct their taxonomies, but many other scientists do not.
For clarity, this article will use "dinosaur" as a synonym for "non-avian dinosaur", and "bird" as a synonym for "avian dinosaur" (meaning any animal that evolved from the common ancestor of ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' and modern birds). It should be noted that this article's definition of "bird" differs from the definition common in everyday language; to most non-scientists, a "bird" is simply a two-legged animal with wings and feathers.
===Size===
Only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remain buried in the earth. As a result, scientists will probably never be certain of the [[largest organism|smallest and largest dinosaurs]]. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork.
'''Largest and smallest dinosaurs'''
[[Image:Diplodocus carnegii statue.jpg|thumb|156px|left|A statue of ''[[Diplodocus|Diplodocus carnegiei]]'', outside the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]].]]
[[Image:Trex1.png|thumb|210px|Size of a human compared to a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''.]]
While the evidence is incomplete, it is clear that, as a group, dinosaurs were large. By dinosaur standards the [[Sauropoda|sauropod]]s were gigantic. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an [[order of magnitude]] more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth.
The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from a complete skeleton is the ''[[Brachiosaurus]]'', which was discovered in [[Tanzania]] between 1907&ndash;12. It is now mounted and on display at the [[Humboldt Museum]] of [[Berlin]] and is [[1 E1 m|12 m]] (38 ft) tall and probably weighed between [[1 E4 kg|30,000&ndash;60,000 kg]] (33&ndash;66 short tons). The longest complete dinosaur is the [[1 E1 m|27 m]] (89 ft) long ''[[Diplodocus]]'', which was discovered in [[Wyoming]] in the [[United States]] and displayed in [[Pittsburgh]]'s [[Carnegie Natural History Museum]] in 1907.
There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of incomplete fossil samples. The largest specimens on record were all discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive ''[[Argentinosaurus]]'', which may have weighed [[1 E5 kg|80,000&ndash;100,000 kg]] (88&ndash;121 tons); the longest, the [[1 E1 m|40 m]] (130 ft) long ''[[Supersaurus]]''; and the tallest, the [[1 E1 m|18 m]] (60 ft) ''[[Sauroposeidon]]'', which could have reached a sixth-floor window.
Dinosaurs were the largest of all terrestrial animals. The largest [[elephant]] on record weighed [[1 E4 kg|12,000 kg]] (13.2 tons), while the tallest [[giraffe]] was [[1 E0 m|6 m]] (20 ft) tall. Even giant prehistoric [[mammal]]s such as the ''[[Indricotherium]]'' and the Columbian [[mammoth]] were dwarfed by the giant sauropods. Only a handful of modern aquatic animals approach them in size, most notably the [[blue whale]] (which reaches up to [[1 E5 kg|190,000 kg]] (209 tons) and [[1 E1 m|33.5 m]] (110 ft) in length).
Not including modern birds like the [[bee hummingbird]], the smallest dinosaurs known were about the size of a [[crow]] or a [[chicken]]. The ''[[Microraptor]]'', ''[[Parvicursor]]'', and ''[[Saltopus]]'' were all under [[1 E-1 m|60 cm]] (2 ft) in length.
'''Average size'''
The meaning of "dinosaur average size" is debatable. However it is defined, current evidence suggests different values for average size in the Triassic, early Jurassic, late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.{{ref|avesize1}} According to Bill Erickson, "Estimates of median dinosaur mass range from 500 kg to 5 metric tons [...] Eighty percent of the biomass from the Late Jurassic Morrison formation of the western United States consisted of stegosaurs and sauropods; the latter averaged 20 tons. [...] The typically large size of the dinosaurs, and the comparatively small size of modern mammals, has been quantified by Nicholas Hotton. Based on 63 dinosaur genera, Hotton's data yield an average generic mass in excess of 850 kg (about the size of an average grizzly bear) and a median generic mass of nearly 2 tons (which is comparable to a giraffe). This contrasts sharply with extant mammals (788 genera) whose average generic mass is 863 grams (a large rodent) and a median mass of 631 grams (a smaller rodent). The smallest dinosaur was bigger than two-thirds of all current mammals; the majority of dinosaurs were bigger than all but 2% of living mammals." {{ref|avesize2}}
===Behavior===
Interpretations of dinosaur behavior are generally based on the pose of body fossils and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[computer simulation]]s of their [[biomechanics]], and comparisons with modern animals in similar [[ecological niche]]s. As such, the current understanding of dinosaur behavior relies on speculation, and will likely remain controversial for the foreseeable future. However, there is general agreement that some behaviors which are common in crocodiles and birds, dinosaurs' closest living relatives, were also common among dinosaurs.
The first direct evidence of [[herd]]ing behavior was the 1878 discovery of 31 ''[[Iguanodon]]'' dinosaurs which perished together in [[Bernissart]], [[Belgium]], after they fell into a deep, flooded ravine and drowned. Similar mass deaths and trackways suggest that [[herd]] or pack behavior was common in many dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that [[duck-bill]]s (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the [[American Bison]] or the African [[Springbok Antelope|Springbok]]. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in [[Oxford]], England,{{ref|sauropodtracks}} and others kept their young in the middle of the herd for defense according to trackways at Davenport Ranch, [[Texas]]. Dinosaurs may have congregated in herds for defense, for [[migration|migratory]] purposes, or to provide protection for their young.
[[Image:Mayasaurus.jpg|thumb|210px|A nesting ground of ''[[Maiasaura]]'' was discovered in 1978.]]
[[Jack Horner (paleontologist)|Jack Horner]]'s 1978 discovery of a ''[[Maiasaura]]'' ("good mother dinosaur") [[nest]]ing ground in [[Montana]] demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among the [[ornithopod]]s.{{ref|maiasaura}}{{ref|babytyrannosaur}} There is also evidence that other Cretaceous-era dinosaurs, like the [[Patagonia]]n sauropod ''[[Saltasaurus]]'' (1997 discovery), had similar nesting behaviors, and that the animals congregated in huge nesting colonies like those of [[penguin]]s. The [[Mongolia]]n [[maniraptora]]n ''[[Oviraptor]]'' was discovered in a [[chicken]]-like [[brood]]ing position in 1993, which may mean it was covered with an insulating layer of feathers that kept the [[egg (biology)|eggs]] warm.{{ref|oviraptor}} Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among sauropods and ornithopods from the [[Isle of Skye]] in the United Kingdom.{{ref|familytracks}} Nests and eggs have been found for most major groups of dinosaurs, and it appears likely that dinosaurs communicated with their young, in a manner similar to modern birds and crocodiles.
The [[Sagittal crest|crest]]s and frills of some dinosaurs, like the [[marginocephalia]]ns, [[theropod]]s and [[lambeosaurin]]es, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and [[territory (animal)|territorialism]]. The nature of dinosaur [[Animal communication|communication]] also remains enigmatic, and is an active area of research. For example, recent evidence suggests that the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines may have functioned as [[resonance chamber]]s used for a wide range of [[vocalization]]s.
From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the [[Gobi Desert]] in 1971. It included a ''[[Velociraptor]]'' attacking a ''[[Protoceratops]]'',{{ref|raptorceratopsfossil}} proving that dinosaurs did indeed attack and eat each other. While [[cannibal]]istic behavior among [[theropod]]s is no surprise,{{ref|cannibaldino}} this too was confirmed by tooth marks from Madagascar in 2003.{{ref|dinocannibalism}}
There seem to have been no burrowing and few climbing dinosaur species. This is somewhat surprising when compared to the later mammalian radiation in the [[Cenozoic]], which included many species of these types. As to how the animals moved, [[biomechanics]] has provided significant insight. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have demonstrat |
an [[axis of rotation]] are known as "baroque pearls"). Alternatively, it may derive from the now obsolete [[Italian language|Italian]] "Baroco" (meaning, in logical ''Scholastica'', a [[syllogism]] with weak content). A common definition, before the term ''Barocco'' was used, called this genre simply the style of '''The Flying Forms'''<!--quoting a contemporary usage would make this statement more credible-->.
The term "Baroque" was initially used with a derogatory meaning, to underline the excesses of its emphasis, of its eccentric redundancy, its noisy abundance of details, as opposed to the clearer and sober rationality of the Renaissance. It was first rehabilitated by the [[Switzerland|Swiss-born]] [[Art History|art historian]], [[Heinrich Wölfflin]] (1864&ndash;1945) in his ''Renaissance und Barock'' (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass," an art antithetic to [[Renaissance]] art. He did not make the distinctions between [[Mannerism]] and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Writers in French and English did not begin to treat Baroque as a respectable study until Wölfflin's influence had made German scholarship pre-eminent.
In modern usage, the term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, to describe works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line, or, as a [[synonym]] for "[[Derogatory use of 'Byzantine'|Byzantine]]", to describe literature, computer programs, contracts, or laws that are thought to be excessively complex, indirect, or obscure in language, to the extent of concealing or confusing their meaning. A "Baroque fear" is deeply felt, but utterly beyond daily reality.
==See also==
*[[Baroque chess]]
==External links ==
{{commonscat|Baroque paintings}}
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/dict.html ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Baroque in literature
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/baroque/ Webmuseum Paris]
*[http://www.sentieridelbarocco.it/ barocke in Val di Noto - Sizilien]
==Further reading==
*[[Heinrich Wölfflin]], 1964. ''Renaissance and Baroque'' (Reprinted 1984; originally published in German, 1888) The classic study.
*[[Michael Kitson]], 1966. ''The Age of Baroque''
*[[John Rupert Martin]], 1977. ''Baroque'' A more detailed survey.
*[[Germain Bazin]], 1964. ''Baroque and Rococo'', (Originally published in French; reprinted as ''Baroque and Rococo Art'', 1974)
{{Westernart}}
[[Category:Cultural movements]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art]]
[[category:Opera terminology]]
[[bg:Барок]]
[[ca:Barroc]]
[[cs:Baroko]]
[[da:Barok]]
[[de:Barock]]
[[es:Barroco]]
[[eo:Baroko]]
[[fr:Baroque]]
[[gl:Barroco]]
[[ko:바로크]]
[[it:Barocco]]
[[he:בארוק]]
[[lt:Barokas]]
[[lb:Barock]]
[[li:Barok]]
[[hu:Barokk]]
[[nl:Barok (stijlperiode)]]
[[ja:バロック]]
[[no:Barokken]]
[[nn:Barokken]]
[[pl:Barok]]
[[pt:Barroco]]
[[ro:Baroc]]
[[ru:Барокко]]
[[sk:Barok]]
[[sr:Барок]]
[[fi:Barokki]]
[[sv:Barock]]
[[uk:Бароко]]
[[zh:巴洛克艺术]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boolean algebra</title>
<id>3959</id>
<revision>
<id>40773321</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:50:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jon Awbrey</username>
<id>705791</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ add items</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikibookshas| more about '''''[[Boolean logic]]''''', under the somewhat misleading title|[[wikibooks::Boolean Algebra|Boolean Algebra]]}}
:''For a basic intro to sets, Boolean operations, Venn diagrams, truth tables, and Boolean applications, see [[Boolean logic]].''
:''For the use of binary numbers in computer systems, please see the article [[binary arithmetic]].''
In [[abstract algebra]], a '''Boolean algebra''' is an [[algebraic structure]] (a collection of elements and operations on them obeying defining [[axiom#Non-logical axioms|axioms]]) that captures essential properties of both [[set]] operations and [[logic]] operations. Specifically, it deals with the [[set]] operations of [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]], [[union (set theory)|union]], [[complement (set theory)|complement]]; and the [[logic]] operations of [[logical conjunction|AND]], [[logical disjunction|OR]], [[logical negation|NOT]].
For example, the logical assertion that a statement ''a'' and its negation ¬''a'' cannot both be true,
[[Image:Hasse diagram of powerset of 3.png|right|thumb|250px|Boolean lattice of subsets]]
:<math>a\land(\lnot a) = \mbox{FALSE},</math>
parallels the set-theory assertion that a subset ''A'' and its complement ''A''<sup>''C''</sup> have empty intersection,
:<math>A\cap(A^C) = \empty.</math>
Because truth values can be represented as [[binary numeral system|binary numbers]] or as voltage levels in [[logic circuit]]s, the parallel extends to these as well. Thus the theory of Boolean algebras has many practical applications in [[electrical engineering]] and [[computer science]], as well as in [[mathematical logic]].
A Boolean algebra is also called a '''Boolean lattice'''. The connection to [[lattice (order)|lattice]]s (special [[partially ordered set]]s) is suggested by the parallel between set [[subset|inclusion]], ''A''&nbsp;⊆&nbsp;''B'', and [[order theory|ordering]], ''a''&nbsp;&le;&nbsp;''b''. Consider the lattice of all subsets of {''x'',''y'',''z''}, ordered by set inclusion. This Boolean lattice is a partially ordered set in which, say, {''x''} &nbsp;&le;&nbsp;{''x'',''y''}. Any two lattice elements, say ''p''&nbsp;= {''x'',''y''} and ''q''&nbsp;= {''y'',''z''}, have a least upper bound, here {''x'',''y'',''z''}, and a greatest lower bound, here {''y''}. Suggestively, the least upper bound (or join or supremum) is denoted by the same symbol as logical OR, ''p''∨''q''; and the greatest lower bound (or meet or infimum) is denoted by same symbol as logical AND, ''p''∧''q''.
The lattice interpretation helps in generalizing to [[Heyting algebra]]s, which are Boolean algebras freed from the restriction that either a statement or its negation must be true. Heyting algebras correspond to [[intuitionistic logic|intuitionist (constructivist) logic]] just as Boolean algebras correspond to [[classical logic]].
Boolean algebras are named after [[George Boole]], an English mathematician at [[University College Cork]]. The algebraic system of logic Boole formulated is distinct from that described in this article in some small but important respects.
__TOC__
== Formal definition ==
A '''Boolean algebra''' is a [[set]] ''A'', supplied with two [[binary operation]]s <math>\land</math> (logical AND), <math>\lor</math> (logical OR), a [[unary operation]] <math>\lnot</math> (logical NOT) and two elements 0 (logical FALSE) and 1 (logical TRUE), such that, for all elements ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'' of set ''A'', the following [[axioms]] hold:
:{| cellpadding=5
|<math> a \lor (b \lor c) = (a \lor b) \lor c </math>
|<math> a \land (b \land c) = (a \land b) \land c </math>
| [[associativity]]
|-
|<math> a \lor b = b \lor a </math>
|<math> a \land b = b \land a </math>
| [[commutativity]]
|-
|<math> a \lor (a \land b) = a </math>
|<math> a \land (a \lor b) = a </math>
| absorption
|-
|<math> a \lor (b \land c) = (a \lor b) \land (a \lor c) </math>
|<math> a \land (b \lor c) = (a \land b) \lor (a \land c) </math>
| [[distributivity]]
|-
|<math> a \lor \lnot a = 1 </math>
|<math> a \land \lnot a = 0 </math>
| [[complemented lattice|complements]]
|}
The first three pairs of axioms above: associativity, commutativity and absorption, mean that (''A'', <math>\land</math>, <math>\lor</math>) is a [[lattice (order)|lattice]]. Thus a Boolean algebra can also be equivalently defined as a [[distributive lattice|distributive]] [[complemented lattice]].
From these [[axioms]], one can show that the smallest element 0, the largest element 1, and the complement ¬''a'' of any element ''a'' are uniquely determined. For all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''A'', the following [[identity (mathematics)|identities]] also follow:
:{| cellpadding=5
| <math> a \lor a = a</math>
|<math> a \land a = a </math>
| [[Idempotent|idempotency]]
|-
|<math> a \lor 0 = a </math>
|<math> a \land 1 = a </math>
| rowspan=2 | [[bounded poset|boundedness]]
|-
|<math> a \lor 1 = 1 </math>
|<math> a \land 0 = 0 </math>
|-
|<math> \lnot 0 = 1 </math>
|<math> \lnot 1 = 0 </math>
| 0 and 1 are complements
|-
|<math> \lnot (a \lor b) = \lnot a \land \lnot b</math>
|<math> \lnot (a \land b) = \lnot a \lor \lnot b</math>
| [[de Morgan's laws]]
|-
| <math> \lnot \lnot a = a </math>
|
| [[involution]]
|}
== Examples ==
* The simplest Boolean algebra has only two elements, 0 and 1, and is defined by the rules:
{|
|-
| width="80" |
|
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
! &and; || 0 || 1
|-
! 0
| 0 || 0
|-
! 1
| 0 || 1
|}
| width="40" |
|
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|-
! &or; || 0 || 1
|-
! 0
| 0 || 1
|-
! 1
| 1 || 1
|}
|}
:* It has applications in [[logic]], interpreting 0 as ''false'', 1 as ''true'', &and; as ''and'', &or; as ''or'', and &not; as ''not''. Expressions involving variables and the Boolean operations represent statement forms, and two such expressions can be shown to be equal using the above axioms if and only if the corresponding statement forms are [[logical equi |
emperor by [[Ricimer]]
*[[1610]] - [[Henry Hudson]] sails into what it is now known as [[Hudson Bay]], thinking he had made it through the [[Northwest Passage]] and reached the [[Pacific Ocean]].
*[[1776]] - Delegates to the [[Continental Congress]] begin signing the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].
*[[1790]] - The first [[US Census]] is conducted.
*[[1798]] - [[Second Coalition]]: The [[Battle of the Nile]] between [[France|French]] and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] navies ends with a British victory.
*[[1869]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] [[samurai]], [[farmer]], [[artisan]], [[merchant]] class system is abolished as part of the [[Meiji Restoration]] reforms. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: June 25, 1869).
*[[1870]] - [[Tower Subway]], the world's first [[metro|underground tube railway]], opens in [[London]].
*[[1903]] - [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire]]: Unsuccessful uprising of the [[Bulgarians]] against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkey]], also known as the [[Ilinden uprising]].
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship [[Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci|''Leonardo da Vinci'']] in [[Taranto]].
*[[1918]] - [[Japan]] announces that it is deploying troops to [[Siberia]] in the aftermath of [[World War I]].
*[[1934]] - [[Gleichschaltung]]: [[Adolf Hitler]] becomes [[Führer]] of [[Germany]].
*[[1943]] - [[PT-109]], with future president of the United States Lieutenant [[John F. Kennedy]] aboard, sinks.
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Potsdam Conference]], in which the [[Allied Powers]] discuss the future of defeated [[Germany]], concludes.
*[[1950]] - The [[New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures]] is released in a public event held in [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[New York City]].
*[[1955]] - [[Velcro]] is patented.
*[[1964]] - [[North Vietnam]] allegedly fires on a US destroyer in the [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]].
*[[1967]] - The second [[Blackwall Tunnel]] opens in [[Greenwich, London]].
*[[1975]] - In [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], the [[Superdome]] officially opens with an [[American football|NFL football]] game between the [[New Orleans Saints]] and [[Houston Oilers]].
*[[1976]] - An intruder breaks into [[Priscilla Davis]]' mansion in [[Fort Worth, Texas]] and kills [[Andrea Wilborn]] and [[Stan Farr]].
*[[1979]] - New York Yankees catcher [[Thurman Munson]] dies in a plane crash. An avid pilot, he was practicing takeoffs and landings in his new Cessna Citation jet. The official cause of the crash was determined to be pilot error.
*[[1980]] - A [[Bologna Massacre|bomb explodes]] at the [[Bologna Central Station|railway station]] in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]], killing 85 people and wounding more than 200.
*[[1985]] - A [[Delta Air Lines]] [[Lockheed L-1011]] [[TriStar]] crashes at [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] in [[Texas]], killing 137.
*[[1990]] - [[Iraq]] invades [[Kuwait]], eventually leading to the [[Gulf War]].
*[[1994]] - Popular Japanese television and movie actor [[Beat Takeshi]] is seriously injured in a motorcycle accident.
*[[2004]] - [[Monday demonstrations, 2004|Monday demonstrations]] against social cutbacks began in [[Germany]]
*[[2005]] - [[Air France Flight 358]] skids off the runway at [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] outside [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], destroying the plane but resulting in no loss of life.
==Births==
*[[1533]] - [[Theodor Zwinger]], Swiss scholar (d. [[1588]])
*[[1672]] - [[Johann Jakob Scheuchzer]], Swiss scholar (d. [[1733]])
*[[1674]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans]], regent of France (d. [[1723]])
*[[1696]] - [[Mahmud I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1754]])
*[[1703]] - [[Lorenzo Ricci]], Italian Jesuit leader (d. [[1775]])
*[[1754]] - [[Pierre Charles L'Enfant]], French-born architect and city planner (d. [[1825]])
*[[1788]] - [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist (d. [[1853]])
*[[1815]] - [[Adolf Friedrich von Schack]], German writer (d. [[1894]])
*[[1834]] - [[Frédéric Bartholdi]], French sculptor (d. [[1904]])
*[[1835]] - [[Elisha Gray]], American inventor and entrepreneur (d. [[1901]])
*[[1854]] - [[Milan I]], [[King of Serbia]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1865]] - [[Irving Babbitt]], American literary critic (d. [[1933]])
*[[1868]] - King [[Constantine I of Greece]] (d. [[1923]])
*[[1871]] - [[John French Sloan]], American artist (d. [[1951]])
*[[1892]] - [[Jack Warner]], Canadian film producer (d. [[1978]])
*[[1897]] - [[Max Weber (politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1974]])
*[[1900]] - [[Helen Morgan]], American actress (d. [[1941]])
*[[1905]] - [[Karl Amadeus Hartmann]], German composer (d. [[1963]])
*1905 - [[Myrna Loy]], American actress (d. [[1993]])
*[[1912]] - [[Vladimir Zerjavic]], Croatian statistician (d. [[2001]])
*[[1914]] - [[Beatrice Straight]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1915]] - [[Gary Merrill]], American actor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1924]] - [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], American author (d. [[1987]])
* 1924 - [[Carroll O'Connor]], American actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], Argentinian dictator
* 1925 - [[Alan Whicker]], British journalist and broadcaster (“Whicker’s World”)
*[[1930]] - [[Vali Myers (artist)]], (d. [[2003]])
*[[1932]] - [[Peter O'Toole]], Irish-born actor
*[[1934]] - [[Valery Bykovsky]], cosmonaut
*[[1935]] - [[Hank Cochran]], country music singer and songwriter
*[[1937]] - [[Garth Hudson]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]])
*[[1939]] - [[Wes Craven]], American film director
*[[1941]] - [[Doris Coley]], American singer ([[Shirelles]]) (d. [[2000]])
*[[1942]] - [[Isabel Allende]], Chilean author
*[[1945]] - [[Alex Jesaulenko]], [[Australian rules football|Australian Rules footballer]]
*[[1947]] - [[Massiel]], Spanish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1948]] - [[Dennis Prager]], American radio talk show host and author
*[[1950]] - [[Lance Ito]], American judge
*[[1951]] - [[Andrew Gold]], American singer, musician and songwriter
*[[1953]] - [[Butch Patrick]], American actor
*[[1954]] - [[Sammy McIlroy]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager
*[[1957]] - [[Mojo Nixon]], American musician and actor
*[[1959]] - [[Apollonia Kotero]], American singer and actress
*[[1961]] - [[Linda Fratianne]], American figure skater
*[[1964]] - [[Mary-Louise Parker]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Fernando Couto]], Portuguese footballer
*1969 - [[Richard Hallebeek]], Dutch guitarist
*[[1970]] - [[Tony Amonte]], American hockey player
*1970 - [[Kevin Smith]], American actor, director, and screenwriter
*[[1971]] - [[Michael Hughes (footballer)|Michael Hughes]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1972]] - [[Justyna Steczkowska]], Polish singer
*[[1974]] - [[Jeremy Castle]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1975]] - [[Xu Huaiwen]], Chinese-born badminton player
*[[1977]] - [[Edward Furlong]], American actor
*1977 - [[Dave Farrel]], American musician
*[[1982]] - [[Hélder Postiga]], Portuguese footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Jeff Healy]], Canadian musician
*[[1992]] - [[Hallie Kate Eisenberg]], American actress
==Deaths==
*[[686]] - [[Pope John V]]
*[[1100]] - King [[William II of England]]
*[[1222]] - Count [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] (b. [[1156]])
*[[1511]] - [[Andrew Barton]], Scottish naval leader
*[[1589]] - King [[Henry III of France]] (b. [[1551]])
*[[1611]] - [[Kiyomasa Kato|Kato Kiyomasa]], Japanese warlord and samurai (b. [[1562]])
*[[1696]] - [[Robert Campbell of Glenlyon]], Scottish military commander at the Massacre of Glencoe (b. [[1630]])
*[[1769]] - [[Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea]], English politician (b. [[1689]])
*[[1776]] - [[Louis François I, Prince of Conti]], French military leader (b. [[1717]])
*[[1788]] - [[Thomas Gainsborough]], English artist (b. [[1727]])
*[[1815]] - [[Guillaume Marie Anne Brune]], French marshal (murdered) (b. [[1763]])
*[[1859]] - [[Horace Mann]], American educator and abolitionist (b. [[1796]])
*[[1876]] - [[Wild Bill Hickok|James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok]], American gunfighter (b. [[1837]])
*[[1890]] - [[Louise-Victorine Ackermann]], French poet (b. [[1813]])
*[[1903]] - [[Edmond Nocard]], French veterinarian (b. [[1850]])
*[[1921]] - [[Enrico Caruso]], Italian tenor (b. [[1873]])
*[[1922]] - [[Alexander Graham Bell]], Scottish-born inventor (b. [[1847]])
*[[1923]] - [[Warren G. Harding]], 29th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1865]])
*[[1934]] - [[Paul von Hindenburg]], German general and politician (b. [[1847]])
*[[1936]] - [[Louis Bleriot|Louis Blériot]], French aviation pioneer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1939]] - [[Harvey Spencer Lewis]], American Rosacrucian mystic (b. [[1883]])
*[[1945]] - [[Pietro Mascagni]], Italian composer (b. [[1863]])
*[[1976]] - [[Fritz Lang]], Austrian film director (b. [[1890]])
*[[1978]] - [[Carlos Chávez]], Mexican composer (b. [[1899]])
*[[1979]] - [[Thurman Munson]], baseball player (b. [[1947]])
*[[1986]] - [[Roy Cohn]], American politician (b. [[1927]])
*[[1988]] - [[Raymond Carver]], American writer (b. [[1938]])
*[[1990]] - [[Norman Mclean]], American writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1997]] - [[William S. Burroughs]], American writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1998]] - [[Shari Lewis]], American puppeteer (b. [[1933]])
*[[2003]] - [[Don Estelle]], British actor (b. [[1933]])
*2003 - [[Mike Levey]], American television personality (b. [[1948]])
*[[2004]] - [[Don Tosti]], musician (b. [[1923]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Costa Rica]] - [[Our Lady of the Angels]]
*[[Bulgaria]]/[[Republic of Macedonia]] - [[Ilinden]] (St. Ilya Day), a day of remembrance of the [[Ilinden Uprising]]
*Feast day of Ilya the Prophet in Russian [[Orthodox Church]]
*Feast day of St [[Peter Julian Eymard]] [[Roman Catholic Church]]
*Day of [[airborne forces]] in [[Russia]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/2 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050802.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www.historychannel.com/tdih/tdih.jsp?category=le |
zione infrarossa]]
[[he:תת אדום]]
[[lv:Infrasarkanais starojums]]
[[ms:Inframerah]]
[[nl:Infrarood]]
[[ja:赤外線]]
[[no:Infrarød stråling]]
[[nn:Infraraud stråling]]
[[pl:Podczerwień]]
[[pt:Radiação infravermelha]]
[[ru:Инфракрасное излучение]]
[[sk:Infračervené žiarenie]]
[[sl:Infrardeče valovanje]]
[[fi:Infrapunasäteily]]
[[sv:Infraröd strålning]]
[[vi:Hồng ngoại]]
[[zh:红外线]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Icosidodecahedron</title>
<id>15023</id>
<revision>
<id>40670178</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T04:42:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JarlaxleArtemis</username>
<id>161122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ * [[Great truncated icosidodecahedron]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" bgcolor="#ffffff" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="margin-left:10px" width="250"
!bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Icosidodecahedron
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|240px|Icosidodecahedron]]<br>''Click on picture for large version.''<br>''Click ''[[:image:icosidodecahedron.gif|here]]'' for spinning version.''
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Type||[[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||20 [[triangle]]s<br>12 [[pentagon]]s
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||60
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||30
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Vertex configuration]]||3.5.3.5
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Icosahedral symmetry|icosahedral]] (''I''<sub>''h''</sub>)
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[rhombic triacontahedron]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, quasi-regular (vertex/edge uniform)
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:Icosidodecahedron_vertfig.png|240px|Icosidodecahedron]]<BR>Vertex Figure
|}
An '''icosidodecahedron ''' is a [[polyhedron]] with twenty triangular faces and twelve pentagonal faces. An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two pentagons meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon. As such it is one of the [[Archimedean solid]]s and more particularly, one of the quasi-regular polyhedra.
[[image:icosidodecahedron flat.png]]
An icosidodecahedron has icosahedral symmetry, and its first [[stellation]] is the compound of a [[dodecahedron]] and its dual [[icosahedron]], with the vertices of the icosahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either. Canonical coordinates for the vertices of an icosidodecahedron are the [[cyclic permutation]]s of (0,0,±&tau;), (±1/2, ±&tau;/2, ±(1+&tau;)/2), where &tau; is the [[golden ratio]], (1+&radic;5)/2. Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[rhombic triacontahedron]]. An icosidodecahedron can be split along several planes to form [[pentagonal rotunda]]e, which belong among the [[Johnson solid]]s.
In the standard nomenclature used for the [[Johnson solid]]s, an icosidodecahedron would be called a ''pentagonal gyrobirotunda''.
==Related polyhedra==
The icosidodecahedron is a [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] [[dodecahedron]] and also a rectified [[icosahedron]].
Compare:
[[image:dodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Dodecahedron]]]][[image:truncateddodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated dodecahedron]]]][[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Icosidodecahedron]][[image:truncatedicosahedron.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Truncated icosahedron]]]]
[[image:icosahedron.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Icosahedron]]]]
{{-}}
== See also ==
* [[Cuboctahedron]]
* [[Dodecahedron]]
* [[Great truncated icosidodecahedron]]
* [[Icosahedron]]
* [[Rhombicosidodecahedron]]
* [[Truncated icosidodecahedron]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
* [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
[[Category:Archimedean solids]]
[[Category:Quasiregular polyhedra]]
[[es:Icosidodecaedro]]
[[nl:Icosidodecaëder]]
[[pt:Icosidodecaedro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISO 8601</title>
<id>15024</id>
<revision>
<id>40553173</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:00:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: la</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 8601''', "[[Data element]]s and interchange formats &ndash; Information interchange &ndash; Representation of dates and times" is an [[international standard]] for [[calendar date|date]] and [[time]] representations. The signature feature of the [[ISO 8601]] format is that all values are organized from most to least significant. This leads to the increasingly familiar '''YYYY-MM-DD&nbsp;hh:mm:ss''' format seen in international forums.
{|table class="messagebox"
| The current time in ''ISO 8601'' format is: '''{{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}}&nbsp;{{CURRENTTIME}}Z'''
|}
==History of the standard==
The current version is the third edition, [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=40874&ICS1=1&ICS2=140&ICS3=30&showrevision=y&scopelist=CATALOGUE ISO 8601:2004], published [[2004-12-03]]. This replaces the second edition, ISO 8601:2000. The first edition was ISO 8601:1988.
==General principles==
Dates and times are self-contained, and do not rely on any external context for their values. They are ''entirely numerical'' in representation, although certain specialized formats use roman letters to label fields. Every ISO date has exactly one possible unambiguous interpretation. These properties allow them to be truly international, without reliance on regional conventions, such as the names of the days of the week.
Dates and times are organized ''from most to least significant'' digits. Each value (eg, year, month, day, time) has a ''fixed number of digits'' which must be padded with leading zeros. For instance, the American notation "4:30 am" would be written '''04:30'''.
Representation can be done in one of two formats: A ''basic format'' with a minimal number of characters, or an ''extended format'' with separators to enhance human readability.[http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/popstds/datesandtime.html] The standard permits a ''dash'' separator between date elements, and a ''colon'' between hours, minutes, and seconds. For example, '''2006-01-06''' may be written '''20060106''' without ambiguity. An optional "'''T'''" is suggested to separate date and time when those values will be stored in a single field, though another separator may be chosen with discretion. A space is a popular allowed human readable alternative.
Any number of fields may be dropped from any of the date and time formats, but the least significant fields must be dropped first. For example, '''2004-05''' is a valid ISO 8601 date, which indicates the 5th month of the year 2004. This date will never represent the 5th day of some unknown month in 2004.
Finally, the standard supports the addition of a ''decimal fraction'' to the smallest time unit, where higher precision is needed.
==Dates==
The standard uses the [[Gregorian calendar]], already the [[De facto|de facto standard]] of international trade, with the year numbering following [[astronomical year numbering]]. The standard acknowledges that other calendars may be used, such as the [[Julian calendar]]. It suggests that senders and receivers should explicitly agree when another calendar is used with the standard's notation. Dates are otherwise assumed to be Gregorian. In principle, dates should usually be converted to the [[Proleptic Gregorian calendar|proleptic Gregorian calendar]] to avoid possible confusion.
Years are always integers. Year '''0001''' corresponds to '''1 AD''' (1 CE). The year before that is '''0000''', which corresponds to '''1 BC''' (1 BCE). The year before that is '''-0001''', which corresponds to '''2 BC'''. This pattern continues. This system had already been used by [[astronomer]]s, and may clarify the dispute about when a new century begins (see [[20th century]]).
In some cases, years may be relaxed to fewer than four digits. However, the rules for this vary depending on what other information is being carried and if it will make the interpretation ambiguous. For instance, the date 2006-01-09 could be written 060109, but the month 2006-01 could only be shortened as -0601 (note the hyphen). Years can also be expanded to greater than four digits, though this is practically domain specific&mdash;such as archeological and astronomical events.
[[ISO 8601]] describes three date formats of general interest. These can be quickly distinguished by a ''one, two, or three digit day field''.
===Calendar date===
{|table class="infobox" style="text-align: center; width: 15em"
| '''YYYY–MM–DD'''
|}
Calendar dates are the form familiar to most people. As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a year with century, and a negative sign for years before 1 BCE. '''MM''' indicates the month of the year, 01 through 12. '''DD''' indicates the day of that month, from 01 through 31. For example, "April 5th, 1981" may be represented as '''1981-04-05''' in the ''extended format'', or '''19810405''' in the ''basic format''.
The standard allows for dates to be written with less precision. For example, you may write '''1981-04''' to mean "April, 1981". You may simply write '''1981''' to refer to that year.
The standard also allows for dates which include an implied element, such as an implied century. It is careful to emphasize the importance of clear communication between sender and receiver when implied elements are being used. It is a lack of such clarity that led |
Internazionale di Scacchi]]
[[he:פיד"ה]]
[[nl:Fédération Internationale des Échecs]]
[[no:FIDE]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa]]
[[pt:Federação Internacional de Xadrez]]
[[ru:ФИДЕ]]
[[sq:Federata Botërore e Shahut]]
[[sl:Svetovna šahovska federacija]]
[[sv:FIDE]]
[[vi:FIDE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fresnel equatations</title>
<id>11148</id>
<revision>
<id>35418004</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T17:06:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mel Etitis</username>
<id>159495</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm {{del}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fresnel equations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fresnel equations</title>
<id>11149</id>
<revision>
<id>29038948</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-23T06:36:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Srleffler</username>
<id>252195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fresnel reflection; fix misleading comment about amplitudes.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fresnel equations''', deduced by [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]], describe the behaviour of light when moving between media of differing [[refractive index|refractive indices]]. The reflection of light that the equations predict is known as '''Fresnel reflection'''.
When [[light]] moves from a medium of a given [[refractive index]] ''n''<sub>1</sub> into a second medium with [[refractive index]] ''n''<sub>2</sub>, both [[reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[refraction]] of the light may occur.
[[Image:Fresnel.png|right|A light ray striking the interface between two media is split into two - a reflected part and a refracted part.]]
In the diagram on the right, an incident light ray '''PO''' strikes at point '''O''' the interface between two media of refractive indexes ''n''<sub>1</sub> and ''n''<sub>2</sub>. Part of the ray is [[Reflection (physics)|reflected]] as ray '''OQ''' and part [[refraction|refracted]] as ray '''OS'''. The angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the [[normal]] of the interface are given as &theta;<sub>i</sub>, &theta;<sub>r</sub> and &theta;<sub>t</sub>, respectively.
The relationship between these angles is given by the law of [[reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[Snell's law]].
The fraction of the [[intensity]] of incident light that is reflected from the interface is given by the ''[[reflection coefficient]]'' ''R'', and the fraction refracted by the ''[[transmission coefficient]]'' ''T''. The Fresnel equations may be used to calculate ''R'' and ''T'' in a given situation.
The calculations of ''R'' and ''T'' depend on [[polarisation]] of the incident ray. If the light is polarised with the [[electric field]] of the light perpendicular to the plane of the diagram above (''s''-polarised), the reflection coefficient is given by:
: <math>R_s = \left[ \frac{\sin (\theta_i - \theta_t)}{\sin (\theta_i + \theta_t)} \right]^2=\left[\frac{n_1\cos(\theta_i)-n_2\cos(\theta_t)}{n_1\cos(\theta_i)+n_2\cos(\theta_t)}\right]^2</math>
where &theta;<sub>t</sub> can be derived from &theta;<sub>i</sub> by [[Snell's law]].
If the incident light is polarised in the plane of the diagram (''p''-polarised), the ''R'' is given by:
: <math>R_p = \left[ \frac{\tan (\theta_i - \theta_t)}{\tan (\theta_i + \theta_t)} \right]^2=\left[\frac{n_2\cos(\theta_i)-n_1\cos(\theta_t)}{n_2\cos(\theta_i)+n_1\cos(\theta_t)}\right]^2</math>
The transmission coefficient in each case is given by ''T''<sub>s</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''R''<sub>s</sub> and ''T''<sub>p</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''R''<sub>p</sub>.
If the incident light is unpolarised (containing an equal mix of ''s''- and ''p''-polarisations), the reflection coefficient is ''R''&nbsp;= &nbsp;(''R''<sub>s</sub>&nbsp;+&nbsp;''R''<sub>p</sub>)/2.
The reflection and transmission coefficients correspond to the ratio of the [[intensity]] of the incident ray to that of the reflected and transmitted rays. Equations for coefficients corresponding to ratios of the [[electric field]] [[amplitude]]s of the waves can also be derived, and these are also called "Fresnel equations".<!--NB: The amplitude coefficients are not necessarily the square root of the intensity coefficients!-->
At one particular angle for a given ''n''<sub>1</sub> and ''n''<sub>2</sub>, the value of ''R''<sub>p</sub> goes to zero and an ''p''-polarised incident ray is purely refracted. This is known as [[Brewster's angle]], and is around 56° for a glass medium in air or vacuum.
When moving from a more dense medium into a less dense one (i.e. ''n''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;&gt;&nbsp;''n''<sub>2</sub>), above an incidence angle known as the ''[[critical angle]]'', all light is reflected and ''R''<sub>s</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;''R''<sub>p</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;1. This phenomenon is known as [[total internal reflection]]. The critical angle is approximately 41° for glass in air.
[[Image:fresnel2.png]]
When the light is at near-normal incidence to the interface (&theta;<sub>i</sub> &asymp; &theta;<sub>t</sub> &asymp; 0), the reflection and transmission coefficient are given by:
: <math>R = R_s = R_p = \left( \frac{n_1 - n_2}{n_1 + n_2} \right)^2</math>
: <math>T = T_s = T_p = 1-R = \frac{4 n_1 n_2}{\left(n_1 + n_2 \right)^2} </math>
For common glass, the reflection coefficient is about 4%. Note that reflection by a window is from the front side as well as the back side, and that some of the light bounces back and forth a number of times between the two sides. The combined reflection coefficient for this case is 2''R''/(1&nbsp;+&nbsp;''R'').
Repeated reflection and refraction on thin, parallel layers is also known as [[Fabry-Perot interferometer|Fabry-Perot interference]], this effect is responsible for the colours seen in oil films on water, used in optics to make reflection free lenses and perfect mirrors, etc.
It should be noted that the discussion given here is only valid when the [[permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] &mu; is equal to the vacuum permeability &mu;<sub>0</sub> in both media. This is true for most [[dielectric]] materials, but the completely general Fresnel equations are more complex.
[[Category:Optics]][[Category:Equations]]
[[de:Fresnelsche Formeln]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12524;&#12493;&#12523;&#12398;&#24335;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Figure skating</title>
<id>11152</id>
<revision>
<id>42074433</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:22:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dr.frog</username>
<id>75480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add a real entry and link for "special figures"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{commons|Category:Ice skating}}
'''Figure skating''' is a sporting event in which individuals, mixed couples, or groups perform spins, jumps, and other moves on ice, often to music. There are international competitions for figure skating, such as the [[World Figure Skating Championships|World Championships]], and figure skating is also an official event in the [[Winter Olympics]]. In languages other than English, figure skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as "artistic skating".
The sport is closely associated with show business, and includes "spectaculars" in which performers skate unjudged, and the crowd pleasing routines at the end of competition held at many tournaments. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice-skating exhibitions or shows. Many shows are run by individual clubs to show off their members' accomplishments.
==Equipment==
[[Image:Skate.jpg|thumb|left|A figure skate.]]
Figure skates differ from [[ice hockey|hockey]] skates most visibly in having a set of large, jagged teeth called ''toe picks'' (also known as "toe rakes") on the front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins. Toe pick designs have become quite elaborate and sometimes include teeth on the sides of the blade.
The figure skating blade is curved from front to back with a radius of about 2 meters. Recently, [[parabolic figure skating blades]] have been designed to increase skaters' stability. The figure skate's blade is about 3/16 inch (4 mm) thick. The blade is also ''hollow ground''; a groove on the bottom of the blade creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. In figure skating it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade, never on both at the same time (which is referred to as a ''flat''). The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate speed.
Figure skating boots are traditionally made by hand from many layers of leather. In recent years, boots made of synthetic materials with heat-moldable linings have become popular with many skaters because they combine strength with lighter weight than leather boots, and are easier to "break in". The latest development in boot technology is a boot that is hinged at the ankle to provide lateral support while allowing more flexibility. Blades are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws.
Typically, high-level figure skaters will be professionally fitted for their boots at a reputable skate shop in their area.
Oth |
[Category:20th century mathematicians|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American physicists|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American scientists|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Oceanographers|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:United States Navy admirals|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Women computer scientists|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Women in war|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Women mathematicians|Hopper, Grace]]
[[de:Grace Hopper]]
[[fr:Grace Hopper]]
[[he:גרייס הופר]]
[[it:Grace Murray Hopper]]
[[nl:Grace Murray Hopper]]
[[pl:Grace Hopper]]
[[ru:Хоппер, Грейс]]
[[sv:Grace Hopper]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gini coefficent</title>
<id>12591</id>
<revision>
<id>15910266</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gini coefficient]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU Manifesto</title>
<id>12592</id>
<revision>
<id>38500172</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T19:45:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Frap</username>
<id>612852</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''GNU Manifesto''' was written by [[Richard Stallman]] and published in March [[1985]] in ''[[Dr. Dobb's Journal|Dr. Dobb's Journal of Software Tools]]'' '''10'''(3) as an explanation and definition of the goals of the [[GNU]] project, and to call for participation and support. It is regarded by many in the [[free software movement]] as a fundamental philosophical source. The full text is included with GNU software such as [[Emacs]], and is available on the web. For the first few years, it was updated in minor ways to account for developments, but since [[1993]] it has been left unchanged.
== External links ==
* [http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html The GNU Manifesto]
* [http://www.math.utah.edu/ftp/pub/tex/bib/toc/dr-dobbs-1980.html#10(3):March:1985 Dr. Dobb's Journal, March 1985]
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[ca:Manifest GNU]]
[[es:Manifiesto GNU]]
[[ko:GNU 선언문]]
[[sk:GNU Manifesto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Georgia, Caucasus</title>
<id>12593</id>
<revision>
<id>15910268</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-12T00:05:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.111.13.32</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Georgia (country)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gross domestic product</title>
<id>12594</id>
<revision>
<id>42053023</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:55:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SCEhardt</username>
<id>179728</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.159.98.189|212.159.98.189]] ([[User talk:212.159.98.189|talk]]) to last version by Shadow demon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The most common approach to measuring and understanding GDP is the expenditure method:
: ''GDP = [[consumption]] + [[investment]] + [[export]]s − [[import]]s''
Consumption and investment in this equation are the expenditure on final goods and services. The exports minus imports part of the equation (often called '''net exports''') then adjusts this by subtracting the part of this expenditure not produced domestically (the imports), and adding back in domestic production not consumed at home (the exports).
Economists (since [[Keynes]]) have preferred to split the general consumption term into two parts; private consumption, and [[public sector]] spending. Two advantages of dividing total consumption this way in theoretical macroeconomics are:
*'''Private consumption''' is a central concern of [[welfare economics]]. The private investment and trade portions of the economy are ultimately directed (in mainstream economic models) to increases in long-term private consumption.
*If separated from [[endogenous]] private consumption, '''Government consumption''' can be treated as [[exogenous]], so that different government spending levels can be considered within a meaningful macroeconomic framework.
Therefore GDP can be expressed as:
: ''GDP = [[Household consumption expenditures|private consumption]] + [[government]] + [[investment]] + [[balance of trade|net exports]]''
: (or simply '''GDP = C + G + I + NX''')
=== The components of GDP ===
Each of the variables '''C''', '''I''', '''G''', and '''NX''' :
*'''C''' is '''private''' consumption (or '''C'''onsumer expenditures) in the economy. This includes most expenditures of [[household]]s such as food, rent, medical expenses and so on.
*'''I''' is defined as [[business]] investments in [[capital (economics)|capital]]. Examples of investment by a business include construction of a new [[mining|mine]], purchase of [[software]], or purchase of machinery and equipment for a factory. 'Investment' in GDP is meant very specifically as non-[[financial product]] purchases. Buying financial products is classed as [[saving]] in [[macroeconomic]]s, as opposed to '''investment''' (which, in the GDP formula is a form of spending). The distinction is (in theory) clear: if money is converted into goods or services, without a repayment [[liability]] it ''is'' investment. For example, if you buy a [[bond]] or [[share]] the ownership of the money has only nominally changed hands, and this [[transfer payment]] is excluded from the GDP sum. Although such purchases would be called ''investments'' in normal speech, from the total-economy point of view, this is simply swapping of [[deed]]s, and not part of the [[real economy]] or the GDP formula.
*'''G''' is the sum of government expenditures on final goods and services. It includes salaries of [[public servants]], purchase of weapons for the military, and any investment expenditure by a government. It does not include any transfer payments, such as [[social security]] or [[unemployment benefits]]. The relative size of government expenditure compared to GDP as a whole is critical in the theory of [[crowding out (economics)|crowding out]], and the [[Keynesian cross]].
*'''NX''' are "net exports" in the economy ([[gross]] exports - gross imports). GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and services produced for overseas consumption, therefore exports are added. Imports are subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms '''G''', '''I''', or '''C''', and must be deducted to avoid counting foreign [[supply]] as domestic.
It is important to understand the meaning of each variable ''precisely'' in order to:
*Read national accounts.
*Understand [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] or [[neo-classical economics|neo-classical]] macroeconomics.;
=== Examples of GDP component variables ===
Examples of '''C''', '''I''', '''G''', & '''NX''': If you spend money to renovate your hotel so that occupancy rates increase, that is private investment, but if you buy shares in a consortium to do the same thing it is [[saving]]. The former is included when measuring GDP (in '''I'''), the latter is not. However, when the consortium conducted its own expenditure on renovation, that expenditure would be included in GDP.
If the hotel is your private home your renovation spending would be measured as '''C'''onsumption, but if a government agency is converting the hotel into an office for civil servants the renovation spending would be measured as part of public sector spending ('''G''').
If the renovation involves the purchase of a [[chandelier]] from abroad, that spending would ''also'' be counted as an increase in imports, so that '''NX''' would fall and the total GDP is unaffected by the purchase. (This highlights the fact that GDP is intended to measure domestic [[production]] rather than total consumption or spending. Spending is really a convenient means of estimating production.)
If you are paid to manufacture the chandelier to hang in a foreign hotel the situation would be reversed, and the payment you receive would be counted in '''NX''' (positively, as an export). Again, we see that GDP is attempting to measure production through the means of [[expenditure]]; if the chandelier you produced had been bought domestically it would have been included in the GDP figures (in '''C''' or '''I''') when purchased by a consumer or a business, but because it was exported it is necessary to 'correct' the amount consumed domestically to give the amount produced domestically. (As in Gross Domestic '''Product'''.).
=== Difference from [[Aggregate expenditure]] ===
An alternative measure of the economy to GDP is the [[Aggregate expenditure]] measure, which is identical to GDP except that it '''excludes''' items produced but not purchased (net inventory/stock level growth). If the economy produces more goods than are sold, the increase in inventory would generally be '''included''' in the GDP figure (as "Investment"). GDP counts these changes in inventory levels as investment.
=== The GDP Income account ===
Another way of measuring GDP is to measure the total income payable in the GDP income accounts. This should provide the same figure as the expenditure method described above.
The formula for GDP measured using the income approach, called GDP(I), is:
: ''GDP = [[Compensation of employees]] + [[Gross operating surplus]] + [[Gross mixed income]] + Taxes less subsidies on production and imports''
*'''Compensatio |
*[[Jed O'Toole]] - Guitar
*[[Peter Gill]] - Drums
*[[Paul Rutherford]] - Backing vocals
==Discography==
===Albums===
====Original material====
*''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]] (1984)
*''[[Liverpool (album)|Liverpool]] (1986)
====Compilations====
*''[[Bang!... The Greatest Hits (album)|Bang!… The Greatest Hits Of Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]'' (1994)
*''[[Reload - The Whole 12 Inches (album)|Reload - The Whole 12 Inches]]'' (1994)
*''[[Maximum Joy (album)|Maximum Joy]]'' (2000)
*''[[The Club Mixes 2000 (album)|The Club Mixes 2000]]'' (2000)
*''[[Twelve Inches (album)|Twelve Inches]]'' (2001)
===Singles===
The original singles released during the time the band was together:
*[[Relax (single)|Relax]] (1983)
*[[Two Tribes]] (1984)
*[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]] (Nov 1984)
*[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (single)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]] (1985)
*[[Rage Hard]] (1986)
*[[Warriors Of The Wasteland]] (1986)
*[[Watching The Wildlife]] (1987)
==Trivia==
* The song ''Two Tribes'' is featured in the [[PlayStation 2]] video-game [[Grand Theft Auto:Vice City]] as part of the radio station [[Wave 103]].
* The [[Little Britain]] character [[Lou Todd]] was seen wearing a "Frankie says Relax" t-shirt in many of the sketches.
* The T-Shirt ''Frankie Says Relax'' was featured as a plot device on an episode of [[Friends]]. When Ross and Rachel were breaking up in Season 3, Rachel gives Ross back his things from her apartment. Ross then angrily asks for his "Frankie Says Relax" T-shirt, going as far as to put it on to 'prove' how much he loves the T-shirt (despite that it's a size or two too short and was given to Rachel). At the end of the episode, when Ross delivers a box with Rachel's things from his apartment, the only content is the T-shirt - showing that Ross doesn't really hold a grudge against Rachel.
* In ''[[Zoolander]]'', Jacobin Mugato (aka Jacob Moogberg) was a fictional member of FGTH who was ousted from the band before the release of "Relax." The song also features prominently in the central plot of the film.
==Computer game==
In 1985, a [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood (game)|Frankie Goes To Hollywood computer game]] was created, based on the music of the band. The objective of the admittedly-strange game was to explore Mundanesville and find the Pleasuredome.
==External links==
*[http://www.fgth.org.uk Frankie Goes To Hollywood Official Site]
*[http://www.fgthonline.org.uk FGTHOnline - Home of the Frankie Wiki]
*[http://ztt-info.de ZTT - Two Decades] (fan page about ZTT - incl. FGTH)
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:1980s music groups]]
[[Category:ZTT Records artist]]
[[Category:Music from Liverpool, England]]
[[Category:Gay icons]]
[[cs:Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]
[[de:Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
[[fr:Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]
[[nl:Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]
[[sv:Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fulham Football Club</title>
<id>11230</id>
<revision>
<id>15908993</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mintguy</username>
<id>3295</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "Fulham_F.C."</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fulham_F.C.]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Factors of production</title>
<id>11231</id>
<revision>
<id>40795732</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T01:50:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.54.239.196</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Classical view as the base of microeconomic theory */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Factors of production''' are resources used in the production of goods and services in economics. Classical [[economics]] distinguishes between three factors:
*[[land (economics)|Land]] or natural resources - naturally-occurring goods such as soil and minerals that are used in the creation of products. The payment for land is [[Economic_rent|rent]].
*[[labour (economics)|Labor]] - human effort used in production which also includes technical and marketing expertise. The payment for labor is a [[wage]].
*[[Capital (economics)|Capital goods]] - human-made goods (or [[means of production]]) which are used in the production of other goods. These include machinery, tools and buildings. In a general sense, the payment for capital is called [[interest]].
These were codified originally in the analyses of [[Adam Smith]], [[1776]], [[David Ricardo]], [[1817]], and the later contributions of [[Karl Marx]] and [[John Stuart Mill]] as part of one of the first coherent theories of production in [[political economy]]. Marx refers in [[Das Kapital]] to the three factors of production as the "holy trinity" of political economy.
In the classical analysis, working capital was generally viewed as being a stock of physical items such as tools, buildings and machinery. This view was explicitly rejected by Marx. Modern economics has become increasingly uncertain about how to define and theorise capital (see [[capital controversy]]).
With the [[emergence]] of the [[knowledge economy]], more modern analysis often distinguishes this [[physical capital]] from other forms of capital such as "[[human capital]]" (economics jargon for education or training).
Also, some economists mention enterprise, [[entrepreneurship]], [[individual capital]] or just "leadership" as a ''fourth'' factor. However, this seems to be a form of labor or "human capital." When differentiated, the payment for this factor of production is called [[profit]]. This is when entrepreneurs think of ideas, organise the other three factors of production, and take risks with their own money and the financial capital of others.
In a market economy, entrepreneurs combine land, labor, and capital to make a profit. In a planned economy, central planners decide how land, labor, and capital should be used to provide for maximum benefit for all citizens.
The classical theory, further developed, remains useful to the present day as a basis of [[microeconomics]]. Some more means that deal with factors of production are as follows:
*'''Entrepreneurs''' are people who organize other productive resources to make goods and services. The economists regard entrepreneurs as a specialist form of labor input. The success and/or failure of a business often depends on the quality of entrepreneurship.
*'''Capital''' has many meanings including the finance raised to operate a business. Normally though, capital means investment in goods that can produce other goods in the future. It can also be referred to as machines, roads, factories, schools, and office buildings in which humans produced in order to produce other goods and services. Investment is important if the economy is to achieve economic growth in the future.
*'''Human Capital''' is the quality of labor resources which can be improved through investments, education, and training.
*'''Fixed Capital''' this includes machinery, work plants, equipment, new technology, factories, buildings, and goods that are designed to increase the productive potential of the economy for future years.
*'''Working Capital''' this includes the stocks of finished and semi-finished goods that we be economically consumed in the near future or will be made into a finished consumer good in the near future.
== Developments and Alternative views ==
===Classical view as the base of microeconomic theory===
Although it did not deal substantially with complex issues of a sophisticated modern economy, the classical theory remains useful to the present day as the basis of [[microeconomics]], however many distinctions one cares to make or macro-theory or [[political economy]] one chooses to apply to trade them off or set their valuations in society at large.
[[land (economics)|Land]] has become [[natural capital]], imitative aspects of [[labour (economics)|Labor]] have become [[instructional capital]], creative or inspirational aspects or "Enterprise" have become [[individual capital]] (in some analyses), and [[social capital]] has become increasingly important. The classical relationship of [[financial capital]] and [[infrastructural capital]] is still recognized as central, but there is a wider debate on [[means of production]] and various [[means of protection]], or "property rights", to secure their reliable use.
When disputes arise regarding these fine distinctions, most economists will fall back to the
==See also==
* [[microeconomics]]
* [[production theory basics]]
* [[production, costs, and pricing]]
* [[labor theory of value]]
* [[cost of production theory of value]]
* [[optimum factor allocation]]
[[Category:Production]]
[[de:Produktionsfaktor]]
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[[hu:Termelési tényező]]
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[[nl:Productiefactor]]
[[pl:Czynniki produkcji]]
[[sk:Výrobné faktory]]
[[sv:Produktionsfaktorer]]
[[vi:Các yếu tố sản xuất]]
[[zh:category:生產要素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fort Wayne, Indiana</title>
<id>11232</id>
<revision>
<id>42160821</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:36:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Athletes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = City of Fort Wayne, Indiana |
nickname = [[The Summit City]] |
image_skyline = Fort Wayne Skyline.png |
image_flag = FortWayneFlag.png |
image_seal = Fort_wayne_seal.jpg |
image_map = US-IN-Fort_Wayne.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[A |
html External link to national geographics elephant rage episode of Explorer]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Elephant}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Proboscidea}}
* [http://www.elephant.se Absolute elephant - general information]
* [http://www.elephantvoices.org How elephants communicate]
* [http://www.elephant-news.com Elephant News - latest headlines about elephants]
* [http://fohn.net/elephant-pictures-facts/ Elephant Pictures & Information]
* Tim Radford, [http://www.education.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4244642-103690,00.html "The elephant time forgot"], ''The Guardian'' 2001-08-24, 1. Describes the discovery of the third species of elephant.
* C. Johnson, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s24742.htm "Elephant trunks were once snorkels"], ''News in Science'' 1999-05-11,
*[http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/george.html Photo of Pinnewella Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka]
*[http://seekmybowl.com/elephant.php Seek My Bowl on elephants as symbols]
*[http://www.pepere.org/flash-game_1_x/the-elephant-game_7.html The elephant game].
*[http://www.elephantreintroduction.org Elephant Reintroduction Foundation],The foundation is dedicated to a management system for rehabilitation of captive elephants and habitat preparation to ensure successful long-term sustainability after their return to the wild.
*[http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/proboscidea/african-elephant.htm#ec Animal info]
*[http://www.uen.org/utahlink/activities/view_activity.cgi?activity_id=3819 List of easy-to-read articles about elephants]
* [http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afanimals/mammals/elephant.shtml Elephant photos and information]
* [http://iucn.org/afesg/aed/ African Elephant Database - for current info on African elephant distribution and numbers]
* [http://goplett.co.za/wiki/index.php/ Elephant Sanctuary Plettenberg Bay South Africa ]
{{Mammals}}
[[Category:Elephants| ]]
[[Category:Endangered species]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[af:Olifant]]
[[ar:فيل]]
[[ast:Elefante]]
[[bg:Слон]]
[[ca:Elefant]]
[[cs:Slon]]
[[cy:Eliffant]]
[[da:Elefant]]
[[de:Elefanten]]
[[es:Elephantidae]]
[[eo:Elefanto]]
[[fr:Éléphant]]
[[fy:Oaljefanten]]
[[gl:Elefante]]
[[ko:코끼리]]
[[ku:Fîl]]
[[hr:Slonovi]]
[[io:Elefanto]]
[[ia:Elephante]]
[[it:Elephantidae]]
[[he:פילים]]
[[la:Elephantidae]]
[[lt:Straubliniai]]
[[li:Olifante]]
[[ln:Nzoku]]
[[ms:Gajah]]
[[nl:Olifanten]]
[[ja:ゾウ]]
[[no:Elefant]]
[[pl:Słoniowate]]
[[pt:Elefante]]
[[ru:Слон]]
[[simple:Elephant]]
[[fi:Norsut]]
[[sv:Elefanter]]
[[ta:யானை]]
[[zh:象]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolutionary linguistics</title>
<id>9281</id>
<revision>
<id>41582664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:56:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drork</username>
<id>833646</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Evolutionary linguistics''' is the scientific study of the origins and development of language. The main problem in this research is the lack of empirical data: spoken language leaves no traces behind. This led to an abandonment of the field for many decades. Recently, however, the field is reviving due to the development of new technologies.
[[August Schleicher]] (1821-1868) and his ‘Stammbaumtheorie’ are often quoted as the starting point of evolutionary linguistics. Inspired by the natural sciences, especially biology, Schleicher was the first to compare languages to evolving species. He introduced the representation of language families as an evolutionary tree in articles published in 1853.
The Stammbaumtheorie proved to be very productive for [[comparative linguistics]], but didn’t solve the major problem of evolutionary linguistics: the lack of fossil records. The field was quickly abandoned, but recent developments in technology have enabled researchers to implement and test evolutionary language models.
One of these researchers is Professor Dr. [[Luc Steels]], head of the research units of Sony CSL in [[Paris]] and the AI Lab at the Free University of Brussels ([[VUB]]). He and his team are investigating ways in which artificial agents self-organize languages with natural-like properties and how meaning can co-evolve with language. Their research is based on the hypothesis that language is a complex adaptive system that emerges through adaptive interactions between agents and continues to evolve in order to remain adapted to the needs and capabilities of the agents. This ongoing research has cumulated over the past ten years and has been implemented in [[Construction grammar#Fluid Construction Grammar|Fluid Construction Grammar (FCG)]], a formalism for construction grammars that has especially been designed for the origins and evolution of language.
The approach of computational modeling and the use of robotic agents grounded in real life is theory independent. It enables the researcher to find out exactly what cognitive capacities are needed for certain language phenomena to emerge. It also forces the researcher to formulate his hypotheses in a precise and exact manner, whereas theoretic models often stay very vague. The precision and theory independence of these kinds of experiments make them of great value for the scientific debate.
==References==
*Cangelosi, A. and Harnad, S. (2001) [http://cogprints.org/2036/ The adaptive advantage of symbolic theft over sensorimotor toil: Grounding language in perceptual categories] ''Evolution of Communication'' 4(1):pp. 117-142.
*[[Terrence Deacon|Deacon, T]]. (1997) ''The symbolic species: the coevolution of language and the brain'', Norton, New York.
*Hauser, M.D. (1996) ''The evolution of communication'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
* Daniel Dor and Jablonka Eva (2001). How language changed the genes. In Tabant J. Ward. S. (editors). Mouton de Gruyer: Berlin, pp 149-175.
* Dor D. and Jablonka E. (2001) From cultural selection to genetic selection: a framework for the evolution of language. Selection, 1-3, pp. 33-57.
*Hauser, M.D. Hauser, N. Chomsky and W.T. Fitch (2002) The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?, ''Science'' 298: pp. 1569–1579.
*Jackendoff, R. (2002) [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/Jackendoff-07252002/Referees/ ''Foundations of language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution''] Oxford University Press, New York
*Lieberman, P. (2003) Motor control, speech, and the evolution of language. In: M. Christiansen and S. Kirby, Editors, ''Language evolution: states of the art'', Oxford University Press, New York.
*Nowak, M.A. and N.L. Komarova (2001) Towards an evolutionary theory of language, ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 5 (7), pp. 288–295.
*[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, S]]. (1994) ''The language instinct'', HarperCollins, New York.
*Pinker, S. and P. Bloom (1990) [http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/99/index.html Natural language and natural selection] [http://www.bbsonline.org/ ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences''] 13: pp. 707–784
*Steels, L. (2001) Grounding Symbols through Evolutionary Language Games. In: Cangelosi A. and Parisi D. (Eds.) [http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/soc/staff/angelo/book2001-TOC.html ''Simulating the Evolution of Language''] Springer.
*Steklis, H.D. and Harnad, S (1976) [http://cogprints.org/866/ From hand to mouth: Some critical stages in the evolution of language] In: Harnad, S., Steklis, H. D. and Lancaster, J., (1976) (Eds) Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' 280: 1-914.
* See also the [http://www.isrl.uiuc.edu/amag/langev/ UIUC Language Evolution and Computation Bibliography/Repository]
==External links==
*[http://arti.vub.ac.be/FCG/ Fluid Construction Grammar]
*[http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/lec/ Language Evolution and Computation Research Unit, University of Edinburgh]
*[http://www.csl.sony.fr/ Sony CSL Research]
*[http://rd-ir.vub.ac.be/RDE/index.html Vrije Universiteit Brussel Research]
*[http://arti.vub.ac.be/ ARTI Artificial Intelligence Laboratory VUB]
*[http://www.ecagents.org/ ECAgents: The Project on Embodied and Communicating Agents]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[he:אבולוציה של השפה]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ECHELON</title>
<id>9282</id>
<revision>
<id>41932407</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:41:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.171.161.32</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sources */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the spy network; for other uses see [[Echelon (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Silvermine Echelon Antenna 4 - Through the wire.JPG|thumb|right|Antenna 4 (through the wire) in former Echelon intelligence gathering station at [[Silvermine]], [[Cape Peninsula]], [[South Africa]].]]
'''ECHELON''' is a highly secretive world-wide [[SIGINT|signals intelligence]] and analysis network run by the [[UKUSA Community]]. [http://cryptome.org/echelon-nh.htm] ECHELON can capture [[radio]] and [[satellite]] communications, [[telephone]] calls, [[fax]]es and [[e-mail]]s nearly anywhere in the world and includes computer automated analysis and sorting of intercepts. [http://cryptome.org/echelon-60min.htm] ECHELON is estimated to intercept up to 3 billion communications every day. However, claims that the NSA uses ECHELON to monitor every single electronic communication in the world are untrue, because such an effort would require the most massive communications and computing system on the planet and consume tremendous power and resources.
==History==
Reportedly created to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[East Bloc]] allies during the [[Cold War]] in the early sixties, ECHELON is today believed to also search for hints of [[terrorism|terrorist]] plots, drug-dealers' plans, and political and diplomatic i |
hry Davy]]
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[[vi:Humphry Davy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hecate</title>
<id>14372</id>
<revision>
<id>41636977</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:22:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.39.18.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ commonscat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (earth)}}
'''Hecate''', '''Hekate''' (''Hek&#x00e1;t&#x0113;''), or '''Hekat''' was originally a goddess of the wilderness and childbirth originating from [[Thrace]], or among the [[Caria]]ns of [[Anatolia]] <ref name="Burkert"> Walter Burkert, (1987). ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical'', pp 171. Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0631156240.</ref>. Popular cults venerating her as a mother goddess integrated her persona into Greek culture as ''''Εκατη'''. In [[Alexandria|Ptolemaic Alexandria]] she ultimately achieved her connotations as a goddess of sorcery and her role as the ‘Queen of Ghosts’, in which guise she was transmitted to post-Renaissance culture. Today she is often seen as a goddess of [[witchcraft]].
==Representations==
The earliest depictions of Hecate are single faced, not triplicate. Lewis Richard Farnell states:
:''The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hekate is almost as full as that of the literature. But it is only in the later period that they come to express her manifold and mystic nature. Before the fifth century there is little doubt that she was usually represented as of single form like any other divinity, and it was thus that the [[Hesiod|Boeotian poet]] imagined her, as nothing in his verses contains any allusion to a triple formed goddess. The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hekate (Plate XXXVIII. a), in writing of the style of the sixth century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the only value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier from, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion.'' <ref>Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). "Hecate in Art", ''The Cults of the Greek States''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[Oxford]]. </ref>
[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor [[Alkamenes]] in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century. Some classical portrayals, such as the one illustrated below, show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch. Others continue to depict her in singular form. In Egyptian-inspired Greek [[esotericism|esoteric writings]] connected with [[Hermes Trismegistus]], and in magical papyri of [[Late Antiquity]] she is described as having three heads: one dog, one [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] and one horse. Hecate's triplicity is expressed in a more Hellene fashion, with three bodies instead, where she is shown taking part in the battle with the Titans in the vast frieze of the great altar of Pergamum, now in Berlin. In the [[Argos|Argolid]], near the shrine of the Dioscuri, the 2nd-century CE traveller [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eilethyia; "The image is a work of [[Scopas]]. This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hekate, were made respectively by [[Polyclitus|Polycleitus]] and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon. (''Description of Greece'' ii.22.7)
A [[4th century BCE]] marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner. It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. This statue is in the British Museum, inventory number 816. Her attendant and animal representation is of a bitch, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Sometimes dogs themselves were sacrificed to her (a good indication of her non-Hellenic origin, as dogs along with donkeys, very rarely played this role in genuine Greek ritual).
==Mythology==
Despite popular belief, Hecate was not originally a Greek goddess. She is unknown to [[Homer]] and in fact the earliest written references to her are in [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]''. The place of origin of her cult is uncertain, but it is thought <ref name="Burkert"/> that she had popular cult followings in [[Thrace]]. Her most important sanctuary was [[Lagina]], a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by [[eunuch]]s <ref name="Burkert"/>. Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally [[Macedon]]ian [[colonies in antiquity|colony]] of [[Stratonikea]] <ref> Strabo, ''Geography'' xiv.2.25</ref>. In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-[[Hermes]], namely a governess of [[liminal]] points and the wilderness, bearing little resemblance to the night-walking crone. Additionally, this led to her role of aiding women in childbirth and the raising of young men.
[[Image:Hécate - Mallarmé.png|thumb|left|Hecate, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of the crossroads; drawing by [[Stephane Mallarmé]] in ''Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée'' in [[Paris]], 1880.]]
There was a fane sacred to Hecate as well in the precincts of the [[Temple of Artemis at Ephesus]], where the eunuch priests, ''megabyzi'', officiated <ref> Strabo, ''Geography'', xiv.1.23 </ref>. Hesiod records that she was among the offspring of [[Gaia]] and [[Uranus]], the Earth and Sky. In ''Theogony'' he ascribed to Hecate such wide-ranging and fundamental powers, that it is hard to resist seeing such a deity as a figuration of the Great Goddess, though as a good Olympian [[Hesiod]] ascribes her powers as the "gift" of [[Zeus]]:
:''"Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honoured above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honour also in starry heaven, and is honoured exceedingly by the deathless gods.... The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea".''
Her gifts towards mankind are all-encompassing, Hesiod tells:
:''"Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom her will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and [[Poseidon|the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker]], easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less".''
Hecate was carefully attended:
:''"For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favour according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honour comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favourably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her".''
[[Hesiod]] emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of [[Asteria]], a star-goddess who was the sister of [[Leto]], the mother of [[Artemis]] and [[Apollo]]. Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. Hecate was a reappearance of Phoebe, a moon goddess herself, who appeared in the dark of the moon.
His inclusion and praise of Hecate in ''[[Theogony]]'' is troublesome for scholars in that being at the time a relatively minor and foreign goddess, he seems fulsomely to praise her attributes and responsibilities in the ancient cosmos. It is theorized <ref name="Restless_Dead">Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''. ISBN 0520217071</ref> that [[Hesiod’s]] original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was his own way to boost the home-goddess for unfamiliar hearers.
As her cult spread into areas of Greece it presented a conflict, as Hecate’s role was already filled by other more prominent gods in the Greek pantheon, above all by [[Artemis]], and by more archaic figures, such as [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]].
There are two versions of Hecate that emerge in Greek myth. The lesser role integrates Hecate while not diminishing Artemis. In this version <ref name="Restless_Dead"/>Hecate is a mortal priestess who is commonly associated with [[Iphigeneia]] and scorns and insults Artemis, eventually leading to her suicide. Artemis then adorns the dead body with jewelry and whispers for her spirit to rise and become her Hecate, and act similar to Nemesis as an avenging spirit, but solely for injured women. Such myths where a home god sponsors or ‘creates’ a foreign god were widespread in ancient cultures as a way of integrating foreign cults. Additionally, as Hecate’s cult grew, her figure was added to the myth of the birth of Zeus <ref name="Restless_Dead"/> |
det keyboard '''DONE'''<br>
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Standard d'Echange et de Transfert '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
standard for robot exclusion '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Standard for the exchange of product model data '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Standard Generalised Markup Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Standard Generalized Markup Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
standard input/output<br>
Standard Instrument Control Library '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
standard interpretation '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
standard I/O<br>
Standard Lisp '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Standard ML<br>
Standard ML of New Jersey<br>
standard semantics '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory '''DONE''' - duplicate info<br>
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language '''DONE'''<br>
Stanford Research Institute '''DONE''' - duplicate info<br>
Stanford University '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Staple '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STAR 0 '''N |
break them down. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) prevent the reuptake of various [[neurotransmitters]], including [[serotonin]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[dopamine]]. Although these drugs are clearly effective in treating depression, the current theory still leaves unanswered questions. For example, concentrations in the [[blood]] build to therapeutic levels in only a few days and begin affecting neurotransmitter activity immediately. Changes in mood, however, often take four weeks or more to appear. One explanation holds that the "down-regulation" of neurotransmitter [[Transmembrane receptor|receptors]]&mdash;an apparent consequence of excess signaling and a process that takes several weeks&mdash;is actually the mechanism responsible for the alleviation of depressive symptoms. Another theory, based on recent research published by the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States]], suggests that antidepressants may derive their effects by promoting [[neurogenesis]] in the [[hippocampus]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11124987&query_hl=4][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11137860&query_hl=2]. Recent research suggests that antidepressants act on transcription factors termed "clock genes" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15994025&query_hl=24], which also are involved in actions of drugs of abuse and possibly in obesity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16094306&query_hl=27][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16288309&query_hl=24].
==Treatment strategies==
On efficacy measures, a successful antidepressant trial involves just 50 % or more of the test subjects on the drug responding to the medication. “Response” signifies a mere 50 % or greater reduction in depression symptoms as opposed to “remission,” which indicates a virtual elimination of depression symptoms. A number of different treatment strategies, however, may produce better results:
===Switching===
The [[American Psychiatric Association]] 2000 Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder advises that where no response is achieved following six to eight weeks of treatment with an antidepressant to switch to an antidepressant in the same class, then to a different class of antidepressant.
A series of open-label studies by Michael Thase MD of the University of Pittsburgh found that more than half the patients who failed on their initial antidepressant achieved a response on their second antidepressant from the same class. (Thase ME et al. "Fluoxetine treatment of patients with major depressive disorder who failed initial treatment with sertraline." J Clin Psychiatry. 1997 Jan;58(1):16-21.)
A 2002 double-blind study by the same author found a positive benefit among treatment-resistant patients switching either from an SSRI to a tricyclic or from a tricyclic to an SSRI. (Thase ME et al. "Double-blind switch study of imipramine or sertraline treatment of antidepressant-resistant chronic depression." Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 Mar;59(3):233-9.)
===Augmentation and combination===
For a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association advises augmenting an antidepressant with a different pharmaceutical agent. These agents may include [[lithium]], thyroid supplementation, atypical [[antipsychotics]], and dopamine agonists, among others. [[Symbyax]] a combination olanzapine-fluoxetine (Zyprexa-Prozac) pill is approved in the US for treating bipolar depression, and is being investigated for other depression indications. In general, however, there are no major augmentation studies to guide psychiatrists.
Combination strategy involves using two or more antidepressants from different classes to target more than one neurotransmitter in order to hopefully achieve a more beneficial result. Again, this is a little-studied area of antidepressant treatment. (See [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-180.htm article].)
===Combining with psychotherapy===
A 2000 study found that those on nefazadone (Serzone) plus a form of short-term psychotherapy called Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP) fared significantly better (85 % response, 42 % remission) than those on Serzone alone (55 % response, 22 % remission) or CBASP alone (52 % response, 24 % remission). (Keller MB et al. "A comparison of nefazadone, the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy, and their combination for the treatment of chronic depression." N Engl J Med. 2000 May 18;342(20):1462-70.)
===Preventing relapse===
A 2003 meta-analysis of 31 placebo-controlled antidepressant trials found that continuing with antidepressants reduced the risk of relapse by 70 %. (Geddes JR et al. "Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review." Lancet. 2003 Feb 22;361(9358):653-61.)
The American Psychiatric Association advises four to five months of continuation treatment on an antidepressant following the resolution of symptoms. For patients with a history of depressive episodes, the British Association for Psychopharmacology's 2000 Evidence Based Guidelines for Treating Depressive Disorders with Antidepressants advises remaining on an antidepressant for at least six months and as long as five years or indefinitely.
==Tolerance and dependence==
Antidepressants are not thought to produce [[drug tolerance|tolerance]], although sudden [[withdrawal]] may produce adverse effects. Antidepressants create little if any immediate change in mood and require between several days and several weeks to take effect.
Antidepressants do not seem to have all of the same [[addiction|addictive]] qualities as other substances such as nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, or other [[stimulant]]s. (There is, however, controversy on the definition of ''addiction''.) Some argue that antidepressants do not meet the general requirements for the commonly-established view. While some antidepressants may cause dependence and withdrawal they do not seem to cause uncontrollable urges to increase the dose due to euphoria or pleasure. For example, if an [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]] medication is suddenly discontinued, it may produce both [[withdrawal|somatic]] and [[addiction|psychological withdrawal]] symptoms, a phenomenon known as "SSRI discontinuation syndrome" (Tamam & Ozpoyraz, 2002). When the decision is made to stop taking antidepressants it is common practice to &#8220;wean&#8221; off of them by slowly decreasing the dose over a period of several weeks.
It is generally not a good idea to take antidepressants without a prescription. The selection of an antidepressant and dosage suitable for a certain case and a certain person is a lengthy and complicated process, requiring the knowledge of a professional. Certain antidepressants can initially make depression worse, can induce [[anxiety]], or can make a patient aggressive, dysphoric or acutely [[suicidal]]. In certain cases, an antidepressant can induce a switch from depression to [[mania]] or [[hypomania]], can accelerate and shorten a manic cycle (i.e. promote a rapid-cycling pattern), or can induce the development of [[psychosis]] (or just the re-activation of latent psychosis) in a patient with depression who wasn't psychotic before the antidepressant.
==Side effects==
Antidepressants can often cause [[adverse drug reaction|side effect]]s, and an inability to tolerate these is the most common cause of discontinuing the medication.
===General===
Although recent drugs may have fewer side effects, patients sometimes report severe side effects associated with their discontinuation, particularly with [[paroxetine]]. Additionally, a certain percentage of patients do not respond to antidepressant drugs. Another advantage of some newer antidepressants is they can show effects within as few as five days, whereas most take four to six weeks to show a change in mood. However, some studies show that these medications might be even more likely to result in moderate to severe sexual dysfunction. However, there are medications in trials that appear to show an improved profile in regard to sexual dysfunction and other key side effects.
MAO inhibitors can produce a lethal hypertensive reaction if taken with foods that contain high levels of [[tyramine]], such as cheese and wine. Likewise, lethal reactions to both prescription and over the counter medications have occurred. Any patient currently undergoing therapy with an MAO inhibiting medication should be monitored closely by the prescribing physician and always consulted before taking an over the counter or prescribed medication. Such patients should also inform emergency room personnel and information should be kept with one's identification indicating the fact that the holder is on MAO inhibiting medications. Some doctors even suggest the use of a medical alert ID bracelet.
Antidepressants often make the [[mania|manic]] component of [[bipolar disorder]] worse, and should be used with great care in the treatment of that disorder, usually in conjunction with [[mood stabilisers]]. Their use should be monitored by a psychiatrist, but in countries such as [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[New Zealand]], and the United States, primary care physicians are able to prescribe antidepressants without consulting a psychiatrist.
In particular, it has been noted that the most dangerous period for [[suicide]] in a patient with depression is immediately after treatment has commenced, as antidepressants may reduce the symptoms of depression such as [[psych |
o Eckmann" was in fact a much bigger fish. Early in 1946, he escaped from US custody and hid in various parts of Germany for a few years. In 1948 he obtained a landing permit for [[Argentina]], but did not seek to use it immediately. At the beginning of 1950, Eichmann went to [[Italy]], where he posed as a refugee named Ricardo Klement. With the help of a Franciscan monk who had connections with archbishop [[Alois Hudal]], Eichmann obtained an [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] humanitarian passport and an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] visa. He arrived by ship in Argentina on [[July 14]], [[1950]]. For the next ten years, he worked in several odd jobs in the [[Buenos Aires]] area (from factory foreman, to junior water engineer and professional rabbit farmer). Eichmann also brought his family to Argentina. Argentina at the time was a haven for many Nazis.
==Capture==
[[Image:Adold Eichmann.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Adolf Eichmann during his 1961 trial in Jerusalem.]]
Throughout the 1950s many Jews and other victims of the Holocaust dedicated themselves to finding Eichmann and other Nazi [[war crimes|war criminals]]. Among them was [[Nazi hunter]] [[Simon Wiesenthal]]. In 1954, Wiesenthal's suspicions that Eichmann was in Argentina were sparked upon receiving a postcard from an associate who had moved to [[Buenos Aires]]. "I saw that dirty pig Eichmann," the letter read in part, "He lives near Buenos Aires and works for a water company". With this (and other) information collected by Wiesenthal, the [[Israel]]is had solid leads regarding Eichmann's whereabouts. [[Isser Harel]], the then-head of [[Mossad]] (Israeli intelligence agency), later claimed in an unpublished manuscript that Wiesenthal "'had no role whatsoever' in Eichmann's apprehension but in fact had endangered the entire Eichmann operation and aborted the planned capture of Auschwitz doctor [[Josef Mengele]]." (Schachter, Jonathan "Isser Harel Takes On Nazi-Hunter. Wiesenthal 'Had No Role' In Eichmann Kidnapping." The Jerusalem Post [[7 May]] [[1991]])
Also instrumental in exposing Eichmann's identity was [[Lothar Hermann]], a worker of Jewish descent who fled to Argentina from Germany following his incarceration in the [[Dachau concentration camp]], where Eichmann had served as an administrator. By the 1950s, Hermann had settled into life in Buenos Aires with his family; daughter Sylvia became acquainted with the Eichmann family and romantically involved with Klaus, the oldest Eichmann son. Due to Klaus's boastful remarks about his father's life as a Nazi and direct responsibility for the [[Holocaust]], Hermann knew he had struck gold in 1957 after reading a newspaper report about German war criminals - of which Eichmann was one. Soon after, he sent Sylvia to the Eichmanns' home on a fact-finding mission. She was met at the door by Eichmann himself, and after unsuccessfully asking for Klaus, she inquired as to whether she was speaking to his father. Eichmann confirmed this fact. Excited, Hermann soon began a correspondence with [[Fritz Bauer]], chief [[prosecutor]] for the [[West Germany|West German]] state of [[Hesse]], and provided details about Eichmann's person and life. Bauer knew that Germany, served by former employees of the Nazi regime, would do little to serve justice to Eichmann. He contacted Israeli officials, who worked closely with Hermann over the next several years to learn about Eichmann and to formulate a plan to capture him.
In 1960, the [[Mossad]] discovered that Eichmann was in [[Argentina]] and began an effort to locate his exact whereabouts when, through relentless surveillance, it was confirmed that Ricardo Klement was, in fact, Adolf Eichmann. The Israeli government then approved an operation to capture Eichmann and bring him to [[Jerusalem]] for trial as a war criminal. He was captured by a team of Mossad agents on [[May 11]], [[1960]], as part of a [[covert operation]]. He was flown aboard an [[El Al]] airliner from Argentina to [[Israel]] on [[May 21]], [[1960]].
For some time the Israeli government denied involvement in Eichmann's capture, claiming that he had been taken by Jewish volunteers. Eventually, however, the pretense was dropped, and then prime minister [[David Ben Gurion]] announced Eichmann's capture to the [[Knesset]] (Israel's national legislature) on [[May 23]] [[1960]], receiving a standing ovation in return. [[Isser Harel]], head of the Mossad at the time of the operation, wrote a book about Eichmann's capture entitled ''The House on Garibaldi Street''; some years later a member of the capture team, [[Peter Malkin]], authored ''Eichmann in my Hands'', a book that contains fascinating insights into Eichmann's character and motivations, but whose veracity has been attacked.
==Trial==
[[Image:Eichmann_trial_1961_in_glass_box.jpg|right|thumb|Eichmann and a bulletproof glass booth during the open trial.]]
Eichmann's trial in front of an Israeli court in [[Jerusalem]] started on [[April 11]], [[1961]]. He was indicted on 15 criminal charges, including charges of [[crimes against humanity]], crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization. As in Israeli criminal procedure, his trial was presided over by three judges. [[Gideon Hausner]], the Israeli attorney general, personally acted as chief prosecutor.
The trial caused huge international controversy as well as an international sensation. The Israeli government allowed news programs all over the world to broadcast the trial live with few restrictions. [[Television]] viewers saw a nondescript man sitting in a [[bulletproof glass]] booth while witnesses, including many [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivors, testified against him and his role in transporting victims to the extermination camps. During the whole trial, Eichmann insisted that he was only "following orders" - the same defense used by the Nazi war criminals during the 1945-1946 [[Nuremberg Trials]]. He explicitly declared that he had abdicated his [[consciousness]] in order to follow the ''[[Führerprinzip]]''. This defense in turn promoted the [[Milgram experiment]].
After 14 weeks of testimony with more than 1,500 documents, 100 prosecution witnesses (90 of whom were Nazi concentration camp survivors) and dozens of defense depositions delivered by diplomatic couriers from 16 different countries, the Eichmann trial ended on [[August 14]], [[1961]] where the judges were then left to deliberate. On [[December 11]] the three judges announced their verdict where Eichmann was convicted on all counts. He was then sentenced to death on [[December 15]], [[1961]]. Eichmann appealed the verdict, mostly relying on legal arguments about Israel's jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which he was charged. He also claimed that he was protected by the principle of "Acts of State" and repeated his "superior orders" defence. On [[May 29]], [[1962]] Israel's Supreme Court, sitting as a Court of Criminal Appeal, rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court's judgment on all counts. On [[May 31]], Israeli president [[Itzhak Ben-Zvi]] turned down Eichmann's petition for mercy. Eichmann was [[hanging|hanged]] a few minutes after midnight on [[ June 1]], [[1962]], at [[Ramla]] prison, officially the only civil [[execution (legal)|execution]] ever carried out in [[Israel]]. Eichmann allegedly refused a last meal, preferring instead a bottle of [[Carmel]], a dry red Israeli wine of which he consumed about half of the bottle. He also refused to don the traditional black hood for his execution.
His last words were, reportedly, "Long live Germany. Long live Austria. Long live Argentina. These are the countries with which I have been most closely associated and I shall not forget them. I had to obey the rules of war and my flag. I am ready."{{fact}}
His body was cremated and ashes scattered at sea the very next morning, so that no nation would serve as Adolf Eichmann's final resting place.
==Eichmann analysis==
In the 40 years since Eichmann's death, historians have speculated on certain facts regarding his life. The most important question is how responsible Eichmann was for the implementation of [[the Holocaust]]. Most agree that Eichmann knew exactly what he was doing; however, some "Eichmann Defenders" (his son included) state that he was unfairly judged and that he was only doing his duty as a German soldier.
A third - and highly controversial - analysis came from political theorist [[Hannah Arendt]], a Jew who fled Germany before Hitler's rise, and who reported on Eichmann's trial for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine. In ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]'', a book formed by this reporting, Arendt concluded that, aside from a desire for improving his career, Eichmann showed no trace of [[anti-Semitism]] or [[psychological]] damage. She called him the embodiment of the "banality of [[evil]]," as he appeared at his trial to have an ordinary and common personality, displaying neither guilt nor hatred. She suggested that this most strikingly discredits the idea that the Nazi criminals were manifestly [[psychopath]]ic and different from ordinary people. (Many concluded from this and similar observations that even the most ordinary of people can commit horrendous crimes if placed in the right situation, and given the correct incentives, but Arendt disagreed with this interpretation.)
Eichmann's involvement with the SS Underground Group [[ODESSA]] is also a mystery, as there is evidence that Eichmann had contact with the group but did not actively participate in ODESSA activities. Rumours also abound as to whether or not Eichmann personally knew [[Josef Mengele]] and whether or not the two [[war crimes|war criminals]] ever worked together in South America. Mossad was convinced that Eichmann was a contact for Mengele and had planned to conduct a dual-capture operati |
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Famicom</title>
<id>11595</id>
<revision>
<id>21328302</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-19T00:18:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IMSoP</username>
<id>9876</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert - I've no idea what the current consensus is, but please don't make changes like this without discussion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nintendo Entertainment System]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Persian language</title>
<id>11600</id>
<revision>
<id>41711878</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:50:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>E2mb0t</username>
<id>331143</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: ar, bs, it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Persian
|nativename=فارسی ''Fârsi'', پارسی ''Pârsi''
|states=[[Iran]] ([[Persian Empire|Persia]]), [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and neighboring countries.
|region=[[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]]
|speakers=61 million native<br />110 million total
|rank=19th (native speakers)
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
|fam4=[[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]
|fam5=[[Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern Iranian]]
|nation=[[Iran]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]]
|agency=[[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]]<br />[[Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan]]
|iso1=fa|iso2b=per|iso2t=fas
|lc1=prs|ld1=Eastern Persian
|lc2=pes|ld2=Western Persian
|lc3=tgk|ld3=Tajik|ll3=Tajik language
|lc4=aiq|ld4=Aimaq|ll4=Aimaq language
|lc5=bhh|ld5=Bukharic|ll5=Bukharic language
|lc6=deh|ld6=Dehwari|ll6=Dehwari language
|lc7=drw|ld7=Darwazi|ll7=Darwazi language
|lc8=haz|ld8=Hazaragi|ll8=Hazaragi language
|lc9=jpr|ld9=Dzhidi|ll9=Dzhidi language
|lc10=phv|ld10=Pahlavani|ll10=Pahlavani language}}
'''Persian''' (known variously as: فارسی '''Fârsi''' or پارسی ''Pârsi'', local name in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]], ''[[Tajik language|Tajik]]'', a [[Central Asia]]n dialect, or ''[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]'', another local name in [[Tajikistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]) is a language spoken in [[Iran]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Bahrain]], [[Iraq]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]], Southern [[Russia]], neighboring countries, and elsewhere. Prior to British colonization, Persian was also widely used as a second language in the [[Indian subcontinent]]; it took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts in the subcontinent throughout the Middle Ages and became the official court language under the [[Mughal]] emperors. Evidence of its former rank in the region can still be seen by the extent of its influence on [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]], as well as the popularity that [[Persian literature]] still enjoys in the region. Persian and its dialects have official-language status in the countries of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. According to [[CIA World Factbook]], there are 61 million native speakers of Persian language in [[Iran]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html], [[Afghanistan]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html], [[Tajikistan]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ti.html] and [[Uzbekistan]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uz.html]. It belongs to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, and is of the [[Subject Object Verb]] type.
==History==
Persian is a member of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages, and within that family it belongs to the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] branch. Scholars believe the [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] sub-branch consists of the following chronological linguistic path: Old Iranian ([[Avestan language|Avestan]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]]) → Middle Iranian (Pahlavi [[Middle Persian]] and several other languages) → Modern Iranian (Persian, [[Pashto]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], and several other languages), c. 900 to present.
[[Old Persian]], the main language of the [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions, should not be confused with the non-Indo-European [[Elamite language]] (see [[Behistun inscription]]). Over this period, the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the language was simplified from the complex [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] and [[declension]] system of Old Persian to the almost completely regularized morphology and rigid [[syntax]] of Modern Persian, in a manner often described as paralleling the development of [[English language|English]]. Additionally, many words were introduced from neighboring languages, including [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] in earlier times, and later [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and to a lesser extent [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. In more recent times, some Western European words have entered the language (notably from [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]]).
The language itself has greatly developed during the centuries. Due to technological developments, new words and idioms are created and enter into Persian like any other language. In [[Tehran]] the [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] is a center that evaluates the new words in order to initiate and advise their Persian equivalents. In Afghanistan, the [[Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan]] does the same for Afghan Persian (among other languages).
==Nomenclature==
{{mergefrom|The announcement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature}}
''Persian'', the more widely used name of the language in [[English language|English]], is an Anglicized form derived from [[Latin]] *''Persianus'' < Latin ''Persia'' < [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''Persis'', a Hellenized form of Old Persian ''Parsa''. ''Farsi'' is the Arabicized form of Parsi, due to a lack of the /p/ phoneme in Standard Arabic. Native Persian speakers typically call it “Fârsi” in modern usage. [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], the [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]], and many other sources call the language Persian. The government of Afghanistan uses both “Dari” and “Persian” in English communications.
The Academy of Persian Language and Literature as well as many lexicographers have announced that “Farsi” is not the appropriate term to use for the Persian language in English. In the [[ISO 639-1]], the local names form the basis for the language codes and for this reason “fa” is the designation for the Persian language in that system.
==Dialects and close languages==
[[Image:Iranische_Sprachen.jpg|thumb|The region where Persian and other Iranian languages are spoken]]
Communication is generally mutually intelligible between Iranians, Tajiks, and Persian-speaking Afghans; however, by popular definition:
*[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] is the local name for the eastern dialect of Persian, one of the two official languages of [[Afghanistan]], including [[Hazaragi]] — spoken by the [[Hazara]] people of central Afghanistan.
*[[Tajik language|Tajik]] could also be considered an eastern dialect of Persian, but, contrary to Iranian and Afghan Persian, it is written in the [[Cyrillic script]].
[[Ethnologue]] offers another classification for dialects of Persian language. According to this source, dialects of this language include the following:[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90035]
*'''Western Farsi''' (in Iran)
*'''Eastern Farsi''' (in Afghanistan)
*[[Tajiki]] (in Tajikistan)
*[[Hazaragi]] (in Afghanistan)
*[[Aimaq]] (in Afghanistan)
*Bukharic (in Israel, Uzbekistan)
*Dehwari (in Pakistan)
*Darwazi (in Afghanistan)
*[[Dzhidi]] (in Israel)
*Pahlavani (in Afghanistan)
The following are some of the closely related languages of various Iranian peoples within modern Iran proper:
* [[Mazandarani]], spoken in northern Iran mainly in the province of [[Mazandaran]].
* [[Gileki language|Gileki]] (or ''Gilaki''), spoken in the province of [[Guilan]].
* [[Talysh]] (or ''Talishi''), spoken in northern Iran and southern parts of the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]].
* [[Luri language|Luri]] (or ''Lori''), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian province of [[Lorestan]] and parts of [[Khuzestan]].
* [[Tat language|Tat]] (also ''Tati'' or ''Eshtehardi''), spoken in parts of the Iranian provinces of [[East Azarbaijan]], [[Zanjan Province|Zanjan]] and [[Qazvin Province|Qazvin]].
* [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari]] or [[Gabri]], spoken originally in [[Yazd]] and [[Kerman]] by the Zoroastrians of Iran. Also called [[Yazdi]] by some.
==Orthography==
[[Image:Dehkhoda note.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dehkhoda]]'s personal handwriting; a typical [[cursive]] Persian script.]]
The vast majority of modern Persian text is written in a form of the [[Arabic alphabet]]. In recent years the [[Latin alphabet]] has been used by some for technological or internationalization reasons. [[Tajik_language|Tajik]], which is considered by many linguists to be a Persian dialect influenced by [[Russian_language|Russian]], is written with the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] in [[Tajikistan]] (but not in Afghanistan).
===Arabic Alphabet===
{{main|Persian alphabet}}
{{mergeto|Persian alphabet}}
Modern Persian is normally written using a modified variant of the [[Arabic alphabet]].
====Script adoption====
After the conversion of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] to [[Islam]] (see [[Islamic conquest of Iran]]), it took approximately one hundred fifty years before Persians adopted the Arabic alphabet as a replacement for the older alphabet. Previously, two different alphabets were used for the Persian language (''[[Middle Persian]]'', or ''Pahlavi'', at that time): one was also called ''[[Pahlavi]]'' and was a modified version of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], and the other w |
arty]] is the author of [[A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem]].
* The binomial theorem is mentioned in the [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] song ''[[Major General's Song | I am the Very Model of a Modern Major General]]''.
* The binomial theorem appears in at least three different works by [[Monty Python]] - ''Coal Mine'', ''Happy Valley'', and ''The Meaning of Life''.
== See also ==
* [[multinomial theorem]]
* [[Pascal's triangle]]
{{planetmath|id=338|title=inductive proof of binomial theorem}}
[[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[bn:দ্বিপদী উপপাদ্য]]
[[de:Binomischer Lehrsatz]]
[[es:Teorema del binomio]]
[[fr:Formule du binôme de Newton]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1489;&#1497;&#1504;&#1493;&#1501; &#1513;&#1500; &#1504;&#1497;&#1493;&#1496;&#1493;&#1503;]]
[[it:Teorema binomiale]]
[[ko:&#51060;&#54637;&#51221;&#47532;]]
[[nl:Binomium van Newton]]
[[ja:&#20108;&#38917;&#23450;&#29702;]]
[[pt:Binómio de Newton]]
[[ru:&#1041;&#1080;&#1085;&#1086;&#1084; &#1053;&#1100;&#1102;&#1090;&#1086;&#1085;&#1072;]]
[[sv:Binomialsatsen]]
[[zh:&#20108;&#39033;&#24335;&#23450;&#29702;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bitmap font</title>
<id>4678</id>
<revision>
<id>40587040</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:23:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.224.247.145</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed internal link to [[Glyph Bitmap Distribution Font]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Original Mac fonts.png|thumb|An assortment of bitmap fonts from the first version of the [[Mac OS|Macintosh operating system]].]]
A '''bitmap [[Typeface|font]]''' is one that stores each [[glyph]] as an array of [[pixels]] (that is, a [[bitmap]]). It is less commonly known as a '''raster font'''.
== Scaling ==
Bitmap fonts look best at their native [[pixel]] size. At non-native sizes, many text rendering systems perform [[nearest-neighbor resampling]], introducing ugly jagged edges. More advanced systems perform [[anti-aliasing]] on bitmap fonts whose size does not match the size that the application requests. This technique works well for making the font smaller but not as well for increasing the size, as it tends to blur the edges.
A "trace" program can follow the outline of a high-resolution bitmap font and create an initial outline that a font designer uses to create an [[outline font]] useful in systems such as [[PostScript]] or [[TrueType]]. Outline fonts scale easily without jagged edges or blurriness.
==Bitmap font formats==
*[[Portable Compiled Font]] (PCF)
*[[Glyph Bitmap Distribution Format]] (BDF)
*[[Server Normal Format]] (SNF)
*[[DECWindows Font]] (DWF)
*Sun X11/NeWS format (BF)
*Microsoft Windows bitmapped font (FON)
== Uses outside computing ==
Bitmap fonts may be used in [[cross-stitch]].
[[Category:Digital typography]]
[[fr:Police matricielle]]
[[nl:Rasterlettertype]]
[[zh:&#28857;&#38453;&#23383;&#20307;]]
{{typ-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bitmap</title>
<id>4679</id>
<revision>
<id>15902939</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-05T19:40:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Keep on consolidating =&gt; Raster graphics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Raster graphics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balboa</title>
<id>4680</id>
<revision>
<id>42037550</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tlevine</username>
<id>355100</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Wording of a Balboa (dance)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word "'''balboa'''", when used alone, has several possible meanings in the [[English language]]:
* [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], Spanish explorer, for whom are named:
** [[Balboa (currency)]], official currency of [[Panama]]
** [[Balboa, Panama|Balboa]], a port city in Panama
** [[Balboa, California]], a subsection of [[Newport Beach, California]], and also called the [[Balboa Peninsula]].
***(For which the [[Balboa (dance)]] step is later named)
** [[Balboa Island, Newport Beach, California|Balboa Island]].
** [[Balboa Park]], an area of [[San Diego, California]]
* '''Balboa''' is a municipality (pop. 440) in the province of [[León (province)|León]], [[Castile-Leon]], [[Spain]].
* The plant genus '''''Balboa''''' of the [[Clusiaceae]], synonym of ''[[Chrysochlamys]]''.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Balboa]]
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[[fr:Balboa]]
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[[pl:Balboa (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Balboa]]
[[sv:Balboa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boxing Day</title>
<id>4681</id>
<revision>
<id>39138030</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T23:23:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Boxing Day''' is a [[public holiday]] observed in many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries on [[26 December]]. In many [[Europe]]an countries it is also a holiday, called '''[[St. Stephen's Day]]''' or the '''Second Day of [[Christmas]]'''. Depending on its origin, it may have traditionally been strictly defined as the first weekday after Christmas {{ref|mw}}. However, in recent years Boxing Day has been almost universally accepted as [[26 December]] {{ref|smh}}, although its associated public holiday may fall on a different day.
Boxing Day is often celebrated by giving gifts and donations to the poor and needy.
In some Commonwealth countries, fixed-date holidays falling on Saturday or Sunday are often observed on the next weekday, so if Boxing Day falls on a Saturday then Monday [[28 December]] is a public holiday; while, if [[Christmas Day]] is a Saturday then both Monday [[27 December]] and Tuesday [[28 December]] will be public holidays. In the [http://www.dti.gov.uk/er/bankhol.htm government holiday listings] of the [[United Kingdom]] for 2004, the [[bank holiday]] in lieu of Boxing Day was observed on Monday [[27 December]], ''before'' the holiday in lieu of Christmas Day on Tuesday [[28 December]].
==Origins==
There is great dispute over the true origins of Boxing Day. The more common stories include:
*Centuries ago, merchants would present their servants food and fruits as a form of [[Yuletide]] tip. Naturally, the gifts of food and fruit were packed in boxes, hence the term "Boxing Day".
*In feudal times, Christmas was a reason for a gathering of extended families. All the [[serf]]s would gather their families in the manor of their lord, which made it easier for the lord of the estate to hand out annual stipends to the serfs. After all the Christmas parties on [[December 25]], the lord of the estate would give practical goods such as cloth, grains, and tools to the serfs who lived on his land. Each family would get a box full of such goods the day after Christmas. Under this explanation, there was nothing voluntary about this transaction; the lord of the manor was obliged to supply these goods. Because of the boxes being given out, the day was called Boxing Day.
*In Britain many years ago, it was common practice for the servants to carry boxes to their employers when they arrived for their day's work on the day after Christmas ([[December 26]]). Their employers would then put coins in the boxes as special end-of-year gifts. This can be compared with the modern day concept of Christmas bonuses. The servants carried boxes for the coins, hence the name Boxing Day.
*In churches, it was traditional to open the church's donation box on Christmas day, and the money in the donation box was to be distributed to the poorer or lower class citizens on the next day. In this case, the "box" in "Boxing Day" comes from that one gigantic lockbox in which the donations were left.
*In Britain because many servants had to work for their employers on Christmas day they would instead open their presents (i.e., boxes) the next day, which therefore became known as Boxing Day.
==Commonwealth observance==
Boxing Day in the UK is traditionally a day for sporting activity, originally [[fox hunting]], but in modern times [[football (soccer)|football]] and horseracing.
In [[Canada]], and indeed any other country that celebrates it, Boxing Day is also observed as a public holiday, and is a day when stores sell their excess Christmas inventory at significantly reduced prices. Boxing Day has become so important for retailers that they often extend it into a "Boxing Week". This occurs similarly in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].
In Australia, the [[cricket]] [[Test cricket|Test match]] starting on [[December 26]] is called the [[Boxing Day Test|Boxing Day Test Match]], and is played at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] before the largest crowd of the summer. Similarly in [[New Zealand]] a Boxing Day Test Match is played at [[Basin Reserve]] in Wellington. In [[Sydney]], the annual [[Sydney-Hobart Yacht Race]], one of the biggest and most prestigious ocean racing events in the world, begins on this day, as the yachts depart [[Sydney Harbour]] before many thousands of spectators around the harbour and in spectator boats.
In [[South Africa]], the 26th is also observed as a public holiday. Although officially the day is known as the Day of Goodwill, it is also often referred to as Boxing Day by local English speakers. It is common for a cricket test match, played against a visiting international team, to start on this day.
[[India]] and [[Maldives]] are commonwealth counties, bu |
companies advertising products containing Intel chips are required to include the jingle in their film and television advertisements in order to receive the reimbursement.
In December 2005, Intel ended the "Intel Inside" campaign, and subsequently began a new campaign on January 1, 2006 based on a new logo and the slogan, "Leap ahead". The new logo is clearly inspired by the "Intel Inside" logo.
In mid January 2006, Intel announced that they were dropping the long running Pentium name from its processors. They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors first, when the new [[Yonah]] chips, branded [[Core Solo]] and [[Core Duo]], were released. The desktop processors will quietly change from the Pentium brand when the Core line of processors are available. The Pentium name was first used to refer to the 586 Intel processors (Pent refers to the 5 in 586).
Though some in the Macintosh community were concerned that Intel's branding, including the [[decal]]s and [[jingle]], would be used with the new Intel-based Macintoshes (see [[Apple Intel transition]]), this has not occured.
Intel is a major sponsor of the [[BMW Sauber]] [[Formula 1]] racing team.
<br clear=left>
==See also==
* [[List of Intel microprocessors]]
* [[List of Intel chipsets]]
*[[Comparison of NVIDIA Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of Intel Central Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of AMD Central Processing Units]]
==External links==
*[http://www.intel.com/ Intel website]
*[http://www.intel.com/intel/finance/ Intel Investor Relations site]
*[http://www.intel.com/intel/intelis/museum/ Intel Museum]
*[http://www.inteltechnology.net/ Intel Technology]
*[http://www.sciserv.org/sts/ Intel Science Talent Search]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/13/13787.html Yahoo! - Intel Corporation Company Profile]
[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Companies based in Oregon]]
[[Category:Companies listed on NASDAQ]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Dow Jones Industrial Average]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies of the United States]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[af:Intel]]
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[[fr:Intel Corporation]]
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[[zh:英特尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>İsmet İnönü</title>
<id>14618</id>
<revision>
<id>42049766</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:20:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>indexing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Mustafa İsmet İnönü''' ([[September 24]] [[1884]] - [[December 25]], [[1973]]) was a [[Turkey|Turkish ]] soldier, statesman and the second [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President]] of [[Turkey]].
He was born in [[İzmir]] in [[1884]]. His father was Hacı Reşid Bey, a member of the Ottoman bureaucracy, an examining magistrate born in [[Malatya]], and his mother was Cevriye Hanım, daughter of [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878|Russo-Turkish War]] refugees from [[Bulgaria]]. Due to his father's assignments, the family moved from one city to another. Thus, İsmet İnönü did his primary studies in [[Sivas]].
İnönü graduated from the [[Military Academy]] in [[1903]] and received his first military assignment in the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] army. He joined the Committee of Union and Progress. He won his first military victories by suppressing two major revolts against the struggling [[Ottoman Empire]], first in [[Rumelia]] and second in [[Yemen]] whose leader was [[Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din]]. He was also the military officer on the preparation of the new frontier between Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria after [[Balkan Wars]]. During [[World War I]], he fought on the eastern front in [[Syria]], then he was appointed as the commander of the western fronts. During his assignment in the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] he worked with [[Atatürk]]. After [[World War I]] he passed the [[Anatolia]] to join the Turkish nationalist movement. After the default of [[Ali Fuat Cebesoy]] to organize the local Turkish rebellious troops, he became the general commander of the western Turkish army and remained in this position during [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) |War of Independence]]. He was promoted to brigadier general after the "[[Battle of Inonu|Battles of İnönü]]", in which he successfully defended the central [[Anatolia]]n territory against the [[Greece|Greek]] Army. During [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) |War of Independence]] he was also member of the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]].
He made a career change by being chosen as the chief of the Turkish team in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. İnönü had been [[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister]] of Turkey for several terms, maintaining the system Atatürk had put in place. He acted after every crisis (such as the civil disorder of [[Sheikh Said]] or attempted assassination of [[Atatürk]] in Izmir) to restore peace in the country. He managed the successful economic launch, especially after the 1929 economic crisis, by planning with the help of the [[Soviet Union]]. After the death of [[Atatürk]], he was the only candidate to succeed him, and he was elected as the second President of the Republic of [[Turkey]]. His biggest political achievement was keeping Turkey out of [[World War II]]. In [[1950]] his party lost the [[1950 Turkish election|general election]] and presided over the peaceful transfer of power to the [[Democratic Party (Turkey)|Democratic Party]]. İnönü served for ten years as [[leader of the opposition]] before returning to power after the [[Turkish coup of 1960|coup of 1960]].
[[Image:Inonutomb.jpg|left|thumb|250px|İnönü's tomb]]
Ismet Inönü was by the standards of his time a highly educated man, speaking [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]].
İnönü died in [[1973]]. He was interred opposite Atatürk's mausoleum at [[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]].
His son, [[Erdal Inonu|Erdal İnönü]], is a former leader of the [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party]] and deputy prime minister of Turkey.
==Famous quotes by İsmet İnönü==
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] |
title=[[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of Turkey]] |
years=1938&ndash;1950 |
after=[[Celal Bayar]]
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Rauf Orbay]]<br>[[Ali Fethi Okyar]]<br>[[Emin Fahrettin Özdilek]] |
title=[[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister of Turkey]] |
years=1923&ndash;1924<br>1925&ndash;1937<br>1961&ndash;1965 |
after=[[Ali Fethi Okyar]]<br>[[Celal Bayar]]<br>[[Suad Hayri Ürgüplü]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1884 births|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:1973 deaths|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Presidents of Turkey|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Turkey|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Turkish military people|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Turkish politicians|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Turkish people|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[de:İsmet İnönü]]
[[es:Ismet Inönü]]
[[eo:İsmet İNÖNÜ]]
[[fr:İsmet İnönü]]
[[nl:Ismet Inönü]]
[[ja:イスメト・イノニュ]]
[[no:Ismet Inönü]]
[[sl:Mustafa Ismet Inöni]]
[[sr:Мустафа Исмет Инени]]
[[tr:İsmet İnönü]]
[[zh:伊斯麦特·伊诺努]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of input devices</title>
<id>14621</id>
<revision>
<id>25931050</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-19T17:06:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.186.238.156</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Input device]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Internet Movie Database</title>
<id>14622</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42155907</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:42:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ummit</username>
<id>328950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* User voting */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IMDb.Logo.png|right|IMDb's logo]]
'''The Internet Movie Database''' ('''IMDb''') [http://www.imdb.com/] is an [[online]] [[database]] of information about [[actor]]s, [[film|movies]], [[Television program|television shows]], television stars and [[video games]]. Owned by [[Amazon.com]] since [[1998]], the IMDb celebrated its fifteenth anniversary on [[October 17]], [[2005]].
==Overview==
The IMDb website consists of the largest known single accumulation of data on individual films, television programs, direct-to-video product and videogames reaching back to their respective beginnings, and worldwide in scope. Wherever possible, the information goes beyond simple screen or press credits to include uncredited personnel and companies involved, either artistically or technically, in the production and distribution of product covered, thus aiming at completeness of detail. Furthermore, IMDb tracks projects in production, and even major, announced projects still in the developmental stage. Simultaneously, a collateral database of all persons identified in the product database exists, including biographical details and information about other aspects of their professional lives not covered by individual entries in the database (theatrical appearances, commercial advertising appearances, etc.). Inf |
ood, since sometimes hematite can be red, as in [[Rouge]], a powderized form of hematite. It shares this root with the word [[hemoglobin]]. Hemoglobin is the oxygen-transporting molecule in [[red blood cell]]s, the iron of which causes blood to be red. The color of hematite lends it well in use as a pigment.
[[Image:Rainbow_hematite_MG.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Rainbow Hematite from Brazil]]
Especially nice specimens of hematite come from [[England]], [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]], [[Australia]] and the [[Lake Superior]] region of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].
Hematite is an [[antiferromagnetic]] material below the Morin transition at 260K, and a canted antiferromagnet or weakly [[ferromagnetic]] above the Morin transition.
[http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/MODULES/MAG/NOTES/typesmag.html].
==Hematite on Mars==
Hematite can be formed by aqueous processes, [[weathering]] processes, or without water. In 2004, NASA's [[Mars Exploration Rover Mission|Mars rover]] ''[[MER-B|Opportunity]]'' discovered small spheres believed to be made partly or mostly of hematite. The spheres are only a few millimeters in diameter and are believed to have formed as rock deposites under watery conditions billions of years ago when [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] was a wetter world. The rover used its instruments (a [[Mössbauer spectrometer|Mössbauer spectrometer]]) to test how the hematite found on Mars at Meridiani Planum was formed.
==See also==
*[[Iron ore]]
*[[Iron oxide]]
*[[List of minerals]]
==External links==
* [http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040212a/07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg Mars spheres image].
* [http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040219a/08-AY-3-shiny-B026R1_br.jpg Mars trench image showing a shiny texture of half-buried spheres] (dark line is equipment shadow)
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[[fi:Hematiitti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holocene extinction event</title>
<id>14208</id>
<revision>
<id>40941614</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T00:41:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Staffelde</username>
<id>385596</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambig "elk"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Holocene extinction event''' is a name customarily given to the widespread, ongoing [[extinction]] of species occurring in the modern [[Holocene]] [[epoch (geology)|epoch]]. The extinctions vary from [[mammoth]]s to [[Dodo]]s, to countless species in the rainforest dying every year. Because some believe the rate of this [[extinction event]] is comparable to the "Big Five" mass extinctions, it is also known as the '''Sixth Extinction''', though the actual numbers of extinct species are not yet similar to the major mass extinctions of the geologic past.
In broad usage, the Holocene extinction event includes the remarkable disappearance of large mammals, known as [[megafauna]], near the end of the [[last ice age]] between 9,000 and 13,000 years ago. Such disappearances have been considered as either a response to climate change, a result of the spread and proliferation of [[modern human]]s, or both. These extinctions, occurring near the [[Pleistocene]] / Holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the '''Pleistocene extinction event''' or Ice Age extinction event.
The observed rate of extinction has risen dramatically in the last 50 years. There is no general agreement on whether to consider more recent extinctions as a distinct event or merely part of a single escalating process. Only during these most recent parts of the extinction have [[plant]]s also suffered large losses. Overall, the Holocene extinction event is most significantly characterised by the presence of man-made driving factors and its very short [[geological timescale]] (tens to thousands of years) compared to most other extinction events.
==The prehistoric extinction events==
The current ongoing extinction event seems more outstanding if we follow tradition and separate the recent extinction (approx. since the [[industrial revolution]]) from the extinction near the end of the last ice age. In [[caveman|popular imagination]] the latter is exemplified by the extinction of the woolly [[mammoth]] and, incorrectly, the [[Neanderthal]] people.
However, it is worth remembering that modern [[climatology]] suggests the Holocene epoch we live in is no more than the latest in a series of [[interglacial]] intervals between [[glaciation]] events, one that will perhaps become artificially extended by [[global warming]]. Furthermore, there is a continuum of extinctions between 13,000 years ago and now. If only considering human impact, the vulnerability and extinction rate of species simply rises with the rise of technology, so there would be no need to separate both events. Nevertheless, the Pleistocene extinction event is large enough and hasn't been resolved completely.
===The Pleistocene or Ice Age extinction event===
The Ice Age extinction event is characterised by the extinction of large mammals weighing more than 40 kg. In [[North America]] around 33 of 45 [[genus|genera]] of large mammals went extinct, in [[South America]] 46 of 58, in [[Australia]] 15 of 16, in [[Europe]] 7 of 23, and in [[Subsaharan Africa]] only 2 of 44. The South American extinction witnessed the aftermath of the [[Great American Interchange]]. Only in South America and Australia did the extinction occur at family-level or higher.
There are two main hypotheses concerning this extinction:
*The animals died off because of [[climate change]]: the retreat of the [[ice cap]]
*The animals were exterminated by humans: the "prehistoric overkill hypothesis" (Martin, 1967)
The prehistoric overkill hypothesis is not universally applicable, and is imperfectly confirmed. For instance, the timing of sudden megafaunal extinctions of large [[Australia]]n [[marsupial]]s and a giant lizard, events that followed the arrival of human beings in Australia by many thousand years, need examining. Biologists note that comparably scaled extinctions have not occurred in [[Africa]] either, where the fauna evolved with hominids. Post-glacial megafaunal extinctions in Africa have been spaced over a longer interval.
An alternative to the theory of human responsibility is [[Tollmann's hypothetical bolide|Alexander Tollmann's bolide theory]], a more controversial hypothesis that claims that the [[Holocene]] was initiated by an [[extinction event]] caused by [[bolide]] impacts.
====Major megafaunal extinctions====
=====Europe=====
(circa 15,000 years ago)
* [[Woolly Mammoth]]
* [[Woolly Rhinoceros]]
* [[Irish Elk]]
* [[Cave Lion]]
* [[Cave Bear]]
* [[Giant Hyaena]]
=====Mediterranean Islands=====
(by 9000 years ago)
* a pygmy [[hippopotamus]] (''Phanourios minutus'') of [[Cyprus]]
* the Balearic Islands Cave Goat (''[[Myotragus_balearicus|Myotragus balearicus]]'') of [[Majorca]] and [[Minorca]]
* [[dwarf elephant]]s: ''Palaeoloxodon cypriotes'' of Cyprus, ''P. falconeri'' of [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]]
* Giant [[Swan]] (''Cygnus falconeri'') of Malta
* Giant [[Rat]] of Majorca
=====North America=====
(circa 12,000-9000 years BP), 35 to 40 species of large mammals (and only about half a dozen small mammals, such as mice and rats) disappeared. Previous North American extinction pulses had occurred at the end of glaciations, but not with such an imbalance between large mammals and small ones. The megafaunal extinctions include twelve genera of edible grazers ('''G'''), and five large, dangerous carnivores ('''C'''). North American extinctions included
<!--please substantuate this general list-->
* American [[Horse]]s, five species (Asian horses survived) ('''G''')
* a few species of Western [[Camel]]s ('''G''')
* North American [[llama|llamas]] ('''G''')
* Deer, two genera ('''G''')
* Pronghorn, two genera (one survived) ('''G''')
* Stag-Moose, Shrub-Oxen, Woodland Muskoxen (an Arctic one survived) ('''G''')
* Giant Beaver
* Shasta [[Ground Sloth]] and other Ground Sloths
* [[Arctodus|Short-Faced Bear]]s (larger than the present [[Grizzly Bear]]), ''cf'' [[Cave Bear]] ('''C''')
* [[Saber-toothed cat]]s ('''C''')
* American Lion (larger than the current African [[Lion]] but probably a fairly recent immigrant through [[Beringia]]) ('''C''')
* American Cheetah ('''C''')
* [[Dire Wolf]] ('''C''')
* [[Mammoth]], several species
* American [[Mastodont]], ''Mammut americanum''
* The giant progenitor sub-species of the surviving [[Bison]]
* Giant [[Peccary]]
The survivors are as significant as the losses: [[Bison]], [[Moose]] (recent immigrants through [[Beringia]]), [[Wapiti]] ([[Red Deer|Elk]]), [[Caribou]], [[Deer]], Pronghorn, Muskox, Bighorn Sheep, Mountain Goat. All save the Pronghorns descended from Asian ancestors that had accommodated with human predators. This connection has recently been expanded upon and supported in detail by R. D. E. MacPhee, ''Extinctions in Neartime,'' 1999, an outgrowth of an [[American Museum of Natural History]] conference on extinctions, 1997.
The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo-Indian culture associated with the [[Clovis culture|Clovis people]] (''q.v.''), which was thought to use [[atlatl|spear thrower]]s to kill large animals. The chief opposition to the 'prehistoric overkill' hypothesis has been that population of humans such as the Clovis culture were too small to be ecologically significant. Other generalized evocations of climate change fail under detailed scrutiny.
According to [[Jared Diamond]]'s ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', the lack of tameable megafauna was one of the reasons why [[Native American (Americas)|Amerindian civi |
ainous regions tending to receive the most (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the frequent low pH of rain which falls in [[Scandinavia]] compared to the local emissions.
Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in [[China]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[Russia]] and areas down-wind from them. Acid rain from power plants in the midwest United States has also harmed the forests of upstate New York and New England. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.
==Origin==
===Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification===
====Natural emissions====
[[Image:Volcanic injection.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Volcanic injection]]
The principal natural [[phenomena]] that contribute acid-producing gases to the [[atmosphere]] are emissions from [[volcano]]es and those from [[biology|biological]] processes that occur on the land, in [[wetland]]s, and in the [[ocean]]s. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is [[Dimethyl sulfide]].
The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in [[glacier|glacial ice]] thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.
====Human emissions====
The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as [[electricity generation]] and [[motor vehicle]]s. The gases can be carried hundreds of miles in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited.
The most important gas which leads to acidification is [[sulfur dioxide]]. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from [[wildfires]], and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from [[volcanoes]]. (Berresheim et al, 1995). Emissions of [[nitrogen oxide]]s which are oxidised to form [[Nitric acid]] are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds.
===Gas phase chemistry===
In the [[gas phase]] sulfur dioxide is oxidised by reaction with the [[hydroxyl]] radical via a [[termolecular]] reaction:
:SO<sub>2</sub> + OH· + M→ HOSO<sub>2</sub>· + M
which is followed by:
:HOSO<sub>2</sub>· + O<sub>2</sub> → HO<sub>2</sub>· + SO<sub>3</sub>
In the presence of water [[sulfur trioxide]] is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:
:SO<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O + M → H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + M
Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of OH with [[Nitrogen dioxide]]:
:NO<sub>2</sub> + OH· + M → HNO<sub>3</sub> + M
For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).
===Chemistry in cloud droplets===
When clouds are present the loss rate of SO<sub>2</sub> is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets
; Hydrolysis
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, [[hydrolysis|hydrolyses]] in a series of [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] reactions:
:SO<sub>2</sub> (g)+ H<sub>2</sub>O {{unicode|&#8652;}} SO<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O
:SO<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sup>+</sup>+HSO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>
: HSO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sup>+</sup>+SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup>
; Oxidation
There are a large number of aqueous reactions of sulfur which oxidise it from S(IV) to S(VI) leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with [[ozone]], [[hydrogen peroxide]] and [[oxygen]] catalysed by Iron and Manganese.
For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).
==Aerosol formation==
In the gas phase sulfuric and nitric can condense on existing [[particulate|aerosols]] or nucleate to form new aerosols. The nucleation process is an important source of new particles in the atmosphere and so emissions of sulfur containing compounds, as well as causing acidification also have a climate effect.
==Acid deposition==
===Wet deposition===
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow etc) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosol are both of importance for wet deposition.
===Dry deposition===
Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition [http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/glossary.php]. This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.
==Adverse effects==
===Effects on lake ecology===
There is a strong relationship between lower pH values and the loss of populations of [[fish]] in lakes. Below 4.5 virtually no fish survive, whereas levels of 6 or higher promote healthy populations. Acid in water inhibits the production of [[enzyme]]s which enable fish's [[larvae]] to escape their eggs. It also mobilizes toxic metals such as [[aluminium]] in lakes. [[Aluminium]] causes some fish to produce an excess of [[mucus]] around their [[gill]]s, preventing proper ventilation. [[Phytoplankton]] growth is inhibited by high acid levels, and animals which feed on it suffer.
Many lakes are subject to natural acid runoff from acid soils, and this can be triggered by particular rainfall patterns that concentrate the acid. An acid lake with newly-dead fish is not necessarily evidence of severe air-pollution.
=== Effects of acid rain on soil biology ===
[[Soil#Biological processes in soil|Soil biology]] can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some tropical [[microbes]] can quickly consume acids (Rodhe, 2005) but other types of microbe are unable to tolerate low pHs and are killed. The [[enzymes]] of these microbes are [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid.
The [[hydronium]] ions of acid rain also mobilize [[toxin]]s and [[Leaching|leache]] away essential nutrients.
Forest soils tend to be inhabited by [[fungi]], but acid rain shifts forest soils to be more bacterially dominated.In order to [[Nitrogen fixation|fix nitrogen]] many trees rely on fungi in a [[symbiotic]] relationship with their roots. If acidity inhibits the growth of these [[mycorrhizae]] associations this could lead to trees struggling to fix nitrogen without their symbiotic partners.
===Other adverse effects===
Trees are harmed by acid rain in a variety of ways. The waxy surface of leaves is broken down and nutrients are lost, making trees more susceptible to frost, fungi, and insects. Root growth slows and as a result fewer nutrients are taken up. Toxic ions are mobilized in the soil, and valuable minerals are leached away or (as in the case of [[phosphate]]) become bound to clay.
The toxic ions released due to acid rain form the greatest threat to humans. Mobilized [[copper]] has been implicated in outbreaks of [[diarrhea|diarrhea/diarrhoea]] in young children and it is thought that water supplies contaminated with aluminium cause [[Alzheimer's disease]].
Acid rain can cause erosion on ancient and valuable statues and has caused considerable damage. This is because the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium in the stones (lime stone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off. This is also commonly seen on old gravestones where the acid rain can cause the inscription to become completely illegible.
Acid rain also causes an increased rate of oxidation for iron.
==Prevention methods==
===Technical solutions===
In the United States, many coal-burning [[power plant]]s use [[Flue gas desulfurization]] (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used in the U.S. and many other countries. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoky stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.
In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as [[gypsum]] when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in a land-fill.
===International treaties===
A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed e.g. [[Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol]] and [[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]].
===Government regulation===
Some people oppose regulation of power generation, believing that pollution from power generation is inevitable. However, [[nuclear reactor]]s generate less than one-millionth the toxic waste (measured by net biological effect) per [[watt]], when wastes of both power generation facilities are properly handled. On the other hand, nuclear power has a well-known potential for catastrophic accidents or nuclear proliferation.
====Emissions trading====
An even more benign regulatory scheme involves [[emission trading]]. In this scheme, every current polluting facility is given an emissions license that becomes part of capital equipment. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell parts of their emissions licenses. The main effect of this is to give operators real economic incentives to install pollution controls. Since public interest groups can retire the licenses by purchasing them, |
t has accelerated although the number of those elsewhere in the country able to speak it (as a second language) has increased albeit not to the extent that many hoped.
Some, however, thought differently. The initial moves to save the language were championed by Irish [[Protestants]], such as the linguist and clergyman [[William Neilson]], in the end of the eighteenth century; the major push occurred with the foundation by [[Douglas Hyde]], the son of a Church of Ireland rector, of the [[Gaelic League]] (known in Irish as ''Conradh na Gaeilge'') which started the [[Gaelic Revival]]. Leading supporters of Conradh included [[Patrick Pearse|Pádraig Mac Piarais]] and [[Eamon de Valera|Éamon de Valera]]. The revival of interest in the language coincided with other cultural revivals, such as the foundation of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] and the growth in the performance of plays about Ireland in English, by such luminaries as [[William Butler Yeats]], [[J.M. Synge]], [[Sean O'Casey]] and [[Lady Gregory]], with their launch of the [[Abbey Theatre]].
Even though the Abbey Theatre playwrights wrote in English (and indeed some disliked Irish) the Irish language affected them, as it did all Irish English speakers. The version of English spoken in Ireland, known as [[Hiberno-English]] bears striking similarities in some grammatical idioms with Irish. Some have speculated that even after the vast majority of Irish people stopped speaking Irish, they perhaps subsconsciously used its grammatical flair in the manner in which they spoke English. This fluency is reflected in the writings of Yeats, [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Oscar Wilde]] and more recently in the writings of [[Seamus Heaney]], [[Paul Durcan]], [[Dermot Bolger]] and many others. (It may also in part explain the appeal in Britain of Irish-born broadcasters like [[Terry Wogan]], [[Eamonn Andrews]], [[Graham Norton]], [[Desmond Lynam]], etc.)
This national cultural revival of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century matched the growing Irish radicalism in Irish politics. Many of those, such as Pearse, de Valera, [[W.T. Cosgrave]] (Liam Mac Cosguir) and [[Ernest Blythe]] (Earnán de Blaghd), who fought to achieve Irish independence and came to govern the independent Irish state, first became politically aware through Conradh na Gaeilge, though Hyde himself resigned from its presidency in 1915 in protest at the movement's growing politicisation.
A Church of Ireland campaign to promote worship and religion in Irish was started in [[1914]] with the founding of ''Cumann Gaelach na hEaglaise'' (the Irish Guild of the Church). The [[Roman Catholic]] Church also replaced its liturgies in [[Latin]] with Irish and English for their liturgies following the [[Second Vatican Council]] in the [[1960s]].
===Independent Ireland and the language===
The independent Irish state was established in 1922 ([[The Irish Free State]] 1922-37; [[Éire|Ireland (Éire)]] from [[1937]], also known since [[1949]] as the [[Republic of Ireland]]). Although some [[Irish republicanism|Republican]] leaders had been committed language enthusiasts, the new state continued to use English as the language of administration, even in areas where over 80% of the population spoke Irish. The government refused to implement the 1926 recommendations of the Gaeltacht Commission, which included restoring Irish as the language of administration in such areas. As the role of the state grew, it therefore exerted tremendous pressure on Irish-speakers to speak English. This was only partly offset by measures which were supposed to support the Irish language. For instance, the state was by far the largest employer. A qualification in Irish was required to apply for state jobs. However, this did not require a high level of fluency, and few public employees were ever required to use Irish in the course of their work. On the other hand, state employees had to have perfect command of English and had to use it constantly. Because most public employees had a poor command of Irish, it was impossible to deal with them in Irish. If an Irish-speaker wanted to apply for a grant, obtain electricity, or complain about being over-taxed, they had to do it in English. As late as 1986 a Bord na Gaeilge report noted "...the administrative agencies of the state have been among the strongest forces for anglicisation in Gaeltacht areas". (page 41 of “The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future”. Author: Advisory Planning Committee of Bord na Gaeilge. Published by Criterion in 1986).
The new state increased attempts to promote Irish through the school system. Some politicians claimed that the state would become predominantly Irish-speaking within a generation. However, it is generally agreed that this policy was clumsily implemented (and sometimes proved even to be counter productive) . From the mid-1940s onward the policy of teaching English-speaking children through Irish was abandoned. In the following decades, support for the language was progressively reduced.
Whereas the first three presidents of Ireland ([[Douglas Hyde]]/Dubhghlas de hÍde, [[Sean T. O'Kelly]]/Seán T. Ó Ceallaigh and [[Eamon de Valera]]) and the fifth ([[Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh]]) were all so fluent in Irish that it became the working language in their official residence, later presidents struggled with any degree of fluency, its use declining to such an extent that it is ''only'' used now (if at all) in occasional speeches. Similarly, where earlier generations of Irish government leaders were highly fluent, recent prime ministers ([[Albert Reynolds]]/Ailbhe Mag Raghnaill, [[John Bruton]], [[Bertie Ahern]]) had little fluency, struggling to pronounce passages of their speeches in Irish to their [[Ard-Fheis|Ard-Fheiseanna]] (party conference(s), {{IPA2|ˈɑːrd ˈeʃənə}}).
It is, though, disputed to what extent such professed [[language revival]]ists as de Valera genuinely tried to Gaelicise political life. Ernest Blythe did little during his time as Minister of Finance to assist Irish language projects beyond the vested interests of already established organisations. Even in the first [[Dáil Éireann]], few speeches were delivered ''as Gaeilge'' (in Irish), with the exception of formal proceedings. None of the recent taoisigh (plural of 'Taoiseach', meaning 'prime minister') have been fluent in Irish; however, the two most recent [[President of Ireland|Presidents]], [[Mary McAleese]] (Máire Mhic Ghiolla Íosa) and [[Mary Robinson]] (Máire Mhic Róibín) are fluent, though the latter studied the language while in office to improve her fluency. Every [[President of Ireland]] has all so far taken their inaugurational 'Declaration of Office' in the language, but they have the option of taking the English declaration at [[Inauguration of the President of Ireland|the inauguration]].
Even modern parliamentary legislation, though ''supposed'' to be issued in both Irish and English, is frequently only available in English. Much of publicly displayed Irish is ungrammatical, thus irritating both language activists and enemies of the language and contributing to the public image of the revival as phony and bogus.
Many public bodies have Irish language or bilingual names, but some have downgraded the language. For example, [[Eircom]] (formerly [[Telecom Éireann]]) effectively dropped Irish from its telephone directories in [[1999]]. [[An Post]], the Republic's postal service, continues to have [[Place names in Irish|place names]] in the language on its postmarks, as well as recognising addresses (as does the [[Royal Mail]] in Northern Ireland).
In an effort to address the half-committed attitude of Irish language use by the State, the [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] was passed in 2003. This act ensures that ''every'' publication made by a governmental body must be published in both official languages, Irish and English. In addition, the office of Language Commissioner has been set up to act as an [[ombudsman]] with regard to equal treatment in both languages.
[[Image:Irelandsign.jpg|thumb|200px|Picture of a typical Irish road sign with placenames in [[English language|English]] and Irish.]]
In 2002, at the launch of what was to be a new traffic management system for [[Dublin]], it was revealed that the vast majority of signs would be in English only. The justification offered was that, in making the English lettering large enough to be easily read by motorists from a distance, there was no space to include Irish. The use of the single Irish words left, 'An Lár' (meaning city centre) was criticised on the basis that no-one would know what it meant, even though it was a term used widely for decades on street signs. Even the once common method in Ireland of beginning and ending letters - beginning 'A Chara' (meaning friend) and ending 'Is Mise le Meas' - is becoming rarer.
A major factor in the decline of spoken Irish has been the movement of English-speakers into the Gaeltacht (predominantly Irish speaking areas) and the return of native Irish-speakers who have acquired English-speaking families. This has been stimulated by government grants and infrastructure projects. "only about half Gaeltacht children learn Irish in the home... this is related to the high level of in-migration and return migration which has accompanied the economic restructuring of the Gaeltacht in recent decades" (page xxvi of ''The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future'') . Many see this as a deliberate attempt by anti-nationalist politicians to wipe out the language. "That economic development of the kind undertaken was likely to have such consequences was readily predictable a decade ago" (p47). In a last-ditch effort to stop the complete collapse of Irish-speaking in Connemara in Galway, planning controls have been introduced on the building of new homes in Irish speaking areas. These are |
f the K6-x series, the 450 MHz [[AMD K6-III|K6-III]], was extremely competitive with Intel's top of the line chips. This chip was essentially a K6-2 with 256&nbsp;kilobytes of full-speed level 2 cache integrated into the core and a better [[branch prediction]] unit. While it matched (generally beating) the Pentium II/III in integer operations, the FPU was a non-pipelined serial design and could not compete with Intel's more advanced FPU architecture. Although [[3DNow!]] could theoretically compensate for this weakness, few game developers made use of it, the most notable exception being [[id Software]]'s ''[[Quake II]]''.
Throughout its lifetime, the [[AMD K6|K6]] processor came close, but never equalled the performance of processor offerings from Intel. While there were brief periods when AMD announced a clock speed advantage, volume availability of products was limited as AMD suffered from manufacturing and yield problems. Furthermore, having deviated from the official Intel motherboard specifications with the [[Super Socket 7]] format, the motherboards that worked with the K6 were of varying quality, especially as regards implementation of the graphical [[Accelerated Graphics Port|AGP]] specification.
Overall the K6 proved popular with consumers, especially in markets outside North America, offering decent performance and a comparatively low price. But the problems surrounding the platform, and lack of availability for the announced high end parts, failed to establish AMD as a player in the corporate market. Intel responded to AMD's lower prices with the lower budget "Celeron" version of their Pentiums. While the Celerons were not as popular as Intel had hoped, this effectively left AMD struggling with low margins, chasing the low end of the market.
== Athlon / K7 ==
[[Image:amd_athlon_classic.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMD Athlon "Classic" SlotA]]
It was clear that if AMD was to survive, the company had to change strategy. CEO and founder Jerry Sanders recognized this, and developed a famous "Virtual Gorilla" strategy. This utilized strategic industry partnerships, to enable AMD to compete with Intel on a more equal technological footing.
The fruits of this were shown in [[August]] of 1999, when AMD released the [[Athlon]] (K7) processor. Notably, the design team was led by [[Dirk Meyer]], one of the lead engineers on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] project. Jerry Sanders had approached many of the engineering staff to work for AMD as DEC wound the project down, in this fashion acquiring a genuine world-class-enterprise-level processor design team, for a bargain basement price. It should be noted, though, that the Athlon design team included those who worked on both the K5 and K6.
The Athlon had an advanced micro-architecture geared towards overall performance, with a notably powerful FPU. When compared to the [[i686#Intel|P6]] the Athlon was superior, solving many of the problems and bottlenecks that were inherent in the Intel design. The Athlon had a higher average execution per clock throughput. The fundamental reason that such a large design discrepancy was possible is that the original [[i686#Intel|P6]] had a much smaller transistor budget, since it was fabricated on a much earlier design process than the Athlon. Early samples of the Athlon had branch predictor problems as well as low clock rates, but when it shipped with all architectural fixes at an amazing (for the time) 650&nbsp;MHz, it sent shockwaves through the industry.
Intel was immediately forced into a panicked internal re-design of the P6 core, which fixed many of the pipeline stalls that compromised its performance. The result was called the "[[Coppermine (microprocessor)|Coppermine]]" revision. However, the rushed nature of the work put enormous pressure on Intel's manufacturing facilities and, even after it was announced, availability of the improved Coppermine chips was poor.
In comparison, AMD found processor yields exceeded expectations. As a result, AMD announced 900-MHz and 1-GHz Athlons in early March 2000, and delivered them in volume that same month, again surprising the industry. Intel announced a 1-GHz Pentium a few days after AMD did, but was unable to ship the part in volume for several months. Working with [[Motorola]] as part of the "Virtual Gorilla" strategy, AMD also perfected copper interconnect manufacturing over a year before Intel, enjoying a clear advantage in manufacturing process technology, further improving clock speeds. Compounding Intel's embarrassment, an attempt to leapfrog AMD with a 1.13-GHz Pentium III resulted in an unreliable product that worked only on one specific customized motherboard and was heavily panned by prominent industry critics [http://www.tomshardware.com/2000/07/31/intel/index.html]. That chip was soon withdrawn from the market, having been installed in only a small handful of OEM systems [http://www.tomshardware.com/2000/08/28/intel_admits_problems_with_pentium_iii_1/index.html]. All of this greatly bolstered AMD's credibility in the market; what was formerly a producer of cut-rate clone chips was now increasingly being considered a viable competitor and rival to Intel.
AMD worked hard to increase the reliability and performance of motherboards for the Athlon with a quality assurance program. Confident with their unprecedented control of the performance end of the market, AMD was able to release a second line of budget processors, based on the Athlon core called the [[Duron]]. The combination of these astonishing technical and marketing successes did much to repair AMD's reputation, and the long time industry jokes about the company noticeably dried up. AMD continued to undercut Intel on price at the low end with the K6, and as Intel suffered part shortages and yield problems, AMD's market share briefly rose to 23%.
From a marketing point of view, AMD made the most of its performance advantage, greater consistency in delivery, and better system stability. The center point of its technical marketing strategy was a very large complement of easily reproducible performance benchmarks, based on a wide variety of applications. These efforts were bolstered by review sites and magazines, which were able to add their own performance benchmarks which verified AMD's claims of performance superiority of the Athlon versus its competition from Intel for many years. The importance of this publicity to AMD's credibility and reputation going forward cannot be overemphasized.
The spectacular success of the Athlon K7 processor started to diminish once Intel introduced the [[Pentium 4]] processor. Though the K7 was capable of much greater clock speeds than the [[Pentium 3]] line, the new [[Netburst]] architecture, designed to deliver all of its performance through deep pipeline, high clock speed methodologies started to outpace the Athlon Line. The early Pentium 4 did not quite realize the actual performance Intel had hoped for, and in some applications the original K7 Thunderbird architecture exceeded the P4 in per-cycle performance. Because the popular consensus was that the P4 was faster, the Athlon XP was released, although the chip itself was not tremendously improved (other than the progressional clock-speed increase). The Athlon XP remained competitive with overall performance until the release of the [[Pentium 4#Northwood | Pentium 4 Northwood]] CPU, which ran much more efficiently than the early Pentium 4s, and at even greater clock cycles, topping out at 3.4 GHz.
Unable to compete with the raw clock speeds offered by the P4, from the start of the Athlon XP Era, AMD began using a nomenclature that compares performance of the Athlon XP, with that of an earlier [[Athlon#Athlon Thunderbird .28T-Bird.29|Thunderbird]] core revision. In reality most people saw the model numbering scheme for what it was - an attempt to disguise AMD's clock speed disadvantage compared to the P4. It did, however, make some consumers wary of the idea that Intel's high clockspeeds did not necessarily yield superior performance over the Athlon XP. This definition began to be applied more loosely over time as AMD struggled to compete with the ramping clock speeds of the Northwood core (>3.0 GHz). The credibility of the scheme was only saved by the arrival of the K8, where model numbers once again correlated more reasonably to actual performance.
== AMD64 / K8 ==
The K8 is a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64 bit extension to the x86-64 instruction set (called [[AMD64]]), incorporating an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high performance point to point multiprocessor capable interconnect called [[HyperTransport]]. The extension of the x86 to 64 bits was important to AMD, because it marked a true attempt to wrestle the leadership of the x86 standard away from Intel.
This move by AMD was well timed to take advantage of a product hole in Intel's roadmap, namely a Pentium-compatible CPU that can deal with the inevitable transition to 64 bits. Some viewed this transition as slightly premature; however it helped AMD to snatch the standard away from Intel and its quality 32-bit backwards compatibility made it a feasible chip even for home users. AMD's standard was adopted by Microsoft, Linux and even Sun Microsystems. This left Intel in a position where they were forced to make an agreement with AMD to use the AMD64 extensions for their own 64-bit based ([[EM64T]]) processors. The K8 is also notable for its [[Direct Connect Architecture]].
The [[AMD64]] project can be seen as the culmination of Jerry Sanders' "Virtual Gorilla" strategy, in which he set a corporate goal for AMD to become a powerful research corporation in its own right, and not just a low-margin, low-value, commodity clone manufacturer.
The [[Opteron| |
ted up in one of the most rapid (in geologic terms) and extreme global warming events recorded in geologic history, called the [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]] or Initial Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM or IETM). This was an episode of rapid and intense warming (up to 7°C at high latitudes) that lasted less than 100,000 years [http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/intro/schmidt_02/]. The Thermal Maximum provoked a sharp extinction event that distinguishes Eocene [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] from the ecosystems of the [[Paleocene]].
The Eocene global climate was perhaps the most homogeneous of the Cenozoic; the temperature gradient from [[equator]] to [[Geographical pole|pole]] was only half as much as it is today, and deep [[ocean current]]s were exceptionally warm compared to today.[http://www.ga.gov.au/odp/publications/tnotes/tn20-4/leg171c.html]
The polar regions were much warmer than today, so mild that warm temperate forests extended right to the poles. They were also much wetter than today. The polar regions may have been at least as mild as the modern-day [[Pacific Northwest]]. Tropical climates extended as far north as 45 degrees latitude away from the Equator.
[[Climate]]s remained warm through the rest of the Eocene, although slow global cooling, which eventually led to the [[Pleistocene]] [[glaciation]]s, started around the end of epoch as ocean currents around [[Antarctica]] cooled.
==Eocene paleogeography==
During the Eocene, the [[continent]]s continued to [[plate tectonics|drift]] toward their present positions.
At the beginning of the period, [[Australia]] and [[Antarctica]] remained connected, and warm [[equator]]ial currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 mya, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding [[Antarctica]] began to freeze, sending cold water and icefloes north, reinforcing the cooling.
The northern [[supercontinent]] of [[Laurasia]] began to break up, as [[Europe]], [[Greenland]] and [[North America]] drifted apart.
In western North America, [[Orogeny|mountain building]] started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts.
Europe saw the [[Tethys Sea]] finally vanish, while the uplift of the [[Alps]] isolated its final remnant, the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], and created another shallow sea with island [[archipelago]]s to the north. Though the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe as the faunas of the two regions are very similar.
[[India]] continued its journey away from [[Africa]], and began its collision with [[Asia]], folding the [[Himalaya]]s into existence.
*[http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/terpaleo.html Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America]: Eocene
*[http://www.scotese.com/newpage9.htm Map of Eocene Earth]
It is hypothesized that the Eocene hothouse world was due to runaway global warming from released methane cathrates deep in the oceans. The cathrates were buried beneath mud that was disturbed as the oceans warmed. Methane (CH4) has ten to twenty times the greenhouse gas effect of Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
==Eocene flora==
At the beginning of the Eocene, the high temperatures and warm oceans created a moist, balmy environment, with forests spreading throughout the earth from pole to pole. Apart from the driest deserts, Earth must have been entirely covered in forests.
Polar forests were quite extensive. Fossils and even preserved remains of trees such as [[swamp cypress]] and [[dawn redwood]] from the Eocene have been found in Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic. As aforementioned, the preseved remains found in the Canadian Arctic are not fossils, but actual pieces preserved in oxygen-poor water in the swampy forests of the time, and then buried before they had the chance to decompose. Even at that time, Ellesmere Island was only a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today. Fossils of subtropical and even tropical trees and plants from the Eocene have also been found in Greenland and Alaska. [[Tropical rainforest]]s grew as far north as the [[Pacific Northwest]] and [[Europe]].
[[Palm tree]]s were growing as far north as [[Alaska]] and northern [[Europe]] during the early Eocene, although they became less and less abundant as the climate cooled. [[Dawn redwood]]s were far more extensive as well.
Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry out, with forests thinning out considerably in some areas. The newly-evolved [[grasses]] were still confined to river banks and lake edges, and had not yet expanded into [[plains]] and [[savanna]]s.
The cooling also brought seasonal changes. [[Deciduous]] trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes, began to overtake [[evergreen]] tropical species. By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the northern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the [[Arctic]], and rainforests held on only in equatorial [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[India]] and [[Australia]].
Antarctica, which began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical rainforest, became much colder as the period progressed; the heat-loving tropical [[flora (plants)|flora]] was wiped out, and by the beginning of the [[Oligocene]] the continent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of [[tundra]].
==Eocene fauna==
[[Image:Mesonyx.jpg|thumb|right|''Mesonyx'', a carnivorous ungulate]]
The oldest known [[fossil]]s of most of the modern mammal orders appear within a brief period during the early Eocene. At the beginning of the Eocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America. These modern mammals, like [[artiodactyl]]s, [[perissodactyls]] and [[primate]]s, had features like long, thin legs, feet and hands capable of grasping, as well as differentiated [[teeth]] adapted for chewing. Dwarf forms reigned. All the members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10&nbsp;kg; based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60 per cent of the size of the primitive [[Paleocene]] mammals that had preceded them. They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them. It is assumed that the hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals that were better able to manage heat.
Both groups of modern [[ungulate]]s (hoofed animals) became prevalent due to a major radiation between Europe and North America; along with carnivourous ungulates like ''[[Mesonyx]]''. Early forms of many other modern mammalian orders appeared, including [[bat]]s, [[proboscidea|proboscidian]]s, [[primate]]s, [[rodent]]s and [[marsupials]]. Older primitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance. Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found in western North America, Europe, [[Patagonia]], [[Egypt]] and [[South-East Asia]]. Marine fauna are best known from [[South Asia]] and the southeast [[United States]].
Reptile fossils are also known from the Eocene, such as the fearsomely enormous crocodile ''[[Deinosuchus]]'', which lived as far north as Wyoming during the Eocene and grew much larger than the modern-day [[saltwater crocodile]]. Python fossils and turtle fossils are also known from [[North America]].
During the Eocene plants and marine faunas became quite modern. Many modern [[Aves|bird]] orders first appear in the Eocene.
==Eocene oceans==
The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with [[fish]] and other sea life. The first [[Carcharhiniformes|Carcharinid sharks]] appeared, as did early marine mammals, including ''[[Basilosaurus]]'', an early species of [[whale]] that is thought to be descended from land animals, the hoofed predators called [[mesonychid]]s, of which ''[[Mesonyx]]'' was a member.
See also:
*[http://www.intersurf.com/~chalcedony/Basilosaurus1.html Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales]
*[http://darla.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/whaleorigins.htm Eocene Whale Origins]
==See also==
*[[London Clay]]
*[[Messel Pit]] in Germany
==External links==
*[http://www.scotese.com/ PaleoMap Project]
*[http://www.palaeos.com/Cenozoic/Eocene/Eocene.htm Paleos Eocene page]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/change/deeptime/eocene.html PBS Deep Time: Eocene]
*[http://www.coloradomtn.edu/campus_rfl/staff_rfl/kohls/eocene.html Eocene Fossils]
*[http://www.dmap.co.uk/fossils/ Eocene and Oligocene Fossils]
*[http://www.carnegiemnh.org/research/eosimias/index.html Eocene Primate, Carnegie Museum of Natural History]
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/earth/arctic/ The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada]
[[Category:Eocene| ]]
[[ca:Eocè]]
[[de:Eozän]]
[[et:Eotseen]]
[[eo:Eoceno]]
[[fr:Éocène]]
[[it:Eocene]]
[[he:איאוקן]]
[[lb:Eozän]]
[[nl:Eoceen]]
[[ja:始新世]]
[[pl:Eocen]]
[[pt:Eoceno]]
[[sv:Eocen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eindhoven</title>
<id>9420</id>
<revision>
<id>39074018</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:08:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.37.79.149</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[Heritage]] to [[Cultural heritage]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dutch municipality 2 |
name=Eindhoven | province=[[North Brabant]] | map=LocatieEindhoven.png |
area=88.84 | land=87.75 | water=1.09 |
population=209,286 | population_year=(2006) | density=2,377}}
'''Eindhoven''' is a [[municipality]] and a [[city]] located in the province of [[Noord-Brabant]] in the south of the [[Netherlands]], originally at the [[confluence]] of the [[Dommel]] and [[Gender (creek)|Gender]] [[brook]]s. The [[Gender (creek)|Gender]] has been dammed off in the post-[ |
ce]], thus marking his party's first victory in nearly 11 years. Karamanlis managed to defeat ruling PASOK's newly elected candidate, [[George Papandreou]], son of the late [[Andreas Papandreou]]. [[Kostas Simitis]] was in office since [[January 1996]].
{{see|List of political parties in Greece}}
== Local government ==
''Main article: [[Peripheries of Greece]]''
[[Image:GreeceNumberedPerepheries.png|right|350px|Map showing Peripheries of Greece]]
Greece consists of 13 administrative regions known as peripheries, which subdivide further into the 51 [[Prefectures of Greece|prefecture]]s (''nomoi'', singular - ''[[nomos]]''):
<table><td>
<ol>
<li>[[Attica]]
:[[Athens Prefecture|Athens]]
:[[East Attica]]
:[[Piraeus Prefecture|Piraeus]]
:[[West Attica]]
<li>[[Central Greece]]
:[[Boeotia Prefecture|Boeotia]]
:[[Euboea]]
:[[Evrytania]]
:[[Phocis]]
:[[Phthiotis]]
<li>[[Central Macedonia]]
:[[Chalcidice]]
:[[Imathia Prefecture|Imathia]]
:[[Kilkis Prefecture|Kilkis]]
:[[Pella]]
:[[Pieria]]
:[[Serres Prefecture|Serres]]
:[[Thessaloniki Prefecture|Thessaloniki]]
<li>[[Crete]]
:[[Chania Prefecture|Chania]]
:[[Heraklion Prefecture|Heraklion]]
:[[Lasithi]]
:[[Rethymno Prefecture|Rethymno]]
</td></ol><td><ol start=5>
<li>[[East Macedonia and Thrace]]
:[[Drama Prefecture|Drama]]
:[[Evros Prefecture|Evros]]
:[[Kavala Prefecture|Kavala]]
:[[Rhodope Prefecture|Rhodope]]
:[[Xanthi Prefecture|Xanthi]]
<li>[[Epirus (periphery)|Epirus]]
:[[Arta Prefecture|Arta]]
:[[Ioannina Prefecture|Ioannina]]
:[[Preveza Prefecture|Preveza]]
:[[Thesprotia]]
<li>[[Ionian Islands]]
:[[Corfu Prefecture|Corfu]]
:[[Kefalonia]]
:[[Lefkada]]
:[[Zakynthos]]
<li>[[North Aegean]]
:[[Chios]]
:[[Lesbos Prefecture|Lesbos]]
:[[Samos Prefecture|Samos]]
</td></ol><td><ol start=9>
<li>[[Peloponnese]]
:[[Arcadia]]
:[[Argolis]]
:[[Corinthia]]
:[[Laconia]]
:[[Messinia]]
<li>[[South Aegean]]
:[[Cyclades]]
:[[Dodecanese]]
<li>[[Thessaly]]
:[[Karditsa Prefecture|Karditsa]]
:[[Larissa Prefecture|Larissa]]
:[[Magnesia]]
:[[Trikala Prefecture|Trikala]]
<li>[[West Greece]]
:[[Achaea]]
:[[Aetolia-Acarnania]]
:[[Elis Prefecture|Elis]]
<li>[[West Macedonia]]
:[[Florina Prefecture|Florina]]
:[[Grevena Prefecture|Grevena]]
:[[Kastoria Prefecture|Kastoria]]
:[[Kozani Prefecture|Kozani]]
</td>
</table>
Beyond these one autonomous region exists: [[Mount Athos]] (''Agio Oros'' - Holy Mountain), a monastic state under Greek sovereignty.
The 51 ''nomoi'' subdivide into 147 ''eparchies'' (singular ''eparchia''), which contain 1,033 [[Communities and Municipalities of Greece|municipalities and communities]]: 900 urban municipalities (''demoi'') and 133 rural communities (''koinotetes''). Before 1999, Greece's local government structure featured 5,775 local authorities: 457 ''demoi'' and 5,318 ''koinotetes'', subdivided into 12,817 localities (''oikosmoi'').
== Geography ==
[[Image:Gr-map.png|thumb|200px|right|Map of Greece]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Greece.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Greece from orbit]]
{{main|Geography of Greece}}
Greece consists of a large mainland at the southern end of the [[Balkans]]; the [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesus]] peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]]); and [[Greek islands|numerous islands]] (around 3,000), including [[Crete]], [[Rhodes]], [[Kos]], [[Euboea]] and the [[Dodecanese]] and the [[Cyclades|Cycladic]] groups of the [[Aegean Sea]] as well as the [[Ionian Sea]] islands. Greece has more than 15,000 kilometres of coastline and a land boundary of 1,160 kilometres. Approximately 8% of the nation's territory is covered by forests.
Four fifths of Greece consist of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most montainous in [[Europe]]. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and it is dominated by the [[Pindus]] mountain range. Pindus has a maximum elevation of 2,636 m and it is essentially a prolongation of the [[Dinaric Alps]]. The range continues through western Peloponnese, crosses the islands of [[Kythera]] and Antikythera and find its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of [[Crete]] where it eventually ends. (Actually the islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once consisted an extension of the mainland). Pindus is characterized by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. Most notably, the impressive [[Meteora]] formation consisting of high, steep boulders provides a breathtaking experience for the hundrends of thousands of tourists who visit the area each year. Special lifts transfer visitors to the scenic monasteries that lye on top of those rocks. Meteora are situated in the [[Trikala]] prefecture. The [[Vikos-Aoos Gorge]] is yet another spectacular formation and it is the second largest canyon on Earth, second only to the [[Grand Canyon]]. The Vicos-Aoos Gorge is a popular hotspot for those in fond of extreme sports.
[[Mount Olympus]] is the tallest mountain in the country, located in the northern [[Pieria]] prefecture, near [[Thessaloniki]]. Olympus has a height of 2,917 m at its tallest peak. Once considered the thrown of the Gods, it is today extremely popular among hikers and climbers who deem its height as a challenge. Moreover, northeastern Greece features yet another high altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the prefectures of Eastern Macedonia and [[Thrace]]; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests including the famous Dadia.
Expansive plains are primarily located in the prefectures of [[Thessaly]], Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country. [[Volos]] and [[Larissa]] are the two largest cities of Thessaly.
Greece's [[climate]] consists of three types that influence well defined regions of its territory. Those are the Mediterranean, the Alpine and the Temperate types. The first one features mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, Eastern Peloponessus and parts of the Sterea Ellada refion are mostly affected by this particular type. Temperatures rarely reach extreme values although snowfalls do occur occasionally even in the Cyclades or Crete during the winter months. The Alpine type is dominant mainly in Western Greece ([[Epirus]], Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia as well as in the western and central parts of Peloponessus, including the prefectures of [[Achaea]], [[Arkadia]] and parts of [[Lakonia]], where the [[Pindus]] range passes by). Finally the Temperate type affects both Central and Eastern Macedonia as well as Thrace, mainly affecting the cities of [[Komotini]], [[Xanthi]] and the towns of northern [[Evros]]; it features cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers. [[Athens]] is located in a transitional area featuring both the Mediterranean and the Alpine types. The city's northern suburbs are dominated by the Alpine type while the downtown area and the southern suburbs enjoy a typical Meditteranean type.
Rare marine species such as the [[Pinniped Seals]] and the [[Loggerhead Sea Turtle]] live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endagered [[brown bear]] , the [[lynx]], the [[Roe Deer]] and the Wild Goat.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Greece}}
Greece has a [[capitalist economy]] with the public sector accounting for a considerable part of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. The Greek [[tourism]] industry remains thriving and its contribution in the growth of the GDP is considered important through foreign exchange earnings. What is more, Greece is a global leader in [[shipping]] (ranking first in terms of ownership of vessels and third by flag registration) [http://www.marad.dot.gov/MARAD_statistics/Country-MFW-7-04.pdf]. Exports of manufactured goods including telecommunications hardware and software, agricultural products, other foodstuff and fuels also account for a significant part of Greek income. Moreover, the country is the largest investor in southeastern [[Europe]] as far as the previous sectors are concerned. For more than two decades after 1950, Greece had the second highest economic growth rate in the world after Japan, resulting in a dramatic improvement in living standards. Since Greece became a full member of the [[European Union]], back in [[1981]], it has been a beneficiary of cohesion funds, along with [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and [[Ireland]]. Those funds have proven to be particularly helpful in the nation's remarkable further economic development of the last 25 years. Starting in 1989 (and over the following years, according to different organizations) Greece joined the ranks of "developed", "advanced" and "high-income" economies.
[[Image:1e gre.png|left|thumb|170px|[[Greek euro coins]]]]
The country enjoys a high standard of living, ranking 24th on the [[2005]] [[Human Development Index]] and 22nd on [[The Economist]]'s 2005 world-wide quality-of-life index[http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf]. Average per capita income in 2005 was estimated at $22,800 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gr.html] or 83% of the [[EU]] average in PPS (Purchasing Power Standards). The Greek Economy has seen uninterrupted strong growth since [[1992]] and above the [[EU]] average continuously since [[1994]]. Part of the Greek economy's impressive growth is attributed to the fact that the previous government tightened fiscal policy regulations in the run-up to the country's entry into the [[Eurozone]], set on [[January 1]], [[2001]]([[Greek euro coins]]). Also liberalisation of domestic markets, a modernised banking system, as well as massive investment ahead of the [[2004 Olympic Games]], have fueled the Economy. Moreover, Greece has |
e">An '''allele''' is any one of a number of viable DNA codings of the same [[gene]] (sometimes the term refers to a non-gene sequence) occupying a given [[locus]] (position) on a [[chromosome]]. An individual's [[genotype]] for that gene will be the set of alleles it happens to possess. In an organism which has two copies of each of its chromosomes (a [[diploid]] organism), two alleles make up the individual's genotype.
An example is the gene for blossom color in many species of [[flower]] -- a single gene controls the color of the [[petals]], but there may be several different versions of the gene. One version might result in red petals, while another might result in white petals. The color of an individual flower will depend on which two alleles it possesses for this color gene, and how the two interact.
Organisms that are [[diploid]] have paired [[homologous]] chromosomes in their [[somatic cell]]s, and these contain two copies of each gene. An organism in which the two copies of the gene are identical -- that is, have the same allele -- is said to be [[homozygote|homozygous]] for that gene. An organism which has two different alleles of the gene is said to be [[heterozygote|heterozygous]]. [[phenotype|Phenotypes]] (the expressed characteristics) associated with a certain allele can sometimes be [[dominant gene|dominant]] or [[recessive]], but often they are neither. A dominant phenotype will be expressed when only one allele of its associated type is present, whereas a recessive phenotype will only be expressed when both alleles are of its associated type.
However, there are exceptions to the way heterozygotes express themselves in the phenotype. One exception is [[incomplete dominance]] (sometimes called [[blending inheritance]]) when alleles blend their traits in the phenotype. An example of this would be seen if, when crossing [[Antirrhinum]]s -- flowers with incompletely dominant "red" and "white" alleles for petal color -- the resulting offspring had pink petals. Another exception is [[co-dominance]], where both alleles are active and both traits are expressed at the same time; for example, both red and white petals in the same bloom or red and white flowers on the same plant. Codominance is also apparent in human [[blood type]]s. A person with one "A" blood type allele and one "B" blood type allele would have a blood type of "AB".
A [[wild type]] allele is an allele which is considered to be "normal" for the organism in question, as opposed to a [[mutant]] allele which is usually a relatively new modification.
(Note that with the advent of the study of [[genetic marker]]s, the term allele is often now used to refer to DNA codings in [[junk DNA]]. For example, the term [[allele frequency]] tables are often presented for genetic markers, such as the [[DYS (DNA)|DYS]] markers.)
==Equations==
There are two simple equations for the frequency of two alleles of a given gene (see [[Hardy-Weinberg principle]]):
Equation 1:<math>p^2+2pq+q^2=1</math>
Equation 2: <math>p+q=1</math>
Where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the other allele. p<sup>2</sup> is the population fraction that is homozygous for the p allele, 2pq is the frequency of heterozygotes and q<sup>2</sup> is the population fraction that is homozygous for the q allele. [[Natural selection]] can act on p and q in Equation 1, and obviously affect the frequency of genes seen in Equation 2. It should be noted that the second equation can be derived from the first (or vice versa) since <math>p^2+2pq+q^2=1</math> implies <math>(p+q)^2=1</math> and p and q are positive numbers.
==See also==
* [[Mendelian inheritance]]
[[Category:Classical genetics]]
[[cs:Alela]]
[[da:Allel]]
[[de:Allel]]
[[es:Alelo]]
[[fr:Allèle]]
[[gl:Alelo]]
[[he:אלל]]
[[nl:Allel]]
[[ja:対立遺伝子]]
[[lv:Alēle]]
[[pl:Allel]]
[[pt:Alelo]]
[[fi:Alleeli]]
[[sv:Allel]]
[[uk:Аллель]]
[[vi:Allele]]
[[it:Allele]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ampicillin</title>
<id>1912</id>
<revision>
<id>41589686</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:38:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NongBot</username>
<id>817745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ampicillin.png|thumb|'''Ampicillin''' ([[Carbon|C]]<sub>16</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>18</sub>[[Nitrogen|N]]<sub>3</sub>[[Oxygen|O]]<sub>4</sub>[[Sulfur|S]])]]
'''Ampicillin''' (C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>18</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>S ; [[CAS registry number|CAS No.]]: 69-53-4) is an [[aminopenicillin]] and, as such, is a broad-spectrum [[antibiotic]] and has been used extensively to treat [[bacterium|bacterial]] [[infection]]s since [[1961]]. It can sometimes result in allergic reactions that range in severity from a rash to potentially lethal [[anaphylaxis]].
Belonging to the group of [[beta-lactam]] antibiotics, ampicillin is able to penetrate [[Gram-negative]] bacteria. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial [[cell wall]] synthesis, which ultimately leads to cell [[lysis]]. Ampicillin is closely related to [[Amoxicillin]], another type of [[penicillin]], and both are used to treat [[urinary tract infections]], [[otitis media]], uncomplicated community acquired [[pneumonia]], [[Haemophilus influenzae]], invasive [[salmonella]] and [[Listeriosis|Listeria]] [[meningitis]]. It is used with [[Flucloxacillin]] in the combination antibiotic [[Co-fluampicil]] for [[empiric]] treatment of [[cellulitis]]; providing cover against [[Group A streptococcal infection]] whilst the Flucloxacillin acts against [[Staphylococcus aureus]].
Ampicillin is often used in [[molecular biology]] as a test for the uptake of [[gene]]s (e.g., by [[plasmid]]s) by bacteria (e.g., ''[[E. coli]]''). A gene that is to be inserted into a bacterium is coupled to a gene [[code for|coding for]] an ampicillin resistance (in ''E. coli'', usually the ''bla'' gene, coding for [[beta-lactamase|&beta;-lactamase]]). The treated bacteria are then grown on a medium containing ampicillin. Only the bacteria that successfully take up the desired genes become ampicillin resistant, and therefore contain the other desired gene as well.
[[category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]]
[[de:Ampicillin]]
[[fr:Ampicilline]]
[[hu:Ampicillin]]
[[th:แอมพิซิลลิน]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Annealing</title>
<id>1913</id>
<revision>
<id>39482612</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T17:43:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ rmv spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anneal''' may refer to:
*[[Annealing (metallurgy)]], a heat treatment wherein the microstructure of a material is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness.
*[[Annealing (glass)]], heating a piece of glass until its temperature reaches a stress-relief point.
*[[Annealing (biology)]], in genetics, DNA or RNA pairing by hydrogen bonds to a complementary sequence, forming a double-stranded polynucleotide.
*[[Simulated annealing]], a technique for searching for a solution in a space otherwise too large for "ordinary" search methods to yield results.
*[[Information annealing]] or knowledge annealing, in library and information science, is a network-based information system or body of knowledge in which all users of the system are permitted to change the system at will.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Anlassen]]
[[fr:Recuit]]
[[it:Ricottura]]
[[nl:Gloeien (metallurgie)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antibiotic resistance</title>
<id>1914</id>
<revision>
<id>42033498</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:45:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tangotango</username>
<id>210997</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41974443 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Antibiotic resistance''' is the ability of a [[microorganism]] to withstand the effects of an [[antibiotic]].
Antibiotic resistance naturally develops via [[natural selection]] through random [[mutation]] and [[plasmid]] exchange between [[bacterium|bacteria]] of the same [[species]]. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through [[transformation (genetics)|transformation]] protocols. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called '''multiresistant''' or, informally, a '''superbug'''.
==Causes==
Antibiotic resistance is a consequence of [[evolution]] via [[natural selection]]. The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation.
Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage greatly affect the number of resistant organisms which develop. Overuse of [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]]s, such as second- and third-generation [[cephalosporin]]s, greatly hastens the development of methicillin resistance, even in organisms that have never been exposed to the selective pressure of methicillin ''per se''. [Thus the resistance was already present.] Other factors contributing towards resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, and the use of antibiotics as livestock food additives for growth promotion.
==Resistant pathogens==
''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' (colloquially known as "Staph aureus") is one of the major resistant pathogens. Found o |
over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]], to which he contributed much notation. The standard [[Peano axioms|axiomatization]] of the [[natural number]]s is named in his honor. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the [[University of Turin]].
== Milestones and honors received ==
* [[1881]]: Published first paper.
* [[1884]]: ''Calcolo Differenziale e Principii di Calcolo Integrale''.
* [[1887]]: ''Applicazioni Geometriche del Calcolo Infinitesimale''.
* [[1889]]: Appointed Professor First Class at the Royal Military Academy.
* [[1890]]: Appointed Extraordinary Professor of [[infinitesimal calculus]] at the [[University of Torino]].
* [[1891]]: Made a member of the Academy of Science, Torino.
* [[1893]]: ''Lezioni di Analisi Infinitesimale'', 2 vols.
* [[1895]]: Promoted to Ordinary Professor.
* [[1901]]: Made Knight of the Order of Saints Maurizio and Lazzaro.
* [[1903]]: Announces ''Latino sine flexione''.
* [[1905]]: Made Knight of the Crown of Italy. Elected a corresponding member of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]] in [[Rome]], the highest Italian honour for scientists.
* [[1908]]: Fifth and final edition of the ''[[Formulario mathematico]]''.
* [[1917]]: Made an Officer of the Crown of Italy.
* [[1921]]: Promoted to Commendatore of the Crown of Italy.
== Life and Career ==
Peano was born and reared on a farm in the [[Piedmont]]. He enrolled at the nearby [[University of Turin]] in [[1876]], graduating in [[1880]] with high honours, after which the University employed him to assist first [[Enrico D'Ovidio]], then [[Angelo Genocchi]], the Chair of [[Calculus|infinitesimal calculus]]. Due to Genochii's poor health, Peano took over the teaching of the infinitesimal calculus course within 2 years.
His first major work, a textbook on calculus, was published in [[1884]] and credited to Genocchi. Three years later, Peano published his first book dealing with mathematical logic. Here the modern symbols for the [[union (set theory)|union]] and [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of sets appeared for the first time.
In [[1887]], Peano married Carola Crosio. In [[1886]], he began teaching concurrently at the [[Royal Military Academy (Italy)|Royal Military Academy]], and was promoted to Professor First Class in [[1889]]. The next year, the University of Turin also granted him his full professorship.
Peano's famous [[space-filling curve]] appeared in [[1890]] as a [[counterexample]]. He used it to show that a continuous curve cannot always be enclosed in an arbitrarily small region. This was an early example of what came to be known as a [[fractal]].
The following year Peano started the [[Formulario Project]]. It was to be an ''Encyclopedia of Mathematics", containing all known formulae and theorems of mathematical science using a standard notation invented by Peano.
In [[1897]], the first [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] was held in [[Zürich]]. Peano was a key participant, presenting a paper on mathematical logic. He also started to become increasingly occupied with ''Formulario'' to the detriment of his other work.
In [[1898]] he presented a note to the Academy about [[Binary numeral system|binary numeration]] and its ability to be used to represent the sounds of languages. He also became so frustrated with publishing delays (due to his demand that formulae be printed on one line) that he purchased a printing press.
[[Paris]] was the venue for the Second [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[1900]]. The conference was preceded by the First [[International Conference of Philosophy]] where Peano was a member of the patronage committee. He presented a paper which posed the question of correctly formed definitions in mathematics, i.e. "how do you define a definition?". This became one of Peano's main philosophical interests for the rest of his life. At the conference Peano met [[Bertrand Russell]] and gave him a copy of ''Formulario'', Russell was so struck by Peano's innovative logical symbols that he left the conference and returned home to study Peano's text.
Peano's followers presented papers (using Peano's teachings) at the mathematics conference, but Peano did not. A resolution calling for the formation of an "international auxiliary language" to facilitate the spread of mathematical (and commercial) ideas, was proposed; Peano fully supported it.
By [[1901]], Peano was at the peak of his mathematical career. He had made advances in the areas of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], foundations and logic, made many contributions to the teaching of calculus and also contributed to the fields of [[differential equation]]s and [[vector (spatial)|vector]] analysis. Peano played a key role in the [[axiomatization]] of mathematics and was a leading pioneer in the development of mathematical logic. Peano had by this stage become heavily involved with the ''Formulario'' project and his teaching began to suffer. In fact, he became so determined to teach his new mathematical symbols that the calculus in his course was neglected. As a result he was dismissed from the Royal Military Academy but retained his post at Turin University.
In [[1903]] Peano announced his work on an international auxiliary language called ''[[Latino sine flexione]]'' ("[[Latin]] without flexions," later called [[Interlingua]]). This was an important project for him (along with finding contributors for 'Formulario'). The idea was to use Latin vocabulary, since this was widely known, but simplify the grammar as much as possible and remove all irregular and anomalous forms to make it easier to learn. In a brilliant speech, he started speaking in Latin and, as he described each simplification, introduced it into his speech so that by the end he was talking in his new language.
[[1908]] was a big year for Peano. The final, fifth edition of the ''Formulario'' Project, titled ''Formulario Mathematico'', was published. It contained 4200 formulae and theorems, all completely stated and most of them proved. The book received little attention since much of the content was dated by this time. The comments and examples were written in ''Latino sine flexione'' which detracted from its appeal to most mathematicians; however, it remains a significant contribution to mathematical literature.
Also in [[1908]], Peano took over the chair of higher analysis at Turin (this appointment was to last for only two years). He was also elected the director of ''[[Academia pro Interlingua]]''. Having previously created [[Idiom Neutral]], the Academy effectively chose to abandon it in favor of Peano's [[Latino sine flexione]].
After his mother died in [[1910]], Peano divided his time between teaching, working on texts aimed for secondary schooling including a dictionary of mathematics, and developing and promoting his and other [[artificial language]]s, becoming a revered member of the international auxiliary language movement. He used his membership of the ''Accademia dei Lincei'' to present papers written by friends and colleagues who were not members (the Accademia recorded and published all presented papers given in sessions).
In [[1925]] Peano switched Chairs unofficially from Infinitesimal Calculus to Complementary Mathematics, a field which better suited his current style of mathematics. This move became official in [[1931]]. Giuseppe Peano continued teaching at Turin University until the day before he died, when he suffered a fatal [[heart attack]].
:"He [Peano] was a man I greatly admired from the moment I met him for the first time in 1900 at a Congress of Philosophy, which he dominated by the exactness of his mind." &mdash; Bertrand Russell, [[1932]]
== Bibliography ==
Peano's writings in English translation:
*1889. "The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method" in [[Jean van Heijenoort]], 1967. ''A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931''. Harvard Univ. Press: 83-97.
*1973. ''Selected works of Giuseppe Peano''. Kennedy, Hubert C., ed. and transl. With a biographical sketch and bibliography. London: Allen & Unwin.
Secondary:
*Gillies, Douglas A., 1982. ''Frege, Dedekind, and Peano on the foundations of arithmetic''. Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum.
* [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton University Press.
*Kennedy, Hubert C., 1980. ''[http://home.att.net/~clairnorman/Peano2002.pdf Peano: Life and Works of Giuseppe Peano]''. Reidel. Biography with complete bibliography (p. 195-209).
== See also ==
* [[Peano axioms]]
== External links ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Peano}}
[[Category:1858 births|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:1932 deaths|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Italian philosophers|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Italian mathematicians|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Natives of Piedmont|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[de:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[es:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[eo:Giuseppe PEANO]]
[[fr:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[ko:주세페 페아노]]
[[io:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[ia:Giuseppe Peano]]
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[[nl:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[ja:ジュゼッペ・ペアノ]]
[[pl:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[pt:Giuseppe Peano]]
[[ru:Пеано, Джузеппе]]
[[sr:Ђузепе Пеано]]
[[sv:Giuseppe Peano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gin and tonic</title>
<id>13044</id>
<revision>
<id>41419676</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:58:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.212.76.186</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>changed "off of" to "of"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gin and Tonic.jpg|thumb|Gin and tonic]]
The '''gin and tonic''' is a [[cocktail]] made with [[gin]] and [[tonic water]], usually garnished with a slice of [[Lime (fruit)|lime]] or [[lemon]] and served over ice.
T |
rank = 21st
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 1,284,000
|areami²= 495,755 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 1.9%
|population_estimate = 9,826,419
|population_estimate_rank = 82nd
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 7
|population_densitymi² = 18 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 180th
|GDP_PPP = $12,835,000,000
|GDP_PPP_rank = 128th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,555
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 160th
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Chad|Independence]]
|established_events = Recognized<br>Constitution
|established_dates = From [[France]]<br>[[August 11]], [[1960]]<br>[[March 31]], [[1996]]
|HDI = 0.341
|HDI_rank = 173rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font>
|currency = [[CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XAF
|country_code = TCD
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|cctld = [[.td]]
|calling_code = 235
|footnotes =
}}
The '''Republic of Chad''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: تشاد , ''Tašād''; [[French language|French]]: ''Tchad'') is a [[landlocked]] country in [[central Africa]]. It borders [[Libya]] to the north, [[Sudan]] to the east, the [[Central African Republic]] to the south, [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]] to the southwest and [[Niger]] to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely [[desert]] climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the 'dead heart of Africa.' In the north, it contains the [[Tibesti Mountains]], the largest mountain chain in the [[Sahara desert]]. Formerly part of the [[Federation of French Equatorial Africa]], the country shares a relationship with [[Lake Chad]].
==History==
{{main|History of Chad}}
[[Image:Map of Aouzou stip chad.PNG|thumb|left|Libya claimed and occupied the [[Aozou Strip]] (blue) from 1976 to 1987]] The area that today is Chad was once inhabited by a group of politically disconnected tribes. Humanoid skulls and cave paintings of great antiquity have been found there. Gradually relatively weak local kingdoms developed; these were later overtaken by the larger but still completely African [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]].
Later, foreigners came to have more influence in Chad. Beginning in the [[Middle Ages]], Chad became a crossroads for Muslim traders and indigenous tribes. In [[1891]] Chad became a part of [[French colony|France's colonial system]].
In [[World War II|WWII]], Chad was the first [[France|French]] colony to join the Free French and the Allies, under the leadership of its Governor, [[Félix Éboué]]. In [[1960]], Chad became an independent country, with [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye|François Tombalbaye]] as its first president.
Chad's post-independence history has been marked by instability and violence stemming mostly from tensions between the mainly Arab-Muslim north and the predominantly Christian and animist south.
In 1969 Muslim dissatisfaction with President Tombalbaye - a Christian southerner - developed into a guerrilla war. This, combined with a severe drought, undermined his rule and, in 1975, President Tombalbaye was killed in a coup led by another southerner, [[Félix Malloum]]. Mr Malloum, too, failed to end the war, and in 1979 he was replaced by a Libyan-backed northerner, [[Goukouni Oueddei]].
By this stage [[France]] and neighbouring [[Libya]] were intervening repeatedly to support one side against another. The leader of the French-supported Northern rebel group [[FAN]] Forces Armées du Nord, [[Hissène Habré]], a former defence minister, became prime minister in [[1978]]. In [[1982]] he deposed President Oueddei, and assumed overall control of the state, abolishing the post of prime minister. His eight year reign led to immense political turmoil, with human rights organisations accusing him of having ordered the execution of thousands of political opponents and members of tribes thought hostile to his regime.
[[Libya]] invaded Chad in July [[1975]], theoretically to drive Habré from power. They occupied a narrow strip of land known as the [[Aouzou Strip]].
France and the United States responded by aiding Habré in an attempt to contain Libya's regional ambitions under [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]]. Civil war deepened. In December, [[1980]] Libya occupied all of northern Chad, but Habré defeated Libyan troops and drove them out in November, [[1981]]. In [[1983]], Qaddafi's troops occupied all of the country north of Koro Toro. The United States used a clandestine base in Chad to train captured Libyan soldiers, whom it tried to organize into an anti-Qaddafi force. Habré's aid from the USA and France helped him to win the war against Libya. The Libyan occupation of the north of Koro Toro ended when Habré defeated Qaddafi in [[1987]].
Despite this victory, Habré's government was weak and seemingly disliked by a majority of Chadians. He was deposed by Libyan-supported rebel leader [[Idriss Déby]] on [[December 1]], [[1990]]. Habré went into exile in Senegal. Déby installed himself as dictator. Soon after a constitution was written. Popular support for Déby was apparently shown in an election in May, [[2001]], where he defeated six other candidates with 67.3% of the vote. The election was described as being "reasonably fair", although there were some noted irregularities.
In [[1998]] an armed insurgency began in the north, led by President Déby's former defence chief, [[Youssouf Togoimi]]. A Libyan-brokered peace deal in [[2002]] failed to put an end to the fighting.
In [[2003]] and [[2004]], unrest in neighbouring [[Sudan]]'s [[Darfur]] region spilled across the border, along with many thousands of refugees.
On [[December 23]], [[2005]], Chad announced that it was in a [[Chad-Sudan conflict|"state of war" with Sudan]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4556576.stm] [[The Organisation of the Islamic Conference]](OIC) has urged Sudan and Chad to exercise [[self-restraint]] to defuse growing tension between the two neighboring countries.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4559254.stm]
On [[February 8]], [[2006]], Chad and Sudan signed the Tripoli Agreement, ending the Chad-Sudan conflict. This agreement prohibits either country from beginning media campaigns against one another, and also from interfering with the others internal affairs. [http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L08583702.htm]
==Politics==
{{election chad}}
A strong executive branch headed by President Déby of the [[Patriotic Salvation Movement]] dominates the Chadian political system. Déby was elected constitutionally in [[1996]] and [[2001]], although international observers noted irregularities in the election process. The president of Chad was limited to two terms until Déby had that constitutional provision removed in [[2005]]. The president is elected by universal suffrage for those over 18. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister (re-instated after the removal of Habré) and the [[Council of State of Chad|Council of State]] (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad&rsquo;s parastatal firms. Chad's legislative branch consists of a [[unicameral]] [[National Assembly of Chad|National Assembly]]. Its judicial branch consists of a [[Supreme Court of Chad|Supreme Court]], a [[Court of Appeal of Chad|Court of Appeal]], criminal courts, and magistrate courts.
==Subdivisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of Chad}}
Since 2002, Chad has been divided into 18 regions, each of which is made up of 2&ndash;4 departments, although, in 2004, another round of redistricting took place, creating several new regions and prefectures. Implementation of the new plan has been slow on the ground, however. The regions approximately correspond with [[Prefectures of Chad|14 prefectures]] which existed up to 1999.
Regions:
*[[Batha Region|Batha]]
*[[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti]]
*[[Chari-Baguirmi]]
*[[Guéra]]
*[[Hadjer-Lamis]]
*[[Kanem (region)|Kanem]]
*[[Lac Prefecture|Lac]]
*[[Logone Occidental]]
*[[Logone Oriental]]
*[[Mandoul]]
*[[Mayo-Kebbi East]] (previously part of [[Mayo-Kébbi Prefecture|Mayo-Kebbi]])
*[[Mayo-Kebbi West]] (previously part of Mayo-Kebbi)
*[[Moyen-Chari]]
*[[Ouaddaï]]
*[[Salamat ]]
*[[Tandjilé]]
*[[Wadi Fira]] (previously [[Biltine Prefecture|Biltine]])
*[[Ndjamena]]
==Geography==
[[Image:Cd-map.png|thumb|Map of Chad]]
{{main|Geography of Chad}}
Chad is a landlocked country in north central Africa measuring 1,284,000 [[square kilometer]]s (496,000&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi.]]) south of Libya. Chad has 5,968 [[kilometer]]s (3,708&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of border against [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Libya]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Sudan]]. Chad has four climatic zones: it has broad, arid plains in center, [[desert]] in north, dry [[mountain]]s in northwest, and tropical lowlands in south. Only 3% of Chad is [[arable land]] and none of it has [[permanent crop]]s. Environmental hazards in Chad include hot, dry, dusty [[harmattan]] winds occur in north, periodic [[drought]]s, and [[locust]] plagues. [[Lake Chad]], which is in Chad and Cameroon, was once the second-largest lake in Africa but has shrunk dramatically during the last few decades and is now down to less than 10% of its former size. The people of Chad are known as Chadian.
==Terrain==
{{main|Terrain of Chad}}
Chad’s terrain is dominated by the low-lying Chad Basin (elevation about 250 m&nbsp;/&nbsp;820 ft), which rises gradually to mountains and plateaus on the north, east, and south. In the east heights of more than 900 [[metre]]s (3,000&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) are attained in the Ennedi and Ouaddaï plateaus. The greatest elevations are reached in the Tibesti massif in the north, with a maximum height of 3,415 metres (11,204&nbsp;ft) at Emi Koussi. The northern half of the |
ia]]
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[[se:Juovlamánu 12.]]
[[sco:12 December]]
[[sq:12 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:12 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 12]]
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[[fi:12. joulukuuta]]
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[[tl:Disyembre 12]]
[[tt:12. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 12]]
[[th:12 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:12 tháng 12]]
[[tr:12 Aralık]]
[[uk:12 грудня]]
[[wa:12 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 12]]
[[zh:12月12日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 12]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dredgers</title>
<id>8634</id>
<revision>
<id>15906606</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-30T19:06:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GregoryWeir</username>
<id>86989</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Made this a redirect to [[Dredge]]. See [[Talk:Dredge]] for details.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dredge]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dirt speedway racing</title>
<id>8636</id>
<revision>
<id>32736867</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T04:31:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Drover</username>
<id>92133</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dirt track racing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Door</title>
<id>8637</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41456753</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T13:32:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick</username>
<id>4388</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Types of doors */ Sometimes a door, though not just sliding, stays parallel to the wall while opening and closing.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the architectural element|the rock band|The Doors}}
[[Image:House front door.jpg|right|thumb|The front door of a house is often [[decoration|decorated]] to appear inviting.]]
A '''door''' is a generally floor-length opening in a wall (or other partition), often equipped with a hinged or sliding panel which can be moved to leave the opening accessible, or to close it more or less securely. Doors are nearly universal in structures of all kinds (especially [[house]]s and other [[building]]s), allowing passage between inside and outside, or among internal [[room]]s. Doors are also found in [[vehicle]]s, [[cupboard]]s, [[cage (enclosure)|cage]]s, etc.
The purpose of a door opening is:
*to allow people, [[animal]]s and objects to pass
*for [[ventilation]]
The purpose of a door closure is:
*preventing passage of air; reducing air drafts and creating an enclosed space that can be heated or cooled more effectively ([[revolving door]]s are especially efficient for this purpose)
*[[privacy]] and [[noise]] reduction
*keeping occupants inside a vehicle
*regulation of access, especially when combined with various types of [[Locksmithing|locks]]
*for [[aesthetics]] (e.g. cupboard doors cutting off view of the contents)
*to help prevent the spread of [[fire]]
Doors and doorways can also appear in metaphorical or mystical situations; for example, a spiritualist might speak of "opening a door to the other world".
Doors can have ritual purposes (one example concerns the doorkeeping duties of the [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]]).
The term ''door'' can refer either to the opening or to the movable panel which closes it. The term ''doorway'' can be used to refer specifically to the opening. When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical ''jambs'' on either side, a ''lintel'' or ''head jamb'' at the top, and perhaps a ''threshold'' at the bottom.
See [[door furniture]] for a discussion of attachments to doors such as [[doorhandle]]s and [[doorknob]]s.
==Types of doors==
[[Image:Namdroling.Temple.India.Door.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A [[decoration|decorated]] door from the [[Tibet]]an [[Namdroling]] [[monastery]], southern [[India]].]]
A door may slide or [[rotation|rotate]]. Sometimes a door, though not just sliding, stays parallel to the wall while opening and closing.
Sliding is usually horizontal. In opened position the door may be exposed on one side; a person leaning on that side when the door is closed, can be hurt when the door is opened. Also an object can obstruct the door. Sometimes the door is constructed such that in closed state the sliding door forms a smooth continuation of the wall, e.g. in the case of a sliding side door of a vehicle.
The door may also slide between two panels ([[pocket door]]).
In the case of rotation, the axis of rotation is usually vertical, but e.g. for garage doors often horizontal, above the door opening. Sometimes the axis of rotation is, with a special construction, not in the plane of the door, on the other side than that in which the door opens, to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens. This is sometimes the case in a train, for the door to the toilet, opening inward.
Many kinds of doors have specific names, depending on their purpose. The most common variety of door consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway, [[hinge]]d along one side so that it can fold away from the doorway in one direction but not in the other. Many variations on this basic design are possible, such as "double" doors that have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway.
A '''trapdoor''' is a door that is oriented horizontally in a [[floor]] or [[ceiling]], often accessed via a [[ladder]].
A '''stable door''' is divided in half horizontally. The top half can be opened to allow the [[horse]] to be fed, while the bottom half can be closed to keep the animal inside. Stable doors are also known as [[dutch door]]s.
A '''swing door''' has special hinges that allow it to open either outwards or inwards, and is usually sprung to keep it closed. '''Saloon doors''' are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars.
A '''blind door''' is a door with no passage, a 'fake' door that is actually part of the wall. It is used for decorative purposes.
An '''up-and-over''' door is often used in garages. Instead of hinges it has a mechanism, often counter[[balance]]d or [[torsion spring|sprung]], that allows it to be lifted so that it rests horizontally above the opening.
A '''barn door''' is a door on a [[barn (building)|barn]]. It is often/always found on barns, and because of a barn's immense size (often) doors are subsequently big for utility.
A '''French door''' is a door that has multiple lights, the full length of the door. Traditional French doors are assembled from individual small pieces of [[glass]] and [[mullion]]s. French doors made of double-pane glass (on exterior doors for insulation reasons) may have the decorative grill embedded between the panes. The decorative grill may also be superimposed on top of single pane of glass in the door.
A '''louvre door''' has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called [[slats]]) which permit open [[ventilation]] whilst preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior. Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for [[Wardrobe|wardrobes]] and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form [[Window shutter|window shutters]].
A '''flush door''' is a completely smooth, panelled door, having [[plywood]] or [[Medium-density fibreboard|MDF]] fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material. Flush doors are most commonly employed in the interior of a dwelling, although slightly more substantial versions are occasionally used as exterior doors, especially within hotels and other buildings containing many independent dwellings.
A '''ledge and brace door''' is a door made from multiple vertical planks fixed together by two horizontal planks (the ledges) and kept square by a diagonal plank (the brace).
[[Image:Automatic door mace 1.jpg|thumb|Mechanism of the sliding door of a lift]]
A '''garden door''' is any door that opens to a [[garden]] or backyard. It is often used specifically for double French doors in place of a sliding glass door. In such a configuration, it has the advantage of a very large opening for moving large objects in and out.
A '''pet door''' is an opening in a door to allow [[pet]]s to enter and exit without the main door being opened. It may be simply covered by a [[rubber]] flap or it may be an actual door hinged on the top that the pet can push through. [[Pet door]]s may be mounted in a sliding glass door as a new (permanent or temporary) panel. Pet doors may be unidirectional, only allowing pets to exit. Pet doors may be electronic, only allowing pets with a special electronic tag to enter.
A '''[[revolving door]]''' is a type of door that typically consists of a structure with three or four panels that meet in the center and rotate one way about a vertical axis (sometimes the movement is not in a circle, but following a more complicated path, a combination of rotation and translation). Between the point of access and the point of exit the user walks between two moving panels. The door may be motorized or the user needs to push the front panel, and the space between two panels may be designed for multiple users or a single one. This door design is used primarily to maintain an air seal from the outside, thus minimizing leaking of [[climate control]]led air from the building and the resulting expense of compensating for the loss. This type of door is also often seen as a mark of [[prestige (sociology)|prestige]] and [[glamour]] for a building and it not unusual for neighbouring buildings to install their own revolving doors when a rival building gets one.
'''Automatic doors''' are powered open and closed, a door fitted with a sprin |
al character from the [[manga]] and [[anime]] series [[Inuyasha]] uses a boomerang that's length is about the same as her height.
* The [[GAT-X105_Strike_Gundam|Strike Gundam]], [[ZGMF-X09A_Justice_Gundam|Justice Gundam]], and [[ZGMF-X56S Impulse Gundam|Impulse Gundam]] from the [[anime]] series [[Gundam Seed]] and its sequel [[Gundam Seed Destiny]] are all equipped with beam boomerangs.
==Boomerang quotes==
"Remember, you are the target!" a traditional warning to beginning hurlers.
==Related terms==
A '''Kylie''' is one of the Aboriginal words for the hunting stick used in warfare and for hunting animals. Instead of following a curved flight path, it flies in a straight line from the thrower. They are typically much larger than boomerangs. It can travel very long distances, and due to its size and hook shape can cripple or kill an animal. The word is perhaps an English corruption of a word meaning ''boomerang'' taken from one of the Western Desert languages, for example, the [[Warlpiri]] word ''karli''.
==Related links==
* [http://www.boomerang.org.au/articles/article-what-is-a-boomerang.html Boomerang Association of Australia: What is a Boomerang?] <!-- We should really merge info from this source -->
* [http://www.rediboom.com/englisch/geschich/index.html History of Boomerangs]
* [http://www.boomerang.org.au/articles/article-boomerang-competition-events.html Boomerang Association of Australia: Boomerang Competition Events]
* [http://www.boomerang.org.au/articles/article-boomerang-glossary.html Boomerang Association of Australia: Boomerang Glossary]
* [http://www.ifba-online.com/ International Federation of Boomerang Associations]
* [http://www.bumerangue.com/ Bumerangue.com: Further information, and vídeos, to download - Brazilian Site]
* [http://www.bumerangue.com.br/ Bahadara Sports - Brazilian Site]
* [http://www.master-designs.com/ Master Designs Boomerangs - Midwest USA]
* [http://www.baggressive.com/ All about long distance boomerangs]
* [http://www.freewebs.com/smallestboomerang/index.htm/ World's Smallest Boomerang]
[[Category:Boomerangs]]
[[Category:Sporting goods]]
[[Category:Throwing weapons]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[bg:Бумеранг]]
[[da:Boomerang]]
[[de:Bumerang]]
[[es:Boomerang]]
[[fr:Boomerang]]
[[he:בומרנג]]
[[hu:Bumeráng]]
[[nl:Boemerang]]
[[no:Bumerang]]
[[ja:ブーメラン]]
[[pl:Bumerang]]
[[pt:Bumerangue]]
[[ru:Бумеранг]]
[[sl:Bumerang]]
[[sv:Bumerang]]
[[tr:Bumerang]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bodybuilding</title>
<id>4360</id>
<revision>
<id>42111119</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:15:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skookum1</username>
<id>534835</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The "Golden Age" */ added golden era bodybuilding names - Reeves, Park etc.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dsc0047.JPG|thumb|200px|Swedish bodybuilder [[Anders Graneheim]].]]
'''Bodybuilding''' is the process of developing [[muscle]] fibers through the combination of [[weight training]], increased [[calorie|caloric]] intake, and rest. Someone who engages in this activity is referred to as a '''bodybuilder'''. As a [[sport]], called ''competitive bodybuilding'', bodybuilders display their physiques to a panel of [[judge]]s, who assign points based on their [[aesthetic]] appearance.
Arguably the most famous bodybuilder in the world is [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], whose [[Hollywood]] [[Actor|acting]] career was launched after his success in bodybuilding. His acting career was boosted by his appearance in the bodybuilding [[documentary film]] [[Pumping Iron]] after winning the 1975 [[Mr. Olympia]] title. This film also helped another bodybuilder, [[Lou Ferrigno]], to get the part of [[The Incredible Hulk (TV Series)|The Incredible Hulk]] in the 1980s [[TV series]].
== History ==
As a sport of aesthetics, bodybuilding can be traced back to the [[11th century]] in [[India]] where athletes created their own [[dumbell]]s (called ''Nals'') out of [[rock (geology)|stone]] and [[wood]]. There is also evidence that they created the first kind of [[gym]]s around this period.
=== Early years ===
[[Image:Eugen Sandow.jpg|thumb|200px|Eugen Sandow]]
Bodybuilding did not really gain popularity until the late [[19th century]], when the sport was promoted by the [[Germany|German]] [[Eugen Sandow]] - who is now often referred to as the "Father of modern bodybuilding". He is credited with inventing and selling the first machine made dumbbells. Sandow organised the first ever bodybuilding contest on [[September 14]], [[1901]] called the "Great Competition" and held in the [[Royal Albert Hall]], [[London]], [[UK]]. Judged by himself, [[Charles Lawes|Sir Charles Lawes]], and [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] the contest was a huge success and was a sell-out with hundreds of fans turned away. The trophy presented to the winner was a bronze statue of Sandow himself sculpted by [[Frederick Pomeroy]]. This statue (known as "The Sandow") has been presented to the [[Mr. Olympia]] winner since [[1977]] [http://www.sandowmuseum.com/mrolympia.html].
In the early [[20th century]], [[Bernarr Macfadden]] and [[Charles Atlas]], continued to promote bodybuilding across the world.
=== The "Golden Age" ===
The period of around [[1940]] to [[1970]] is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of bodybuilding due to the judging emphasis on muscular symmetry and definition (rather than size). During this time training techniques improved, more publications hit the shelves, and more contests were held. In this period bodybuilding was typified by [[Muscle Beach]] in [[Santa Monica, California]], [[United States|US]]. Famous names in bodybuilding from this period were [[Steve Reeves]] (notable in his day for portraying Hercules and other sword-and-sandals heroes), [[Reg Park]], [[John Grimek]], [[Larry Scott]], and [[Bill Pearl]].
Due to the rise in popularity, the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] (AAU) added a bodybuilding competition to their existing weightlifting contest in [[1939]] - the next year this competition was named [[AAU Mr. America]]. Around the mid-[[1940s]] most bodybuilders became annoyed with the AAU since they only allowed amateur competitors and they place more focus on the Olympic sport of weightlifting. This caused brothers [[Ben Weider|Ben]] and [[Joe Weider]] to form the [[International Federation of BodyBuilders]] (IFBB) - which organised their competing [[IFBB Mr. America]] which was open to professional athletes.
In [[1950]], another organisation, the [[National Amateur Bodybuilders Association]] (NABBA) started their [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] contest in [[England]]. Another major contest, [[Mr. Olympia]] was first held in [[1965]] - this is currently the most prestigious title in bodybuilding.
Initially contests were for men only, but the NABBA added Miss Universe in [[1965]] and Miss Olympia was started in [[1980]]. See [[Female bodybuilding#History]] for more.
=== 1970s onwards ===
In the [[1970s]], bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and the [[1977]] film [[Pumping Iron]]. By this time the IFBB dominated the sport and the AAU took a back seat.
This period also saw the rise of [[anabolic steroid]]s both in bodybuilding and many other sports. To combat this, and to be allowed to be an [[IOC]] member, the IFBB introduced strict doping tests for both steroids and other banned substances.
In the early 2000's, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport. It obtained full IOC membership in [[2000]] and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen. Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since some argue that bodybuilding is not a sport because the actual contest does not involve athletic effort. Also, some still have the misperception that bodybuilding necessarily involves the use of anabolic steroids, which are prohibited in Olympic competitions. Proponents argue that the posing routine requires skill and preparation, and bodybuilding should therefore be considered a sport.
In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to AMI, who owns the National Enquirer. Ben Weider is still the president of the IFBB. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB. AMI took over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest.
=== Female Bodybuilding ===
{{main|Female bodybuilding}}
In the [[1970s]] women began to take part in bodybuilding competitions. Extremely popular at first, the interest in the competitive side of female bodybuilding has waned sharply in recent years even though more women than ever are training with weights.
== Sport ==
<!-- Unsourced image Image:Arnold-flexing.jpg removed -->
''For biographies of professional bodybuilders see [[list of professional bodybuilders]] and [[:Category:Bodybuilders]]''
In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to develop and maintain an [[aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing (by bodybuilding standards) body and balanced physique. The competitors show off their bodies by performing a number of poses - bodybuilders spend time practicing their posing routine as this has a large effect on how they are judged.
A bodybuilder's size and shape are far more important than how much he or she can lift. The sport should therefore not be confused with [[strongman (strength athlete)|strongman]] competition or [[powerlifting]], where emphasis is on actual physical [[strength]], or with [[weightlifting|Olympic weightlifting]], where emphasis is equally split between strength and technique. Though superficially similar to the casual observer, the fields entail a different regimen of training, [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and basic [[motivation]]. |
ied]
*[http://www.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/130/4/942S Receptor and Transduction Processes for Umami Taste]
*[http://hum-molgen.org/NewsGen/11-2003/msg11.html Researchers Define Molecular Basis of Human "Sweet Tooth" and Umami Taste]
{{Gustatory_system}}
[[Category:Gustatory system]]
[[bg:Основен вкус]]
[[de:Gustatorische Wahrnehmung]]
[[nl:Zuur (smaak)]]
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[[ru:Вкус]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biological virus</title>
<id>3849</id>
<revision>
<id>15902161</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-12T04:59:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[virus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baseball</title>
<id>3850</id>
<revision>
<id>42160056</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:28:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.208.112.185</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Strategy and goals */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sport, for a [[disambiguation]] on unrelated [[computer and video games]] entitled '''Baseball''' or similar names, see [[Baseball (computer game)]].''
{{portal}}
'''Baseball''' is a team [[sport]] in which a player on one team (the [[pitcher]]) attempts to throw a hard, fist-sized [[ball]] past a player on the other team (the [[batting (baseball)|batter]]), who attempts to hit the [[baseball (object)|baseball]] with a tapered, smooth, cylindrical stick called a [[baseball bat|bat]].
A team scores only when batting, by advancing past a series of four markers called [[baseball field|bases]] arranged at the corners of a square.
Baseball is sometimes called ''hardball'' to differentiate it from [[List of sports similar to baseball|similar games]] such as [[softball]].
[[Image:Busch Stadium.jpg|thumb|200px|A view of the playing field at the old [[Busch Stadium]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]].]]
[[Image:Fenway_park.jpg|thumb|right|Picture of [[Fenway Park]]. Part of the "[[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]]" can be seen lurking on the right side of this picture]]
Baseball is most popular in [[the Americas]] and [[East Asia]] (although in [[South America]] only in the extreme northern portion). In [[Japan]], [[Sports in Puerto Rico#Baseball|Puerto Rico]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Cuba]], [[Panama]], [[Venezuela]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]], it is one of the most popular sports. In the [[United States]] (the birthplace of baseball), baseball has long been regarded as more than just a "[[major sport]]" - it is the ''[[national pastime]]'' and [[Major League Baseball]] has been given a unique monopoly status by the [[U.S. Congress]]; the total attendance for [[Major League Baseball|Major League]] games is roughly equal to that of all other American professional team sports combined. Among American television viewers, however, baseball has been surpassed in popularity (in terms of television ratings) by [[American football]]. Although three of the four most popular sports in North America are [[ball]] games (baseball, [[basketball]] and American football), baseball's popularity grew so great that the word "ballgame" in the United States usually but not always refers to a game of baseball, and "ballpark" to a [[baseball field]]. Of notable exception is in the south, where football is more popular and "ballgame" is used more frequently in association with that sport.
==Introduction==
Baseball is among the oldest and most popular team sports in the United States. A unique culture surrounds it, which includes the game itself, the field, the players, the ballparks, and the fans. It remains a sport created in and for simpler times, yet is a complex sport that is greater than any one individual, team, or era.
Although the origins and evolution of the various bat-and-ball games are murky, baseball is primarily an American invention. However, many believe that it originated as an adaptation of the game of [[rounders]], and was also influenced by the rules of [[cricket]]. As far back as the 1870s, American newspapers were referring to baseball as "The National Pastime" or "The National Game." A substantial part of baseball's appeal is that most of the games take place during the warm, relatively leisurely months of the year, which is why many people refer to baseball players as "The Boys of Summer."
Baseball is a perennial attraction&#8212;summarized below in [[#Baseball's unique style|Baseball's unique style]]&#8212;unlike any other mainstream, American sport. Many people believe that baseball is the ultimate combination of skill, timing, athleticism, and strategy. [[Yogi Berra]] (a [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] baseball player) once said: "Baseball is 90% mental&#8212;the other half is physical."
The following section on [[#Gameplay|Gameplay]] provides the rules of game, but the lure of baseball is in its subtleties: situational defense, pitch location, pitch sequence, statistics, ball parks, history, and player personalities. For the avid fan, the game&#8212;even during its slowest points&#8212;is never boring because of these nuances. Therefore, a full appreciation of baseball naturally requires some knowledge of the rules; it also requires deep observation of those endearing and enduring qualities that give baseball its unique style. Again, in the words of Yogi Berra, "You can observe a lot just by watching."
==Gameplay==
A simplified version of the rules of baseball is at [[simplified baseball rules]]. Also visit [http://www.mlb.com www.mlb.com], the official web site of Major League Baseball in the United States, where you can view clips of baseball being played during the baseball season (April-October).
===General structure===
[[Image:baseball field overview thumbnail.png|thumb|300px|right|Diagram of a [[baseball diamond]].]]
Baseball is played between two teams of nine players each on a [[baseball field]], under the authority of one or more officials, called [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]]s. There are usually four umpires in major league games; up to six (and as few as one) may officiate depending on the league and the importance of the game. There are four ''[[base (baseball)|bases]]''. Numbered [[counter-clockwise]], first, second and third bases are cushions (sometimes informally referred to as ''bags'') shaped as 15&nbsp;[[inch|in]] (38&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) squares which are raised a short distance above the ground; together with [[home plate]], the fourth "base," they form a square with sides of 90&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (27.4&nbsp;[[metre|m]]) called the [[diamond (shape)|diamond]]. Home base (plate) is a pentagonal rubber slab known as simply ''home''. The field is divided into two main sections:
-The ''infield'', containing the four bases, is for defensive and conversational purposes bounded by the foul lines and the grass line (see figure). However, the infield technically consists of only the area within and including the bases and foul lines.
-The ''outfield'', which is the grassed area beyond the infield grass line (for general purposes; see above under infield), between the foul lines, and bounded by a wall or fence. Again, there is a technical difference; properly speaking, the outfield consists of all fair ground beyond the square of the infield and its bases. The area between the foul lines, including the foul lines (the foul lines are in fair territory), is fair territory, and the area outside the foul lines is foul territory.
The game is played in nine [[innings#Baseball|innings]] in which each team gets one turn to [[#Batting|bat]] and try to score ''[[run (baseball)|runs]]'' while the other pitches and defends in the field. In baseball, the defense always has the ball -- a fact that differentiates it from most other team sports. The teams switch every time the defending team gets three players of the batting team ''[[out (baseball)|out]]''. The winner is the team with the most runs after nine innings. In the case of a tie, additional innings are played until one team comes out ahead at the end of an inning (if the visitors are ahead) or in an incomplete inning (if the home team scores to take the lead in its half of an extra inning, the game ends at that point). At the start of the game, all nine players of the home team play the field, while players on the visiting team come to bat one at a time.
[[Image:Baseball swing.jpg|thumb|left|A batter follows through after swinging at a pitched ball.]]
The basic contest is always between the ''[[pitcher]]'' for the fielding team, and a ''[[Batter (baseball)|batter]]''. The pitcher throws—''[[pitch (baseball)|pitches]]''—the ball towards home plate, where the ''[[catcher]]'' for the fielding team waits (in a crouched stance) to receive it. Behind the catcher stands the home plate umpire. The batter stands in one of the [[batter's box|batter's boxes]] and tries to hit the ball with a bat. The pitcher must keep one foot in contact with the top or front of the pitcher's rubber—a 24" x 6" (~ 61 cm x 15 cm) plate located atop the pitcher's mound—during the entire pitch, so he can only take one step backward and one forward in delivering the ball. The catcher's job is to receive any ball that the batter misses or does not swing at, and to "call" the game by a series of hand movements that signal to the pitcher what pitch to throw and where. If the pitcher disagrees with the call, he will "shake off" the catcher by shaking his head no; he accepts the sign by nodding. The catcher's role becomes more crucial depending on how the game is going, and how the pitcher responds to a given s |
l's victory at Tours, and his later campaigns, prevented invasion of Europe while the unified Caliphate was able to do so. In doing so, Martel probably preserved Christianity and [[western civilisation]] as we know it. Although it took another two generations for the Franks to drive all the Arab garrisons out of Septimania and across the Pyrenees, Charles Martel's halt of the invasion of French soil turned the tide of Islamic advances, and the unification of the Frankish kingdoms under Martel, his son Pippin the Younger, and his grandson Charlemagne created a western power which prevented the Emirate of Córdoba from expanding over the Pyrenees. Martel, who in 732 was on the verge of excommunication, instead was recognised by the Church as its paramount defender. [[Pope Gregory II]] wrote him more than once, asking his protection and aid [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html], and he remained, till his death, fixated on stopping the Muslims. Martel's son kept his father's promise and returned and took Narbonne by siege in [[759]], and his grandson, Charlamagne, actually established the ''Marca Hispanica'' across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in [[785]] and Barcelona in [[801]]. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Islam, which became the basis, along with the King of Asturias, named Pelayo (718-737, who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of [[Covadonga]], 722) and his descendants, for the Reconquista until all of the Muslims were expelled from Iberia.
===Military legacy===
In his vision of what would be necessary for him to withstand a larger force and superior technology (the Muslim horsemen had the [[stirrup]], which made the first [[knight]]s possible), he, daring not to send his few horsemen against the Islamic cavalry, trained his army to fight in a formation used by the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]]s to withstand superior numbers and weapons by discipline, courage, and a willingness to die for their cause: a phalanx. After using this infantry force by itself at Tours, he studied the foe's forces, and further adapted to them. After 732, he began the integration of heavy cavalry, using the stirrup, and mailed armour, into his army, and trained his infantry to fight in conjunction with cavalry, a tactic which stood him in good stead during his campaigns of 736-7, especially at the Battle of Narbonne. Martel's ability to use what he had, integrate new ideas and technology, earned him his reputation for brilliant generalship in an age generally bereft of same, and was the reason he was undefeated from 716 to his death, against a wide range of opponents, including the Muslim cavalry, at that time the world's best.
The defeats Martel inflicted on the Muslims were absolutely vital in that the split in the Islamic world left the [[Caliphate]] unable to mount an all out attack on Europe via its Iberian stronghold after [[750]]. His ability to meet this challenge, until the Muslims self destructed, is of macrohisorical importance, and is why [[Dante]] writes of him in Heaven as one of the "Defenders of the Faith." The struggle between the [[Umayyad]]s and the [[Abbasid]]s, which came to a head during this period, left the Arabs unable to mount another massive invasion before they lost the base they needed from which to do it. The door to Europe, the Iberian emirate, was in the hands of the Umayyads, while most of the remainder of the Muslim world came under the control of the Abbasids, making an invasion of Europe a logistical impossibility while the two Muslim empires battled. There was no unified Caliphate to mount an invasion, and no foothold to launch such an invasion from. Instead, al-Andalus (Umayyad Emirate was busy fighting off challenges from the Abbasids in Bagdad to think of invading Europe) and the Abbasid caliphate needed the foothold in Iberia which they lacked. This put off invasion of Europe until the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] conquest of the [[Balkans]] half a millennium later.
It is also interesting that the Northmen did not begin their horrific raids until after the death of Martel's grandson, Charlemagne. They had the naval capacity to begin those raids at least three generations earlier, but chose not to challenge Martel, his son Pippin, or his grandson, Charlemagne. This was probably fortunate for Martel, who despite his enormous gifts, would probably not have been able to beat off the Vikings in addition to the Muslims.
==Family and children==
Charles Martel married two times:
#[[Chrotrud]] or Rotrude ([[690]]-[[724]]), with children:
## Hiltrude (d. 754), married [[Odilo of Bavaria|Odilo I of Bavaria]], [[Duke of Bavaria]].
## [[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]]
## Landres of Hesbaye, married [[Sigrand, Count of Hesbania]].
## Auda or Alane Martel, married Thierry IV, Count of Autun and Toulouse.
## [[Pippin the Younger]]
#[[Swanachild]], with child:
## [[Grifo]]
## [[Bernhard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]] (b. ca. 700)
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Arnulfing|Arnulfing Dynasty]]||676||741}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Pepin II the Middle]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Mayors of the Palaces|Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia]]|years=[[714]]&ndash;[[741]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ragenfrid]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Mayors of the Palaces|Mayor of the Palace of Neustria]]|years=[[717]]&ndash;[[741]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pepin III the Younger]]}}
{{end}}
==External links==
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199302/the.arabs.in.occitania.htm Ian Meadows, "The Arabs in Occitania"]: A sketch giving the context of the conflict from the Arab point of view.
*http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm ''Poke's edition of Creasy's 15 Most Important Battles Ever Fought '''ACCORDING TO EDWARD SHEPHERD CREASY Chapter VII. THE BATTLE OF TOURS, A.D. 732.'''
==References==
*Watson, William E., [http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/watson2.htm "The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited"], ''Providence: Studies in Western Civilization'', 2 (1993)
*Poke,[http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm The Battle of Tours], from Sir Edward Creasy, MA, ''Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo''
*Edward Gibbon, [http://print.google.com/print?id=xqfhvfOhW3EC&dq=+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire+and+the+battle+of+tours,&oi=print&pg=PA392&sig=Jv43d1TFi_CI9fHPKIbtsHHsmy0&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26q%3D%2BDecline%2Band%2BFall%2Bof%2Bthe%2BRoman%2BEmpire%2Band%2Bthe%2Bbattle%2Bof%2Btours%252C%26btnG%3DSearch The Battle of Tours], ''[[Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''
*Richard Hooker, [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/ISLAM/UMAY.HTM "Civil War and the Umayyads"]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Tours.html The Battle of Tours 732], from the "[[Jewish Virtual Library]]" website: A division of the [[American-Israeli Cooperative]].
*[http://www.lbdb.com/TMDisplayBattle.cfm?BID=250 Tours,Poiters], from "[[Leaders and Battles Database]]" online.
*Robert W. Martin, [http://militaryhistory.about.com/b/a/118230.htm "The Battle of Tours is still felt today"], from [[about.com]]
*Santosuosso, Anthony, ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels'' ISBN 0-8133-9153-9
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts] from the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739]
*Bennett, Bradsbury, Devries, Dickie and Jestice, ''Fighting Tehniques of the Medieval World''
[[Category:686 births]]
[[Category:741 deaths]]
[[Category:Frankish people]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[bg:Карл Мартел]]
[[ca:Carles Martell]]
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[[es:Carlos Martel]]
[[fr:Charles Martel]]
[[it:Carlo Martello]]
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[[fi:Kaarle Martel]]
[[sv:Karl Martell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Edward Jones</title>
<id>6456</id>
<revision>
<id>36578424</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T01:19:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:U.S. Air Force officers]] → [[Category:United States Air Force officers]]. Requested change by [[User:Syrthiss|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Colonel '''Charles Edward''' ("'''Chuck'''") '''Jones''' ([[November 8]], [[1952]] - [[September 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[computer programmer]], a [[Manned Spaceflight Engineer]], and a [[payload specialist]] for the [[Space Shuttle]].
Jones was born in [[Clinton, Indiana|Clinton]], [[Indiana]]. He entered [[NASA]]'s [[astronaut]] group in [[1982]], and was scheduled to fly on mission STS-71-B in December [[1986]], but the mission was cancelled after the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]] Disaster in January [[1986]]. He left the space service in [[1987]].
He was killed at the age of 48 in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks of September 11, 2001]], aboard [[American Airlines Flight 11]]. He had been living as a retired [[US Air Force]] Colonel in [[Bedford, Massachusetts|Bedford]], [[Massachusetts]], at the time of his death. He was survived by his wife Jeanette.
''See also:'' [[:sep11:|Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks|]]
== References ==
* "[http://www.space.com/news/charles_jones_010916.html Former Military Astronaut Among Hijack Victims]", an article by Robert Pearlman on the SPACE.com website, dated September 16, 2001 |
frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to what they saw as British support of [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] resistance to the [[westward expansion of the United States]]. The early strategy was to temporarily seize Canada as a means of forcing concessions from the British. As the war progressed, however, outright annexation was more frequently cited as a war aim. Many Americans hoped the Canadians would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. The war ended as a stalemate, and animosity gradually lessened over the 19th century as commercial and cultural ties grew.
A [[Oregon boundary dispute|boundary dispute]] in the [[Oregon Country]] (''Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!'') was the most serious disturbance, but was peacefully resolved. In the 1930s, the United States studied plans to invade Canada in [[War Plan Red]], albeit as an academic exercise.
Following co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global superpower declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the [[Cold War]].
The Canadian military supported the U.S. in most major wars, including the [[Korean War]], the [[Gulf War]], the [[Kosovo War]], and the [[War on Terror]]. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues military relations have remained close.
==Defense==
U.S. defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The [[Permanent Joint Board on Defense]], established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share [[NATO]] mutual security commitments. In addition, U.S. and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]).
==Trade==
Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 [[Canadian-American Free Trade Agreement]] there have been no [[tariff]]s on most goods passed between the two countries.
With such a massive trading relationship, trade disputes between the two countries are frequent and inevitable. Americans have placed ongoing tariffs on Canadian [[US - Canada softwood lumber dispute|softwood lumber]] despite losing various appeals placed by Canada in the NAFTA and WTO panels. The softwood lumber dispute remains a growing issue between the two countries and is degrading the trade relationship on both sides of the border. Other notable disputes include the [[Canadian Wheat Board]], and Canadian cultural "restrictions" on magazines and television (See [[CRTC]], [[CBC]] and [[National Film Board of Canada]]). Canadians have complained about such things as the ban on [[beef]] since a case of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Mad Cow]] disease was discovered in 2003 (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11, which many worry makes it difficult for the Canadian government to protect Canada's environment.
One ongoing and complex trade issue involves the importation of cheaper [[prescription drugs]] from Canada to the United States. Due to the Canadian government's [[price controls]] as part of their state-run medical system, prices for prescription drugs can be a fraction of the price paid by consumers in the unregulated U.S. market. While laws in the United States have been passed at the national level against such sales, specific state and local governments have passed their own legislation to allow the trade to continue. Drug companies--often supporters of political campaigns--have obviously come out against the practice.
According to a 2003 study commissioned by the Canadian Embassy in the United States, based on 2001 data, Canada-U.S. [[trade]] supported 5.2 million U.S. jobs.
{| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[U.S. State]]
!U.S. Jobs Supported
!Rank
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Alabama.svg|20px]] [[Alabama]]
|72,000||24
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Alaska.svg|20px]] [[Alaska]]
|13,000||48
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Arizona.svg|20px]] [[Arizona]]
|89,000||22
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Arkansas.svg|20px]] [[Arkansas]]
|45,000||32
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of California.svg|20px]] [[California]]
|626,000||1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Colorado.svg|20px]] [[Colorado]]
|93,000||21
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Connecticut state flag.png|20px]] [[Connecticut]]||67,000||27
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Delaware state flag.png|20px]] [[Delaware]]||16,000||46
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Florida.svg|20px]] [[Florida]]||289,000||4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Georgia state flag.png|20px]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]||152,000||10
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Hawaii.svg|20px]] [[Hawaii]]||26,000||39
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Idaho state flag.png|20px]] [[Idaho]]||23,000||43
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Illinois state flag.png|20px]] [[Illinois]]||237,000||5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Indiana.svg|20px]] [[Indiana]]||112,000||14
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Iowa state flag.png|20px]] [[Iowa]]||55,000||30
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Kansas state flag.png|20px]] [[Kansas]]||51,000||31
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Kentucky state flag.png|20px]] [[Kentucky]]||69,000||26
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Louisiana state flag.png|20px]] [[Louisiana]]||73,000||23
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Maine state flag.png|20px]] [[Maine]]||24,000||41
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Maryland.svg|20px]] [[Maryland]]||101,000||20
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Massachusetts state flag.png|20px]] [[Massachusetts]]||134,000||13
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Michigan state flag.png|20px]] [[Michigan]]||174,000||8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Minnesota state flag.png|20px]] [[Minnesota]]||103,000||19
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Mississippi.svg|20px]] [[Mississippi]]||43,000||34
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Missouri state flag.png|20px]] [[Missouri]]||108,000||16
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Montana state flag.png|20px]] [[Montana]]||16,000||45
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Nebraska state flag.png|20px]] [[Nebraska]]||36,000||36
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Nevada.svg|20px]] [[Nevada]]||43,000||35
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:New Hampshire state flag.png|20px]] [[New Hampshire]]||24,000||42
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of New Jersey.svg|20px]] [[New Jersey]]||153,000||9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of New Mexico.svg|20px]] [[New Mexico]]||30,000||37
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:New York state flag.png|20px]] [[New York]]||348,000||3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:North Carolina state flag.png|20px]] [[North Carolina]]||151,000||11
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:North Dakota state flag.png|20px]] [[North Dakota]]||13,000||49
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Ohio.svg|20px]] [[Ohio]]||212,000||7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Oklahoma state flag.png|20px]] [[Oklahoma]]||58,000||29
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Oregon state flag.png|20px]] [[Oregon]]||63,000||28
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Pennsylvania state flag.png|20px]] [[Pennsylvania]]||219,000||6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Rhode Island state flag.png|20px]] [[Rhode Island]]||19,000||44
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of South Carolina.svg|20px]] [[South Carolina]]||69,000||25
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:South Dakota state flag.png|20px]] [[South Dakota]]||15,000||47
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Tennessee.svg|20px]] [[Tennessee]]||108,000||15
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Texas.svg|20px]] [[Texas]]||369,000||2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Utah state flag.png|20px]] [[Utah]]||44,000||33
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Vermont state flag.png|20px]] [[Vermont]]||12,000||50
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Virginia.svg|20px]] [[Virginia]]||141,000||12
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Washington.svg|20px]] [[Washington]]||108,000||17
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Washington, D.C..svg|20px]] [[Washington, DC]]||29,000||38
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:West Virginia state flag.png|20px]] [[West Virginia]]||25,000||40
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Wisconsin state flag.png|20px]] [[Wisconsin]]||103,000||18
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[Image:Flag of Wyoming.svg|20px]] [[Wyoming]]||9,000||51
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| '''Total'''
|'''5,210,000 '''
|-
| colspan=3 | http://www.canadianally.com/ca/news/map-en.asp
|}
==En |
focal lengths, be f and f + df, then (1) df/f = dn/(n-1) = 1/n; dn is called the dispersion, and n the dispersive power of the glass.
:'''(b)''' Two thin lenses in contact: let f1 and f2 be the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n1 and n2 and radii r'1, r"1, and r'2, r"2 respectively; let f denote the total power, and df, dn1, dn2 the changes of f, n1, and n2 with the colour. Then the following relations hold: --
::(2) f = f1-f2== (n1 - 1)(1/r'1-1/r''1) +(n2-1)(1/r'2 - 1/r''2) = (n1 - 1)k1 + (n2 - 1)k2; and
::(3) df = k1dn1 + k2dn2. For achromatism df = 0, hence, from (3),
::(4) k1/k2 = -dn2 / dn1, or f1/f2 = -n1/n2. Therefore f1 and f2 must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be composed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the powers of the two must be different (in order that f be not zero (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different (according to 4).
Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false conception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See [[telescope]].)
Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named ''[[Crown glass (optics)|crown glass]]''; that with greater dispersive power, ''[[flint glass]]''. For the construction of an achromatic collective lens (f positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collective lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be postulated: one is always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the ''Herschel'' or ''Fraunhofer Condition,'' the latter being the best vide supra, ''Monochromatic Aberration''). In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nachr., 1856, p. 289). Should the cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, clown glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlidr kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the ''new achromats,'' and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first ''anastigmats'' (photographic objectives).
Instead of making df vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour, then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its chromatic effect (df/f) be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses employed, it is termed ''hyper-chromatic.''
For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition for achromatism is D = v1f1+v2f2; if v1=v2 (e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to D= 1/2 (f1+f2), known as the ''condition for oculars.''
If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other colours, if two different glasses are employed. For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn2/dn1 varies within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the dispersion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, for two colours, a and b, fa = fb = f, then for a third colour, c, the focal length is different; that is, if c lies between a and b, then fc<f, and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass preponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two colours, are called the ''secondary spectrum,'' and depend upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the primary chromatid errors do.
In fig. 11, taken from M. von Rohr,s ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'', the abscissae are focal lengths, and the ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer lines used are--
A' C D Green Hg. F G' Violet Hg. 767.7 656.3 589.3 546.1 486.2 454.1 405.1 mm,
[[Image:ABERR6rev.png|left|]]
and the focal lengths are made equal for the lines C and F. In the neighbourhood of 550 mm the tangent to the curve is parallel to the axis of wave-lengths; and the focal length varies least over a fairly large range of colour, therefore in this neighbourhood the colour union is at its best. Moreover, this region of the spectrum is that which appears brightest to the human eye, and consequently this curve of the secondary on spectrum, obtained by making fc = fF, is, according to the experiments of Sir G. G. Stokes (Proc. Roy. Soc., [[1878]]), the most suitable for visual instruments (''optical achromatism,''). In a similar manner, for systems used in photography, the vertex of the colour curve must be placed in the position of the maximum sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for astronomical photography (''pure actinic achromatism''). For ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordinary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as the ''actinic correction'' or ''freedom from chemical focus'').
Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. fa = fb = fc = f, then the relative partial dispersion (nc-nb) (na-nb) must be equal for the two kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation (4) for the two pairs of colours ac and bc. Until recently no glasses were known with a proportionap degree of absorption; but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which reduced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dispersion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses. In uniting three colours an ''achromatism of a higher order'' is derived; there is yet a residual ''tertiary spectrum,'' but it can always be neglected.
The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochromatic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different for different colours; and should they be compensated for one colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing. The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appropriate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account of the greater dispersion in the negative components -- the flint glasses, -- over-correction will arise for the shorter wavelengths (this being the error of the negative components), and under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be ell |
l under construction)]
*[http://www.ceuta.com/historia/c-historia.html Information on the history of Ceuta (in Spanish)]
*[http://www.ciceuta.es/ Official Ceuta government website (in Spanish)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2131636.stm Spain's North African enclaves]
*[http://www.sandergroen.nl/ceuta/beeld Photos: Ceuta]
*[http://www.sandergroen.nl/ceuta/semanasanta Photos: Semana Santa in Ceuta]
*[http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuta Map of Ceuta and Perejil Island]
{{Spain}}
{{SPprov}}
[[Category:Autonomous communities of Spain]]
[[Category:Exclaves]]
[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Spain]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Spain]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[ar:سبتة]]
[[an:Zeuta]]
[[ast:Ceuta]]
[[bg:Сеута]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ceuta]]
[[ca:Ceuta]]
[[cs:Ceuta]]
[[da:Ceuta]]
[[de:Ceuta]]
[[es:Ceuta]]
[[eo:Ceŭto]]
[[fr:Ceuta]]
[[gl:Ceuta]]
[[ko:세우타]]
[[id:Ceuta]]
[[is:Ceuta]]
[[it:Ceuta]]
[[he:סאוטה]]
[[la:Ceuta]]
[[hu:Ceuta]]
[[nl:Ceuta]]
[[ja:セウタ]]
[[lb:Ceuta]]
[[no:Ceuta]]
[[nn:Ceuta]]
[[pl:Ceuta]]
[[pt:Ceuta]]
[[ro:Ceuta]]
[[ru:Сеута]]
[[sk:Ceuta]]
[[fi:Ceuta]]
[[sv:Ceuta]]
[[tt:Ceuta]]
[[zh:休达]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cleopatra (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6444</id>
<revision>
<id>41658905</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:40:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mattbrundage</username>
<id>147445</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disamb.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Cleopatra}}
'''Cleopatra''' is the name given to several historical and mythological figures, most especially:
* [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]], last of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] rulers of [[Egypt]], lover of [[Roman Republic|Roman]] leaders [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Mark Antony]], and the subject of several plays (including ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'' by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]) and various films.
* Six other Egyptian queens: [[Cleopatra I of Egypt|Cleopatra I]], [[Cleopatra II of Egypt|Cleopatra II]], [[Cleopatra III of Egypt|Cleopatra III]], [[Cleopatra IV of Egypt|Cleopatra IV]], [[Cleopatra V of Egypt|Cleopatra V]] and [[Cleopatra VI of Egypt|Cleopatra VI]].
* [[Cleopatra of Macedonia]] (c. 356 BC&ndash;308 BC), sister of Macedonian King [[Alexander the Great]] and daughter of King [[Philip II of Macedon]] and [[Olympias]].
* [[Cleopatra of Pontus]] (born [[110 BC]]), [[Pontian]] wife of [[Tigranes the Great]] and daughter of [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]]
* [[Cleopatra Selene]], daughter of Antony and Cleopatra.
* [[Cleopatra Thea]], queen of the [[Seleucid Empire]] from [[125 BC|125]]-[[121 BC]]
* Daughter of [[Idas]] and wife of [[Meleager]] in [[Greek mythology]]
* See [[Cleopatra (film)]] for movies based on the life of Cleopatra of Egypt
* [[Cleopatra (band)|Cleopatra]] is a musical group from the [[United Kingdom|UK]] who had several hits in the 1990s.
* '''Cleopatra''' is a musical group from Greece who entered the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1992]] with the song "Olou Tou Kosmou I Elpida"
*[[Cleopatra Jones]] a [[Blaxploitation]] movie series and its eponymous heroine.
*[[Cleopatra 2525]] a television science fiction series.
*[[216 Kleopatra]] a bizarrely shaped [[asteroid]].
See [[Cleo]] for people, places, and things named '''Cleo'''.
{{disambig}}
[[Category: Human name disambiguation]]
[[bg:Клеопатра]]
[[de:Kleopatra]]
[[es:Cleopatra]]
[[eu:Kleopatra]]
[[fr:Cléopâtre]]
[[it:Cleopatra (disambigua)]]
[[lt:Kleopatra]]
[[nl:Cleopatra]]
[[ja:クレオパトラ]]
[[no:Kleopatra]]
[[pl:Kleopatra]]
[[ru:Клеопатра]]
[[sq:Kleopatra (kthjellim)]]
[[sk:Kleopatra]]
[[sr:Клеопатра]]
[[sv:Kleopatra]]
[[zh:克利奧帕特拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carcinogen</title>
<id>6445</id>
<revision>
<id>41487651</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:19:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evmore</username>
<id>333434</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Adde EPA classificatiob section</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[pathology]], a '''carcinogen''' is any substance or agent that promotes [[cancer]]. Carcinogens are also often, but not necessarily, [[mutagen]]s or [[teratogen]]s.
Carcinogens may cause cancer by altering cellular metabolism or damaging [[DNA]] directly in [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, which interferes with normal [[biology|biological]] processes. Usually cells are able to detect this and attempt to [[DNA repair|repair]] the DNA; if they cannot, they may undergo [[programmed cell death]] to protect the organism. However, when the damage interferes with genes responsible for programmed cell death or perhaps encourages [[cell division]], cancer may occur. Rapidly dividing cells, such as in [[skin]], the [[stomach]] and [[intestine|intestinal]] lining, [[breast]] tissue, and [[reproductive organ]]s, are particularly sensitive to carcinogens due to any damaged DNA being quickly replicated. Unrepaired DNA replication can then lead to further accumulation of mutations between cell divisions.
Most carcinogens consumed by humans are produced by [[plant]]s to prevent [[animal]]s from eating them (as are [[alkaloid]]s). Plants containing large amounts of carcinogens include [[aristolochia]] and [[bracken]]. [[Aflatoxin]] B<sub>1</sub>, which is produced by the [[fungus]] ''[[Aspergillus]] flavus'' growing on stored [[cereal|grain]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s and [[peanut butter]], is an example of a potent, naturally-occurring [[microbe|microbial]] carcinogen. Cooking protein-rich food at high temperatures, such as broiling or barbecuing meats, can lead to the formation of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarrette smoke (i.e., benzo[a]pyrene). Pre-cooking meats in a microwave oven for 2-3 minutes before broiling can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens.
[[DDT]], [[benzene]], [[kepone]], [[EDB]], [[asbestos]], and the waste rock of [[oil shale|oil-shale]] mining have all been classified as carcinogenic. As far back as the [[1930s]], [[Industry|industrial]] and [[tobacco]] smoke were identified as sources of dozens of carcinogens, including [[benzopyrene]], tobacco-specific [[nitrosamine]]s such as [[nitrosonornicotine]] (NNN), and reactive [[aldehyde]]s such as [[formaldehyde]] &mdash; which is also a hazard in [[embalming]] and making [[plastic]]s. [[Vinyl chloride]] from PVC is a carcinogen. Certain viruses such as [[Hepatitis B]] and [[human papilloma virus]]es have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals was [[chicken sarcoma virus]], discovered in [[1910]] by [[Peyton Roux]].
[[CERCLA]] identifies all [[radionuclide]]s as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] ([[alpha particle|alpha]], [[beta particle|beta]], or [[gamma ray|gamma]], and the energy), its consequent capacity to cause [[ionization]] in tissues, and the magnitude of radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard. For example, [[Thorotrast]], an (incidentally-radioactive) [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]] previously used as a [[contrast]] medium in [[x-ray]] diagnostics, is thought by some to be the most potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various [[organ (biology)|organ]]s and persistent emission of alpha particles. Both [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen|Wilhelm Röntgen]] and [[Marie Curie]] died of cancer caused by radiation exposure during their experiments. The non-reproducing cells of the (non-[[gamete|gametogenic]]) tissues of adult [[insect]]s are particularly resistant.
Recent reports have implicated [[acrylamide]] in fried or overheated [[carbohydrate]] foods (such as [[french fries]] and [[potato chips]]) as a possible carcinogen. Studies are underway at the [[US Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] and [[Europe]]an regulatory agencies to assess its potential risk. The charred residue on [[barbecue]]d meats has been identified as a carcinogen, along with many other [[tar]]s.
Co-carcinogens are chemicals which do not separately cause cancer, but do so in specific combinations.
== [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]] classification of carcinogens ==
*[[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1]]: the agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens|Group 2A]]: the agent (mixture) is probably carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens|Group 2B]]: the agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 3 carcinogens|Group 3]]: the agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 4 carcinogens|Group 4]]: the agent (mixture) is probably not carcinogenic to humans.
Further details can be found in the [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/ IARC Monographs].
==[[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] classification of carcinogens==
*Group A: Human Carcinogen
*Group B: Probable Human Carcinogen
*Group C: Possible Human Carcinogen
*Group D: Not classifiable as to Human Carcinogenicity
*Group E: Evidence of Non-Carcinogenicity for Humans
Further details can be found in the EPA [http://www.pested.psu.edu/infocenter/issues/fqpacanctab.pdf List of Chemicals Evaluated for Carcinogenic Potential].
== See also ==
* [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]]
== External links ==
* [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=03C9B512-ACF8-C1F3-ADBA53CAE848F635 U.S. National Toxicology Program's Report on Carcinogens]
{{Tumors}}
[[Category:Biochemicals]]
[[Category:Carcinogens|*]]
[[Category:Oncology]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
[[da:Carcinogen]]
[[de:Karzinogen]]
[[es:Carc |
quot;[[Anywhere Is]]" (1995)
* "[[On My Way Home]]" ([[1996 in music|1996]])
* "[[Only If...]]" (1997)
* "[[Only Time]]" (2000)
* "[[Wild Child]]" ([[2001 in music|2001]])
* "[[Only Time (Remix)]]" (2001)
* "[[May It Be]]" ([[2002 in music|2002]])
* "[[Amarantine]]" ([[2005 in music|2005]])
* "If I Could Be Where You Are" (Asia) ([[2006 in music|2006]])
* "It's In The Rain" (Europe) ([[2006 in music|2006]])
It is a common misconception that Enya recorded the song "Adiemus". Rather, it was recorded by musicians of the group [[Adiemus]]. Similarly, recordings by [[Loreena McKennitt]], [[Sissel Kyrkjebø]], [[Moya Brennan]] (Enya's sister) have also often been mistakenly identified as Enya recordings (particularly music that Sissel recorded for the Enya-like soundtrack to ''Titanic''). Similarly, [[Ronan Hardiman]] (who is responsible for the ''[[Riverdance]]'' soundtrack) recorded an album, ''Solas'', which features similar vocal recording techniques to Enya; as a result, the music has often been mistaken for hers as well.
===DVD release===
In [[2000]], Warner Music released ''Enya: The Video Collection'' on [[DVD]] in Europe and Asia, collecting all her videos from "Orinoco Flow" up to and including "Wild Child", except for the video from "Book of Days" which was replaced by a live TV performance due to licensing complications relating to the video's use of footage from the film ''[[Far and Away]]''. This release was a successor to an earlier collection of videos entitled ''Moonshadows'' which was released on [[VHS]] and [[laserdisc]] in 1992. The DVD release also included interviews and featurettes on the making of two videos.
A North American ([[Region 1]]) release of the ''Video Collection'' DVD was announced on several occasions during 2000-2001 but did not occur, the reason for which has never been officially stated. At one point it was announced that the release had been delayed in order to allow the inclusion of the video for "May it Be", while the (now defunct) Enya.org fansite reported that a dispute over the sound quality of the release led to it being withdrawn. As of [[2005]], ''The Video Collection'' is still considered to be "coming soon" by some North American online retailers although [[copyright infringement|bootleg]] copies from Asia have circulated at the retail level in some parts of Region 1 since 2000. Despite the release of a new CD by Enya in November 2005, the Region 1 edition of the DVD collection remains in limbo and there has been as yet no announcement of an updated DVD release in other parts of the world.
==Music rankings==
===Albums===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="left" valign="top" width="40"|Year
!align="left" valign="top"|Album
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|[[UK Albums Chart|UK]]
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|[[Billboard 200|US]]
|-
|align="left" valign="top"|[[1989 in music|1989]]
|align="left" valign="top"|''Watermark''
|align="center" valign="top"|5
|align="center" valign="top"|25
|-
|align="left" valign="top"|[[1992 in music|1992]]
|align="left" valign="top"|''Shepherd Moons''
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|17
|-
|align="left" valign="top"|[[1996 in music|1996]]
|align="left" valign="top"|''The Memory of Trees''
|align="center" valign="top"|5
|align="center" valign="top"|9
|-
|align="left" valign="top"|[[1998 in music|1998]]
|align="left" valign="top"|''Paint the Sky With Stars''
|align="center" valign="top"|4
|align="center" valign="top"|30
|-
|align="left" valign="top"|[[2001 in music|2001]]
|align="left" valign="top"|''A Day Without Rain''
|align="center" valign="top"|6
|align="center" valign="top"|2
|-
|align="left" valign="top"|[[2005 in music|2005]]
|align="left" valign="top"|''Amarantine''
|align="center" valign="top"|8
|align="center" valign="top"|6
|-
|}
===Singles===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|Year
!align="left" valign="top"|Song
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|<small>[[UK singles chart|UK singles]]<small>
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|<small>[[Billboard Hot 100|US Hot 100]]<small>
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|<small>[[Adult Contemporary (Billboard Chart)|US Adult]]<small>
!align="left" valign="top"|Album
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1988
|align="left" valign="top"|"Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)"
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|24
|align="center" valign="top"|7
|align="left" valign="top"|''Watermark''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1988
|align="left" valign="top"|"Evening Falls..."
|align="center" valign="top"|20
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''Watermark''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1989
|align="left" valign="top"|"Storms in Africa (Part II)"
|align="center" valign="top"|41
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''Watermark''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1991
|align="left" valign="top"|"Caribbean Blue"
|align="center" valign="top"|13
|align="center" valign="top"|79
|align="center" valign="top"|29
|align="left" valign="top"|''Shepherd Moons''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1991
|align="left" valign="top"|"How Can I Keep From Singing?"
|align="center" valign="top"|32
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''Shepherd Moons''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1992
|align="left" valign="top"|"Book of Days"
|align="center" valign="top"|10
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''Shepherd Moons''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1992
|align="left" valign="top"|"The Celts"
|align="center" valign="top"|29
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''The Celts''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1995
|align="left" valign="top"|"Anywhere Is"
|align="center" valign="top"|7
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''The Memory of Trees''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1996
|align="left" valign="top"|"On My Way Home"
|align="center" valign="top"|26
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''The Memory of Trees''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1997
|align="left" valign="top"|"Only If..."
|align="center" valign="top"|43
|align="center" valign="top"|88
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''Paint the Sky With Stars''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2001
|align="left" valign="top"|"Only Time"
|align="center" valign="top"|32
|align="center" valign="top"|10
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="left" valign="top"|''A Day Without Rain''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2001
|align="left" valign="top"|"Wild Child"
|align="center" valign="top"|72
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|12
|align="left" valign="top"|''A Day Without Rain''
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2002
|align="left" valign="top"|"I Don't Wanna Know" ''([[Mario Winans]] featuring [[P. Diddy]] and Enya)'' <sup>1</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|2
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="left" valign="top"|''Hurt No More'' (Winans)
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|2005
|align="left" valign="top"|"Amaran |
ill some other world, ''P''(''s'') wouldn't make sense because my shirt doesn't exist there.
We say that the property ''P'' ''entails'' the property ''Q'', if any object in any world that has the property ''P'' in that world also has the property ''Q'' in that same world. For example, the property
:''P''(''x'') = ''x'' is taller than 2 meters
entails the property
:''Q''(''x'') = ''x'' is taller than 1 meter.
== Axioms ==
We first assume the following [[axiom]]:
:'''Axiom 1''': It is possible to single out ''positive'' properties from among all properties. Gödel defines a positive property rather vaguely: "Positive means positive in the [[moral]] [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] sense (independently of the accidental structure of the world)... It may also mean pure ''attribution'' as opposed to ''privation'' (or containing privation)." (Gödel 1995)
We then assume that the following three conditions hold for all positive properties (which can be summarized by saying "the positive properties form an [[ultrafilter]]"):
:'''Axiom 2''': If ''P'' is positive and ''P'' entails ''Q'', then ''Q'' is positive.
:'''Axiom 3''': If ''P''<sub>1</sub>, ''P''<sub>2</sub>, ''P''<sub>3</sub>, ..., ''P''<sub>n</sub> are positive properties, then the property (''P''<sub>''1''</sub> AND ''P''<sub>2</sub> AND ''P''<sub>3</sub> ... AND ''P''<sub>n</sub>) is positive as well.
:'''Axiom 4''': If ''P'' is a property, then either ''P'' or its negation is positive, but not both.
Finally, we assume:
:'''Axiom 5''': Necessary existence is a positive property (''Pos(NE)''). This mirrors the key assumption in Anselm's argument.
Now we '''define''' a new property ''G'': if ''x'' is an object in some possible world, then ''G''(''x'') is true if and only if ''P''(''x'') is true in that same world ''for all'' positive properties ''P''. ''G'' is called the "God-like" property. An object ''x'' that has the God-like property is called God.
==Derivation==
From axioms 1 through 4, Godel argued that in ''some'' possible world there exists God. He used a sort of modal [[plenitude principle]] to argue this from the logical consistency of Godlikeness. Note that this property is itself positive, since it is the conjunction of the (infinitely many) positive properties.
Then, Gödel defined ''essences'': if ''x'' is an object in some world, then the property ''P'' is said to be an essence of ''x'' if ''P''(''x'') is true in that world and if ''P'' entails all other properties that ''x'' has in that world. We also say that ''x'' ''necessarily exists'' if for every essence ''P''(''x'') the following is true: in every possible world, there is an element ''y'' with ''P''(''y'').
Since necessary existence is positive, it must follow from Godlikeness. Moreover, Godlikeness is an essence of God, since it entails all positive properties, and any nonpositive property is the negation of some positive property, so God cannot have any nonpositive properties. Since any Godlike object is necessarily existent, it follows that any Godlike object in one world is a Godlike object in all worlds, by the definition of necessary existence. Given the existence of a Godlike object in one world, proven above, we may conclude that there is a Godlike object in every possible world, as required.
From these hypotheses, it is also possible to prove that there is only one God in each world: by [[identity of indiscernibles]], no two distinct objects can have precisely the same properties, and so there can only be one object in each world that possesses property G. Gödel did not attempt to do so however, as he purposely limited his proof to the issue of existence, rather than uniqueness. This was more to preserve the logical precision of the argument than due to a penchant for polytheism. This uniqueness proof will only work if one supposes that the positiveness of a property is independent of the object to which it is applied, a claim which some have considered to be suspect.
== Critique of definitions and axioms ==
There are several reasons Gödel's axioms may not be realistic, including the following:
* It may be impossible to properly satisfy axiom 3, which assumes that a conjunction of positive properties is also a positive property; for the proof to work, the axiom must be taken to apply to arbitrary, not necessarily finite, collections of properties. Moreover, some positive properties may be incompatible with others. For example mercy may be incompatible with justice. In that case the conjunction would be an impossible property and ''G(x)'' would be false of every ''x''. Ted Drange has made this objection to the coherence of attributing all positive properties to God - see [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/incompatible.html this article] for Drange's list of incompatible properties and some counter arguments. For these reasons, this axiom was replaced in some reworkings of the proof (including Anderson's, below) by the assumption that ''G(x)'' is positive (''Pos(G(x)'').
* It was argued by [[Jordan Sobel]] that Gödel's axioms are too strong: they imply that all possible worlds are identical. He proved this result by considering the property "is such that X is true", where X is any true modal statement about the world. If g is a Godlike object, and X is in fact true, then g must possess this property, and hence must possess it necessarily. But then X is a necessary truth. A similar argument shows that all falsehoods are necessary falsehoods. [[C. Anthony Anderson]] gave a slightly different axiomatic system which attempts to avoid this problem.
In Anderson's system, Axioms 1, 2, and 5 above are unchanged; however the other axioms are replaced with:
:Axiom 3': ''G(x)'' is positive.
:Axiom 4': If a property is positive, its negation is not positive.
These axioms leave open the possibility that a Godlike object will possess some non-positive properties, provided that these properties are contingent rather than necessary.
== See also ==
* [[Absolute Infinite]]
* [[Existence of God]]
* [[Modality]]
* [[Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Mathematics and God]]
* [[Synthetic proposition]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
* [[Theism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.stats.uwaterloo.ca/~cgsmall/ontology.html Kurt Gödel's Ontological Argument]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ontological-arguments/#6 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Ontological Argument]
==References==
* C. Anthony Anderson, "Some Emendations of Gödel's Ontological Proof", Faith and Philosophy, Vol. 7, No 3, pp. 291-303, July 1990
* Kurt Gödel (1995). "Ontological Proof". ''Collected Works: Unpublished Essays & Lectures, Volume III''. pp. 403-404. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195147227
* A. P. Hazen, "On Gödel's Ontological Proof", Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 76, No 3, pp. 361-377, September 1998
* Jordan Howard Sobel, "Gödel's Ontological Proof" in ''On Being and Saying. Essays for [[Richard Cartwright (philosopher)|Richard Cartwright]],'' ed. [[Judith Jarvis Thomson]] (MIT press, 1987)
[[Category:Christian philosophy]]
[[Category:Modal logic]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[fr:Preuve ontologique de Gödel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gymnast</title>
<id>12422</id>
<revision>
<id>42025857</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:05:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.134.233.200</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Female rhythmic */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gymnasts''' are people who participate in the [[sport]]s of either [[artistic gymnastics]] or [[rhythmic gymnastics]].
See [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)]] for the origin of the word ''gymnast''.
==Famous gymnasts==
===Female artistic===
Australia:
*[[Monette Russo]] ([[Australia]], [[1988]] - )
*[[Allana Slater]] ([[Australia]], [[1984]] - )
*[[Lisa Skinner]] ([[Australia]], [[1981]]- )
Belarus:
*[[Svetlana Boguinskaya]] ([[USSR]] / [[Belarus]], [[1973]] - )
*[[Olga Korbut]] ([[USSR]] / [[Belarus]], [[1955]] - )
Brazil:
*[[Daniele Hypolito]] ([[Brazil]], [[1984]] -)
*[[Luisa Parente]] ([[Brazil]], [[1973]] - )
*[[Daiane dos Santos]] ([[Brazil]], [[1983]] - )
Canada:
*[[Karen Kelsall]] ([[Canada]], [[1962]] - )
*[[Elfi Schlegel]] ([[Canada]], [[1964]] - )
Czechoslovakia:
*[[Věra Čáslavská]] ([[Czechoslovakia]], [[1942]] - )
China:
*[[Cheng Fei]] ([[China]], [[1988]]-)
*[[Dong Fangxiao]] ([[China]])
*[[Fan Ye]] ([[China]], ([[1988]]-)
*[[Ma Yanhong]] ([[China]], [[1964]] - )
*[[Li Li]] ([[China]])
*[[Liu Xuan]] ([[China]])
*[[Lu Li]] ([[China]]), [[1976]] - )
*[[Mo Huilan]] ([[China]], [[1979]]-)
*[[Sang Lan]] ([[China]])
*[[Zhang Nan]] ([[China]], [[1986]]-)
Germany:
*[[Maxi Gnauck]] ([[East Germany]], [[1964]] - )
Great Britain:
*[[Avril Lennox]] ([[UK]])
*[[Lisa Mason]] ([[UK]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Annika Reeder]] ([[UK]], [[1979]] - )
*[[Beth Tweddle]] ([[UK]])
Hungary:
*[[Ágnes Keleti]] ([[Hungary]])
*[[Henrietta Onodi]] ([[Hungary]])
Mexico:
*[[Brenda Magaña]] ([[Mexico]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Laura del Carmen Moreno]] ([[Mexico]], [[1978]] - )
North Korea:
*[[Kim Gwang Suk]] ([[North Korea]])
Romania:
*[[Simona Amânar]] ([[Romania]], [[1979]] - )
*[[Oana Ban]] ([[Romania]], [[1986]]-)
*[[Nadia Comaneci]] ([[Romania]], [[1961]] - )
*[[Sabina Cojocar]] ([[Romania]], [[1985]] - )
*[[Aurelia Dobre]] ([[Romania]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Emilia Eberle]] ([[Romania]], [[1964]] - )
*[[Gina Gogean]] ([[Romania]], [[1978]]-)
*[[Alexandra Marinescu]] ([[Romania]], [[1982]]-)
*[[Lavinia Milosovici]] ([[Romania]], [[1976-]])
*[[Aura Andreea Munteanu]] ([[Romania]], [[1988]]-)
*[[Maria Olaru]] ([[Romania]])
*[[Catalina Ponor]] ([[Romania]], [[1987]] - )
*[[Andreea Raducan]] ([[Romania]], [[1983]] -)
*[[Daniela Silivas]] ([[Romania]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Ecaterina Szabo]] ([R |
.com/ Alexandria, Virginia, Guide]
*[http://oha.ci.alexandria.va.us/ Historic Alexandria]
*[http://photos.historical-markers.org/va-alexandria Alexandria's Historical Markers]
*[http://oha.ci.alexandria.va.us/oha-main/haq/ ''Historic Alexandria Quarterly'']
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.816242|-77.071282}}
{{Virginia}}
[[Category:Alexandria, Virginia| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Virginia]]
[[Category:History of the District of Columbia]]
[[Category:United States National Historic Landmarks]]
[[Category:Washington, D.C. suburbs]]
[[Category:Cities on the Potomac River]]
[[de:Alexandria (Virginia)]]
[[nl:Alexandria (Virginia)]]
[[ja:アレクサンドリア (バージニア州)]]
[[pt:Alexandria (Virgínia)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandria Troas</title>
<id>3085</id>
<revision>
<id>39694561</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:04:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snottygobble</username>
<id>111359</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.118.228.42|210.118.228.42]] ([[User talk:210.118.228.42|talk]]) to last version by Orioane</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}
'''Alexandria Troas''' ("Alexandria of the Troad", mod. Eski Stambul) is an ancient [[Hellenistic civilization|Greek]] city of the [[Troad]], situated on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast at nearly the middle of the western side of [[Turkey]], a little south of [[Tenedos]] (modern [[Gökçeada and Bozcaada|Bozcaada]]). It is located in the modern Turkish province of [[Çanakkale Province|Çanakkale]].
According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], this site was first called Sigia; perhaps about [[310 BC]] [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] refounded the city as Antigonia Troas. Early in the next century the name was changed by [[Lysimachus]] to Alexandria Troas, in memory of [[Alexander the Great]] ([[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], N.H. 5.124 merely states that the name changed from Antigonia to Alexandria). As the chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly in Roman times, and the existing remains sufficiently attest its former importance. [[Strabo]] mentions that a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] colony was created at the location in the reign of [[Augustus]], named Colonia Alexandria Augusta Troas (called simply Troas during this period). Augustus, [[Hadrian]] and the rich grammarian [[Herodes Atticus]] contributed greatly to its embellishment; the aqueduct still preserved is due to the latter. [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] considered making Troas the capital of the [[Roman Empire]].
In Roman times, it was a significant port for travelling between [[Anatolia]] and Europe. [[Paul of Tarsus]] sailed for Europe for the first time from Alexandria ([[Acts]], 16:8-11) and returned there from Europe (and there occurred later the episode of the raising of [[Eutychus]] ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 20:5-12). [[Ignatius of Antioch]] also paused at this city before continuing to Rome (''Ad Philad''. 11.2; ''Ad Smyrn''. 12.1).
Several of its later bishops are known: Marinus in 325; Niconius in 344; Sylvanus at the beginning of the [[5th century|fifth century]]; Pionius in 451; Leo in 787; Peter, friend of the [[Ignatius I of Constantinople|Patriarch Ignatius]], and adversary to Michael, in the ninth century. In the tenth century Troas is given as a suffragan of [[Cyzicus]] and distinct from the famous [[Troy]] (Gelzer, ''Ungedruckte . . .Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum'', 552; ''Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani'', 64); it is not known when the city was destroyed and the diocese disappeared.
The site [[as of 1911]] was covered with [[vallonea oak]]s, and has been much plundered (for example [[Mehmed IV]] took columns to adorn his new Valideh mosque in [[Istanbul]]), but the circuit of the old walls can be traced, and in several places they are fairly well preserved. They had a circumference of about six [[English mile]]s, and were fortified with towers at regular intervals. Remains of some ancient buildings, including a bath and gymnasium, can be found within this area. [[Trajan]] built an aqueduct which can still be traced. The harbour had two large basins, now almost choked with sand.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{Catholic}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Geography of Turkey]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Greece]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandretta</title>
<id>3086</id>
<revision>
<id>22974630</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-10T14:12:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gilgamesh</username>
<id>47947</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[İskenderun]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandria, Scotland</title>
<id>3087</id>
<revision>
<id>38513680</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T21:22:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orioane</username>
<id>362844</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}
'''Alexandria''' is a town in [[West Dunbartonshire]], [[Scotland]]. The town is situated on the [[River Leven, Dunbartonshire|River Leven]], four miles north-west of [[Dumbarton]].
As of [[2001]], the population of the town is 13,444. It is the largest town in the [[Vale of Leven]], the others being [[Balloch, Dunbartonshire|Balloch]], [[Renton, Scotland|Renton]], [[Jamestown, Dunbartonshire|Jamestown]] and [[Bonhill]]; their combined population is over 20,000.
The town's traditional industry, most importantly cotton manufacturing, bleaching and printing, have been phased out. The town was redeveloped in the [[1970s]] with a new town centre layout and traffic system. Local landmarks include the Christie Park, the Fountain (a traffic junction in the town centre, although there has not been a working fountain there for some years) and what is now Lomond Outlets, a former factory with an impressive dome, which in the early [[1970s]] was the scene of the Plessey sit-in. The town has the curious distinction of having the only unemployment benefit office in Britain with the insignia of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]] above the door.
Alexandria sits on the [[A82 road|A82]] main road between Glasgow and [[Loch Lomond]]. There are regular bus services on the route and the town has a train station on the rail line between Balloch and [[Glasgow Queen Street station|Glasgow Queen Street]].
[[Category:Towns in West Dunbartonshire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandria, Romania</title>
<id>3088</id>
<revision>
<id>41960069</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:11:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: ro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}
{{Infobox City in Romania|
name=Alexandria|
map=Alexandria_in_Romania.png|
county=Teleorman County|
status=County capital|
mayor=Constantin Slăbescu|
party=[[Social Democratic Party (Romania)|Social Democratic Party]]|
election=2004|
area=|
census=2002|
population=58,651|
density=|
coordinates={{coor dms|43|58|7|N|25|20|0|E|type:city}}|
website=http://www.evstar.ro/alexandria/|
}}
'''Alexandria''' is the capital city of the [[Teleorman County]], [[Romania]]. It is located south of [[Bucharest]], towards the Bulgarian border. The city is situated on the [[Vedea]] River. The city has 58,651 inhabitants.
== Alexandria in 1900 ==
'''Alexandria''' is a town of [[Romania]], situated among the rich corn-lands of the [[Teleorman]] department, on the right bank of the river [[Vedea]]. Its population in 1900 was 13,675. Its chief trade is in grain, despatched by rail to the Danubian port of [[Zimnicea]], or by river to [[Giurgiu]]. Alexandria was named after its founder, [[Alexandru Ghica]], prince of Romania from 1834 to 1842.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Municipalities in Romania]]
[[Category:Teleorman County]]
<br clear="all">
{{Romania-geo-stub}}
[[bg:Александрия (Румъния)]]
[[cs:Alexandria (Rumunsko)]]
[[de:Alexandria (Rumänien)]]
[[nl:Alexandria (Roemenië)]]
[[ro:Alexandria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angela Vincent</title>
<id>3089</id>
<revision>
<id>25785492</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-18T00:40:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HeartofaDog</username>
<id>491716</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>add category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Angela Vincent''' is a professor at [[Somerville College, Oxford|Somerville College]] of [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]. She is the head of a research group, which is located in the Institute of Molecular Sciences and working on a wide range of [[biology|biological]] disciplines encompassing [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], cellular [[immunology]] and intracellular [[neurophysiology]]. The group's research is focused on autoimmune and [[genetic disorder]]s of the neuromuscular junction and peripheral motor nerves. The principal autoimmune diseases studied are [[myasthenia gravis]], the [[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]] and acquired [[neuromyotonia]].
Her contributions are mainly on the roles of antibodies directed against [[ion channel]] at the [[nerve]]-[[muscle]] junction in the pathogenesis of above mentioned diseases. She has demonstrated that transfer of these [[antibody|antibodies]] across the [[placenta]] from the mother to the unborn baby in the [[uterus]] can cause developmental abnormalities. She has also worked on the principal gene [[mutation]]s causing nerve-muscle disorders.
[[Category:Biologists|Vincent, Angela]]
[[Category:Fellows of Somerville Coll |
e quantitatively measured, because the [[marginal value|marginal]] significance of money differs from rich to the poor (i.e. $100 is relatively more important to the well-being of a poor person than to that of a wealthy person). Moreover, the activities of production and distribution of goods such as alcohol and tobacco may not be conducive to human welfare, but these scarce [[Good (economics)|goods]] do satisfy human wants.
[[Marxist]] economics still focuses on a welfare definition. In addition several critiques of mainstream economics begin from the argument that current economic theory does not adequately measure welfare, but only monetized activity.
=== Scarcity definition ===
This definition allowed a potentially broader field of study, but it, too, has its critics. It is most amenable to those who consider economics a pure science, but others object that it reduces economics merely to a valuation theory. It ignores how values are fixed, prices are determined and national income is generated. It also ignores unemployment and other problems arising due to abundance. This definition cannot apply to such [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynesian]] concerns as cyclical instability, [[full employment]], and [[economic growth]].
The focus on scarcity continues to dominate [[neoclassical economics]], which, in turn, predominates in most academic economics departments. It has been criticized in recent years from a variety of quarters, including [[institutional economics]] and [[evolutionary economics]]).
== Areas of study in economics ==
Economics is usually divided into two main branches:
* [[Microeconomics]], which examines the economic behavior of individual actors such as businesses, households, and individuals, with a view to understand decision making in the face of scarcity and the consequences of these decisions.
* [[Macroeconomics]], which examines an economy as a whole with a view to understanding the interaction between economic aggregates such as [[measures of national income and output|national income]], [[employment]] and [[inflation]]. Note that [[general equilibrium]] theory combines concepts of a macro-economic view of the economy, but does so from a strictly constructed microeconomic viewpoint.
Attempts to join these two branches or to refute the distinction between them have been important motivators in much of recent economic thought, especially in the late [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]]. Today, the consensus view is arguably that good macroeconomics has solid microeconomic foundations. In other words, its premises ought to have theoretical and evidential support in microeconomics. Some authors (e.g. [[Kurt Dopfer]] and [[Stuart Holland]]) also argue that '[[mesoeconomics]]', which considers the intermediate level of economic organization such as [[market]]s and other [[institutional]] arrangements, should be considered a third branch of economic study.
Economics can also be divided into numerous sub-disciplines that do not always fit neatly into the macro-micro categorization. These sub-disciplines include: [[international economics]], [[labour economics]], [[welfare economics]], [[neuroeconomics]], [[information economics]], [[resource economics]], [[ecological economics]], [[environmental economics]], [[managerial economics]], [[financial economics]], [[urban economics]], [[mathematical economics]], [[development economics]], [[industrial organization]], [[retail economics]], [[war economics]], [[public finance]], [[agricultural economics]], [[transport economics]], [[media economics]], [[monetary economics]], [[economic history]], [[economic psychology]], [[economic sociology]], [[economic anthropology]], [[economic archaeology]], and [[economic geography]].
There are also methodologies used by economists whose underlying theories are important.
* The most significant example may be [[econometrics]], which applies statistical techniques to the study of [[economic data]]. [[Computational economics]] relies on mathematical methods, including econometrics.
* Another trend which is more recent, and closer to microeconomics, is to use [[social psychology]] concepts ([[behavioural economics]]) and methods ([[experimental economics]]) to understand deviations from the predictions of neoclassical economics.
* [[Evolutionary economics]] often deals with the otherwise difficult questions related to the role of 'routines' and 'capabilities' in explaining heterogeneity in firm outcomes. It is arguably an even older theory than biological evolution, and differs from biological evolution in many details. Innovation can be the product of rational thought. Recombination can be continuous and can involve many 'parents'. And selection is not only natural but also rational, since economic agents can decide to abandon an inferior technology or behavior, rather than die with it.
Other subdivisions are possible. [[Finance]] has traditionally been considered a part of economics &ndash; as its body of results emerges naturally from microeconomics &ndash; but has today effectively established itself as a separate, though closely related, discipline.
There has been an increasing trend for ideas and methods from economics to be applied in wider contexts. Since economic analysis focuses on decision making, it can be applied, with varying degrees of success, to any field where people are faced with alternatives &ndash; [[education]], [[marriage]], [[health]], etc. [[Public choice theory]] studies how economic analysis can apply to those fields traditionally considered outside of economics. The areas of investigation in economics therefore overlap with other social sciences, including [[political science]] and [[sociology]]. The most prevalent political economy is loosely called [[capitalism]].
''See [[political economy]] for the study of economics in the context of political science, and [[socioeconomics]] for the study of economics in the context of sociology.''
== Economic assumptions ==
=== Supply and demand ===
[[Image:Supply-demand-P.png|thumb|right|240px| The [[supply and demand]] model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase in demand from D<sub>1</sub> to D<sub>2</sub> along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).]]
''Main article: [[Supply and demand]].''
In [[microeconomics|microeconomic]] [[theory]] '''supply and demand''' attempts to describe, explain, and predict the [[price]] and quantity of goods sold in competitive [[market]]s. It is one of the most fundamental economic [[model (economics)|models]], ubiquitously used as a basic building block in a wide range of more detailed economic models and theories.
To define, '''Demand is the utility maximizing choice of a consumer'''. It is a strong desire backed by purchasing power with the willingness to purchase within a given period of time. '''Supply on the other hand is the quantity of goods that a producer or a supplier is willing to bring into the market for the purpose of sale, at a given price in a given period of time'''.
In general, the theory claims that where [[good (economics)|goods]] are traded in a market at a price where consumers demand more goods than businesses are prepared to supply, this shortage will tend to increase the price of the goods. Those consumers that are prepared to pay more will lead to an increase in the market price. Conversely, prices will tend to fall when the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded. This process continues until the market approaches an equilibrium point, a point at which there is no longer any impetus to change. When producers are willing to supply the same quantity as buyers are willing to buy, the market is at equilibrium point where both the buyers as well as the sellers are agreeable to the price level. At this point the market is said to "clear".
The theory of supply and demand is important in the functioning of a [[market economy]] in that it explains the mechanism by which many decisions about resource allocation are made.
=== Price ===
''Main Article:'' [[Price]]
In order to measure the ebb and flow of supply and demand, a measurable value is needed. The oldest and most commonly used is ''price'', or the going rate of exchange between buyers and sellers in a market. Price theory, therefore, charts the movement of measurable quantities over time, and the relationship between price and other measurable variables. In [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[Wealth of Nations]]'', this was the trade-off between price and convenience. A great deal of economic theory is based around prices and the theory of [[supply and demand]]. In economic theory, the most efficient form of communication comes about when changes to an economy occur through price, such as when an increase in supply leads to a lower price, or an increase in demand leads to a higher price.
[[Image:Moneybillscoins3.jpg|thumb|right|145px|[[Exchange rate]]s are determined by the relative supply and demand of different [[currency|currencies]] &mdash; an important issue in [[international trade]].]]
In many practical economic models, some form of "price stickiness" is incorporated to model the fact that prices do not move fluidly in many markets. Economic policy often revolves around arguments about the cause of "economic friction", or price stickiness, and which is, therefore, preventing the supply and demand from reaching equilibrium.
Another area of economic controversy is about whether price measures value correctly. In mainstream market economics, where there are significant scarcities not factored into price, there is said to be an [[externality|externalization]] of cost. Market economics predicts that scarce goods which are under-priced are over-consumed (See [[social cost]]). This leads into [[public |
]] [[1940]] [[Force H]] under Admiral [[James Somerville]] was ordered to force their surrender or destroy them. The [[French battleship Dunkerque|''Dunkerque'']] was damaged by shells from [[HMS Hood (51)|HMS ''Hood'']] at [[Mers-el-Kebir]] but escaped to join the [[French battleship Strasbourg|''Strasbourg'']] at [[Toulon]]. Both ships were scuttled on [[27 November]] [[1942]], although ''Strasbourg'' was raised and used by the Italian navy before being sunk again in an air attack on [[18 August]] [[1944]].
===Pacific War===
The first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was [[HMS Repulse (1916)|''Repulse'']] when she was sunk near [[Singapore]] on [[December 10]] [[1941]] whilst in company with [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']]. She had received a refit to give extra anti-aircraft protection and extra armour between the wars, however despite these additions and her agility, without aerial protection she was unable to avoid the continuous waves of Japanese torpedo bombers indefinitely.
The Japanese ''Kongo'' class "fast battleships" were used extensively as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career. However, in the [[Naval Battle of Guadalcanal]] on [[12 November]] the [[Japanese battleship Hiei|''Hiei'']] was sent out to bombard US positions. She was badly damaged by gunfire from US cruisers and destroyers. She was attacked by US aircraft from Guadalcanal’s American held airfield the next day and left to sink north of [[Savo Island]]. A few days later on [[15 November]] [[1942]] [[Japanese battleship Kirishima|''Kirishima'']], engaged the U.S. battleships [[USS South Dakota (BB-57)|''South Dakota'']] and [[USS Washington (BB-56)|''Washington'']], and was scuttled following damage from 75 hits inflicted by the ''Washington''. In contrast ''South Dakota'' survived 42 hits and was back in operation four months later. The [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'']] survived the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], but was eventually sunk on [[21 November]] [[1944]] in the [[Formosa Strait]] by three [[torpedo]]es from the U.S. [[submarine]] [[USS Sealion (SS-315)|''Sealion'']]. [[Japanese battleship Haruna|''Haruna'']] was involved in bombardment operations at Guadalcanal, the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]] and the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. She was attacked by American carrier aircraft of [[Task Force 38]] and [[B-24]] bombers of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] while at [[Kure]] on [[28 July]] [[1945]] and sank at her moorings.
===New US designs===
[[Image:Uss alaska cb.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[USS Alaska (CB-1)|USS ''Alaska'']], one of the [[United States Navy]]'s few "large cruisers"]]
Part way through the war the US built the two [[Alaska class cruiser|''Alaska'' class]] "large cruisers", [[USS Alaska (CB-1)|''Alaska'']] and [[USS Guam (CB-2)|''Guam'']]. They were designed to hunt down the Japanese [[heavy cruiser]]s. They were built to cruiser standards, with a cruiser-like secondary battery and no torpedo defense system. Their percentage of armor tonnage at 16% was similar to that of contemporary cruisers and far less than that of true battlecruisers and battleships (the HMS Hood had 33%, while the German Bismarck had 40% weight in armor). Their protection was not able to withstand fire from their own caliber of gun. As with the never-completed [[Lexington class aircraft carrier|''Lexington'' class battlecruisers]], the ''Alaska'' class ships were an outgrowth of contemporary American cruiser design, rather than being a new battlecruiser class to occupy the middle ground between heavy cruisers and fast battleships.
However, they resembled contemporary battleships in appearance and tonnage, with the familiar 2-A-1 main battery, massive columnar mast and cluster of 5"/38 DP guns along the sides of the superstructure. The easiest way to tell the ''Alaska'' class ships from the battleships was by the dual 5"/38 mount superfiring over the fore and aft main batteries.
Like the contemporary [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa''-class]] fast battleships, their speed made them ultimately more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the sea combatants they were developed to be, as well as the ignominious defeat of the fleets of Japanese heavy cruisers that were their ''raison d'être''. (In fact, the majority of Japanese heavy cruisers were sunk by aircraft or submarines instead of surface combat.) A planned additional four ships of the ''Alaska'' class were cancelled after the war.
Along with [[HMS Renown (1916)|''Renown'']], the two ''Alaskas'' were the only "battlecruisers" to survive the war (not including Turkish ''Yavuz'' - ex [[SMS Goeben]], which did not fight during the war).
==Cold War designs==
The Soviet Union planed to build several large cruiser classes, that would be a response for ''Scharnhorst'', then ''Alaska'' classes in the 1940s and early 1950s, but these plans were abandoned. In Russia, they were called "heavy cruisers" (''thyazholyi kreyser'').
The first design were project 69 (''Kronshtadt'') cruisers, with 35,240 tons standard load, 9 guns 305 mm and a speed of 32 knots. Two ships were laid in 1939. In 1940 it was decided to complete them according to the project 69I, with 6 guns 380 mm, bought in Germany, but the German attack on the USSR put an end to these plans and all works were canceled in a favour of more useful ship types, like submarines.
Next design were project 82 (''Stalingrad'') cruisers, with 36,500 tons standard load (42,300 tons full load), 9 guns 305 mm and a speed of 35 knots. Three ships were laid in 1951-52, but after Stalin's death they were canceled in April 1953. Apart from high costs, the main reason was, that gun-armed ships became obsolete with an advent of guided missiles. Only a central armoured hull section of the first cruiser ''Stalingrad'' was launched in 1954 and then used as a target for rockets.
[[Image:Soviet Battlecruiser Kirov.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Kirov'', the lead ship of her class of battlecruiser]]
The Soviet [[Kirov class battlecruiser|''Kirov'' class]] of ''Raketny Kreyser'' (Rocket Cruiser), displacing approximately 26,000 tons, is classified as a battlecruiser in the 1996-7 edition of ''[[Jane's Fighting Ships]]'', even though in actuality they are very large missile cruisers. Their classification as battlecruisers arises from their displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a [[World War I]] [[battleship]], and the fact that they possess more firepower than nearly every other surface ship. However, the ''Kirov''-class lacks the heavy armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from regular cruisers and they are classified as "heavy rocket cruisers" in Russia. There were four members of the class completed, [[Soviet battlecruiser Kirov|''Kirov'']], [[Soviet battlecruiser Frunze|''Frunze'']], [[Soviet battlecruiser Kalinin|''Kalinin'']], and [[RFS Pyotr Velikiy|''Yuri Andropov'']]. As the ships were named after Communist personalities, after the fall of the USSR they were given traditional names of the Imperial Russian Navy, respectively ''Admiral Ushakov'', ''Admiral Lazarev'', ''Admiral Nakhimov'' and ''Petr Velikiy''. Due to budget constraints three members of this class have been decomissioned, although one is reportedly still running off parts cannibalised from the other three ships.
==Problems with the idea==
In practice, battlecruisers rarely saw the type of independent action for which they were designed. The increase in gunnery technology was so swift in the years following [[1905]], that there was a blurring of the distinction between the [[battleship]] and battlecruiser. At [[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] the guns on [[David Beatty, 1st Earl_Beatty|Beatty's]] flagship, [[HMS Lion (1910)|HMS ''Lion'']] were 13.5 inch, which was larger than most [[High Seas Fleet|German]] and many [[British Grand Fleet|British]] battleships.
In most cases, the temptation to add extra big guns to the main fleet proved hard to resist. As a result, battlecruiser squadrons were added to the [[line of battle]] &mdash; a role for which they were not designed and one that exposed them to great risk. The armour on a battlecruiser remained that of (or slightly more than) a normal cruiser. Thus the ships could dish out a lot more punishment than they could absorb. Any advantage they had in speed was lost when locked into formation at the speed of the slowest battleship in the line of battle. Heavy shells from opposing capital ships could easily penetrate their thinner armour. During Jutland, both British and German battlecruisers scored hits on each other. The British ships came off poorly, where the German ships' faired better due to better internal protection and poor performace of the British shells.
In the Second World War, large fleet actions did not happen. Battlecruisers were paired with battleships in roles such as raiding (German), convoy escort, or as part of task forces. In operations where battlecruisers did fight battleships, such as ''Hood'' and ''Bismarck'', ''Scharnhorst'' and ''Duke of York'', ''Kirishima'' and ''Washington'', the battlecruiser was destroyed by gunfire. They were equally vulnerable to aircraft, and during [[World War II]] many were lost in this way.
==Science fiction==
In [[science fiction]], the meaning of the word "battlecruiser" is generally somewhat different. Usually it denotes a vessel more comparable to the fast battleships of World War II: A large, fast and tough vessel with both high firepower and enough protection to dish out and take considerable amounts of damage. In [[Star Trek]], [[Klingon]] "battlecruisers" often menaced the [[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Starship ''Enterprise'']] - which was classified as a "[[list of fictional spaceborne heavy cruisers|heavy cruiser]]", and just as often faced her on even terms. In many Science Fiction universes, a Battl |
perienced in [[World War I]]. The scene is in the movie is because the director liked the photo that was popular at the time of a naked man wearing only a gas mask.
[[Rubberist]]s like to wear gas masks because they are made of soft latex rubber and also because they are strapped onto the face. Gas mask [[sexual fetish]] is often combined with the use of other sexual [[latex]] devices, such as latex suits, rubber gloves and boots.
==Gas masks in popular culture==
Although their purpose was to protect the population in WWII, gas masks also have a sinister, faceless image. The [[1940s]] comic book hero [[The Sandman (DC Comics Golden Age)|the Sandman]] wore a gas mask as part of his first costume, in part to protect himself from the sleeping gas he used on criminals, but also to inspire fear in them as well.
Sid Wilson, DJ for the band [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]] (which comprises nine masked members) is known to be a collector of gas masks, and wears a variety of different types on stage. The Canadian indie rock group [[Broken Social Scene]] also utilized a gas mask in their video for "Cause=Time". Another well-known musician who has used a gas mask as an instrument is vocalist [[Mike Patton]], who sings through the mask for an eery muffled effect. Although Patton is the most prolific wearer of gas masks amongst bands, numerous others have worn them for publicity shots etc, and Jason Miller, singer for [[Godhead (band)|Godhead]], uses an Israeli civilian type to filter his voice.
The norwegian ompa/gypsy-rock band [[Kaizers Orchestra]] are famous for using unique objects on stage, including oil barrels, crowbars and miscellaneous objects to with which to create sounds, and a [[World War I]] norwegian model gasmask.
The unsettling appearance of the gas mask was also featured in the [[2005]] ''[[Doctor Who]]'' episodes ''[[The Empty Child]]'' and ''[[The Doctor Dances]]'', in which an [[extraterrestrial life in culture|alien]] infestation of wrongly-programmed "[[nanorobot|nanogenes]]" in [[1941]] [[London]] transformed people by turning them into gas-masked [[zombie]]s.
In the video game [[Metal Gear Solid]], a boss called [[Psycho Mantis]] wears a gas mask.
During the end of the first episode of [[Martin Mystery]], Diana Lombard wears a respirator while massaging Java's smelly foot.
The 2004 film ''[[Dead Man's Shoes]]'' by british director [[Shane Meadows]], portrays Paddy Considine's character "Richard" in a gas mask, A semi-psychotic ex-soldier who goes out to seek revenge for his brothers forced suicide.
In the [[dystopia|dystopian]] novel [[The Sheep Look Up]] by John Brunner, the toxicated air makes it necessary for people to wear gas masks.
==External links==
{{Commons|Gas mask}}
*[http://www.gasmasks.net/ Le Masque &agrave; Gaz] International historical gas mask gallery, with collection of safety and propaganda posters.
[[category:safety]]
[[Category:Masks]]
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[[de:Gasmaske]]
[[fr:Masque à gaz]]
[[nl:Gasmasker]]
[[ja:ガスマスク]]
[[pt:Máscara contra gases]]
[[ru:Противогаз]]
[[fi:Kaasunaamari]]
[[sv:Gasmask]]
[[zh:防毒面具]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gender and sexuality studies</title>
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<contributor>
<username>Sherool</username>
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<comment>fixed link to bypas redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gender and sexuality studies''' is a collective term for the [[interdisciplinary]] study of [[human]] [[gender]] and [[sexuality]]. It includes such fields as [[Women's Studies]], [[Lesbian and Gay Studies]], and [[Gender Studies]]. Some scholars in those fields reject this term.
Some basic topics/key words in gender and sexuality studies to get started: (note that some of these may not have that much to do with G&SS itself, but rather with the subjects studied in G&SS)
*[[abortion]]
*[[AIDS]]
*[[bisexuality]]
*[[BDSM]]
*[[erotophobia]]
*[[Susan Faludi]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[feminism]]
*[[gay]]
*[[queer]]
**[[List of gay-related topics|gay topics]]
*[[Gay Games]]
*[[gay pride]]
*[[gay rights]]
*[[gay rights movement]]
*[[gender-blind]]
*[[gender gap]]
*[[Gender identity|gender identity]]
*[[gender role]]
*[[genital modification and mutilation]]
*[[heterosexuality]]
*[[heterosexism]]
*[[history of homosexuality]]
*[[homosexuality]]
*[[International Lesbian and Gay Association]]
*[[International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission]]
*[[intersexual]]
*[[Kinsey scale]]
*[[legal aspects of transsexualism]]
*[[lesbian]]
*[[marriage]]
*[[masculism]]
*[[metrosexual]]
*[[nullification]]
*[[Camile Paglia]]
*[[paraphilia]]
**[[pedophilia]]
*[[pederasty]]
*[[pomosexual]]
*[[pornography]]
*[[James W. Prescott]]
*[[prostitution]]
*[[queer studies]], [[queer theory]], [[queer]]
*[[Queer community]]
*[[Queer culture]]
*[[Re Kevin - validity of marriage of transsexual]]
*[[religion and homosexuality]],
*[[sex]], [[sexual behaviors]], [[sexuality]]
*[[sex-positive]]
*[[sex in advertising]]
*[[sex in science fiction]]
*[[sodomy]]
*[[skoptic syndrome]]
*[[Gloria Steinem]]
*[[Stonewall riots]]
*[[Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras]]
*[[Third-World Feminism]]
*[[Transgender]]
*[[why gender/gender construction]]
**[[List of transgender-related topics]]
[[Slang]] terms for keyword searches: [[Butch and Femme|butch, femme]], [[drag queen]], faggot, [[Dyke (lesbian)|dyke]], trannie.
==External links==
http://www.qrd.org/
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Sexology]]</text>
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<page>
<title>George Frideric Handel</title>
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<comment>remove old vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haendel.jpg|thumb|210px|George Frideric Handel, 1733]]
'''George Frideric Handel''' (or '''Georg Friedrich Händel''' in [[German language|German]]) ([[February 23]], [[1685]] &ndash; [[April 14]], [[1759]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Baroque music|Baroque]] [[composer]] who was a leading composer of [[concerti grossi]], [[opera]]s and [[oratorio]]s. He lived most of his life in [[Great Britain]]. His most famous piece is ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', an oratorio set to texts from the [[King James Bible]]; other well-known works are ''[[Water Music (Handel)|Water Music]]'' and ''[[Music for the Royal Fireworks]]''. He deeply influenced many of the composers who came after him, including [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and his sense of delicate balance and refined musical expression helped lead the transition from the Baroque to the Classical era.
==Biography==
Handel was born at [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]] in [[Saxony]] in 1685, coincidentally in the same year that both [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Domenico Scarlatti]] were born. He displayed considerable musical talent at an early age, by the age of seven he was a skilful performer on the [[harpsichord]] and [[organ (music)|organ]], and at nine he began to compose music. However his father, a barber-surgeon to the court of Saxe-Weissenfels, opposed George Frideric pursuing a musical career, preferring him to study law. Nevertheless, the young Handel was permitted to take lessons in musical composition and keyboard techniques from Friedrich Wilhelm Zachau, the organist of Liebfrauenkirche, Halle.
[[image:Handel_as_a_Boy.jpg|left|thumb|Handel as a boy]]
In [[1702]], in obedience to his father's wishes, he began the study of [[law]] at the [[University of Halle]], but after his father's death the following year, he abandoned law for music, becoming the organist at the Calvinist Cathedral. The following year he moved to Hamburg, accepting a position as [[violinist]] in the orchestra of the opera-house at [[Hamburg]]. Here his first two [[opera]]s, ''[[Almira]]'' and ''[[Nero]]'', were produced early in [[1705]]. Two other early operas, ''[[Daphne]]'' and ''[[Florindo]]'', were produced at Hamburg in [[1708]]. During the years [[1707]]-[[1709]] Handel traveled and studied in [[Italy]]. When opera was banned by local authorities, Handel found work as a composer of sacred music and wrote some pieces in operatic style. The famous ''Dixit Dominus'' (1707) is from this era. His ''[[Rodrigo (opera)|Rodrigo]]'' was produced at [[Florence]] in 1707, and his ''[[Agrippina (opera)|Agrippina]]'' at [[Venice]] in [[1708]]. Two [[oratorio]]s, ''[[La Resurrezione]]'' and ''Il Trionfo del Tempo'', were produced at [[Rome]] in 1709 and [[1710]], respectively.
In 1710 Handel became ''[[Kapellmeister]]'' to George, Elector of [[Hanover]], who would soon be [[George I of Great Britain]]. He visited [[London]] in 1710 and settled there permanently in 1712, receiving a yearly income of £200 from [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]. In [[1726]] Handel's opera ''[[Scipio (opera)|Scipio]]'' (Scipione) was performed for the first time, the [[March (music)|march]] from which remains the regimental slow march of the British [[Grenadier Guards]]. He was naturalised a British subject in the same year.
In [[1727]] Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the coronation ceremony of [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]]. One of these, ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'', has been played at every coronation ceremony since. Handel was director of the [[Royal Academy of Music (opera)|Royal Academy of Music]] 1720-1728, and a partner of [[J. J. Heidegger]] in the management of the [[King's Theatre]] 1729-1734. Handel also had a long association with the [[Royal Opera House]] at [[Covent Garden]], where many of his Italian op |
, and Mary Lou.
Edgerton first used stroboscopes to study synchronous motors for his PhD thesis at MIT, awarded in 1931. He credited [[Charles Stark Draper]] with inspiring him to point stroboscopes at everyday objects: the first was a stream of water coming out of a faucet. He was a pioneer in strobe [[photography]], subsequently using the technique to capture images of balloons during their bursting, or a bullet during its impact with an apple, for example. He was awarded a bronze medal by the Royal Photographic Society in [[1934]], and the National Medal of Science in [[1973]]. He also invented the [[Rapatronic camera]].
In [[1937]] he began a lifelong association with [[photographer]] [[Gjon Mili]], who used stroboscopic equipment, particularly a "multiflash" strobe light, to produce strikingly beautiful photographs, many of which appeared in [[Life Magazine]].
He was a cofounder of the company [[EG&G]], with [[Kenneth Germeshausen]] and [[Herbert Grier]], in [[1947]]. EG&G became a prime contractor for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] and had a major role in testing nuclear weapons for the United States through the fifties and sixties.
His work was instrumental in the development of [[side-scan sonar]] technology, used to scan the sea floor for wrecks. Edgerton worked with the undersea explorer [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau|Jacques Cousteau]], by first providing him with underwater stroboscopes, and then by using sonar to discover the [[Britannic]]. Edgerton participated in the discovery of the [[American Civil War]] battleship [[USS Monitor]]. While working with Cousteau, he acquired the nickname he is still known by in photographic circles, "Papa Flash".
In addition to having the scientific and engineering acumen to perfect [[strobe light]]ing commercially, Edgerton is equally recognized for his visual aesthetic: many of the striking images he created in illuminating phenomena that occurred too fast for the naked eye adorn art museums worldwide.
He was especially loved by [[MIT]] students for his willingness to teach and his kindness: "The trick to education," he said, "is to teach people in such a way that they don't realize they're learning until it's too late."
==External links==
*[http://www.edgerton.org/biography.html Bio]
*The most famous of all Edgerton's photographs, the '''Milkdrop Coronet,''' can be seen [http://www.agallery.com/Pages/photographers/edgerton.html here] and [http://web.mit.edu/museum/exhibits/flashes5.html here].
*[http://web.mit.edu/Edgerton/ The Edgerton Center at MIT]
*[http://www.cycleback.com/edgerton.htm 1934 Edgerton photo of Wes Fesler kicking football]
*[http://mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2000/edgerton/www/prewar.html Early photographs from Edgerton's laboratory, including water from the tap mentioned above]
*[http://www.rapidnewswire.com/atom.htm 3 photos of a nuclear explosion done at 1/1000,000,000 of a second by Edgerton]
[[Category:1903 births|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:Pioneers of photography|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:People from Nebraska|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Edgerton]]
[[de:Harold E. Edgerton]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harold Kroto</title>
<id>14467</id>
<revision>
<id>42125078</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:02:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Helzagood</username>
<id>842568</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>correcting error</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Harold Walter Kroto''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] , [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] , [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D]] (born [[7 October]], [[1939]]) is an [[England|English]] [[chemistry|chemist]] and one of the winners of the 1996 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]].
He spent a large part of is working career at the [[University of Sussex]], and is currently on faculty at [[Florida State University]].
==Early life==
He was born, christened '''Harold Krotoschiner''' in [[Wisbech]], [[Cambridgeshire]], [[England]] with his unusual name being of [[Silesian]] origin. His father's family came from [[Bojanowo]], [[Poland]], and his mother's from [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].
Both his parents were born in Berlin but came to Great Britain in the 1930s as [[refugees]] from the Nazis because his father was Jewish.
He was raised in [[Bolton]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]], where he attended [[Bolton School]], where he was a contemporary of the highly acclaimed actor [[Sir Ian McKellen]]. In 1955 the family name was shortened to '''Kroto'''.
As a child, he became fascinated by a [[Meccano]] set. Kroto credits Meccano &mdash; amongst other things &mdash; with developing skills useful in scientific [[research]]. He was raised Jewish, but the religion never made any sense to him.
He now claims to have four "religions": [[humanism]], [[atheism]], [[Amnesty International|amnesty-internationalism]] and humourism. He developed an interest in [[chemistry]], [[physics]], and [[mathematics]] in secondary school, and because his [[sixth form]] chemistry teacher ([[Harry Heaney]] - who subsequently became a University Professor) felt that the [[University of Sheffield]] had the best chemistry department in the United Kingdom, he went to Sheffield.
In 1963 he married the former Margaret Henrietta Hunter (now '''Margaret, Lady Kroto''').
==Early work==
In 1961 he took a first class [[Bachelor of Science|B. Sc.]] honours degree in [[chemistry]] at the [[University of Sheffield]], followed in 1964 by a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph. D.]] at the same institution. His doctoral research involved high-resolution [[electronic spectrum|electronic spectra]] of [[free radical]]s produced by [[flash photolysis]] (breaking of [[chemical bond]]s by [[light]]).
Among other things such as making the first phosphaalkenes (compounds with carbon phosphorus double bonds), his doctoral studies included some unpublished research on [[carbon suboxide]], O=C=C=C=O, and this led to a general interest in [[molecule]]s containing chains of carbon atoms with numerous multiple bonds. He started his work with an interest in [[organic chemistry]], but when he learned about [[spectroscopy]] it inclined him to [[quantum chemistry]].
After postdoctoral research at the National Research Council in [[Canada]] and [[Bell Laboratories]] in the USA he began teaching and research at the [[University of Sussex]] in England in 1967. He became a full professor in 1985, and a '''Royal Society Research Professor''' from 1991 &ndash; 2001.
==Subsequent work==
In the 1970s he launched a research programme at Sussex to look for [[carbon]] chains in [[interstellar space]]. Earlier studies had detected the molecule [[cyanoacetylene]], H-C<u>=</u>C-C<u>=</u>N. Kroto's group searched for spectral evidence of longer similar molecules such as [[cyanobutadiyne]], H-C<u>=</u>C-C<u>=</u>C-C<u>=</u>N and [[cyanohexatriyne]], H-C<u>=</u>C-C<u>=</u>C-C<u>=</u>C-C<u>=</u>N, and found them from 1975 - 1978.
Trying to explain them led to the discovery of the C<sub>60</sub> molecule. (See [[buckminsterfullerene]].) He heard of [[laser]] [[spectroscopy]] work being done by [[Richard Smalley]] and [[Robert Curl]] at [[Rice University]] in Texas. He suggested that they should use the Rice apparatus to simulate the carbon chemistry that occurs in the atmosphere of a carbon star.
The experiment carried out in September 1985 not only proved that carbon stars could produce the chains but revealed an amazing, serendipitous result - the totally unexpected existence of the C<sub>60</sub> species. The three scientists carried out the work with [[graduate student]]s Jim Heath (now a full Professor at Cal. Tech.), Sean O'Brien (now at [[Texas Instruments]]), and Yuan Liu (now at Oak Ridge). The [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] was shared by Curl, Kroto and Smalley in 1996.
In 1995 he jointly set up the Vega Science Trust a UK educational charity (see[[http://www.vega.org.uk www.vega.org.uk]]) to create high quality science films for TV and Internet Broadcast. Vega has produced some 92 programmes of which 50 have been broadcast on BBC TV in the late-night slots all programmes stream for free from the Vega website. Viewing figures vary from 600,000 to 300,000.
He presently carries out research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.
==Awards and Honours==
Kroto was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1990, and was awarded a knighthood (becoming Sir Harold Kroto) in 1996. Later that year he received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]. In 2004 he won the [[Copley Medal]] of the [[Royal Society]].
His [[alma mater]], the [[University of Sheffield]], awarded him an [[honorary degree|honorary doctorate]] in 1995 at the undergraduate degree congregation.
On [[29 November]], [[2004]], Kroto annouced he was to return his honorary degree from the [[University of Exeter]], in protest over the closure of their Department of Chemistry.
He was awarded the 2004 [[Copley Medal]].
On [[17 June]], [[2005]], the [[University of Surrey]] conferred an [[honorary degree|honorary doctorate]] on him at an undergraduate degree ceremony. (see[[http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=799,458939&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL]]) University of Surrey Press Release.
==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/laureates/1996/kroto-autobio.html Harry Kroto autobiography from Nobel foundation]
*[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=1527 Sir Harry Kroto FRS - Chemical architecture] from the [[Royal Society]]
*[http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/kroto/harry1.html Harry Kroto homepage at the University of Sussex]
*[http://www.o |
added. The [[United States|U.S.]] Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor. [[European Union|EU]] regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids.
*'''Semisweet chocolate''' is often used for cooking purposes. It is a dark chocolate with high sugar content.
*'''Bittersweet chocolate''' is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which sugar, more cocoa butter, [[lecithin]], and vanilla has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. The best quality bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are produced as couverture; many brands now print on the package the percentage of cocoa (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter) contained. The rule is that the higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate will be.
*'''Couverture''' is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: [[Valrhona]], Felchlin, [[Lindt & Sprüngli]], Cacao Barry, Callebaut, and [[Guittard]]. These chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa (sometimes 70% or more) and have a total fat content of 36-40%.
*'''[[White chocolate]]''' is a confection based on [[cocoa butter]] without the cocoa solids.
*'''Cocoa powder.''' There are two types of unsweetened baking cocoa available: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestlé) and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverising partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter. Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavour. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes which call for baking soda. Because baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch-process cocoa is processed with alkali to neutralise its natural acidity. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer colour than natural cocoa. Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids. Unfortunately, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavanols present in cocoa.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://lowfatcooking.about.com/od/healthandfitness/a/chochealth.htm | title=Chocolate as a Health Food? | accessdate=2006-03-03}}</ref>
Flavours such as [[mint]], [[orange (fruit)|orange]], or [[strawberry]] are sometimes added to chocolate. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as [[peanut]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[caramel]], or even crisped [[rice]].
===Definition===
Strictly speaking, chocolate is any product based 99% on cocoa solid and/or cocoa fat. Because it is used in a vast number of other foods, any change in the cost of making it has a huge impact on the industry. Adding ingredients is an aspect of the taste. On the other hand, reducing cocoa solid content, or substituting cocoa fat with a non-cocoa one, reduces the cost of making it. There has been disagreement in the EU about the definition of chocolate.
* Some want to see the definition allowing for any cocoa solid content and any kind of fat in chocolate. This would allow a merely coloured and flavoured margarine to be sold as being chocolate. In some countries this happens, and a 50% to 70% cocoa solid dark-chocolate, with no additive, for domestic use, is hard to find and expensive.
* Others believe in adhering more strictly to the definition above.
[[Image:Chocolate_Valencia.jpg|thumb|250px|Chocolate can be moulded or, as in this Spanish art, sculpted.]]
==History==
===Etymology===
The name chocolate most likely comes from the [[Nahuatl language]] indigenous to central [[Mexico]], although it may have been influenced by the [[Mayan languages]]. One popular theory is that it comes from the Nahuatl word ''xocolatl'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɕɔ.kɔ.atɬ/}}), derived from ''xocolli'', bitter, and ''atl'', water. On the other hand, Mexican philologist Ignacio Davila Garibi proposed that "Spaniards had coined the word by taking the Maya word ''chocol'' and then replacing the Maya term for water, ''haa'', with the Aztec one, ''atl''." But this theory assumes that the conquistadores would change indigenous words from two very different languages, while at the same time adopting hundreds of other words from these same languages as-is; a highly unlikely scenario.
In a recent article, linguists Karen Dakin and Søren Wichmann found that in many [[dialect]]s of Nahuatl, the name is 'chicolatl', rather than 'chocolatl'. In addition, many languages in Mexico, such as Popoluca, Mixtec and Zapotec, and even languages spoken in the Philippines have borrowed this form of the word. The word chicol-li refers to the beating sticks still used in some areas in cooking, and that are either a small straight stick with small strong twigs still on one end or a stiff plant stalk with the stubs of roots cleaned and trimmed. Since chocolate was originally served ceremonially with individual beater sticks, it seems quite likely that the original form of the word was 'chicolatl', which would have the etymology 'beater drink'. In many areas of Mexico, 'chicolear' means 'to beat, stir'.
===Origins===
The chocolate residue found in an [[Maya civilization|ancient Maya]] pot suggests that Maya were drinking chocolate 2,600 years ago, the earliest record of cacao use. The [[Aztecs]] associated chocolate with [[Xochiquetzal]], the goddess of fertility. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called ''xocoatl'', often seasoned with [[vanilla]], [[chile pepper]], [[achiote]] (which we know today as [[annatto]]) and [[pimento]]. Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the [[theobromine]] content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]], and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Other chocolate drinks combined it with such edibles as [[maize]] gruel (which acts as an emulsifier) and [[honey]].
The xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste. [[Jose de Acosta]], a Spanish [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later [[16th century]], wrote of it:
<blockquote>Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant to taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolaté. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that "chili"; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh.</blockquote>
[[Christopher Columbus]] brought some cocoa beans to show Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, but it remained for [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] to introduce it to Europe more broadly.
The first recorded shipment of chocolate to the Old World for commercial purposes was in a shipment from [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] to [[Seville]] in [[1585]]. It was still served as a beverage, but the Europeans added sugar and milk to counteract the natural bitterness and removed the chilli pepper, replacing it with another Mexican indigenous spice, vanilla. Improvements to the taste meant that by the [[17th century]] it was a luxury item among the European nobility.
At the end of the 18th century, the first form of solid chocolate was invented in [[Turin]] by [[Doret]]. This chocolate was sold in large quantities from [[1826]] by [[Pierre Paul Caffarel]]. In [[1819]] [[F. L. Cailler]] opened the first [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chocolate factory. In [[1828]] [[Netherlands|Dutchman]] [[Conrad J. van Houten]] patented a method for extracting the fat from cocoa beans and making powdered [[cocoa]] and [[cocoa butter]]. Van Houten also developed the so-called [[Dutch process chocolate|Dutch process]] of treating chocolate with [[alkali]] to remove the bitter taste. This made it possible to form the modern chocolate bar. It is believed that the Englishman [[Joseph Fry]] made the first chocolate for eating in [[1847]], followed shortly after by the [[Cadbury-Schweppes|Cadbury]] brothers.
[[Daniel Peter]], a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] candle maker, joined his father-in-law's chocolate business. In [[1867]] he began experimenting with milk as an ingredient. He brought his new product, milk chocolate, to market in [[1875]]. He was assisted in removing the water content from the milk to prevent mildewing by a neighbour, a baby food manufacturer named [[Henri Nestlé]]. [[Rodolphe Lindt]] invented the process called ''conching'', which involves heating and grinding the chocolate solids very finely to ensure that the liquid is evenly blended.
==Physiological effects==
===Toxicity in animals===
{{main|theobromine poisoning}}
In sufficient amounts the [[theobromine]] found in chocolate is [[toxic]] to animals such as [[horse]]s, [[dog]]s, [[parrot]]s, [[vole]]s, and [[cat]]s ([[kitten]]s especially) because they are unable to [[metabolize|metabolise]] the chemical effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their [[bloodstream]] for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience [[epileptic seizure]]s, [[myocardial infarction|heart attacks]], [[internal bleeding]], and eventually [[death]]. Medical treatment involves inducing [[vomiting]] within two hours of ingestion, or contacting a [[veterinarian]].
A typical 20-kilogram dog will normally experience intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams of milk chocolate, but will not necessarily experience [[bradycardia]] or [[tachycardia]] un |
as reverted to its former name, Beijing, and made the seat of the [[North China Executive Committee]] (T: 華北政務委員會 / S: 华北政务委员会), a [[puppet state]] that ruled Japanese-occupied [[North China]]. With Japan's surrender in [[World War II]], on [[August 15]], [[1945]], however, Beijing's name was changed back to Beiping.
On [[January 31]], [[1949]], during the [[Chinese Civil War]], Communist forces entered Beiping without a fight. On [[October 1]] of the same year, the [[Communist Party of China]], under the leadership of [[Mao Zedong]], announced in [[Tian'anmen]] the creation of the [[People's Republic of China]] in Beijing. Just a few days earlier, the [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] had decided that Beiping would be the capital of the PRC, and that its name be changed back to Beijing.
At the time of the founding of the People's Republic, Beijing Municipality consisted of just its urban area and immediate suburbs. The urban area was divided into many small districts inside what is now the [[2nd Ring Road (Beijing)|2nd Ring Road]]. Since then several surrounding [[county of China|counties]] have been incorporated into the Municipality, enlarging the limits of Beijing Municipality by many times and giving it its present shape. The [[Beijing city wall]] was torn down between [[1965]] and [[1969]] to make way for the construction of the [[2nd Ring Road (Beijing)|2nd Ring Road]].
Following the [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] of [[Deng Xiaoping]], the urban area of Beijing has expanded greatly. Formerly within the confines of the [[2nd Ring Road]] and the [[3rd Ring Road]], the urban area of Beijing is now pushing at the limits of the recently-constructed [[5th Ring Road]] and [[6th Ring Road]] (currently under construction), with many areas that were formerly farmland now developed residential or commercial neighborhoods. A new commercial area has developed in the [[Guomao]] area, [[Wangfujing]] and [[Xidan]] have developed into flourishing shopping districts, while [[Zhongguancun]] has become a major center of electronics in China.
As the national capital, Beijing has also been the site of political turmoil in recent years. [[Tiananmen Square]], widely regarded as the spiritual center of China, was the site of first the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1976]] and then the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], which ended in a military crackdown. Tiananmen Square has also been the site of protests by [[Falun Gong]].
In recent years, the expansion of Beijing has also brought to the forefront some problems of urbanization, such as heavy traffic, poor [[air quality]], the loss of historic neighborhoods, and significant influx of migrants from poorer regions of the country, especially rural areas.
Early [[2005]] saw the approval by government of a plan to finally stop the sprawling development of Beijing in all directions. Development of the Chinese capital would now proceed in two semicircular bands just outside of the city centre (both west and east) instead of being in concentric rings.
Beijing has been chosen to host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]], an event that has sparked nationalistic pride across China.
== Geography and Climate ==
:''Main article: [[Geography of Beijing]]''
[[image:Large Beijing Landsat.jpg|thumb|300px|A simulated-color image of Beijing, taken by [[NASA]]'s [[Landsat 7]].]]
Beijing is situated at the northern tip of the roughly triangular [[North China Plain]] which opens to the south and east of the city. Mountains to the north, northwest and west shield the city and northern China's agricultural heartland from the encroaching desert steppes. The northwestern part of the municipality, especially [[Yanqing County]] and [[Huairou]] District, are dominated by the [[Jundu Mountains]], while the western part of the municipality is framed by the [[Xishan Mountains]]. The [[Great Wall of China]], which stretches across the northern part of Beijing Municipality, made use of this rugged topography to defend against nomadic incursions from the steppes. [[Mount Dongling]] in the Xishan ranges and on the border with [[Hebei]] is the municipality's highest point, with an altitude of 2303 [[metre|m]]. Major rivers flowing through the municipality include the [[Yongding River]] and the [[Chaobai River]], which are part of the [[Haihe River]] system, and flow in a southerly direction. Beijing is also the northern terminus of the [[Grand Canal of China]] which was built across the North China Plain to [[Hangzhou]]. [[Miyun Reservoir]], built on the upper reaches of the [[Chaobai River]], is Beijing's largest reservoir, and crucial to its water supply.
The urban area of Beijing, located at {{coor dms|39|54|20|N|116|23|29|E|}} (39.9056, 116.3914), is situated in the south-central part of the municipality and occupies a small but expanding part of the municipality's area. It spreads out in bands of concentric [[Ring Roads of Beijing|ring roads]], of which the fifth and outermost (the [[Sixth Ring Road]]; the numbering starts at 2) passes through several satellite towns. [[Tian'anmen]] (Gate of Heavenly Peace) and [[Tian'anmen Square]] are at the centre of Beijing, and are directly to the south of the [[Forbidden City]], former residence of the emperors of China. To the west of Tian'anmen is [[Zhongnanhai]], current residence of the paramount leaders of the [[People's Republic of China]]. Running through central Beijing from east to west is [[Chang'an Avenue]], one of Beijing's main thoroughfares.
The city's [[climate]] is harsh, characterized by hot, humid summers due to the East Asian [[monsoon]], and cold, windy, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast [[Siberian]] [[anticyclone]]. Average temperatures in January are at around -7 to -4 °[[Celsius|C]], while average temperatures in [[July]] are at 25 to 26 °[[Celsius|C]]. Annual [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] is over 600 [[millimeter|mm]], with 75% of that in [[summer]]. [http://www.beijing.gov.cn/bjgm/default.htm]
Beijing also suffers from heavy pollution and poor [[air quality]] from industry and traffic. Dust from erosion of deserts in northern and northwestern China result in seasonal [[dust storm]]s that plague the city. Efforts have been made of late to clean up Beijing in preparation for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].
==City layout==
=== Neighbourhoods ===
[[Image:Wangfujing Nankou.jpg|thumb|300px|Southern end of [[Wangfujing]] Road (July 2004 image)]][[Image:Beijing By Night 2003.jpg|thumb|300px|Beijing by night.]]
[[Image:Xidan Xinhuashudian.jpg|thumb|300px|Beijing Bookstore at [[Xidan]].]]
Major neighbourhoods in urban Beijing include the following. Neighborhoods may overlap across multiple districts (see below):
*[[Andingmen]] 安定门
*[[Beiyuan]] 北苑
*[[Chaoyangmen]] 朝阳门
*[[Dongzhimen]] 东直门
*[[Fangzhuang]] 方庄
*[[Fuchengmen]] 阜成门
*[[Fuxingmen]] 复兴门
*[[Guomao]] 国贸
*[[Hepingli]] 和平里
*[[Wangjing]] 望京
*[[Wangfujing]] 王府井
*[[Wudaokou]] 五道口
*[[Xidan]] 西单
*[[Yayuncun]] 亚运村
*[[Zhongguancun]] 中关村
Several place names in Beijing end with ''men'' (门), meaning "gate", as they were the locations of gates in the former [[Beijing city wall]]. Other place names end in ''cun'' (村), meaning "village", as they were originally villages outside the city wall.
=== Towns ===
Towns within Beijing Municipality but outside the urban area include:
*[[Changping]] 昌平
*[[Huairou]] 怀柔
*[[Miyun]] 密云
*[[Liangxiang]] 良乡
*[[Liulimiao]] 琉璃庙
*[[Tongzhou]] 通州
*[[Yizhuang]] 亦庄wim
===Administrative divisions===
Beijing Municipality currently comprises 18 administrative sub-divisions, [[Political divisions of China#County level|county-level units]] governed directly by the municipality (second-level divisions). Of these, 16 are [[district of China|district]]s and 2 are [[county of China|counties]].
The urban and suburban areas of the city are divided into eight districts:
*[[Dongcheng District]] (东城区: Dōngchéng Qū)
*[[Xicheng District]] (西城区: Xīchéng Qū)
*[[Chongwen District]] (崇文区: Chóngwén Qū)
*[[Xuanwu District, Beijing|Xuanwu District]] (宣武区: Xuānwǔ Qū)
*[[Chaoyang District, Beijing|Chaoyang District]] (朝阳区: Cháoyáng Qū)
*[[Haidian District]] (海淀区: Hǎidiàn Qū)
*[[Fengtai District]] (丰台区: Fēngtái Qū)
*[[Shijingshan District]] (石景山区: Shíjǐngshān Qū)
The other eight districts and the two counties are located further out, and govern more distant suburbs, satellite towns, and some rural areas:
*[[Mentougou District]] (门头沟区: Méntóugōu Qū)
*[[Fangshan District]] (房山区: Fángshān Qū) &mdash; Fangshan County until [[1986]]
*[[Tongzhou District]] (通州区: Tōngzhōu Qū) &mdash; Tong County until [[1997]]
*[[Shunyi District]] (顺义区: Shùnyì Qū) &mdash; Shunyi County until [[1998]]
*[[Changping District]] (昌平区: Chāngpíng Qū) &mdash; Changping County until [[1999]]
*[[Daxing District]] (大兴区: Dàxīng Qū) &mdash; Daxing County until [[2001]]
*[[Pinggu District]] (平谷区: Pínggǔ Qū) &mdash; Pinggu County until [[2001]]
*[[Huairou District]] (怀柔区: Huáiróu Qū) &mdash; Huairou County until [[2001]]
*[[Miyun County]] (密云县: Mìyún Xiàn)
*[[Yanqing County]] (延庆县: Yánqìng Xiàn)
Beijing's 18 districts and counties are further subdivided into 273 lower (third)-level administrative units at the [[Political divisions of China#Township level|township level]]: 119 [[town of China|town]]s, 24 [[township of China|township]]s, 5 [[ethnic township]]s and 125 [[subdistrict]]s.[[image:Modern Beijing Skyline Oct2004.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Beijing CBD]] area around [[Dawangqiao]] and [[Dabeiyao]], as seen from the [[Jingtong Expressway]].]]
[[image:Bejingcbd.jpg|thumb|300px|A corner of the emerging Beijing CBD.]]
== Economy ==
In 2005, Beijing's nominal GDP was 681.45 billion [[Renminbi|RMB]], a year-on-year growth of 11.1% from the previous year. Its per capita GDP was 44,969 RMB, an increase of 8.1% from the previous year and nearly twice as much as in 2000. Beijing's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries w |
ntinuously puts forth new candidates for "basic" tastes. Other candidates include metallic and an umami-like taste called kokumi.
Many obvious sensations, such at hot, astringent and acidic are still recognized by science, but considered "chemical senses"--mere pain reactions--rather than tastes. Whether that is a meaningful distinction is in dispute.
==Saltiness==
Saltiness is a taste produced by the presence of [[sodium chloride]] (and to a lesser degree other [[salt|salts]]). The ions of salt, especially sodium (Na<sup>+</sup>), are detected by ion channels on the tongue, leading to [[action potential]].
==Sourness==
Sourness is the taste that detects [[acid]]s. The mechanism for detecting sour taste is similar to that which detects salt taste. Hydrogen [[ion channels]] detect the concentration of hydronium ions (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> ions) that have dissociated from an acid.
Hydrogen ions are capable of permiating the amiloride-sensitive sodium channels, but this is not the only mechanism involved in detecting the quality of sourness. Hydrogen ions also inhibit the potassium channel, which normally functions to hyperpolarize the cell. Thus, by a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire in this specific manner.
==Sweetness==
''Main article: [[Sweetness]]''
Sweetness is produced by the presence of [[sugar]]s, some proteins and a few other substances. Sweetness is detected by a variety of [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled receptors]] coupled to the [[G protein]] [[gustducin]] found on the [[taste bud|taste buds]]. At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" need to be activated for the brain to register sweetness. The compounds which the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to several different sweetness receptors. The differences between the different sweetness receptors is mainly in the binding site of the G protein coupled receptors. And yet sour still has a sweet taste to some.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+ Examples of sweet substances, with average [[human]] detection thresholds in [[mole (unit)|mole]]s per [[liter]]
![[Molecule]]!!Threshold
|-
|[[Sucrose]]||10 mmol/L
|-
|[[Lactose]]||30 mmol/L
|-
|[[5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline]]||2 &micro;mol/L
|}
== Bitterness ==
Bitterness, like sweetness, is sensed by [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled receptors]] coupled to the [[G protein]] [[gustducin]]. Many people find bitter tastes to be unpleasant; many [[alkaloid|alkaloids]] taste bitter, and [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologists]] have suggested that a distaste for bitter things evolved to enable people to avoid accidental [[poisoning]].
The bitterest substance known is the synthetic chemical [[denatonium]], such as the under the trademark Bitrex [http://www.bitrex.com/home.htm], discovered in [[1958]]. Denatonium benzoate is a white, odourless solid used as an aversive agent, and can be an additive that prevents accidental ingestion of a toxic substance by humans, particularly children, and by animals.
The synthetic substance [[phenylthiocarbamide]] (PTC) tastes very bitter to most people, but is virtually tasteless to others; furthermore, among the tasters, some are so-called "super-tasters" to whom PTC is extremely bitter. This [[genetics|genetic]] variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics. In addition, it is of interest to those who study [[evolution]] since PTC-tasting is associated with the ability to taste numerous natural bitter compounds, a large number of which are known to be toxic.
[[Quinine]], the anti-malarial [[prophylactic]], is also known for its bitter taste and was used as a medical and flavor additive in the gin and tonic drink.
== Umami ==
The following outlines the claims about umami, but should be taken with a grain of salt while research continues.
Savoriness or umami is the name for the taste sensation produced by the free [[glutamate|glutamates]] commonly found in [[fermentation|fermented]] and aged foods, for example [[parmesan]] and [[roquefort]] [[cheese]]s, as well as [[soy sauce]] and [[fish sauce]]. It is also found in significant amounts in various unfermented foods such as [[walnut]]s, [[grape]]s, [[broccoli]], [[tomato]]es, and [[mushroom]]s, and to a lesser degree in [[meat]]. The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combination with [[sodium]]. This is one reason why tomatoes exhibit a stronger taste after adding [[salt]]. Sauces with umami and salty tastes are very popular for cooking, such as tomato sauces and [[ketchup]] for Western cuisines and soy sauce and fish sauce for [[East Asia]]n and [[Southeast Asia]]n cuisines. However, the lack of umami taste with other glutamate molecules makes at least some experts question what is actually producing the umami taste.
The additive monosodium glutamate, which was developed as a food additive in [[1907]] by [[Kikunae Ikeda]], produces a strong umami taste. Umami is also provided by the [[Nucleotide|nucleotides]] [[disodium inosinate|disodium 5&#8217;-inosine monophosphate]] (IMP) and disodium 5&#8217;-guanosine monophosphate (GMP). These are naturally present in many protein-rich foods. IMP is present in high concentrations in many foods, including dried [[skipjack tuna]] flakes used to make [[dashi]], a [[cuisine of Japan|Japanese]] broth. GMP is present in high concentration in dried [[shiitake]] mushrooms, used in much of the [[cuisine of Asia]]. There is a synergistic effect between MSG, IMP and GMP which together in certain ratios produce a strong umami taste.
Umami is considered basic in Japanese and Chinese cooking, but is not discussed as much in [[Western cuisine]], where it is sometimes referred to as "savory", "meaty" or "moreish."
The name comes from ''umami'' (&#26088;&#21619; or &#12358;&#12414;&#12415;), the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] name for the taste sensation. The characters literally mean "delicious flavour."
In [[English language|English]], the name of the taste is sometimes spelled ''umame'', but ''umami'' (which conforms to a more common [[romanization]] standard of Japanese) is much more common, as in [http://www.srut.org/index_e.html Society for Research on Umami Taste].
The same taste is referred to as ''xi&#257;nwèi'' (&#39854;&#21619; or 鲜味) in Chinese cooking.
A subset of umami taste buds responds specifically to [[glutamate]] in the same way that ''sweet'' ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled glutamate receptors]].
==Other sensations==
The tongue can also feel other sensations, not generally called tastes ''[[per se]]'' or included in the five human tastes. These are largely detected by the [[somatosensory]] system.
=== Tart ===
Some food (tea, unripe fruits) contains [[tannins]] that constrict organic tissue. The added sensation of [[astringent]] substances changes the perception of taste. Synonyms: hard, styptic, rough, harsh (about wine); harsh (about taste).
<!--
Is difficult to say that [[persimmons]] taste like peppers (Warm taste, not Bitter).
-->
=== Hot ===
Substances such as [[ethanol]] and [[capsaicin]] cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The heat is caused by the food activating a [[neuron|nerve cell]] [[ion channel]] called [[Transient receptor potential|TRP-V1]], which is also activated by hot temperatures. The sensation, usually referred to as "hot" or "spicy", is a notable feature of [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Sichuan cuisine]]. Examples of common food ingredients giving this sensation are [[chile pepper]]s, fruits of the the plant ''[[Capsicum]]''.
=== Cold ===
Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors. One can sense "cold" from e.g. [[menthol]] or [[camphor]], which is caused by the food activating the [[Transient receptor potential|TRP-M8]] ion channel on nerve cells that signal cold. The reactions behind this sense are therefore analogous to those behind the hot sense.
===Fat===
Recent research has revealed a potential taste receptor called the [[CD36|CD36 receptor]] to be reacting to [[fat]], and only fat. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=000AFE88-E770-1367-A6B083414B7F4945] This receptor is not only found in humans, but also [[brown rat|mice]], where it was initially found, and probably among other [[mammal]]s as well. In experiments, mouse individuals with a genetic defect not having the receptor didn't show an unusual urge to consume fats that mice sharing it did. Mice missing the receptor also failed to prepare [[gastric juice]]s in their [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]]s to digest the fat. Both mice and humans are known to risk eating an unhealthy amount of fat if exposed to large or unrestricted quantities. This discovery may lead to a better understanding of the biochemical reasons behind this behavior, although more research is still necessary to confirm the relationship of CD36 and the cravings of fat.
== References ==
*Kikunae Ikeda. ([[1909]]). [http://chemse.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/9/847 ''New Seasonings'']
*Bernd Lindemann, Yoko Ogiwara, and Yuzo Ninomiya. ([[2002]]). [http://chemse.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/9/843 ''The Discovery of Umami'']
*Dunlop, Fuschia. 'It's all a matter of taste', ''[[Financial Times]]'' (Europe: [[August 6]] [[2005]]) p.W9
== External links ==
*[http://www.nature.com/neuro/press_release/nn0200.html Nature Neuroscience - Umami taste receptor identif |
d two extreme famines exactly twenty years after each opium war in the 1860s and 1880s, and the Qing imperial dynasty was ineffective in helping the population. Socially these events had a profound impact as it challenged the hegemony that the Chinese had enjoyed in Asia for centuries. As a result, the country was in a state of turmoil.
A large rebellion, the [[Taiping Rebellion]], involved around a third of China falling under control of the Taiping Tianguo, a quasi-Christian religous movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan. Only after fourteen years were the Taipings finally crushed - the Taiping army was destroyed in the [[Third Battle of Nanking]] in [[1864]]. In total between twenty million and fifty million lives were lost, making it the second deadliest war in human history.
The Qing officials were slow to adopt modernity and suspicious of social and technological advances that they viewed as a threat to their absolute control over [[China]]. As an example, gunpowder had been widely used by the army of the [[Song]] and [[Ming]] Dynasties, then was forbidden by the Qing rulers after they took over China. Therefore, the dynasty was ill-equipped to handle the Western encroachment. Western powers did intervene militarily to quell domestic chaos, such as the Taiping Rebellion and the anti-imperialist [[Boxer Rebellion]] (義和團起義). [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]], later killed in the siege of [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]], was often credited with having saved the Qing dynasty from the Taiping insurrection.
By the [[1860s]], the [[Qing]] Dynasty had put down the rebellions at enormous cost and loss of life. This undermined the credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, contributed to the rise of warlordism in China. The Qing Dynasty under the [[Emperor Guangxu]] (光緒皇帝/清德宗) proceeded to deal with the problem of modernization through the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] (自強運動). However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager [[Dowager Empress Cixi|Cixi]] had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned for being 'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a military coup, effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical reforms. He died one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by Cixi). Official corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a result, the Qing's "[[New Armies]]" were soundly defeated in the [[Sino-French War (1883-1885)]] and the [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)]].
At the start of the [[20th century]], the [[Boxer Rebellion]] threatened northern China. This was a conservative anti-imperialist movement that sought to return China to old ways. The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to ensure her continued grip on power, sided with the Boxers when they advanced on Beijing. In response the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing goverment.
== The Republic of China ==
{{main|History of the Republic of China}}
Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students&mdash;inspired by the revolutionary ideas of [[Sun Yat-sen]] (孫中山) &mdash;began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and creation of a republic. A revolutionary military uprising, the [[Wuchang Uprising]], began on [[October 10]], [[1911]] in [[Wuhan]] (武漢). The provisional government of the [[Republic of China]] (中華民國) was formed in [[Nanjing]] on [[March 12]], [[1912]] with [[Sun Yat-sen]] as [[President of the Republic of China|President]], but Sun decided to turn power over to [[Yuan Shikai]] (袁世凱) who commanded the [[New Army]] and was [[Prime Minister]] under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the [[Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi|last Qing monarch]] abdicate (a decision he would later regret). Yuan Shikai proceeded in the next few years to abolish the national and provincial assemblies and declared himself emperor in [[1915]]. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates, and faced with the prospect of rebellion, Yuan broke down and died shortly after in [[1916]], leaving a power vacuum in China. His death left the republican government all but shattered, ushering in the era of the "[[warlord]]s" when China was ruled and ravaged by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders.
A little noticed event (to the rest of the world) in 1919 would have long-term repercussions for the rest of Chinese history in the 20th century. This was the [[May Fourth Movement]] (五四運動). The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.
In the [[1920s]], [[Sun Yat-Sen]] established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC, 中國共產黨). After Sun's death from cancer in [[1925]], one of his protégés, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (蔣介石), seized control of the [[Kuomintang|''Kuomintang'' (Nationalist Party or KMT, 國民黨)]] and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the [[Northern Expedition]] (北伐). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In [[1927]], Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]] (中華蘇維埃共和國), the CPC forces embarked on the [[Long March]] (長征) across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at [[Yan'an]] in [[Shaanxi]] Province (陝西省延安市).
During the [[Long March]], the communists reorganized under a new leader, [[Mao Zedong]] (Mao Tse-tung, 毛澤東). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese invasion ([[1931]]-[[1945]]), even though the two parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese invaders in [[1937]], during the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)]] portion of [[World War II]]. The war between the two parties resumed following the Japanese defeat in 1945. By [[1949]], the CPC occupied most of the country. ''(see [[Chinese Civil War]])''
Chiang Kai-shek fled with the remnants of his government and military forces to [[Taiwan]] (台灣), where he proclaimed [[Taipei]] (台北) to be the Republic of China's "provisional capital" and vowed to reconquer the [[Mainland China|Chinese mainland]].
== The Present ==
{{main|History of the People's Republic of China}}
With the proclamation of the [[People's Republic of China]] (中華人民共和國) on [[October 1]], [[1949]], China was divided yet again, into the PRC on the mainland and the ROC on [[Taiwan]] and several outlying islands of [[Fujian]] (福建省), with two governments each regarding itself as the one true Chinese government and denouncing the other as illegitimate. This remained true until the early [[1990s]], when political changes on Taiwan led the ROC to formally accept that they would never reoccupy China again. Since then, they have been pushing actively to gain recognition by the world community as a legitimate and independent state, which the [[People's Republic of China]] vehemently opposes and insists the world not deviate from their [[One-China Policy]]. Many Taiwanese regard Taiwan as historically being a part of China, but are now reluctant to give up their freedoms and live under a communist controlled government.
For more information see [[People's Republic of China]] and [[History of Taiwan]].
== See also ==
{{commons|History of China}}
*[[History of Taiwan]]
*[[History of Hong Kong]]
*[[History of Macau]]
*[[Timeline of Chinese history]], for a chronological list of major events and figures.
*[[Dynasties in Chinese history]], for dates and links to more information on their histories and emperors.
*[[Chinese sovereign]], for titles and naming conventions of Chinese rulers.
*[[Table of Chinese monarchs]], for a very long list of the rulers of China.
*[[Military history of China]]
*[[List of Chinese rebellions]]
*[[List of past Chinese ethnic groups]], for information on non-[[Han Chinese]] peoples in Chinese history.
*[[Chinese historiography]], for an article on scholarship influenced by post-modernism and periodization.
*[[List of China-related topics]], for a collection of articles on China.
*[[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]
==References==
===Han Dynasty===
*[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny, Rafe]]. 1977. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' 16, Australian National University. Canberra.
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. ''Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire''. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra.
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1989. "South China under the Later Han Dynasty" (Chapter One from ''Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu'' by Rafe de Crespigny, in Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16 Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1989)[http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/south_china.html]
*de Crespigny, Rafe. |
se, with the short close ''o'' sometimes corresponding with the long open ''a''. The close back vowels often use the consonant ''w'' to indicate their quality.
Two basic [[diphthong]]s exist: an open vowel followed by ''y'' (''ay''), and an open vowel followed by ''w'' (''aw''). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.
The so-called 'emphatic' consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
===Consonants===
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a [[Stop consonant|plosive]] and a [[fricative]] at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
* Labial set: ''p''/''f'' and ''b''/''v'',
* Dental set: ''t''/''θ'' and ''d''/''ð'',
* Velar set: ''k''/''x'' and ''g''/''ɣ''.
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, ''p'' and ''f'' are written with the same letter), and are near [[allophone]]s.
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of 'emphatic' consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of [[pharyngealization]] and [[velar|velarisation]]. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
* {{unicode|Ḥêṯ}}, a [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]], [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /ħ/ (like the sound made breathing on glass),
* {{unicode|Ṭêṯ}}, a pharyngealized ''t'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /{{IPA|tˁ}}/,
* {{unicode|ʽAyn}}, a pharyngealized [[glottal stop]] (sometimes considered to be a [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]), [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /{{IPA|ʕ}}/ or /{{IPA|ʔˁ}}/,
* {{unicode|Ṣāḏê}}, a pharyngealized ''s'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /{{IPA|sˁ}}/,
* {{unicode|Qôp̄}}, an [[uvular]] ''k'' (a [[voiceless uvular plosive]]), [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /q/.{{listen|filename=Aramaic_emphatics.ogg|title=The emphatic consonants of Aramaic|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the 'guttural' consonants. They include {{unicode|Ḥêṯ}} and {{unicode|ʽAyn}} from the emphatic set, and add {{unicode|ʼĀlap̄}} (a [[glottal stop]]) and {{unicode|Hê}} (as the English 'h').
Aramaic classically has a set of four [[sibilant consonant|sibilants]] (Ancient Aramaic may have had six):
* /s/ (as in English 'sea'),
* /z/ (as in English 'zero'),
* /{{IPA|ʃ}}/ (as in English 'ship'),
* /{{IPA|sˁ}}/ (the emphatic {{unicode|Ṣāḏê}} listed above).
In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the [[nasal consonant]]s ''m'' and ''n'', and the [[approximant consonant|approximants]] ''r'' (usually an [[alveolar trill]]), ''l'', ''y'' and ''w''.
===Historical sound changes===
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
# Vowel change — This occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
# Plosive/fricative pair reduction — Originally, Aramaic, like [[Tiberian Hebrew]], had fricatives as conditioned [[allophone]]s for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] has mostly lost /p/, using /f/ instead; other dialects (for instance, standard [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]]) have lost /θ/ and /ð/ and replaced them with /t/ and /d/. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, /f/ and /v/ become /w/ after a vowel.
# Loss of emphatics — Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the [[Caucasus]] often have [[glottal consonant|glottalized]] rather than [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] emphatics.
# Guttural assimilation — This is the main feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in [[Samaritan Hebrew]]: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce ''h'' in all words (the third person masculine pronoun 'hu' becomes 'ow').
# Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three in Hebrew is 'šālôš', but '{{unicode|tlāṯ}}' in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
# New phonetic inventory — Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the surrounding, dominant languages. The usual inventory is /{{IPA|ʒ}}/ (as the first consonant in 'azure'), /{{IPA|ʤ}}/ (as in 'jam') and /{{IPA|ʧ}}/ (as in 'church'). The [[Syriac alphabet]] has been adapted for writing these new sounds.
==Grammar==
As with other Semitic languages, Aramaic [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the way words are put together) is based on the [[triliteral]] root. The root consists of three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, ''k-t-b'' has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
* ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇâ}}'', handwriting, inscription, script, book.
* ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇê}}'', the Scriptures.
* ''{{unicode|Kāṯûḇâ}}'', secretary, scribe.
* ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇeṯ}}'', I wrote.
* ''{{unicode|Eḵtûḇ}}'', I shall write.{{listen|filename=kthovo.ogg|title=Aramaic words based on the triliteral root ''k-t-b''|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
Aramaic has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional 'dual' number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states; these states correspond in part to the role of cases in other languages. The 'absolute' state is the basic form of a noun (for example, ''{{unicode|kṯâḇâ}}'', 'handwriting'). The 'construct' state is a truncated form of the noun used to make possessive phrases (for example, ''{{unicode|kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ}}'', 'the handwriting of the queen). The 'emphatic' or 'determined' state is an extended form of the noun that functions a bit like a definite article (which Aramaic lacks; for example, ''{{unicode|kṯāḇtâ}}'', 'the handwriting'). In time, the construct state began to be replaced by other possessive phrases, and the emphatic state became the norm in most dialects. Most dialects of Modern Aramaic use only the emphatic state.
The various forms of possessive phrases (for 'the handwriting of the queen') are:
# ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ}}'' — The oldest construction: the possessed object is in the construct state.
# ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ}}'' — Both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle ''d(î)-'' is used to mark the relationship.
# ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ}}'' — Both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (literally, 'her writing, that (of) the queen').
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.{{listen|filename=kthovath malktho.ogg|title=Different variations of the possessive construction in Aramaic|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
The Aramaic verb has six 'conjugations' or stems: alterations to the verbal root that can mark the [[passive voice]] (''{{unicode|eṯkṯeḇ}}'', 'it was written'), intensive (''{{unicode|katteḇ}}'', 'he decreed (in writing)'), the extensive (''{{unicode|aḵteḇ}}'', 'he composed') or a combination of these. Aramaic also has two proper [[grammatical tense|tenses]]: the perfect and the imperfect. In Imperial Aramaic, the [[participle]] began to be used for a [[historic present]]. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an [[auxiliary verb]]), allowing for narrative that is more vivid.
The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb-subject-object (VSO).
==See also==
===Background===
* [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]
* [[Semitic languages]]
* [[Aram]]
* [[Aramaean]]
===Writing systems===
* [[Aramaic alphabet]]
* [[Hebrew alphabet]]
* [[Mandaic alphabet]]
* [[Phoenician alphabet]]
* [[Syriac alphabet]]
===Historical forms===
* [[Biblical Aramaic]]
* [[Aramaic of Hatra]]
* [[Aramaic of Jesus]]
* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Mandaic language]]
===Literature===
* [[Book of Ezra]]
* [[Book of Daniel]]
* [[Targum]]
* [[Midrash]]
* [[Talmud]]
* [[Peshitta]]
* [[Ephrem the Syrian]]
===Modern Aramaic languages===
{{neo-aramaic}}
==References==
* Beyer, Klaus (1986). ''The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.
* Casey, Maurice (1998). ''Aramaic sources of Mark's Gospel''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-633141-1.
* Frank, Yitzchak (2003). ''Grammar for Gemara & Targum Onkelos'' (expanded edition). Feldheim Publishers / Ariel Institute. ISBN 1-58330-606-4.
* Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). ''Studies in Neo-Aramaic''. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
* Rosenthal, Franz (1961). ''A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic''. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
* Stevenson, William B. (1962). ''Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic'' (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815419-4.
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=arc}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_family.asp?subid=950 Ethnologue report for Aramaic]
* [http://semarch.uni-hd.de/dokumentgruppen.php4?ST_ID=5 Semitisches Tonarchiv: Dokumentgruppe "A |
lle (i. 671).
<sup>3</sup> Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385. The characters used are DIS TU, which may mean Ana-tu.
==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ananda</title>
<id>1735</id>
<revision>
<id>40534883</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:47:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.16.38.54</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: the word'' '''Ananda''' ''means [[Bliss (feeling)|bliss]] in [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]] and is quite often part of a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Sanyasa|monastic]] name.''
{{buddhism}}
'''Ananda''' (Ch:阿難) was one of many principal disciples of the [[Shakyamuni Buddha|Buddha]], a devout attendant and was renowned as the ''Guardian of the Dharma.''
Ananda was the first cousin of the Buddha, and
was devotedly attached to him. Once he entered the Order
in the second year of the Buddha's ministry, he became one
of his personal attendants, accompanying him on most of his
wanderings and being the interlocutor in many of the recorded
dialogues. He is the subject of a special [[panegyric]] delivered
by the Buddha just before his death ([[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]],
[[Digha Nikaya]] 16); but it is the panegyric of an unselfish
man, kindly, thoughtful for others and popular; not of the
intellectual man, versed in the theory and practice of the
Buddhist system of self-culture. So in the long list of
the disciples given in the [[Anguttara]] (i. xiv.) where each
of them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is
mentioned five times (which is more often than any other),
but it is as chief in conduct and in service to others and
in power of memory, not in any of the intellectual powers
so highly prized in the community. This explains why he had
not attained to arahatship; and in the earliest account of
the convocation said to have been held by five hundred of
the principal disciples immediately after the Buddha's death,
he was the only one who was not an [[arahat]] ([[Cullavagga]],
book xi.). In later accounts this incident is explained
away. Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are preserved
in a collection of lyrics by the principal male members of the order ([[Theragatha]], 1017-1050). They
show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit.
Ananda is often called the disciple of the Buddha who "heard much"; because he attended personally upon the Buddha and often traveled with him, Ananda overheard and memorized many of the discourses delivered by the Buddha to various audiences. At the [[Buddhist councils|First Council]], convened shortly after the death of the Buddha, Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the [[Sutta Pitaka]] of the [[Pāli Canon]].
Despite his long association and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda is depicted as being slow to develop along the Buddhist path. Prior to the First Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an [[arhat]]. According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of [[nibbana]], and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave. Ananda was, however, rebuked by the First Council for failing to request that the Buddha remain in the world for a longer period of time; in the [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], the Buddha is depicted dropping a number of hints to Ananda that he can remain in the world as long as is required if it is requested by one of his disciples. Ananda fails to pick up on the intimation, and the Buddha soon after passes from the world.
In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the [[Pāli Canon]], Ananda is depicted as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure. He mourns the deaths of both [[Sariputta]], with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the [[Buddha]]. A verse of the [[Theragatha]] [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/khuddaka/theragatha/thag-17-03-ao0.html] reveals his loneliness and isolation following the death of the Buddha.
In the [[Zen]] tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch. He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside [[Mahakashyapa]], the first Indian patriarch.
==External links==
*[http://ds.dial.pipex.com/town/avenue/xha71/powsample/images/127vb2.jpg Ananda with the Buddha and Subhuti]
*[http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID "guest")
==See also==
* [[Ananda Mahidol]] &ndash; King Rama VIII of [[Thailand]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:disciples of the Buddha]]
[[Category:Zen Patriarchs]]
[[cs:Ánanda]]
[[de:Ananda]]
[[fr:Ananda]]
[[ja:阿難]]
[[nl:Ananda]]
[[sv:Ananda]]
[[vi:A-nan-đà]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ananias</title>
<id>1736</id>
<revision>
<id>41482769</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:39:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.60.40.210</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ananias''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] form of '''Hananiah''' (Hebrew for "Yahweh is gracious"), or '''Ananiah''', a name occurring several times in the [[Old Testament]] and [[Apocrypha]] ([[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 3:23, [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 15:23, [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] 5:12. etc.), and three times in the [[New Testament]]. Special mention need be made only of the bearers of the name in the New Testament:
#A member of the first Christian community, who dropped dead suddenly after attempting to deceive the Holy Spirit by withholding part of the profit from the sale of a piece of land. A few moments later his wife, Sapphira also lied and also suffered the same fate. They both lied to Peter about the amount they had received and individually dropped dead upon hearing Peter's rebuke.([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 5:1-10; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 7:1 ff.). See [[Ananias and Sapphira]].
#'''Saint Ananias''' (d. ''c.'' [[70]]), A disciple at [[Damascus]] who figures in the story of the conversion and [[baptism]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] (Acts 9:10-17, 22:12-16.)
#Son of Nedebaios ([[Josephus]], ''Antiquites'' xx. 5. 2), a high priest who presided during the trial of Paul at [[Jerusalem]] and [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] (Acts 23:2, 24:1-5). He officiated as high priest from about AD [[47]] to [[59]]. Quadratus, governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], accused him of being responsible for acts of violence. He was sent to [[Rome]] for trial (AD [[52]]), but was acquitted by the emperor [[Claudius]]. Being a friend of the Romans, he was murdered by the people at the beginning of the Jewish war.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category: Saints]]
[[de:Ananias]]
[[nl:Ananias]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anaxagoras</title>
<id>1737</id>
<revision>
<id>40042542</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T18:39:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.76.154.154</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the philosopher Anaxagoras. For the mythical Greek King Anaxagoras of [[Argos]], see [[Anaxagoras (mythology)]].}}
[[Image:Anaxagoras.png|thumb|300px|Anaxagoras]]'''Anaxagoras''' (c. [[500 BCE]]&ndash;[[428 BCE]]) was a [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] who was likely born about 500 BCE (Apollodorus ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 7.). He was a member of what is now often called the [[Ionian School]] of philosophy.
At his native town of [[Clazomenae]] in [[Asia Minor]], he appears to have had some amount of property and prospects of political influence; he supposedly surrendered both of these out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge. Although a Greek, he was probably a Persian citizen, perhaps even a soldier of the Persian army since Clazomenae was suppressed during the [[Ionian Revolt]].
In early manhood (c. 464-462 BCE) he went to [[Athens]], which was rapidly becoming the centre of Greek culture. There he is said to have remained for thirty years. [[Pericles]] learned to love and admire him, and the poet [[Euripides]] derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity. Some authorities assert that even [[Socrates]] was among his disciples.
Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from [[Ionia]] to [[Athens]]. His observations of the celestial bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order; he attempted to give a scientific account of [[eclipse]]s, [[meteor]]s, [[rainbow]]s and the [[sun]], which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the [[Peloponnesus]]. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. However, these theories brought him into collision with the popular faith.
Anaxagoras was arrested by his friend Pericles' political opponents on a charge of contravening the established [[dogma]]s of religion (some say the charge was one of [[Medism]]), and it required all the eloquence of Pericles to secure his release. Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Ionia (434-433 BCE), where he died about [[428 BCE]]. Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory, and observed the anniversary of his death for many years afterward.
Anaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived through the preservation of [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (6th century CE).
== Cosmological theory ==
All things have existed from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There were the seeds (''spermata'') or miniatures of corn and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture; but these |
rd-compatible machines or computer architectures with multiple, differing implementations. Programs written for one machine would not run on another kind, even other kinds from the same company. This was not a major drawback at the time because there was not a large body of software developed to run on computers, so starting programming from scratch was not seen as a large barrier.
The design freedom of the time was very important, for designers were very constrained by the cost of electronics, yet just beginning to explore how a computer could best be organized. Some of the basic features introduced during this period included [[index registers]] (on the [[Ferranti Mark I]]), a return-address saving instruction ([[UNIVAC I]]), immediate operands ([[IBM 704]]), and the detection of invalid operations ([[IBM 650]]).
By the end of the [[1950]]s commercial builders had developed factory-constructed, truck-deliverable computers. The most widely installed computer was the [[IBM 650]], which used [[drum memory]] onto which programs were loaded using either [[punched tape|paper tape]] or [[punch card]]s. Some very high-end machines also included [[core memory]] which provided higher speeds. [[Hard disk]]s were also starting to become popular.
Computers are automatic [[Abacus|abaci]]. The type of number system affects the way they work. In the early [[1950s]] most computers were built for specific numerical processing tasks, and many machines used decimal numbers as their basic number system &ndash; that is, the mathematical functions of the machines worked in base-10 instead of base-2 as is common today. These were not merely [[binary coded decimal]]. The machines actually had ten vacuum tubes per digit in each [[Processor register|register]]. Some early [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] computer designers implemented systems based on ternary logic; that is, a bit could have three states: +1, 0, or -1, corresponding to positive, no, or negative voltage.
An early project for the [[U.S. Air Force]], [[BINAC]] attempted to make a lightweight, simple computer by using binary arithmetic. It deeply impressed the industry.
As late as 1970, major computer languages were unable to standardize their numeric behavior because decimal computers had groups of users too large to alienate.
Even when designers used a binary system, they still had many odd ideas. Some used sign-magnitude arthmetic (-1 = 10001), rather than modern [[two's complement]] arithmetic (-1 = 11111). Most computers used six-bit character sets, because they adequately encoded [[Hollerith]] cards. It was a major revelation to designers of this period to realize that the data word should be a multiple of the character size. They began to design computers with 12, 24 and 36 bit data words (e.g. see the [[TX-2]]).
In this era, [[Grosch's law]] dominated computer design: Computer cost increased as the square of its speed.
=== 1960s: the computer revolution and CISC ===
One major problem with early computers was that a program for one would not work on others. Computer companies found that their customers had little reason to remain loyal to a particular brand, as the next computer they purchased would be incompatible anyway. At that point price and performance were usually the only concerns.
In 1962, IBM tried a new approach to designing computers. The plan was to make an entire family of computers that could all run the same software, but with different performances, and at different prices. As users' requirements grew they could move up to larger computers, and still keep all of their investment in programs, data and storage media.
In order to do this they designed a single ''reference computer'' called the '''[[System 360]]''' (or '''S/360'''). The System 360 was a virtual computer, a reference instruction set and capabilities that all machines in the family would support. In order to provide different classes of machines, each computer in the family would use more or less hardware emulation, and more or less [[microprogram]] emulation, to create a machine capable of running the entire System 360 [[instruction set]].
For instance a low-end machine could include a very simple processor for low cost. However this would require the use of a larger microcode emulator to provide the rest of the instruction set, which would slow it down. A high-end machine would use a much more complex processor that could directly process more of the System 360 design, thus running a much simpler and faster emulator.
IBM chose to make the reference [[instruction set]] quite complex, and very capable. This was a conscious choice. Even though the computer was complex, its "[[control store]]" containing the [[microprogram]] would stay relatively small, and could be made with very fast memory. Another important effect was that a single instruction could describe quite a complex sequence of operations. Thus the computers would generally have to fetch fewer instructions from the main memory, which could be made slower, smaller and less expensive for a given combination of speed and price.
As the S/360 was to be a successor to both scientific machines like the [[IBM 7090|7090]] and data processing machines like the [[IBM 1401|1401]], it needed a design that could reasonably support all forms of processing. Hence the instruction set was designed to manipulate not just simple binary numbers, but text, scientific floating-point (similar to the numbers used in a calculator), and the [[binary coded decimal]] arithmetic needed by accounting systems.
Almost all following computers included these innovations in some form. This basic set of features is now called a "[[complex instruction set computer]]," or CISC (pronounced "sisk"), a term not invented until many years later.
In many CISCs, an instruction could access either registers or memory, usually in several different ways.
This made the CISCs easier to program, because a programmer could remember just thirty to a hundred instructions, and a set of three to ten [[addressing mode]]s rather than thousands of distinct instructions.
This was called an "[[orthogonal instruction set]]."
The [[PDP-11]] and [[Motorola 68000]] architecture are examples of nearly orthogonal instruction sets.
There was also the ''BUNCH'' (Burroughs, Univac, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell) that competed against IBM at this time though IBM dominated the era with [[S/360]].
The Burroughs Corporation (which later became Unisys when they merged with Sperry/Univac) offered an alternative to S/360 with their [[Burroughs B5000|B5000]] series machines. The B5000 series [[1961]] had virtual memory, a multi-programming operating system (Master Control Program or MCP), written in [[ALGOL 60]], and the industry's first recursive-descent compilers as early as 1963.
=== 1970s: large scale integration ===
In the 1960s, the [[Apollo guidance computer]] and [[Minuteman missile]] made the [[integrated circuit]] economical and practical.
Around 1971, the first calculator and clock chips began to show that very small computers might be possible. The first [[microprocessor]] was the [[4004]], designed in 1971 for a calculator company ([[Busicom]]), and produced by [[Intel]]. The 4004 is the direct ancestor of the [[Intel 80386]], even now maintaining some code compatibility. Just a few years later, the word size of the 4004 was doubled to form the [[8008]].
By the mid-1970s, the use of integrated circuits in computers was commonplace. The whole decade consists of upheavals caused by the shrinking price of transistors.
It became possible to put an entire CPU on a single printed circuit board. The result was that minicomputers, usually with 16-bit words, and 4k to 64K of memory, came to be commonplace.
CISCs were believed to be the most powerful types of computers, because their microcode was small and could be stored in very high-speed memory. The CISC architecture also addressed the "semantic gap" as it was perceived at the time. This was a defined distance between the machine language, and the higher level language people used to program a machine. It was felt that compilers could do a better job with a richer instruction set.
Custom CISCs were commonly constructed using "bit slice" computer logic such as the AMD 2900 chips, with custom microcode. A bit slice component is a piece of an [[ALU]], register file or microsequencer. Most bit-slice integrated circuits were 4-bits wide.
By the early 1970s, the [[PDP-11]] was developed, arguably the most advanced small computer of its day. Almost immediately, wider-word CISCs were introduced, the 32-bit [[VAX]] and 36-bit [[PDP-10]].
Also, to control a cruise missile, Intel developed a more-capable version of its 8008 microprocessor, the [[8080]].
IBM continued to make large, fast computers. However the definition of large and fast now meant more than a megabyte of RAM, clock speeds near one megahertz [http://www.hometoys.com/mentors/caswell/sep00/trends01.htm][http://research.microsoft.com/users/GBell/Computer_Structures_Principles_and_Examples/csp0727.htm], and tens of megabytes of disk drives.
IBM's System 370 was a version of the 360 tweaked to run virtual computing environments. The [[VM (Operating system) |virtual computer]] was developed in order to reduce the possibility of an unrecoverable software failure.
The Burroughs B5000/B6000/B7000 series reached its largest market share. It was a stack computer programmed in a dialect of Algol. It used 64-bit fixed-point arithmetic, rather than floating-point.
All these different developments competed madly for marketshare.
=== Early 1980s: the lessons of RISC ===
In the early [[1980s]], researchers at [[UC Berkeley]] and [[IBM]] both discovered that most computer language compilers and interpreters used only a small subset of the instructions of a [[CISC]]. Much of the power of the CPU was s |
d by Collins an hour later when they opened the hatch for the third and final time.
===Experiments===
There were 10 other experiments that the crew performed during the mission. Three were interested in radiation. MSC-3 was the Tri-Axis Magnetometer which measured levels in the [[South Atlantic Anomaly]]. There was also MSC-6, a beta spectrometer, measured potential radiation doses for Apollo missions, and MSC-7, a [[bremsstrahlung spectrometer]] which detected [[radiation flux]] as a function of energy when the spacecraft passed through the South Atlantic Anomaly.
S-26 was interested in the ion and electron wake of the spacecraft. This provided limited results due to the lack of fuel for attitude control, but found that electron and ion temperatures higher than expected and it registered shock effects during docking and undocking.
Once again S-5 and S-6 were performed. These were Synoptic Terrain and Synoptic Weather photography respectively. Both had good results though were affected by the windows on the spacecraft being dirty. There was also S-1 which was intended to image the [[Zodiacal light]]. These were of little use as the film used was only half as sensitive as Gemini IX-A and the dirty windows lowered the transmission of light by a factor of six.
They also tried to do D-5, a navigation experiment. They were only able to track 5 stars, with six needed for accurate measurements. The last experiment was D-10 to investigate an Ion-sensing Attitude Control system. This was to see if it was possible to find the attitude of the spacecraft from the flow of ions and electrons around the spacecraft in orbit. This system was found to be accurate and responsive.
===Reentry===
[[Image:Gemini10Splashdown.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Splashdown of Gemini 10.]]
The last day of the mission was short and retrofire came at 70 hours and 10 minutes into the mission. They landed only 5.6 km away from the intended landing site and were recovered by the [[USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7)|USS ''Guadalcanal'']].
The Gemini 10 mission was supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources; 9,067 personnel, 78 aircraft and 13 ships.
==Insignia==
The patch is simple in design but highly symbolic. The main feature in a large X with two stars orbiting around it. This represents the Agenas but could also show Castor and Pollux in Gemini or the two crew members.
==Capsule location==
The capsule is on display at the [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]. When the restoration of the [[Gemini 6A]] capsule is completed, then Gemini 10 will be restored in full view of the public. At the end of this restoration it will be put back on full display at the Cosmosphere. One of the hatches is displayed at [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]].
==External links==
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750067644_1975067644.pdf Gemini 10 Mission Report (PDF) August 1966]
* On The Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/cover.htm
* Spaceflight Mission Patches: http://www.genedorr.com/patches/Intro.html
* http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1966-066A
* U.S. Space Objects Registry http://usspaceobjectsregistry.state.gov/search/index.cfm
{{Project Gemini | before=[[Gemini 9A]] | after=[[Gemini 11]]}}
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Gemini program]]
[[Category:1966]]
[[de:Gemini 10]]
[[hu:Gemini-10]]
[[it:Gemini 10]]
[[pt:Gemini X]]
[[sv:Gemini 10]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gregorian Calendar</title>
<id>11983</id>
<revision>
<id>15909692</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-31T03:10:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Gregorian calendar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gardening</title>
<id>11984</id>
<revision>
<id>42155769</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:41:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.123.202.72</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gardening.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A gardener]]
'''Gardening''' is the craft of growing [[plant]]s with the goal of creating a beautiful environment. [[Residential garden|Residential gardening]] most often takes place in or about a residence, in a space referred to as the '''[[garden]]'''. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located in a [[roof garden|roof]], in an [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]], on a [[balcony]], in a [[windowbox]], or on a [[patio garden|patio]].
Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as [[park]]s, public or semi-public gardens ([[botanical garden]]s or [[zoological garden]]s), [[amusement park|amusement]] and [[theme park]]s, along transportation corridors, and around [[tourism|tourist attractions]] and hotels. In these situations, a staff of [[gardener]]s or [[groundskeeper]]s maintains the gardens.
'''Indoor gardening''' is concerned with the growing of [[houseplant]]s within a [[residence]] or building, in a [[conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatory]], or in a [[greenhouse]]. [[Indoor garden]]s are sometimes incorporated as part of [[air conditioning]] or [[heating]] systems.
'''Water gardening''' is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. [[Bog]] gardens are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s).
==Gardening compared to farming==
In respect to its food producing purpose, gardening is distinguished from [[Agriculture|farming]] chiefly by scale and intent. Farming occurs on a larger scale, and with the production of saleable goods as a major motivation. Gardening is done on a smaller scale, primarily for pleasure and to produce goods for the gardener's own family or community. There is some overlap between the terms, particularly in that some moderate-sized vegetable growing concerns, often called [[market gardening]], can fit in either category.
The key distinction between gardening and farming is essentially one of scale: gardening can be a hobby or an income supplement, but farming is generally understood as a full-time or commercial activity, usually involving more land and quite different practices. One distinction is that gardening is labor-intensive and employs very little [[infrastructural capital]], typically no more than a few tools, e.g. a [[spade]], [[hoe]], [[basket]] and [[watering can]]. By contrast, larger-scale farming often involves [[irrigation system]]s, chemical [[fertilizer]]s and [[combine harvester|harvesters]] or at least [[ladder]]s, e.g. to reach up into [[fruit tree]]s. However, this distinction is becoming blurred with the increasing use of power tools in even small gardens.
In part because of labor intensity and aesthetic motivations, gardening is very often much more productive per unit of land than farming. In the [[Soviet Union]], half the [[food supply]] came from small peasants' garden plots on the huge government-run [[collective farm]]s, although they were tiny patches of land. Some argue this as evidence of superiority of [[capitalism]], since the peasants were generally able to sell their produce. Others consider it to be evidence of a [[tragedy of the commons]], since the large collective plots were often neglected, or fertilizers or water redirected to the private gardens.
The term [[precision agriculture]] is sometimes used to describe gardening using [[intermediate technology]] (more than tools, less than harvesters), especially of [[organic farming|organic varieties]]. Gardening is effectively scaled up to feed entire [[village]]s of over 100 people from specialized plots. A variant is the [[community garden]] which offers plots to urban dwellers; see further in [[allotment (gardening)]].
==Gardens as art==
[[Garden design]] is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from [[gardening]], which generally means ''garden maintenance''. In [[Japan]], for instance, [[Samurai]] and [[Zen monk]]s were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like [[flower arrangement]] known as ''[[ikebana]]''. In 18th century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped parklands, such as at [[Versailles]], France or [[Stowe, Buckinghamshire|Stowe]], England. Today, landscape architects and garden designers continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces.
See also:
*[[Landscape architecture]]
*[[History of gardening]]
==Social aspect==
In modern [[Europe]] and [[North America]], people often express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The [[lawn]] vs. garden issue is played out in [[urban planning]] as the debate over the "[[land ethic]]" that is to determine [[urban land use]] and whether [[hyperhygienist]] [[bylaw]]s (e.g. [[weed control]]) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights]] case, "Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto", 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the [[right of free expression]], at least in [[Canada]].
Gardening is thus not only a food source and art, but also a right. The [[Slow Food]] movement has sought in some countries to add an [[edible schoolyard]] and [[garden classroom]]s to schools, e.g. in [[Fergus, Ontario]], where these were added to a public school to augment the [[kitchen classroom]].
In [[United States|US]] and [[British English|British]] usage, the production of ornamental plantings around bu |
hesis "The theory of speculation", but it was [[Albert Einstein]]'s independent solution of the problem in his [[Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen|1905 paper]] that brought the solution to the attention of physicists. (Bachelier's thesis presented a stochastic analysis of the stock and option markets.)
At that time the atomic nature of matter was still a controversial idea. Einstein and [[Marian Smoluchowski]] observed that, if the [[kinetic theory]] of fluids was right, then the molecules of water would move at random and so a small particle would receive a random number of impacts of random strength and from random directions in any short period of time. This random bombardment by the molecules of the fluid would cause a sufficiently small particle to move in exactly the way described by Brown. [[Theodor Svedberg]] made important demonstrations of Brownian motion in [[colloid]]s and [[Felix Ehrenhaft]], of particles of [[silver]] in [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. [[Jean Perrin]] carried out experiments to test the new mathematical models, and his published results finally put an end to the century-long dispute about the reality of [[atom]]s and [[molecules]].
==Intuitive metaphor for Brownian motion ==
Consider a big balloon (of, say, 10 meters in diameter). Imagine now this big balloon in a football stadium (or any wide crowded place) among the supporters. The balloon is so big that it lies on top of many supporters. Because they are excited, these supporters hit the balloon at different times and in different directions (all possible directions actually).
In the end, the balloon is pushed in all directions, so it should not move on average. Consider now the force exerted at a certain time. We might have 20 supporters pushing more to the right, and 21 other supporters pushing more to the left. In this case, the forces exerted from the left side and the right side are unbalanced in favour of the left side, then the balloon will move slightly to the left. This unbalance exists at all times, and favours each time a random direction.
If we look at this situation from above (from a [[helicopter]] for example), so that we cannot see the supporters, but we see the big balloon as a small object animated by an erratic movement.
Now return to Brown’s [[pollen]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] swimming randomly in [[water]]. A water [[molecule]] is about 1 [[nm]], where the [[pollen]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] is roughly 1 [[µm]] in diameter,1000 times bigger than a [[water]] [[molecule]] . So the [[pollen]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] can be considered as a very big balloon constantly pushed by water molecules, and these molecules are excited by [[temperature]].
In the end, the Brownian motion of particles in a [[liquid]], is due to the instantaneous unbalance in the force exerted by the small liquid molecules on the particle.
A Java Applet animating this idea is available [http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuff/Applets/brownian/brownian.html here]
== Description of the mathematical model ==
Mathematically, Brownian motion is a [[Wiener process]] in which the conditional probability distribution of the particle's position at time ''t''&nbsp;+&nbsp;d''t'', given that its position at time ''t'' is ''p'', is a [[normal distribution]] with a [[mean]] of ''p''&nbsp;+&nbsp;&mu;&nbsp;d''t'' and a [[variance]] of &sigma;<sup>2</sup>&nbsp;d''t''; the parameter &mu; is the drift velocity, and the parameter &sigma;<sup>2</sup> is the power of the noise. These properties clearly establish that Brownian motion is Markovian (i.e. it satisfies the [[Markov property]]). Brownian motion is related to the [[random walk]] problem and it is generic in the sense that many different stochastic processes reduce to Brownian motion in suitable limits.
In fact, the Wiener process is the only time-[[homogeneous]] [[stochastic process]] with [[independent increments]] that has continuous trajectories. These are all reasonable approximations to the physical properties of Brownian motion.
The mathematical theory of Brownian motion has been applied in contexts ranging far beyond the movement of particles in fluids. For example, in the modern theory of [[Black-Scholes|option pricing]], asset classes are sometimes modeled as if they move according to a closely related process, [[geometric Brownian motion]].
It turns out that the Wiener process is not a physically realistic model of the motion of Brownian particles. More sophisticated formulations of the problem have led to the mathematical theory of [[diffusion processes]]. The accompanying equation of motion is called the [[Langevin equation]] or the [[Fokker-Planck equation]] depending on whether it is formulated in terms of random trajectories or probability densities.
== Modelling the Brownian motion using differential equations ==
The equations governing Brownian motion related slightly differently to the each of the two definitions of ''brownian motion'' given at the start of this article.
=== Mathematical Brownian motion ===
For a particle experiencing a ''brownian motion'' corresponding to the mathematical definition, the equation governing the time evolution of the [[probability density function]] associated to the position of the Brownian particle is the [[diffusion equation]], a [[partial differential equation]].
The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle itself can be described approximately by [[Langevin equation]], an equation which involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the Brownian particle. On long timescales, the mathematical Brownian motion is well described by [[Langevin equation]]. On small timescales, [[Inertia]]l effects are prevalent in [[Langevin equation]]. However the mathematical ''brownian motion'' is exempt of such [[inertia]]l effects. Note that [[inertia]]l effects have to be considered in [[Langevin equation]], otherwise the equation becomes singular, so that simply removing the [[inertia]] term from this equation would not yield an exact description, but rather a singular behavior in which the particle doesn't move at all...
=== Physical Brownian motion ===
The [[diffusion equation]] yields an approximation of the time evolution of the [[probability density function]] associated to the position of the particle undergoing a Brownian movement under the physical definition. The approximation is valid on long timescales (see [[Langevin equation]] for details).
The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle itself is best described using [[Langevin equation]], an equation which involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the particle.
== See also ==
* [[Brownian bridge]]
* [[Brownian frontier]]
* [[Red noise]], also known as ''brown noise'' ([[Martin Gardner]] proposed this name for sound generated with random intervals. It is a pun on Brownian motion and [[white noise]].)
* [[Brownian ratchet]]
* [[Brownian tree]]
* [[Diffusion equation]]
* [[Langevin equation]]
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Ultramicroscope]]
== References ==
* Brown, Robert, "A brief account of microscopical observations made in the months of June, July and August, 1827, on the particles contained in the pollen of plants; and on the general existence of active molecules in organic and inorganic bodies." Phil. Mag. 4, 161-173, 1828. [http://sciweb.nybg.org/science2/pdfs/dws/Brownian.pdf (PDF version of original paper including a subsequent defense by Brown of his original observations, ''Additional remarks on active molecules''.)]
* Einstein, A. "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen." Ann. Phys. 17, 549, 1905. [http://www.wiley-vch.de/berlin/journals/adp/549_560.pdf]
* Einstein, A. Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement. New York: Dover, 1956. ISBN 0486603040
* Nelson, Edward, ''Dynamical Theories of Brownian Motion'' (1967) &nbsp; [http://www.math.princeton.edu/~nelson/books.html (PDF version of this out-of-print book, from the author's webpage.)]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ap.stmarys.ca/demos/content/thermodynamics/brownian_motion/brownian_motion.html A page describing Brownian motion.]
*[http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuff/Applets/brownian/applet.html Brownian motion java simulation]
*[http://xxx.imsc.res.in/abs/physics/?0412132 Article for the school-going child]
<!-- dead link:
*[http://theory.tifr.res.in/~bhalerao/ Powerpoint presentation]
-->
[[Category:Stochastic processes]]
[[Category:Fractals]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
[[ar:حركة براونية]]
[[ca:Moviment brownià]]
[[cs:Brownův pohyb]]
[[de:Brownsche Molekularbewegung]]
[[es:Movimiento browniano]]
[[fr:Mouvement brownien]]
[[it:Moto browniano]]
[[lt:Brauno judėjimas]]
[[nl:Brownse beweging]]
[[ja:ブラウン運動]]
[[no:Brownsk bevegelse]]
[[nn:Brownske rørsler]]
[[pl:Ruchy Browna]]
[[pt:Movimento browniano]]
[[ru:Броуновское движение]]
[[sk:Brownov pohyb]]
[[sl:Brownovo gibanje]]
[[su:Gerak Brown]]
[[sv:Brownsk rörelse]]
[[ta:பிரௌனியன் இயக்கம்]]
[[zh:布朗運動]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Liberal Democrats</title>
<id>4437</id>
<revision>
<id>42121957</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:38:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bondegezou</username>
<id>379085</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rewording as no cite for "as a result"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dab current|Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006}}
{{dablink|For similarly named parties in other countries, see [[Liberal Democratic Party]].}}
{{Infobox_British_Political_Party | |
on]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]
''' International agreements (signed, but not ratified)'''
[[Marine Life Conservation]]
== Other ==
[[Volta Lake]], the largest artificial lake in the world, extends from the [[Akosombo Dam]] in southeastern Ghana to the town of Yapei, 520 kilometers (325 mi) to the north. The lake generates [[electricity]], provides [[Transportation in Ghana|inland transportation]], and is a potentially valuable resource for [[irrigation]] and [[fish farming]].
==Source==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Library of Congress, Country Studies]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Ghana| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Ghana]]
[[es:Geografía de Ghana]]
[[lt:Ganos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia do Gana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Ghana</title>
<id>12070</id>
<revision>
<id>35731550</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T22:08:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Darwinek</username>
<id>107928</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Ghana]]'s population is concentrated along the coast and in the principal cities of [[Accra]] and [[Kumasi]]. Most Ghanaians descended from migrating tribes that probably came down the [[Volta River]] valley at the beginning of the [[13th century]]. Ethnically, Ghana is divided into small groups speaking more than 50 languages and dialects. Among the more important linguistic groups are the [[Akan (language)|Akan]]s, which include the [[Fanti]]s along the coast and the [[Ashanti_people|Ashanti]]s in the forest region north of the coast; the [[Guan]]s, on the plains of the Volta River; the [[Ga language|Ga]]- and [[Ewe language|Ewe]]-speaking peoples of the south and southeast; and the [[Dagomba|Mossi-Dagomba]]-speaking tribes of the northern and upper regions. [[English language|English]], the official and commercial language, is taught in all the schools.
Primary and junior secondary school education is tuition-free and mandatory. The Government of Ghana support for basic education is unequivocal. Article 39 of the Constitution mandates the major tenets of the free, compulsory, universal basic education (FCUBE) initiative. Launched in 1996, it is one of the most ambitious pre-tertiary education programs in West Africa. Since 1987, the Government of Ghana has increased its education budget by 700%. Basic education's share has grown from 45% to 60% of that total.
Students begin their 6-year primary education at age six. Under educational reforms implemented in 1987, they pass into a junior secondary school system for 3 years of academic training combined with technical and vocational training. Those continuing move into the 3-year senior secondary school program. Entrance to one of the five Ghanaian universities is by examination following completion of senior secondary school. School enrollment totals almost 3 million.
'''Population:'''
19,533,560
<br>''note:''
estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
42% (male 4,120,240; female 4,063,960)
<br>''15-64 years:''
55% (male 5,290,675; female 5,391,175)
<br>''65 years and over:''
3% (male 318,890; female 348,620) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.87% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
29.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
10.22 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
-0.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.91 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
57.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
57.42 years
<br>''male:''
56.07 years
<br>''female:''
58.82 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Ghanaian(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Ghanaian
'''Ethnic groups:'''
black African 99.8% (major tribes - Akan 44%, Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%), European and other 0.2%
'''Religions:'''
Indigenous beliefs 38%, Christian 34%, Muslim 30%
'''Languages:'''
English (official), African languages (including Akan, Moshi-Dagomba, Ewe, and Ga)
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
64.5%
<br>''male:''
75.9%
<br>''female:''
53.5% (1995 est.)
== See also==
*[[Ghana]]
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Ghanaian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Ghana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ghana/Government</title>
<id>12071</id>
<revision>
<id>15909779</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:31:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Ghana]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Ghana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Ghana</title>
<id>12072</id>
<revision>
<id>38992799</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T00:16:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">By [[West Africa]]n standards, [[Ghana]] has a diverse and rich resource base. The country is mainly [[agricultur]]al, however, with a majority of its workers engaged in farming. Cash crops consist primarily of [[cocoa]] and cocoa products,which typically provide about two-thirds of export revenues, timber products, [[coconut]]s and other palm products, [[shea nut]]s, which produce an edible fat, and [[coffee]]. Ghana also has established a successful program of nontraditional agricultural products for export, including [[pineapple]]s, [[cashew]]s, and [[black pepper|pepper]]. [[Cassava]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[plantain]]s, [[maize]], [[rice]], [[peanut]]s, [[millet]], and [[sorghum]] are the basic foodstuffs. Fish, poultry, and meat also are important dietary staples.
Minerals -- principally [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, [[manganese]] ore, and [[bauxite]] -- are produced and exported. The only commercial oil well has been closed after producing 3.5 million barrels (560,000 m&sup3;) over its seven-year life, but signs of [[natural gas]] are being studied for power generation, while exploration continues for other oil and gas resources.
Ghana's industrial base is relatively advanced compared to many other African countries. Import-substitution industries include textiles; [[steel]] (using scrap); tires; oil refining; flour milling; beverages; [[tobacco]]; simple consumer goods; and car, truck, and bus assembly.
Tourism has become one of Ghana's largest foreign income earners (ranking third in 1997), and the Ghanaian Government has placed great emphasis upon further tourism support and development.
==Independence==
At independence, Ghana had a substantial physical and [[social infrastructure]] and $481 million in foreign reserves. The [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]] government further developed the infrastructure and made important public investments in the industrial sector. With assistance from the [[United States]], the [[World Bank]], and the [[United Kingdom]], construction of the [[Akosombo Dam]] was completed on the [[Volta River]] in 1966. Two U.S. companies built [[Valco]], Africa's largest [[aluminium]] smelter, to use power generated at the dam. Aluminium exports from Valco are a major source of foreign exchange for Ghana.
Many Nkrumah-era investments were monumental public works projects and poorly conceived, badly managed agricultural and industrial schemes. With cocoa prices falling and the country's foreign exchange reserves fast disappearing, the government resorted to supplier credits to finance many projects. By the mid-1960s, Ghana's reserves were gone, and the country could not meet repayment schedules. To rationalize, the National Liberation Council abandoned unprofitable projects, and some inefficient state-owned enterprises were sold to private investors. On three occasions, Ghana's creditors agreed to reschedule repayments due on Nkrumah-era supplier credits. Led by the United States, foreign donors provided import loans to enable the foreign exchange-strapped government to import essential commodities.
==Busia government==
Prime Minister Busia's government (1969-72) liberalized controls to attract foreign investment and to encourage domestic entrepreneurship. Investors were cautious, however, and cocoa prices began declining again while imports surged, precipitating a serious trade deficit. Despite considerable foreign assistance and some debt relief, the Busia regime also was unable to overcome the inherited restraints on growth posed by the debt burden, balance-of-payments imbalances, foreign exchange shortages, and mismanagement.
Although foreign aid helped prevent economic collapse and was responsible for subsequent improvements in many sectors, the economy stagnated in the 10-year period preceding the NRC takeover in 1972. Population growth offset the modest increase in gross domestic product, and real earnings decline |
dment proposed being passed by the national legislature, it will require wider approval. Sometimes, the reason for this is that the constitution is considered supreme law, such as according to the [[supremacy clause]] in the United States constitution. Regardless of whether a constitution has this technical status, all states with an entrenched constitution recognise the difference between constitutional law and ordinary statutory law. The procedure for modifying a constitution is often called ''[[constitutional amendment|amending]]''. Procedures for ratification of constitutional amendments vary between states. In a federal system of government such as the United States, the approval of a majority of state/provincial legislatures may be required. A national referendum may be required in some states, such as Australia.
In constitutions that are not entrenched, no special procedure is required for modification. In the small number of countries with un-entrenched constitutions, the lack of entrenchment is because the constitution is not recognised with any higher legal status than ordinary [[statutes]]. In the UK for example, passing laws which modify sources of the constitution, whether they are written or unwritten, are passed on a simple majority in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]]. The concept of "amendment" does not apply, as the constitution can be altered as easily in terms of procedure as any national law.
====Distribution of sovereignty====
Constitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty: federal, unitary and confederal. A [[federalism|federal system of government]] will inevitably have a constitution that recognizes the division of sovereignty between the centre and peripheral/provincial regions of the state. A unitary constitution will recognise that sovereignty resides only in the centre of the state. The US has a federal constitution, since different powers are enumerated to the centre ([[Federal government of the United States|federal government]]) rather than to its peripheral regions ([[US states|states]]). In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of [[Parliamentary sovereignty]] dictates than sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. In the UK, legally, [[local government]] and devolved government (such as the [[Scottish Parliament]]) could be abolished by Parliament. The amount of power government institutions below Parliament have totally depends on Parliament. In the United States, it is impossible for the federal government to remove enumerated power from or abolish any of the states, and it is impossible for a state to secede from the Union, due to the federal design of the constitution, together with the doctrine of entrenchment. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called "confederal" states are actually federal. In a confederacy, sovereignty is located in peripheral regions/provinces and only limited power is granted to the centre. A historical example of a confederal constitution is the [[Swiss Federal Constitution]], the constitution of the [[Confederate States of America]] and the [[Articles of Confederation]].
====Separation of powers====
Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of [[separation of powers]], usually meaning the constitutional separation of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. The United States constitution has a full separation of powers, with each branch having particular enumerated powers. For instance, Congress, the US legislature, has the power of impeachment, which cannot be exercised by another branch.
====Lines of accountability====
Lines of accountability are a common feature in all democratic constitutions. In presidential systems of government such as the United States, and semi-presidential systems such as France, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the [[President]], who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election. In Parliamentary systems such as the United Kingdom and Australia, ministers are accountable to Parliament, but it is the Prime Minister who appoints and dismisses them (in Westminster systems he derives this power from the monarch, a component of Parliament). There is the concept of a [[vote of no confidence]] in many countries with parliamentary systems, which means that if a majority of the legislature vote for a no confidence motion, then the government must resign, and a new one will be formed, or parliament will be dissolved and a general election called.
====Façade Constitutions====
Italian political theorist [[Giovanni Sartori]] noted the existence of national constitutions which are a façade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for [[human rights]] or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened or entirely dishonoured in practice. An extreme example was the [[Constitution of the Soviet Union]] that on paper supported [[freedom of assembly]] or [[freedom of speech]], however citizens who acted accordingly were summarily [[Political prisoner|imprisoned]]. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are provided less through its written terms, but more through deference by government and society to its principles.
==Constitutional courts==
The constitution is often protected by a certain legal body in each country with various names, such as ''supreme'', ''constitutional'' or ''high'' court. This court judges the compatibility of legislation with the provisions and principles of the constitution, which is termed "constitutionality". Especially important is the court's responsibility to protect constitutionally established rights and freedoms. In constitutions without the concept of supreme law, such as the United Kingdom constitution, the concept of "constitutionality" has little meaning, and constitutional courts do not exist.
A "constitutional violation" is an action or legislative act that is judged by a constitutional court to be contrary to the constitution, that is, "unconstitutional". An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a [[politician]] who abuses the powers of his constitutionally-established office. An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper [[constitutional amendment]] process.
A constitutional court is normally the [[court of last resort]], the highest judicial body in the government. The process of [[judicial review]] is then integrated into the system of [[court of appeals|courts of appeal]]. This is the case, for example, with the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. Cases must normally be heard in lower courts before being brought before the Supreme Court, except cases for which the Supreme Court has [[original jurisdiction]]. Some other countries dedicate a special court solely to the protection of the constitution, as with the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany|German Constitutional Court]]. Most constitutional courts are powerful instruments of judicial review, with the power to declare laws "unconstitutional", that is, incompatible with the constitution. The effect of this ruling varies between governments, but it is common for the courts' action to rule a law unenforceable, as is the case in the United States. However, many courts have the problem of relying on the legislative and executive branches' co-operation to properly enforce their decisions. For example, in the United States, the Supreme Court's ruling overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine in the 1950s depended on individual states co-operation to enforce. Some failed to do so, prompting the federal government to intervene.
Some countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all &ndash; for example, as the [[United Kingdom]] traditionally functions under the principle of [[parliamentary sovereignty]]: the legislature has the power to enact any law it wishes. However, through its membership in the [[European Union]], the UK is now subject to the jurisdiction of [[European Community law]] and the [[European Court of Justice]]; similarly, by acceding to the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[European Convention on Human Rights]], it is subject to the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. In effect, these bodies are constitutional courts that can invalidate or interpret UK legislation, first established as a principle by the [[Factortame case]].
==History and development==
[[Image:Uchwalenie Konstytucji 3 Maja.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The "Great" or Four-Year Sejm of [[1788]]&ndash;[[1792]] adopts the May 3rd Constitution at [[Royal Castle in Warsaw|Warsaw's Royal Castle]] (rebuilt in the [[1970s]] after its deliberate destruction by the Germans in World War II).]]
As far as we know from historical records, the code of justice issued by the [[Sumer]]ian king [[Urukagina]] of [[Lagash]] ca. 2300 BC is the earliest prototype for a law of government. This document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some [[right]]s to his citizens. For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the [[usury]] of the rich.
After that many governments ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be that of [[Ur-Nammu]] of [[Ur]] (ca. 2050 BC). Some of the more well known among these include the [[code of Hammurabi]] of [[Babylonia]], the [[Hittite]] code, the [[Assyrian]] code, [[Mosaic law]], and likewise the commandments of [[Cyrus the Great]] of [[Persia]].
In 621 BC, a scrib |
May]] [[1739]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|41
|[[Imeneo]]
|align="right"|[[22 November]] [[1740]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|
|-
|42
|[[Deidamia]]
|align="right"|[[10 January]] [[1741]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|
|}
===Odes and Masques===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
!bgcolor=ececec|HWV
!bgcolor=ececec|Title
!bgcolor=ececec|Premiere
!bgcolor=ececec|Venue
|-
|49a/b
|[[Acis and Galatea]]
|align="right"|probably [[1718]]
|[[London]]
|-
|74
|[[Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne]]
|align="right"|[[6 February]] [[1713]]
|Royal Palace in [[London]]
|-
|75
|[[Alexander's Feast]]
|align="right"|[[19 February]] [[1736]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|76
|[[Ode for St. Cecilia's Day]]
|align="right"|[[22 November]] [[1739]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|-
|}
===Oratorios===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
!bgcolor=ececec|HWV
!bgcolor=ececec|Title
!bgcolor=ececec|Premiere
!bgcolor=ececec|Venue
|-
|46a/b
|[[Il trionfo|Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno/<br>Il trionfo del Tempo e della Verità]]
|align="right"|June [[1707]]
|[[Rome]]
|-
|47
|[[La Resurrezione]]
|align="right"|[[8 April]] [[1708]]
|[[Rome]]
|-
|48
|Brockes-Passion
|align="right"|[[1709]]?
|[[Hamburg]]
|-
|50a/b
|[[Esther (Handel)|Esther]]
|align="right"|probably [[1718]]
|[[London]]
|-
|51
|[[Deborah (Handel)|Deborah]]
|align="right"|[[21 February]] [[1733]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|52
|[[Athalia (oratorio)|Athalia]]
|align="right"|[[10 July]] [[1733]]
|[[Sheldonian Theatre]], [[Oxford]]
|-
|53
|[[Saul (Handel)|Saul]]
|align="right"|[[16 January]] [[1739]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|54
|[[Israel in Egypt]]
|align="right"|[[4 April]] [[1739]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|55
|[[L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato]]
|align="right"|[[27 February]] [[1740]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|-
|56
|[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]
|align="right"|[[13 April]] [[1742]]
|New Music Hall, [[Dublin]]
|-
|57
|[[Samson (Handel)|Samson]]
|align="right"|[[18 February]] [[1743]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|58
|[[Semele (Handel)|Semele]]
|align="right"|[[10 February]] [[1744]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|59
|[[Joseph and his Brethren]]
|align="right"|[[2 March]] [[1744]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|60
|[[Hercules (Handel)|Hercules]]
|align="right"|[[5 January]] [[1745]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|61
|[[Belshazzar (oratorio)|Belshazzar]]
|align="right"|[[27 March]] [[1745]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|62
|[[Occasional Oratorio]]
|align="right"|[[14 February]] [[1746]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|63
|[[Judas Maccabaeus (oratorio)|Judas Maccabaeus]]
|align="right"|[[1 April]] [[1747]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|64
|[[Joshua (Handel)|Joshua]]
|align="right"|[[9 March]] [[1748]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|65
|[[Alexander Balus]]
|align="right"|[[23 March]] [[1748]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|66
|[[Susanna (Handel)|Susanna]]
|align="right"|[[10 February]] [[1749]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|67
|[[Solomon (Handel)|Solomon]]
|align="right"|[[17 March]] [[1749]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|68
|[[Theodora (Handel)|Theodora]]
|align="right"|[[16 March]] [[1750]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|69
|[[The Choice of Hercules (oratorio)|The Choice of Hercules]]
|align="right"|[[1 March]] [[1751]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|70
|[[Jephtha (Handel)|Jephtha]]
|align="right"|[[26 February]] [[1752]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|71
|[[The Triumph of Time and Truth]]
|align="right"|[[11 March]] [[1757]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|}
===Instrumental music===
* 6 Organ Concertos op. 4 (HWV 289 – 294)
* 6 Organ Concertos op. 7 (HWV 306 – 311)
* 6 Concerti grossi op. 3 (HWV 312 – 317)
* Concerto grosso in C major "Alexander's Feast" (HWV 318)
* 12 Concerti grosso op. 6 (HWV 319 – 330)
* 3 Concerti a due cori (HWV 332 – 334)
* [[Water Music (Handel)|Water Music]] (HWV 348 – 350)
* [[Fireworks Music|Music for the Royal Fireworks]] (HWV 351)
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 04 and the glory of the lord.ogg|title=Handel's Messiah, And the Glory of the Lord|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 12 for unto us a child is born.ogg|title=Handel's Messiah, For unto us a child is born|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 44 hallelujah.ogg|title=Handel's Messiah, Hallelujah|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel_Gigue_HWV433.ogg|title=Gigue - HWV 433|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==References==
* Burrows, Donald. ''Handel.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 019816470X.
* Keates, Jonathan. ''Handel, the man and his music.'' London: V. Gollancz, 1985. ISBN 0575035730.
* Hogwood, Christopher. ''Handel.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0500013551.
==See also==
* [[:Category:Compositions by George Frideric Handel|Compositions by George Frideric Handel]]
* [[:Category:Operas by George Frideric Handel|Operas by Handel]]
===Handel trivia===
For information relating to Handel that most people don't know, see [[Handel trivia]].
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Georg Friedrich Händel}}
* General reference
** [http://www.gfhandel.org/ GFHandel.org], by Brad Leissa and David Vickers - Excellent all-around Handel site.
** [http://www.haendel.it/ Haendel.it] (entire site in Italian)
* Scores
** {{ChoralWiki}}
** [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=HandelGF&preview=1 The Mutopia Project] provides free downloading of sheet music and [[MIDI]] files for some of Handel's works.
** {{IckingArchive|idx=Handel|name=George Frideric Handel}}
* Recordings
** [http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=Handel+George+Frideric&queryType=%40attr+1%3D1 Handel cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* Specific topics
** [http://www.handelhouse.org/ Handel House Museum]
** [http://www.haendelhaus.de/ENGLISH/haendelhaus_e.htm Handel House in Halle]
** [http://www.haendelfestspiele.halle.de/en/index.html Handel Festival in Halle] - [[8 June]] to [[18 June]] [[2006]]
[[Category:1685 births|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:1759 deaths|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Pantheists|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:German composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:English composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:English organists|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[ar:جورج فريدريك هاندل]]
[[bg:Георг Фридрих Хендел]]
[[ca:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[cs:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[cy:George Frideric Handel]]
[[da:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
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[[es:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[eo:Georg Friedrich HÄNDEL]]
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[[hr:George Friedrich Händel]]
[[id:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[it:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[he:גאורג פרידריך הנדל]]
[[lt:Georgas Frydrichas Hendelis]]
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[[ja:ゲオルク・フリードリヒ・ヘンデル]]
[[no:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
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[[ro:Georg Friedrich Haendel]]
[[ru:Гендель, Георг Фридрих]]
[[sl:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[fi:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[sv:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[th:จอร์จ เฟรดริก ฮันเดล]]
[[tr:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[uk:Гендель Ґеорґ Фридерик]]
[[zh:格奥尔哥·弗里德里希·亨德尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina</title>
<id>12776</id>
<revision>
<id>41606982</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:41:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.4.91.57|66.4.91.57]] ([[User talk:66.4.91.57|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina''' (born in [[Palestrina]] (Praeneste) near [[Rome]], [[1525]], latest [[February 1]], [[1526]] &ndash; [[February 2]], [[1594]] in Rome) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[composer]] of [[Renaissance music]]. He was the most famous [[16th century]] representative of the [[Roman School]] of [[musical composition]]. Palestrina had a tremendous influence on the development of [[Roman Catholic]] [[church music]], and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance [[polyphony]].
[[image:palestrina.jpg|thumb|175px|Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]
==Life==
Palestrina spent most of his career in Rome. Documents suggest he first visited the Eternal City in [[1537]], when he is listed as a chorister at Santa Maria Maggiore. He studied with [[Robin Mallapert]] an |
omifa]] and [[Tigrinya]].
'''Population:'''
73,053,286
<br>''note:'' The latest census for which figures are available was performed in 1994; this figure is the July 2005 estimate, which take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
43.9% (male 16,082,504; female 15,999,602)
<br>''15-64 years:''
53.4% (male 19,452,737; female 19,525,746)
<br>''65 years and over:''
2.7% (male 905,648; female 1,087,049) (2005 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.36% (2005 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
38.61 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
15.06 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
<br>''note:''
repatriation of Ethiopians who fled to [[Sudan]] for refuge from war and famine in earlier years is expected to continue for several years; small numbers of Sudanese and Somali refugees, who fled to Ethiopia from the fighting or famine in their own countries, continue to return to their homes
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
95.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
48.83 years
<br>''male:''
47.67 years
<br>''female:''
50.03 years (2005 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.33 children born/woman (2005 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Ethiopian(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Ethiopian
'''Ethnic groups:'''<sup>[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf 1], [http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/population.shtml 2]</sup>
[[Oromo]] 32.1%, [[Amhara people|Amhara]] 30.2%, [[Tigré]] 6.2%, [[Somali]] 6.0%, [[Gurage]] 4.3%, [[Sidama]] 3.4%, [[Wolayta]] 2%, [[Afar people|Afar]] 2%, [[Hadiya]] 2%, [[Gamo]] 1%
'''[[Religion]]s:'''<sup>[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf 1]</sup> [[Christian]] 61.6% ([[Ethiopian Orthodox]] 50.6%, [[Protestant]] 10.1%, [[Catholic]] 0.9%), [[Muslim]] 32.8%, [[animist|Traditional]] 5.6%
See also: [[Tewahedo Church]], [[Coptic Christianity]]
'''[[Language]]s:'''<sup>[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf 1]</sup> [[Amharic language|Amharic]] 32.7% (as a first language), [[Oromo language|Oromigna]] 31.6%, [[Tigrigna language|Tigrigna]] 6.1%, [[Somali language|Somali]] 6.0%, [[Gurage languages|Guragigna]] 3.5%, [[Sidama language|Sidama]] 3.5%, other local languages; [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[English language|English]] (major foreign language taught in schools)
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
42.7%
<br>''male:''
50.3%
<br>''female:''
35.1% (2003 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]]
* [[Ethiopia]]
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Ethiopian society]]
[[Category:Geography of Ethiopia]]
[[es:Demografía de Etiopía]]
[[sl:Demografija Etiopije]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Ethiopia</title>
<id>9401</id>
<revision>
<id>40360118</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Llywrch</username>
<id>5094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Ethiopia}}
'''Politics of Ethiopia''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is more or less independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Political developments==
In May 1991, a coalition of rebel forces under the name [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) defeated the government of [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]]. In July 1991, the EPRDF, the [[Oromo Liberation Front]] (OLF), and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) which was comprised of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.
In June 1992 the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the [[Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition]] left the government.
The [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), an ally in the fight against the Mengistu regime, assumed control of [[Eritrea]] and established a provisional government. Eritrea achieved full independence on [[May 24]], [[1993]].
President [[Meles Zenawi]] and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy. The election of Ethiopia's 547-member [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]] was held in June 1994, and this assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections, ensuring a landslide victory for the EPRDF. International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so.
The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles has promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has 10 semi-autonomous administrative regions which have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government, Ethiopians enjoy greater political participation and freer debate than ever before in their history, although some fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are in practice somewhat circumscribed.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Ethiopia|President]]
|[[Girma Wolde-Giyorgis Lucha]]
|
|[[8 October]] [[2001]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Meles Zenawi]]
|[[Tigrayan People's Liberation Front|TPLF]]
|August 1995
|}
The president is elected by the House of People's Representatives for a six-year term. The prime minister is designated by the party in power following legislative elections. The Council of Ministers as provided for in the December 1994 constitution is selected by the prime minister and approved by the House of People's Representatives.
==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of Ethiopia|Federal Parliamentary Assembly]] has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]: the [[House of People's Representatives|Council of People's Representatives]] (''Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet'') with 527 members, elected for five-year terms in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]; and the [[House of Federation|Council of the Federation]] (''Yefedereshn Mekir Bet'') with 117 members, one each from the 22 minority [[Demographics of Ethiopia|nationalities]], and one from each professional sector of its remaining nationalities, designated by the regional councils, which may elect them themselves or through popular elections.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Ethiopia|Elections in Ethiopia}}
{{Ethiopian_parliamentary_election,_2005}}
{{main|Ethiopian general elections, 2005}}
Some political pressure groups are the Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE) [[Beyene Petros]] and the Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition (SEPDC) [Beyene Petros].
==Judicial branch==
The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the House of People's Representatives for appointment.
==Administrative divisions==
Ethiopia is divided into 9 ethnically-based administrative regions (astedader akababiwach, singular - astedader akabibi) and 2 chartered cities*: Addis Ababa*; [[Afar (region)|Afar]]; [[Amhara]], [[Benishangul/Gumaz]]; [[Dire Dawa]]*; [[Gambela]]; [[Harar]]; [[Oromia]]; [[Somali]]; [[Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region]]; [[Tigray]]
==International organization participation==
[[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[FAO]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IGAD]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNU]], [[UPU]],[[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Ethiopia| ]]
[[pt:Política da Etiópia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
rationality''': In this view, all human knowledge and reason is seen as dependent on faith: faith in our senses, faith in our reason, faith in our memories, and faith in the accounts of events we receive from others. Accordingly, faith is seen as essential to and inseparable from rationality. This justification applies largely to the historical philosophy of [[continental rationalism]], and less so to modern application of rationalism.
* '''Faith as addressing issues beyond the scope of rationality''': In this view, faith is seen as covering issues which science and rationality are inherently incapable of addressing, but which are nevertheless entirely real. Accordingly, faith is seen as complementing rationality, by providing answers to questions that would otherwise be unanswerable.
* '''Faith as contradicting rationality''': In this view, faith is seen as those views that one holds despite evidence and reason to the contrary. Accordingly, faith is seen as pernicious with respect to rationality, as it prevents the very ability to think.
===The apologist point of view: Reformed epistemology===
====Faith as underlying rationality====
The view that faith underlies all rationality holds that rationality is dependant on faith for its coherence. Under this view, there is no way to comprehensively ''prove'' that we are actually seeing what we appear to be seeing, that what we remember actually happened, or that the laws of logic and mathematics are actually real. Instead, all beliefs depend for their coherence on ''faith'' in our senses, memory, and reason, because the foundations of rationalism cannot be proven by evidence or reason.
The characterization of rationalism described here is [[continental rationalism]], not modern rationalism. [[René Descartes]], for example, argued along these lines in [[Meditations on First Philosophy]], in which he argued that all human perceptions could be an illusion manufactured by an evil demon. Illustrations of this view are also common in popular culture, with movies such as [[The Matrix]] illustrating and challenging faith in the senses, and movies such as [[Total Recall]] illustrating and challenging faith in memories. Similarly, [[Theravaada Buddhism]] holds that all perceived reality is simply illusion. Thus, it is argued, there is no way to prove beyond doubt that what we perceive is real, so that all our beliefs depend on ''faith'' in our senses and memories.
[[Reformed epistemology]] asserts that certain beliefs cannot be proven by reason but must be accepted by faith, and Christian philosophers and apologists such as [[Alvin Plantinga]] have proposed that beliefs of this type are "[[properly basic]]" -- that is, that they are reasonably and even necessarily held without evidentiary support. Instead, these beliefs are held because one is "naturally inclined" to believe them. For example, one cannot ''prove'' in any real sense that one has a headache -- one simply senses it, and ''knows'' it to be true. Although a headache can be replicated in some circumstances, under other circumstances the causes are not known, and the headache can neither be caused nor terminated -- yet the experience of the headache is real and undeniable -- something that one simply "knows." Plantinga goes on to argue that belief in God is properly basic in the same way -- that belief in God need not come through evidence and [[Logical argument|argument]] but may be a "properly basic" belief grounded in natural and intuitive experience.
[[Solipsism]] applies reasoning similar to the above to arrive at the conclusion that only the self exists, and all reality is simply a function of one's mind, on the basis that only one's existence can be proven. This view which was first recorded with the presocratic sophist [[Gorgias]]. Plantinga asserts that his argument does not incorporate solipsisms in that while it acknowledges that many things cannot be proven by evidence and reason, it also affirms that things exist outside the mind. Thus, it concludes that faith allows us to "know" things that cannot be strictly proven.
It should be noted that the sense of "rationalism" being refered to here is [[continental rationalism]]. Modern rationalism has little in common with the historical philosophy of [[continental rationalism]] expounded by René Descartes and others which rely on solipsitic reasoning. Indeed, a reliance on [[empirical science]] is often considered a hallmark of modern rationalism, whereas Continental Rationalism rejected [[empiricism]] entirely.
====Faith as addressing issues beyond the scope of rationality====
The position that faith addresses issues beyond the scope of rationality holds that faith supplements rationality, because the scope of rational human knowledge is limited.
This view was articulated in the [[Bible]] as follows:
:"''Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.''" Hebrews 11:1.
:"''For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known.''" 1st Corithians 13:12
In essence, under this view, faith corresponds to beliefs which, although quite possibly true, cannot yet be fully grasped by our reason.
Some have argued that strict rationalism to the exclusion of this type of faith erroneously concludes that because rational thought is successful at explaining some things, knowledge that comes from beyond the realm of rational thought is illegitimate. According to this line of reasoning,
:"Our science-dominated culture has ruled out religious experience as a clue to reality; but on what grounds? Science in the 1600’s was so successful in understanding the physical dimension of reality that people in the 1700’s began to think that the physical may be the only dimension of reality. But success in one area of inquiry does not invalidate other areas. The burden of proof is on those who would exclude a particular kind of experience from being a source of knowledge." [http://www.leaderu.com/aip/docs/monsma.html]
Under this view, faith is not static belief divorced from reason and experience, and is not illegitimate as a source of knowledge. On the contrary, belief by faith starts with the things known by reason, and extends to things which are true, although they cannot be understood, and is therefore legitimate insofar as it answers questions that rational thought is incapable of addressing. As such, beliefs held by this form of faith are seen dynamic and changing as one grows in experience and knowledge; until one's "faith" becomes "sight." This sort of [[inductive reasoning]] is commonly found in [[mysticism]].
===The rationalist point of view===
====Faith as contradicting rationality====
The position that faith contradicts rationality holds that beliefs held by faith alone are held without justification. Those who hold this position believe that any belief held without a rational justification is arbitrary. In their view applying faith consistently undermines the ability to think. When [[truth]] is determined by faith, [[dogma]], "intuitive experience" or "sight" rather than [[reason]] and factual analysis, there is no objective criteria for determining a statement as true. [[Wishful thinking]] and other [[Cognitive_bias|cognitive biases]] will result in arbitrary ideas, true or false, being accepted, in turn resulting in contradictions. The resultant contradictions prevent higher level abstractions from being made and rationalizations for beliefs held thus becoming increasingly abstruse and attenuated. An example would be the claim that faith accesses things beyond the ability of reason which are "true," though they cannot provide proof for the claim &mdash; hence, a [[tautology]]. Those who believe that faith contradicts rationality argue that to the degree which ideas are taken on faith, the process of thinking is subverted.
==Various justifications and criticisms==
The justifications for faith as rational are based on semantic and epistemological strategies:
1. Less semantically precise definitions of rationalism that allow for faith to be accommodated as rational:
:1.a Broadening of the definition of faith to include faith as a belief that rests on logical proof or material evidence.
:1.b Weakening of the definitions of proof, evidence, logic, rational, etc., to allow for a lower standard of proof.
2. Attacking the [[epistemology|epistemological]] underpinnings of rationality by asserting that certain beliefs not supported by reason or evidence are still [[properly basic]] because they are intuitive or that we are "naturally inclined" to believe them.
The semantic strategy (number 1) is common to those who hold that faith addresses issues beyond the scope of rationality, whereas the epistemological strategy (number 2) is employed by those who hold that faith underlies rationality.
Critics of faith as rational assert that the semantical arguments constitute a [[special pleading]], a [[logical fallacy]]. A common refutation of the epistemological attack on the basis of rationality is that if when fully applied it makes it possible to regard any arbitrary belief as rational; one could argue belief in the [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]] to be [[properly basic]] using the same reasoning. Advocates of [[Reformed epistemology]] assert that they have a criterion of proper basicality; one arrived at inductively. They distinguish between the beliefs and the conditions under which one is believing and correlate the beliefs and the conditions into recognizable groups of those which are properly basic and those which are not properly basic. They argue that as beings we are "naturally inclined" toward belief in God and that because of this condition faith is properly basic and rational, but b |
roadway theatre|Broadway]], where he was nominated for a [[Tony Award]]. (When the film of the musical was made in [[1968]], Jones was at the height of his TV success and too heavily committed to take the part.) He then toured in another musical adaptation of a [[Charles Dickens]] classic, ''[[The Pickwick Papers|Pickwick]]'', and did some American television as well as recording three singles.
Jones' next step was eerily prefigured. As part of the "Oliver" cast, Jones had appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show on the same night the Beatles made their American TV debut on the Sullivan stage. Coincidentally, his great fame was to come from a band that would mirror the Beatles: the Monkees.
From [[1965]] to [[1970]] Jones was a member of [[The Monkees]], a pop-rock group formed expressly for a TV show of the same name. He sang lead vocals on many of the group's songs, including one of their biggest hits, "[[Daydream Believer]]". After the show went off the air and the group disbanded, he continued to perform solo, later joining with fellow-Monkee [[Micky Dolenz]] and songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart as a short-lived group. He has since performed with his former bandmates in reunion tours and has appeared in several productions of ''[[Oliver!]]'' as Fagin. He has also continued to race horses with some success in his native [[England]] while residing in Snyder County, Pennsylvania.
==External links==
* [http://www.thecheappop.com/davycheek.html Davy on Moranis]
* [http://www.davyjones.net Official Web Site]
[[Category:1945 births|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:Living people|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:British pop singers|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:Coronation Street actors|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:English film actors|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:Musical theatre actors|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:British male singers|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:The_Monkees|Jones, Davy]]
[[da:Davy Jones]]
[[pl:Davy Jones]]
[[simple:Davy Jones]]
[[sv:Davy Jones]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discharge</title>
<id>9142</id>
<revision>
<id>40232633</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T03:14:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Metropolitan90</username>
<id>262163</id>
</contributor>
<comment>band Discharge is already listed as a disambiguation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Discharge}}
'''Discharge''' may refer to:
* A [[military discharge]], issued when a member of the [[armed forces]] is released from service.
* [[Termination of employment]].
* A [[patient]] discharge, when a patient leaves a [[hospital]] after his or her [[medical]] [[treatment]] is completed.
* An [[Electrostatic discharge|electrostatic]] or [[corona discharge]], types of [[Current (electricity)|electrical current]] flow.
* [[Partial discharge]], a temporary breakdown of [[Insulator|electrical insulation]].
* The [[Discharge (hydrology)|average discharge]] of a [[river]], meaning the amount of water flowing through the river.
* [[Effluent]] released into a river or sea.
* The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[punk rock]] band ''[[Discharge (band)|Discharge]]''.
* A [[bankruptcy discharge]], the [[injunction]] that bars acts to enforce certain debts.
* [[Vagina|Vaginal]] discharge, a normal occurrence for some women during their [[menstrual cycle]], or a [[medical sign]] of many conditions including [[endometrial cancer]], [[yeast infection]]s, and some [[Sexually-transmitted infection|STD]]s.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Druzism</title>
<id>9145</id>
<revision>
<id>15907055</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Druze]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dolly the sheep</title>
<id>9146</id>
<revision>
<id>42085249</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Syrthiss</username>
<id>334792</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.190.231.201|62.190.231.201]] ([[User talk:62.190.231.201|talk]]) to last version by Bookofjude</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dolly the sheep2-thumb.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Dolly and her first-born lamb, Bonnie]]
'''Dolly''' ([[5 July]] [[1996]] – [[14 February]] [[2003]]), an [[sheep|ewe]], was the first [[mammal]] to have been successfully [[cloning|cloned]] from an adult [[cell (biology)|cell]]. She was cloned at the [[Roslin Institute]] in [[Scotland]] and lived there until her death when she was 6. Her birth was announced on [[22 February]] [[1997]].
The sheep was originally code-named "6LL3". The name "Dolly" came from a suggestion by the stockmen who helped with her birth, in honour of [[Dolly Parton]], because it was a [[mammary gland|mammary]] cell that was cloned<ref>BBC News. 2000. ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/769915.stm Listen to public, says Dolly scientist]''</ref>. The technique that was made famous by her birth is [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], in which a cell is placed in a de-nucleated [[ovum]], the two cells fuse and then develop into an [[embryo]]. When Dolly was cloned in 1996 from a cell taken from a six-year-old ewe, she became the centre of much controversy that still exists today.
On [[9 April]] [[2003]] her [[Taxidermy|stuffed remains]] were placed at [[Edinburgh]]'s [[Royal Museum]], part of the [[National Museums of Scotland]].
==Creating Dolly==
Dolly was created by a research team led by [[Ian Wilmut]] at the Roslin Institute in Scotland. The goal of the research was the reliable reproduction of animals [[genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] to produce therapeutic proteins in their milk. Wilmut's team had already created two sheep clones from embryonic cells grown in culture called Megan and Morag; the work was published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1996<ref>Campbell, K.H.S., McWhir, J., Ritchie, W.A. and Wilmut, A. 1996. Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line. ''Nature'' 380:64-66</ref>. Dolly was a Finn Dorset lamb, created from fully differentiated adult mammary cells using a technique called [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]; her creation was described in a ''Nature'' publication in 1997<ref>Wilmut, I., Schnieke, A.E., McWhir, J., Kind, A.J., Campbell, K.H.S. 1997. Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. ''Nature'' 385:810-813</ref>. Dolly was the first mammalian clone produced from an adult cell.
==Controversy==
[[Image:Dolly_the_sheep.jpg|left|thumb|Dolly the Sheep]]
In 1999 research was published in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' suggesting that Dolly may have been susceptible to [[premature aging]], due to shortened [[telomere]]s in her cells<ref>Shiels, P.G. et al. 1999. Analysis of telomere lengths in cloned sheep. ''Nature'' 399:316-317 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/353617.stm BBC article]</ref>. It was speculated that these were passed on from her parent, who was six years old when the genetic material was taken from her, so that Dolly may have been ''genetically'' six years old at birth. This is because telomere length is reduced after each [[cell division]], which requires [[DNA replication]] before [[mitosis]] occurs. The [[polymerase]], part of the replication machinery, cannot reach the end of the [[chromosome]] being replicated and clips a little of the telomere at the end off every time replication occurs. However, Dr. John Thomas indicated that most cloned animals actually have telomeres of normal length and in [[serial clones]] the telomeres are actually getting longer in each successive generation. This is because the enzyme [[telomerase]] is active in those clones, which keeps the telomeres from shortening. However, telomerase, which is present in many bacteria, can be responsible for causing [[mutation]] through its enzymatic activity, which leads to [[cancer]]. In fact, in the course of [[carcinogenesis]] many human cancer cells produce telomerase, which is not normally present in most adult human cells.
Possible signs of her condition were reported in January 2002, when Dolly was five years old. She had developed a potentially debilitating form of [[arthritis]] at an unusually early age. This supported the theory of premature [[senescence]], although Dr. Dai Grove-White of the Faculty of Veterinary Science at [[Liverpool University]] was reported as saying, "Conceivably arthritis could be due to the cloning but equally it could not be. For all we know, she may have damaged her leg jumping over a gate and developed arthritis."
The arthritis further fueled worry among some that this form of cloning may not be appropriate for mammals, and there is now a consensus both in- and outside scientific community that at this point the risk of unforeseen effects of cloning on the clone makes experiments in human [[reproductive cloning]] premature and unethical.
Supporters of this method of cloning counter that the technique used to clone Dolly simply needs to be refined. However, others contend that with very limited understanding of the nascent field of [[applied genetics]], scientists can not and should not attempt to control the action of so many [[gene]]s at once. Many outside the scientific community have stated that this is vindication for their initial assertions that any form of cloning is ethically wrong and should be banned.
==Death==
[[Image:dollyscotland.JPG|right|thumb|Dolly's remains as exhibited in the Royal Museum of Scotland]]
On [[February 14]], [[2003]] it was announced that Dolly had a progressive lung disease. A [[necropsy]] confirmed she had [[Ovine]] [[Pulmonary]] [[Ad |
nto individual bands, due to limitations of detectors, amplifiers and sources. Infrared radiation is often linked to [[heat]], since objects at room [[temperature]] or above will [[spontaneous emission|emit radiation]] mostly concentrated in the mid-infrared band (see [[black body]]).
[[Image:Atmospheric transmittance infrared.gif|right|thumb|332px|Plot of atmospheric transmittance in part of the infrared region.]]
The common nomenclature is justified by the different human response to this radiation (near infrared = the red you just cannot see, far IR = thermal radiation), other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (The common [[silicon]] detectors are sensitive to about 1050&nbsp;nm, while [[indium gallium arsenide|InGaAs]] sensitivity starts around 950&nbsp;nm and ends between 1700 and 2200&nbsp;nm, depending on the specific configuration). Unfortunately the international standards for these specifications are not currently available.
The boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human [[eye]] is markedly less sensitive to red light above 700 nm wavelength, but particularly intense light (e.g., from [[laser]]s) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm. The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values between these two wavelengths, typically at 750 nm.
===Telecommunication bands in the infrared===
Optical telecommunication in the near infrared is technically often separated to different frequency bands because of availability of light sources, transmitting /absorbing materials (fibers) and detectors.
* '''O-band''' 1260&ndash;1360&nbsp;nm
* '''E-band''' 1360&ndash;1460&nbsp;nm
* '''S-band''' 1460&ndash;1530&nbsp;nm
* '''C-band''' 1530&ndash;1565&nbsp;nm
* '''L-band''' 1565&ndash;1625&nbsp;nm
* '''U-band''' 1625&ndash;1675&nbsp;nm
==The Earth as an infrared emitter==
The [[Earth]]'s surface [[absorb]]s visible radiation from the [[sun]] and re-emits much of the energy as infrared back to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Certain gases in the atmosphere, chiefly [[water]] vapor, but also [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[sulfur hexafluoride]], and [[chlorofluorocarbons]], absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus the [[greenhouse effect]] keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.
== Applications ==
===Night vision===
Infrared is used in [[night-vision]] equipment, when there is insufficient [[visible light]] to see an object. The radiation is detected and turned into an image on a screen, hotter objects showing up in different shades than cooler objects, enabling the [[police]] and military to acquire thermally significant targets, such as [[human being]]s and [[automobile]]s. ''Also see [[Forward looking infrared]]''. IR radiation is a secondary effect of heat; it is not heat itself. Heat itself is a measure of the translational energy of an amount of matter. "Thermal" detectors do not actually detect heat directly but the difference in IR radiation from objects. Military gunnery ranges sometimes use special materials that reflect IR radiation to simulate enemy vehicles with running engines. The targets can be the exact same temperature as the surrounding terrain, but they emit (reflect) much more IR radiation. Different materials emit more or less IR radiation as temperature increases or decreases, depending on the composition of the material.
[[Smoke]] is more transparent to infrared than to visible light, so [[firefighter]]s use infrared imaging equipment when working in smoke-filled areas.
===Other imaging===
In [[infrared photography]], [[infrared filter|infrared filters]] are used to capture only the infrared spectrum. [[Digital camera]]s often use infrared [[blocker|blockers]]. Cheaper [[digital camera]]s and some [[camera phones]] which do not have appropriate filters can "see" infrared, appearing as a bright white colour (try pointing a TV remote at your digital camera). This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image. It is also worth mentioning 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far infrared or [[terahertz]] radiation. Technically more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques, T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest recently due to a number of new developments such as [[terahertz time-domain spectroscopy]].
===Thermography===
Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known). This is termed [[thermography]], or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed [[pyrometry]]. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to the massively reduced production costs.
===Heating===
Infrared radiation is used in [[infrared sauna]]s to heat the sauna's occupants, and to remove ice from the wings of [[aircraft]] (de-icing). It is also gaining popularity as a method of heating asphalt pavements in place during new construction or in repair of damaged asphalt.
===Communications===
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and [[personal digital assistant]]s. These devices usually conform to standards published by [[Infrared Data Association|IrDA]], the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic [[Lens (optics)|lens]] into a narrow beam. The beam is [[modulation|modulated]], i.e. switched on and off, to encode the [[data]]. The receiver uses a [[silicon]] [[photodiode]] to convert the infrared radiation to an electric [[Current (electricity)|current]]. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms.
[[Free space optics|Free space optical]] communication using [[infrared laser]]s can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a Gigabit/s communications link in urban areas, compared to the cost of burying [[fibre optic]] cable.
Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fibre communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1330 nm (least dispersion) or 1550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard [[silica]] fibres.
Infrared is the most common way for [[remote control|remote controls]] to command appliances.
===Spectroscopy===
Infrared radiation [[spectroscopy]] is the study of the composition of (usually) [[organic compound]]s, finding out a compound's structure and composition based on the percentage transmittance of IR radiation through a sample. Different frequencies are absorbed by different stretches and bends in the [[molecular bond]]s occurring inside the sample. [[Carbon dioxide]], for example, has a strong absorption band at 4.2µm.
== History ==
===Biological systems===
The [[pit viper]] is known to have two infrared sensory pits on its head. There is controversy over the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system.
*Thermal Modeling of Snake Infrared Reception: Evidence for Limited Detection Range, B. S. Jones, W. F. Lynn and M. O. Stone, Journal of Theoretical Biology Vol. 209, Iss. 2, 201-211 (2001) {{doi|10.1006/jtbi.2000.2256}}
*Biological Thermal Detection: Micromechanical and Microthermal Properties of Biological Infrared Receptors, V. Gorbunov, N. Fuchigami, M. Stone, M. Grace, and V. V. Tsukruk, Biomacromolecules vol. 3 Iss. 1, 106-115 (2002). {{doi|10.1021/bm015591f}}
===Human history===
The discovery of infrared radiation is commonly ascribed to [[William Herschel]], the [[astronomer]], in the early [[19th century]]. Herschel used a [[Prism (optics)|prism]] to [[refract]] light from the [[sun]] and detected the infrared, beyond the [[red]] part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a [[thermometer]].
Simple infrared sensors were used by British, American and German forces in the [[Second World War]] as night vision aids for [[sniper]]s.
==See also==
*[[Night vision]]
*[[Infrared astronomy]]
*[[Infrared filter]]
*[[Infrared photography]]
*[[Infrared spectroscopy]]
*[[Thermography]]
*[[terahertz]] radiation
*[[Thermographic camera]]
*[[Infrared homing]]
==External links==
===Journals===
*[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13504495 Infrared Physics and Technology] (Elsevier) (last access June 2005).
===Web sites===
*[http://scienceofspectroscopy.info/wiki/index.php?title=Infrared_Spectroscopy Infrared Spectroscopy] NASA ''Open Spectrum'' wiki site.
*[http://www.irda.org/ IrDA]Organization that creates low cost infrared data interconnection standards.
*[http://www.ocinside.de/html/modding/usb_ir_receiver/usb_ir_receiver.html How to build an USB infrared receiver to remote control PCs]
*[http://imagers.gsfc.nasa.gov/ems/infrared.html Infrared Waves]Detailed explanation of infrared light.
{{wiktionary}}
{{EMSpectrum}}
[[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum]]
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ted, until the vandals give up. If you disagree, take it to Talk. -->
* [http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ The Objectivist Center]
* [http://www.capitalismcenter.org/ The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism]
'''Articles'''
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n23/turn03_.html ''As Astonishing as Elvis'' by Jenny Turner] &mdash; Essay review of ''Ayn Rand'' by Jeff Britting
* [http://www.starshipaurora.com/aynrand100.html Ayn Rand 100 Tribute] &mdash; includes reference to a tribute album, "Concerto of Deliverance", inspired by Rand's words describing such music.
* [http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm ''Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars''] by Jeff Sharlet
* [http://www.jeffcomp.com/faq/index.html FAQ - What's REALLY Wrong With Objectivism?]
* [http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html ''The Heirs of Ayn Rand'' by Scott McLemee] &mdash; An article published in [[Lingua Franca]] which covers the arc of her publishing career, while alive and posthomous, as well as the continuing scholarship.
* [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp Rand featured on C-Span's "American Writers"] &mdash; RealVideo discussions on Rand's writing
'''Articles critical of Ayn Rand'''
* [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/critobj.html Criticisms of Objectivism (or Ayn Rand)] &mdash; from of the Critiques of Libertarianism site
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/critics/ Criticisms of Objectivism] &mdash; from the Objectivism Reference Center site
* [http://www.johannhari.com/archive/article.php?id=756 "Don't give to tsunami victims - the message of the American right's philosopher-queen"] &mdash; A critical profile from the London Independent
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html ''The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult'' by Murray Rothbard] &mdash; written in 1972, this was the first piece of Rand revisionism from the [[libertarian]] standpoint.
* [http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml "The Unlikeliest Cult in History" by Michael Shermer]
{{see also|Bibliography of work on Objectivism}}
'''Rand's associates'''
* [http://www.barbarabranden.com/ Barbara Branden's website]
* [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/ Nathaniel Branden's website]
* [http://www.leonardpeikoff.com/ Leonard Peikoff's website]
'''Online groups and blogs'''
* [http://www.theatlasphere.com/ The Atlasphere] &mdash; For admirers of Rand's novels, includes member directory, dating service, columns, and news
* [http://www.theaynrandforum.com The Ayn Rand Forum] &mdash; Online forum for discussion of Ayn Rand and Objectivism.
* [http://community.livejournal.com/aynrandforum Ayn Rand LiveJournal Community] &mdash; A large LiveJournal Community for Ayn Rand.
* [http://www.capmag.com/shownews.asp Dollars & Crosses] &mdash; Commentary from a pro-capitalist perspective.
* [http://www.DrHurd.com/ Dr. Michael J. Hurd, psychologist] &mdash; The Daily Dose of Reason: psychology, life coaching and comments on cultural/political topics from an Objectivist perspective &mdash; also, The Living Resources Newsletter and Dr. Hurd's publications
* [http://forums.4aynrandfans.com The Forum for Ayn Rand Fans]
* [http://www.hblist.com Harry Binswanger List] &mdash; E-mail-based discussion group
* [http://www.aynrandstudies.com The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies] &mdash; Contains abstracts of articles, author bios, links to several articles, and submission guidelines.
* [http://www.objectivism.net Objectivism.net] &mdash; Ayn Rand on CD-ROM, and links
* [http://www.objectivismonline.net/ ObjectivismOnline.Net] &mdash; Contains [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/ forums], blogs, essays, chat room, and a [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net wiki on Objectivism]
* [http://www.objectivistblogs.com Objectivist Blogs] &mdash; A list of Rand-influenced bloggers
* [http://randex.org/ Randex] &mdash; Index of online media references to Ayn Rand and Objectivism
* [http://www.solopassion.com Sense of Life Objectivists] &mdash; Online columns and discussion, by and for Objectivists - hosted by Lindsay Perigo
* [http://www.TIADaily.com/ TIA Daily] &mdash; Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail
'''Imagery'''
* [http://www.yoyita.com/Ayn_Rand.html Portrait of Ayn Rand]
'''Rand's writing and speeches'''
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/anthem/complete.html ''Anthem''] &mdash; The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain
* [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-atlas-shrugged.asp ''Atlas Shrugged'' ] &mdash; Book outline
* [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-fountainhead.asp ''The Fountainhead''] &mdash; Book outline
* [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-we-the-living.asp ''We The Living''] &mdash; Book outline
* [http://www.tracyfineart.com/usmc/philosophy_who_needs_it.htm "Philosophy: Who Needs It?"] &mdash; Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html Rand's HUAC testimony] &mdash; Transcript
* [http://www.libertyhaven.org/bookstore/B00004LC7UAMUS169912.shtml ''We the Living''] &mdash; Video outline
* {{gutenberg author| id=Ayn+Rand | name=Ayn Rand}}
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/faidfrquery/r?faid/faidfr:@field(SOURCE+@band(rand+ayn)) Rand's papers at The Library of Congress]
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<title>Alain Connes</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alain Connes''' (born [[April 1]], [[1947]]) is a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[College de France]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), [[IHES]] ([[Bures-sur-Yvette]], [[France]]) and [[Vanderbilt University]] ([[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]). He is a specialist of [[Von Neumann algebra]]s and succeeded in completing the classification of [[factor]]s of these objects. Although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scales with what he called a "2-brane" Universe, model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far.
The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in [[theoretical physics]], [[particle physics]], and [[differential geometry]], made him emphasize [[Noncommutative geometry]] (which is also the title of his major book to date).
He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1982]], the [[Crafoord Prize]] in [[2001]] and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004.
==See also==
* [[cyclic homology]]
* [[factor (functional analysis)]]
* [[Higgs boson]]
* [[C*-algebra]]
* [[M Theory]]
* [[Groupoid]]
* [[Jean Louis Loday]]
==External links==
* [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Connes}}
{{Fields medalists}}
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to those who study the subject of [[history]]. For medical uses of the term ''"historian"'', please refer to [[Historian (medical)]] article.''
A '''historian''' is a person who studies [[history]]. The term is often reserved for people whose work is recognized in [[academia]], particularly those who have acquired [[Academic degree|graduate degree]]s in the discipline. (It was also used as the slang term for a [[secret police]]man in [[Yugoslavia]] under [[Tito]].)
==Historical analysis==
The process of historical analysis is a difficult one, involving investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts, and purported facts to create coherent [[narrative]]s that explain "what happened" and "why or how it happened." Modern historical analysis usually draws upon most of the other social sciences, including [[economics]], [[sociology]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[philosophy]] and [[linguistics]], in order to ensure these narratives are thorough, balanced and holistic. The related field in which methods of historical analysis are studied is called [[historiography]].
==The changing nature of the historian==
The modern role of the historian (and the discipline of history) is a somewhat recent construction. The job of the historian has been important for thousands of years, to the extent that the definition of history has frequently been simply [[recorded history]]. The closely allied job of the [[chronicler]] often produces similar work as the historian and they are often considered together. The chronicler usually records events as they happen, so they engage less in delving back into history and there is often less historical analysis in their work. Many chronicles have short early histories attached so that they will start from the beginning of the world. These prefaces are usually of much less historical interest. While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within its cultural context.
An important part of the job of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources, recent scholarship, or through parallel disciplines such as [[archaeology]].
===Developments prior to the Twentieth century===
Although we regularly refer to Ancient writers such as [[Herodotus]] (often called "The Father of History") or [[Tacitus]] (c. 56–c. 117) as "historians," their works do not meet the modern standards of impartiality and objectivity. Many of the historians of the past have been called upon to write histories either to furnish a king or a ruling class with a lineage, thereby offering it legitimacy, or to give a people a cultural heritage and sense of identity. This meant that the works of these historians openly mixed [[oratory]], [[poetry]] and [[literature]] in a way which is incompatible with the contemporary concern for impartiality and objectivity. This does not necessarily devalue their work, but does require that their efforts be considered within their cultural context.
[[Herodotus]], [[5th century BC]], is known as "The father of History" for being one of the earliest nameable historians whose work survives. His recount of strange and unusual tales are gripping stories, but not necessarily representative of the historical record. Despite this, ''[[The Histories of Herodotus]]'' displays some of the techniques of more modern historians. Herodotus interviewed witnesses, evaluated [[oral history|oral histories]], studied multiple sources and then pronounced his preferred version.
The work of Herodotus covered what was then the entire known world, or at least the part regarded as worthy of study, ''i.e.'', the peoples surrounding the [[Mediterranean]]. At about the same time [[Thucydides]] pioneered a different form of history much closer to [[reportage]]. In his work, ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', Thucydides wrote about a single long conflict with its origins and results; but as it was mainly within living memory, and Thucydides himself was alive at the time of many of the events, there was less room for myths and tall tales.
Much of the groundwork in creating the modern figure of the historian was done by [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] (1689–1755). His wide-ranging ''[[Spirit of the Laws]]'' ([[1748]]) spanned legal, geographical, cultural, economic, political and philosophical study, and was hugely influential in forging the fundamentally inter-disciplinary historian.
===Twentieth century developments===
At the turn of the twentieth century, Western history remained notoriously biased towards the so-called "Great Men" school of history - covering [[war|wars]], [[diplomacy]], large ideas/[[science]], and [[politics]]. This point of view was inherently biased towards the study of a small number of powerful males within the socioeconomical elite.
A pronounced shift away from crude [[Whiggishness|Whiggish]] analyses has started, in favor of a more critical and precise perspective. For example, a common myth is that [[Thomas Edison]] invented the [[electric light bulb]]; a traditional American history might highlight Edison's story at the expense of all others. In contrast, a modern history of Edison mentions all his predecessors and competitors, in order to show that Edison's real accomplishment was in finding a long-lasting [[filament]], and in engineering the successful commercial deployment of the technology.
Since the [[1960s]], history as an academic discipline has undergone several revolutions. These changes fostered advances in a number of areas previously unrecognized in historiography. Previously neglected topics became the subject of academic study, such as the history of [[popular culture]], [[mass culture]], geographical culture, and the lives of ordinary people.
Historians also started investigating histories of ideas surrounding various categories of people, such as women studies (including an entire branch of [[feminist]] history, sometimes called [[Herstory]])), racial minorities (like [[African-American History]]), or disabled people (eg., a historian might study the construction of ideas about disabled people, and the results thereof, perhaps in a specific historical setting, such as [[Nazi Germany]]).
==Recent developments==
Today, many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education. In addition, it is common, although not required, for many historians to have a PhD in their chosen area of study. When doing their [[thesis]] for this degree, many turn it into their first book, since continual publishing is essential for advancement in educative professions. There is currently a great deal of controversy among academic historians regarding the possibility and desirability of [[neutrality]] in historical scholarship.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Historians|Historians]] - category
*[[List of historians]] - by name
*[[List of historians by area of study]]
*[[List of Canadian historians]]
*[[List of Jewish historians]]
*[[List of chess historians]]
*[[List of historians of the French Revolution]]
*[[:Category:History books|List of history books]]
*[[Historiography]]
==Bibliography==
*''The Blackwell dictionary of historians'' by John Cannon, R.H.C.&nbsp;Davis, William Doyle, Jack&nbsp;P. Greene (Editor). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 (ISBN 063114708X).
*''Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing'', ed. by Kelly Boyd, : London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999
*''Dictionary of British classicists, 1500–1960'' by Richard B. Todd (editor). Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 (ISBN 1855069970).
==External links==
*[http://www.historians.org American Historical Association]
*[http://www.oah.org/ Organization of American Historians]
*[http://www.nfhdata.de/premium/datenbasis-information/pages/International_News_Service_for_Historians/index.shtml International News Service for Historians].
*[http://www.h-net.org/ H-net Discussion and reviews]
*[http://www.scholiast.org/history/histphil.html Historians and Philosophers]
[[Category:Humanities occupations]]
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<title>High Frequency Limits</title>
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<comment>#redirect [[high frequency limit]]</comment>
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<title>Harthouse</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harthouse''' is a [[Germany|German]] [[record label]] which produces [[electronic music]].
The label has been responsible for many success stories in the electronic world including [[Oliver Lieb]], [[ |
rt Elliott "Roy"]] (1901-1988)
*[[Thomas Urquhart|Urquhart, Thomas]] (1611-c. 1660)
*[[Manolo Urquiza|Urquiza, Manolo]], Cuban movie critic
*[[Justo José de Urquiza|Urquiza, Justo José de]] (1801-1870)
*[[Matilde Urratia|Urratia, Matilde]] (1912-1985)
*[[Ruben DJ|Urrutia, Ruben]] (born c. 1960), Puerto Rican musician
*[[Lewis Urry|Urry, Lewis]] (1927-2004), Canadian inventor
*[[Urso of Salerno]], scholastic philosopher
*[[Pavel Samuilovich Urysohn|Urysohn, Pavel Samuilovich]] (1898-1924), Russian mathematician
== Us - Uz ==
*[[Yury Usachev|Usachev, Yury]] (born 1957), astronaut
*[[Edoardo Usai|Usai, Edoardo]]
*[[Usher (entertainer)|Usher]] (born 1978), R&B/Pop musician
*[[David Usher|Usher, David]] (born 1966), singer
*[[Gary Usher|Usher, Gary]] (1938-1990), musician
*[[John Palmer Usher|Usher, John Palmer]] (1816-1889)
*[[Mitsuru Ushijima|Ushijima, Mitsuru]] (1887-1945), Japanese general in the defense of Okinawa
*[[Thomas Usk|Usk, Thomas]] (died 1388), English poet
*[[Shamim Ahmad Usmani|Usmani, Shamim Ahmad]], (1942-1995), Urdu poet (India).
*[[Yulduz Usmanova|Usmanova, Yulduz]], (born 1963), Uzbek singer
*[[Dmitry Ustinov|Ustinov, Dmitry]] (1908-1984), Soviet defense minister
*[[Peter Ustinov|Ustinov, Peter]] (born 1921), British actor
*[[Kitagawa Utamaro|Utamaro, Kitagawa]] (1753-1806), Japanese painter
*[[John de Havilland Utermarck|Utermarck, John de Havilland]] (1883-1884), British bailiff
*[[Maurice Utrillo|Utrillo, Maurice]] (1883-1955), French painter
*[[Kaari Utrio|Utrio, Kaari]] (born 1942), Finnish writer
*[[Jørn Utzon|Utzon, Jørn]] (born 1918), Danish architect
*[[Antoinette Uys|Uys, Antoinette]] (born 1976), South African badminton player
*[[Jamie Uys|Uys, Jacobus Johannes "Jamie"]] (1921-1996), South African film director
*[[Pieter-Dirk Uys|Uys, Pieter-Dirk]] (born 1945), South African satirist
*[[Jochem Uytdehaage|Uytdehaage, Jochem]] (born 1976), Dutch speed skater
*[[Johann Peter Uz|Uz, Johann Peter]] (1720-1796), German author
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cience including symbolic, connectionist, and dynamic systems.
* Symbolic - That intelligence can be explained by means of systematic, discrete instructions not unlike the way in which a computer works.
* Connectionist - The means of explanation is by using artificial [[neural networks]].
* Dynamic Systems - Cognition can be explained by means of a continuous system in which everything is interrelated, like the [[Centrifugal governor|Watt Governor]].
===Levels of analysis===
One of the central principles in the symbolic approach to cognitive science is that (1) there are different levels of analysis (LOA) from which the brain and behavior can be studied, and (2) mental phenomena are best studied from ''multiple'' levels of analysis. These levels are usually broken into three groups, based on [[David Marr|Marr]]'s description of them:
* Computational (Behavioral) level: describes the directly observable output (or behavior) of a system.
* Algorithmic (Functional) level: describes how information is processed to produce the behavioral output.
* Implementational (Physical) level: describes the physical substrate that the system consists of (e.g. the brain; neurons).
An analogy often used to describe LOA is to compare the brain to a [[computer]]. The physical level would consist of the computer's [[hardware]], the behavioral level represents the computer's [[software]], and the functional level would be the computer's [[operating system]], which allows the software and hardware components to communicate.
A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. For example, consider the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. How does this process occur? One approach would be to study behavior through direct observation. You could present a person with a phone number, ask them to recall it after some delay, and measure their accuracy. Another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on their own would fully explain ''how'' the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if we had the technology available to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time, and we knew when each neuron was firing, we still would not know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus, we need an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other. This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. By studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels, we are better able to understand the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior.
===Interdisciplinary nature===
Closely related to LOA (Levels of Analysis?), '''cognitive science''' is a very interdisciplinary field and tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do. Thus, it has an objective: observer-independent existence. The field is usually seen as compatible with and interdependent with the physical sciences, and uses of the [[scientific method]], as well as [[simulation]] or [[model (abstract)|modeling]], often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior. Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the inter-disciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed.
Many but not all who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a [[functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalist]] view of mind/intelligence, which means that, at least in theory, they study mind and intelligence from the perspective that these attributes could perhaps (at least someday) be properly attributed not only to human beings but also to, say, other animal species, alien life forms or particularly advanced computer systems. This perspective is one of the reasons the term "cognitive science" is not exactly coextensive with [[neuroscience]], [[psychology]], or some combination of the two.
===''Cognitive'' science - The term===
The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms." (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999) This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth conditional semantics. (Nonetheless, that interpretation would bring one close to the historically dominant school of thought within cognitive science on the nature of cognition - that it is essentially symbolic, propositional, and logical.)
The earliest entries for the word "''cognitive''" in the [[Oxford English Dictionary | OED]] take it to mean roughly ''pertaining to "to the action or process of knowing"''. The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of [[Plato | Platonic]] theories of [[knowledge]]. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.
==Scope of cognitive science==
'''Cognitive science''' is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic that might bear on the nature and operation of the mind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, [[animal cognition]], [[comparative psychology|comparative]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary]] approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often based on key philosophical conflicts. Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the importance of investigating them.
Below are some of the main topics that '''cognitive science''' is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list, but is meant to cover the wide range of intelligent behaviors. See [[List of cognitive science topics]] for a list of various aspects of the field.
===Artificial intelligence===
''Main article:'' [[Artificial intelligence]]
Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. [[computer model|Computational modeling]] uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. (See the section on computational modeling in the Research Methods section.)
There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is "best" viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures, such as "symbols", "schemas", "plans", and rules. The former view uses [[connectionism]] to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic computations. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.
===Attention===
''Main article: [[Attention]]''
Attention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told only to focus on one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects could not report it. (Still needs editing)
===Language processing===
[[Image:Cgisf-tgg.png|thumb|230px||An example of a phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows that different components are organized hierarchically.]]
''Main articles:'' [[Cognitive linguistics]], [[Language]], [[Linguistics]], [[Psycholinguistics]]
The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process. Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences they have never heard before?
The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. [[Linguistics]] often divides the types of language processing into orthography, [[phonology]] and [[phonetics]], [[syntax|syntactics]], [[semantics]], and [[pragmatics]]. Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction.
The study of language processing in '''cognitive science''' is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what, precisely it consists of. [[Linguist]]s have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently govern |
2</id>
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<ip>58.9.166.156</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cytoprotectant''' is any [[medication]] that combats [[Gastric ulcer|ulcer]]s not by reducing [[gastric acid]] but by increasing mucosal protection.
Drugs that work in this manner include Carbenoxolone, deglycyrrhizinised [[liquorice]], sucralfate (aluminium hydroxide and sulphated [[sucrose]]), the [[prostaglandin]] analogue and tri-potassium di-citrato bismuthate.
{{med-stub}}
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<comment>interwiki (on de: Thar/Cholistan is in one article)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cholistan ''' is a desert located in the province of [[Punjab, Pakistan]]. It continues as the [[Thar Desert]] in the eastern part of the province of [[Sind]] in Pakistan as well as in [[India]].
The dry bed of the [[Hakra River]] runs through the area, along which many settlements of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] have been found. The Hakra river is believed to be the remnant of ancient [[Vedic Sarasvati River|Sarasvati river]].
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Constantine I''' ([[Scottish Gaelic]]: '''Causantín mac Cináeda)''' ([[836]]&ndash;[[877]]), son of King [[Kenneth I of Scotland]], became [[King of Scots]] and [[King of the Picts]] in [[862]] when he succeeded his uncle [[Donald I of Scotland]].
Constantine I was a warrior [[monarch|King]]. During his reign he spent most of his days fighting off the [[viking]]s or trying to expand the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] into the south. In [[872]] his assassination of 'Rhun' ([[Arthgal]]), [[King of Strathclyde]], and his brother-in-law, meant that the southern regions of what is now [[Scotland]], became a part of his own [[Alba]].
The year [[864]] saw the rampage of the [[Norsemen]] led by [[Olaf the White]] from [[Dublin]]. Swiftly defeated by Constantine I, the Norsemen relaxed their threats on him until [[Thorsten the Red]] led them, but he too was defeated successfully by King Constantine I.
Although usually confident in battle, Constantine I often resorted to tactics of bribery and payoffs to his rivals in order to keep the peace. This form of peace-keeping was later employed by the [[England|English]] Royals, namely King [[Ethelred II of England]] in the year [[1000]]. In the end though, Constantine I was finally defeated by the Norsemen, when a raiding party known as the 'Black Strangers' from Dublin made a base for themselves in [[Fife]] from which they launched their attacks. It was during one of these attacks that Constantine I met his match.
He was killed in battle against the Vikings in [[877]] at the "Black Cave" (Inverdovat) in Forgan, Fife. His successor was his brother [[Aedh of Scotland]]. He had a son, Donald, who became King [[Donald II of Scotland]] following the joint reign of Kings [[Eochaid of Scotland]] and [[Giric of Scotland]].
== See also ==
*[[Kingdom of Scotland]]
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title=[[King of Scots]] |
before=[[Donald I of Scotland|Donald I]] |
after=[[Aed of Scotland|Aed]] |
years=862&ndash;877
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[[de:Konstantin I. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Constantin Ier d'Écosse]]
[[he:קונסטנטין הראשון מלך סקוטלנד]]
[[pl:Konstantyn I (król Szkocji)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Constantine II (emperor)</title>
<id>7234</id>
<revision>
<id>41791931</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:00:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>162.39.168.229</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Solidus Constantine II-heraclea RIC vII 101.jpg|thumb|300px|Constantine II as [[caesar (title)|caesar]].]]
'''Constantine II''' (February [[317]] - [[340]]) was [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] ([[337]] - [[340]]). The eldest son of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]], he was born at [[Arles]].
Following the death of his father in [[337]], Constantine II became Emperor jointly with his brothers [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]]. His section of the Empire was [[Gaul]], [[Britain]] and [[Spain]].
At first, he was the guardian of his younger brother Constans, whose portion was [[Italy]], [[Africa]] and [[Illyria]]. As Constans came of age, Constantine would not relinquish the guardianship and in [[340]] he marched against Constans [[Italy]], but was defeated at [[Aquileia]] and died in battle. Constans came to control his deceased brother's realm.
iam feelinmg sexy
== External links ==
{{Commons|Constantine II (emperor)}}
{{Roman Emperor|Prev=[[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] | CoEmperor=''Co-Emperor with:'' [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]] | Next=[[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]] | years=337&ndash;340}}
[[Category:317 births]]
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[[Category:Roman emperors]]
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[[it:Costantino II]]
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[[pl:Konstantyn II (cesarz rzymski)]]
[[pt:Constantino II]]
[[ro:Constantin II]]
[[ru:Константин II]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Constantine II of Scotland</title>
<id>7235</id>
<revision>
<id>39039657</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T07:52:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda)''' ([[874]]?&ndash;[[952]]) was king of [[Scotland]] from [[900]] to [[943]]. He was the son of [[Aedh of Scotland|King Aedh]], first cousin of the previous King [[Donald II of Scotland|Donald II]], and first cousin [[once removed]] of his successor [[Malcolm I of Scotland|Malcolm I]], to whom he left his kingdom upon abdicating and becoming a monk. Constantine II's reign is the second longest reign in Scottish history.
Constantine II succeeded Donald II to the Scottish throne in 900. If a coronation took place, then there is no surviving record of it.
During his reign, Constantine II had to fend off [[Viking]] raids from the north and west. The earliest of these involved driving the Vikings away from Scotland, and this reached a triumphant climax at the [[Battle of Scone]] in [[904]], after which the Vikings were forced to withdraw from Scotland. However, by then, the Vikings had laid waste to much of Scotland, and in particular [[Dunkeld]].
Constantine II later struggled to win land from, or at least not lose land to, his neighbours to the south, the [[Anglo-Saxons]] [[earldom]] of [[Northumbria]] and the Norse [[kingdom of York]], where the Vikings, led by the Viking king Rognvald, had resettled themselves. Constantine II and the [[Earl of Bamburgh]], [[Ealdred I of Bernicia|Ealdred I]], were involved in two battles with [[Rognvald Gudrodsson]] (referred to as the [[Battles of Corbridge]]) in that area in [[915]] and [[918]], both of which resulted ultimately in a cessation of hostilities there with the Norse.
When he was not involved in fighting Vikings, Constantine II remodelled the Christian church of the day to be more Gaelic in nature. This included a [[Synod at Scone]] in [[906]], and he introduced the [[Mormaer|mormaer]] ([[earl]]s) system to Scotland.
Constantine II married at some point in his life, but virtually nothing is known of it. The date and place of the marriage are unrecorded, and his wife's name is likewise forgotten. It is known, however, that the marriage produced at least three children: two sons and a daughter.
Constantine II's daughter, whose name is also no longer known, married [[Olaf III Guthfrithson]], the Norse King of Dublin at the time, in [[937]], in order to establish a more stable relationship with the Norse. At least three children later came from this marriage. If it was intended to contribute to holding back Northumbria, it did not. Constantine II was defeated at the [[Battle of Brunanburh]] by [[Athelstan of England|King Athelstan of England]] in 937. One of Constantine II's sons, Cellach, died in this battle.
In 943, Constantine II abdicated in favour of Malcolm I (943&ndash;954) and entered a [[Culdee]] monastery in [[St Andrews]], [[Fife]], and eventually became Abbot there. He died peacefully in [[952]], and was probably buried at the monastery. Constantine II's surviving son, [[Indulf of Scotland|Indulf]], later became King of Scotland.
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title=[[King of Scots]] |
before=[[Donald II of Scotland|Donald II]] |
after=[[Malcolm I of Scotland|Malcolm I]] |
years=900&ndash;943
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[[fr:Constantin II d'Écosse]]
[[no:Konstantin II av Skottland]]</text>
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<title>Constantine I (emperor)</t |
nd organizing much of the construction of the new buildings. The family's connection with the college was strong: [[Joseph Brown (professor)|Joseph Brown]] became a professor of Physics at the University and [[John Brown (Rhode Island)|John Brown]] served as treasurer from 1775 to 1796. In 1804, a year after John Brown's death, the University was renamed Brown University in honor of John's nephew, [[Nicholas Brown, Jr.]], who was a member of the class of 1786 and contributed $5,000 (which, adjusted for [[inflation]], is approximately $61,000 in 2005, though it was 1,000 times the roughly $5 tuition) toward an endowed professorship. In 1904, the [[John Carter Brown Library]] was opened as an independent historical and cultural research center based around the libraries of [[John Carter Brown|John Carter]] and [[John Nicholas Brown]].
The Brown family was involved in various business ventures in Rhode Island, including [[slavery]]; the family itself was divided on the issue. John Brown had relentlessly defended slavery, while [[Moses Brown]] and Nicholas Brown Jr. were fervent [[abolitionism|abolitionists]]. In recognition of this history, the University established the University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice in 2003 ([http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/index.html]).
Brown began to admit women when it established a Women's College in 1891, which was later named [[Pembroke College]]. "The College" (the undergraduate school) merged with Pembroke College in 1971 and became [[coeducation|coeducational]].
=== The New Curriculum ===
Brown adopted the New Curriculum in 1969, marking a major change in the University's institutional history. The [[curriculum]] was the result of a paper written by [[Ira Magaziner]] and [[Elliot Maxwell]], "Draft of a Working Paper for Education at Brown University." The paper came out of a year-long Group Independent Studies Project (GISP) involving 80 students and 15 professors. The group was inspired by student-initiated experimental schools, especially [[San Francisco State University|San Francisco State College]], and sought ways to improve education for students at Brown. The philosophy they formed was based on the principle that "the individual who is being educated is the center of the educational process." In 1850, Brown President Francis Wayland wrote: "The various courses should be so arranged that, insofar as practicable, every student might study what he chose, all that he chose, and nothing but what he chose."
The paper made a number of suggestions for improving education at Brown, including a new kind of [[interdisciplinary]] freshman course that would introduce new modes of inquiry and bring faculty from different fields together. Their goal was to transform the survey course, which traditionally sought to cover a large amount of basic material, into specialized courses that would introduce the important modes of inquiry used in different disciplines.
The New Curriculum that came out of the working paper was significantly different from the paper itself. Its key features were:
* Modes of Thought courses aimed at first-year students
* Interdisciplinary University courses
* Students could elect to take any course Satisfactory/No Credit
* Distribution requirements were dropped
* The University simplified grades to ABC/No Credit, eliminating pluses, minuses and D's. Furthermore, "No Credit" would not appear on external transcripts.
Except for the Modes of Thought courses, a key component of the reforms which have been discontinued, these elements of the New Curriculum are still in place.
Additionally, due to the school's proximity and close partnership with the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] ([[RISD]]), Brown students have the ability to take up to four courses at RISD and have the credit count towards a Brown degree. Likewise, RISD students can also take courses at Brown. Since the two campuses are effectively adjacent to each other, the two institutions often partner to provide both student bodies with services (such as the local Brown/RISD after-hours and downtown transportation shuttles).
Recently, there has been some debate on reintroducing plus/minus grading to the curriculum. Advocates argue that adding pluses and minuses would reduce grade inflation and allow professors to give more specific grades, while critics say that this plan would have no effect on grade inflation while increasing unnecessary competition among students and violating the principle of the New Curriculum.
The University is currently in the process of broadening and expanding its curricular offerings as part of the "Plan for Academic Enrichment." The number of faculty has been greatly expanded. Seminars aimed at freshmen have begun to be offered widely by many departments.
==Academics, ranking, and reputation==
Admission to Brown is extremely competitive, with an admissions rate of 14.6%. Students come from all 50 [[U.S. state|state]]s, as well as 65 countries. Brown's [[financial aid]] program awards approximately $70 million each year in the form of scholarships, jobs, and loans. Over 50 percent of students receive some form of financial aid.
== Organization ==
=== The College ===
==== Concentrations ====
Brown offers over 100 [[List of academic disciplines|concentrations]] (majors) and around 2,000 courses each year. The most popular concentration is [[Biology]], followed by [[History]] and [[International Relations]]. Brown's undergraduate concentration in [[Bioethics|Biomedical Ethics]] is the oldest program in the subject in the country. Undergraduates can also design an independent concentration if the existing standard programs do not befit their interests.
The following is a list of concentrations:
{|
| valign="top" |
* [[Africa|Africana Studies]]
* [[American studies|American Civilization]]
* [[Ancient history|Ancient Studies]]
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Anthropological linguistics|Anthropology-Linguistics]]
* [[Applied mathematics|Applied Mathematics]]
* [[Mathematical biology|Applied Mathematics-Biology]]
* [[Mathematical economics|Applied Mathematics-Economics]]
* [[Mathematical analysis|Applied Mathematics]]-[[Computation|Computer science]]
* [[Architecture|Architectural Studies]]
* [[Visual arts|Art]]-[[Semiotics]]
* [[Biochemistry]] and [[Molecular biology|Molecular Biology]]
* [[Biology]]
* [[Bioethics|Biomedical Ethics]]
* [[Biophysics]]
* [[Chemical physics|Chemical Physics]]
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Classics]]:
** [[Classics]] (Standard Program)
** [[Latin|Latin]]
** [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]
** [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]]
** [[Classics]] and [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Cognitive neuroscience|Cognitive Neuroscience]]
* [[Cognitive science|Cognitive Science]]
* [[Commerce]], [[Organizational studies|Organizations]], and [[Entrepreneurship]]:
** [[Business|Business Economics]]
** [[Organizational studies|Organizational Studies]]
** [[Entrepreneurship]] and [[Technology]] [[Management]]
* [[Public health|Community Health]]
* [[Comparative literature|Comparative Literature]]:
** [[Comparative literature|English and One Foreign Literature]]
** [[Comparative literature|English and Two Foreign Literatures]]
** [[Translation#Literary translation|Literary Translation]]
* [[Bioinformatics|Computational Biology]]
* [[Computer science|Computer Science]]
* [[Computer science|Computer Science]]-[[Economics]]
* [[Development studies|Development Studies]]
* [[East Asia|East Asian Studies]]
* [[Economics]]:
** [[Economics]]
** [[Business|Business Economics]] <small>(replaced by COE)</small>
| valign="top" |
* [[Education|Education Studies]]
* [[Egyptology]]
* [[Engineering]]:
** [[Biomedical engineering|Biomedical Engineering]]
** [[Chemical engineering|Chemical Engineering]]
** [[Civil engineering|Civil Engineering]]
** [[Computer engineering|Computer Engineering]]
** [[Electrical engineering|Electrical Engineering]]
** [[Materials engineering|Materials Engineering]]
** [[Mechanical engineering|Mechanical Engineering]]
* [[Engineering management|Engineering and Economics]] <small>(replaced by COE)</small>
* [[Engineering physics|Engineering and Physics]]
* [[Environmental science|Environmental Science]]
* [[Environmental studies|Environmental Studies]]
* [[Ethnic studies|Ethnic Studies]]
* [[France|French Studies]]:
** [[France|French Civilization]]
** [[French literature|French Literature]]
** [[French language|French Language]]
* [[Gender studies|Gender Studies]]
* [[Geology|Geological Sciences]]
* [[Biogeology|Geology-Biology]]
* [[Geochemistry|Geology-Chemistry]]
* [[Geophysics|Geology-Physics/Mathematics]]
* [[German studies|German Studies]]
* [[Hispanic|Hispanic Studies]]:
** [[Spanish language|Hispanic Language]] and [[Linguistic history of Spanish|Linguistics]]
** [[Spanish literature|Hispanic Literature]] and [[Hispanic culture|Culture]]
* [[History]]
* [[History of art|History of Art]] and [[Architectural history|Architecture]]
* [[Human biology|Human Biology]]
* [[International relations|International Relations]]
* [[Italy|Italian Studies]]
* [[Jewish studies|Judaic Studies]]
* [[Early Middle Ages|Late Antique Cultures]]
* [[Latin America|Latin American Studies]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Creative writing|Literary Arts]]
* [[English studies|Literatures and Cultures in English]]
* [[Marine biology|Marine Biology]]
* [[Mathematical economics|Mathematical Economics]]
* [[Mathematics]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Computation|Mathematics-Computer Science]]
* [[Mathematical physics|Mathematics-Physics]]
* [[Middle Ages|Medieval Cultures]]
* [[Middle East|Middle East Studies]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]-[[German studies|German]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]-[[Italy|Italian]]
* [[Musicology|Music]]
** [[Music theory|Theory]], [[Music history|History]], and [[Musical composit |
over their protests. Many but not all countries have [[mental health law]]s governing involuntary commitment. Some, such as the [[United States]], require a court hearing if the subject of the more or less brief initial commitment (approved by a [[Physician|doctor]], [[psychologist]] or [[psychiatrist]]) protests, though in some cases this initial hearing must be immediate; while others allow involuntary commitment at the request of [[physicians]] who must follow set legal procedures. In the latter case there are then additional checks and sometimes hearings to ensure compliance with the law. It may also sometimes be possible to challenge the commitment through [[habeas corpus]].
Though involuntary commitment has long been a practice of most societies, some individuals and groups have challenged it from a [[civil liberty|civil libertarian]] perspective, particularly in countries that are part of the Anglo-American judicial tradition. There have also been allegations, many widely accepted, that at certain places and at certain times the practice of involuntary commitment has been used for the [[suppression of dissent]], or in a punitive way.
==Purposes of involuntary commitment==
Involuntary commitment has been used for a variety of purposes over the years and in different [[jurisdiction]]s. There has been considerable debate about these purposes and this has been a factor in leading to the various laws. A number of individuals and groups remain strongly opposed to either all these laws, some of these laws, or some aspects of their application.
In most jurisdictions involuntary commitment is specifically directed at people claimed or found to be suffering from a [[mental illness]] which impairs their reasoning ability to such an extent that the laws state or courts find that decisions must or should be made for them under a legal framework. This decision requires a subjective opinion and is therefore open to error or abuse, both of which have been documented as occurring at different times in various places. There have been numerous official enquiries into such matters around the world and these have often led to legal and system reforms.
Involuntary commitment is used to some degree for each of the following headings although different jurisdictions have different criteria. Some allow involuntary commitment only if the person both appears to be suffering from a mental illness and that the effects of this produce a risk to themselves or others. Other jurisdictions have much broader criteria.
===Observation===
Observation is sometimes used to determine if a person warrants involuntary commitment. It is not always clear on a relatively brief examination whether a person is [[psychosis|psychotic]] or otherwise warrants commitment and so sometimes people are admitted for a period to observe their behavior. This period of observation can be helpful in determining the actual [[diagnosis]] but can tend to produce an expectation of disease which can alter the perceptions and behavior of the staff. Rosenhan's classic paper, "[[Rosenhan experiment|On being sane in insane places]]",<sup>1</sup> demonstrated a variety of problems. In this study a number of volunteers mimicked illnesses to obtain admission to hospital and then subsequently behaved normally. The staff continued to perceive that they were exhibiting [[sign (medicine)|signs]] of the illness diagnosed on admission and treated them as such. This paper has since been criticised by Spitzer<sup>2</sup> who argued that given the initial symptoms presented that the mindset of the staff was not only understandable but that it did not invalidate an ability to diagnose conditions as Rosenhan had claimed. Rosenhan's experiment remains a cautionary tale that informs the teaching of trainee psychiatrists.
===Containment of danger===
A common reason given for involuntary commitment is to prevent danger to the individual or society. People with [[suicide|suicidal]] thoughts may act on these thoughts and harm or kill themselves. People with psychoses are occasionally driven by their [[delusion]]s or [[hallucination]]s to harm themselves or others. People with [[personality disorder]]s are occasionally violent.
This concern has found expression in the standards for involuntary commitment of a number of jurisdictions in the U.S. and other countries as the "danger to self or others" standard if someone has a "mental illness" or "mental disorder" (though sometimes explicit exceptions are made, as in [[Arizona]] law, in which "[[drug abuse]], [[alcoholism]] or [[mental retardation]]" and "[t]he declining mental abilities that directly accompany impending death" are specifically excepted), [http://www.psychlaws.org/LegalResources/StateLaws/Arizonastatute.htm] sometimes supplemented by the requirement that the danger be "imminent". However, it has come under criticism from two directions. Those who are concerned that the "danger to self or others" standard is too narrow and will not permit the commitment of those for whom it is necessary have occasionally advocated that it be replaced by the "gravely disabled" standard. There are others who are concerned that the "danger to self or others" standard is vague and not precisely defined, which could lead to abuse of involuntary commitment. However, some people find that the increasingly narrow definition of "danger to self or others" provided by statute and court rulings have to some degree mitigated these concerns.
Some of the same people who are concerned about the overbreadth of the "danger to self or others" standard are more concerned about the "gravely disabled" standard, as they find it broader still. The First District Court of Appeal in California, however, held in ''[[Conservatorship of Chambers]]'' (1977) 71 Cal.App.3d 277, 139 Cal.Rptr. 357, that the standard was not unconstitutional due to overbreadth or vagueness, and excluded commitment of people whose [[lifestyle]]s were simply eccentric or unusual. In ''In re Maricopa County'', 840 P.2d 1042, (Ariz. Ct. App. 1992), the court held that "persistently or acutely disabled" was not an unconstitutionally vague standard.
The [[Michigan]] Mental Health Code provides that a person
:''whose judgment is so impaired that he or she is unable to understand his or her need for treatment and whose continued behavior as the result of this mental illness can reasonably be expected, on the basis of competent clinical opinion, to result in significant physical harm to himself or herself or others''
may be subjected to involuntary commitment, a provision paralleled in the laws of many other jurisdictions. These types of provisions have been criticised as a sort of "heads I win, tails you lose," as if the person admits that he needs inpatient treatment, he will be voluntarily hospitalised, but if he denies that he needs treatment, this will form part of the evidence supporting his involuntary hospitalisation.
In [[Oregon]] the standard that the allegedly mentally ill person
:''[h]as been committed and hospitalized twice in the last three years, is showing symptoms or behavior similar to those that preceded and led to a prior hospitalization and, unless treated, will continue, to a reasonable medical probability, to deteriorate to become a danger to self or others or unable to provide for basic needs''
may be substituted for the danger to self or others standard.
===Treatment of illness===
Many [[psychiatric disorder]]s are treated with therapies such as [[antipsychotic]]s, [[antidepressant]]s or, more rarely, [[electroconvulsive therapy]] also known as electroshock. Many studies have shown the effectiveness of these treatments in their ability to produce a reduction in [[symptom]]s and [[sign (medicine)|signs]] of psychiatric disorders.{{fact}} These studies have been used in some jurisdictions as reasons to allow involuntary commitment solely on the basis of the person having a treatable psychiatric disorder. In those jurisdictions where danger is required for commitment, involuntary treatment is still usually allowed. Other studies have shown that psychiatric treatment is less effective than no treatment at all.{{fact}}
==Community treatment as an alternative==
There have been some criticisms of the efficacy or appropriateness of inpatient treatment. For example, the "[[Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Caracas Declaration of 1990]]... identified inpatient psychiatric treatment as isolating individuals from the community and thus as an obstacle to recovery."[https://education.cmellc.com/html/involuntarycommitment.html] The isolation produced in the past with big asylums is now generally regarded as unhelpful. Integration into mainstream services and the community is supported by most in the treating professions and in the community.
===Deinstitutionalization===
Starting in the 1960s, there has been a worldwide movement toward deinstitutionalization of mental patients from mental hospitals into community care centers, and this has been matched with efforts at reform of involuntary commitment laws. (In the US from the [[1970s]] onwards a relatively small number of ex-mental patients and former "consumers of psychiatric services" have promoted what they call "[[psychiatric survivors movement|mad liberation]]," often calling for the abolition of involuntary commitment.) In many countries deinstitutionalization was put into practice without adequate provision or funding for community care facilities; those who described themselves as "advocates for the mentally ill" complained that deinstitutionalized former inmates of mental hospitals often ended up homeless, and others have complained that they found their way into [[jail]]s and |
in the Bolivian economy have involved the capitalization of numerous public-sector enterprises. (Capitalization in the Bolivian context is a form of privatization where investors acquire a 50% share and management control of public enterprises by agreeing to invest directly into the enterprise over several years rather than paying cash to the government).
Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-oriented policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia. While the capitalization program was successful in vastly boosting foreign direct investment (FDI) in Bolivia ($1.7 billion in stock during 1996-2002), FDI flows have subsided in recent years as investors complete their capitalization contract obligations.
In 1996, three units of the Bolivian state oil corporation (YPFB) involved in hydrocarbon exploration, production, and transportation were capitalized, facilitating the construction of a gas pipeline to [[Brazil]]. The government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through [[2019]]. The Brazil pipeline carried about 12 million [[cubic metres]] (424 million [[cubic foot|cu.&nbsp;ft]]) per day in 2002. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in [[South America]], and its current domestic use and exports to Brazil account for just a small portion of its potential production. The government expects to hold a binding referendum in 2004 on plans to export natural gas. Widespread opposition to exporting gas through Chile touched off protests that led to the resignation of President Sánchez de Lozada in October 2003.
In April [[2000]], [[Bechtel]] signed a contract with [[Hugo Banzer]], the former president of Bolivia, to privatize the water supply in Bolivia's 3rd-largest city, [[Cochabamba]]. The contract was officially awarded to a Bechtel subsidiary named ''Aguas del Tunari'', which had been formed specifically for that purpose. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in [[Cochabamba protests of 2000|protests and rioting]] among those who could no longer afford clean water. [[Martial law]] was declared, and Bolivian police killed at least 6 people and injured over 170 protesters. Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. In [[2001]], Bechtel filed suit the Bolivian government for $25 million in lost profits. The continuing legal battle has attracted attention from anti-globalization and anti-capitalist groups.
Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002, from a low of $652 million in 1991. [[Import]]s were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian [[tariff]]s are a uniformly low 10%, with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade deficit was $460 million in 2002.
Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the [[Andean Community]] and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries ([[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], and [[Venezuela]].) Bolivia began to implement an association agreement with [[Mercosur]] (Southern Cone Common Market) in March 1997. The agreement provides for the gradual creation of a free trade area covering at least 80% of the trade between the parties over a 10-year period, though economic crises in the region have derailed progress at integration. The U.S. Andean Trade Preference and Drug Enforcement Act (ATPDEA) allows numerous Bolivian products to enter the [[United States]] free of duty on a unilateral basis, including [[alpaca]] and [[llama]] products and, subject to a quota, [[cotton]] [[textiles]].
The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading partner. In 2002, the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. Bolivia's major exports to the United States are tin, [[gold]], [[jewellery]], and [[wood]] products. Its major imports from the United States are [[computer]]s, [[Automobile|vehicles]], [[wheat]], and [[machinery]]. A Bilateral Investment Treaty between the United States and Bolivia came into effect in 2001.
[[Agriculture]] accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. The amount of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing rapidly in the Santa Cruz area, where weather allows for two crops a year. [[Soybean]]s are the major [[cash crop]], sold into the Andean Community market. The extraction of [[mineral]]s and hydrocarbons accounts for another 10% of GDP and [[manufacturing]] less than 17%.
The Government of Bolivia remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign [[creditor]]s, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development [[bank]]s. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the [[Paris Club]] mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian Government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. Rescheduling agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled [[debt]]. As a result, some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. Government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt stock. The Bolivian Government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt relief programs, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. Bolivia was one of three countries in the [[Western Hemisphere]] selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account and is participating as an observer in FTA negotiations.
In 2004 the government has given great importance in the development of port facilities at Puerto Busch on the Paraguay river. Already further North in Puerto Suarez and Puerto Aguirre, which are connected to the Paraguay river via [[canal tamengo]] going through Brazil, mid-size container ships traverse. As of 2004 about half of Bolivias exports is going out via the Paraguay river. When Puerto Busch is finished bigger ocean going ships should be able to dock in Bolivia. This will greatly help Bolivia become more competitive in that they will not have to use foreign ports as much, mostly in Peru and Chile, which adds to the price of exports and imports. Tobacco has also been one of the big imports and also made my them. In 1992 they made over 1,000 million [[ton]]s of it.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bolivia]]''
Bolivia is one of only three countries in Latin America whose largest population segment is comprised of unmixed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]]s - the other two being [[Guatemala]] and [[Peru]]. Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 33% [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and 30% [[Aymara]] Amerindians, 25% [[Mestizo]] (mixed Amerindian and European) and 12% European. The largest of the approximately three-dozen indigenous groups are the Quechua-speaking groups (2.5 million), the Aymara (2 million), [[Chiquitano]] (180,000), and [[Guaraní]] (125,000). There are small German, Italian, American, Basque, Croatian, Asian (particularly Japanese), Middle Eastern, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. Also noteworthy is the Afro-Bolivian community that numbers roughly 1% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in the altiplano and the mines of Potosi. They are mostly concentrated in the [[Yungas]] region ([[Nor Yungas]] and [[Sud Yungas]] provinces) in the [[La Paz Department, Bolivia|department of La Paz]], some three hours from [[La Paz]] city.
Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25&nbsp;per [[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) in the central highlands. The annual population growth rate is about 2.74% (2002).
La Paz is the world's highest capital city at 3,600 meters (11,800&nbsp;ft.) above [[sea level]]. The adjacent city of [[El Alto]], at 4,200 meters (13,800&nbsp;ft) above sea level, is one of the fastest growing in the hemisphere. Santa Cruz, the commercial and industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, also is experiencing rapid population and economic growth.
The great majority of Bolivians are [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (the [[State religion|official religion]]), although [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations are expanding strongly. [[Islam]] is practiced by the descendants of Middle Easterners. There is also a small yet influential [[Jewish]] community that is almost all [[Ashkenazi]] in origin. Over 3% of Bolivians practice the [[Bahá'í Faith]] (giving Bolivia one of the largest percentages of Bahá'í practitioners in the world). Due to extensive [[Mormon]] missionary efforts there is substantial Mormon demographic; there is even a [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] [http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,1297-1,00.html] in Cochabamba. There is a colony of [[Mennonites]] near Santa Cruz. Many indigenous communities interweave [[pre-Co |
n economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in 1979; this aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, which comprises 22 countries, including the U.S. Indonesia's continued domestic troubles have distracted it from ASEAN matters and consequently lessened its influence within the organization.
Indonesia also was one of the founders of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) and has taken moderate positions in its councils. As NAM Chairman in 1992-95, it led NAM positions away from the rhetoric of North-South confrontation, advocating instead the broadening of North-South cooperation in the area of development. Indonesia continues to be a prominent, and generally helpful, leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population, and is a member of the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC). It carefully considers the interests of Islamic solidarity in its foreign policy decisions but generally has been an influence for moderation in the OIC. President Wahid has pursued better relations with Israel, and in August 2000 he met with former Israeli Prime Minister Peres. However, as of January of 2006, there's no formal diplomacy link between Indonesia and Israel.
After 1966, Indonesia welcomed and maintained close relations with the donor community, particularly the [[United States]], western Europe, [[Australia]], and [[Japan]], through the Intergovernmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) and its successor, the [[Consultative Group on Indonesia]] (CGI), which have provided substantial foreign economic assistance. Problems in Timor and Indonesia's reluctance to implement economic reform, have complicated Indonesia's relationship with donors.
Indonesia has been a strong supporter of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum. Largely through the efforts of President Suharto at the 1994 meeting in [[Bogor]], Indonesia, APEC members agreed to implement free trade in the region by 2010 for industrialized economies and 2020 for developing economies.
=== Disputes - international: ===
* [[Ambalat Islands]] in dispute with [[Malaysia]] (current)
* [[Sipadan]] and [[Ligitan]] Islands in dispute with [[Malaysia]] (closed, given to Malaysia)
=== Illicit drugs:===
illicit producer of [[cannabis]] largely for domestic use; possible growing role as transshipment point for [[Golden Triangle]] [[heroin]]
=== Foreign relations with [[Pakistan]]: ===
In the [[war of 1965]] between Pakistan and [[India]], Indonesia helped Pakistan by providing many [[fighter planes]], few [[missiles]] equipped ships and two [[submarines]].
===International organization participation:===
[[APEC]], [[AsDB]], [[ASEAN]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[Colombo Plan|CP]], [[Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|ESCAP]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-15]], [[G-19]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Islamic Development Bank|IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[OPEC]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMOP]], [[UNMOT]], [[UNOMIG]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Indonesia, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Government of Indonesia]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Islands of Indonesia</title>
<id>14652</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Indonesia]]''' occupies most of the [[Malay archipelago]] and extends into western [[Melanesia]], as well. The country has 18,108 [[island]]s, according to [[satellite image]]s. About 6,000 of those are inhabited.
[[Image:Id-map.png|right|thumb|390px|Map of Indonesia]]
Major '''islands of Indonesia''':
* [[Greater Sunda Islands]]
** [[Borneo]] &mdash; divided between Indonesian [[Kalimantan]], [[Brunei]], and [[Malaysia]]'s [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]].
** [[Java (island)|Java]]
** [[Sulawesi]]
** [[Sumatra]]
* [[New Guinea]] &mdash; divided between Indonesian [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] (formerly Irian Jaya) and the country of [[Papua New Guinea]])
Other Indonesian islands:
* [[Bangka Island]]
* [[Belitung]]
* [[Madura]]
* [[Mentawai Islands]]
** [[Siberut]]
** [[Sipura]]
** [[North Pagai]]
** [[South Pagai]]
* [[Natuna Islands]]
* [[Nias]]
* [[Pasumpahan]]
* [[Simeulue]]
* [[Talaud Islands]]
* [[Thousand Islands (Indonesia)|Thousand Islands]] ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Kepulauan Seribu'')
* [[Riau Islands]]
** [[Batam]]
** [[Bintan]]
** [[Karimun]]
* [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]:
** [[Adonara]]
** [[Alor Islands]]
*** [[Alor]]
*** [[Buaya]]
*** [[Kepa]]
*** [[Pantar]]
*** [[Pura]]
*** [[Tereweng]]
** [[Bali]]
** [[Flores]]
** [[Komodo]]
** [[Lombok]]
** [[Palu'e]]
** [[Rinca]]
** [[Rote Island]]
** [[Solor]]
** [[Sumba]]
** [[Sumbawa]]
** [[Timor]]&mdash;divided between Indonesian [[West Timor]] and the independent nation of [[East Timor]]
* [[Maluku Islands]] (or Moluccas)
** [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] (''Amboyna'')
** [[Aru Islands]] (''Kepulauan Aru'')
** [[Bacan]]
** [[Banda Islands]] (''Kepulauan Banda'')
** [[Barat Daya Islands]]
*** [[Damar (island)|Damar]]
*** [[Romang]]
*** [[Wetar]]
** [[Buru]]
** [[Halmahera]]
** [[Morotai]]
** [[Ternate]]
** [[Tidore]]
** [[Haruku]]
** [[Kai Islands]]
** [[Leti Islands]]
** [[Machian]]
** [[Saparua]]
** [[Seram]]
** [[Tanimbar Islands]] (''Kepulauan Tanimbar'')
*** [[Larat]]
*** [[Selaru]]
*** [[Wuliaru]]
*** [[Yamdena]]
* [[Yos Sudarso]] (''Dolak'')
{{listdev}}
==See also==
*[[Geography of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia| ]] [[Category:Lists of islands]]
[[fa:جزایر اندونزی]]
[[fr:Îles d'Indonésie]]
[[id:Daftar pulau-pulau Indonesia]]
[[ms:Daftar Pulau-pulau Indonesia]]
[[nl:Lijst van eilanden in Indonesië]]
[[pl:Wyspy Indonezji]]
[[fi:Luettelo Indonesian saarista]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Iran</title>
<id>14653</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:26Z</timestamp>
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<username>GreyCat</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Eden]] to [[Garden of Eden]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
|native_name = جمهوری اسلامی ايران<br>Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān<br>Islamic Republic of Iran
|common_name = Iran
|image_flag = Flag of Iran.svg
|image_coat = Iran coa.png
|image_map = LocationIran.png
|national_motto = Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic<br>([[Persian language|Persian]]: Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī)
|national_anthem = [[Sorud-e Melli-e Iran|Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān]]
|official_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]]
|capital = [[Tehran]]
|latd=35|latm=40|latNS=N|longd=51|longm=25|longEW=E
|government_type = [[Islamic republic]]
|leader_titles = [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]]<br>[[President of Iran|President]]
|leader_names = [[Ali Khamenei]]<br>[[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]
|largest_city = [[Tehran]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Iranian Revolution|Revolution]]
|established_events = Declared
|established_dates = Against [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]<br>[[February 11]], [[1979]]
|area = 1,648,195
|area_rank = 17th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|percent_water = 0.7%
|population_estimate = 68,017,860
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 18th
|population_census = N/A
|population_census_year = 2000
|population_density = 41
|population_density_rank = 128th
|GDP_PPP = $560,348,000,000
|GDP_PPP_rank = 19th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,065
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 77th
|HDI_year = 2006
|HDI = 0.736
|HDI_rank = 99th
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Iranian Rial|Rial]] (ريال)
|currency_code = IRR
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +3.30
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = +4.30
|cctld = [[.ir]]
|calling_code = 98
|footnotes = |
}}
'''Iran''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: ايران), also called '''Persia''', is a [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]] country located in [[Southwest Asia]]. It borders [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]] (including its [[Nakhichevan exclave]]), and [[Turkmenistan]] to the north, [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] to the east, and [[Turkey]] and [[Iraq]] to the west. In addition, it borders the [[Persian Gulf]] across which lie [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The official name of the country is the '''Islamic Republic of Iran''' and [[Shi'a]] [[Islam]] is the official [[state religion]].
Throughout history Iran has been of great [[geostrategic]] importance due to its position between the [[Middle East]], [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasia]], [[Central Asia]] and the [[Persian Gulf]] and its proximity to [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[South Asia|Indian subcontinent]].
==Name==
:''Main article: [[Iran naming dispute]]''
Until 1935, the country was referred |
ience and scientists.''
ICSU was founded to bring together natural scientists in international scientific endeavour. As of October 2006, it comprises 104 multi-disciplinary National Scientific Members, Associates and Observers (scientific research councils or science academies) and 29 international, single-discipline Scientific Unions. ICSU also has 23 Scientific Associates.
One of the fundamental principles of ICSU is that of the universality of science, which affirms the right and freedom of scientists to associate in international scientific activity without regard to such factors as citizenship, religion, creed, political stance, ethnic origin, race, colour, language, age or sex.
The Council acts as a focus for the exchange of ideas and information and the development of standards. Hundreds of congresses, symposia and other scientific meetings are organized each year around the world, and a wide range of newsletters, handbooks and journals is published.
The principal source of ICSU's finances is the contributions it receives from its Members. Other sources of income are the framework contracts from [[UNESCO]] and grants and contracts from [[United Nations]] bodies, foundations and agencies, which are used to support the scientific activities of the ICSU Unions and interdisciplinary bodies.
==External links==
[[Image:Logo_icsu2.gif]]
* [http://www.icsu.org/ ICSU website]
[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations]]
[[Category:Learned societies]]
[[de:International Council for Science]]
[[it:International Council for Science]]
[[zh:&#22283;&#38555;&#31185;&#23416;&#29702;&#20107;&#26371;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</title>
<id>14870</id>
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<id>41613978</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:54:16Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
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<comment>robot Adding: tr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:320px-IUPAC.png|thumb|150px|IUPAC logo]]
The '''International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry''' ('''IUPAC''') is an international [[non-governmental organization]] devoted to the advancement of [[chemistry]]. It has as its members national chemistry societies. It is most well known as the recognized authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and their compounds, through its Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols ([[IUPAC nomenclature]]). It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU).
In addition to nomenclature guidelines, the IUPAC sets standards for international spelling in the event of a dispute; for example, it ruled that [[aluminium]] is preferable to the [[American English|American]] ''aluminum'' and [[sulfur]] rather than the [[British English|British]] ''sulphur''.
Many IUPAC publications are available over the [[Internet]]. For example, the Green Book ("Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, 1993") can be downloaded in its entirety from http://www.iupac.org/publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf. The 2005 version (a work-in-progress) can also be downloaded.
An important IUPAC supplement ("Recommendations for nomenclature and tables in biochemical thermodynamics, 1994") is available at http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/thermod/.
As the introduction to the proposed 3rd edition points out, the failure to use standardized units can result in disastrous consequences. The loss of NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter was due to the use of [[lbf]]-s rather than [[Newton|N]]-s in the coding of the software files. IUPAC urges the users of its Green Book "always to define explicitly the terms, the units, and the symbols that they use."
== See also ==
* [[IUPAC nomenclature]]
* [[Chemical element]]
* [[Element naming controversy]]
* [[Periodic table group]]
* [[International Chemical Identifier]] (InChI)
== External links ==
*[http://www.iupac.org/ Official website]
*[http://www.acdlabs.com/download/name.html ACD/ChemSKetch] Freeware allowing generation of IUPAC Names (free version is limited to small structures)
{{int-org-stub}}
{{chem-stub}}
[[Category:Chemistry societies]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]
[[ar:الإتحاد الدولي للكيمياء البحتة والتطبيقية]]
[[bg:IUPAC]]
[[br:Unaniezh Etrevroadel ar Gimiezh Pur hag Arveret]]
[[ca:Unió Internacional de Química Pura i Aplicada]]
[[de:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]]
[[es:IUPAC]]
[[eo:IUPAK]]
[[fr:Union internationale de chimie pure et appliquée]]
[[gl:IUPAC]]
[[it:IUPAC]]
[[hu:IUPAC]]
[[nl:IUPAC]]
[[ja:国際純正・応用化学連合]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Chemii Czystej i Stosowanej]]
[[pt:IUPAC]]
[[ru:ИЮПАК]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná únia čistej a aplikovanej chémie]]
[[sl:Mednarodna zveza za čisto in uporabno kemijo]]
[[fi:IUPAC]]
[[sv:IUPAC]]
[[vi:IUPAC]]
[[tr:IUPAC]]
[[zh:國際純粹與應用化學聯合會]]</text>
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<page>
<title>International Hydrographic Organization</title>
<id>14871</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-15T22:00:59Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[ja:&#22269;&#38555;&#27700;&#36335;&#27231;&#38306;]]
[[pl:Mi&#281;dzynarodowa Organizacja Hydrograficzna]]
The '''International Hydrographic Organization''' (IHO) is an intergovernmental [[international organization]] established in [[1921]]. The IHO was the outgrowth of international conferences and congresses held as early as [[1889]].
The IHO is composed of its member states (represented by their respective [[hydrographic office]]s) with administration through the International Hydrographic Bureau with headquarters in [[Monaco]]. Direction of the Bureau is through directors elected by member states. The organization's function is to coordinate [[Hydrography]] and hydrographic activities of the member states. The IHO does not itself control significant hydrographic assets.
The organization's goals are stated as "support the safety in navigation and the protection of the marine environment" with support of coordinated and uniform hydrographic products and surveys and by improving techniques of member states for producing those products.
The IHO publishes ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', which specifies the boundaries between the [[ocean]]s.<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.</ref> In [[2000]] they officially defined the boundaries of the [[Southern Ocean]].
==See also==
*[[International Association of Lighthouse Authorities]]
== References ==
<div style="font-size:85%;">
<references/>
</div>
==External links==
*[http://www.iho.shom.fr/ International Hydrographic Organization] website
[[Category:Hydrography]]</text>
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<page>
<title>IBM mainframe</title>
<id>14872</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-01-23T12:59:42Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* History */ more on transition</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''IBM mainframe''' is a large, high performance computer made by [[IBM|International Business Machines (IBM)]]. [[Mainframe computers]] traditionally are "expensive,"{{ref|cost}} individually physically large{{ref|size}}, and have high [[transaction processing]] and [[input/output|I/O]] performance, but are not as expensive and high performance{{ref|speed}} as [[supercomputers]].
==History==
From [[1952]] into the late [[1960s]], IBM manufactured and marketed several large computer models, known as the [[IBM 700/7000 series]]. The 700s were based on [[vacuum tube]]s, while the later 7000s used [[transistor]]s. These machines established IBM's dominance in electronic data processing. IBM had two model categories: one (701, 704, 709, 7090, 7040) for engineering and scientific use, and one (702, 705, 7080, 7070, 7010) for commercial or data processing use. IBM initially sold its computers without any software, expecting customers to write their own; and programs were manually initiated, one at a time. This followed the model IBM had earlier established with their [[unit record equipment]]. Later IBM provided compilers for the newly developed higher-level [[programming language]]s [[Fortran]] and [[Cobol]]. The need to make the most efficient use of these multi-million dollar machines led the the introduction of simple [[operating system]]s, or job monitors. The two categories, scientific and commercial, generally used common peripherals but had completely different [[instruction set]]s, and there were incompatibilities even within each category. As software became more complex and important, the cost of supporting it on so many different designs became burdensome.
All that changed with the announcement of the [[System/360]] (S/360) in April, 1964. The System/360 was a single series of compatible models for both commercial and scientific use. The number "[[360 (number)|360]]" suggested a "360 [[degree (angle)|degree]]," or "all-around" computer system. [[System/360]] incorporated features which had previously been present on only either the commercial line (such as decimal arithmetic and byte addressing) or the technical line (such as [[floating point]] arithmetic).{{ref|alu}} The System/360 was also the first computer in wide use to include dedicated hard |
837</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-29T11:31:10Z</timestamp>
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<comment>adjustment of numbers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[military]] of [[Equatorial Guinea]]''' was reorganized in 1979. It consists of approximately 2,500 service members. The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the police 400 paramilitary men, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about120 members. There is a [[Gendarmerie]], but the number of members is unknown. The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea. Overall the military is poorly trained and equipped. It has mostly small arms, rocket launched grenades, and mortars. Almost none of its soviet-style light-armored vehicles or trucks are operational.
In 1988, the [[United States]] donated a 68-foot patrol boat to the Equatorial Guinean navy to patrol its exclusive economic zone. The U.S. patrol boat "Isla de Bioko" is no longer operational. U.S. military-to-military engagement has been dormant since 1997 (the year of the last [[Joint Combined Exchange Training Exercise]]). Between 1984 and 1992, service members went regularly to the United States on the International Military Education Training program, after which funding for this program for Equatorial Guinea ceased. The government spent 6.5% of its annual budget on defense in 2000 and 4.5% of its budget on defense in 2001. It recently acquired some Chinese artillery pieces, some Ukrainian patrol boats, and some Ukrainian Helicopter Gunships. The number of paved airports in Equatorial Guinea can be counted on one hand, and as such the number of aeroplanes operated by the airforce is small [http://www.worldairforces.com/Countries/equatorial_guinea/eqg.html] [http://www.worldairforces.com/Countries/equatorial_guinea/EQGaircraft.html]. The Equatoguineans rely on foreigners to operate and maintain this equipment as they are not sufficiently trained to do so.
Military appointments are all reviewed by [[Teodoro Obiang | President Obiang]], and few of the native militiamen come from outside of Obiang's [[Mongomo]] based Esangui clan. Obiang was a general when he overthrew his uncle, [[Francisco Macias Nguema]]. His decision to personally review each military appointment reflects his fears over a lack of loyalty in the military- but the practise of a dictator reviewing individual military positions is not peculiar to Obiang- [[Adolf Hitler]] personally reviewed the status of every [[mischling]].
; Military branches:
: Army, Navy, Air Force, Rapid Intervention Force, National Police
; Military manpower - availability:
: Males age 15-49: 105,420 (2000 est.)
; Military manpower - fit for military service:
: Males age 15-49: 53,564 (2000 est.)
; Military expenditures - dollar figure:
: $3 million (FY97/98)
; Military expenditures - percent of GDP:
: 0.6% (FY97/98)
==References and Links==
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Militaries|Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea</title>
<id>9375</id>
<revision>
<id>15907271</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-25T05:40:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.8.56.188</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A transitional agreement, signed in October 1968, implemented a [[Spain|Spanish]] preindependence decision to assist [[Equatorial Guinea]] and provided for the temporary maintenance of Spanish forces there. A dispute with President Macias in 1969 led to a request that all Spanish troops immediately depart, and a large number of civilians left at the same time. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were never broken but were suspended by Spain in March 1977 in the wake of renewed disputes. After Macias' fall in 1979, President Obiang asked for Spanish assistance, and since then, Spain has regained influence in Equatorial Guinea's diplomatic relations. The two countries signed permanent agreements for economic and technical cooperation, private concessions, and trade relations. President Obiang made an official visit to Madrid in March 2001, and senior Spanish Foreign Ministry officials visited Malabo during 2001 as well. Spain maintained a bilateral assistance program in Equatorial Guinea. Some Equato-Guinean opposition elements are based in Spain to the annoyance of the government of Malabo.
Equatorial Guinea has cordial relations with neighboring Cameroon, although there was criticism in Cameroon in 2000 about perceived mistreatment of Cameroonians working in Equatorial Guinea. The majority Fang ethnic group of mainland Equatorial Guinea extends both north and south into the forests of [[Cameroon]] and [[Gabon]]. Cameroon exports some food products to Equatorial Guinea and imports oil from Equatorial Guinea for its refinery at nearby [[Limbe]].
Equatorial Guinea has warmer relations with [[Nigeria]], and the Nigerian President made an official visit to Malabo in 2001. The two countries have delineated their offshore borders, which will facilitate development of nearby gas fields. In addition, many Nigerians work in Equatorial Guinea, as do immigrants from Cameroon and some West African states.
Equatorial Guinea is member of the [[Central African Economic and Monetary]] Union (CEMAC), which includes Cameroon, [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Congo (Brazzaville)]], and Gabon. It also is a member of the Franc zone. Parallel to the Equatoguinean rapprochement with its francophone neighbors, France's role has significantly increased following Equatorial Guinea's entry into the [[CFA Franc Zone]] and the [[BEAC]]. French technical advisers work in the finance and planning ministries, and agreements have been signed for infrastructure development projects.
In [[1995]], the [[United States|USA]] closed its embassy, ostensibly for budget reasons, though the ambassador of the time had been accused of witchcraft, and had criticised the human rights situation. In [[1996]], offshore oil began flowing, and, with several US oil companies present in the country, the US reopened the embassy in October [[2003]].
The government's official policy is one of nonalignment. In its search for assistance to meet the goal of national reconstruction, the Government of Equatorial Guinea has established diplomatic relations with numerous European and Third World Countries. Having achieved independence under UN sponsorship, Equatorial Guinea feels a special kinship with that organization. It became the 126th UN member on November 12, 1968.
'''Disputes - international:'''
exclusive maritime economic zone boundary dispute with Cameroon is presently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay; maritime boundary dispute with Nigeria and Cameroon because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea
:''See also :'' [[Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eritrea</title>
<id>9376</id>
<revision>
<id>42078009</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:52:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mark Dingemanse</username>
<id>119869</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.33.7|216.20.33.7]] ([[User talk:216.20.33.7|talk]]) to last version by 69.76.15.30</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the African nation. For the Greek city, see [[Eretria]].''
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>ሃግሬ ኤርትራ<br>'''Hagere Ertra'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2 |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
| align="center" width="130px" | [[Image:Flag of Eritrea.svg|125px|Flag of Eritrea]]
| align="center" width="130px" | [[Image:Eritrea_COA-color.jpg|110px|Coat of Arms of Eritrea]]
|-
| align="center" width="130px" | ([[Flag of Eritrea|In Detail]])
| align="center" width="130px" | ([[Coat of Arms of Eritrea|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | <small>''[[National motto]]: "Never Kneel Down"''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[image:LocationEritrea.png|Location of Eritrea]]
|-
| '''Working [[language]]s'''
| [[Tigrigna]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] <br>and [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Asmara]]
|-
| '''[[President of Eritrea|President]]'''
| [[Isaias Afewerki]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 97<sup>th</sup>]] <br /> 121,320 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] <br /> Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Estimated ([[2005]])<br />&nbsp;- Total ([[2002]])<br />&nbsp;- Density
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 115<sup>th</sup>]]<br /> 4,561,599<br /> 4,298,269<br /> 38/km&sup2; ([[List of countries by population density|135<sup>th</sup>]])
|-
| '''[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|GDP]] [[Purchasing power parity|(PPP)]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total<br />&nbsp;- Per capita<br />
| 2005 estimate<br /> 4,250 ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|155<sup>th</sup>]]) <br />917 ([[List of countries by GDP |
o have trouble finding permanent homes and to rising income inequality between social classes.
===Australia===
Homelessness should not be quantified as being without a house; rather, it defines a state in which a person lacks a secure base to establish secure routines of living. The Australian Bureau of Statistics breaks this down into 5 groups: [http://www.abs.gov.au]
*"rough sleepers" - people who are living outside
*[[Emergency shelter]]s
*Temporarily residing with friends
*[[Boarding house]]s
*[[Trailer park]] residents
==Situations in specific U.S. cities==
The city of [[San Francisco]], [[California]], due to its mild climate and its social programs that have provided cash payments for homeless individuals, is often considered the homelessness capital of the United States. The city's homeless population has been estimated at 7,000-10,000 people. It is believed that New York, which is 10 times as large in population, has only 5 times as many homeless individuals. On [[May 3]], [[2004]] [http://www.sfgov.org/site/dhs_index.asp?id=13701], San Francisco officially began an attempt to scale back the scope of its homelessness problem by changing its strategy from cash payments to the so-called "[[Care Not Cash]]" plan.
The city of [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]] is also noted for its number of homeless people. Visitors to the city often get a taste of big city reality when they see people begging for change on many corners. Over the years, Chicago has gained a reputation as the city with the most homeless people, rivaling Los Angeles and New York, although no statistical data has backed this up. The reputation stems primarily from the subjective number of beggars found on the streets rather than any sort of objective statistical census data.
In [[Denver]], [[Colorado]], Mayor [[John Hickenlooper]] has made dealing with the issues that underlie homelessness a top priority on his Mayoral agenda, speaking heavily on the issue during his first "State of the City" address in 2003. While Denver's homeless population is much lower than other major cities, the homeless residents have often suffered when without shelter during Denver's infamously cold winters.[http://www.denvergov.org/Homelessness/default.asp]
In [http://www.indygov.org/home.htm] [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], as many as 2,200 people are homeless on any given night, and as many as 15,000 individuals over the course of a year. Indianapolis is notable among cities of similar size for having only faith-based shelters, such as the century-old [http://www.wmm.org]Wheeler Mission. In 2001, Mayor [[Bart Peterson]] endorsed a 10-year [http://www.chipindy.org/pdf/ReaderFormatAll.pdf]Blueprint to End Homelessness and made it one of his administration's top priorities. The plan's main goals are for more affordable housing units, employment opportunities, and support services. The Blueprint not withstanding, Indianapolis has criminalized aspects of homelessness, such as making [[panhandling]] a [[misdemeanor]]; and the [http://www.indygov.org/egov/Council/home.htm]City-County Council has twice (in April, 2002, and August, 2005) denied the zoning necessary to open a new shelter for homeless women.
==See also==
*[[Homelessness in Canada]]
*[[Homelessness in the United States]]
*[[Street child|Street children]]
*[[Homeless World Cup]]
==External links==
*[http://borgenproject.org/Homeless.html Borgen Project] - Quick Stats
*[http://www.sfgate.com/gate/special/pages/2003/homeless/ Chronicle Homeless Special] - SF Gate special report (2003-2005)
*[http://www.cath.org.uk Chester Aid To the Homeless] - Helping homeless people in the UK help themselves
*[http://www.cybartv.org/html/social.htm SDF- HOMELESS Europe]
*[http://www.homeless.org.uk Homeless Link] - The second tier organisation for frontline homelessness agencies in England and Wales
*[http://www.nationalhomeless.org The National Coalition for the Homeless]- Facts, figures and statistics on homelessness in the US
[[Category:Homelessness|*]]
[[Category:Humanitarian aid]]
[[da:Hjemløs]]
[[de:Obdachlosigkeit]]
[[es:Persona sin hogar]]
[[eo:Senhejmeco]]
[[fr:Sans domicile fixe]]
[[hu:Hajléktalanság]]
[[nl:Dakloze]]
[[ja:ホームレス]]
[[pl:Bezdomność]]
[[ru:Бездомные]]
[[sv:Hemlöshet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hilaire Rouelle</title>
<id>13795</id>
<revision>
<id>35323969</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T22:48:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Suruena</username>
<id>140178</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>&[[ndash]]; for ranges</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hilaire Marin Rouelle''' ([[1718]] &ndash; [[1779]]) was a [[France|French]] [[chemistry|chemist]]. In [[1773]], he discovered [[urea]]. He is known as the cadet to distinguish him from his older brother, [[Guillaume François Rouelle]], who was also a chemist.
{{chemist-stub}}
{{France-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1718 births|Rouell, H.M.]]
[[Category:1779 deaths|Rouell, H.M.]]
[[Category:French chemists|Rouelle, Hilaire]]
[[fr:Hilaire Rouelle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halon</title>
<id>13798</id>
<revision>
<id>36740077</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T03:26:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mcpusc</username>
<id>89995</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added direct links to Halon 1121 and 1301, as they are probably what a searcher is looking for</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[Halon 1211]] and [[Halon 1301]] are special-purpose fire extiguishing agents that were banned by the [[Montreal Protocol]].
*[[haloalkane]] The haloalkanes (also known as Halogenoalkanes) are a group of chemical compounds, consisting of alkanes, such as methane or ethane, with one or more halogens linked, such as chlorine or fluorine, making them a type of organic halide.
*[[HALON]] is an instrumental four-piece, hailing from Toledo, Ohio.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Halon]]
[[nl:Halonen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harrisonburg</title>
<id>13800</id>
<revision>
<id>15911392</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-16T02:18:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Niteowlneils</username>
<id>46219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redir->disamb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harrisonburg''' is the name of two communities in the United States:
*[[Harrisonburg, Louisiana]]
*[[Harrisonburg, Virginia]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Palestine</title>
<id>13801</id>
<revision>
<id>41163536</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T13:14:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Kernow</username>
<id>445578</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved {{limitedgeographicscope}} from talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
{{accuracy}}
The '''History of Palestine''' is the account of events in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from ancient times to the present. For the history of the term "Palestine" and its application in the region, see [[Palestine (region)#Boundaries and Name|Boundaries and name of Palestine region]].
== Prehistoric times==
The [[Mousterian]] [[Neanderthal]]s were the earliest inhabitants of the area known to archaeologists, and have been dated to c. 200,000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. The first anatomically modern humans to live in the area were the [[Kebaran|Kebarans]] (conventionally c. 18,000 - 10,500 BCE, but recent paleoanthropological evidence suggests that [[Kebaran]]s may have arrived as early as 75,000 BCE and shared the region with the [[Neanderthal]]s for millennia before the latter died out). They were followed by the [[Natufian]] culture (c. 10,500 BCE - 8500 BCE), the [[Yarmukian]]s (c. 8500 - 4300 BCE) and the [[Ghassulians]] (carbon dated c. 4300 - 3300 BCE). (All of these cultures are named after archeological sites, in the absence of any indication of what they called themselves.)
The [[Semitic]] culture followed the Ghassulians. People became [[urbanization|urbanized]] and lived in [[city-state]]s, including [[Jericho]]. The area's location at the center of routes linking three continents made it the meeting place for religious and cultural influences from [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Asia Minor]]. It was also the natural battleground for the great powers of the region and subject to domination by adjacent [[empire]]s, beginning with Egypt in the late [[3rd millennium BCE]].
== [[Canaanite]] and [[Israelite]] Period==
A [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] speaking culture followed the Ghassulian culture. [[Archaeologists]] refer to the culture as [[Canaanite]]. This usage differs from that of the [[Bible]] and related [[literature]] where the term is used in a more narrow sense for one group within the [[culture]]. Some [[historians]] regard it as part of a wave of migration of semitic-speaking peoples out of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], while others suggest that they had been there ever since the original Semitic emigration from [[Africa]].
[[Image:1759_map_Holy_Land_and_12_Tribes.jpg|thumb|Terra Sancta sive Palæstina. (1759 map)]]
Later, the [[Israelites]] appeared. Archaeologists regard them as an outgrowth of the Canaanite culture. According to the [[Bible]] they were descended from [[Jacob]] whose sons generally had Biblical Canaanite wifes. The Bible describes them as returning following the [[Exodus]] from [[Egypt]], conquering, exterminating, and absorbing the tribes they found there and reclaiming the land it says [[God]] promised them. Successive waves of migration brought other groups onto the scene. Around [[1200s BC|1200 BCE]] the [[Hittites|Hittite]] empire was conquered by allied tribes from the north. The [[Phoenicians]] (which are a different g |
big-endian<br>
Big Gray Wall<br>
big iron<br>
BIG-LAN<br>
Bigloo<br>
bignum<br>
bigot<br>
Big Red Switch<br>
Big Room<br>
big win<br>
bijection<br>
Bill Gates<br>
Bill Joy<br>
binaries<br>
binary<br>
Binary Coded Decimal<br>
Binary Compatibility Standard<br>
binary counter<br>
binary exponential backoff<br>
binary file<br>
binary large object<br>
binary package<br>
binary search<br>
Binary Synchronous Transmission -- '''DONE'''<br>
binary tree<br>
BIND<br>
bindery<br>
binding handle<br>
binding-time analysis<br>
BinHex<br>
Binhex 4.0<br>
BinProlog<br>
BIOR<br>
BIOS<br>
BIP<br>
bipartite graph<br>
bipolar<br>
bipolar transistor<br>
BIPS<br>
Bird-Meertens Formalism<br>
Birds Of a Feather<br>
BISDN<br>
Bison<br>
Bison++<br>
BIST<br>
bisync<br>
bit<br>
bit bang<br>
bit bashing<br>
bitblt<br>
bit bucket<br>
bit decay<br>
bit diddling<br>
bite<br>
bitmap<br>
bitmap display<br>
bitmap font<br>
bitmapped display<br>
bit mask<br>
BITNET<br>
bitonal image<br>
bit-paired keyboard<br>
bit pattern<br>
bit plane<br>
bit-robbing<br>
bit rot<br>
bit slice<br>
bits per inch<br>
bits per pixel<br>
bits per second<br>
bit string<br>
bit stuffing<br>
bit twiddling<br>
bitty box<br>
bitwise<br>
bitwise complement<br>
bixie<br>
bj<br>
Bjarne Stroustrup<br>
BJC4000<br>
black art<br>
black box<br>
black-box testing<br>
Black Data Processing Associates<br>
black hole<br>
black magic<br>
blargh<br>
blast<br>
blat<br>
BLAZE<br>
BLAZE 2<br>
bleam<br>
bleeper<br>
bletcherous<br>
Bletchley Park<br>
Blind Carbon Copy<br>
B-LINE<br>
blinkenlights<br>
BLISS<br>
BLISS-10<br>
BLISS-11<br>
BLISS-32<br>
blit<br>
blitter<br>
blivet<br>
bloat<br>
bloatware<br>
BLOB<br>
block<br>
Block Diagram Compiler<br>
blocked records<br>
Block Redundancy Check<br>
Block Started by Symbol<br>
block transfer computations<br>
Bloggs Family, the<br>
Blosim<br>
blow an EPROM<br>
blow away<br>
blowing your buffer<br>
blow out<br>
blow past<br>
blow up<br>
BLOX<br>
BLT<br>
Blue<br>
Blue Book<br>
Blue Box<br>
Blue Glue<br>
Blue Screen of Death<br>
Blue Screen of Life<br>
Blue Sky Software<br>
Bluetooth <br>
blue wire<br>
blurgle<br>
bm<br>
BMAN<br>
BMASF<br>
BMDP<br>
B-Method<br>
BMF<br>
BMP<br>
bmp<br>
BMWF<br>
bn<br>
BNC<br>
BNF<br>
BNR Pascal<br>
BNR Prolog<br>
bo<br>
boa<br>
board<br>
boat anchor<br>
Bob<br>
Bobo the Webmonkey<br>
BOCS<br>
Boehm B.<br>
BOEING<br>
BOF<br>
BOFH<br>
bogometer<br>
BogoMips<br>
bogon<br>
bogon filter<br>
bogon flux<br>
bogosity<br>
bogo-sort<br>
bogotify<br>
bogue out<br>
bogus<br>
BOHICA<br>
Bohr bug<br>
boink<br>
BOLERO<br>
Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc.<br>
bomb<br>
bon<br>
bondage-and-discipline language<br>
bonk/oif<br>
Booch method -- '''DONE'''<br>
bookmark<br>
Bookreader<br>
book titles<br>
Bookviewer<br>
bool<br>
Boolean<br>
Boolean algebra<br>
Boolean logic<br>
Boolean search<br>
Boole, George<br>
Booster<br>
boot<br>
boot block<br>
boot disk<br>
BOOTP<br>
bootstrap<br>
bootstrap loader<br>
boot virus<br>
Border Gateway Protocol<br>
borf<br>
Borland International, Inc.<br>
BOS<br>
Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem Code<br>
BOSS<br>
bot<br>
botmaster<br>
bottom<br>
bottom feeder<br>
bottom-unique<br>
bottom-up implementation<br>
bottom-up model<br>
bottom-up testing<br>
botwar<br>
bounce<br>
bounce message<br>
boundary scan<br>
boundary value analysis<br>
bounded<br>
boundedly complete<br>
bound variable<br>
bournebasic<br>
Bourne shell<br>
boustrophedonic<br>
box<br>
boxed comments<br>
boxen<br>
Boxer<br>
boxology<br>
Boycott Apple<br>
bozotic<br>
BPI<br>
bpmake<br>
bpp<br>
BPR<br>
BPS<br>
BQS<br>
br<br>
brace<br>
bracket<br>
bracket abstraction<br>
braille<br>
braille display<br>
Braille embosser<br>
Braille printer<br>
Brain Aid Prolog<br>
brain-damaged<br>
brain-dead<br>
brain dump<br>
brain fart<br>
braino<br>
branch<br>
Branch and Hang<br>
branch coverage testing<br>
branch delay slot -- '''DONE'''<br>
Branch on Chip Box Full<br>
branch prediction<br>
Branch Target Buffer<br>
branch to Fishkill<br>
Brazil<br>
BRB<br>
bread crumbs<br>
breadth first search<br>
break<br>
break-even point<br>
breakpoint<br>
breath-of-life packet<br>
breedle<br>
BRH<br>
BRI<br>
Brian Reid<br>
BRIDGE<br>
bridge<br>
Bridgetalk<br>
briefcase<br>
brightness<br>
Brilliant<br>
bring X to its knees<br>
British Broadcasting Corporation<br>
British Library Method<br>
British Standards Institute<br>
British Telecom<br>
British Telecom Research Laboratories<br>
brittle<br>
broadband<br>
broadcast<br>
broadcast quality video<br>
broadcast storm<br>
Broadway<br>
brochureware<br>
broken<br>
broken arrow<br>
broker<br>
broket<br>
Brooks's Law<br>
brouter<br>
Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem<br>
Brown and Sharpe Wire Gauge<br>
brown paper bag bug<br>
browser<br>
BRS<br>
BRUIN<br>
brute force<br>
brute force and ignorance<br>
brute force attack<br>
BS<br>
bs<br>
BS2000<br>
BSA<br>
BSD<br>
BSD386<br>
BSDI<br>
BSD/OS<br>
BSD Unix<br>
BSI<br>
BSL<br>
BSOD<br>
BSOL<br>
BSOM<br>
BSP method<br>
BSRAM<br>
BSS<br>
BST<br>
bt<br>
BTB<br>
btoa<br>
B-Toolkit<br>
BTOS<br>
B-tree<br>
[[Btrieve]] - largely done, still more to go however. - [[User:Ta bu shi da yu|Ta bu shi da yu]] 02:50, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)<br>
[[Btrieve Technologies, Inc.]] - '''DONE''' redirected to [[Btrieve]] <br>
BTRL<br>
BTW<br>
BUAF<br>
BUAG<br>
bubble memory<br>
bubble sort<br>
bucky bits<br>
buffer<br>
buffered write-through<br>
buffer overflow<br>
bug<br>
bug-compatible<br>
bug fix<br>
bug fix release<br>
bug-for-bug compatible<br>
buglix<br>
BUGSYS<br>
built-in<br>
Built-in Self Test<br>
Bull<br>
bulletin board<br>
bulletin board system<br>
bulletproof<br>
Bull Information Systems<br>
bum<br>
bump<br>
burble<br>
Burge's Language<br>
buried treasure<br>
burn-in<br>
burn-in period<br>
Burroughs Corporation<br>
Burst EDO<br>
Burst Extended Data Out DRAM<br>
burst page<br>
Burst Static Random Access Memory<br>
bus<br>
bus error<br>
Bush, Vannevar<br>
Business Application Programming Interface<br>
Business Process Re-engineering<br>
Business Software Alliance<br>
business to business<br>
bus master<br>
bus mastering<br>
bus network<br>
Busy Beaver<br>
busy-loop<br>
busy-wait<br>
Butterfly Common LISP<br>
Butterfly Scheme<br>
button<br>
buzz<br>
bv<br>
bw<br>
bwBASIC<br>
BWQ<br>
by<br>
byacc<br>
by hand<br>
Byte<br>
byte<br>
byte-code<br>
byte-code compiler<br>
byte-code interpreter<br>
byte compiler<br>
bytesexual<br>
Byzantine<br>
bz<br>
bzzzt, wrong<br>
:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/I - K</title>
<id>11330</id>
<revision>
<id>15909083</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-04T15:26:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Macrakis</username>
<id>49920</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
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ory, the result was clear: for the first time an Emperor had lost his throne in a means other than his own natural death, death in battle, or voluntary abdication.
Mikael Sehul had compromised the power of the Emperor, and from this point forward it lay ever more openly in the hands of the great nobles and military commanders. This point of time has been regarded as one start of the Era of the Princes.
An aged and infirm imperial uncle prince was enthroned as Emperor [[Yohannes II]]. Ras Mikael soon had him murdered, and underage [[Takla Haymanot II]] was elevated to the throne.
This bitter religious conflict contributed to hostility toward foreign Christians and Europeans, which persisted into the [[20th century]] and was a factor in Ethiopia's isolation until the mid-[[19th century]], when the first British mission, sent in 1805 to conclude an alliance with Ethiopia and obtain a port on the Red Sea in case [[France]] conquered [[Egypt]]. The success of this mission opened Ethiopia to many more travellers, missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's reign.
This isolation was pierced by very few European travellers. One was the French physician [[Charles Jacques Poncet|C.J. Poncet]], who went there in [[1698]], via [[Kingdom of Sennar|Sennar]] and the [[Blue Nile]]. After him [[James Bruce]] entered the country in [[1769]], with the object of discovering the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in Ethiopia. Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769, he travelled via Axum to [[Gondar]], where he was well received by Emperor [[Tekle Haymanot II of Ethiopia|Tekle Haymanot II]]. He accompanied the king on a warlike expedition round [[Lake Tana]], moving South round the eastern shore, crossing the [[Blue Nile]] ([[Abay River|Abay]]) close to its point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore. On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satisfaction that the river originated some 40 miles southwest of the lake at a place called Geesh ([[November 4]], [[1770]]). He showed that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well-known outlet. Bruce subsequently returned to [[Egypt]] (end of 1772) by way of Gondar, the upper [[Atbara river|Atbara]], Sennar, the Nile, and the [[Korosko desert]].
During the 18th century the most prominent rulers were the emperor [[Dawit III of Ethiopia|Dawit III]] of [[Gondar]] (died [[May 18]] [[1721]]), [[Amha Iyasus]] of [[Shewa]] (1744-1775), who consolidated his kingdom and founded [[Ankober]], and [[Tekle Giyorgis I of Ethiopia|Tekle Giyorgis]] of [[Amhara]] (1779-1799) - the last-mentioned is famous of having been elevated to the throne altogether six times and also deposed six times. The first years of the 19th century were disturbed by fierce campaigns between [[Ras (title)|Ras]] [[Gugsa of Yejju|Gugsa]] of Begemder, and Ras [[Wolde Selassie]] of Tigray, who fought over control of the figurehaed Emperor [[Egwale Seyon of Ethiopia|Egwale Seyon]]. Wolde Selassie was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the whole country till his death in [[1816]] at the age of eighty.
[[Dejazmach]] [[Sabagadis]] of [[Agame]] succeeded Wolde Selassie in 1817, through force of arms, to become warlord of Tigre.
==Leaving the Medieval World==
Under the Emperors [[Tewodros II of Ethiopia|Tewodros II]] ([[1855]] - [[1868]]), [[Yohannes IV of Ethiopia|Yohannes IV]] ([[1872]] - [[1889]]), and [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Menelek II]] ([[1889]] - [[1913]]), the kingdom began to emerge from its medieval isolation.
Emperor Tewodros II was born ''Lij'' Kassa in Kwara, a small district of Western [[Amhara]], in [[1818]]. His father was a small local chief, and his relative (possible uncle) ''Dejazmatch'' [[Kinfu]] was governor of the districts of Dembea, [[Qwara]] and Chelga between Lake Tana and the undefined northwestern frontier. Kassa was dispossesed of his inheritance by his relatives upon the death of his father while he was still a young boy. After recieving a traditional education in a local monastery, he went off to lead a band of bandits that roved the country in a Robin Hood-like existence. His exploits became widely known, and his band of followers grew steadily until he led a formidible army. He came to the notice of the ruling Regent, Ras Ali, and his mother Empress [[Menen Liben Amede]] (wife of the puppet Emperor [[Yohannes III]]). In order to bind him to them, Ras Ali and the Empress arranged for Kassa to marry Ali's daughter, and upon the death of his uncle Kinfu, he was made chief of Kwara and all Dembea with the title of Dejazmatch. He turned his attention to conquering the remaining [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|chief divisions of the country]], [[Gojjam]], [[Tigray]] and [[Shewa]], which still remained unsubdued. His relations with his father-in-law and grandmother-in-law deteriorated however, and he soon took up arms against them and their vassals, and was successful.
On [[February 11]], [[1855]], Kassa usurped the Imperial throne, and was crowned ''negusa nagast'' of Ethiopia under the name of Tewodros II. He soon after advanced against [[Shewa]] with a large army. Chief of the notables opposing him was its king [[Haile Melekot]], a descendant of ''meridazmach'' [[Asfa Wossen]]. Dissensions broke out among the Shewans, and after a desperate and futile attack on Theodore at [[Dabra Berhan]], [[Haile Melekot]] died of illness, nominating with his last breath his eleven-year-old son as successor (November 1855) under the name Negus Sahle Maryam (later he became emperor [[Menelek II]]). Darge, Haile Melekot's brother, and Ato Bezabih, a Shewan noble, took charge of the young prince, but after a hard fight with Angeda, the Shewans were obliged to capitulate. Sahle Maryam was handed over to the Emperor, taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service, and then placed in comfortable detention at the fortress of Magdalla. Theodore afterwards devoted himself to modernizing and centralizing the legal and [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|administrative structure of his kingdom]], against the resistance of his governors. Sahle Maryam of Shewa was married to Tewodros II's daughter Alitash.
In 1865, Sahle Maryam escaped from Magdalla, abandoning his wife, and arrived in [[Shewa]], and was there acclaimed as [[Negus]]. On the death of Tewodros, many Shewans, including Ras Darge, were released, and the young Negus of Shewa began to feel himself strong enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to undertake offensive operations against the northern princes. But these projects were of little avail, for ras Kassai of Tigray, had by this time ([[1872]]) risen to supreme power in the north. Proclaiming himself ''negusa nagast'' under the name of Yohannes or John IV, he conquered Sahle Maryam and [[Shewa]].
==Interactions with European Colonial Powers==
Ethiopia stands with [[Liberia]] as one of the two places in Africa which were never colonized by European powers (if one excludes the brief [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Italian invasion]] and occupation between 1936 and 1941). However, several colonial powers had interests and designs on Ethiopia in the context of the "[[Scramble for Africa]]."
In 1867, when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]], Queen of the United Kingdom, did not answer a letter King Theodore sent her, he took it as an insult and imprisoned several British residents, including the [[Consulate general|consul]]. An army of 12,000 was sent from Bombay to Ethiopia [[1868 Expedition to Abyssinia|to rescue the captured nationals]], under the command of Sir [[Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier|Robert Napier]]. The Ethiopians were defeated, and the British stormed the fortress of Magdala (now known as [[Amba Mariam]]) on [[April 13]], [[1868]]. When King Theodore heard that the gate had fallen, he fired a pistol into his mouth and killed himself. His son was taken to England to be educated at the expense of the nation. He died there in 1879, at the age of 17. Sir Robert Napier was raised to the peerage, and given the title of Lord Napier of Magdala.
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;text-align:center;font-size:smaller">
[[image:EthiopiaRAND1908.jpg|Map of Ethiopia in 1908]]<br>''Ethiopia in 1908, according to a [[EthiopiaRAND1908orig.jpg|Rand McNally map]]''</div>
The [[Italy|Italians]] now came on the scene. [[Assab]], a port near the southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the local sultan in March [[1870]] by an Italian company, which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880, was bought out by the Italian government in [[1882]]. In this year Count [[Pietro Antonelli]] was despatched to Shewa in order to improve the prospects of the colony by treaties with Menelik and the sultan of [[Aussa]].
In April [[1888]] the Italian forces, numbering over 20,000 men, came into touch with the Ethiopian army; but negotiations took the place of fighting, with the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving some 5000 troops in [[Eritrea]], as their colony was now called.
Meanwhile Yohannes had not been idle with regard to the [[dervish]]es, who had in the meantime become masters of the Egyptian Sudan, continued, and in 1887 a great battle ensued at [[Gallabat]], in which the [[dervish]]es, under Zeki Tumal, were beaten. But a stray bullet struck the king, and the Ethiopians decided to retire. The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands of the enemy ([[March 9]], [[1889]]). Immediately the news of Yohannes's death reached [[Menelik II|Menelik]], the king of the Shewa, he proclaimed himself emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, and received the submission of Begemder, Gojjam and several other provinces.
On [[May 2]] of that same year, [[Menelik II|Menelik]], signed the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] with the Italians, granting them a portion of Northern Eth |
ster against the Saxons. Witzin died in battle and Charlemagne avenged him by harrying the Eastphalians on the Elbe. Thrasuco, his successor, led his men to conquest over the Nordalbingians and handed their leaders over to Charlemagne, who greatly honoured him. The Abotrites remained loyal until Charles' death and fought later against the Danes.
===Avar campaigns===
In 788, the Avars, a pagan [[Asia]]n horde which had settled down in what is today [[Hungary]] (Einhard called them [[Huns]]), invaded Friuli and Bavaria. Charles was preoccupied until [[790]] with other things, but in that year, he marched down the [[Danube]] into their territory and ravaged it to the [[Raab]]. Then, a Lombard army under Pippin marched into the [[Drava]] valley and ravaged [[Pannonia]]. The campaigns would have continued if the Saxons had not revolted again in 792, breaking seven years of peace.
For the next two years, Charles was occupied with the Slavs against the Saxons. Pippin and Duke [[Eric of Friuli]] continued, however, to assault the Avars' ring-shaped strongholds. The great Ring of the Avars, their capital fortress, was taken twice. The booty was sent to Charlemagne at his capital, [[Aachen]], and redistributed to all his followers and even to foreign rulers, including King [[Offa of Mercia]]. Soon the Avar [[tudun]]s had thrown in the towel and travelled to Aachen to subject themselves to Charlemagne as vassals and Christians. This Charlemagne accepted and sent one native chief, baptised Abraham, back to Avaria with the ancient title of [[khagan]]. Abraham kept his people in line, but soon the [[Magyars]] had swept the Avars away and presented a new threat to Charlemagne's descendants.
Charlemagne also directed his attention to the Slavs to the south of the Avar khaganate: the [[Carantania]]ns and [[Slovene]]s. These people were subdued by the Lombards and Bavarii and made tributaries, but never incorporated into the Frankish state.
===The Saracens and Spain===
The conquest of Italy brought Charlemagne in contact with the Saracens who, at the time, controlled the [[Mediterranean]]. Pippin, his son, was much occupied with Saracens in Italy. Charlemagne conquered [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]] at an unknown date and in [[799]] the [[Balearic Islands]]. The islands were often attacked by Saracen [[pirate]]s, but the counts of [[Genoa]] and Tuscany kept them at bay with large fleets until the end of Charlemagne's reign. Charlemagne even had contact with the [[caliph]]al court in [[Baghdad]]. In 797 (or possibly [[801]]), the caliph of Baghdad, [[Harun al-Rashid]], presented Charlemagne with an [[Asian elephant]] named [[Abul-Abbas]] and a mechanical clock.
In [[Hispania]], the struggle against the Moors continued unabated throughtout the latter half of his reign. His son Louis was in charge of the Spanish border. In 785, his men captured Gerona permanently and extended Frankish control into the [[Catalan]] littoral for the duration of Charlemagne's reign (and much longer, it remained nominally Frankish until the [[Treaty of Corbeil]] in [[1258]]). The Muslim chiefs in the northeast of Spain were constantly revolting against Cordoban authority and they often turned to the Franks for help. The Frankish border was slowly extended until 795, when Gerona, [[Cardona]], [[Ausona]], and [[Urgel]] were united into the new [[Spanish March]], within the old duchy of [[Septimania]].
In 797, [[Barcelona]], the greatest city of the region, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it to them. The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis of Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the Pyrenees and besieged in for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated. The Franks continued to press forwards against the caliphs. They took [[Tarragona]] in [[809]] and [[Tortosa]] in [[811]]. The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the [[Ebro]] and gave them raiding access to [[Valencia]], prompting the Caliph [[al-Hakam I]] to recognise their conquests in [[812]].
===Imperator===
[[Image:Charlemagnecrown.jpg|thumb|Coronation [[crown of Napoleon]] I<br><small>sometimes called the ''[[crown of Charlemagne|Charlemagne Crown]]'' after the original crown of that name destroyed during the French Revolution.</small>]]
Matters of Charlemagne's reign came to a head in late 800. In 799, [[Pope Leo III]] had been mistreated by the Romans, who tried to tear out his tongue and eyes. He was deposed and put in a monastery, but Charlemagne did not recognise this, as his advisor, [[Alcuin of York]], advised. He went down to Rome in November 800 and held a council on [[December 1]]. On [[December 23]], Leo swore an oath of innocence. At [[Mass]], on Christmas Day ([[December 25]]), the pope crowned Charlemagne ''Imperator Romanorum'' (emperor of the Romans) in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]]. Einhard says that Charlemagne was ignorant of the pope's intent and did not want any such coronation:
:''he at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that they'' [the imperial titles] ''were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope.''
[[Image:Sacre de Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|left|The Coronation of Charlemagne from the [[Grandes Chroniques de France]], illustrated by [[Jean Fouquet]].]]
Charlemagne thus became the renewer of the [[Western Roman Empire]], which had expired in the [[476]]. To avoid frictions with the [[Byzantine Emperor]], Charles later styled himself, not ''Imperator Romanorum'' (a title reserved for the Byzantine emperor), but rather ''Imperator Romanum gubernans Imperium'' (emperor ruling the [[Roman Empire]]).
The [[iconoclasm]] of the [[Leo III|Isaurian Dynasty]] and resulting religious conflicts with the Empress [[Byzantine Empress Irene|Irene]], sitting on the throne in [[Constantinople]] in 800, were probably the chief causes of the pope's desire to formally resurrect the Roman imperial title in the West. He also most certainly desired to increase the influence of the papacy, honour his saviour Charlemagne, and solve the constitutional issues then most troubling to European jurists in an era when Rome was not in the hands of an emperor. Thus, Charlemagne's assumption of the title of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]], and [[Justinian]] was not an usurpation in the eyes of the Franks or Italians. It was though in [[Greece]], where it was protested by Irene and the usurper [[Nicephorus I]] — neither of whom had any great effect in enforcing their protests.
The [[Byzantine]]s, however, still held several territories in Italy: [[Venice]] (what was left of the [[exarchate of Ravenna]]), [[Reggio]] ([[Calabria]], the toe), [[Brindisi]] ([[Apulia]], the heel), and [[Naples]] (the ''Ducatus Neapolitanus''). These regions remained outside of Frankish hands until 804, when the Venetians, torn by infighting, transferred their allegiance to the Iron Crown of Pippin, Charles' son. Nicephorus ravaged the coasts with a fleet and the only instance of war between Constantinople and Aachen, as it was, began. It lasted until [[810]], when the pro-Byzantine party in Venice gave their city back to the emperor in Byzantium and the two emperors of Europe made peace. Charlemagne received the [[Istria]]n peninsula and in 812 Emperor [[Michael I Rhangabes]] recognised his title.
===Danish attacks===
After the conquest of Nordalbingia, the Frankish frontier was brought into contact with [[Scandinavia]]. The [[Danes]], "a race almost unknown to his ancestors, but destined to be only too well known to his sons" as [[Charles Oman]] eloquently described them, inhabiting the [[Jutland]] peninsula had heard many stories from Widukind and his allies who had taken refuge with them about the dangers of the Franks and the fury which their Christian king could direct against pagan neighbours. In [[808]], the king of the Danes, [[Gudfred|Godfred]], built the vast [[Danevirke]] across the [[isthmus]] of [[Schleswig]]. This defence, last employed in the Danish-Prussian War of [[1864]], was at its beginning a 30 km long earthenwork rampart. The Danevirke protected Danish land and gave Godfred the opportunity to harass [[Frisia]] and [[Flanders]] with pirate raids. He also subdued the Frank-allied Wiltzes and fought the Abotrites. He invaded Frisia and joked of visiting Aachen, but was murdered before he could do any more, either by a Frankish assassin or by one of his own men. Godfred was succeded by his nephew [[Hemming]], and he concluded a peace with Charlemagne in late 811.
===Death===
[[Image:Gardiner814.jpg|right|thumb|"Europe at the death of Charles the Great, 814."&mdash;''A School Atlas of English History'' ed. by Samuel Rawson Gardiner, M.A. LL.D.]]
In [[813]], Charlemagne called Louis, his only surviving legitimate son, to his court. There he crowned him as his heir and sent him back to Aquitaine. He then spent the autumn hunting before returning to Aachen on [[1 November]]. In January, he fell ill. He took to his bed on the [[22 January]] and as Einhard tells it:
:''He died January twenty-eighth, the seventh day from the time that he took to his bed, at nine o'clock in the morning, after partaking of the [[holy communion]], in the seventy-second year of his age and the forty-seventh of his reign.''
When Charlemagne died in 814, he was buried in his own [[Aachen Cathedral|Cathedral at Aachen]]. He was succeeded by his only son then surviving, Louis the Pious. His empire lasted only another generation in its entirety; its division, according to custom, between Louis's own sons after their father's death laid the foundation for the modern states of [[France]] and [[Germany]].
==Administration==
As an administrator, Charlemagne stands out for his |
mation Technology]]
*[[Cash-In-Transit]]
*[[Critical Incident Technique]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Code of Hammurabi</title>
<id>7604</id>
<revision>
<id>42128587</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
<id>247981</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41977957 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CodexOfHammurabi.jpg|thumb|An inscription of the Code of Hammurabi]]
[[Image:Code-de-Hammurabi-2.jpg|thumb|]]
[[Image:Code-de-Hammurabi-1.jpg|thumb|]]
The '''Code of Hammurabi''' (also known as the '''Codex Hammurabi''' and '''Hammurabi's Code'''), created ca. [[1780 BC]] ([[short chronology]]), is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient [[Mesopotamia]]. Other collections of laws include the codex of [[Ur-Nammu]], king of [[Ur]] (ca. [[2050 BC]]), the Codex of [[Eshnunna]] (ca. [[1930 BC]]) and the codex of [[Lipit-Ishtar]] of [[Isin]] (ca. [[1870 BC]]).
It shows rules and punishments if those rules are broken. It focuses on [[theft]], [[agriculture]] (or shepherding), [[property damage]], [[Legal rights of women in history|women's rights]], [[marriage]] rights, [[children's rights]], [[slavery|slave rights]], [[murder]], [[death]], and [[injury]]. The punishment varies depending on the class of offenders and victims. For a comprehensive summary, see [[Babylonian law]].
The laws do not accept excuses or explanations for mistakes or fault: the Code was openly displayed for all to see, so no man could plead ignorance of the law as an excuse. Few people, however, could read in that era (literacy mainly being the domain of scribes).
[[Hammurabi]] ([[1728 BC]]-[[1686 BC]]) felt he had to write the code to please his [[God|gods]]. Unlike many earlier and contemporary kings, he did not consider himself related to any god, although he did call himself "the favorite of the gods." In the upper part of the [[stela]], Hammurabi is shown in front of the throne of the sun god [[Shamash]].
The laws (numbered from 1 to 282, but numbers 13, and 66-99 are missing) are inscribed in [[Akkadian language|Old Babylonian]] on an eight foot tall stela of black [[diorite]]. It was discovered in [[December]] [[1901]] in [[Susa]], [[Elam]], which is now [[Khuzestan]], [[Iran]], where it had been taken as plunder by the Elamites in the [[12th century BC]]. It is currently on display at the [[Louvre]] Museum in [[Paris]], [[France]].
The code is often pointed to as the first example of the legal concept that some [[law]]s are so basic as to be beyond the ability of even a [[monarch|king]] to change. By writing the laws on stone they were immutable. This concept lives on in most modern legal systems and has given rise to the term ''written in stone''.
The Code of Hammurabi was one of many sets of laws in the [[Ancient Near East]]. Most of these law codes, coming from similar cultures and racial groups in a relatively small geographical area, necessarily have passages that resemble each other. For example, the laws found in the later [[Hittite]] code of laws (ca. [[1300 BC]]) have some individual laws that bear a passing resemblance to those in the Code of Hammurabi, as well as other codices from the same geographic area. The earlier Ur-Nammu, of the written literature prolific [[Ur-III]] dynasty ([[21st century BC]]), also produced a code of laws, some of which bear resemblance to certain specific laws in the Code of Hammurabi. The later [[Mosaic Law]] (according to the modern [[documentary hypothesis]] ca. [[700 BC|700]-[[500 BC]] - under [[Hezekiah]]/[[Josiah]]; traditionally ca. [[1200 BC]] - under [[Moses]]) also has some laws that resemble the Code of Hammurabi, as well as other law codes of the region.
== References ==
* Falkenstein, A. (1956&ndash;57). ''Die neusumerischen Gerichtsurkunden I&ndash;III''. München.
* Kohler, J. &amp; Peiser, F.E. (1890). ''Aus dem Babylonischen Rechtsleben''. Leipzig.
* [[Julius Oppert]] and [[Joachim Menant]] (1877). ''Documents juridiques de l'Assyrie et de la Chaldee''. París.
* Thomas, D. Winton, ed. (1958). ''Documents from Old Testament Times''. London y New York.
== See also ==
* [[Babylonian law]]
* [[Cuneiform Law]]
* [[Quid pro quo]]
* [[Manu Smriti]]
* [[Retributive justice]]
* [[An eye for an eye]]
* [[Lex talionis]]
* [[Mesopotamian Marriage Law]]
==External links==
* [http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/hammurabi.htm English translation of the code]
* Hi-res images and French description from [http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp;jsessionid=D6hNGppDhQ6pznkBwwt5t2PFJHq8pmyWcbk9nXCCFpf27hcTCbCt!-1763290328?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226487&CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226487&FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500800&baseIndex=0&bmUID=1127899469406 the Louvre]
[[Category:Legal codes]]
[[Category:Legal history]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Manuscripts]]
[[Category:1680s BC]]
[[ar:شريعة حمورابي]]
[[cs:Chammurapiho zákoník]]
[[de:Codex Hammurapi]]
[[es:Código de Hammurabi]]
[[eo:Kodekso de Hamurabi]]
[[fr:Code d'Hammurabi]]
[[gl:Código de Hamurabi]]
[[it:Codice di Hammurabi]]
[[he:חוקי חמורבי]]
[[la:Codex Hammurabi]]
[[hu:Hammurapi törvényoszlopa]]
[[nl:Codex Hammurabi]]
[[ja:ハンムラビ法典]]
[[pl:Kodeks Hammurabiego]]
[[pt:Código de Hamurabi]]
[[sl:Hamurabijev zakonik]]
[[sr:Хамурабијев законик]]
[[fi:Hammurabin laki]]
[[ru:Свод законов Хаммурапи]]
[[sv:Hammurabis lagar]]
[[tr:Hammurabi Kanunları]]
[[zh:汉谟拉比法典]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuba Libre</title>
<id>7605</id>
<revision>
<id>38791591</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T18:08:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omhafeieio</username>
<id>95728</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of 'Cuba Libre' see [[Cuba libre (disambiguation)]]''
The '''Cuba Libre''' (KOO-buh-LEE-breh) is a [[cocktail]] made of
* 3 [[ounce]]s [[Cola]]
* [[Lime (Citrus aurantifolia)|lime]] wedge
* 1 ounce [[rum]]
Rub the rim of a highball glass with the lime. Fill with ice.
Add rum and fill with Cola. Drop in the lime squeeze.
{{Wikibookspar|Bartending|Cuba Libre}}
The Cuba Libre ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for ''Free [[Cuba]]'') was invented in [[Havana, Cuba]] around [[1900]].
Patriots aiding Cuba during the [[Spanish-American War]]&mdash;and, later, expatriates avoiding [[Prohibition]]&mdash;regularly mixed rum and Cola as a cocktail and a toast to this West Indies island.
According to [[Bacardi]]:
:"The world's most popular drink was born in a collision between the United States and [[Spain]]. It happened during the Spanish-American War at the turn of the century when [[Theodore Roosevelt|Teddy Roosevelt]], the [[Rough Riders]], and [[United States|Americans]] in large numbers arrived in Cuba. One afternoon, a group of off-duty soldiers from the U.S. Signal Corps were gathered in a bar in Old Havana. Fausto Rodriguez, a young messenger, later recalled that a captain came in and ordered Bacardi rum and Coca-Cola on ice with a wedge of lime. The captain drank the concoction with such pleasure that it sparked the interest of the soldiers around him. They had the bartender prepare a round of the captain's drink for them. The Bacardi rum and Coke was an instant hit. As it does to this day, the drink united the crowd in a spirit of fun and good fellowship. When they ordered another round, one soldier suggested that they toast ''¡Por Cuba Libre!'' in celebration of the newly freed Cuba. The captain raised his glass and sang out the battle cry that had inspired Cuba's victorious soldiers in the War of Independence." [http://www.bacardi.com]
According to a [[1965]] deposition by [[Fausto Rodriguez]], the Cuba Libre was first mixed at a Cuban bar in August of [[1900]] by a member of the U.S. Signal Corps, referred to as "[[John Doe]]."
Soon enough, as Charles H. Baker points out in his ''Gentlemen's Companion'' of [[1934]], the Cuba Libre "caught on everywhere throughout [[U.S. Southern States|the South]] [of the US, ed] ... filtered through the North and West," aided by the ample supply of its ingredients. In ''The American Language'', [[H.L. Mencken]] writes of an early variation of the drink: "The troglodytes of western [[South Carolina]] coined 'jump stiddy' for a mixture of Coca-Cola and [[denatured alcohol]] (usually drawn from automobile radiators); connoisseurs reputedly preferred the taste of what had been aged in [[Model-T|Model-T Fords]]."
The Cuba Libre gained further popularity in the U.S. after [[the Andrews Sisters]] recorded a song (in 1945) named after the drink's ingredients, "[[Rum and Coca-Cola]]."
Cola and rum were both cheap at the time and this also contributed to the widespread popularity of the concoction.
This drink was once viewed as exotic, with its dark syrup made, at that time, from [[cola nuts]] and [[coca]].
== Variations ==
The "Cuba Pintada" (stained cuba), and "Cuba Campechana" are also popular, specially among young people. The first one is rum with club soda and just a little bit of cola product(just enough that it stains the glass), the Campechana contains half club soda and half coke.
== See also ==
* [[List of cocktails]]
[[Category:Cocktails with rum]]
[[cs:Cuba Libre]]
[[de:Cuba Libre]]
[[es:Cubalibre]]
[[fr:Cuba libre]]
[[nl:Baco (drank)]]
[[ja:キューバ・リバー]]
[[sl:Cuba Libre]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Collagen helix</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-14T17:10:36Z</timestamp>
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<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>43079 |
t of the cue).
==Position play==
In both carom and pocket billiards, an immensely important part of the game on each shot is the exercise of control over the final resting position of the cue ball.
In carom games an advanced player's aim on most shots is to leave the cue ball and the object balls in position such that the next shot is of a less difficult variety to make the requisite carom, and so that the next shot is in position to be manipulated in turn for yet another shot; ''ad infinitum''.
Similarly, in many pocket billiard games, an advanced player's aim is often to manipulate the cue ball so that it is in position to pocket a chosen next ball and so that that next shot can also be manipulated for the next shot; ''ad infinitum''. Whereas in the carom games, manipulation of the object balls position is crucial as well, in pool this is normally not as large a factor, as, on a successful shot, the ball has left the table's playing surface. Many shots in the game of one-pocket, however, have this same added object ball control factor.
If a player is not attempting to score or pocket, depending on the game, then the goal is usually to exercise control over the cue ball to leave some type of [[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#safety|safety]] to make it more difficult for the opponent to score or pocket.
In order to control the cue ball on a shot, a player must master a wide variety of techniques, and have a well-founded conceptual grasp of the mechanics involved.
As stated by [[George Fels]], 'pool's poet laureate': "The mere pocketing of a ball isn't that hard; in fact, it's relatively simple. What drives many, many players to distraction is the unpredictability of the cueball's path of travel...the game of billiards requires you to drive a ball someplace; pool, in any form, mostly asks you to stop a ball someplace. In either case, you'll fare much better when you understand the how and why of a ball's getting from one place to another." {{ref|Harris}}
==Shooting techniques/mechanics==
[[Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 076.jpg|thumb|right|<center>[[Vincent Van Gogh|Vincent Van Gogh's]]''<br> ''The Night Café'']]
===English===
English (called "side" in the United Kingdom and sometimes simply called "left" or "right") normally refers to sidespin put on a cue ball by hitting it to the left or right of center. Generally, english is used to change the angle of deflection of the cue ball after it contacts a rail. English also affects the direction an object ball takes on impact (the "throw" effect), as well as the path of travel of the cue ball after impact with a cue ("deflection" or "squirt").
Sometimes english is conflated to refer as well to spin imparted on the vertical axis of the cue ball. However, an above center hit is more precisely referred to as "follow," and a below center hit, as "draw." Any time the cue ball is not struck directly in the center, some spin will be imparted, whether left or right english, follow or draw. Unintentional sidespin is a common source of missed shots. Spin is not always placed on the cue ball by the shooter; spin is naturally imparted to the cue ball from contact with pool cloth on the bed of the table and on the table's rails.
===Follow===
Follow, sometimes called top spin or simply "top", is spin in the direction of travel of the cue ball, such that it is spinning faster than it would from its natural roll. If the cue ball has top spin on it, the cue ball, after making contact dead-on with the object ball, rather than stopping abruptly, will resume rolling forward and ''follow'' the struck ball.
Top spin is imparted to a ball by hitting it above the midpoint of its vertical plane as it faces the shooter. Top spin is spin in the direction a ball naturally "wants" to take in reaction to friction from contact with the pool cloth. Because of this, a ball sliding on the cloth will rapidly pick up follow. Likewise, a ball struck so that it is spinning backwards (with ''draw'' &mdash; see below) immediately starts losing that spin, and if it travels far enough, will reach a sliding point (no spin), soon graduating to natural follow.
Follow applied to a non-dead-on shot will cause the angle of departure of the cue ball from the object ball to widen shortly after impact; the thicker the hit on the object ball, the more this effect will be noticeable (on very thin cut shots it practically does not exist). Similarly, top spin will cause a widening of the cue ball's rebound angle after impact with a rail cushion.
Follow also increases the rate of cue ball travel, both before and after object-ball impact, and actually imparts a small amount of draw to the object ball.
===Draw===
Draw, sometimes called back spin or "bottom", is backward spin applied to the cue ball by hitting it below the midpoint of its vertical plane as it faces the shooter. If the cue ball is hit with draw, and if that spin remains on the cue ball at the moment of impact with an object ball, the cue ball will reverse direction on a dead-on or center-to-center hit, and "draw" backwards. Draw is referred to in the United Kingdom as "screw".
Draw applied to a non-dead-on shot will cause the angle of departure of the cue ball from the object ball to narrow shortly after impact. Similarly, it will cause a narrowing of the cue ball's rebound angle after impact with a rail cushion.
Draw also slows the rate of cue ball travel, both before and after object-ball impact, and actually imparts a small amount of follow to the object ball.
===Slide===
Slide refers to a cue ball that is sliding across the cloth with no follow or draw spin. To illustrate this principle, if a ball was marked with a single red dot on it which faced the ceiling at the time the cue ball was struck, an observer would see the cue ball traveling with that red dot remaining fixed at the top of the ball, and observe the bottom of the ball "sliding" over the cloth.
In order to initially achieve a sliding cue ball, a middle ball hit is employed. The more speed with which the cue ball is hit in this manner, the longer the cue ball will slide before picking up natural forward roll from cloth friction. However, because of this tendency of the cue ball to acquire follow from cloth friction, in order to deliver a sliding cueball to an object ball at distance, the cue ball must be be precisely hit with the necessary degree of draw so that by the time it ''reaches'' that object ball, the draw has dissipated, and the cue ball is sliding at the moment of impact.
===The stop and stun shots===
When a ''sliding'' cue ball contacts an object ball dead-on (a center-to-center hit), the cue ball and object ball are of the same mass, and neither follow nor draw is on the cue ball at the moment of impact, the cue ball will transfer all of its momentum to the object ball and come to a complete stop. If the sliding cue ball in the preceding scenario has sidespin on it when it contacts an object ball dead on, it will come to a complete stop but spin in place at that position until the sidespin dissipates. If the cue ball and object ball contact is not dead-on but still very full, the result will often be a "stun" shot, where the cue ball departs the object ball in the expected direction but travels only a short distance. The stun effect can often be enhanced with a minimal amount of draw, to reduce cue ball speed before impact with the object ball.
===The tangent line===
If a cue ball is ''sliding'' at the time it contacts an object ball at an angle (i.e. a cut shot &mdash; ''not'' a center-to-center impact), the cue ball will travel in a line tangential to the point of impact between both balls--the "tangent line." Because Billiard balls are not [[inelastic]], the resulting tangent line is slightly less than 90° from perpendicular to a line formed by the contact point between the balls.
If the cue ball hits an object ball at an angle and has follow on it, the cue ball will first travel on the tangent line and then parabolically arc forward from the tangent line in the direction of cue ball travel. By the same token, when such impact is made and the cue ball has draw on it, the cue ball will first travel on the tangent line and then [[parabola|parabolically]] arc backward from the tangent line in the opposite direction of cue ball travel. Whether follow or draw is on the cue ball, the ''faster'' the cue ball is traveling at the moment of impact, the ''farther'' it will travel on the tangent line before arcing forward or backward.
===Throw===
Throw refers to an object ball's motion away from the impact line due to relative sideways sliding motion between the cue ball and object ball caused by sidespin or a cut angle.
When a ball with english (sidespin) on it hits an object ball with a degree of fullness, the object ball will be "thrown" in the opposite direction of the side of the cue ball the english was applied. Thus, a cue ball with left hand english on it will "throw" a hit object ball to the right.
[[Image:Gears animation.gif|frame|right|Intermeshing gears in motion]]
This effect is sometimes overarchingly referred to as "the gear system;" so-called because the interaction of the cogwork gears of a clock &mdash; each circular gear is interlocked with an abutting circular gear and each spins in the opposite direction of its neighbor in a series. English on the cue ball can cause a very similar effect. If the cue ball with left hand english in the preceding scenario contacts an object ball relatively full and that object ball is frozen to another, the first object ball is thrown to the right and the second to the left, exactly as the name implies.
Throw is also imparted to a ball by collision from a cue ball w |
pots, there is "constructive interference", where two "peaks" in the light wave coincide as they reach the screen. In the darker spots, "destructive interference" occurs where a peak and a trough occur together.
==Replicating Young's experiment==
This experiment can easily be demonstrated in just the way that Young demonstrated it to the [[Royal Society of London]]. An assistant outside used mirrors to direct sunlight at a pinhole opening. The beam from the opening was then bisected by "a slip of card". To make things easier, a modern experimenter can replace the sunlight and mirrors with a laser pointer covered, except for a pinhole, by black paper. Splitting the beam with a small strip of notecard will produce a visible interference pattern when the beam is projected across the room. [http://www.cavendishscience.org/phys/tyoung/tyoung.htm]
==Quantum version of experiment==
By the [[1920s]], various other experiments (such as the [[photoelectric effect]]) had demonstrated that light interacts with matter only in discrete, "quantum"-sized packets called [[photons]].
If sunlight is replaced with a light source that is capable of producing just one photon at a time, and the screen is sensitive enough to detect a single photon, Young's experiment can, in theory, be performed one photon at a time -- with identical results.
If either slit is covered, the individual photons hitting the screen, over time, create a pattern with a single peak. But if both slits are left open, the pattern of photons hitting the screen, over time, again becomes a series of light and dark fringes. This result seems to both confirm and contradict the wave theory. On the one hand, the interference pattern confirms that light still behaves much like a wave, even though we send it one particle at a time. On the other hand, each time a photon with a certain energy is emitted, the screen detects a photon with the same energy. Under the [[Copenhagen Interpretation]] of quantum theory, an individual photon is seen as passing through both slits at once, and interfering with itself, producing the interference pattern.
A remarkable refinement of the double-slit experiment consists of putting a detector at each of the two slits, to determine which slit the photon passes through on its way to the screen (If the photon or electron passes through only one slit - which it must do, as, by definition, a photon or an electron is a quanta, or "packet" of energy which cannot be subdivided - then logically it can not interfere with itself and produce an interference pattern). When the experiment is arranged in this way, the fringes disappear.
The Copenhagen interpretation posits the existence of probability waves which describe the likelihood of finding the particle at a given location. Until the particle is detected at any location along this probability wave, it effectively exists ''at every point''. Thus, when the particle could be passing through either of the two slits, it will actually pass through both, and so an interference pattern results. But if the particle is detected at one of the two slits, then it can no longer be passing through both - it must exist at one or the other, and so no interference pattern appears.
This is similar to the [[path integral formulation]] of quantum mechanics provided by [[Richard Feynman]] (although Feynman stresses that this is merely a mathematical description, not an attempt to describe some "real" process that we cannot see), in which a particle such as a photon takes ''every possible path'' through space-time to get from point A to point B. In the double-slit experiment, point A might be the emitter, and point B the screen upon which the interference pattern appears, and a particle takes every possible path - through both slits at once - to get from A to B. When a detector is placed at one of the slits, the situation changes, and we now have a different point B at the detector, and a new path between the detector and the screen - upon which the interference pattern no longer appears).
==Conditions for interference==
The two slits must be close to each other (about 1000 times the [[wavelength]] of the source), otherwise the spacing of the interference fringes would be too narrow to discern the interference pattern.
A necessary condition for obtaining an interference pattern in a double-slit experiment concerns the difference in pathlength between two paths that light can take to reach a zone of constructive interference on the viewing screen. This difference must be the wavelength of the light that is used, or a multiple of this wavelength. If a beam of sunlight is let in, and that beam is allowed to fall immediately on the double slit, then the fact that the Sun is not a point source degrades the interference pattern. The light from a source that is not a point source behaves like the light of many point sources side by side. Each can create an interference pattern, but the interference patterns of each of the many-side-by-side sources does not coincide on the screen, so they average each other out, and no interference pattern is seen.
The presence of the first slit is necessary to ensure that the light reaching the double slit is light from a single point source. The path length from the single slit to the double slit is equally important for obtaining the interference pattern as the path from the double slit to the screen.
[[Newton's rings]] show that light does not have to be [[coherence (physics)|coherent]] in order to produce an interference pattern. Newton's rings can be readily obtained with plain sunlight.{{fn|1}} More rings are discernable if for example light from a Sodium lamp is used, since Sodium lamp light is only a narrow band of the spectrum. Light from a Sodium lamp is incoherent. Other examples of interference patterns from incoherent light are the colours of soap bubbles and of oil films on water.
The width of the slits is usually slightly smaller than the wavelength (&lambda;) of the light, allowing the slits to be treated as point-sources of spherical waves, and reducing the effects of single slit [[diffraction]] on the results.
In general, interference patterns are clearer when monochromatic or near-monochromatic light is used. Laserlight is as monochromatic as light can be made, therefore laserlight is used to obtain an interference pattern.
If the two slits are illuminated by coherent waves, but with [[polarization]]s perpendicular with respect to each other, the interference pattern disappears.
==Results observed==
The bright bands observed on the screen happen when the light has interfered constructively -- where a crest of a wave meets a crest. The dark regions show destructive interference -- a crest meets a trough.
::<math>\frac{\lambda}{s} = \frac{x}{D} \,</math>
:where
::''&lambda;'' is the [[wavelength]] of the light
::''s'' is the separation of the slits
::''x'' is the distance between the bands of light (also called fringe distance)
::''D'' is the distance from the slits to the screen
This is only an approximation and depends on certain conditions.
It is possible to work out the wavelength of light using this equation and the above apparatus. If ''s'' and ''D'' are known and ''x'' is observed, then ''&lambda;'' can be easily calculated.
A detailed treatment of the mathematics of double-slit interference in the context of [[quantum mechanics]] is given in the article on [[Englert-Greenberger duality]].
==Shape of interference fringes==
The theoretical shapes of the interference fringes observed in Young's double slit experiment are straight lines which is easily proved.
In case two pinholes are used instead of slits, as in the original Young's experiment, hyperbolic fringes are observed. This is because the difference in paths travelled by the light from the two sources is a constant for a fringe which is the property of a hyperbola.
If the two sources are placed on a line perpendicular to the screen, the shape of the interference fringes is circular as the individual paths travelled by light from the two sources are always equal for a given fringe. This can be done in simpler way by placing a mirror parallel to a screen at a distance and a source of light just above the mirror. (Note the extra phase difference of '''π''' due to reflection at the interface of a denser medium)
== See also ==
* [[Afshar experiment]]
* [[Elitzur-Vaidman bomb-testing problem]]
* [[Quantum eraser experiment]]
==References==
*{{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics | edition = 5th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708108}}
*{{cite book | last = Gribbin | first = John | title=Q is for Quantum: Particle Physics from A to Z | publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicholson | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0753806851}}
*{{cite book | last = Feynman | first = Richard P. | title=QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1988 | id=ISBN 0691024170}}
==External links==
* [http://schools.matter.org.uk/Content/Interference/formula.html Simple Derivation of Interference Conditions]
* [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/15/9/1 The Double Slit Experiment]
* [http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/9/3/1/1?rss=2.0 Double-Slit in Time]
* [[Keith Mayes]] [http://www.thekeyboard.org.uk/Quantum%20mechanics.htm explains the Double Slit Experiment in plain English]
* {{fnb|1}} Newton's rings. [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/NewtonsRings.html Newton's Rings from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics]
* [http://bednorzmuller87.phys.cmu.edu/demonstrations/optics/interference/demo326.html Carnegie Mellon department of physics, photo images of Newton's rings]
* [http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-2slit.html Java demonstration of double slit experimen |
Dirk]]
[[Category:American television actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:The A-Team actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:People from Montana|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:Living people|Benedict, Dirk]]
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[[nl:Dirk Benedict]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Discrete Element Method</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrete element method]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Doppler effect</title>
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<username>Bogsat</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doppler sound.jpg|frame|Sound waves emanating from an ambulance moving to the right. The perceived frequency is higher on the right, and lower on the left.]]
The '''Doppler effect''', named after [[Christian Andreas Doppler]], is the apparent change in [[frequency]] or [[wavelength]] of a [[wave]] that is perceived by an observer moving relative to the source of the waves. For waves, such as [[sound]] waves, that propagate in a wave medium, the velocity of the observer and the source are reckoned relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler effect may therefore result from either motion of the source or motion of the observer. Each of these effects is analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or gravity in [[special relativity]] only the relative difference in velocity between the observer and the source needs to be considered.
Doppler first proposed the effect in [[1842]] in the monograph ''Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einige andere Gestirne des Himmels'' (''On the colored light of the binary star and other stars''). The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] scientist [[C.H.D. Buys Ballot|Christoph Hendrik Diederik Buys Ballot]] in [[1845]]. He confirmed that the sound's pitch was higher as the sound source approached him, and lower as the sound source receded from him. [[Hippolyte Fizeau]] discovered independently the same phenomenon on [[electromagnetic wave]]s in [[1848]] (in [[France]], the effect is sometimes called "effet Doppler-Fizeau").
It is important to realize that the frequency of the sounds that the source ''emits'' does not actually change. To understand what happens, consider the following analogy. Someone throws one ball every second in your direction. Assume that balls travel with constant velocity. If the thrower is stationary, you will receive one ball every second. However, if he is moving towards you, you will receive balls more frequently than that because there will be less spacing between the balls. The converse is true if the person is moving away from you. So it is actually the ''wavelength'' which is affected; as a consequence, the perceived frequency is also affected.
If the moving source is emitting waves through a medium with an actual frequency ''f''<sub>0</sub>, then an observer stationary relative to the medium detects waves with a frequency ''f'' given by:
:<math>f = f_0 \left ( \frac {v}{v + v_{s,r}} \right )</math>
where ''v'' is the speed of the waves in the medium and ''v''<sub>s, r</sub> is the speed of the source with respect to the medium (negative if moving towards the observer, positive if moving away), radial to the observer.
A similar analysis for a moving observer and a stationary source yields the observed frequency (the observer's velocity being represented as ''v''<sub>o</sub>):
:<math>f = f_0 \left (1 + \frac {v_0}{v} \right )</math>
These can be generalized into a single vector equation. Take the coordinate system to be at rest with respect to the medium, whose speed of sound is <math>c</math>. There is a source <math>s</math> moving with velocity <math>\mathbf{v}_s</math> and emitting waves with a frequency <math>f_s</math>. There is a detector <math>r</math> moving with velocity <math>\mathbf{v}_r</math>, and the unit vector from <math>s</math> to <math>r</math> is <math>\mathbf{n}</math> (i.e. <math>\mathbf{r}_r - \mathbf{r}_s = \mathbf{n} |\mathbf{r}_r - \mathbf{r}_s|</math>). Then the frequency <math>f_r</math> at the detector is found from
:<math>\frac{f_r}{f_s} = \frac {1 - \mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{v}_r / c}{1 - \mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{v}_s / c}</math>
If <math>v_s \ll c</math>, then the change in frequency depends mostly on the relative velocity of the source and detector:
:<math>\frac{f_r}{f_s} \approx 1 - \mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{v}_r - \mathbf{v}_s) / c</math>
The first attempt to extend Doppler's analysis to [[light]] waves was soon made by [[Armand-Hippolyte Fizeau|Fizeau]]. In fact, light waves do not require a medium to propagate and the correct understanding of the Doppler effect for light requires the use of the [[Special relativity|Special Theory of Relativity]]. See [[relativistic Doppler effect]].
==Applications==
[[Image:Doppler-effect-two-police-cars-diagram.png|thumb|350px|A stationary microphone records moving police sirens at different pitches depending on their relative direction.]]
===Everyday===
The [[siren (noisemaker)|siren]] on a passing [[emergency vehicle]] will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer [[John Dobson (astronomer)|John Dobson]] explained the effect thus:
:"The reason the siren slides is because it doesn't hit you."
In other words, if the siren approached you directly, the pitch would remain constant (as ''v''<sub>s, r</sub> is only the radial component) until the vehicle hit you, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch. The difference between the higher pitch and rest pitch would be the same as the lower pitch and rest pitch. Because the vehicle passes by you, the radial velocity does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle between your line of sight and the siren's velocity:
:<math>v_{s, r}=v_s\cdot \cos{\theta}</math>
where ''v''<sub>s</sub> is the velocity of the object (source of waves) with respect to the medium, and <math>\theta</math> is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer.
===Astronomy===
[[Image:Redshift.png|thumb|200px|[[Redshift]] of [[spectral line]]s in the [[optical spectrum]] of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to that of the Sun (left).]]
The Doppler effect for [[electromagnetic waves]] such as light, is of great use in [[astronomy]], and results in either a so-called [[redshift]] or [[blueshift]]. It has been used to measure the speed at which [[star|stars]] and [[galaxy|galaxies]] are approaching to, or receding from us, i.e. the '''[[velocity#Polar coordinates|radial velocity]]'''. This is used to detect that an apparently single star is, in fact, a close [[Binary star|binary]] and even to measure the speed of rotation of stars and galaxies.
The use of the Doppler effect for light in [[astronomy]] depends on the fact that the [[electromagnetic spectroscopy|spectra]] of stars are not continuous. They show [[spectral line|absorption lines]] at well defined frequencies that are correlated with the energies required to excite [[electron]]s in various [[Chemical element|elements]] from one level to another.
The Doppler effect is recognizable in the fact that the absorption lines are not always at the frequencies that are obtained from the spectrum of a stationary light source. Since blue light has a higher frequency than red light, the spectral lines from an approaching astronomical light source show a blueshift and those of receding sources show a redshift.
Among the [[List of nearest stars|nearby stars]], the largest radial velocities with respect to the [[Sun]] are +308 km/s ([[BD-15°4041]], also known as LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and -260 km/s ([[Woolley 9722]], also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years away). Positive radial velocity means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching.
The [[redshift]] effect that shows remote galaxies seem to be moving away from us is ''not'' caused by the Doppler effect, although many laymen believe it is. This effect is caused by the expansion of the [[universe]], which is subtly different, and can be used to estimate the age of the universe (see [[redshift]] and [[Hubbles law|Hubble's Law]]).
===Temperature measurement ===
Another use of the Doppler effect which is found mostly in astronomy, is the estimation of the temperature of a gas which is emitting a [[spectral line]]. Due to the thermal motion of the gas, each emitter can be slightly red or blue shifted, and the net effect is a broadening of the line. This line shape is called a [[Doppler profile]] and the width of the line is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the gas, allowing the Doppler-broadened line to be used to measure the temperature of the emitting gas.
===Radar===
''Main article: [[Doppler radar]]''
The Doppler effect is also used in some forms of [[radar]] to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target - a car, for example, as radar is often used by [[police]] to detect speeding motorists - as it recede |
edicine===
Ever since AIDS entered the public consciousness, various forms of [[alternative medicine]] have been used to try to treat symptoms or to try to affect the course of the disease itself. In the first decade of the epidemic when no useful conventional treatment was available, a large number of people with AIDS experimented with [[alternative medicine|alternative therapies]]. The definition of "alternative therapies" in AIDS has changed since that time. During that time, the phrase often referred to community-driven treatments, not being tested by government or pharmaceutical company research, that some hoped would directly suppress the virus or stimulate immunity against it. These kinds of approaches have become less common over time as AIDS drugs have become more effective.
The phrase then and now also refers to other approaches that people hoped would improve their symptoms or their quality of life--for instance, massage, herbal and flower remedies and [[acupuncture]]; when used with conventional treatment, many now refer to these as "complementary" approaches. None of these treatments have been proven in controlled trials to have any effect in treating HIV or AIDS directly. However, some may improve feelings of well-being in people who believe in their value. Additionally, people with AIDS, like people with other illnesses such as [[cancer]], also sometimes use [[marijuana]] to treat pain, combat nausea and stimulate appetite.
==Epidemiology==
{{main|AIDS pandemic}}
[[Image:Africa HIV-AIDS 300px.png|300px|thumb|right|Map of Africa coloured according to the percentage of the Adult (ages 15-49) population with HIV/AIDS.]]
[[UNAIDS]] and the WHO estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized in 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. Despite recent, improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world, the AIDS epidemic claimed an estimated 3.1 million (between 2.8 and 3.6 million) lives in 2005 of which more than half a million (570,000) were children <ref name=UNAIDS>{{
cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005
| url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf
| title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
Globally, between 36.7 and 45.3 million people are currently living with HIV <ref name=UNAIDS>{{
cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005
| url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf
| title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. In 2005, between 4.3 and 6.6 million people were newly infected and between 2.8 and 3.6 million people with AIDS died, an increase from 2004 and the highest number since 1981.
[[AIDS pandemic#Sub-Saharan Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] remains by far the worst-affected region, with an estimated 23.8 to 28.9 million people currently living with HIV. More than 60% of all people living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, as are more than three quarters (76%) of all women living with HIV <ref name=UNAIDS>{{
cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005
| url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf
| title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. [[AIDS pandemic#South and South-East Asia|South &amp; South East Asia]] are second most affected with 15%. AIDS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children.
The latest evaluation report of the World Bank's Operations Evaluation Department assesses the development effectiveness of the World Bank's country-level HIV/AIDS assistance defined as policy dialogue, analytic work, and lending with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the AIDS epidemic <ref name=Worldbank>{{
cite web
| author=[[World Bank]] | publisher= | year=2005
| url=http://www.worldbank.org/oed/aids/main_report.html
| title=Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. This is the first comprehensive evaluation of the World Bank's HIV/AIDS support to countries, from the beginning of the epidemic through mid-2004. Because the Bank's assistance is for implementation of government programs by government, it provides important insights on how national AIDS programs can be made more effective.
The development of [[HAART]] as effective therapy for HIV infection and AIDS has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where it is widely available. This has created the misperception that the disease has gone away. In fact, as the life expectancy of persons with AIDS has increased in countries where HAART is widely used, the number of persons living with AIDS has increased substantially. In the United States, for example, the number of persons with AIDS increased from about 35,000 in 1988 to over 220,000 in 1996 <ref name=CDC1996>{{
cite journal |
author=[[CDC]] |
title=U.S. HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 1996 |
journal=HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report | year=1996 | pages=1-40 | volume=8 | issue=2 | url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hivsur82.pdf
}}</ref>.
==Origin of HIV/AIDS==
{{main|AIDS origin}}
The official date for the beginning of the AIDS epidemic is marked as [[June 18]], [[1981]], when the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Center for Disease Control]] and Prevention reported a cluster of [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia|''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia]] (now classified as Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia) in five gay men in [[Los Angeles]] <ref name=MMWR2>{{
cite web
| author=[[CDC]] | publisher=CDC | year=1981
| url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm
| title=Pneumocystis Pneumonia --- Los Angeles
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. Originally dubbed GRID, or Gay-Related [[Immunodeficiency|Immune Deficiency]], health authorities soon realized that nearly half of the people identified with the syndrome were not gay. In 1982, the CDC introduced the term AIDS to describe the newly recognized syndrome.
Three of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows:
#A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo <ref name=Zhu>{{
cite journal
| author=Zhu, T., Korber, B. T., Nahmias, A. J., Hooper, E., Sharp, P. M. and Ho, D. D. | title=An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the Epidemic
| journal=Nature | year=1998 | pages=594-597 | volume=391 | issue=6667
| id={{PMID|9468138}}
}}</ref>.
#HIV found in tissue samples from an American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969.
#HIV found in tissue samples from a Norwegian sailor who died around 1976.
Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more virulent and more easily transmitted. HIV-1 is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world, while HIV-2 is less easily transmitted and is largely confined to [[West Africa]] <ref name=Reeves>{{
cite journal
| author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W
| title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2
| journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2002 | pages=1253-1265 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6
| id={{PMID|12029140}}
}}</ref>. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are of primate origin. The origin of HIV-1 is the [[Common Chimpanzee|Central Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''). The origin of HIV-2 has been established to be the [[Sooty Mangabey]] (''Cercocebus atys''), an Old World monkey of Guinea Bissau, Gabon, and Cameroon.
One currently controversial possibility for the origin of HIV/AIDS was discussed in a [[1992]] Rolling Stone magazine article by freelance journalist Tom Curtis. He put forward the theory that AIDS was inadvertantly caused in the late 1950's in the [[Belgian Congo]] by [[Hilary Koprowski]]'s research into a [[polio]] [[vaccine]] <ref name=Curtis>{{
cite journal |
author=Curtis, T. |
title=The origin of AIDS|
journal=Rolling Stone | year=1992 | pages=54-59, 61, 106, 108 | volume= | issue=626 | url=http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/AIDS/Curtis92.html
}}</ref>. Although subsequently retracted due to [[libel]] issues surrounding its claims, the Rolling Stone article motivated another freelance journalist, [[Edward Hooper]], to probe more deeply into this subject. Hooper's research resulted in his publishing a 1999 book, [[The River]], in which he alleged that an experimental oral [[polio]] [[vaccine]] prepared using [[chimpanzee]] kidney tissue was the route through which [[SIV]] crossed into humans to become HIV, thus starting the
human AIDS pandemic<ref name=Hooper>{{
cite book
| author = Hooper, E.
| year = 1999
| title = The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS
| edition = 1st
| pages = 1-1070
| publisher = Little Brown & Co
| location = Boston, MA
| id = ISBN 0316372617
}}</ref>.
{{details|OPV AIDS hypothesis}}
==Alternative theories==
{{main|AIDS reappraisal}}
A minority of scientists and activists question the connection between HIV and AIDS <ref name=Duesberg>{{
cite journal
| author=Duesberg, P. H.
| title=HIV is not the cause of AIDS
| journal=Science | year=1988 | pages=514, 517 | volume=241 | issue=4865
| id={{PMID |3399880}}
}}</ref>, or the existence of HIV <ref name=Papadopulos>{{
cite journal
| author=Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V. F., Papadimitriou, J., Page, B., Causer, D., Alfonso, H., Mhlongo, S., Miller, T., Maniotis, A. and Fiala, C.
| title=A critique of the Montagnier evidence for the HIV/AIDS hypothesis
| journal=Med Hypotheses | year=2004 | pages=597-601 | volume=63 | issue=4
| |
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<title>Christianity</title>
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<comment>rv spam link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
{{portal}}
'''Christianity''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[religion]] centered on the life, teachings, and actions of [[Jesus]], the [[Christ]], as recounted in the [[New Testament]].
With an estimated 2.1 billion adherents{{fn|1}}, Christianity is the world's largest [[major world religions|religion]]. Its origins are intertwined with [[Judaism]], with which it shares much sacred text and early history; specifically, it shares the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], known in the Christian context as the [[Old Testament]] (''see [[Judeo-Christian]]'').{{fn|2}} Christianity is considered an [[Abrahamic religion]], along with [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]].
In the Christian scriptures, the name "[[Christian]]" and so "Christianity" is first attested in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 11:26: "For a whole year they met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch Jesus' [[disciple]]s were first called '''Christians'''" (Gr. χριστιανους, from ''[[Christ]]'' Gr. Χριστός, which means "the anointed").
==Denominations==
Within Christianity, numerous distinct groups have developed, with diverse beliefs that vary widely by culture and place. Since the [[Reformation]], Christianity is usually represented as being divided into three main branches:
*[[Catholicism]]: The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the largest single body &mdash; which includes several [[Eastern Catholic]] communities &mdash; as well as certain smaller communities (e.g., the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]]), with more than 1 billion baptized members.
*[[Eastern Christianity]]: [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es, with a combined membership of more than 240 million baptized members.
*[[Protestantism]]: Numerous denominations and groups such as [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Charismatic]], [[Presbyterian]]s, [[Baptist]]s, [[Methodist]]s, [[Anabaptist]]s, and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]]. The oldest of these groups separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th-century [[Protestant Reformation]]. The later groups typically formed as separations from the older ones. Some Protestants identify themselves simply as ''Christian,'' or ''born-again Christian''. Others, particularly among Anglicans and in [[Neo-Lutheranism]], identify themselves as being "''both'' Catholic ''and'' Protestant". Worldwide total is just under 500 million.
Other denominations and churches which self-identify as Christian but which distance themselves from the above classifications together claim around 275 million members. These include [[:Category:Religion in Africa|African indigenous churches]] with up to 110 million members (estimates vary widely), [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (also called [[Mormons]]) with more than 12 million members{{fn|3}}, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] with approximately 6.6 million members{{fn|4}}, and other groups{{fn|5}}. The early leaders of most of these groups were originally Protestant adherents.
These broad divisions do not themselves encompass unanimity. On the contrary, some branches contain vast internal disagreements, while in other cases the divisions overlook strong sympathies between and among the groups. Nevertheless, this tends to be the standard overview of distinctions, especially as viewed in the [[Western world]].
[[Image:Christian-lineage.png|605px|thumb|center||A chart showing the development of major church branches from their roots.]]
==Beliefs==
[[Image:Cristo Velázquez lou2.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Jesus' [[crucifixion]] as portrayed by [[Diego Velázquez]]. Jesus' life, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, is the basis of Christianity.]]
Enormous diversity of belief exists among Christians. Nevertheless, certain doctrines have come to characterize the mainstream of Christian theology.
===Triune God===
{{main|Trinity}}
This is the belief that God is a single eternal being who exists as three distinct, eternal, and indivisible persons: [[God the Father|Father]], Son ([[Jesus]]), and [[Holy Spirit]] (or ''[[Holy Ghost]]'').
=== Messiah ===
Most Christians see Jesus Christ as the [[Messiah]] who was promised in the [[Old Testament]] [[Bible prophecy]].
===Jesus Christ as God===
This is the belief that [[Jesus]] is both fully God (divine) and fully human: two natures in one person, as described in the [[Chalcedonian Creed]]. As a human, Jesus is believed to have possessed the qualities of mortality; He suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man. Significantly, He had the ability to die. Being divine, He possessed the ability to take up His own life again.
===Crucifixion and Resurrection===
This is the belief that [[Jesus]] [[crucifixion|died on the Cross]], [[resurrection|rose from the dead]], and [[ascension|ascended]] into Heaven after appearing to his disciples, most notably to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]].
===Jesus Christ as Salvation===
This is the belief that [[salvation]] from "[[sin]] and [[death]]" is available through the person and work of Jesus. Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians have arrived at several explanations as to exactly how this salvation occurs. (See [[soteriology]].)
Most Christians interpret [[salvation]] to mean being able to enter heaven (and escape hell) after death, though some theologians have lamented this tendency. The question of "who is saved" has long been considered a dark mystery by many theologians, though most Protestants consider it a relatively simple issue of whether or not one has accepted Jesus as Lord and Savior.
===Second Coming===
{{main|Second Coming}}
This is the belief in the "General Resurrection", in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the [[end of time]], to be [[Last Judgement|judged]] by Christ when He returns.
===The Afterlife===
Christian views of the [[afterlife]] generally involve [[heaven]] and (somewhat less frequently) [[hell]], with Catholicism adding an intermediate realm of [[purgatory]]. Except for purgatory (whose denizens will ultimately enter heaven, after "purification"), these realms are usually assumed to be eternal. There is, however, some debate on this point, for example among the Orthodox.
It is generally unclear how the afterlife fits together with the doctrine of the General Resurrection &mdash;whether eternal life begins immediately after death, or at the end of time; and whether this afterlife will involve the resurrection of one's physical body (perhaps in a glorified spiritual form). Most Christians hold that one's consciousness, the [[soul]], survives the death of the physical body, although the Jehovah's Witnesses, among others, reject this, saying that those who practiced good things will be resurrected to life and those who practiced vile things to a resurrection of judgment.
==Differences in beliefs==
===Nicene Creed===
{{main|Nicene Creed}}
One statement describing the beliefs of a majority of Christians is the [[Nicene Creed]], ratified as the universal creed of Eastern and Western Christendom by the [[Council of Ephesus]] in [[431]]. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians disagree about the [[Filioque clause|''Filioque'' clause]], which the Western Churches included later. Some Protestants reject the concept of formal creeds. The overwhelming majority of Christians accepts at least the content of the Nicene creed.
Central Christian beliefs which are affirmed in the Nicene Creed include, but are not limited to:
* The [[Trinity]]
* [[Jesus]] is both true God and true man.
* [[Salvation]] is available through the person, life and death of [[Jesus]] Christ.
* The [[virgin birth]], [[crucifixion]], [[resurrection]], [[ascension]], and [[Second Coming]] of [[Jesus]].
* The resurrection of the dead, in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the [[end of time]], to be [[Last Judgement|judged]] by Christ.
Some groups, however, deviate from tenets which most others hold as absolutely basic to Christianity. On account of these deviations they are considered heretical, [[nontrinitarian]], or even non-Christian by many of the mainstream Christian groups. Most such disputes center on the [[Trinity]], the divinity of [[Jesus]], or both. The words of the Nicene Creed frequently target certain opposing beliefs of other early Christians, which the council regarded as [[heresy|heretical]]. Examples would include [[Ebionite]] groups which denied Jesus' divinity, a well as [[Docetism|Docetist]] groups which denied that Christ was a human being, or [[Arianism|Arians]], who denied that the Father and the Son were "of one being" (ομούσιος). Other early heresies included [[Simon Magus|Simonianism]], [[Marcionism]], [[Gnosticism]] and [[Montanism]]. Again, while some churches take exception to some of these articles, to the extent that they do so, this usually represents a conscious departure from the Christian mainstream. Some Christian traditions, such as those of the [[Baptist]]s and the [[Churches of Christ]], would accept these beliefs but not the creed itself, since they regard all creeds as unnecessary and even counter-productive.
===Scriptures===
====Authority and different parts of the Bible====
Virtually all Christian churches accept the authority of the [[Bible]], including the [[Old Testament]] and th |
nce. Thus far, only very limited proof of possibility designs have been demonstrated. There is, at this writing, no credible prospect of an actual, usable, quantum computer.
However, were a quantum computer to be built, many things would change. Parallel computation would likely become the norm, and some aspects of [[cryptography]] would change.
In particular, since a quantum computer would be able to conduct extremely fast brute force key searches, [[key length]]s now considered effectively beyond any brute force attacker's resources would become practical. Key lengths necessary to be beyond a quantum computer's capacity would be longer, probably considerably longer. While some popular writers have declared that no encryption would remain secure when quantum computers become available, it seems likely that simply adding bits to key lengths will prohibit [[brute force attack]]s, even with quantum computers.
A second possibility is that increased computational power may make possible non brute force [[key search attack]]s against one or more currently impregnable [[algorithm]]s, or classes of algorithms. For instance, not all progress in [[prime number|prime]] [[factorisation]] has been due to algorithmic improvements. Some has been due to increasing computer power, and the existence of working quantum computers may considerably advance factorization thus increasing the vulnerability of some cryptographic algorithms. This much is perhaps foreseeable, if not clearly. What cannot be anticipated is a theoretical breakthrough, requiring quantum computing, which would make possible currently impractical (or even unknown) attacks. In the absence of a method for predicting breakthroughs, we will simply have to wait.
It is unknown whether there is a [[polynomial time]] encryption algorithm for which decryption requires [[exponential time]], even for a quantum computer.
==Methods of cryptanalysis==
Classical cryptanalysis:
* [[Frequency analysis]]
* [[Kasiski examination]]
* [[Index of coincidence]]
* [[Mutual Index of coincidence]]
Symmetric algorithms:
* [[Differential cryptanalysis]]
* [[Linear cryptanalysis]]
* [[Integral cryptanalysis]]
* [[Statistical cryptanalysis]]
* [[Mod-n cryptanalysis]]
* [[XSL attack]]
* [[Slide attack]]
Other methods:
* [[Birthday attack]]
* [[Man in the middle attack]]
* [[Brute force attack]]
* [[Gardening (cryptanalysis)]]
* [[Differential Power Analysis]]
==See also==
* [[Rubber-hose cryptanalysis]]
* [[Side-channel attack]]
* [[Decipherment]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Cryptography|Cryptography portal]]
* [[Topics in cryptography]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.umich.edu/~umich/fm-34-40-2/ Basic Cryptanalysis]
==References==
* Helen Fouché Gaines, "Cryptanalysis", 1939, Dover. ISBN 0486200973
* Ibraham A. &#8220;Al-Kindi: The origins of [[cryptology]]: The Arab contributions&#8221;, ''[[Cryptologia]]'', 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97&ndash;126.
* [[David Kahn]], "[[The Codebreakers]] - The Story of Secret Writing", 1967. ISBN 0684831309
* [[Lars R. Knudsen]]: Contemporary Block Ciphers. Lectures on Data Security 1998: 105-126
* [[Bruce Schneier]], "[http://www.schneier.com/paper-self-study.html Self-Study Course in Block Cipher Cryptanalysis]", ''Cryptologia'', 24(1) (January 2000), pp. 18&ndash;34.
* Friedrich L. Bauer: "Decrypted Secrets". Springer 2002. ISBN 3540426744
[[Category:Cryptographic attacks]]
[[Category:Mathematical science occupations]]
[[Category:Analysis]]
[[da:Kryptoanalyse]]
[[de:Kryptoanalyse]]
[[fr:Cryptanalyse]]
[[nl:Crypto-analyse]]
[[ja:暗号解読]]
[[pl:Kryptoanaliza]]
[[pt:Cripto-análise]]
[[sv:Kryptoanalys]]
[[uk:Криптоаналіз]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chicano</title>
<id>5716</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:40:50Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cityside Seraph</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Mexican-American|right}}
A '''Chicano''' or '''Chicana''' is a term used to indicate an identity held by some persons of Mexican descent living in the United States. Often times, it refers to a first or second generation Mexican American living in an urban, Mexican American immigrant community, where there exists the strong ethnic consciousness of being "Mexican American". It is considered a term of ethnic pride, though not all Mexican Americans proud of their heritage necessarily consider themselves Chicano. A woman of this category is usually named by the feminine form '''Chicana''', and, following the usual conventions for Spanish words, the masculine plural form '''Chicanos''' is used for groups that include both genders.
==Etymology==
Although the word ''Chicano'' may be a contraction of ''Mexicano'', there is no clear etymology of the term or its origin. It seems to have originated in the first decades of the twentieth century (see reference 1) in the south of US, and it was a derogatory term used by US landowners to refer to their Mexican workers. The term spread to Mexico to refer to people of low origins. The literary and political movements of the 1960s and 1970s among Mexican Americans established Chicano as a term of ethnic pride; Mexican-descended or origin Americans became aware of their status as a community and began to use the term with pride to refer to themselves.
Some believe the word comes from the word Mexica (pronounced Me-shi-ca in [[Nahuatl]]) and was corrupted to Mechicano by the Spanish, so that a Chicano or Xicano is in some sense an heir of the Mexica culture. [http://www.mexica-movement.org/timexihcah/WHATISCHICANOANDCHICANA.htm 2]"
The word "Chico" means boy and "Chica" means girl in Spanish. Therefore, the most likely etymology for "Chicano" is the old custom of calling a low status person as if the person was a young man or "boy" or "Chico". An example is "Garcon" (waiter) in French which also means boy.
The term Chicano is offensive to some assimilated [[Mexican American]]s, who prefer other terms such as ''[[Hispanic American|Hispanic]]'', or ''[[Latino]]'', or simply ''Mexican''. Many Chicanos, in turn, find ''Mexican'' used alone as offensive because it overlooks their American and indigenous roots. Chicanos in [[Texas]] are also referred to as [[Tejanos]], although Tejano simply means ''Texan''. Some who do not find the masculine term Chicano acceptable to use as a plural, use the terms ''[[Chicano/a]],'' or [[Chican@]].
==Societal and cultural aspects==
In Mexico, the term can connote a person of low [[Social class|class]] and poor [[Morality|morals]], while in the U.S. it carries multiple meanings. [[Sabine Ulibarri]], an author from [[Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico]], notes that ''Chicano'' is a [[Politics|politically]] loaded term, though it is considered a positive term of honor by many. For Chicanos, the term usually implies being "neither from here, nor from there" in reference to the U.S. and Mexico respectively. As a mixture of [[culture]]s from both countries, being Chicano represents the struggle of fitting into the [[Anglo]]-dominated society of America while maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latino child.
Many Chicanos interchangably use the term ''[[la raza]]'' (literally, ''the [[race]]'') to define themselves. Some use the phrase ''la [[Bronze race|raza de bronce]]'' ("the Bronze Race") seeing themselves as "brown" or "bronze" because of their [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] ancestry (as opposed to [[Whites|white]] and [[African American|black]] people). Using another term common in early twentieth-century ''americanista/indigenist'' thought, some also refer to themselves as ''[[la raza cósmica]]'', which means '[['the cosmic race]]''.
It should be noted that the term ''la raza'' is widely used throughout [[Latin America]] and has additional layers of meaning referring to the sense of collective culture and consciousness of Spanish speakers of the New World. In this respect it has elements of the German word ''volk'', which literally means ''people'' but is similarly difficult to translate to other languages.
Unfortunately many Chicanos are classified and stereotyped as "[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gangbanger gangbanger]s" and their style differs from the average "Mexican" from Mexico. The Mexicans from Mexico are normally categorized as "Border brothers" with their cowboyish dress attire and unique style of music where as the Chicano dress attire and style are "Lowriders" and gang affiliation [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Vato vato locos] from the [[Sureños]] or [[Norteños]]. Chicanos are also often known to feud with the "Border brothers" from Mexico. There is also, at times, denigration of the recent immigrants by calling them ''mojados'' or [[wetback]]s, referring to swimming the Rio Grande from Mexico as a means of illegal entrance to the United States.
Many individuals of Mexican descent view the use of the words ''Chicano'' or ''Chicana'' as reclamation and regeneration of a culture destroyed through [[colonialism]], although these are only opinions and may not reflect the view of all Chicanos. Some younger Mexican Americans refer to themselves as Xicanos with an "X" to appear even more radical in terms of political ideology.
===Chicano art===
The term Chicano is also used to categorize a group of writers. [[Bruce Novoa]], a Chicano author, once wrote that Chicanos exist in the space created by the hyphen in Mexican-American. Also [[Rodolfo Gonzales|Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales]]' "Yo Soy Joaquin" is considered a seminal work.
===Chicano music===
[[Chicano Rap]] is [[hip hop music]], by all [[Chicano]]s, which started with [[Kid Frost]], w |
uding one-to-one tuition, they will be totally cured (as opposed to having learned to live with the condition).
:# Dyslexia amounts to nothing more than a delay in the learning process caused by a lack of quality education in the home and classroom.
: '''Definition''' ''This point of view contends that the definition should be:''
:# The term dyslexia, if it is to be of any use, should simply to be defined as those who currently have difficulty reading, regardless of its speculated cause.
:# The threshold separating dyslexics from non-dyslexics is entirely arbitrary.
==== Viewpoint 2: 'Dyslexia IS a neurological/mental disorder which affects about 10%' ====
: This is the popular point of view, at least among the general public, teachers, and dyslexics themselves, however it's now coming under sustained attack. Its primary contention is that there is more to dyslexia than Viewpoint 1 states. i.e. It's not just bad teaching, and it's inborn to about 10% of the population.
: '''Cause:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# There are a number of factors including genetics, but there is more research to be done.
:# Dyslexia is inevitable from birth and is not related to the quality of traditional education given.
:# Dyslexia cannot be cured, only treated.
:# Those who are successfully treated are still in some sense 'different' than non-dyslexics who are at the same reading level. Perhaps in terms of brain structure or brain activity.
:# Dyslexic children are different from non-dyslexics even if they are at the same reading level as them.
: '''Treatment:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# Coloured glasses, exercising the eyes, physical coordination exercises can treat dyslexia.
:# The testimony of a person who is dyslexic is to be believed. This includes self-analysis of brain function, or discussing the success or otherwise of treatments.
: '''Definition:''' ''This point of view contends that the definition should be:''
:# Dyslexia is a distinct mental condition which affects reading and writing ability. It's defined in such as way as to include about 10% of the population.
==== Viewpoint 3: 'The term dyslexia is essentially useless and should now be made obsolete to avoid confusion' ====
: '''Definition:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# The current popular definition used by the general public ('Dyslexia IS a neurological/mental disorder') is entirely incorrect and useless. The definition used by the scientific community is totally different and therefore the term just breeds confusion. There may be a group (perhaps less than 1% of the population, not 10%) who have reading difficulties untreatable by traditional education, but we should not use the term 'dyslexia' for their condition, because it will cause confusion. New terms should be created for any verifiable conditions.
==Variations and related disorders==
Dyslexia is a learning disorder. Its underlying cause may be neurological in nature, but from there, the systems involved play out into visual, language, etc. [[FMRI]] (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) has been used to demonstrate differences in the dyslexic brain patterns, but much research still needs to be done to apply this information.
In addition to the typical forms of dyslexia, there are numerous related disorders:
* [[Auditory Processing Disorder]] is the cause of the phonological problems that many dyslexics experience, and causes problems in the auditory memory or working memory and this can cause some memory issues.
* [[Semantic dyslexia]] - a form of dyslexia characterized by an inability to properly attach words to their meanings in reading and/or in speech.
* [[Scotopic sensitivity syndrome]] - a form of dyslexia which makes it very difficult for a person to read black text on white paper, particularly when the paper is slightly shiny.
* [[Dyspraxia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, and kinesthetic coordination.
* [[Verbal Dyspraxia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by marked difficulty in the use of speech sounds, which is the result of an immaturity in the speech production area of the brain.
* [[Dysgraphia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by distorted and incorrect writing.
* [[Dyscalculia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by a problem with learning fundamentals and one or more of the basic numerical skills. Often people with this disorder can understand very complex mathematical concepts and principles but have difficulty processing formulas and even basic addition and subtraction.
==Facts and statistics==
Between 5 and 15 percent of the [[population]] can be [[diagnose]]d as suffering from various degrees of dyslexia. As previously mentioned, dyslexia can be substantially compensated for with proper therapy, training and equipment.
Most researchers agree that there is a fairly even gender balance amongst dyslexics, and that the fact that it is reported more in males is because of selection factors and bias.
Dyslexia's main manifestation is a difficulty in developing reading skills in [[elementary school]] children. Those difficulties result from reduced ability to associate visual symbols with verbal sounds. While motivational factors must also be reviewed in assessing poor performance, dyslexia is considered to be an inborn trait and rarely arises from environmental factors after the brain has matured beyond its especially plastic condition during infancy.
Some have disagreed with these findings, however, and believe that while dyslexia may sometimes be inborn, it is often attributable to lack of [[phonics]] training when learning to read, and also attributed to the preponderance of the [[whole language]] system.
==Physiology and treatment==
Only traditional educational remedial techniques have any record of improving the reading ability of those diagnosed with dyslexia {{Ref|AAP1998}}. There is no evidence that coloured lenses, any visual training, or similar proposed treatments are of any use. Anecdotal reports of success can be explained by other factors.
Even a few weeks of intense [[phonological training]] (often involving breaking down and rearranging sounds to produce different words) can help noticeably improve reading skills. The earlier the phonological regimen is taken on, the better the overall result. Advanced brain scans could identify children at risk of dyslexia before they can even read, although it is thought that simple tests of balance could do the same. It has also been shown that early diagnosis and treatment can almost completely eliminate the dyslexic symptoms from some of the underlying causes. It is claimed that many of the underlying causes of dyslexia are of a genetic nature and that there are no cures, only strategies to work around the causes of a persons dyslexia, however these two claims are disputed.
It had been believed that keeping a child active, perhaps by giving them housework, or performing physical exercises, would help with dyslexia. However, this is false (Wilsher 2002 - Dyslexia, Volume 8, Number 2, April/June 2002, pp. 116-117(2)). There is no scientific evidence in support of this theory.
One hypothesis for some of the symptoms of an underlying cause of dyslexia is a lack of overall short-term memory. Typically a dyslexic will not remember a person's name, and will suffer an undue amount of difficulty in transcribing (for example) a phone number. These problems could be attributed to the short term memory having to run the coping strategies needed to overcome a range of issues caused by the underlying causes of dyslexia.
Researchers studying the brains of dyslexics have found that during reading tasks, dyslexics show reduced activity in the left [[inferior]] [[parietal cortex]]. It is [[Anecdotal evidence|anecdotally]] claimed that it is not that uncommon for dyslexics who have trained themselves to cope with their affliction, to develop uncannily efficient visual memories which aid in reading and comprehending large quantities of information much faster than is typical. Commonly dyslexics show 10 times more brain activity when reading. Sometimes, depending of the type and extent, also writing, listening and speaking. However, increased brain activity is not necessarily a sign of better processing. Conversely, some dyslexics may show a natural dislike of reading and, in consequence, compensate by developing unique [[verbal]] [[communication skills]], inter-personal expertise, and leadership skills - however these possible outcomes are the same for people who have no difficulty reading. Different people adopt different strategies for living with the same affliction. It is said that this may be because there may be different underlying causes of their dyslexia.
In [[1979]], anatomical differences in the brain of a young dyslexic were documented. [[Albert Galaburda]] of [[Harvard Medical School]] noticed that the [[language center]] in a dyslexic brain showed microscopic flaws known as [[ectopia]]s and [[microgyria]]. Both affect the normal six-layer structure of the [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]]. An ectopia is a collection of [[neuron]]s that have pushed up from lower [[cortical layers]] into the outermost one. A microgyrus is an area of cortex that includes only four layers instead of six. However, this may well have nothing to do with dyslexia - it was only a study of one brain, not a scientically controlled study of a large number of brains. Also, changes in brain structure do not tell us anything about the root cause or possible treatments - it could be genetic, or the brain structure could simply be a result of a combination of insufficient education along with the actions of the dyslexic, causing the brain to develop in a particular way. The causes and effects of dyslexia are difficult to disentangle.
These flaws affect connectivity and functionality |
n the [[People's Republic of China]]. It was seen as the crux of the old feudal system and an obstacle to China's modernization. It is, however, arguable that Confucianism influenced Chinese society even during the Cultural Revolution, and its influence is still strong in modern-day [[mainland China]]. Both interest in and debate about Confucianism have surged.
In the modern world, there are many signs of Confucianism's influence. Many sources, including the Baltimore Sun (U.S.), have called [[Singapore]] the modern world's "only Confucian state." However, it is doubtful that Singapore is truly a thoroughgoing Confucian state because Singapore is a multicultural society in which only a portion of the society is committed specifically to Confucian ideals. The actual influence of Confucianism on [[South Korea]], however, is still very great. [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Sg_Review/message/435] The [[Asian values|Asian values debate]] of the [[1990s]] stems in large part from the question of the role of Confucian social approaches in modern societies, especially [[economic development]].
Modern movements such as [[New Confucianism]] seek to find new inspiration from the thought system of Confucius and his followers.
==Core Concepts==
===Rites===
<blockquote>Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously.
(''Analects'' II, 3)
</blockquote>
The above explains an essential difference between legalism and ritualism and points to a key difference between Western and Eastern societies. Confucius argues that under law, ''external'' authorities administer punishments ''after'' illegal actions, so people generally behave well without understanding reasons why they should; whereas with ritual, patterns of behaviour are ''internalised'' and exert their influence ''before'' actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid losing [[Face (social custom)|face]].
"Rite" (&#31150;; L&#464;) stands here for a complex set of ideas that is difficult to render in Western languages. The Chinese character for "rites" previously had the religious meaning of "sacrifice" (the character &#31150; is composed of the character &#31034;, which means "altar", to the left of the character &#26354; placed over &#35910;, representing a vase full of flowers and offered as a sacrifice to the gods; cf. [[Wenlin]]). Its Confucian meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of everybody's correct place in society. Externally, ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Internally, they indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them.
Internalisation is the main process in ritual. Formalised behaviour becomes progressively internalised, desires are channelled and personal cultivation becomes the mark of social correctness. Though this idea conflicts with the common saying that "the cowl does not make the monk", in Confucianism sincerity is what enables behaviour to be absorbed by individuals. Obeying ritual with sincerity makes ritual the most powerful way to cultivate oneself. Thus "Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, becomes timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites, becomes rudeness" (''Analects'' VIII, 2). Ritual can be seen as a means to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict.
Ritual divides people into categories and builds [[hierarchical]] relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning everyone a place in society and a form of behaviour. [[Music]], which seems to have played a significant role in Confucius' life, is given as an exception as it transcends such boundaries, 'unifying the hearts'.
Although the ''Analects'' promotes ritual heavily, Confucius himself often behaved otherwise; for example, when he cried at his preferred disciple' death, or when he met a fiendish princess (VI, 28). Later more rigid ritualists who forgot that ritual is "more than presents of jade and silk" (XVII, 12) strayed from their master's position.
===Relationships===
One theme central to Confucianism is that of relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation to others. Individuals are held to simultaneously stand in different degrees of relationship with different people, namely, as a junior in relation to their parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to their children, younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe strong duties of reverence and service to their seniors, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. This theme consistently manifests itself in many aspects of East Asian culture even to this day, with extensive filial duties on the part of children toward parents and elders, and great concern of parents toward their children.
====Filial piety ====
''Filial piety'', ''filiality'', or ''filial devotion'' (''xiào'', &#23389;) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the dead. The term "filial", meaning "of a child", denotes the respect and obedience that a child, originally a son, should show to his parents, especially to his father. This relationship was extended by analogy to a series of ''five relationships'' or ''five cardinal relationships'' (五伦 ''Wǔlún''):
#father and son (父子),
#ruler and subject (君臣),
#husband and wife (夫婦),
#elder and younger brother (兄弟),
#between friends (朋友)
Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also extended to the dead, where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the [[ancestor worship|veneration of ancestors]].
In time, filial piety was also built into the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers exercised enormous power over their children. Much the same was true of other unequal relationships.
The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is ''The Book of Filial Piety'', a work attributed to Confucius but almost certainly written in the [[third century BC]]. Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present day.
====Loyalty ====
Loyal (''zh&#333;ng'', &#24544;) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane, between ruler and minister. It was particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the [[realpolitik]] of the class relations that existed in his time; he did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had received the "[[Mandate of Heaven]]" (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude.
In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled.
===Humaneness ===
Confucius was concerned with people's individual development, which he maintained took place within the context of human relationships. Ritual and filial piety are the ways in which one should act towards others from an underlying attitude of humaneness. Confucius' concept of humaneness (''rén'', &#20161;) is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] phrased in the negative: "Do not do to others what you would not like them to do to you".
''Rén'' also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks ''rén'', Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for his subjects to behave humanely. ''Rén'' is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler, exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the "Mandate of Heaven", the right to rule. Such a mandateless ruler need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the benevolence of his dominion shows that he has been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people, but his leading follower [[Mencius]] did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be polled.
===The perfect gentleman===
The term "J&#363;nz&#464;" (&#21531;&#23376;) is a term crucial to classical Confucianism. Literally meaning "son of a ruler", "prince", or "noble", the ideal of a "gentleman," "proper man," or "perfect man" is that for which Confucianism exhorts all people to strive. A succinct description of the "perfect man" is one who "combine[s] the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman" ([[Catholic Encyclopedia|CE]]). (In modern times, the masculine bias in Confucianism may have weakened, but the same term is still used; the masculine translation in English is also traditional and still frequently used.) A hereditary el |
loud bark. In fact, the breed will be equally at home in a city and in the country, and it does not require as much exercise as larger breeds. The Italian Greyhound is hardy, rarely ill, intelligent and easy to teach.
Sometimes, IG's will make a resonably good guard-dog and bark at things that aren't usually in the street. They may also bark at passers by.
IG's often get along with cats so if you already have a cat and you are looking for a suitable dog which won't chase your beloved kitty all day long, IG's can be recommended.
IG's despise the wind, wet and cold and will sometimes refuse to do their " business " outside if it is raining so some recommend having some old newspaper on the floor near the exit.
This breed, like most dogs, is not a fussy eater and will eat almost anything, including the month-old scraps from your garden. Most will eat enthusiastically, but some get more picky about their food as they age.
IGs are good with kids but their thin bones are fragile and can be hurt by rough play from young children.
Dogs of this breed have an almost odour-free, easily managed coat. Although the coat is incredibly short, it can shed. The breed simply loves the company of people, and will promptly occupy your lap if you let it. In fact, many owners of this breed have them sleeping with them in their beds.
The young dog will often be particularly active, and this high level of activity sometimes lead them to try to 'fly' from furniture or stairs. It is important to keep a close eye on the dogs in this initial phase as their young bones are still fragile. The first year of life is the most accident-prone, although the graceful legs often seem to withstand incredible punishment they are not invulnerable.
IGs love to run as fast as they possibly can, and, like all dogs, it's important that they have an opportunity to run full out at least once daily, either in the back yard or under supervision and control in a larger area.
Like most dogs they enjoy digging and, if left to their own devices for entertainment and exercise, might resort to digging or other destructive behavior.
Like most smaller breeds, the Italian Greyhound can be difficult to [[housebreak]]. This will normally come along with patience and training, but at a slower pace than most other breeds. Patience is the only way to help the training along, and remember that the breed is small and as such the dog will have a small bladder.
==Health==
Members of this breed might love the sunlight, so owners need to ensure that they don't become overheated, and they do get sunburned (particularly on their heads and bellies), so it's recommended to use [[sunscreen]] on them.
The breed is relatively free of disease, but the following ailments do occur:
* [[Epilepsy in animals|Epilepsy]]
* [[Perthes disease|Legg-Perthes disease]] (degeneration of the hip)
* [[luxating patella|Patellar Luxation]] (slipped stifles)
* [[Osteoporosis]]
* [[Von Willebrand disease|von Willebrand disease]] (vWD) (Bleeding disorder)
* [[Progressive retinal atrophy]] (PRA)
Broken bones are common as well. The tails of the Italian Greyhound are delicate and fragile. Be careful when handling a dog such as the Italian Greyhound and always supervise children who are playing with this breed.
==History==
The name of the breed is a reference to the breed's popularity in [[renaissance]] [[Italy]]. [[Mummy|Mummified]] dogs very similar to the Italian Greyhound (or small Greyhounds) have been found in Egypt, and pictorials of small Greyhounds have been found in [[Pompeii]], and they were probably the only accepted companion-dog there. As an amusing aside the expression 'Cave Canem' (Beware of the dog) was a warning to visitors, not that the dogs would attack but to beware of damaging the small dogs.
Although the small dogs are mainly companionship dogs they have in fact been used for [[hunting]] purposes, often in combination with hunting [[falcon]]s.
==Miscellaneous==
The grace of the breed has prompted several artists to include the dogs in paintings, among others [[Velasquez]], [[Pisanello]] and [[Giotto_di_Bondone|Giotto]]. The breed has been popular with [[royal family|royalty]] throughout, among the best known [[royal]] aficionados were [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]], [[Anne_I_of_the_United_Kingdom|Queen Anne]], [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], [[Catherine_II_of_Russia|Catherine The Great]], [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] and the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Maud,_Queen_of_Norway|Queen Maud]].
==Activities==
Some Italian Greyhounds enjoy [[dog agility]]. The breed's lithe body and its love of action enable it to potentially do well at this sport, although not many IGs participate and their natural inclination is for straight-out racing rather than for working tightly as a team with a handler on a technical course.
[[Lure coursing]] is another activity well-fitted to the Italian Greyhound, and they seem to enjoy it tremendously. Although the Italian Greyhound is a very fast dog, it is not as well suited to racing as its larger cousin.
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
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[[da:Italiensk mynde]]
[[de:Italienisches Windspiel]]
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[[he:גרייהאונד איטלקי]]
[[no:Italiensk mynde]]
[[pl:Charcik włoski]]
[[ru:Левретка]]</text>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
'''Information technology''' (IT) or '''Information and communication(s) technology''' (ICT) is a broad subject concerned with [[technology]] and other aspects of [[information processing|managing and processing information]], especially in large [[organization]]s.
In particular, IT deals with the use of [[electronics|electronic]] [[computer]]s and [[computer software]] to [[convert]], [[store]], [[protect]], [[process]], [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmit]], and retrieve [[information]]. For that reason, computer professionals are often called '''IT specialists''', and the division of a company or university that deals with software technology is often called the '''IT department'''. Other names for the latter are [[information systems|information service]]s (IS) or [[management information system|management information service]]s (MIS). managed service provider (MSP) Such as Virtual IT Solution http://www.virtualitsolution.com.
==Topics==
* [[Information technology audit]]
** [[IT audit resources]]
** [[Computer security audit]]
* [[Computing]]
* [[Computer science]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Information security]]
* [[World Wide Web]]
* [[Digital library]]
* [[Pattern recognition]]
* [[Data management]]
** [[Data processing]]
** [[RFID]]
** [[Data mining]]
** [[Data drilling]]
** [[Metadata (computing)|Metadata]]
* [[Data storage]]
** [[Database]]
** [[Data networking]]
* [[Technology assessment]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Information Technology Infrastructure Library]]
* [[Information technology governance]]
* [[Telematics]]
==External links==
*{{dmoz|Business/Information_Technology/|{{PAGENAME}}}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{Technology}}
[[Category:Information technology| ]]
[[af:Inligtingstegnologie]]
[[da:Informationsteknologi]]
[[de:Informationstechnik]]
[[es:Tecnologías de la información]]
[[fa:فناوری اطلاعات]]
[[fr:Technologies de l'information et de la communication]]
[[gl:Tecnoloxías da información]]
[[ko:정보통신기술]]
[[id:Teknologi informasi]]
[[it:ICT]]
[[ka:საინფორმაციო ტექნოლოგია]]
[[lv:Informācijas tehnoloģijas]]
[[hu:Informatika]]
[[ml:ഇന്ഫര്മേഷന് ടെക്നോളജി]]
[[ms:Teknologi maklumat]]
[[nl:Informatie- en Communicatietechnologie]]
[[ja:情報技術]]
[[pt:Tecnologia da informação]]
[[ro:Tehnologia informaţiei]]
[[ru:Информационные технологии]]
[[fi:Ohjelmistotekniikka]]
[[sv:IT]]
[[ta:தகவல் தொழில்நுட்பம்]]
[[th:เทคโนโลยีสารสนเทศ]]
[[vi:Công nghệ thông tin]]
[[uk:Інформаційні технології]]
[[zh:信息技术]]
[[pl:IT]]</text>
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|colspan=2 style="text-align:center;" | '''''[[Broadway_theatre|Broadwa |
ense, and among specialists, such a designation indicate ignorance of the subject.
Accordingly, the term '''[[machine gun]]''' is not a misnomer. Although such weapons fire small caliber ammunition (generally 14.5mm or smaller), they nevertheless have a flat projectile trajectory and a beaten zone, just like any other gun. Machine guns can be deployed in direct and indirect fire missions in a manner similar to artillery guns. Additionally, machine guns are crew served weapons, requiring the services of more than one crewman, just like any other gun. Generally, an automatic weapon designed for a single user is referred to as an [[automatic rifle]].
In recent centuries, firearms have become the predominant weapons used by mankind. Modern [[warfare]] since the late [[Renaissance]] has relied upon firearms, with wide-ranging effects on [[military]] [[history]] and history in general. The Moors introduced firearms in Europe, when Iberia was under their rule. This created a whole new kind of battle, which molded modern-era armies.
For handguns and long guns, the projectile is a [[bullet]] or, in historical cannons, a cannonball. The projectile is fired by the burning of the propellant, but in small arms rarely contains explosives itself. For modern artillery the projectile is a [[shell (projectile)|shell]], which nearly always contains explosives.
A distinction is sometimes made between the projectile itself as the weapon and the firearm as a [[weapons platform]]. In some cases, the firearm can be used directly as a weapon without firing a projectile, although this is virtually always a secondary method of attack. For example, arms such as rifles, muskets, and occasionally [[submachine gun]]s can have [[bayonet]]s affixed to them, becoming in effect a [[spear]] or [[pike (weapon)|pike]]. With some notable exceptions, the [[stock (firearm)|stock]] of a long gun can be used as a [[club]]. It is also possible to strike someone with the barrel of a handgun or grasp it by the barrel and strike someone with the butt. This is called "pistol-whipping".
A problem for firearms is the accumulation of waste products from the partial combustion of [[propellants]], metallic residue from the [[bullet]] itself, and small flecks of the cartridge case. These waste products can interfere with the internal functions of the firearm. As a result, regularly used firearms must be periodically partially disassembled, cleaned and lubricated to ensure the weapon's reliability.
Firearms are sometimes referred to as [[small arms]]. Small arms are weapons which can be carried by a single individual, generally very portable, with a [[barrel]] [[bore]] of up to approximately 0.50 inch (12.7&nbsp;mm). Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using optical sights. The range of accuracy for small arms is generally limited to about one mile (1600&nbsp;m), usually considerably less, although the current record for a successful [[Sniper]] attack is slightly more than 1 1/2 miles. Artillery guns are much larger than these weapons, mounted on a movable carriage, having bores of up to 18 inches (46&nbsp;cm) and possibly weighing many tons. Artillery can be accurate at ranges of up to about 26 miles (42&nbsp;km) and, with some notable exceptions (e.g., tank guns), are aimed using altitude/azimuth settings. Strictly speaking, such weapons are not firearms.
Generally speaking, a firearm is a weapon that an individual can use to arm his or herself. A useful description of this concept can be found in the [[American_constitution#Second_Amendment|Second Amendment of the US Constitution]]. In this document, reference is made to a right to 'keep and bear arms'. Clearly, this text is referring to firearms, or weapons that can be borne by a single individual. Such a classification does not apply to a gun.
==Small arms==
===Handgun===
[[Image:Pistolet-marine-19e-1.png|thumb|19th century pistol from the French Navy.]]
The smallest of all small arms is the handgun which is perhaps more commonly called a "[[pistol]]". There are three common types of handguns: [[single-shot]] pistols (more common historically), [[revolvers]], and [[semi-automatic]] pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers in a revolving cylinder; each chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge. Semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber and a removable magazine so they can be used to fire several shots.
[[Image:SAA_P1870.jpg|thumb|Modern version of [[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt's]] famous "[[Single Action Army]]" revolver.]]
Handguns differ from rifles and shotguns in that they do not have shoulder stock and are designed to be fired with one or two hands. While the term 'pistol' defines any handheld firearm, it is common to refer to a single-shot or auto-loading handgun as a 'pistol' and a revolver as a 'revolver'.
[[Image:M1911_Pistol_US.jpg|thumb|[[M1911]], [[United States Army|US Army]] designation for [[Colt Manufacturing Company|Colt]]'s .45 semi-automatic.]]
The term 'automatic pistol' is sometimes used and is somewhat misleading in that the term 'automatic' does not refer to the firing mechanism, but rather the reloading mechanism. When fired, an automatic pistol uses recoil and/or propellent gases to automatically extract the spent cartridge and insert a fresh one from a magazine. Usually (but not always) the firing mechanism is automatically cocked as well. An automatic pistol fires one shot per trigger pull, unlike an automatic weapon such as a machine gun, which fires as long as the trigger is held down. There are, however, some fully-automatic handguns (often referred to as machine pistols) so, to avoid such ambiguity and confusion, the term semi-automatic (or semiautomatic) is preferred when referring to a weapon that fires only one shot per trigger pull.
Prior to the 19th century, all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders. With the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. At the end of the 20th century, most handguns are [[semi-automatic self-loading pistol|semi-automatic]], although revolvers are still widely used. Generally speaking, military and police forces use automatic pistols due to their high magazine capacities (10, 15, 17 or, in some cases, up to 25+ rounds of ammunition) and ability to rapidly reload by simply removing the empty magazine and inserting a new one. Handgun hunters use revolvers almost exclusivly due to the fact that hunting cartridges are generally much more powerful than autopistol cartridges and the simplicity and durability of the revolver design is well-suited to them. Lawfully armed citizens carry either type, depending on personal preference.
Handguns come in many shapes and sizes. For example, the "[[derringer]]" (a generic term based on the mid-19th-century "Deringer" brand name) is a very small, short-barreled handgun, usually with one or two barrels but sometimes more (some 19th-century derringers had four barrels) that have to be manually reloaded after being fired. Carefully matched single-shot [[duelling pistol]]s were used primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries to settle serious differences among "gentlemen": [[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[Aaron Burr]] are probably the most prominent Americans who used duelling pistols to settle their differences. Fully automatic, relatively easily concealed [[machine pistol]]s, such as the MAC-10, Glock Model 18, and the Beretta 93R, were a late 20th-century development.
Handguns are small and usually made to be easily concealed, thus making them a very common choice for personal protection. In the military, handguns are usually issued to those who are not expected to need more potent (and more expensive) weapons, such as general and staff officers, and to those for whom there is no room for a full-sized rifle, such as armored vehicle and air crews. In this last role, they often compete with the [[carbine]], which is also usually issued to airborne infantry because of its small size. Outside the military, handguns are the usual armament for [[police]] (in those jurisdictions where police are armed) and, where legal, for private citizens. Private citizens in most jurisdictions usually carry only concealed handguns in public except when hunting, since an unconcealed weapon would attract undue attention, and would therefore be less secure, athough there are significant numbers of states in the US that continue to permit open carry of handguns. In the United States, the number of states which permit [[concealed carry]] has recently grown to over 35, and several states have well over 200,000 permit holders. Despite [[Second Amendment]] constitutional roots in the United States, the concept of citizens carrying a concealed weapon for self-defense is often a contentious political issue; see [[gun politics]] for more information.
Handguns are also used for many sporting purposes and hunting, although hunting usage is usually viewed as somewhat atypical due to the limited range and accuracy of handguns. Some hunters however do their hunting in areas of dense cover where long guns would be awkward or relish the increased challenge involved in handgun hunting due to the necessity of approaching the game animal more closely. Small-bore (e.g., .22 caliber rimfire) handguns have long been very popular for competitive target shooting, partially due to the low cost of both the weapons and the ammunition, and there is also a rapidly growing number of sporting competitions for larger calibers.
[[Image:Springfield_1903_rifle.jpeg|thumb|United States [[Springfield 1903 rifle]].]]
===Long guns===
Most modern [[long gun]]s are either [[rifle]]s or [[shotgun]]s. Historically, a long smoothbore firearm was known as a [[musket]]. A rifle has a rifled barrel that fires single bullets, while a shotgun fi |
ring) or ''off-ramps'' (for leaving). When American engineers speak of ''slip roads,'' or ''slip ramps,'' they are referring to on-ramps and off-ramps that have been rearranged (through use of a [[grade separation]]) to minimize weaving on a freeway segment between two interchanges that are too close together.
In the UK, the term ''outside lane'' refers to the higher-speed passing lane closest to the centre of the road, while ''inside lane'' refers to the lane closer to the edge of the road; these terms have the opposite meanings in American English, with the ''outside lane'' being the one near the edge and the ''inside lane'' being the one closer to the median &mdash; it is worth noting that Americans also drive on the opposite side to British people, so that the British inside lane is, like the American one, the leftmost one (going in any given direction).
In the UK, Australia, and New Zealand ''drink driving'' is against the law, while in the U.S. and Canada, the term is ''drunk driving''.
===Greetings===
In the US, when Christmas is explicitly mentioned in a greeting, the universal phrasing is ''[[Merry Christmas]]''. A British alternative, ''Happy Christmas'', is unusual in America; while its meaning is obvious, it might still garner the speaker some odd looks. However, Americans quite often say "Happy Holidays" in referring to the Christmas season.
==Writing==
===Spelling===
:''Main article: [[American and British English spelling differences]]''
Some words shared by all English speakers are ''spelled'' one way by Americans (and at times Canadians and Australians) but are ''spelt'' differently in some (or, at times, most) other English speaking countries.
* Traditionally, many English verbs have been spelled with both ''-ize'' and ''-ise''. The ''-ise'' is often used over ''-ize'' (e.g. organise, legalise) in British English, but ''-ize'' is always used in American English (''advertise'' being a rare exception). The American usage is the result of several reforms spearheaded by [[Noah Webster]] in the [[19th century]], while the British usage (where ''-ize'' was traditionally dominant) comes from 19th-century French influence. Perhaps because of this, ''-ize'' is preferred by Oxford University Press, is listed first in most British Dictionaries, and is preferred by many careful users of English in the UK; see [http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutspelling/ize?view=uk Oxford's rationale] on the matter for more information. The same is true of nouns and adjectives derived from such verbs: ''organisation'' vs. ''organization'', etc. One notable exception is the verb ''to analyse'', which although spelled ''to analyze'' in American English was never spelled that way in British English. Furthermore, not all such words are spelled with ''-ize'' even in American English: for example, ''incise,'' ''circumcise.'' These are not examples of the suffix -ize, but the element -cise, meaning "to cut."
===Punctuation===
* '''Full stops/Periods in abbreviations''': Americans tend to write "Mr.", "Mrs.", "St.", "Dr." etc., while British will usually, but not always, write "Mr&quot;, "Mrs", "St", "Dr" (or even "D'r"), etc., following the rule that a full stop is used only when the last letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the complete word. However, many British writers would tend to write other abbreviations without a full stop, such as "Prof", "etc", "eg", and so on (so recommended by some Oxford dictionaries). The rationale behind this usage is that it is typographically more elegant, and that the omitted full stops/periods are essentially superfluous, as the reader recognizes the abbreviation without them. It also removes ambiguity by reserving the period for ending sentences. However, the "American" usage of periods after most abbreviations is also widely used in the UK. Note that in either case it is incorrect to put a period after units such as kg for kilogram or Hz for hertz, as these are considered unit symbols, not abbreviations; however, the unit for "inch" is properly "in.", as it would be ambiguous without the period.
* It is sometimes believed that British English does not hyphenate multiple-word adjectives, such as "a first class ticket". This usage is rare, and often considered incorrect. The most common form is as in American English, such as "a first-class ticket".
* '''[[Quotation mark|Quoting]]''': Americans start with double quotation marks (") and use single quotation marks (') for quotations within quotations. In general this is also true of British English but can be the opposite when used in book publishing, for example. In journals and newspapers, quotation mark double/single use depends on the individual publication's [[house style]].
* '''Contents of quotations''': Americans are taught to put commas and periods inside quotation marks, whereas British people will put the punctuation inside if it belongs to the quote and outside otherwise. This means that direct speech retains punctuation inside inverted commas in British English also, with a full stop changing into a comma if followed by explanatory text.
** Carefree means "free from care or anxiety." (American style)
** Carefree means "free from care or anxiety". (British style)
** "Hello world," I said. (both styles)
: The American style was established for typographical reasons, having to do with the aesthetics of commas and quotation marks in typeset text. It also usefully eliminates the need to decide whether a period or comma belongs to the quotation. However, many people find the usage counterintuitive. ''[[Hart's Rules]]'' and the ''[[Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors]]'' call the British style "new" or "logical" quoting; it is similar to the use of quotation marks in many other languages (including Spanish, French, Italian, Catalan, Dutch, and German). This "logical" style is increasingly popular in America, although [[Formal written English - regional differences|formal writing]] generally calls for the "American" style. In fact, the British style is often the ''de facto'' standard among Americans for whom formal or professional writing is not a part of their daily life; many are in fact unaware that the normative American usage is to place commas and periods within the quotation marks. (This rule of placing all punctuation inside quotation if and only if it belongs to the quotation is expressly prescribed by some American professional organisations such as the American Chemical Society; see ''ACS Style Guide''.) According to the [[Jargon File]], American [[Hacker|hackers]] have switched to using "logical" British quotation system, because including extraneous punctuation in a quotation can sometimes change the fundamental meaning of the quotation. More generally, it is difficult for computer manuals, online instructions, and other textual media to accurately quote exactly what a computer user should see or type on their computer.
:The American rule was used worldwide up to around the Second World War, after which the more logical style of presenting quotation marks took hold everywhere except America.
* '''Letter-writing''': American students in some areas have been taught to write a colon after the greeting in business letters ("Dear Sir:") while British people usually write a comma ("Dear Sir,") or make use of the so-called ''open punctuation'' ("Dear Sir"). However, this practice is not consistent throughout the United States, and it would be regarded as a highly formal usage by most Americans.
===Titles and headlines===
Use of [[capitalisation]] varies.
In American English, a capital letter is typically used after an exclamation point, as in: "Good grief, Jim! Leave the man alone." In British English the expression could be rendered as 'Good grief, Jim! leave the man alone.' although the American capitalisation is typical.
Sometimes, the words in titles of publications, newspaper headlines, as well as chapter and section headings are capitalised in the same manner as in normal sentences ([[sentence case]]). That is, only the first word is capitalised, along with [[proper noun]]s, [[acronym]]s, etc.
However, publishers sometimes require additional words in titles and headlines to be capitalised, for added [[emphasis (typography)|emphasis]], as it is often perceived as appearing more professional. In American English, this is common in titles, but less so in newspaper headlines. The exact rules differ between publishers and are often ambiguous; a typical approach is to capitalise all words other than short [[Article (grammar)|article]]s, [[preposition]]s, and [[conjunction]]s. This should probably be regarded as a common stylistic difference, rather than a linguistic difference, as neither form would be considered incorrect or unusual in either the UK or the U.S. Many British newspapers use fully capitalised headlines for impact, as opposed to readability (examples include ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', ''[[The Daily Sport]]'', ''[[News of the World]]'').
===Dates===
Date formats are usually written differently in the short (numerical) form. Christmas Day 2000, for example, is 25/12/00 in the UK and 12/25/00 in the U.S., although occasionally other formats are encountered, such as the [[ISO 8601]] 2000-12-25, popular among programmers and others seeking to avoid ambiguity. The difference in short-form date order can lead to misunderstanding. For example, 06/04/05 could mean either [[4 June]] [[2005]] (U.S.) or [[6 April]] [[2005]] (UK).
A consequence of the different short-form of dates is that in the UK many people would be reluctant to refer to "9 |
untry, the [[UN Security Council]] adopted [[UN Security Council Resolution 940]], which authorized member states to use all necessary means to facilitate the departure of Haiti's military leadership and to restore Haiti's constitutionally elected government to power.
In mid-September, with U.S. troops prepared to enter Haiti by force, President [[Bill Clinton]] dispatched a negotiating team led by former President [[Jimmy Carter]] to persuade the authorities to step aside and allow for the return of constitutional rule. With intervening troops already airborne, Cédras and other top leaders agreed to step down. In October Aristide was able to return. Elections were held in June 1995. Aristide's coalition, the Lavalas (Waterfall) Political Organization, had a sweeping victory. When Aristide's term ended in February [[1996]], [[René Préval]], a prominent Aristide political ally, was elected President with 88% of the vote: this was Haiti's first ever transition between two democratically elected presidents.
In late 1996, Aristide broke with Préval and formed a new political party, the Lavalas Family ([[Fanmi Lavalas]], FL), which won elections in April 1997 for one-third of the Senate and local assemblies, but these results were not accepted by the government. The split between Aristide and Préval produced a dangerous political deadlock, and the government was unable to organize the local and parliamentary elections due in late 1998. In January 1999 Préval dismissed legislators whose terms had expired &ndash; the entire Chamber of Deputies and all but nine members of the Senate, and Préval then ruled by decree.
Elections for the Chamber of Deputies and two-thirds of the Senate took place in May 2000. The election drew a voter turnout of more than 60%, and the FL won a virtual sweep. But the elections were flawed by irregularities and fraud, and the opposition parties, regrouped in the Democratic Convergence (Convergence Democratique, CD), demanded that the elections be annulled, that Préval stand down and be replaced by a provisional government. In the meantime, the opposition announced it would boycott the November presidential and senatorial elections. Haiti's main aid donors threatened to cut off aid.
As a result of this impasse, the November 2000 elections were boycotted by the opposition, and Aristide was again elected president with more than 90% of the vote, on a very low turnout. The opposition refused to accept the result or to recognise Aristide as president. Major disorders were prevented by the continuing presence of U.S. and other foreign forces, under U.N. auspices. The initial 21,000-strong force became a U.N. peacekeeping force of 6,000 troops in 1995, and was scaled back progressively over the next four years as a series of UN technical missions succeeded the peacekeeping force. In January 2000 the last U.S. troops departed.
The continuing political deadlock between Aristide and the opposition prevented legislative elections being held as scheduled in late 2003, and consequently the terms of most legislators expired in January, forcing Aristide to rule by decree. In December [[2003]], under increasing pressure, Aristide promised new elections within six months. He refused demands from the opposition that he step down immediately. Anti-Aristide protests in January 2004 led to violent clashes in Port-au-Prince, causing several deaths. In February a revolt broke out in the city of [[Gonaïves]], which was soon under rebel control. (See the article [[2004 Haiti Rebellion]].) The rebellion then began to spread, and Cap-Haïtien, Haiti's second-largest city, was captured. A mediation team of diplomats presented a plan to reduce Aristide's power, while allowing him to remain in office until the constitutional end of his term. Although Aristide accepted the plan, it was rejected by the opposition.
As rebels began marching towards Port-au-Prince, Aristide departed from Haiti on February 29. There is controversy over whether or not he was forced by the U.S. to leave the country; Aristide claims that he was essentially kidnapped by the U.S., while the U.S. maintains that he resigned. The government was taken over by supreme court chief [[Boniface Alexandre]]. Many political organizations and writers, as well as Aristide himself, have suggested that the rebellion was in fact a foreign controlled coup d'état. [[Caricom]], which had been backing the peace deal, accused the United States, France, and the International community of failing in Haiti because they allowed a democratically elected leader to be violently forced out of office. The U.S. claimed that the crisis was of Aristide's making and that he was not acting in the best interests of his country. They have argued that his removal was necessary for future stability in the island nation.
After Aristide's overthrow the violence in Haiti continued, despite the presence of peacekeepers. Clashes between police and Fanmi Lavalas supporters were common, and peacekeeping forces were accused of conducting a massacre against the residents of [[Cité Soleil]] in July 2005. Many protests were organized to demand the return of Aristide. Several of the protests resulted in violence and deaths. In the midst of the ongoing controversy and violence, however, the interim government planned legislative and executive elections. After being postponed several times, these were held in February 2006
==See also==
*[[Haiti timeline]]
*[[List of Presidents of Haiti]]
==References==
* [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/index-aa.html Bob Corbett's 1995 on-line course on Haitian history]
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050801&s=klein Article by Naomi Klein in The Nation]
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=8407 Article by Aaron Mate from Z-Net]
* [https://listhost.uchicago.edu/mailman/listinfo/haiti-news Haiti-news list] - news and information about current events in Haiti
* [http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/ The Louverture Project] - A Haitian History Wiki
[[Category:History of Haiti|*]]
[[de:Geschichte Haitis]]
[[es:Historia de Haití]]
[[pt:História do Haiti]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Geography of Haiti</title>
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<comment>.added map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haiti map.png|right|frame|Map of Haiti.]]
[[Image:Hispaniola lrg.jpg|thumb|330px|Topography of Hispaniola]]
The nation of [[Haiti]] comprises the western one-third of the [[island]] of [[Hispaniola]], west of the [[Dominican Republic]] and between the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]]. Haiti's [[Geographic coordinate system|geographic coordinate]]s are at a [[longitude]] of 72&deg; 25&prime; west and a [[latitude]] of 19&deg; 00&prime; north. The total area is 27,750km,&sup2; of which 27,560km&sup2; is land and 190km&sup2; is water. This makes Haiti slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Maryland]]. Haiti has 1,771km of [[coastline]] and a 360km-border with the Dominican Republic.
Haiti's lowest elevation is at [[sea level]]; its highest point is [[Chaine de la Selle]] at 2,680m. There are no navigable [[river]]s; the largest [[lake]] is [[Etang Saumâtre]], a [[Salt water|salt-water]] [[Body of water|body]] located in the southern region.
; Maritime claims:
:* [[Contiguous zone]]: 24 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* [[Continental shelf]]: to depth of exploitation
:* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 nm
:* [[Territorial sea]]: 12 nm
; Climate:
: Tropical; semiarid where mountains in east cut off trade winds
; Terrain:
: Mostly rough and mountainous
; Natural resources:
: [[Bauxite]], [[copper]], [[calcium carbonate]], [[gold]], [[marble]], [[hydropower]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 20.32%
:* Permanent crops: 12.7%
:* Other: 66.98% (1998 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts
; Environment--current issues:
: Extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Marine Life Conservation]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]]
[[Category:Geography of Haiti| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Haiti]]
[[es:Geografía de Haití]]
[[pt:Geografia do Haiti]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Demographics of Haiti</title>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Although [[Haiti]] averages approximately 250 people per square kilometre (650 per sq. mi.), its [[population]] is concentrated most heavily in [[urban area | urban areas ]], [[coastal plain]]s, and [[valley]]s. About 95% of Haitians are of [[African]] descent. The rest of the population is mostly of mixed [[whites|Caucasian]]-African ancestry. A few are of [[European]] or [[Levantine]] heritage. About two thirds of the population live in [[rural]] areas.
[[French language|French]] is one of two official languages, but it is spoken by only about 10% of the people. All Haitians speak [[Creole language|Creole]], the country's other official language. [[English language|English]] is increasingly spoken among the young and in the business sector.
The state religion is |
countryside, then the city was mainly inhabited by immigrants. People in most parts of Europe were very poor, and there was a lot of unemployment. But in Amsterdam there was always work. Tolerance was important, because a continuous influx of immigrants was necessary for the economy. Travellers were surprised that the police didn't control them in Amsterdam. The Netherlands also sheltered many famous [[refugees]], including Flemish Protestants; Portuguese and German Jews; French Protestants (Huguenots); the founder of modern philosophy, [[Descartes]]; and the [[Pilgrim Fathers]], who were symbols for the US tradition of [[republicanism]].
The Dutch economy stagnated from the end of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century. The Netherlands slowly lost its position as trading centre of Northern Europe. Amsterdam was a central financial market and bookmarket in Europe but lost this position to London.
In foreign affairs, the Netherlands tried to contain France, but it changed its foreign policy in the 18th century. The Netherlands was still regarded as a major state, when actual power was over. In the 18th century, the Netherlands tried to maintain its independence and kept a policy of neutrality. French invasions in 1672, 1701 and 1748 led to an overthrow of government. The prince of Orange became the most important ruler in 1672 and 1748. The Netherlands was a true republic from 1650&ndash;1672 and 1702&ndash;1748.
== Batavian revolution ==
[[Image:Napoleon1.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoléon]] turned the Netherlands into the [[Kingdom of Holland]] in 1806.]]
At the end of the 18th century, there was growing unrest in the Netherlands. There was conflict between the [[Orangists]], who wanted stadtholder [[William V of Orange]] to hold more power, and the [[Patriots (faction)|Patriots]], who under the influence of the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s wanted a more democratic form of government. The opening shot of this abortive 'Batavian' revolution might be considered the manifesto published by [[Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol]], the founder of the 'Patriots' in 1781: ''Aan het Volk van Nederland'' (To the people of the Netherlands). After the Netherlands became the second nation to recognise US independence, the British declared war. This [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] (1780&ndash;1784) proved a disaster for the Netherlands, particularly economically. Its peace treaty, according to [[Fernand Braudel]] "sounded the knell of Dutch greatness." (Braudel 1984 p. 273). In 1785 there was a rebellion by the Patriots, an armed insurrection by local militias determined to defend municipal democracies in certain Dutch towns. "Seen as a whole this revolution is a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations." says Braudel, who sees it as a forerunner of the [[French Revolution]], with the constant slogan "''vrijheit"''. But the House of Orange, backed by British policy, called upon their [[Prussia|Prussian]] relatives to suppress it. The Orangist reaction was severe: no one dared appear in public without an orange cockade and there were lynchings, the old burgomasters were replaced and a small unpaid Prussian army was billeted in the Netherlands supporting themselves with looting and extortion, Many Patriots fled the country to Brabant or France, perhaps 40,000 in all.
== Batavian Republic and French rule ==
:''For more detailed discussions, see the [[Batavian Republic]] and the [[Kingdom of Holland]].''
Against this background it is less surprising that, after the [[French Revolution]], when [[Napoleon]] invaded and occupied the Netherlands in 1795, the French encountered so little united resistance. [[William V of Orange]] fled to England. The Patriots proclaimed the short-lived [[Batavian Republic]], but government was soon returned to stabler and more experienced hands. In 1806 [[Napoleon]] restyled the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the [[Kingdom of Holland]], with his brother [[Konijn van Olland|Louis (Lodewijk) Bonaparte]] as king. This too was short-lived, however. [[Napoleon]] incorporated the Netherlands into the [[First French Empire|French empire]] after his brother put Dutch interests ahead of those of the French. The French occupation of the Netherlands ended in 1813 after Napoleon was defeated, a defeat in which [[William V of Orange]] played a prominent role.
During the Napoleonic occupation, the House of Orange signed a treaty with the English in which it gave to that country the Dutch colonies in 'safekeeping' and ordered the colonial governors to surrender to the British. This put an end to much of the Dutch colonial empire. [[Guyana]] and [[Ceylon]] never returned to Dutch rule. The Cape Colony, which had changed hands several times, remained British after 1806. Other colonies, including what is today [[Indonesia]], were returned to the Netherlands under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]]. Ten years later there was another treaty&mdash;the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]].
== Monarchy ==
:''For details on the Dutch monarchy, see the [[Dutch monarchy]] article.''
After the Napoleonic era the Netherlands were put back on the map of Europe. The country had always been part of the precarious balance of power that had kept France in check. Particularly the [[Russia]]n [[tsar]] wanted the Netherlands to resume this role and wanted the colonies to be returned. A compromise was struck with Britain at the [[Congress of Vienna]], whereby only Indonesia was returned, but the North and South of the Netherlands reunited. In 1815 the country became a monarchy, with the son of the last [[stadtholder]], William V, the Prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. In addition, king William I became hereditary [[Grand Duke of Luxembourg]]. William's [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands and [[Belgium]], but the French-speaking Belgian ruling minority soon began feeling like second-class citizens. The primary factors that contributed to this feeling were religious (the predominantly [[Catholic]] South versus the mostly [[Protestantism|Protestant]] North), economic (the South was industrialising, the North had always been a merchants' nation) and linguistic (the French-speaking South was not just [[Wallonia]], but also extended to the French-speaking [[bourgeoisie]] in the Flemish cities). In 1830 the situation exploded, the Belgians revolted and declared independence from the North. King William sent an army in 1831, but it was forced to retreat after a few days when the French army was mobilised. The North refused to recognise [[Belgium]] until 1839.
In 1848 [[Revolutions of 1848|unrest broke out all over Europe]]. Although there were no major events in the Netherlands, these foreign developments persuaded king [[William II of the Netherlands|William II]] to agree to liberal and democratic reform. That same year the [[liberalism|liberal]] [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to rewrite the [[constitution]], turning the Netherlands into a [[constitutional monarchy]]. The new document was proclaimed valid on [[November 3]] of that year. It severely limited the king's powers (making the cabinet accountable only to an elected [[parliament]]), and it protected [[civil liberties]].
The [[personal union]] between the Netherlands and Luxembourg ended in 1890 when [[Queen Wilhelmina]] ascended to the Dutch throne, as ascendancy rules in Luxemburg prevented a woman from becoming ruling [[Grand Duchess]].
By the end of the 19th century, in the [[New Imperialism]] wave of colonisation, the Netherlands extended their hold on [[Indonesia]]. In 1860 [[Multatuli]] wrote ''[[Max Havelaar]]'', the most famous book in the history of [[Dutch literature]], criticising the exploitation of the country and its inhabitants by the Dutch.
== 20th century ==
:''For details, see the main [[History of the Netherlands: modern history (1900-present)]] article''
Although its army mobilised when [[World War I]] broke out in August 1914, the Netherlands remained a [[neutral country]]. The [[Germany|German]] invasion of [[Belgium]] that same year led to a large flow of refugees from that country (about 1 million). The country being surrounded by states at war, and with the [[North Sea]] unsafe for civilian ships to sail on, food became scarce and was distributed using coupons. With the end of the war in 1918, the situation returned to normalcy.
Although both houses of the Dutch parliament were elected by the people, only men with high incomes were eligible for voting until 1918, when pressure from [[Socialism|socialist]] movements had resulted in elections in which all men were allowed to vote. In 1922 women also got the right to vote.
The worldwide [[Great Depression]] of 1929 and the early 1930s had crippling effects on the Dutch economy, effects which lasted longer than they did in most European countries. The depression lead to large unemployment and poverty, as well as increasing social unrest. The rise of [[Nazism]] in Germany did not go unnoticed in the Netherlands, and there was growing concern over the possibility of armed conflict. But most Dutch citizens thought that Germany would again respect Dutch neutrality.
=== World War II ===
:''For details, see the main [[Netherlands in World War II]] article and the article on [[Dutch resistance]].''
:''For details on the battle that led to the Dutch surrender in Europe, see the main [[Battle of the Netherlands]] article.''
[[image:WWII_netherlands_persoonsbewijs.jpg|thumb|300px|Two sides of a WWII 'ausweis' or 'persoonsbewijs' (identification)]]
At the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939, the Netherlands declared their [[neutral country|neutrality]] again. However, on [[May 10]], [[1940]], [[Nazi Germa |
32-bit Windows program that converts a large variety of images to ASCII art.
*[http://ascgen2.sourceforge.net/ ASCII Generator dotNET (ascgen)] Open Source and improved version rewritten in C#.
*[http://boxes.thomasjensen.com/ Boxes] GNU GPL; Draws ASCII art boxes around text. Useful for programmers.
*[http://www.figlet.org/ Figlet text generator] FIGlet font generator.
*[http://www.pixio.biz/ Imagetrix] Full-color ASCII Art conversion wizard for Windows.
*[http://img2ascii.sourceforge.net/ IMG2ASCII] GNU GPL; Transforms JPG or PNG images to [[Unicode]] or ASCII text online.
*[http://reactor.reality-protocol.de/main.php?page=jasciiart JASCiiArt 0.1] Freeware; Java Ascii Art generator for Windows, Linux, Mac OS. Reads BMP, GIF, JPG and PNG files and is able to generate HTML, RTF, TXT, BMP, PNG, JPG output ascii art.
*[http://www.pizzinini.net/projects/pic2ascii/ Pic2ASCII] Freeware; Transforms bitmaps to text (even analyzes symbol fonts). Reads BMP, GIF and JPG.
*[http://www.the-mathclub.net/index.php/JPEGTOCHAT JPEGTOCHAT] [[Public domain]]; converts [[JPG]] images to colored ASCII art.
*[http://png2mirc.sourceforge.net/ png2mirc] [[Public domain]]; converts [[PNG]] images to coloured [[mIRC]] ASCII art.
*[http://www.text-image.com/convert/ascii.html Text-Image.com] Online Image to ASCII converter.
===ASCII art groups===
ASCII art groups are defined as organized bodies of people dedicated to the purpose of creating ASCII text based artwork.
<!-- please help keep the list items in alphabetical order-->
*[http://123.ione.se/ 123]
*[http://boards.gamefaqs.com/gfaqs/gentopic.php?board=585451/ Alphabet Zoo] - ASCII artists predominantly skilled in the use of Arial font.
*[http://www.chemical-reaction.de/ Chemical Reaction]
*[http://www.galza.tk/ Galza] ASCII artists which predominantly make use of the IBM-PC Russian ASCII [[codepage]]
*[http://www.gamefaqsascii.com/ GameFAQsASCII] - a spinoff of Alphabet Zoo
*[[Impure ASCII]] [http://www.impure.tk/]
*[http://www.kuro5hin.org/user/uid:44416 The K5 ASCII reenactment players]
*[http://www.thelo0p.prv.pl/ The lo0p] Polish ASCII art group
*[[Mimic ASCII]] [http://www.mimic.ca/]
*[http://pen15.technopop.biz/ Pen15]: It's pronounced "Pen Fifteen"
*[[Remorse ASCII]] [http://www.remorse.org/]
*[[Superior Art Creations]]
*[news:alt.ascii-art alt.ascii-art], a Usenet newsgroup.
===ASCII artscene portals===
*[http://www.muff1n.com/ Muffin A&A] - ASCII Scene News, Interviews, Gallerys
*[http://www.asciiscene.org/ Boondocks] - ASCII Scene Forums for PC and Amiga
*[http://www.downmix.com/ Downmix] - ASCII, ANSI, & Hires Scene News & Releases
*[http://www.thuglife.org/ Thuglife.org] - ASCII Scene News, Releases, and Forum
===Other links===
*[http://mbox.bz/slurp/ascii/bbsads/ BBS Ads Collection v1.0 - One of the most complete BBS textmode ad collections, containing over 1.500 single ads from various platforms and scenes.]
*[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/4219/ascii.html Heister's Digital Art - ASCII page]
*[http://www.acid.org/info/mirror/jgs/history.html History of ASCII (Text) Art] by [[Joan Stark]] (Mirror)
*[http://www.ludd.luth.se/~vk/pics/ascii/junkyard/techstuff/tutorials/Joan_Stark.html#tutorials ASCII Art Drawing Tutorials]
*[http://artcode.org/ascii/ ASCII Arts Ring and Directory]
*[http://www.asciimation.co.nz/ Star Wars] (a 22-minute long ''ASCIImation'' movie: requires Java)
** telnet://towel.blinkenlights.nl ([[telnet]] version of the [[Star Wars]] movie)
*[http://onyx.chattanoogastate.edu/~jack/matrix/ The.Matrix-ASCII] The original [[The Matrix|Matrix]] film converted to ASCII animation (DVD ISO)
*[http://www.romanm.ch//seiten_layout/portfolio_ascii.php More ascii art movies]
*[http://aa5.2ch.net/mona/ Japanese ASCII Art]: requires Japanese font (available free from Windows/IE update, for Windows users)
*[http://www.geocities.co.jp/HeartLand-Yurinoki/1836/ How to draw Mona-style AA] (in Japanese)
*[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?UmlAsciiArt Illustrating software design using UnifiedModelingLanguage is discussed]
*[http://www.chris.com/ascii/ An ASCII art archive]
*[http://userpages.umbc.edu/~dschmi1/cows/ascii.html ASCII art cow collection]
*[http://www.asciiartfarts.com/ ASCII Art Farts]
*[http://www.asciibabes.com/ Actors' and musicians' portraits rendered in ASCII]
*[http://www.nerd-boy.net/ www.nerd-boy.net] [[Nerd Boy]], an ASCII comic strip by Joaquim Gandara.
*[http://www.ascii-art.de/ ASCII art dictionary] Huge collection by Andreas Freise sorted by words (topics).
*[http://www.ascii-art.com/ ASCII art gallery by Joan Stark]
*[http://www.ascii-art.net/ ASCII art by Sebastian Stoecker]
*[http://xcski.com/~ptomblin/planes.txt The ORIGINAL Ascii Airplane Collection]
*[http://www.colintheowl.com/ Colin The Owl] Several cartoons including Colin The Owl, Derren Brown's School Days, and ASCII 'interpretations' of classic video games.
*[http://www.baetzler.de/humor/ascii_cows.var The canonical list of Ascii Cows ]
*[http://www.unicodeart.com/ &#1160; Unicode art - an extended ASCII art form &#1160;]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/civiascii2/warriornessfaq.htm Tutorial for Gamefaqs compatible ASCII]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/ysqure3/links.htm Collection of non fixed-width artists]
*[http://kylewiki.mine.nu/wiki/ASCII_Art KyleWiki:Ascii Art] A collection of fixed-width ascii art
*[http://kozou.run.buttobi.net/ AA underground thread @ hiding place (English version)]
*[http://abstract.cs.washington.edu/~renacer/ascii-matrix.html.gz The Matrix - Bullet Dodging Scene]
*[http://www.info-brevetti.org/ascii/ The best of ASCII art] The best in 20 categories
*[http://ridaas.org/punkabbestia/ascii-art.htm ASCII/ANSI Art] ASCII/ANSI Art
*[http://ridaas.org/ascii-search ASCII-Search] ASCII Art Search Engine
*[http://www.apollosoft.de/ASCII/ ASCII Font] An ASCII Font for Windows
*[http://www.cumbrowski.com/RoySAC/#asciiartstyles The three Styles of the Underground ASCII Art Scene] learn about the 3 dominant underground ascii styles
* [http://cleaner.untergrund.net Cleaner Alternative Museum] Cleaner's ASCii/ANSi galleries.
[[Category:Articles with ASCII art]]
[[Category:ASCII art]]
[[Category:Digital art]]
[[cs:ASCII art]]
[[de:ASCII-Art]]
[[eo:Arto ASCII]]
[[es:Arte ASCII]]
[[fi:ASCII-taide]]
[[fr:Art ASCII]]
[[he:אמנות ASCII]]
[[ia:Arte in ASCII]]
[[it:ASCII art]]
[[ja:アスキーアート]]
[[lt:ASCII menas]]
[[nl:ASCII art]]
[[pl:ASCII-Art]]
[[pt:ASCII art]]
[[simple:ASCII-art]]
[[sk:ASCII umenie]]
[[sl:ASCII umetnost]]
[[sv:ASCII-konst]]
[[zh:ASCII艺术]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autoerotic asphyxiation</title>
<id>1885</id>
<revision>
<id>41701525</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:52:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.192.37.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cultural references */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Autoerotic asphyxiation''', or '''AEA''', is the practice of self-[[strangulation]], typically by the use of a [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], while [[masturbation|masturbating]] in order to heighten the sexual pleasure as more [[endorphine]]s are produced when the body reaches the near state of [[asphyxia]]. While highly pleasurable, AEA is also an extremely dangerous practice that results in many accidental deaths each year. A small number of people doing AEA use a plastic bag over their head, but most prefer the strangulation method.
Deaths often occur when the loss of consciousness caused by partial asphyxia leads to loss of control over the means of strangulation, resulting in continued asphyxia and death. Victims are often found to have rigged some sort of "rescue mechanism" which has not worked in the way they anticipated as they lost consciousness.
It has also been speculated that in some cases autoerotic asphyxiation may have triggered the little-known phenomenon of [[carotid sinus#Carotid sinus reflex death|carotid sinus reflex death]].
It is a popular subject in [[tabloid]]s and celebrity gossip magazines, particularly when a celebrity dies as a result of [[suicide]] or other mysterious circumstances. Such was reputedly the case with the deaths of [[Jerzy Kosiński]] (in 1991) and [[Michael Hutchence]] (in 1997), though no evidence to support the claim was produced in either case.
The artist [[Vaughn Bodé]] died from this cause in 1975.
The death in 1994 of [[Stephen Milligan]], the British Conservative MP for Eastleigh, was a case of auto-erotic asphyxiation combined with [[self-bondage]]. This combination is particularly lethal.
A more recent case is the death in 2004 of [[British National Party|BNP]] and [[British National Front|National Front]] member [[Kristian Etchells]]. [http://www.oldham-chronicle.co.uk/NEWSF04.html][http://www.oldhamadvertiser.co.uk/news/s/177/177605_national_front_member_died_during_sex_act.html]
Recent court cases have come to varied results as to whether the unintentional death resulting from autoerotic asphyxiation falls under the "self-induced injury" clause of standard [[life insurance]] policies, which prevents payouts for suicide. In June of 2003, one US court said the intent was not death and therefore the case was an accident [http://home.aigonline.com/content/0,1109,15975-1567-legal--legal,00.html], while another in August 2003 said it does technically fall within the terms since death is the logical result of asphyxiation
[http://home.aigonline.com/content/0,1109,16158-1572-legal,00.html].
== Cultural references ==
Autoerotic asphyxiation is key to the plots of many books, movies, and TV shows. Included is an accidental death in the film ''[[The Ruling Class]]'' (1972), starring [[Peter O'Toole]], as well as the movies ''[[Ken Park]]'' and ''[[Full Frontal]]'', the [[Thomas Harris]] novel ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'', the [[P. D. James]] novel ''[[An Unsuitable Job for a Woman]]'', the [[Erika Barr]] book ''[[Acquisition of Power]]'' (ISBN 1591293073), a 2002 episode of th |
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