text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
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reful writers use the modern Hawaiian orthography.
===Revival===
As a result of the constitutional provision, interest in the Hawaiian language was revived in the late 20th century. Public and independent schools throughout the state began teaching Hawaiian language standards as part of the regular curricula, beginning with preschool. With the help of the [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs]], also created by the [[1978]] constitutional convention, specially designated Hawaiian language immersion schools were established where students would be taught in all subjects using Hawaiian. Also, the [[University of Hawaii System|University of Hawai{{okina}}i System]] developed the only Hawaiian language graduate studies program in the world. Municipal codes were altered in favor of Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments.
===Pidgin===
Over the course of Hawaiian history, a third language was developed that is in common use throughout the state today. Originally considered a [[dialect]] of Hawaiian English, cultural anthropologists have recently reached consensus that [[Hawaiian Pidgin]] is a distinct [[language]] on its own. Hawaiian Pidgin finds its origins in the [[sugarcane]] and [[pineapple]] plantations as laborers from different cultures were forced to find their own ways of communicating and understanding each other. Laborer emigrants from different countries — [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]] — began composing their own words and phrases based on their own language traditions, which merged with Hawaiian and Hawaiian English.
===Debates===
A somewhat divisive political issue that has arisen since the Constitution of Hawai{{okina}}i adopted Hawaiian as an official state language is the exact spelling of the state's name. As prescribed in the [[Admission Act|Admission Act of 1959]] that granted Hawaiian statehood, the federal government recognizes ''Hawaii'' to be the official state name. However, many state and municipal entities and officials have recognized ''Hawai{{okina}}i'' to be the correct state name.
Official government publications, as well as department and office titles, use the traditional Hawaiian spelling. Private entities, including local mass media, also have shown a preference for the use of the {{okina}}okina. While in local Hawaiian society the spelling and pronunciation of ''Hawai{{okina}}i'' is preferred in nearly all cases, even by standard [[English language|English]] speakers, the federal spelling is used for purposes of interpolitical relations between other states and foreign governments.
The nuances in the Hawaiian language debate are often not obvious or well-appreciated outside Hawai{{okina}}i. The issue has often been a source of friction in situations where correct naming conventions are mandated, as people frequently disagree over which spelling is correct or incorrect, and where it is correctly or incorrectly applied.
===See also===
* [[Hawaiian alphabet]]
==Government==
The state government of Hawai{{okina}}i is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the [[Constitution of Hawaii|Constitution of Hawai{{okina}}i]], there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial.
The executive branch is led by the [[Governor of Hawaii|Governor of Hawai{{okina}}i]] and assisted by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii|Lieutenant Governor of Hawai{{okina}}i]], both elected on the same ticket. The governor, in residence at [[Washington Place]], is the only public official elected for the state government in a statewide race; all other administrators and judges are appointed by the governor. The lieutenant governor is concurrently the [[Secretary of State]] of Hawai{{okina}}i. Both the governor and lieutenant governor administer their duties from the [[Hawaii State Capitol|Hawai{{okina}}i State Capitol]]. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee the major agencies and departments of the executive of which there are twenty.
The legislative branch consists of the [[Hawaii State Legislature|Hawai{{okina}}i State Legislature]] — the twenty-five members of the [[Hawaii State Senate|Hawai{{okina}}i State Senate]] led by the [[President of the Senate]] and the fifty-one members of the [[Hawaii State House of Representatives|Hawai{{okina}}i State House of Representatives]] led by the [[Speaker of the House]]. They also govern from the Hawai{{okina}}i State Capitol. The judicial branch is led by the highest state court, the [[Hawaii State Supreme Court|Hawai{{okina}}i State Supreme Court]], which uses [[Aliiolani Hale|Ali{{okina}}iolani Hale]] as its chambers. Lower courts are organized as the [[Hawaii State Judiciary|Hawai{{okina}}i State Judiciary]].
The state is represented in the [[Congress of the United States]] by a [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Hawaii|delegation of four members]]. They are the senior and junior [[United States Senate|United States Senators]], the representative of the [[First Congressional District of Hawaii|First Congressional District of Hawai{{okina}}i]] and the representative of the [[Second Congressional District of Hawaii|Second Congressional District of Hawai{{okina}}i]]. Many Hawai{{okina}}i residents have been appointed to administer other agencies and departments of the federal government by the [[President of the United States]]. All federal officers of Hawai{{okina}}i administer their duties locally from the [[Prince Kuhio Federal Building]] near the [[Aloha Tower]] and [[Honolulu Harbor]].
Hawaii is primarily dominated by the Democratic Party and has supported Democrats in 10 of the 12 presidential elections in which it has participated. In 2004, John Kerry won the state's 4 electoral votes by a margin of 9 percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county in the state supported the Democratic candidate.
The Prince Kuhio Federal Building also houses agencies of the federal government such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], [[Internal Revenue Service]] and the [[United States Secret Service]]. The building is the site of the federal courts and the offices of the [[United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii]], principal [[law enforcement officer]] of the [[United States Department of Justice]] in the [[United States District Court for the District of Hawaii]].
<center><gallery>
Image:Lindalingle.jpg|[[Linda Lingle]]<br>Governor<br>(Republican)
Image:Jamesaiona.jpg|[[James R. Aiona, Jr.]]<br>Lieutenant Governor<br>(Republican)
Image:Daniel Inouye.jpg|[[Daniel Inouye]]<br>U.S. Senator<br>(Democrat)
Image:Daniel Akaka.jpg|[[Daniel Akaka]]<br>U.S. Senator<br>(Democrat)
Image:Neilabercrombie.jpg|[[Neil Abercrombie]]<br>U.S. Representative<br>(Democrat)
Image:Edcaseofficial.jpg|[[Edward Case]]<br>U.S. Representative<br>(Democrat)
Image:Mayorharrykim.jpg|[[Harry Kim (politician)|Harry Kim]]<br>Mayor of Hawai{{okina}}i<br>(Nonpartisan)
Image:Mufihannemann.jpg|[[Mufi Hannemann]]<br>Mayor of Honolulu<br>(Nonpartisan)
Image:Mayoralanarakawa.jpg|[[Alan Arakawa]]<br>Mayor of Maui<br>(Nonpartisan)
</gallery></center>
Unique to Hawai{{okina}}i is the way it has organized its municipal governments. There are no incorporated cities in Hawai{{okina}}i except the [[City & County of Honolulu]]. All other municipal governments are administered at the [[County (United States)|county level]]. The county executives are the [[Mayor of Hawaii|Mayor of Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Mayor of Honolulu]], [[Mayor of Kauai|Mayor of Kaua{{okina}}i]] and [[Mayor of Maui]]. All mayors in the state are elected in [[nonpartisan]] races.
The officers of the federal and state governments have been historically elected from the [[Democratic Party of Hawaii|Democratic Party of Hawai{{okina}}i]] and the [[Hawaii Republican Party|Hawai{{okina}}i Republican Party]]. Municipal charters in the state have declared all mayors to be elected in [[nonpartisan]] races.
==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_hawaii.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Hawaii]]
The history of Hawai{{okina}}i can be traced through a succession of dominating [[industry|industries]]: [[sandalwood]], [[whaling]], [[sugarcane]], [[pineapple]], [[military]], [[tourism]], and [[education]]. Since statehood was achieved in [[1959]], tourism continues to be the largest industry in Hawai{{okina}}i, contributing 24.3% of the Gross State Product (GSP) in 1997. New efforts are underway to diversify the economy. The total gross output for the state in [[2003]] was USD $47 billion; per capita income for Hawai{{okina}}i residents was USD $30,441.
Industrial exports from Hawai{{okina}}i include food processing and apparel. These industries play a small role in the Hawai{{okina}}i economy, however, due to the considerable shipping distance to markets on the west coast of the United States and ports of [[Japan]]. The main agricultural exports are [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] [[Plant propagation|stock]] and [[flower]]s, [[coffee]], [[macadamia nut]]s, [[pineapple]], [[livestock]], and [[sugar cane]]. Agricultural sales for [[2002]], according to the Hawai{{okina}}i Agricultural Statistics Service, were USD $370.9 million from diversified agriculture, USD $100.6 million from pineapple, and USD $64.3 million from sugarcane.
Hawai{{okina}}i is known for its relatively high per capita state tax burden. In the years [[2002]] and [[2003]], Hawai{{okina}}i residents had the highest state tax per capita at USD $2,757 and USD $2,838 respectively. This rate can be explained partly by the fact that services such as education, health care and social services are all rendered at the state level &mdash; as opposed to the municipal level as all other states.
Millions of tourists contribute to the |
sed to measure anything by itself. A measurement of the speed of its rotation can, however, be obtained using a spinning slotted disk, which functions as a simple [[stroboscope]]. The light from an actual light strobe would distort the measurement.
Radiometers are now commonly sold worldwide as an interesting household novelty ornament, no batteries needed, just light to get the vanes to turn; strong light gets them spinning furiously. They come in various forms, as the one pictured, and are also to be found often used in [[science museum]]s to illustrate the hidden power of light and heat.
==Thermodynamic explanation==
===External radiant source motion===
For any [[heat engine]] to turn, there must be a difference in [[temperature]]. In this case, the black side of the vane is hotter than the other side, as [[radiant energy]] from a light source warms the black side by [[black-body absorption]] faster than the silver or white side. The internal air [[molecule]]s are "heated up" (i.e. experience an increase in their speed) when they touch the black side of the vane. The details of exactly how this moves the hotter side of the vane forward are given in the section below ''Explanations for the force on the vanes''.
The internal temperature rises as the black vanes impart heat to the partial vacuum molecules, but they are cooled again when they touch the bulb's glass surface which is at ambient temperature. Heat loss through the glass keeps the internal bulb temperature steady so that the two sides of the vanes can develop a temperature difference. The white or silver side of the vanes are slightly warmer than the internal air temperature but cooler than the black side, as some heat conducts through the vane from the black side. The two sides of each vane must be thermally insulated to some degree so that the silver or white side does not immediately reach the temperature of the black side. If the vanes are made of metal, then the black or white paint can be the insulation. The glass stays much closer to ambient temperature than the temperature reached by the black side of the vanes. The higher external air pressure helps conduct heat away from the glass.
A strong vacuum inside the bulb does not cause motion because there are not enough air molecules to cause air currents to move the vanes and to transfer heat to the outside before both sides of each vane reach thermal equilibrium by heat conduction through the vane material. Higher inside pressure does not cause motion because the temperature differences are not enough to move the higher concentration of air. There is too much air resistance for "eddy currents" to occur. The slight air movement caused by the temperature difference is blocked by the higher pressure before the effects can "wrap around" to the other side.
===Motion without external radiation===
When heating the radiometer in the absence of a light source, it turns in the forward direction. You can place your hands around but not quite touching the glass and it will turn slowly or not at all, but if you touch the glass to warm it quickly, it will turn more noticeably. The directly heated glass gives off enough infrared radiation to turn the vanes, but if the hands are not touching the glass, the glass blocks much of the far-infrared radiation. Near-infrared and visible light more easily penetrate the glass.
If you cool the glass quickly in the absence of a strong light source by placing ice on the glass, it turns backwards (i.e. the silver sides are trailing). This demonstrates black-body radiation from the black sides of the vanes rather than black-body absorption. It turns backwards because the black sides give off more heat and cool more quickly than the other side.
The rotation lasts only as long as the temperature of the glass is increasing or decreasing fast enough to overcome the friction of the spindle and faster than the temperature conduction through the vanes can cause the two sides of the vanes to reach equal temperature.
==Explanations for the force on the vanes ==
Over the years, there have been many attempts to explain how a Crookes radiometer works:
1. Crookes incorrectly suggested that the force was due to the [[radiation pressure|pressure of light]]. This theory was originally supported by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] who had predicted this force. This explanation is still often seen in leaflets packaged with the device. The first experiment to disprove this theory was done by [[Arthur Schuster]] in [[1876]], who observed that there was a force on the glass bulb of the Crookes radiometer that was in the opposite direction to the rotation of the vanes. This showed that the force turning the vanes was generated inside the radiometer. If light pressure was the cause of the rotation, then the better the vacuum in the bulb, the less air resistance to movement, and the faster the vanes should spin. In [[1901]], with a better vacuum pump, [[Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev|Pyotr Lebedev]] showed that in fact, the radiometer only works when there is low pressure gas in the bulb, and the vanes stay motionless in a hard vacuum. Finally, if light pressure were the motive force, the radiometer would spin in the opposite direction as the [[photon]]s on the shiny side being reflected would deposit more momentum than on the black side where the photons are absorbed. The actual pressure exerted by light, though it exists, and can be measured with devices such as the [[Nichols radiometer]], is far too small to move these vanes.
2. Another incorrect theory was that the heat on the dark side was causing the material to outgas, which pushed the radiometer around. This was effectively disproved by both Schuster's and Lebedev's experiments.
3. A partial explanation is that gas [[molecule]]s hitting the warmer side of the vane will pick up some of the heat i.e. will bounce off the vane with increased speed. Giving the molecule this extra boost effectively means that a minute pressure is exerted on the vane. The imbalance of this effect between the warmer black side and the cooler silver side means the net pressure on the vane is equivalent to a push on the black side, and as a result the vanes spin round with the black side trailing. The problem with this idea is that the faster moving molecules produce more force, they also do a better job of stopping other molecules from reaching the vane, so the force on the vane should be exactly the same -- the greater temperature causes a decrease in density which results in the same force on both sides. Years after this explanation was dismissed, [[Albert Einstein]] showed that the two pressures do not cancel out exactly at the edges of the vanes because of the temperature difference there. The force predicted by Einstein would be enough to move the vanes, but not fast enough.
4. The final piece of the puzzle, thermal transpiration, was theorized by [[Osborne Reynolds]], but first published by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in the last paper before his death in [[1879]]. Reynolds found that if a porous plate is kept hotter on one side than the other, the interactions between gas molecules and the walls of the pores are such that gas will flow through from the cooler to the hotter side. The vanes of a typical Crookes radiometer are not porous, but their edges behave like the walls of the pores in Reynolds' plate. The gas molecules move from the white side towards the black, and the vane moves oppositely: white side forward.
Both Einstein's and Reynolds' forces appear to cause a Crookes radiometer to rotate, although it still isn't clear which one is stronger. [See discussion.]
==References==
* Loeb, Leonard B. (1934) ''The Kinetic Theory Of Gases (2nd Edition)'';McGraw-Hill Book Company; pp 353-386
* Kennard, Earle H. (1938) ''Kinetic Theory of Gases''; McGraw-Hill Book Company; pp 327-337
==External links==
* [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/LightMill/light-mill.html How does a light-mill work?-Physics FAQ]
* [http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page7.html The Cathode Ray Tube site]
* [http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0959-5309/45/2/315 1933 Bell and Green experiment] descibing the effect of different gas pressures on the vanes. [1]
[[Category:Measuring instruments|Radiometer]]
[[Category:Radiometry]]
[[de:Lichtmühle]]
[[es:Radiómetro de Crookes]]
[[nl:radiometer van Crookes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cold Chisel</title>
<id>7022</id>
<revision>
<id>41581456</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:38:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cantyboy</username>
<id>967527</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Reputation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Cold Chisel |
image = [[Image:coldchisel.jpg|200px]] |
years_active = [[1973]] &ndash; [[1984]] |
status = active |
origin = [[Adelaide, South Australia]], [[Australia]] |
music_genre = [[Pub rock (Australia)|Pub rock]] |
record_label = [[Elektra Records|Elektra]] |
current_members = [[Jimmy Barnes]]<br />[[Don Walker]]<br />[[Ian Moss]]<br />[[Steve Prestwich]]<br />[[Phil Small]] |[[jason white]]
}}
:''This article is about the [[Australia]]n band. For information about the cutting tool, see [[Chisel]].''
[[Cold Chisel]] produced the canonical example of Australian [[Pub rock (Australia)|pub rock]], with a string of hits throughout the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], and they are acknowledged as one of the most popular and successful Australian groups of the period, although this success and acclaim was almost completely restricted to Australia.
==Beginnings==
The band formed in [[Adelaide, Australia|Adelaide]] in [[1973]] as a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band called Orange around keyboard player Don Walker and original bassist Les Kascm |
via the Lords. If the Commons have impeached a peer, the Lords take custody of the accused, otherwise custody goes to [[Black Rod]]. The accused remains in custody unless the Lords allow bail. The Lords set a date for the trial while the Commons appoints managers, who act as prosecutors in the trial. The accused may defend by [[counsel]].
The [[House of Lords]] hears the case, with the [[Lord Chancellor]] presiding (or the [[Lord High Steward]] if the impeachment relates to a [[peerage|peer]] accused of high treason.) The hearing resembles an ordinary trial: both sides may call witnesses and present evidence. At the end of the hearing the Lord Chancellor puts the question on the first article to each member in order of seniority, commencing with the most junior peer, and ending with himself, and after all have voted, proceeds to deal with any remaining articles similarly. Upon being called, a Lord must rise and declare upon his honour, "Guilty" or "Not Guilty". After voting on all of the articles has taken place, and if the Lords find the defendant guilty, the Commons may move for judgment; the Lords may not declare the punishment until the Commons have so moved. The Lords may then provide whatever punishment they find fit, within the law. A Royal [[Pardon]] cannot excuse the defendant from trial, but a Pardon may reprieve a convicted defendant.
===History===
Parliament has held the power of impeachment since mediæval times. Originally, the House of Lords held that impeachment could only apply to members of the [[peerage]] (nobles), as the nobility (the Lords) would try their own peers, while commoners ought to try ''their'' peers (other commoners) in a [[jury]]. However, in 1681, the Commons declared that they had the right to impeach whomsoever they pleased, and the Lords have respected this resolution.
After the reign of [[Edward IV of England | Edward IV]], impeachment fell into disuse, the [[bill of attainder]] becoming the preferred form of dealing with undesirable subjects of the Crown. However, during the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] and thereafter, impeachments became more popular, as they did not require the assent of the Crown, while bills of attainder did, thus allowing Parliament to resist royal attempts to dominate Parliament. The most recent cases of impeachment dealt with [[Warren Hastings]], Governor-General of India between 1773 and 1786 (impeached in 1788; the Lords found him not guilty in 1795), and [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]], [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], in 1806 (acquitted). The last attempted impeachment occurred in [[1848]], when [[David Urquhart]] accused [[Viscount Palmerston]] of having signed a secret treaty with [[Imperial Russia]] and of receiving monies from the [[Nicholas I of Russia |Tsar]]. Palmerston survived the vote in the Commons; the Lords did not hear the case.
===Impeachment in modern politics===
The procedure has, over time, become rarely used and some legal authorities (such as [[Halsbury's Laws of England]]) consider it to be probably obsolete. The principles of "responsible government" require that the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and other executive officers answer to Parliament, rather than to the Sovereign. Thus the Commons can remove such an officer without a long, drawn-out impeachment. However, it is argued by some that the remedy of impeachment remains as part of British constitutional law, and that legislation would be required to abolish it. Furthermore, impeachment as a means of punishment for wrongdoing, as distinct from being a means of removing a minister, remains a valid reason for accepting that is continues to be available, at least in theory.
In April 1977 the [[Young Liberals]]' annual conference unanimously passed a motion to call on the [[Liberal Party (UK) | Liberal]] leader ([[David Steel]]) to move for the impeachment of [[Ronald King Murray]] QC, the [[Lord Advocate]]. Mr. Steel did not call the motion but Murray (now Lord Murray, a former [[List of Senators of the College of Justice|Senator of the College of Justice]] of Scotland) agrees that the Commons still have the right to initiate an impeachment motion. On [[25 August]] [[2004]], [[Plaid Cymru]] MP [[Adam Price]] announced his [[Impeach Blair campaign|intention to move for the impeachment]] of [[Tony Blair]] for his role in involving Britain in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. In response [[Peter Hain]], the [[Leader of the House of Commons|Commons Leader]], insisted that impeachment was obsolete, given modern government's responsibility to parliament. Ironically, [[Peter Hain]] had served as president of the Young Liberals when they called for the impeachment of Mr. Murray in 1977.
In 2006 [[General]] [[Sir]] [[Hugh Michael Rose|Michael Rose]] revived the call for the impeachment of [[British]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] for leading the country into the [[invasion of Iraq]] in 2003 under false pretenses.''''''
==United States==
{{main|Impeachment in the United States}}
[[Image:Senate in session.jpg|thumb|300px|The impeachment trial of [[Bill Clinton|President Bill Clinton]] in 1999, [[William H. Rehnquist|Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist]] presiding. The House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right, much in the fashion of President Andrew Johnson's trial.]]
In the [[United States]], impeachment can occur both at the federal and state level. At the federal level, both the [[executive branch]] and the [[judiciary]] may be impeached, though different standards apply. For the executive branch, only those who have allegedly committed "[[treason]], [[bribery]], or other high crimes and misdemeanors" may be impeached. Although treason and bribery are obvious, the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] is silent on what constitutes a "high crime." Several commentators have suggested that [[Congress]] alone may decide for itself what constitutes an impeachable offense.
The standard for impeachment among the judiciary is much broader. Article III of the Constitution states that judges remain in office "during good behavior," implying that Congress may remove a judge for bad behavior.
Members of Congress themselves are not subject to impeachment. However, the House of Representatives and the Senate have the authority to discipline and expel their own members.
The procedure is in two steps. The [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] must first pass "articles of impeachment" by a simple majority. All fifty state legisatures as well as the [[District of Columbia]] city council may also pass articles of impeachment. The articles of impeachment constitute the formal allegations. Upon their passage, the defendant has been "impeached."
Next, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] tries the accused. In the case of the impeachment of a President, the [[Chief Justice of the United States]] presides over the proceedings. Otherwise, the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]], in his capacity of President of the Senate, or the [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the Senate]] presides. This would include the impeachment of the Vice President him- or herself. In order to convict the accused, a [[two-thirds majority]] of the senators present is required.
Following conviction, the Senate may vote to punish the individual only by removing him from office, or by barring him from holding future office, or both. Alternatively, it may impose no punishment. However in the case of executive officers, removal follows automatically upon conviction. The defendant remains liable to criminal prosecution. It is possible to impeach someone even after the accused has vacated his office in order to disqualify the person from such emoluments of office as a pension.
Congress regards impeachment as a power to be used only in extreme cases; the House has initiated impeachment proceedings only 62 times since [[1789]] (most recently Bill Clinton), and only the following 16 federal officers have been impeached. Many mistakenly assume [[Richard Nixon]] was impeached, but he resigned prior to the House's action in the face of the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate:
* [[Associate Justice]] [[Samuel Chase]] in 1804
* [[President Bill Clinton]] was [[impeached]] on [[December 19]], [[1998]] by the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] on grounds of [[perjury]] to a [[grand jury]] (by a 228-206 vote) and [[obstruction of justice]] (by a 221-212 vote). Two other articles of impeachment failed &mdash; a second count of [[perjury]] in the Jones case (by a 205-229 vote), and one accusing Clinton of [[abuse of power]] (by a 148-285 vote) was acquitted by the Senate.
* [[President Andrew Johnson]] in [[1868]]. President Johnson was acquitted of all charges by a single vote in the [[Senate]].
* one [[cabinet]] officer
* one [[Senator]]
* eleven other [[federal judge]]s.
==Republic of Ireland==
In the [[Republic of Ireland]] formal impeachment can apply only to the [[President of Ireland|President]]. Article 12 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] provides that, unless judged to be "permanently incapacitated" by the [[Irish Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], the president can only be removed from office by the houses of the [[Oireachtas]] (parliament) and only for the commission of "stated misbehaviour". Either house of the Oireachtas may impeach the president, but only by a resolution approved by a majority of at least two-thirds of its total number of members; and a house may not consider a proposal for impeachment unless requested to do so by at least thirty of its number.
Where one house impeac |
m|Oral Law]] in his time. This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based.
* The ''Hilchot'' of ''the Rif'', Rabbi [[Isaac Alfasi]] (1013 - 1103), summations of the legal material in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excludes all [[Aggadah|Aggadic]] (non-legal, homiletic) matter. The ''Hilchot'' has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
* The [[Mishneh Torah]] (also known as the ''Yad Ha-Hazaqah''), by [[Maimonides]] (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, the [[Rambam]]; 1135 - 1204). The 14 volumes in this work encompass the full range of Jewish law, as formulated for all ages and places. It completely reorganizes and reformulates the laws in a logical system. It opens with a section on systematic philosophical theology, derived largely from [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] science and metaphysics, which it regards as the most important component of Jewish law.
* The work of ''the Rosh'', Rabbi [[Asher ben Jehiel]] (1250?/1259?-1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final Halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the [[Tosafists]]. This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi's and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
* The [[Sefer Mitzvot Gadol]] (The "SeMaG") of Rabbi [[Moses ben Jacob of Coucy]] ([[13th century]], [[Coucy]], [[France]]). "SeMaG" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive [[mitzvah|commandments]], separately discussing each of them according to the [[Talmud]] (in light of the commentaries of [[Rashi]] and the [[Tosafot]]) and the other codes existent at the time.
* The [[Arba'ah Turim]] (The Tur, The Four Columns) by Rabbi [[Jacob ben Asher]] ([[1270]] - [[1343]], [[Toledo, Spain]]). This work traces the Halakha from the Torah text and the Talmud through the [[Rishonim]], with the ''Hilchot'' of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the Tur covers only those areas of Jewish religious law that were in force in the author's time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all Jewish codes of law since this time have followed the Tur's arrangement of material.
** [[Orach Chayim]] - "The Way of Life" worship and ritual observance in the home and [[synagogue]], through the course of the day, the weekly [[sabbath]] and the festival cycle.
** [[Yoreh De'ah]] - "Teach Knowledge" assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning [[menstruation|menstrual]] impurity.
** [[Even Ha-'Ezer]] - "The Rock of the Helpmate" [[marriage]], [[divorce]] and other issues in [[family]] law.
** [[Hoshen Mishpat]] - "The Breastplate of Judgment" The administration and [[adjudication]] of civil law.
*The [[Shulkhan Arukh|Beit Yosef, and the Shulkhan Arukh]] of Rabbi [[Yosef Karo]] ([[1488]]&ndash;[[1575]]). The ''Beit Yosef'' is a huge commentary on the ''Tur'' in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later [[rabbinical literature]] (examining thirty-two [[posek|authorities]], beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi [[Israel Isserlein]]). The [[Shulkhan Arukh]] is a condensation of the ''Beit Yosef'' - stating each ruling simply (literally translated, ''Shulkhan Arukh'' means "set table"). Karo based his [[posek|rulings]] on three authorities - Maimonides (Rambam), Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif). In writing the Shulkhan Arukh, Rabbi Yosef followed the chapter divisions of the Tur. [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jews]] use the Shulkhan Arukh as the basis for their daily practice.
*Rabbi [[Moshe Isserles]] ([[Kraków]], [[Poland]], [[1525]] to [[1572]]) noted that the ''Shulkhan Arukh'' was based on the [[Sephardic Judaism|Sephardic]] tradition, and he created a series of [[gloss]]es to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Arukh for cases where Sephardi and [[Ashkenazi]] [[minhag|customs]] differed (based on the works of [[Yaakov Moelin]], [[Israel Isserlein]] and [[Israel Bruna]]). The glosses are called ''Hamapah'', the "Tablecloth" for the "Set Table". His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the Shulkhan Arukh; typeset in a different script. Isserles' ''Darkhei Moshe'' is similarly a commentary on the Tur and the Beit Yosef.
* The [[Shulchan Aruch HaRav]] of Rabbi [[Shneiur Zalman]] of Liadi (c. [[1800]]) was an attempt to recodify the law as it stood at that time, stating the [[posek|decided halakha]], as well as the underlying reasoning; unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication. It is held in esteem by some [[Hasidim]], and is quoted as authoratitive by many subsequent works.
* "Layman oriented" digests of Halakha: The [[Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh]] of Rabbi [[Shlomo Ganzfried]] ([[Hungary]] [[1804]] -[[1886]]), based on the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century, became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity. This work is not binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or the Shulkhan Arukh. It is still popular in [[Orthodox Judaism]] as a framework for study, if not always for practice. [[Chayei Adam]] and [[Chochmat Adam]] by [[Avraham Danzig]] (Poland, [[1748]]-[[1820]]) are similar [[Ashkenazi]] works. The [[Ben Ish Chai]] by [[Yosef Chaim]] ([[Baghdad]], [[1832]] - [[1909]]) is a corresponding [[Sephardi]] work.
* The [[Mishnah Berurah]] of Rabbi [[Yisrael Meir Kagan|Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen]], (the "Chofetz Chaim", Poland, [[1838]] - [[1933]]) is a commentary on the "Orach Chayim" section of the [[Shulkhan Arukh]], discussing the application of each Halakha in light of all subsequent [[Acharonim | Acharonic]] decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[Ashkenazi | Ashkenazic Jewry]] in the postwar period, supplanting the more scholarly ''[[Arukh HaShulkhan]]'' of Rabbi [[Yechiel Michel Epstein]]. [[Kaf HaChaim]] on [[Orach Chayim]] and parts of [[Yoreh De'ah]], by the [[Sephardi]] sage [[Yaakov Chaim Sofer]] ([[Baghdad]] and [[Jerusalem]], [[1870]] - [[1939]]) is similair in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah.
* "A Guide To Jewish Religious Practice", by Rabbi [[Isaac Klein]], with contributions from the Conservative [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]]. This work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative Jewish]] point of view. It is not accepted among [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]].
==See also==
* [[Mishpat Ivri]]
== External links and references==
===General===
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=262763 Judaism 101 Laws and Customs]
*[http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/The_Rules_of_Halacha.asp The Rules of Halacha], Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=35&letter=T Talmudic Law], jewishencyclopedia.com
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=107&letter=L Law, Codification of], jewishencyclopedia.com
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/04-index.html FAQ on halakha and Jewish law], shamash.org
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/halakhah.htm Halakhah article], jewfaq.org
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/03-Torah-Halacha/section-52.html FAQ on the different rabbinic eras], faqs.org
*[http://www.aish.com/societyWork/sciencenature/Why_Jewish_Medical_Ethics.asp An introduction to the system of Jewish Law], aish.com
*[http://library.law.miami.edu/jewishguide.html Jewish Law Research Guide], [[University of Miami]] Law Library
*[http://hsf.bgu.ac.il/cjt/files/electures/gloss.htm#Halakhah Entry on Halakhah], Goldstein-Goren International Center for Jewish Thought
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&kid=1500 Halacha (Torah Law)] chabad.org
===Discussion===
*[http://www.torahweb.org/torah/special/2003/rsch_masorah.html On the Matter of Masorah], Rabbi Herschel Schachter
*[http://www.beingjewish.com/mesorah/notchaotic.html The Oral Law and Our Own Opinions], Mordechai Housman
*[http://www.yasharbooks.com/freedom%20to%20interpret.pdf Freedom to Interpret], Rabbi Aryeh Carmell
*[http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/ Jewish Law Articles: "Examining Halacha, Jewish Issues and Secular Law"], jlaw.com
*[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/journal/broyde-wagner-1.htm Orthodox Responses to Sociological and Technological Change], Journal of Halacha & Contemporary Society
*[http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/Gruss/katz.html Da'at Torah - The Unqualified Authority Claimed for Halachists], Prof. Jacob Katz
*[http://www.nishmat.net/article.php?id=180&heading=0 Authority and Autonomy in Pesikat HaHalacha], Rabbi Zvi Leshem
===Fulltext resources===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/0.htm ''Mishneh Torah'']
*[http://www.chassidus.org.ru/chabadlibrary.org/sifrey_yesod/shulchan_oruch/index.php ''Shulchan Aruch'']
*[http://www.chassidus.org.ru/chabadlibrary.org/admur_hazoken/shulchan_oruch/orach_chaim/kerech_alef/001_1.htm ''Shulchan Aruch HaRav'']
*[http://www.shofar.net/Content/Kitzur_Shulchan.htm?id=5417 ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch''], (note: single, very large webpage)
*[http://www.shechem.org/torah/benishhi/index.html ''Ben Ish Chai'']
===Study resources===
*[http://www.torah.org/learning/halacha-overview/archives.html ''Mishneh Torah'' overview]
*[http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/ocarchives.html ''Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim'' overview]
*[http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/archives.html ''Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah'' overview]
*[http://www.torah.org/advanced/mishna-berura/ ''Mishna Berura'' translation]
*[http://www.torah.org/learning/halacha/ ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' translation]; or [http://www.geocities.com/ |
he conquest or where inhabitants voluntarily converted to Islam. If the country submitted by capitulation, al-Nawawi wrote, dhimmis were permitted to build new houses of worship only if the capitulation treaty stated that dhimmis remained owners of their land. In observance of this prohibition, Abbasid caliphs [[al-Mutawakkil]], [[al-Mahdi]], and [[Harun al-Rashid]] ordered destruction of all churches and synagogues built after the Islamic conquest. In the 11th century, the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]] oversaw over the demolition of all churches and synagogues in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, including [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem. However, al-Hakim subsequently allowed to rebuild the destroyed buildings. Nevertheless, dhimmis sometimes managed to expand churches and synagogues and even build new ones, albeit at a price of bribing to local officials in order to get permissions.{{ref|plworsh}}
There was no consensus in Islamic jurisprudence as to whether it was permissible for dhimmis to repair churches and synagogues. The pact of Umar, as cited by ibn Kathir, puts an obligation on dhimmis not to “restore any place of worship that needs restoration”[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&tid=20986]. At the same time, [[al-Mawardi]] wrote in the 11th century that dhimmis “can restore ancient synagogues and churches that have fallen into ruin”. As in the case of building new houses of worship, the ability of dhimmi communities to repair churches and synagogues usually depended upon its relationship with local Muslim authorities and its ability to pay bribes.
===Taxation===
{{main|Jizya}}
{{main|Kharaj}}
Dhimmi communities were subjected to taxes known as ''jizya'' – a [[poll tax]] – and ''kharaj'' – a land tax. Early chronicles use these terms indiscriminately; only later did ''kharaj'' emerge as a tax payable by a farmer regardless of his religion.{{ref|kharaj}} The resulting tax burden on dhimmis was higher than that on Muslims who paid ''[[zakat]]'' &ndash; mandatory alms{{ref|jizyazakat}}, and according to Norman Stillman: “''Jizya'' and ''kharaj'' were a crushing burden for the non-Muslim peasantry who eked out a bare living in a subsistence economy.”{{ref|burden}} Most Islamic scholars agree that ''jizya'' must be levied only upon adult males, and the 8th-century scholar [[Abu Ubayd]] advises that dhimmis must not be burdened above their capacity or caused to suffer.{{ref|jizyazakat}} The [[Shafi'i]] school, however, dissents, demanding “the poll tax to be paid by dying people, the old, … the blind, monks, workers, and the poor, incapable of practicing a trade.” The latter view was often applied in practice, as contemporary non-Muslim sources give witness of taxation even of dead persons, widows, and orphans. All taxes paid by Muslims were usually doubled for dhimmis.{{ref|tax}}
Sura 9:29 demands that ''jizya'' be exacted from non-Muslims as a condition required for jihad to cease. Failure to pay the ''jizya'' could result in the pledge of protection of a dhimmi's life and property to become void with the dhimmi facing a choice between conversion and death or be imprisoned as advocated by [[Abu Yusuf]], the chief [[kadi|religious judge]] of Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid{{ref|abuyusuf}}. Al-Nawawi, however, argues that the unpaid amount of a poll tax remain as debt to a dhimmi’s account until he becomes solvent{{ref|tax}}. In the Ottoman Empire, dhimmis had to carry a receipt certifying their payment of jizya at all times, upon pain of imprisonment. <!--If they joined the Muslim forces against an outside agressor they did not have to pay the jizya.<ref>''Islamic Political Ethics''
by Sohail H. Hashmi (editor), page 166 ISBN 0691113106</ref>-->
===Legal aspects ===
====Prohibition on testimony====
Testimony of dhimmis was not admissible in cases involving a Muslim; on the other hand, Muslims could testify against dhimmis.{{ref|test}} This legal disability put dhimmis in a precarious position in which they could not defend themselves against false accusations by Muslims except by hiring Muslim witnesses and bribing [[kadi|Muslim religious judges]]. Apart from breeding corruption, prohibition on non-Muslim testimony deepened the rift between communities, as dhimmis sought to reduce the possibility of conflict by limiting contacts with Muslims.{{ref|court}}
====Punishment for murder of a dhimmi====
In all schools of [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], except [[Hanafi]], the murder of a dhimmi, if perpetrated by a Muslim, was punishable by payment of blood money only and no death penalty was possible. For all schools of jusrisprudence, except Shafi'i, the value of a dhimmi's life was one-half of the value of a Muslim's life; for Shafi'is, Jews and Christians were worth one-third of a Muslim and Zoroastrians just one-fifteenth. Hanafi school, however, believes that murder of a dhimmi must be punishable by death, citing a hadith according to which [[Muhammad]] ordered execution of a Muslim who killed a dhimmi.{{ref|dsent}}
A peculiar practice developed in [[Yemen]], where Arab tribes collected jizya from Jews, offering them protection. If a Muslim from one tribe killed a Jew protected by another tribe, then the other tribe could retaliate by killing a Jew protected by the tribe of the murderer. As a result, two Jews were murdered, while no direct sanctions were imposed on Muslims.{{ref|yemen}}
===Social and psychological aspects===
====Humiliation of dhimmis====
Islamic law stipulates that dhimmis must be belittled for their rejection of Islam; humiliating them was an act of piety, a fulfillment of divine will. Bernard Lewis comments that<blockquote> The Qur'an and tradition often use the word ''dhull'' or ''dhilla'' (humiliation or abasment) to indicate the status God has assigned to those who reject Mohammad, and in which they should be kept for so long as they persist in that rejection.{{ref|humillewis}}</blockquote>Ibn Kathir wrote that dhimmis must feel “disgraced, humiliated and belittled. Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to honor the people of the ''dhimma'' or elevate them above Muslims, for they are miserable, disgraced and humiliated."[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&tid=20986] Echoing a saying attributed to Muhammad (Sahih Muslim, book 26, #5389), Hasan al-Kafrawi, an 18th century scholar, comments that “if you (Muslims) encounter one of them (dhimmis) on the road, push him into the narrowest and tightest spot”.[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/1772-jewsinislam.html] European travelers to the Middle East describe humiliations and insults of Christians and Jews on the streets until the mid-19th century.
As recommended by many Muslim scholars, most notably [[Zamakhshari|al-Zamakhshari]] and al-Nawawi, jizya was often collected in a humiliating procedure:<blockquote>[T]he collector remains seated and the infidel remains standing..., his head bowed and his back bent. The infidel must place money on the scales, while the collector holds him by his beard and strikes him on both cheeks.</blockquote>The ritual stemmed from the traditional interpretation of Sura 9:29 that jizya was not merely a tax, but also an expression of submission.{{ref|humillewis}} Abu Yusuf, however, argues against mistreatment of dhimmis during jizya collection, saying that "they should be treated with leniency".{{ref|abuyusuf}} The procedure was not followed in the [[Ottoman Empire]], where jizya was collected by representatives of dhimmi communities themselves.{{ref|tax}}
<!--
The prohibition on forming friendship with them goes back to Sura 5:64:”O Believers, do not take as your friends the infidels or those who received the Scriptures before you”, i.e. Jews and Christians.-->
====Distinctive clothing====
:''See also [[Yellow badge]]''
For dhimmis to be clearly distinguishable from Muslims in public, Muslim rulers often prohibited dhimmis from wearing certain types of clothing, while forcing them to put on highly distinctive garments, usually of a bright color. To increase the debasement of non-Muslims, the clothes usually had to be made of rough fabrics and were often incongruous. Although [[sumptuary law|distinctive clothing]] for non-Muslims was not spelled out in Islamic holy texts, Islamic scholars still issued rulings regarding clothing of dhimmis, citing the Pact of Umar in which Christians supposedly took an obligation to "always dress in the same way wherever we may be, and ... bind the zunar [wide belt] round our waists". Al-Nawawi required dhimmis to wear a piece of yellow cloth and a belt, as well as a metallic ring inside public baths.{{ref|baths}}
Regulations on dhimmi clothings varied frequently to please the whims of the ruler. Although the initiation of such regulations are usually attributed to Umar I, historical evidence suggests that those were Abbasid caliphs who pioneered this practice. In 807, [[Harun al-Rashid]] ruled that Jews should wear high cone caps and yellow belts, the first prototypes of the [[yellow badge]]; Christians had to wear blue belts. These distinction marks became obsolete in 849 when [[al-Mutawakkil]] ordered dhimmis to put a yellow veil on their heads and shoulders and wear a wide belt. He also required them to wear small bells in public baths. In the 11th century, [[Fatimid]] caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al-Hakim]] ordered Christians to put on half-meter wooden crosses and Jews to wear wooden [[golden calf|calves]] around their necks. In the late 12th century, Almohad ruler [[Yaqub, Almohad Caliph|Abu Yusuf]] ordered Jews of Maghreb to wear dark blue garments with long sleeves and saddle-like caps. His grandson, [[Abdallah, Almohad Caliph|Abdallah]], made a concession after appeals from the Jews, relaxing the required clothing to yellow garments and turbans. In the 16th century, Jews of Maghreb could only wear sandals made of rushe |
t could fit in a saddlebag and that the average merchant or craftsman could afford.
With books readily available, it was now worthwhile to learn to read. In dealing with current topics, the second or third edition is the better book. When Paolo or Aldo hired a great shipbuilder to write a book on shipbuilding, he described all the best techniques he was aware of. Other builders bought the book and then wrote to protest that their technique for a particular technology was better. Many of these improvements were then incorporated in the later editions. Before the Aldine Press, a new innovation might take a hundred years to get from Italy to the Netherlands. Afterward, information started to move in all directions, and communication times were reduced to five or six years. This is an important step in the modernization of Europe, and can even be viewed as a precursor of the [[Internet]].
==Aldine editions==
*1495-1498 [[Aristotle]]
*1501 [[Francesco Petrarca]], ''Le cose volgari''
*1502 [[Dante]]
*1502 [[Sophocles]]
*1503 ''Florilegium diversorum epigrammatum in septem libros''
*1504 and 1517 [[Homer]]
*1513 [[Plato]]
*1514 ''Institutionum grammaticarum libri quatuor''
*1514 [[Virgil]]
==External links==
*http://www.library.ucla.edu/special/scweb/aldexhibit.htm
*http://www.nd.edu/~italnet/Dante/text/1502.venice.html
[[Category:Book publishing companies of Italy]]
[[Category:Renaissance]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aldred</title>
<id>1583</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|Aldred the English ecclesiastic|the Anglo-Saxon leader|Hwicce}}
'''Aldred''', or '''Ealdred''' (d. [[11 September]],[[1069]]), [[England|English]] ecclesiastic, became [[abbot]] of [[Tavistock]] about [[1027]], in [[1044]] was made [[bishop of Worcester]], and in [[1060]], [[archbishop of York]].
He had considerable influence over King [[Edward the Confessor]], and as his interests were secular rather than religious he took a prominent part in affairs of state, and in [[1046]] led
an unsuccessful expedition against the [[Wales|Welsh]]. In [[1050]] he was largely instrumental in restoring [[Sweyn]], the son of [[Earl Godwin]], to his earldom, and about the same time went to [[Rome]]
"on the king's errand."
In [[1054]] he was sent to the emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] to obtain that monarch's influence in securing the return to England of Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, who was in [[Hungary]] with King [[Andrew I of Hungary|Andrew I]]. In this mission he was successful and obtained some insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II, archbishop of [[Cologne]].
After his return to [[England]] he took charge of the sees of [[Hereford]] and [[Ramsbury]], although not appointed to these bishoprics; and in [[1058]] made a pilgrimage to [[Jerusalem]], being the first English bishop to take this journey.
Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury, Aldred was elected archbishop of [[York]] in [[1060]], and in [[1061]] he proceeded to [[Rome]] to receive the [[pallium]]. On his arrival there, however, various charges were brought against him by a [[synod]], and [[Pope Nicholas II]] not only refused his request but degraded him from the episcopate. The sentence was, however, subsequently reversed, and Aldred received the pallium and was restored to his former station.
It is stated by [[Florence of Worcester]] that Aldred crowned King [[Harold Godwinson|Harold II]] in [[1066]], although the [[Normans|Norman]] authorities mention [[Stigand]] as the officiating prelate. After the [[battle of Hastings]], Aldred joined the party who sought to bestow the throne upon [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar the Ætheling]], but when these efforts appeared hopeless he was among those who submitted to [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] at [[Berkhamstead]].
Selected to crown the new king he performed the ceremony on Christmas Day [[1066]], and in [[1068]] performed the same office at the coronation of Matilda, the Conqueror's wife. But though often at court, he seems to have been no sympathiser with Norman oppression, and is even said to have
bearded the king himself. He died at York on the [[September 11]] [[1069]] and was buried in his own cathedral.
Aldred did much for the restoration of discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was liberal in his gifts for ecclesiastical purposes. He built the monastic
church of St Peter at [[Gloucester]], and rebuilt a large part of that of St John at Beverley. At his instigation, Folcard, a monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', edited by C. Plummer ([[Oxford]], [[1892]]-[[1899]]).
*Florence of Worcester, ''Chronicon ex Chronicis'', edited by B. Thorpe ([[London]], [[1848]]-[[1849]]).
*William of Malmesbury, ''De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum'', edited by N. E. S. A. Hamilton ([[London]], [[1870]]).
*W. H. Dixon, ''Fasti Eboracenses'', vol. i., edited by J. Raine ([[London]], [[1863]]).
*T. Stubbs, ''Chronica Pontificum Ecclesiae Eboracensis'', edited by J. Raine ([[London]], [[1879]]-[[1894]]).
*E. A. Freeman, ''History of the Norman Conquest'', vols. ii., iii., iv. ([[Oxford]], [[1867]]-[[1879]]).
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<title>Alexander of Battenberg</title>
<id>1584</id>
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<page>
<title>Alexander I of Epirus</title>
<id>1585</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander I of Epirus''' (c. [[370 BC]] - c. [[331 BC]]), also known as '''Alexander Molossus''' was a king of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] ([[350 BC]]-[[331 BC]]) of the [[Aeacid dynasty]].
He was the son of [[Neoptolemus]] and brother of [[Olympias]], the mother of [[Alexander the Great]]. He came at an early age to the court of [[Philip II of Macedonia]], and after the Grecian fashion became the object of his attachment. Philip in requital made him king of Epirus, after dethroning his cousin [[Arymbas]]. When Olympias was repudiated by her husband, [[337 BC]], she went to her brother, and endeavoured to induce him to make war on Philip.
Philip, however, declined the contest, and formed a second alliance with him by giving him his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedonia|Cleopatra]] in marriage ([[336 BC]]). At the wedding Philip was assassinated by [[Pausanias (assassin)|Pausanias]]. In [[334 BC]], Alexander, at the request of colony of [[Taranto|Taras]] ([[Magna Graecia]]) and the people the [[Tarentines]], crossed over into [[Italy]], to aid them against the [[Ancient Italic peoples|Italic populations]], [[Lucanians]] and [[Bruttii]]. After a victory over the Samnites and Lucanians near [[Paestum]], [[332 BC]], he made a treaty with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]]. Success still followed his arms. He took [[Heraclea]] from the Lucanians, and [[Terina]] and [[Sipontum]] from the Bruttii. Through the treachery of some Lucanian exiles, he was compelled to engage under unfavourable circumstances near [[Pandosia]], on the banks of the Acheron, and was killed by the hand of one of the exiles, as he was crossing the river. He left a son, Neoptolemus, and a daughter, Cadmea.
==References==
*[[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], ''Epitome of Pompeius Trogus'', viii. 6, ix. 6, xii. 2
*[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|Ab urbe condita]]'', viii. 3, 17, 24
*[[Aulus Gellius]], ''Noctes Atticae'', xvii. 21
==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_molossis.htm Alexander of Molossis] by Jona Lendering
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0125.html Alexander of Epirus] on [[A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]] (1870) - text in public domain
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<title>Alexander Balas</title>
<id>1586</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: AlexanderI.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Silver coin of Alexander I "Balas". The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ&#32;ΑΛΕΧΑΝΔΡΟΥ (king Alexander). The date ΓΞΡ is year 163 of the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid era]], corresponding to [[150 BC|150]]&ndash;[[149 BC]].]]
'''Alexander Balas''' (i.e. "lord"), ruler of the [[Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid kingdom] |
e mystical sunken land of [[Atlantis]]. One favourite location is [[Sundaland]] in the [[South China Sea]]. In this case the current [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers would not be the ones referred to in the narrative, but later rivers named after two of the earlier rivers, just as in more modern times colonists would name features of their new land after similar features in their homeland. This idea also resolves the apparent problem that the Bible describes the rivers as having a common source, which the current rivers do not.
One recent claim by archaeologist [[David Rohl]] puts the garden in the north-western [[Iran]]. According to him, the Garden is a river valley east of the [[Sahand|Sahand Mountain]], near [[Tabriz]]. He cites several geological similarities with Biblical descriptions, and multiple linguistic parallels as proof. The [[Medians]] lived in this area before founding the [[Persian Empire]].
The ''[[Urantia Book]]'' (1955) places the Garden of Eden in a long narrow peninsula projecting westward from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and having been long ago submerged in connection with volcanic activity and the submergence of a Sicilian land bridge to Africa, features unidentified by geologists.
===Sumeria and Dilmun===
The first Sumerians lived in the plains of what is now southern Iraq. Some of the historians working from within the cultural horizons of southernmost [[Sumer]], where the earliest surviving non-Biblical source of the legend lies, point to the quite genuine Bronze Age entrepot of the island [[Dilmun]] (now [[Bahrain]]) in the [[Persian Gulf]], described as 'the place where the sun rises' and 'the Land of the Living'. The setting of the Sumerian creation myth, ''[[Enûma Elish]]'', has clear parallels with the ''Genesis'' narratives. After its actual decline, beginning about 1500 B.C., Dilmun developed such a reputation as a long-lost garden of exotic perfections that it appears to have influenced the story of the Garden of Eden. Some interpreters have tried to establish an Edenic garden at the trading-center of Dilmun.
===LDS geography for Eden===
In [[Mormonism|Latter-day Saint theology]], the Garden of Eden is believed to be located at what is now inside the city limits of [[Independence, Missouri]], and this land is considered among the most holy. Mormons believe the configuration of the [[continent|continents]] was different before the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]], and that the geographical descriptions of Eden in Genesis refer to entirely different lands and rivers that were later renamed after more familiar local lands and rivers in the [[Near East]] after the Flood.
== Eden as Paradise ==
The word "[[paradise]]" (PaRDeS, PRDS, hebr.) used as a synonym for the Garden of Eden is a Persian word, which describes a walled orchard garden or an enclosed hunting park. It occurs three times in the [[Old Testament]], significantly not in connection with Eden: in the ''[[Song of Solomon]]'' iv. 13: "''Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard''" ;''[[Ecclesiastes]]'' ii. 5: "''I made me gardens and orchards, and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits''";and in ''[[Nehemiah]]'' ii. 8: "''And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard, that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city, and for the house that I shall enter into. And the king granted me, according to the good hand of my God upon me.'' ". In the Song of Solomon, it is clearly "garden;" in the second and third examples "park." In the post-Exilic [[apocalyptic literature]] and in the [[Talmud]], "paradise" gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype. Literary Hellenistic influences led to the Pauline Christian association of "paradise" with the realm of the blest. The Greek [[Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]] influenced the Christian concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century, in the Cranach painting (''see illustration''), only the ''action'' that takes place there identifies the setting as not the Garden of the Hesperides, with its golden
fruit.
Some anthropologists have hypothesized that the Garden of Eden does not represent a ''geographical'' place, but rather represents ''cultural memory'' of "simpler times", when man lived off God's bounty (as "primitive" hunters and gatherers still do) as opposed to toiling at agriculture (being "civilized")... a metaphor reinforced by the words of the Book of Genesis.
== Etymology ==
The origin of the term "Eden", which in Hebrew means "delight", may be with [[Akkad|Akkadian]] ''[[edinu]]'' which derives from the Sumerian <small>E.DIN</small>. The latter words mean "plain" or "steppe", so the connection between the terms ''may'' be coincidental. However, to modern eyes, the wording "east, in Eden" suggests a geographical rather than metaphorical use of the term.
== Eden in Art ==
[[Image:CaedmonManuscriptPage46Illust.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Expulsion illustrated in the English [[Caedmon manuscript]], c. AD 1000]]
Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in [[illuminated manuscript]]s and paintings are the "Sleep of Adam" ("Creation of Eve"), the "Temptation of Eve" by the Serpent, the "Fall of Man" where Adam takes the fruit, and the "Expulsion". The idyll of "Naming Day in Eden" was less often depicted. Much of Milton's ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' occurs in the Garden of Eden. [[Michelangelo]] depicted a [[:Image:Michelangelo Buonarroti 022.jpg|scene]] at the Garden of Eden in the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]].
==See also==
* [[Adam and Eve]]
* [[Cradle of Humanity]]
* [[Millennialism]]
* [[Original Sin]]
* [[Paradise]]
* [[Serpent (symbolism)|Serpent]]
* [[Tomoanchan]]
* [[Zohar]]
* [[In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida (song)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mega.nu/ampp/eden/ ''Returning to Eden''] investigates the Garden of Eden motif from a political, historical, and philosophical perspective, viewing it as a precursor of political utopianism.
* [http://www.ldolphin.org/eden/ Smithsonian article on the geography of the Tigris-Euphrates region]
* [http://www.answersincreation.org/after_eden.htm Review of the Young Earth Creationist Book "After Eden"]
[[Category:Torah places]]
[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]
{{Heaven}}
[[ar:جنة]]
[[ca:Jardí de l'Edèn]]
[[de:Garten Eden]]
[[et:Eedeni aed]]
[[es:Edén]]
[[eo:Edena ĝardeno]]
[[fr:Éden]]
[[id:Taman Eden]]
[[it:Giardino dell'Eden]]
[[he:גן עדן]]
[[hu:Édenkert]]
[[nl:Tuin van Eden]]
[[ja:エデンの園]]
[[pl:Eden (raj)]]
[[pt:Jardim do Éden]]
[[sv:Eden]]
[[zh:伊甸園]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glottis</title>
<id>13079</id>
<revision>
<id>39694656</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:05:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Improv</username>
<id>125204</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.47.59.154|68.47.59.154]] ([[User talk:68.47.59.154|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arytenoid cartilage.png|thumb]]
The space between the [[vocal cords]] is called the '''glottis'''. As the vocal cords vibrate, the resulting vibration produces a "buzzing" quality to the speech, called '''voice''' or '''voicing'''.
Sounds production involving only the glottis is called ''glottal''. English has a [[voiceless glottal fricative]] spelt "h". In many accents of English the [[glottal stop]] (made by pressing the folds together) is used as a variant [[allophone]] of the phoneme {{IPA|/t/}} (and in some dialects, occasionally of {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/p/}}); in some languages, this sound is a [[phoneme]] of its own.
[[Image:Glottis positions.png|thumb]]
Skilled players of the Australian [[didgeridoo]] restrict their glottal opening in order to produce the full range of timbres available on the instrument.
(See "Acoustics: The vocal tract and the sound of a didgeridoo", by Tarnopolsky et al. in Nature 436, 39 ([[7 July]] [[2005]])).
The vibration produced is an essential component of ''voiced'' [[consonant|consonants]] as well as [[vowel|vowels]]. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows between them causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants.
*Voiced consonants include {{IPA|/w/, /v/, /z/, /&#658;/, /&#676;/, /&#240;/, /b/, /d/, and /g/.}}
*Voiceless consonants include {{IPA|/h/, /&#653;/, /f/, /s/, /&#643;/, /&#679;/, /&#952;/, /p/, /t/, and /k/.}}
See also:
[[Phonation]]
[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[es:Glotis]]
[[fr:Glotte]]
[[pt:Glote]]
[[sv:Röstspringa]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gurmukhī script</title>
<id>13080</id>
<revision>
<id>35382557</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T09:33:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bsmahal</username>
<id>792979</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
The '''Gurmukhī''' (ਗੁਰਮੁਖੀ) script, derived from the ''[[Sharada script|Later Sharada script]]'' and standardised by [[Guru Angad Dev]] in the [[16th century]], was designed to write the [[Punjabi language]]. The whole of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]'s 1430 pages are written in this script. The word ''Gurmukhi'' is commonly translated as "from the Mouth of the Guru".
Gurmukhi is a form of [[writing system]] called an [[abugida]], as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed using vowel signs.
Modern Gurmukhi has forty-one consonants (Vianjans), nine vowel symbols (''Laga Matra''), two symbols for nas |
ames; see the discussion of ''[[Rez]]'' below. Of course, while written works may not come with associated soundtracks as frequently as movies do, allusions to musical works are used for the same effect. For example, the graphic novel ''[[Kling Klang Klatch]]'' (1992), a dark fantasy about a world of living toys, features a hard-bitten [[teddy bear]] detective with a sugar habit and a predilection for [[jazz]].
"Cyberpunk music" also describes the works associated with the fashion trend which emerged from the SF developments. The [[Detroit techno]] group [[Cybotron]], which arose in the early 1980s, drew influences both from European synthesizer pioneers [[Kraftwerk]] and from [[Alvin Toffler|Toffler]]'s ''[[Future Shock]],'' producing songs which evoke a distinctly dystopian mood. In the same era, [[Styx (band)|Styx]] released the concept album ''[[Kilroy Was Here (album)|Kilroy Was Here]]'' (1983), the story of a rock star living in a dark future where music has been outlawed. ''Kilroy'' and in particular its hit single "Mr. Roboto" may easily be "appropriated" into the cyberpunk genre, whether or not the term was applied at the time. However, starting around the year 1990, [[popular culture]] began to include a movement in both music and fashion which called itself "cyberpunk", and which became particularly associated with the [[rave]] and [[techno music|techno]] subcultures. The [[hacker]] subculture, documented in places like the [[Jargon File]], regards this movement with mixed feelings, since self-proclaimed cyberpunks are often "trendoids" with an affection for black leather and chrome who speak enthusiastically about technology instead of learning about it or becoming involved with it. ("Attitude is no substitute for competence," quips the File.) However, these self-proclaimed cyberpunks are at least "excited about the right things" and typically respect the people who actually work with it&mdash;those with "the hacker nature".
Certain music genres like drum'n'bass were directly influenced by cyberpunk, even generating a whole subgenre called [[neurofunk]], where the bass lines, synths and beats try to give the listener the sensation of being inside a sprawl or crawling through cyberspace. Neurofunk was pioneered by artists like [[Ed Rush]], [[Trace (artist)|Trace]] and [[Optical (artist)|Optical]]. In the words of the journalist [[Simon Reynolds]]:
:[[Jungle (music)|Jungle]]'s sound-world constitutes a sort of abstract social realism; when I listen to [[techstep]], the beats sound like collapsing buildings and the bass feels like the social fabric shredding [...] The post-techstep style I call "neurofunk" (clinical and obsessively nuanced production, foreboding ambient drones, blips 'n blurts of electronic noise, and chugging, curiously inhibited two-step beats). Neurofunk is the fun-free culmination of jungle's strategy of "cultural resistance": the eroticization of anxiety. Immerse yourself in the phobic, and you make dread your element. {{ref|SimonReynolds}}
''See also the [[List of cyberpunk works#List of bands|list of cyberpunk bands]].''
==Games==
[[Image:Cyberpunk2020.jpg|thumb|''[[Cyberpunk 2020]]'', a [[role-playing game]] based on William Gibson's literature.]]
[[Computer games]] have frequently used cyberpunk as a source of inspiration. Some of them, like ''[[Blade Runner (videogame)|Blade Runner]]'' and the ''Matrix'' games, are based upon genre movies, while many others like ''[[Deus Ex]]'' and ''[[System Shock]]'' are original works. [[Hideo Kojima|Hideo Kojima's]] work includes notable examples, particularly his adventure game ''[[Snatcher]]'' and the first two ''[[Metal Gear|Metal Gear Solid]]'' games. These are densely populated with spies who communicate via nanotechnology; computer hackers who design viruses to destroy malevolent programs; and omniscient, omnipotent secret societies aiming to control information flow and manipulate human minds. ''[[Rez]],'' formerly known as ''K-Project,'' received considerable critical acclaim but was not commercially successful in the [[United States]], partly thanks to its esoteric game play. A [[rail shooter]], ''Rez'' takes the player along a predetermined path through a sequence of levels, each of which represents a zone of a cyberspatial computer network. The game's advertising focused upon its [[synesthesia|synesthetic]] aspects; all onscreen actions synchronize with the trance techno soundtrack.
In 1990, in an odd reconvergence of cyberpunk art and reality, the [[United states secret service|U.S. Secret Service]] raided [[Steve Jackson Games]]'s headquarters and confiscated all their computers. This was&mdash;allegedly&mdash;because the ''[[GURPS Cyberpunk]]'' sourcebook could be used to perpetrate computer crime. That was, in fact, not the main reason for the raid, but after the event it was too late to correct the public's impression.{{ref|SJGames01}} Steve Jackson Games later won a lawsuit against the Secret Service, aided by the freshly minted [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]. This event has achieved a sort of notoriety and given some to the book itself, as well. The tagline "The only RPG manual ever confiscated by the FBI!" has been used online as a sort of anti-endorsement. (See the ''[[GURPS Cyberpunk]]'' page.)
At least two [[role-playing games]] (RPGs) called ''Cyberpunk'' exist: ''[[Cyberpunk 2020]]'', by [[R. Talsorian Games]], and ''[[GURPS Cyberpunk]]'', published by [[Steve Jackson Games]] as a module of the [[GURPS]] family of RPGs. ''Cyberpunk 2020'' was designed with the settings of William Gibson's writings in mind, and to some extent with his approval, unlike the (perhaps more creative) approach taken by [[FASA]] in producing the ''[[Shadowrun]]'' game (see below). Both games are set in the near future, in a world where [[cyberware|cybernetics]] are prominent. ''[[Netrunner]]'' is a [[collectible card game]] introduced in 1996, based on the ''Cyberpunk 2020'' role-playing game; it launched with a popular online [[alternate reality game]] called ''Webrunner'', which let players hack into an evil futuristic corporation's mainframe. In addition, Iron Crown Enterprises released an RPG named ''[[Cyberspace (game)|Cyberspace]]'', now out of print.
2004 brought the publication of a number of new cyberpunk RPGs, chief among which was ''[[Ex Machina (role-playing game)|Ex Machina]],'' a more cinematic game including four complete settings and a focus on updating the gaming side of the genre to current themes among cyberpunk fiction. These tropes include a stronger political angle, conveying the alienation of the genre and even incorporating some [[transhuman]] themes.
[[Image:shadowrun3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[role-playing game]] ''[[Shadowrun]]'' combines aspects of cyberpunk and [[fantasy]].]]
Role-playing games have also produced one of the more unique takes on the genre in the form of the 1989 game series ''[[Shadowrun]]''. Here, the setting is still that of the dystopian near future; however, it also incorporates heavy elements of [[fantasy]] literature and games, such as magic, spirits, elves, and dragons. ''Shadowrun''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s cyberpunk facets were modeled in large part on William Gibson's writings, and the game's original publishers, [[FASA]], have been accused by some as having directly ripped off Gibson's work without even a statement of influence. Gibson, meanwhile, has stated his dislike of the inclusion of elements of [[high fantasy]] within setting elements that he helped pioneer. Nevertheless, ''Shadowrun'' has introduced many to the genre, and still remains popular among gamers.
The trans-genre RPG ''[[Torg]]'' (published by [[West End Games]]) also included a variant cyberpunk setting (or "cosm") called the ''Cyberpapacy''. This setting was originally a medieval religious dystopia which underwent a sudden ''Tech Surge''. Instead of corporations or corrupt governments, the Cyberpapacy was dominated by the "[[False Papacy of Avignon]]". Instead of an [[Internet]], hackers roamed the "[[GodNet]]", a computer network rife with overtly religious symbology, home to [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, and other biblical figures.
:''For more examples, see the [[List of cyberpunk works#List of computer and video games|list of cyberpunk computer and video games]].''
<div style="clear: both"></div>
==See also==
{|
|- valign=top
|
*[[Arcology]]
*[[Augmented reality]]
*[[Biopunk]]
*[[Megacorp]]
*[[Corporatocracy]]
*[[Cyberculture]]
|||
*[[Cyberprep]]
*[[Cyberpunk fashion]]
*[[Cyberpunk music]]
*[[Cyberware]]
|||
*[[Cypherpunk]]
*[[Exocortex]]
*[[List of punk genres]]
*[[Meme]]
*[[Mind transfer]]
|||
*[[Mixed reality]]
*[[Noosphere]]
*[[Postcyberpunk]]
*[[Posthumanism]]
*[[Shadowrun]]
|||
*[[Steampunk]]
*[[Technocracy]]
*[[Transhumanism]]
*[[Wild Palms]]
|}
==References and notes==
:''External links in the following were last verified [[10 October]] [[2005]].''
# {{note|alt.cyberpunk.faq}} [http://18hz.deid.net/cyberpunk.htm ''alt.cyberpunk'' Usenet group FAQ file].
# {{note|NicolaNixon}} Nicola Nixon, [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/57/nixon57art.htm "Cyberpunk: Preparing the Ground for Revolution or Keeping the Boys Satisfied?"], ''Science Fiction Studies'' vol. 19, part 2 (July 1992). See also the collection ''Reload: Rethinking Women + Cyberculture'' (MIT Press: 2002), M. Flanagan and A. Booth eds., ISBN 0-262-56150-6.
# {{note|BruceBethke}} Bruce Bethke, [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/cpunk.htm "Cyberpunk"], first published in ''Amazing Science Fiction Stories,'' Vol. 57, No. 4 (November 1983).
# {{note|JohnShirley}} John Shirley, [http://www.darkecho.com/JohnShirley/jspunks.html "Two Cyberpunks: Sterling and Rucker"].
# {{note|Jargon}} [http://catb.org/ |
carbonated water]] was good for the health. Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured myriad [[disease]]s, including [[morphine]] [[addiction]], [[dyspepsia]], [[neurasthenia]], [[headache]], and [[impotence]].
In [[1887]], while suffering from an ongoing addiction to [[morphine]], Pemberton sold a stake in his company to [[Asa Griggs Candler]], who incorporated it as the [[Coca Cola Corporation]] in [[1888]]. In the same year, Pemberton sold the rights a second time to three more businessmen: [[J.C. Mayfield]], [[A.O. Murphey]], and [[E.H. Bloodworth]]. Meanwhile, Pemberton's alcoholic son [[Charley Pemberton]] began selling his own version of the product. Three versions of Coca-Cola — sold by three separate businesses — were on the market. {{ref|Pendergrast}}
In an attempt to clarify the situation, John Pemberton declared that the ''name'' Coca-Cola belonged to Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the ''formula''. So, in the summer of 1888, Candler sold his beverage under the names [[Yum Yum]] and Koke. After both failed to catch on, Candler set out to establish a legal claim to Coca-Cola in late 1888, in order to force his two competitors out of the business. Candler purchased exclusive rights to the formula from John Pemberton, [[Margaret Dozier]], and [[Woolfolk Walker]]. However, in 1914, Dozier came forward to claim her signature on the bill of sale had been forged, and subsequent analysis has indicated John Pemberton's signature was most likely a forgery as well.{{ref|Pendergrast2}}
In 1892, Candler incorporated a second company, [[The Coca-Cola Company|''The'' Coca-Cola Company]] (the current corporation), and in 1910 Candler had the earliest records of the company burned, further obscuring its legal origins. Regardless, Candler began aggressively marketing the product — the efficiency of this concerted advertising campaign would not be realized until much later.
[[Image:Cocacola-1917.png|thumb|right|100px|Coca-Cola ad, 1917]]
Coca-Cola was sold in [[bottle]]s for the first time on [[March 12]], [[1894]], and [[aluminum can|cans]] of Coke first appeared in 1955. The first bottling of Coca-Cola occurred in [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], [[Mississippi]], at the Biedenharn Candy Company in 1891. Its proprietor was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Biedenharn bottles, very different from the much later hobble-skirt design that is now so familiar. Asa Candler was tentative about bottling the drink, but the two entrepreneurs who proposed the idea were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure. However, the loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for the company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies — in effect, becoming parent bottlers. This meant that Coca-Cola was originally sold in a wide variety of bottles, until the introduction of the iconic, standardized Coke bottle in [[1916]].
<!--What about worldwide sales? Coke's many lawsuits against rivals in the early 20th century? Overtaking market leader Moxie? Emergence of Pepsi? Role in WWI? Chandler's marketing insights? Ad campaings? The first dual trademark? This section needs to be expanded...-->
===World War II===
When the United States entered World War II, The Coca-Cola Company began providing free drinks for soldiers of the [[United States Army]]. The United States Army permitted Coca-Cola employees to enter the [[front line]]s as "Technical Officers" where they operated Coke's system of providing refreshments for soldiers, who welcomed the beverage as a reminder of home.
Coca-Cola set up bottling plants in several locations overseas to assure the drink's availability to soldiers, setting the stage for the company's post-war overseas expansion. The popularity of the drink exploded as American soldiers returned home from the war with a taste for the drink. The beverage had become synonymous with the American way of life.
Before the United States entered [[World War II]], the difficulty of shipping Coca-Cola concentrate to Germany and its occupied states, due to the Allied blockades, led to the creation of a new drink by a Coca-Cola employee, [[Fanta]]. In this fashion Coca-Cola was able to continue trading in Nazi Germany (as did automobile manufacturer [[Ford]]) long after other US companies had relocated on moral grounds.
For more corporate history, see [[The Coca-Cola Company#History|The history of the Coca-Cola Company]].
[[Image:Newcoke.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[New Coke]] stirred up a controversy when it replaced the original Coca-Cola in [[1985]]. The original formula was reinstated as Coca-Cola Classic within a few months of the new Coke's introduction into the market.]]
===New Coke to the present===
In 1985, Coca-Cola, amid much publicity, changed the [[Coca-Cola formula|formula]] of the drink. Some authorities believe that [[New Coke]], as the reformulated drink came to be known, was invented specifically to respond to its commercial competitor, Pepsi. Numerous [[blind taste test]]s suggested that more consumers preferred the taste of Pepsi (which is believed to have more [[lemon]] oil, less [[orange (fruit)|orange]] oil, and uses [[vanillin]] rather than [[vanilla]]) to Coke. In taste tests, drinkers were more likely to respond positively to sweeter drinks, and Pepsi had the advantage over Coke because it is much sweeter. Coca-Cola tinkered with the formula and created the new Coke. Follow-up taste tests revealed that most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi. The reformulation was led by the then-[[CEO]] of the company, [[Roberto Goizueta]], and the president Don Keough.
It is unclear what part long-time company president [[Robert W. Woodruff]] played in the reformulation. Goizueta claims that Woodruff endorsed it a few months before his death in 1985; others have pointed out that, as the two men were alone when the matter was discussed, Goizueta might have misinterpreted the wishes of the dying Woodruff, who could speak only in monosyllables. It has also been alleged that Woodruff might not have been able to understand what Goizueta was telling him.
The [http://members.lycos.co.uk/thomassheils/newcoke.htm commercial failure of New Coke] therefore came as [http://ask.yahoo.com/20060221.html a grievous blow] to the management of the Coca-Cola Company. It is possible that customers would not have noticed the change if it had been made secretly or gradually, and thus brand loyalty could have been maintained. Coca-Cola management was unprepared, however, for the nostalgic sentiments the drink aroused in the American public; some compared changing the Coke formula to rewriting the [[Constitution of the United States|American Constitution]].
The new Coca-Cola formula subsequently caused a public [[backlash]]. [[Gay Mullins]], from [[Seattle, Washington]], founded the [[Old Cola Drinkers of America]] organization, which attempted to sue the company, and lobbied for the formula of Old Coke to be released into the [[public domain]]. This and other protests caused the company to return to the [[Coca-Cola formula|old formula]] under the name Coca-Cola Classic on [[July 10]], [[1985]]. The company was later accused of performing this ''volte-face'' as an elaborate ruse to introduce a new product while reviving interest in the original. Donald Keough, company president at the time, responded to the accusation by declaring: "Some critics will say Coca-Cola made a marketing mistake. Some cynics will say that we planned the whole thing. The truth is we are not that dumb, and we are not that smart."
The Coca-Cola Company is the world's largest consumer of natural vanilla extract. When New Coke was introduced in 1985, this had a severe impact on the economy of [[Madagascar]], a prime vanilla exporter, since New Coke used [[vanillin]], a less-expensive synthetic substitute. Purchases of vanilla more than halved during this period. But the flop of [[New Coke]] brought a recovery.
[[Image:Lg new coke logo.jpg|thumb|The Coca-Cola Classic logo, used from [[2003]]-present.]]
Meanwhile, the market share for New Coke had dwindled to only 3% by 1986. In 1992 the company renamed the product "Coke II" (not to be confused with "[[Coca-Cola C2|Coke C2]]", a reduced-[[sugar]] cola launched by Coca-Cola in 2004). However, sales falloff caused a severe cutback in distribution. By 1998, it was sold in only a few places in the Midwestern U.S.
==Coca-Cola formula==
{{main|Coca-Cola formula}}
As a [[publicity]] [[marketing strategy]] started by [[Robert W. Woodruff]], the company presents the formula of Coca-Cola as one of the most closely held [[trade secret]]s in modern business that only a few employees know or have access to. In particular, the secret ingredient "7X" has long been touted an integral component of Coca Cola's formula though it has never been established what, if anything, the "X" refers to-- although it has been stated that Coca Cola had employees mix the drink by numbers assigned to specific ingredients rather than by name, to avoid the possibility of employees reverse engineering the recipe. However, experienced [[perfumery | perfumers]] and [[food science | food scientists]] - today aided by modern [[analytical chemistry | analytical]] methods - can easily identify the composition of food products, a fact that is further supported by the many cola [[flavoring]]s and competing [[soft drink]]s like [[Pepsi]].
==Franchised production model==
The actual production and distribution of Coca-Cola follows a [[franchising]] model. The Coca-Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to various [[Bottling company|bottlers]] throughout the world who hold Coca-Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup w |
the [[Treaty of Ghent]] in December 1814, many American [[prisoners of war]] still remained in Dartmoor. On [[April 6]], [[1815]], 70 of them were massacred at the behest of the allegedly drunk British officer in charge, who thought that they were attempting to escape. A memorial to the 271 [[POW]]s (mostly [[United States Navy|seamen]]) who are buried in the prison grounds has been erected.
Dartmoor Prison was reopened in [[1851]] as a civilian [[prison]], and has contained some of Britain's most serious offenders ever since. It has a misplaced reputation for being escape-proof.
There was a major riot in January [[1932]], which left much of the prison in ruins.
There is a small museum of prison life, which is open to the public at some times of the year.
There is also a yearly charity 'Dartmoor Jailbreak', where civilians (not prisoners) 'escape' from the prison and must travel as far as possible in 4 days, whilst in convict clothing and without directly paying for transport.
[[Category:Prisons in the United Kingdom|Dartmoor]]
[[Category:Dartmoor]]
{{Prison-stub}}</text>
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<title>Dilation and curettage</title>
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<username>Phil Boswell</username>
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</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dilation (dilatation) and curettage''' ('''D&amp;C''') or '''sharp curettage''' is a [[gynaecology|gynaecological]] procedure performed on the [[female reproductive system]] that used to be a common method of [[abortion]]. The procedure involves dilating the [[cervix]] and inserting instruments to clean out the lining of the [[uterus]], which can include an [[embryo]] or [[fetus]], while the woman is under an [[Anesthesia|anaesthetic]]. A curettage is performed with a [[curette]], a metal rod with a handle on one end and a sharp loop on the other.
D&amp;Cs are commonly performed to resolve abnormal uterine bleeding (too much, too often or too heavy a [[menses|menstrual]] flow); to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as [[PCOS]] (which cause a prolonged buildup of tissue with no natural period to remove it); to remove [[uterine fibroid]]s or other suspected abnormalities, such as premalignant cells in their uterine lining; and occasionally as a method of abortion.
Because medical and non-invasive methods of abortion now exist, and because D&amp;C requires heavy sedation or general anesthesia and has higher risks of complication, the procedure has been declining as a method of abortion. The [[World Health Organization]] only recommends D&amp;C as a method of abortion when [[manual vacuum aspiration]] is unavailable{{ref|WHO1}}. According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], D&amp;C only accounted for 2.4% of abortions in the [[United States]] in the year [[2002]]{{ref|CDC1}}, down from 23.4% in [[1972]]{{ref|CDC2}}.
Three related procedures used for abortion are [[Suction-aspiration abortion|suction or vacuum aspiration]], [[dilation and evacuation]] and [[dilation and extraction]], the latter of which is also known non-medically as [[partial-birth abortion]].
If the procedure is performed too roughly, scar tissue may form and seal the uterus shut ([[Asherman's syndrome]]), resulting in [[infertility]].
==References==
#{{note|WHO1}} {{cite web | title=Dilatation and curettage | work=A-Z Managing Complications in Pregnancy and Childbirth by WHO | url=http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html | accessdate=February 20 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|CDC1}} {{cite web | title=Abortion Surveillance --- United States, 2002 | work=MMWR Surveillance Summaries | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm | accessdate=February 20 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|CDC2}} {{cite web | title=Abortion Surveillance -- United States, 1990 | work=MMWR Surveillance Summaries | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00031585.htm | accessdate=February 20 | accessyear=2006}}
==External links==
* [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/3/22/20565/6275 HOWTO: Perform the Dilation & Curettage Surgical Procedure] by "ti_dave", [[March 24th]], [[2004]]. Article and discussion published on [[Kuro5hin]].
* [http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html WHO's Dilatation and curettage guide]
[[Category:Gynecology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>De Moivres formula</title>
<id>8208</id>
<revision>
<id>15906222</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-15T14:55:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.40.114</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[De Moivre's formula]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Doctor Who</title>
<id>8209</id>
<revision>
<id>42133528</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:13:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khaosworks</username>
<id>60133</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Doctor Who
| image = [[Image:Dw2005logo.png|300px]]
| caption = 2005 ''Doctor Who'' series logo.
| format = [[Science fiction]], [[drama]] [[television|television programme]]
| runtime = 25 [[minutes|mins]] 1963&ndash;1989, except 1985 (45 mins)<br>45 mins (2005&ndash;)
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| network = [[BBC One]]
| first_aired = [[November 23]], [[1963]]
| last_aired = present
| creator = [[Sydney Newman]] <br> [[C. E. Webber]] <br> [[Donald Wilson]]
| starring = Various, currently [[David Tennant]], [[Billie Piper]] (2005–)
| num_episodes = 718 (1963–1989, 1996, 2005–)
|}}
'''''Doctor Who''''' is a long-running [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction television]] programme produced by the [[BBC]] about a mysterious [[time-travel]]ling adventurer known only as "[[Doctor (Doctor Who)|The Doctor]]". It is also the title of a [[Doctor Who (1996)|1996 television movie]] featuring the same character. It is common to see the show's title abbreviated as '''''Dr. Who''''', even by the BBC, although [[purist]]s consider this form incorrect.
The programme is a significant part of British [[popular culture]], widely recognised for its creative storytelling and pioneering use of music (originally produced by the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]]). It is also known for the innovative, low-budget [[special effects]] used for most of its history prior to 1996. Elements of the programme are extremely well known and identifiable even to non-fans. In Britain and elsewhere, the show has become a [[cult television]] favourite on a par with ''[[Star Trek]]'' and has influenced generations of British television writers, many of whom grew up watching the series. It has also received [[#awards|recognition]] from critics and the public as one of the finest British television programmes.
After a long period off screen, a [[History of Doctor Who#The 2000s|new series]] of ''Doctor Who'' started in 2005, continuing the programme from the original 1963&ndash;1989 run and the 1996 television movie. It is produced in-house by [[BBC Wales]] with some development money contributed by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC).
A special [[Children in Need]] "[[Doctor Who Children in Need special (2005)|mini-episode]]" was broadcast on [[18 November]] [[2005]], and the programme returned for a [[The Christmas Invasion|special]] on [[Christmas|Christmas Day]] 2005.
Production of the [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 2 (2006)|second series]], scheduled for broadcast on both BBC and CBC in 2006, is underway, starring [[David Tennant]] as the Doctor and [[Billie Piper]] as his [[:Category:Doctor Who companions|companion]] [[Rose Tyler]]. This will be followed by a second Christmas special later in 2006 and a third series in 2007. A spin-off series, ''[[Torchwood]]'', has also been announced for 2006. The [[United States]] broadcast of the 2005 series is scheduled to begin on [[March 17]] [[2006]] on the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]]. [http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/index.php?id=34141]
==History==
[[Image:Dwdiamn.jpg|180px|thumb|right|A multicoloured variant of the '''''Doctor Who''''' "diamond" logo, which was used in the show's opening titles from 1973 to 1980.]]
{{main|History of Doctor Who}}
''Doctor Who'' first appeared on BBC television at 5:15 p.m. ([[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]) on [[November 23]] [[1963]]. The programme was born out of discussions and plans that had been going on for a year. The [[BBC television drama|Head of Drama]], [[Sydney Newman]], was mainly responsible for developing it, with contributions by the Head of the Script Department (later Head of Serials), [[Donald Wilson]], staff writer [[C. E. Webber|C. E. 'Bunny' Webber]], writer [[Anthony Coburn]], [[script editor|story editor]] [[David Whitaker]] and initial [[Television producer|producer]], [[Verity Lambert]]. The series' distinctive and haunting title theme was composed by [[Ron Grainer]] and realised by [[Delia Derbyshire]].
The BBC drama department's Serials division produced the programme in-house for the following twenty-six seasons, on [[BBC One]]. Falling viewing figures, a decline in the public perception of the show and a less prominent transmission slot saw it suspended as an ongoing series in 1989 by [[Jonathan Powell]], Controller of BBC One. Although it was for all intents and purposes cancelled (series co-star [[Sophie Aldred]] said in the documentary ''More Than 30 Years in the TARDIS'' that she was told |
be folded neatly and ceremoniously.
* The flag should be cleaned and mended when necessary.
* When a flag is so worn it is no longer fit to serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. (Note: Most [[American Legion]] Posts regularly conduct a dignified flag burning ceremony, often on [[Flag Day]], [[June 14]].)
Contrary to a commonly believed [[urban legend]], the flag code does not state that a flag that touches the ground should be burned. Instead, the flag should be moved so it is not touching the ground.
===Displaying the flag outdoors===
[[Image:Rockefeller_Center_Prometheus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|American flags on display outdoors at the [[Rockefeller Center]] ([[New York City|New York]], [[New York]]).]]
* When the flag is displayed from a staff projecting from a window, balcony, or a building, the union should be at the peak of the staff unless the flag is at [[half staff]]. When it is displayed from the same flagpole with another flag, the flag of the United States must always be at the top except that the church pennant may be flown above the flag during church services for Navy personnel when conducted by a Naval chaplain on a ship at sea.
* When the flag is displayed over a street, it should be hung vertically, with the union to the north or east. If the flag is suspended over a sidewalk, the flag's union should be farthest from the building.
* When flown with flags of states, communities or societies on separate flag poles which are of the same height and in a straight line, the flag of the United States is always placed in the position of honor&mdash;to its own right. The other flags may be the same size but none may be larger.
* No other flag ever should be placed above it. The flag of the United States is always the first flag raised and the last to be lowered.
* When flown with the national banner of other countries, each flag must be displayed from a separate pole of the same height. Each flag should be the same size. They should be raised and lowered simultaneously. The flag of one nation may not be displayed above that of another nation.
* The flag should be raised briskly and lowered slowly and ceremoniously.
* Ordinarily it should be displayed only between sunrise and sunset, although the Flag Code permits nighttime display "when a patriotic effect is desired." Similarly, the flag should be displayed only when the weather is fair. (By Presidential proclamation and law, the flag is displayed continuously at certain honored locations like the United States Marine Corps Memorial in Arlington and Lexington Green.)
* It should be illuminated if displayed at night.
* The flag of the United States of America is saluted as it is hoisted and lowered. The salute is held until the flag is unsnapped from the halyard or through the last note of music, whichever is the longest.
===Displaying the flag indoors===
* When on display, the flag is accorded the place of honor, always positioned to its own right. Place it to the right of the speaker or staging area or sanctuary. Other flags should be to the left.
* The flag of the United States of America should be at the center and at the highest point of the group when a number of flags of states, localities, or societies are grouped for display.
* When one flag is used with the flag of the United States of America and the staffs are crossed, the flag of the United States is placed on its own right with its staff in front of the other flag.
* When displaying the flag against a wall, vertically or horizontally, the flag's union (stars) should be at the top, to the flag's own right, and to the observer's left.
===Parading and saluting the flag===
* When carried in a procession, the flag should be to the right of the marchers.
* When other flags are carried, the flag of the United States may be centered in front of the others or carried to their right. When the flag passes in a procession, or when it is hoisted or lowered, all should face the flag and salute.
* To salute, all persons come to attention.
** Those in uniform give the appropriate formal salute.
** Citizens not in uniform salute by placing their right hand over the heart and men with head cover should remove it and hold it to left shoulder, hand over the heart.
** Members of organizations in formation salute upon command of the person in charge.
===Pledge of Allegiance and national anthem===
* The [[Pledge of Allegiance]] should be rendered by standing at attention, facing the flag, and saluting.
* When the national anthem is played or sung, citizens should stand at attention and salute at the first note and hold the salute through the last note. The salute is directed to the flag, if displayed, otherwise to the music.
===The flag, in mourning===
[[Image:KennedyLiesInState.jpg|rught|thumb|The flag, as draped over President John F. Kennedy's coffin at his [[state funeral of John F. Kennedy|state funeral]].]]
* To place the flag at half-staff (or half-mast, on ships), hoist it to the peak for an instant and lower it to a position half way between the top and bottom of the staff.
* The flag is to be raised again to the peak for a moment before it is lowered.
* On [[Memorial Day]], the flag is displayed at half-staff until noon and at full staff from noon to sunset.
* The flag is to be flown at half-staff in mourning for designated, principal government leaders.
* The U.S. flag is otherwise flown at half-staff (or half-mast, on ships) when directed by the [[President of the United States]] or a state governor.
* When used to cover a casket or coffin, the flag should be placed with the union at the head and over the left shoulder. It should not be lowered into the grave.
===Folding the flag===
Flags, when not in use, should be folded into a triangle shape. The final triangle shape result is said to invoke the image of the [[tricorne|three-point hats]] popular during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Former [[History of United States overseas expansion#Former American possessions|American territories]], e.g. the [[Philippines]], also use this method to fold their [[Flag of the Philippines|flags]].
[[Image:fold-us-flag-animated.gif|frame|right|Folding the U.S. Flag]]
# To properly fold the flag, begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground.
# Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely.
# Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside.
# Make a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag.
# Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle.
# The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner.
# When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible.
==Miscellaneous==
According to the ''New York Public Library Desk Reference'':
* The flag at the [[U.S. Capitol]] flies over the body in session ([[United States House of Representatives|House]] or [[United States Senate|Senate]]) and remains there, lit, day and night.
* In a display of multiple flags, the American flag should be at the center of and above the other flags. Only the [[United Nations]] flag and a [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[chaplain]]'s [[church]] [[pennant]] may be flown higher than the U.S. flag.
==Places where the American flag is displayed continuously==
According to Presidential proclamation, Congressional order, and custom, the American flag is displayed continuously at the following locations:
*[[Fort McHenry]] National Monument and Historic Shrine, [[Baltimore, Maryland]], 15-star/15-stripe flag (Presidential Proclamation No. 2795, [[July 2]], [[1948]]).
*[[Flag House Square]], Albemarle and Pratt Streets, Baltimore, Maryland, 15-star/15-stripe flag (Public Law 83-319, approved [[March 26]], [[1954]]).
*[[USMC War Memorial|United States Marine Corps War Memorial]] ([[Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima]]), [[Arlington, Virginia]] (Presidential Proclamation No. 3418, [[June 12]], [[1961]]).
*[[Lexington, Massachusetts]] Town Green (Public Law 89-335, approved [[November 8]], [[1965]]).
*The [[White House]], [[Washington, DC]] (Presidential Proclamation No.4000, [[September 4]], [[1970]]).
*Fifty U.S. Flags are displayed continuously at the [[Washington Monument]], Washington, DC. (Presidential Proclamation No. 4064, [[July 6]], [[1971]], effective [[July 4]], 1971).
*By order of [[Richard Nixon]] at [[United States Customs Service]] Ports of Entry that are continuously open (Presidential Proclamation No.4131, May 5, 1972).
*Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in [[Valley Forge]] State Park, [[Valley Forge, Pennsylvania]] (Public Law 94-53, approved July 4, [[1975]]).
*Mount Slover limestone quarry ([[Colton Liberty Flag]]), in [[Colton, California]] (Act of Congress). First raised [[July 4]], [[1917]].[http://www.calportland.com/coltons-libertyflag.htm]
*Washington Camp Ground, part of the former [[Middlebrook encampment]], [[Bridgewater, New Jersey]], Thirteen Star Flag, by Act of Congress.
*By custom, at the home, birthplace and grave of [[Francis Scott Key]], all in [[Maryland]]
*By custom, at the [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] war memorial
*By custom, at the plaza in [[Taos, New Mexico]], since [[1861]]
*By custom, at the [[United States Capitol]] since [[1918]]
*By custom, at [[Mount Moriah Cemetery]] in [[Deadwood, South Dakota]]
*In addition, the American flag is presumed to be in continual display on the surface of the Earth's [[The Moon|Moon]], having been placed there by the astronauts of ''[[Apollo 11]]'', [[Apollo 12]], [[Apollo 14]], [[Apollo 15]], [[Apollo 16]], and [[Apollo 17]]. It is assumed however that Apollo 11's flag was knocked down by the force of return to lunar orbit.
==History==
[[Image:COA George Washin |
Side]]'' cartoon from 1982 (reprinted in Sherr's book) shows Columbus nearing land, with his crew of ''conquistador'' types, and saying, "Look, gentlemen! Purple mountains! Spacious skies! Fruited plains! ... Is someone writing this down?"
*In one of his comedy club routines in the early [[1960s]], [[Flip Wilson]] did a Columbus story with an African-American twist... ironically, the catchphrase repeated by Queen Isabel (an early "Geraldine") is "Chris gon' find Ray Charles!" When his Columbus sees land, he comments, "It's America, all right... just look at those spacious skies... those amber waves of grain... dig that purple mountain's majesty... I'll bet there's fruit out there on the plain!"
*In his satirical, musical [[record album]], ''The United States of America, Volume 1'', [[Stan Freberg]] plays Columbus, [[Jesse White (actor)|Jesse White]] plays a skeptical King Ferdinand, and [[Colleen Collins]] does Queen Isabella (mimicking [[Tallulah Bankhead]]), resulting in this bit of dialogue: [http://freberg.8m.com/text/usa1.html]
:Ferdinand: Look at him in that hat! Is that a crazy sailor?
:Isabella: Crazy? I'll tell you how crazy! He's a man with a dream, a vision, a vision of a new world, whose alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears, with purple mountain majesties above the [[Two Cents Plain]] . . .
:Ferdinand and Columbus: Fruited!
:Isabella: Fruited.
[[Mel Brooks]], on a talk show, once did an impression of how [[Frank Sinatra]] might sing the song, complete with tuxedo, black hat and coat, and cigarette, leaning up against a bar, and rendering the song in "lounge style".
[[George Carlin]] performed a satirical version around 1970, when environmental issues were becoming a hot political topic: [http://www.creativequotations.com/one/1309b.htm]
:Oh beautiful, for smoggy skies, insecticided grain
:For strip-mined mountain's majesty above the asphalt plain.
:America, America, man sheds his waste on thee
:And hides the pines with billboard signs, from sea to oily sea!
[[Wellesley College]] students and alumnae tend to change "brotherhood" to "SISTERhood" in renditions of the song.
==Books==
[[Lynn Sherr]]'s 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. ISBN 1-58648-085-5.
== Sources/external links ==
*[http://www.fuzzylu.com/falmouth/bates/america.html 1913 Lyrics (eight stanzas)]
*[http://www.niehs.nih.gov/kids/lyrics/america.htm Lyrics (four stanzas)]
*[http://www.chime-o-wind.com/national.html A National Treasure]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040829074504/www.antlers.com/indexenter.html The Antlers Hotel/history: where Katherine Lee Bates penned ''America the Beautiful''] (Click on "History" on the top left hand corner of index to access page)
*[http://www.cyberhymnal.org/htm/o/b/obfsskis.htm Midi file of ''America the Beautiful'' from The Cyber Hymnal]
*[http://www.tradoc.army.mil/band/multimedia/recordings/HeresToAmerica/AmericaTheBeautiful.mp3 MP3 of ''America The Beautiful'' as performed by the United States Continental Army Band]
{{American songs}}
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Christian hymns]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artificial language</title>
<id>652</id>
<revision>
<id>15899179</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-19T15:06:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Assistive technology</title>
<id>653</id>
<revision>
<id>40974795</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T05:32:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jmabel</username>
<id>28107</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Assistive technology products */ spelling; simpler link for an article to be written</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Assistive Technology''' (AT) is a generic term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices and the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. AT promotes greater independence for [[disability|people with disabilities]] by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the [[technology]] needed to accomplish such tasks. According to disability advocates, technology, all too often, is created without regard to people with disabilities, and unnecessary barriers make new technology inaccessible to hundreds of millions.
Universal (or broadened) accessibility, or [[universal design]] means excellent [[usability]], particularly for people with disabilities. But, argue advocates of assistive technology, universally accessible technology yields great rewards to the typical user; good accessible design ''is'' universal design, they say. The classic example of an assistive technology that has improved everyone's life is the "[[curb cut]]s" in the sidewalk at street crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable pedestrians with mobility impairments to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, and travellers and workers with pull-type bags, not to mention [[skateboard]]ers and [[inline skate]]rs.
Consider an example of an assistive technology. The modern [[telephone]] is, except for the deaf, universally accessible. Combined with a [[Telecommunications devices for the deaf|text telephone]] (also known as a TDD [Telephone Device for the Deaf] and in the USA generally called a TTY[TeleTYpewriter]), which converts typed characters into tones that may be sent over the telephone line, the deaf person is able to communicate immediately at a distance. Together with "relay" services (where an operator reads what the deaf person types and types what a hearing person says) the deaf person is then given access to everyone's telephone, not just those of people who possess text telephones. Many telephones now have volume controls, which are primarily
intended for the benefit of people who are hard of hearing, but can be useful for all
users at times and places where there is significant background noise.
Another example: [[calculator]]s are cheap, but a person with a mobility impairment can have difficulty using them. [[Speech recognition]] software could recognize short commands and make use of calculators a little easier. People with cognitive disabilities would appreciate the simplicity; others would as well.
Toys which have been adapted to be used by children with disabilities, may have advantages for "typical" children as well. The [[Lekotek]] movement assists parents by lending assistive technology toys and expertise to families.
Telecare is a particular sort of assistive technology that uses electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. A good example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for [[hypothermia]] risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild [[dementia]]). The principle being that these alerts can be customised to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a carer or contact centre who can respond appropriately. The range of sensors is wide and expanding rapidly.
Technology similar to Telecare can also be used to act within a person's home rather than just to respond to a detected crisis. Using one of the examples above, unlit gas sensors for people with dementia can be used to trigger a device that turns off the gas and tells someone what has happened. This is safer than just telling an external person that there is a problem.
Designing for people with dementia is a good example of where the design of the interface of a piece of assistive technology (AT) is critical to its usefulness. It is important to make sure that people with dementia or any other identified user group are involved in the design process to make sure that the design is accessible and useable. In the example above, a voice message could be used to remind the person with dementia to turn of the gas himself, but who's voice should be used, and what should the message say? Questions like these must be answered through user consultantion, involvement and evaluation.
==Assistive technology products==
*[[Standing frames]] support wheelchair users in a standing position, increasing their reach, as well as improving their health and self-esteem.
* [[Magnifier|Magnifiers]] magnify computer displays for people with some degree of [[Visual_impairment|visual impairment]].
* [[Sticky keys]], a feature of [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] operating systems allowing key combinations (such as Control-Alt-Delete) to be pressed in sequence rather than simultaneously.
* [[Screen reader|Screen readers]] allow blind people to use computers by communicating what is on the screen via speech or Braille.
* [[Refreshable Braille display]], used to convert on-screen text to Braille characters.
* [[Reading machine|Reading machines]] allow blind people to access printed material.
* [[Video Magnifier|CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) or Video Magnifier]], magnifies printed text for people with low vision.
==Further reading==
* Behrmann, M. & Schaff, J.(2001). Assisting educators with assistive technology: Enabling children to achieve independence in living and learning. Children and Families 42(3), 24-28.
* Bishop, J. (2003). The Internet for educating individuals with social impairments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 19(4), 546-556. Available as a free [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/public |
kland Islands|islands]] are later retaken by the [[United Kingdom]].
*1982 - [[John Chancellor]] helms the news desk at the ''[[NBC Nightly News]]'' for the final time, after eleven-and-a-half years.
*[[1989]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] arrives in [[Havana]], [[Cuba]] to meet with [[Fidel Castro]] in an attempt to mend strained relations.
*[[1992]] - In [[New York]], [[Mafia]] boss [[John Gotti]] is convicted of [[murder]] and [[racketeering]] and is later sentenced to life in prison.
*1992 - [[Pierre Bérégovoy]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[2002]] - [[Israel]]i forces surrounded the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] which has around 200 [[Palestinians]] inside. A siege ensues.
*[[2004]] - [[Islamism|Islamist]] [[terrorism|terrorists]] involved in the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]] attempt a thwarted bombing of the Spanish high-speed train [[AVE]] near [[Madrid]].
*[[2005]] - [[Pope John-Paul II]] dies. Hundreds of millions of Catholics, and non-Catholics mourn worldwide.
*2005 - [[James Stewart Jr.]] becomes first African American to win a major motorsports event.
==Births==
*[[1510]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiharu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1550]])
*[[1545]] - [[Elizabeth of Valois]], queen of [[Philip II of Spain]] (d. [[1568]])
*[[1565]] - [[Cornelis de Houtman]], Dutch explorer (d. [[1599]])
*[[1618]] - [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]], Italian mathematician and physicist (d. [[1663]])
*[[1653]] - [[Prince George of Denmark]], prince consort of [[Anne of England]] (d. [[1708]])
*[[1719]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim]], German poet (d. [[1803]])
*[[1725]] - [[Casanova]], Italian adventurer and writer (d. [[1798]])
*[[1788]] - [[Francisco Balagtas]], Filipino poet (d. [[1862]])
*[[1798]] - [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben]], German poet (d. [[1874]])
*[[1805]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]], Danish writer (d. [[1875]])
*[[1827]] - [[William Holman Hunt]], English painter (d. [[1910]])
*[[1838]] - [[Léon Gambetta]], French statesman (d. [[1882]])
*[[1840]] - [[Émile Zola]], French novelist and critic (d. [[1902]])
*[[1862]] - [[Nicholas Murray Butler]], American president of Columbia University, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1947]])
*[[1867]] - [[Eugen Sandow]], German bodybuilder and circus performer (d. [[1925]])
*[[1869]] - [[Hughie Jennings]], baseball player (d. [[1928]])
*[[1875]] - [[Walter Chrysler]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1940]])
*[[1891]] - [[Max Ernst]], German painter (d. [[1976]])
*[[1900]] - [[Roberto Arlt]], Argentine writer (d. [[1942]])
*[[1908]] - [[Buddy Ebsen]], American actor and dancer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1914]] - Sir [[Alec Guinness]], English actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1917]] - [[Lou Monte]], American singer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1920]] - [[Jack Webb]], American actor, director, and producer (d. [[1982]])
*[[1923]] - [[G. Spencer-Brown]], English mathematician
*[[1925]] - [[George MacDonald Fraser]], English author
*[[1926]] - Sir [[Jack Brabham]], Australian race car driver
*[[1927]] - [[Carmen Basilio]], American boxer
*1927 - [[Ferenc Puskás]], Hungarian footballer
*1927 - [[Kenneth Tynan]], English critic and writer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1928]] - [[Joseph Cardinal Bernardin]], American cardinal (d. [[1996]])
*1928 - [[Serge Gainsbourg]], French singer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1934]] - [[Paul Joseph Cohen]], American mathematician
*1934 - [[Brian Glover]], British actor and wrestler (d. [[1997]])
*[[1937]] - [[Dick Radatz]], American baseball player (d. [[2005]])
*[[1939]] - [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1940]] - [[Penelope Keith]], English actress
*[[1941]] - [[Dr. Demento]], American radio personality
*[[1942]] - [[Hiroyuki Sakai]], Japanese chef
*[[1945]] - [[Linda Hunt]], American actress
*1945 - [[Don Sutton]], [[Major League Baseball]] player player
*1945 - [[Reggie Smith]], [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1947]] - [[Emmylou Harris]], American singer
*1947 - [[Camille Paglia]], American feminist writer
*[[1949]] - [[Pamela Reed]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Moriteru Ueshiba]], Japanese martial artist
*[[1953]] - [[Jim Allister]], Northern Irish politician
*1953 - [[David Robinson (musician)|David Robinson]], American musician
*1953 - [[Debralee Scott]], American actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1954]] - [[Ron Palillo]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Juha Kankkunen]], Finnish race car driver
*[[1960]] - [[Linford Christie]], British athlete
*[[1961]] - [[Christopher Meloni]], American actor
*1961 - [[Keren Woodward]], British singer ([[Bananarama]])
*[[1962]] - [[Pierre Carles]], French documentarist
*1962 - [[Mark Shulman]], American children's author
*[[1966]] - [[Bill Romanowski]], American football player
*[[1967]] - [[Greg Camp]], American guitarist and songwriter ([[Smash Mouth]])
*1967 - [[Helen Chamberlain]], British television presenter
*[[1971]] - [[Todd Woodbridge]], Australian tennis player
==Deaths==
*[[1272]] - [[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall]], Holy Roman Emperor (b. [[1209]])
*[[1335]] - Duke [[Henry of Carinthia]]
*[[1412]] - [[Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo]], Spanish traveler and writer
*[[1502]] - [[Arthur Tudor|Prince Arthur Tudor]], son of [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1486]])
*[[1507]] - [[Francis of Paola]], Italian founder of the Order of the Minims (b. [[1416]])
*[[1657]] - [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1608]])
*[[1720]] - [[Joseph Dudley]], colonial Governor of Massachusetts (b. [[1647]])
*[[1742]] - [[James Douglas (physician)|James Douglas]], Scottish physician and anatomist (b. [[1675]])
*[[1747]] - [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]], German botanist (b. [[1684]])
*[[1754]] - [[Thomas Carte]], English historian (b. [[1686]])
*[[1787]] - [[Thomas Gage]], British general (b. [[1719]])
*[[1801]] - [[Thomas Dadford Junior]], British canal engineer
*[[1803]] - [[Sir James Montgomery, 1st Baronet]], Scottish politican and judge (b. [[1721]])
*[[1817]] - [[Johann Heinrich Jung]], German author (b. [[1740]])
*[[1827]] - [[Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus]], German physician and naturalist (b. [[1776]])
*[[1865]] - General [[A. P. Hill]], American Confederate general (b. [[1825]])
*[[1872]] - [[Samuel Morse]], American inventor (b. [[1791]])
*[[1902]] - [[Esther Hobart Morris|Esther Morris]], suffragist and first female American judge (b. [[1814]])
*[[1914]] - [[Paul Johann Ludwig von Heyse|Paul von Heyse]], German writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1830]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hermann Rorschach]], Swiss psychologist (b. [[1884]])
*[[1928]] - [[Theodore William Richards]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1868]])
*[[1930]] - Empress [[Zauditu of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1876]])
*[[1966]] - [[C.S. Forester]], British author (b. [[1899]])
*[[1972]] - [[Gil Hodges]], American baseball player (b. [[1924]])
*[[1974]] - [[Georges Pompidou]], [[President of France]] (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[Buddy Rich]], American drummer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1994]] - [[Betty Furness]], American actress (b. [[1916]])
*[[1995]] - [[Harvey Penick]], American golfer (b. [[1904]])
*1995 - [[Hannes Alfvén]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1908]])
*[[2000]] - [[Tommaso Buscetta]], Italian gangster (b. [[1928]])
*[[2001]] - [[Charles Daudelin]], Canadian artist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2003]] - [[Edwin Starr]], American singer (b. [[1942]])
*[[2005]] - [[Pope John Paul II]] (b. [[1920]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/2 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050402.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=02 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[April 1]] - [[April 3]] - [[March 2]] - [[May 2]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:2 April]]
[[ar:2 إبريل]]
[[an:2 d'abril]]
[[ast:2 d'abril]]
[[az:2 Aprel]]
[[bg:2 април]]
[[be:2 красавіка]]
[[bs:2. april]]
[[ca:2 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 2]]
[[cv:Ака, 2]]
[[co:2 d'aprile]]
[[cs:2. duben]]
[[cy:2 Ebrill]]
[[da:2. april]]
[[de:2. April]]
[[et:2. aprill]]
[[el:2 Απριλίου]]
[[es:2 de abril]]
[[eo:2-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 2]]
[[fo:2. apríl]]
[[fr:2 avril]]
[[fy:2 april]]
[[ga:2 Aibreán]]
[[gl:2 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 2일]]
[[hr:2. travnja]]
[[io:2 di aprilo]]
[[id:2 April]]
[[ia:2 de april]]
[[ie:2 april]]
[[is:2. apríl]]
[[it:2 aprile]]
[[he:2 באפריל]]
[[jv:2 April]]
[[ka:2 აპრილი]]
[[csb:2 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:2'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 2]]
[[lb:2. Abrëll]]
[[li:2 april]]
[[hu:Április 2]]
[[mk:2 април]]
[[ms:2 April]]
[[nap:2 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:2 april]]
[[ja:4月2日]]
[[no:2. april]]
[[nn:2. april]]
[[oc:2 d'abril]]
[[os:2 апрелы]]
[[pl:2 kwietnia]]
[[pt:2 de Abril]]
[[ro:2 aprilie]]
[[ru:2 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 2.]]
[[sco:2 Aprile]]
[[sq:2 Prill]]
[[scn:2 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 2]]
[[sk:2. apríl]]
[[sl:2. april]]
[[sr:2. април]]
[[fi:2. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:2 april]]
[[tl:Abril 2]]
[[tt:2. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 2]]
[[th:2 เมษายน]]
[[vi:2 tháng 4]]
[[tr:2 Nisan]]
[[uk:2 квітня]]
[[ur:2 اپریل]]
[[wa:2 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 2]]
[[zh:4月2日]]
[[pam:Abril 2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acetylene</title>
<id>1778</id>
<revision>
<id>41763366</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:53:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.173.6.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Preparation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;"
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|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| {{PAGENAME}} <!-- replace if not identical with the art |
abas]](Joosten, 2002).
The name 'Diatessaron' is Greek for 'through four'; the Syriac name for this gospel harmony is 'Ewangeliy&ocirc;n Damhallt&ecirc;' ('Gospel of the Mixed'). Indeed, the Syrian Church also rejected John's ''[[Revelation]]'' and the [[Pastoral epistle]]s. They were included again only in the middle of the sixth century.
In the tradition of Gospel harmonies, there is another ''Diatessaron'', reportedly written by one Ammonius Saccas, to correct perceived deficencies in Tatian's. (Note that this Ammonius Saccas is probably not the [[Ammonius Saccas]] who taught [[Origen]] and [[Plotinus]], but rather a different philosopher with the same name). None of this revised ''Diatessaron'' survives, except as it may have influenced the medieval Arabic and Latin texts that were formerly the only existing reflections of Tatian's work.
Gospel harmonies are valuable in studies of biblical texts, since they frequently offer glimpses of earlier versions of texts. In particular, due to their not having been copied as frequently as biblical texts, more of the earlier versions survive (as newer copies did not exist to replace them). As such, the extant texts contain within them portions of earlier versions of the gospels than the earliest separate gospels known.
In addition, because the Old Testament quotations in the Diatessaron are separately translated from the Hebrew - and hence independant of the [[Septuagint]] - these quotations form an important early witness to the vocalisation of the Hebrew Bible.
The [[Qur'an]], in referring to Christians and Christian scripture, only makes reference to one [[gospel]]. from this it has been inferred that the Arabian Christians of the 7th century were habitually using a harmonization such as the Diatessaron as their principle scripture.
==External links==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/diatessaron.html Early Christian Writings:] ''Diatessaron'' e-text and commentaries.
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-10/anf10-06.htm ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'' vol. X:] based on an 11th century Arabic translation from the Syriac
==References==
*Carmel McCarthy, 1994. ''Saint Ephrem's Commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron: An English Translation of Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709 with Introduction and Notes'' (Oxford University Press) ISBN 13: 9780199221639 The first English translation.
*William L. Petersen, "Textual evidence of Tatian's dependence upon Justin's ''Apomnemonegmata'', ''New Testament Studies'' 36 (1990) 512-534.
*Jeffrey Tigay, editor. ''Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986
*Leslie McFall, 1994. "Tatian's Diatessaron: Mischievous or Misleading?" Westminster Theological Journal vol. 56 (1994) pp. 87-114.
*Jan Joosten, 2002. "The Gospel of Barnabas and the Dietessaron" Harvard Theological Review 95.1 (2002): pp 73-96.
[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[cs:Diatessaron]]
[[de:Evangelienharmonie]]
[[sv:Diatessaron]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dean Koontz</title>
<id>8910</id>
<revision>
<id>42080812</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:17:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KF</username>
<id>3602</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dean Ray Koontz''' (born [[July 9]], [[1945]] in [[Everett, Pennsylvania]]) is a prolific and best-selling [[fiction]] [[author]] known primarily for his popular suspense novels.
==Biography==
Dean Koontz grew up in desperate poverty under the tyranny of a violent [[alcoholic]] father (Koontz's father served time in prison for trying to murder him). Despite his traumatic childhood, Koontz put himself through [[Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania]] (then known as Shippensburg State College), and in [[1967]] went to work as an English teacher at Mechanicsburg High School. In his spare time he wrote his first novel, ''[[Star Quest]]'', which was published in [[1968 in literature|1968]]. From there he went on to write over a dozen more [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s.
In the 1970s, Koontz began publishing mainstream suspense and [[horror fiction]], under his own name as well as under several [[pseudonym]]s; Koontz has stated he used pen names after several editors convinced him that authors who switched genre fell victim to "negative crossover": alienating established fans, while simultaneously not picking up any new fans. Known pseudonyms include Deanna Dwyer, K. R. Dwyer, Aaron Wolfe, David Axton, Brian Coffey, John Hill, Leigh Nichols, Owen West, and Richard Paige. Currently some of those novels are sold under Koontz's real name.
Koontz's breakthrough novel was ''[[Whispers]]'' (1980). Several of his books have reached #1 on the [[New York Times bestseller list|''New York Times'' bestseller list]].
Koontz is renowned for his skill at writing suspenseful page-turners. His strengths also include memorable characters, original ideas, and ability to blend [[horror fiction|horror]], [[fantasy]] and [[humour]]. Koontz has been criticized for his tendency to include too many similes and therefore to drag out descriptions, his frequent use of similar [[plot]]ting structures, and a tendency to moralize heavily.
Arguably, most of Koontz's work can still be classified as science fiction, as he tries to create plausible, consistent explanations for the unusual, fantastic events featured in most of his novels.
Koontz's protagonists invariably arm themselves with guns to combat the various monsters and madmen that they deal with, and Koontz gets all the technical details right.
Koontz also has a very interesting way of adding his own little quirks to his novels, such as adding simple quotes from a book by the name of ''[[Book of Counted Sorrows|The Book of Counted Sorrows]]''. ''Counted Sorrows'' was originally a hoax, like the nonexistent ''Keener's Manual'' [[Richard Condon]] cited for epigraphs he wrote himself. Eventually Koontz put together a [[poetry]] collection of that name, using all the epigraphs; it was printed as a limited edition in 2003 by [http://www.charnelhouse.com/sorrows.html Charnel House] and as an eBook by Barnes & Noble. His more recent novels, starting with ''The Taking'', have no verse by Koontz; rather, they have quotes by other authors (in particular, ''The Taking'' uses quotes from [[T. S. Eliot]], whose works figure in the plot of the novel).
Koontz has long been a fan of [[Art Bell]]'s radio program, [[Coast to Coast AM]]. He appeared as a guest after a fan reported to Bell that one of Koontz's novels featured a character describing a [[paranormal]] event as an "Art Bell moment."
Koontz currently resides in [[Newport Beach, California|Newport Beach]], a city in [[Southern California]] (as such, most of his novels are set in Southern California) with his wife Gerda and their dog '''Trixie Koontz''', under whose name he published the book, ''[[Life is Good: Lessons in Joyful Living]]'', in 2004. Trixie is also often referenced in his official newsletter "Useless News".
Dogs often figure heavily in Koontz's novels, as he is an avid dog lover. ''Watchers'', ''Dark Rivers of the Heart'', and ''One Door Away from Heaven'' are prime examples. However, lately he has seen fit to include cats as characters, most notably the smart cat Mungojerrie in the Christopher Snow novels.
At the end of books, Koontz includes in his ABOUT THE AUTHOR page his mailing address:
Dean Koontz
P.O.Box 9529
Newport Beach, CA 92658
==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*''[[Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]], Book Three'' (Summer 2006)
*''[[The Husband]]'' ([[May 30]] [[2006]])
*''[[Forever Odd]]'' ([[November 29]] [[2005]])
*''[[Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]], Book Two: City of Night'' w/ [[Ed Gorman]] ([[July 26]] [[2005]])
*''[[Velocity (novel)|Velocity]]'' ([[May 24]] [[2005]])
*''[[Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]], Book One: Prodigal Son'' w/ [[Kevin J. Anderson]] ([[January 25]] [[2005]])
*''[[Life Expectancy (novel)|Life Expectancy]]'' ([[December 7]] [[2004]])
*''[[The Taking]]'' ([[May 25]] [[2004]])
*''[[Odd Thomas]]'' ([[December 9]] [[2003]])
*''[[The Face (novel)|The Face]] ([[May 27]] [[2003]])
*''[[The Book of Counted Sorrows]]'' (2003)
*''[[By the Light of the Moon]]'' ([[December 24]] [[2002]])
*''[[One Door Away from Heaven]]'' (US [[December 26]] [[2001]])
*''[[From the Corner of His Eye]]'' ([[December 26]] [[2000]])
*''[[False Memory (novel)|False Memory]]'' ([[December 28]] [[1999]])
*''[[Seize the Night]]'' ([[December 29]] [[1998]])
*''[[Fear Nothing]]'' ([[January 14]] [[1998]])
*''[[Sole Survivor]]'' ([[January 29]] [[1997]])
*''[[Demon Seed]] (revised edition) (July, 1997)
*''[[Tick-Tock]]'' ([[October 1]] [[1996]])
*''[[Intensity]]'' (1996)
*''[[Dark Rivers of the Heart]]'' (1994)
*''[[The Door to December]]'' (1994)
*''[[Dragon Tears]]'' (1993)
*''[[Mr. Murder]]'' (1993)
*''[[Trapped]]'' (1993, Graphic Novel)
*''[[The Funhouse]]'' (1992)
*''[[Hideaway]]'' (1992)
*''[[Cold Fire]]'' (1991)
*''[[The Bad Place]]'' (1990)
*''[[Shadowfires]]'' (1990)
*''[[The Eyes of Darkness]]'' (1989)
*''[[Midnight]]'' (1989)
*''[[Lightning]]'' (1988)
*''[[The Servants of Twilight]]'' (1988, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Voice of the Night]]'' (1988)
*''[[Shadowfires]]'' (1987, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[Watchers]]'' (1987)
*''[[Strangers]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Door to December]]'' (1985, as Richard Paige)
*''[[Twilight Eyes]]'' (1985)
*''[[Darkfall]]'' (1984)
*''[[Twilight]]'' (1984, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[Phantoms (novel)|Phantoms]]'' (1983)
*''[[The House of Thunder]]'' (1982, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Eyes of Darkness]]'' (1981, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Mask]]'' (1981, as Owen West)
*''[[The Funhouse]]'' (1980, as Owen West)
*''[[The Voice of Night]]'' (1980, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[Whispers]]'' (1980)
*''[[The Key to Midnight]]'' (1979, as Leigh Nichols)
|
one who cares to incorporate it.
*[[Portugal]] -- bits added under Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Qatar]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Romania]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Geography, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Russia]] -- bits added under Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations; "population aging" and "HIV/AIDS" put under demographics rather than "Economy of" because to follow the Dept of State's example seemed inhumane; "human rights" section put under "politics of" (because tucking it under "foreign relations seemed quite the slight towards Russian residents); many bits available at [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3183.htm the Dept of State site] were '''not''' added to the several articles on Russian history and so await a more knowledgeable wikipedian.
*[[Rwanda]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Samoa]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[San Marino]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[São Tomé and Príncipe]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Saudi Arabia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations (including bits from U.S./Saudi relations, put under the heading "human rights")
*[[Senegal]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Seychelles]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Singapore]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Communications, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Slovakia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Slovenia]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
----
Copied and pasted (but did not wikify) the text for the remainder (21 Dec 2003):
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[Somalia]]
*[[South Africa]]
*[[South Korea]]
*[[Spain]]
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
*[[Saint Lucia]]
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
*[[Suriname]]
*[[Swaziland]]
*[[Sweden]]
*[[Switzerland]]
*[[Syria]]
*[[Taiwan]]
*[[Tajikistan]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Thailand]]
*[[Togo]]
*[[Tonga]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
*[[Tunisia]]
*[[Turkey]]
*[[Turkmenistan]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Tuvalu]]
*[[Uganda]]
*[[Ukraine]]
*[[United Arab Emirates]]
*[[United Kingdom]]
*[[Uruguay]]
*[[Uzbekistan]]
*[[Vanuatu]]
*[[Venezuela]]
*[[Vietnam]]
*[[Yemen]]
*[[Yugoslavia]]
*[[Zambia]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]
:''See also :'' [[Countries of the world]]
[[Category:Wikipedia maintenance|{{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Countries of the world2</title>
<id>5354</id>
<revision>
<id>15903566</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking</title>
<id>5355</id>
<revision>
<id>42144077</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:46:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CivilCasualty</username>
<id>197316</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Food safety */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''Cooking''' is the act of preparing [[food]] for [[consumption]]. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of [[ingredient]]s to improve the [[flavor|flavour]] or [[digestion|digestibility of food]]. It generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, [[tool]]s and the skill of the individual cooking.
The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it.
Cooking usually, though not always, involves applying heat in order to chemically transform a food, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. There is archaeological evidence of cooked foodstuffs, both animal and vegetable in human settlements dating from the earliest known use of [[fire]]. The earliest use of cooking was possibly done by ''[[Homo erectus]]'', although the evidence is in contention between [[Paleoanthropology|paleoanthropologists]].
== Effects of cooking ==
=== Food safety ===
If heat is used in the preparation of food, this can kill or inactivate potentially harmful organisms including [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[virus]]es. The effect will depend on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. The temperature range from 4°C to 57°C (41°F to 135°F) is the "food danger zone." Between these temperatures bacteria can grow rapidly. Under the correct conditions bacteria can double in number every twenty minutes. The food may not appear any different or spoiled but can be harmful to anyone who eats it. [[Meat]], [[poultry]], dairy products, and other prepared food must be kept outside of the "food danger zone" to remain safe to eat. [[Refrigeration]] and freezing do not kill bacteria, but only slow their growth.
=== Proteins ===
Much edible animal material is made of [[protein]]s, including [[muscle]], [[offal]], and [[egg white]]. Almost all vegetable matter also includes proteins although generally in smaller amounts. They may also be a source of [[essential amino acid]]s. When proteins are heated to near boiling point they become de-natured and change texture. In many cases this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable - meat becomes ''cooked''. In some cases proteins can form more rigid structures such as the production of stable foams using egg whites. These are believed to be formed through the partial unravelling of the [[albumen]] protein molecules in response to beating with a whisk. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component of much [[cake]] cookery and also underpins many desserts based on [[meringue]].
=== Fat ===
[[Fat]]s and [[cooking oil|oil]]s come from both animal and plant sources. In cooking, fats provide tastes and textures but probably the most significant attribute is the wide range of cooking temperatures that can be provided by using a fat as the principal cooking medium rather than water. Commonly used fats and oils include [[butter]], [[olive oil]], [[sunflower oil]], [[lard]], [[beef fat]] - both [[dripping]] or tallow, [[rapeseed]] oil or [[Canola]], and [[peanut]] oil. The inclusion of fats tend to make many dishes more tasty even though the taste of the oil on its own is often unpleasant. This fact has encouraged the popularity of high fat foods many of which are classified as ''junk'' food such as [[hamburger]]s or convenience fried cereal snacks.
Fats can also be blended with cereal flours to make a range of [[dough]]s and [[pastry|pastries]]. Roux made with heated fat and [[flour]] can also absorb large volumes of [[water]]-based liquids, including [[milk]] and water itself to form smooth [[sauce]]s. This relies on the properties of [[starch]]es to create simpler mucilaginous [[saccharide]]s during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces.
Oils are commonly [[emulsification|emulsified]] with water[based fluids such as [[vinegar]] or [[lemon]] juice to make [[mayonaise]]s. In this the fatty content of egg yolk is used as the emulsification agent.
=== Carbohydrates ===
[[Carbohydrate]]s used in cooking include a variety of [[sugar]]s and [[starch]]es including cereal flour, [[rice]], [[arrowroot]], and [[potato]]. Long chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into more simple sugars when cooked or made more [[acid|acidic]], such as with [[lemon juice]] or vinegar. Simple sugars can form [[syrup]]s. If sugars are heated so that all water of [[crystalisation]] is driven off, then [[caramelisation]] starts with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of [[carbon]] and other breakdown products producing [[caramel]].
== Cooking techniques == <!-- Please help keep lists alphabetized -->
Some major hot cooking techniques:
* [[Baking]]
** [[Blind Baking|Baking Blind]]
** [[Broiling]]
** [[FlashBake]]
* [[Boiling]]
** [[Blanching]]
** [[Braising]]
** [[Coddling]]
** [[Double steaming]]
** [[Infusion]]
** [[Poaching (cooking)|Poaching]]
** [[Pressure cooking]]
** [[Simmering]]
** [[Steaming]]
** [[Vacuum flask cooking]]
** [[Steeping]]
** [[Stewing]]
* [[Frying]]
** [[Deep frying]]
** [[Hot salt frying]]
** [[Hot sand frying]]
** [[Pan frying]]
** [[Pressure frying]]
** [[Sautéing]]
** [[Stir frying]]
* [[Microwaving]]
* [[Roasting]]
** [[Barbecuing]]
** [[Grilling]]
** [[Rotisserie]]
** [[Searing]]
* [[Smoking (food)|Smoking]]
== Other (cool) preparation techniques == <!-- Please help keep lists alphabetized -->
* [[Brining]]
* [[Drying (food)|Drying]]
* [[Grinding]] (e.g. sesame seeds to produce [[tahini]]), chopping, slicing finely, grating, etc..
* [[Marinating]]
* [[Mincing]]
* [[Pickling]]
* [[Salting (food)|Salting]]
* [[Seasoning]]
* [[Sprouting]]
<!--====Ingredients==== Please help keep lists alphabetized *[[Fecula]]-->
== See also ==
{{Wikibooks|Cookbook}}
Specific techniques and ingredients are often regional. See [[Cuisine]] for information about the many regional and ethnic food traditions. |
Limoges]]") is first documented as being used to refer to this language. This attribution has no philological base, but it is explicable by the complex sociolinguistic frame of Catalan poetry of this era (Catalan versus troubadoresque Occitan). [[Ausias March]] himself was not sure what to call the language he was writing in (it is clearly closer to his contemporary Catalan or Valencian than to the archaic Occitan).
Then, during the sixteenth century, most of the Valencian elites switched languages to Castilian Spanish, as can be seen in the balance of languages of printed books in Valencia city: at the beginning of century Latin and Catalan (or Valencian) were the main languages of the press, but by the end of the century Spanish was the main language of the press. Still, rural areas and urban working classes continued to speak their vernacular language.
During the first half of the nineteenth century, Catalan and Valencian experienced a major revival among urban elites due to the [[Renaixença]], a [[romanticism|romantic]] cultural movement. The effects of this revival continue to be felt to this day.
In Francoist Spain (1939-1975), the use of Castilian over Catalan was promoted, and public use of Catalan was in fact forbidden, though thousands of books were published in Catalan (or sneaked under censorship). Following the death of Franco in [[1975]] and the restoration of democracy, the use of Catalan increased and the Catalan language is now used in politics, education and the media, including the newspapers ''Avui'' ('Today'), ''El Punt'' ('The Point') and ''El Periódico de Catalunya'' (sharing content with its Spanish release and with ''El Periòdic d'Andorra'', printed in [[Andorra]]; ''El Periódico de Catalunya'' has Spanish-language and Catalan-language editions, with identical content) and the [[television]] channels of ''Televisió de Catalunya'' (TVC): TV3 and Canal 33/K3 (culture and cartoons channel) as well as a 24 hour news channel 3/24; there are also many local channels available in region in Catalan, such as BTV and CityTV (Barcelona), Canal L'Hospitalet (L'Hospitalet de Llobregat) and Canal Terrassa (Terrassa).
==Examples==
{{IPA notice}}
Some common Catalan phrases (pronounced as in the Central dialect -Barcelona and outskirts-):
*Catalan: ''Català'' {{IPA|/kətə&#712;l&#593;/}}
*hello: ''hola'' {{IPA|/&#712;&#596;lə/}}
*good-bye: ''adéu'' {{IPA|/ə&#712;ð&#603;w/}} (sing.); ''adéu siau'' {{IPA|/ə&#712;ð&#603;w si&#712;aw/}} (pl.)
*please: ''si us plau'' {{IPA|/sis&#712;pl&#593;w/}}
*thank you: ''gràcies'' {{IPA|/&#712;gr&#593;siəs/}}; ''mercès'' {{IPA|/mər&#712;s&#603;s/}}
*sorry: ''perdó'' {{IPA|/pər&#712;ðo/}}
*that one: ''aquest'' {{IPA|/ə&#712;k&#603;t/}} (masc.); ''aquesta'' {{IPA|/ə&#712;k&#603;stə/}} (fem.)
*how much?: ''quant val?'' {{IPA|/&#712;kw&#593;m&#712;b&#593;l/}}; ''quant és?'' {{IPA|/&#712;kw&#593;n&#712;tes/}}
*yes: ''sí'' {{IPA|/&#712;si/}}
*no: ''no'' {{IPA|/&#712;no/}}
*I don't understand: ''No ho entenc'' {{IPA|/&#712;no wən&#712;teŋ/}}
*where's the bathroom?: ''on és el bany?'' {{IPA|/&#712;on&#712;ezəl&#712;βa&#626;/}}; ''on és el lavabo?'' {{IPA|/&#712;on&#712;ezəl&#712;lə&#712;β&#593;βu/}}
*generic toast: ''salut!'' {{IPA|/sə&#712;lut/}};
*Do you speak English?: ''Que parla l'anglès?'' {{IPA|/kə &#712;parlə lən&#712;gl&#603;s/}}
*Do you speak Catalan?: ''Que parla el català?'' {{IPA|/kə &#712;parləl kətə&#712;l&#593;/}}
==Learning Catalan==
* ''Digui, digui... Curs de català per a estrangers''. A Catalan Handbook. &mdash; Alan Yates and Toni Ibarz. &mdash; Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Cultura, 1993. -- ISBN 84-393-2579-7.
* ''Teach Yourself Catalan''. &mdash; McGraw-Hill, 1993. &mdash; ISBN 0844237558.
* ''Colloquial Catalan''. &mdash; Toni Ibarz and Alexander Ibarz. &mdash; Routledge, 2005. &mdash; ISBN 0415234123.
Catalan courses are given at many universities in the EU and USA.
==English words of Catalan origin==
*[[Allioli]], from ''all i oli'', a typical sauce.
*[[Barracks]], from ''barraca'', used for several kinds of buildings.
*[[Mayonnaise]], one of the proposed etymologies is the name of the city of [[Maó]]/Mahón.
==See also==
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]] (Catalan Studies Institute)
* [[Pompeu Fabra]]
* [[Valencian]]
* [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]
* [[Catalan literature]]
* [[Languages of France]]
* [[:Category:Languages of Italy|Languages of Italy]]
* [[:Category:Languages of Spain|Languages of Spain]]
* [[Spanish and Portuguese names|Catalan names]]
* [[:.cat|New Catalan top-level domain .cat]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ca}}
{{Commons|Catalan language}}
===Institutions===
* [http://www.iec.es/ Institut d'Estudis Catalans]
* [http://www.avl.gva.es/ Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]
===About the Catalan language===
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=cat Ethnologue report for Catalan]
* [http://catalunya-lliure.com/recursos.html Catalan resources in the Web]
* [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?t=7983&postdays=0&postorder=asc&start=0 GRAMÀTICA CATALANA] A Catalan grammar
===Dictionaries and phrasebooks===
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Catalan-english/ Catalan English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://pdl.iec.es/entrada/diec.asp Diccionari Català de l'IEC]
* [http://www.grec.net/home/cel/dicc.htm Online Catalan dictionary] from Enciclopèdia Catalana
* [http://dcvb.iecat.net/ Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear]. In Catalan, published by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans and Editorial Moll.
* [http://www.dilc.org/ Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana]
* [http://www.catalandictionary.org/ DACCO]. Open source English-Catalan / Catalan-English dictionary project.
* [[wikitravel:Catalan phrasebook|Catalan phrasebook]] on [[wikitravel:Main Page|Wikitravel]]
* [http://www.geocities.com/learn_catalan/ Learn Catalan!]. An introduction for the Catalonia-bound traveler.
===Catalan-language media===
* [http://www.tvcatalunya.com/ ''Televisió de Catalunya'']
* [http://www.avui.cat/ Diari ''Avui''] &mdash; Catalan-language daily newspaper
* [http://www.elpunt.com/ Diari ''El Punt''] &mdash; Catalan-language daily newspaper
* [http://www.vilaweb.cat/ ''VilaWeb''] The main Catalan online newspaper
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/P%C3%A0gina_principal Catalan Wikibooks]
===Catalan-language web searching===
* [http://ct.yahoo.com/ Yahoo! Català] Searching in Catalan
* [http://www.nosaltres.com/ Nosaltres.com]
* [http://www.google.com/intl/ca/ Google (Catalan language)]
===Catalan-language online encyclopedia===
*[http://www.enciclopedia-catalana.com/ Enciclopèdia Catalana] (in Catalan)
*[http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portada Viquipèdia] (Wikipedia in Catalan)
[[Category:Catalan language]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Spain]]
[[Category:Languages of Andorra]]
[[Category:Romance languages]]
{{Link FA|ca}}
[[af:Katalaans]]
[[ar:لغة كاتالانية]]
[[an:Idioma catalán]]
[[ast:Catalán]]
[[bg:Каталонски език]]
[[br:Katalaneg]]
[[ca:Català]]
[[cs:Katalánština]]
[[cy:Catalaneg]]
[[da:Catalansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Katalanische Sprache]]
[[et:Katalaani keel]]
[[el:Καταλανική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma catalán]]
[[eo:Kataluna lingvo]]
[[eu:Katalan]]
[[fr:Catalan]]
[[fy:Katalaansk]]
[[fur:Lenghe catalane]]
[[gl:Lingua catalá]]
[[ko:카탈루냐어]]
[[hr:Katalonski jezik]]
[[id:Bahasa Katalan]]
[[ia:Lingua catalan]]
[[it:Lingua catalana]]
[[he:קטלאנית]]
[[kw:Katalanek]]
[[la:Lingua Catalana]]
[[li:Catalaans]]
[[nl:Catalaans (taal)]]
[[nds:Katalaansch]]
[[ja:カタルーニャ語]]
[[nn:Katalansk språk]]
[[oc:Catalan]]
[[pl:Język kataloński]]
[[pt:Língua catalã]]
[[ro:Limba catalană]]
[[rm:Lingua catalana]]
[[ru:Каталанский язык]]
[[simple:Catalan language]]
[[sr:Каталонски језик]]
[[fi:Katalaani]]
[[sv:Katalanska]]
[[tr:Katalanca]]
[[wa:Catalan]]
[[zh:加泰罗尼亚语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cryptomonads</title>
<id>5283</id>
<revision>
<id>15903498</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-16T00:08:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wish I'd started these in the singular</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptomonad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>College logic</title>
<id>5284</id>
<revision>
<id>22502867</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-03T22:52:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Banno</username>
<id>22544</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Logic]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>STS-51-F</title>
<id>5285</id>
<revision>
<id>41585073</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T08:31:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cohesion</username>
<id>103640</id>
</contributor>
<comment>scaling image, original is now full size</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#FFDEAD">'''Mission insignia'''</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">[[image:Sts51F flight insignia.jpg|300px]]<br />
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#FFDEAD">'''Mission Statistics'''</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Mission:</td><td& |
eerage]] ("[[Lords Temporal]]"). Lords Spiritual serve as long as they continue to occupy their ecclesiastical positions, whereas Lords Temporal serve for life. Members of the House of Lords are known as "Lords of Parliament".
The House of Lords originated in the [[14th century]] and has been in almost continuous existence since. The name "House of Lords" was not used as a name for the Upper House until [[1544]]. It was abolished in [[1649]] by the revolutionary government that came to power during the [[English Civil War]], but was restored in [[1660]]. The House of Lords (the "[[upper house|Upper House]]") was once more powerful than the elected House of Commons (the "[[lower house|Lower House]]"). Since the [[19th century]], however, the powers of the House of Lords have been steadily declining; now, the Upper House is far weaker than its elected counterpart. Under the [[Parliament Act]]s (passed in [[1911]] and [[1949]]) all legislation excluding "money bills" (including the Budget) passed by the House of Commons can be delayed for twelve months, but cannot be rejected. This power is called a [[suspensive veto]] in political science. Reforms were enacted under the [[House of Lords Act 1999]], which removed the automatic hereditary right of peers to sit in the Upper House. A small number retain seats because they hold office as [[Great Officer of State|Great Officers of State]], and an additional 92 are elected as [[representative peer|representative peers]]. Additional reforms are contemplated by the current Labour Government, but have not been passed into law.
In addition to performing legislative functions, the House of Lords also holds judicial powers: it constitutes the highest court of appeal for most cases in the United Kingdom. The [[judicial functions of the House of Lords]] are not performed by the whole Chamber, but rather by a group of members with legal experience, who are known as "Law Lords". The House of Lords is not the only [[supreme court|court of last resort]] in the United Kingdom; in some cases, that role is fulfilled by the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. The [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] will transfer the judicial functions of the Lords to a new [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]], but the provisions enacting the transfer have not yet been brought into force.
The full, formal style and title of the House of Lords is: ''The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled''. The House of Lords, like the House of Commons, meets in the [[Palace of Westminster]].
==History==
Parliament developed from the council that advised the King during mediæval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the [[Traditional counties of the British Isles|counties]] (afterwards, representatives of the [[Parliamentary borough|boroughs]] as well). The first Parliament is often considered to be the "Model Parliament" (held in [[1295]]), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] ([[1307]]&ndash;[[1327]]), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In [[1322]], the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, but by an authoritative statute, passed by Parliament itself. Further developments occurred during the reign of Edward II's successor, [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Most importantly, it was during this King's reign that Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the senior clergy and the nobility). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the early fifteenth century, both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons, due to the great influence of the aristocrats and prelates of the realm.
The power of the nobility suffered a relapse due to the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, known as the [[Wars of the Roses]]. Much of the nobility was either decimated on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, [[feudalism]] was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Hence, the Crown easily re-established its absolute supremacy in the realm. The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor monarchs]] in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ([[1509]]-[[1547]]).
The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House did continue to grow in influence, reaching its zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the [[English Civil War]] during the [[1640s]]. In [[1649]], after the defeat and execution of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]], a republic (the [[Commonwealth of England]]) was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The House of Lords relapsed into a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On [[19 March]] 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England." The House of Lords did not assemble again until the [[Convention Parliament]] met in [[1660]] and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament&mdash;a position it would occupy until the 19th century.
[[Image:House of Lords Microcosm edited.jpg|thumb|275px|The House of Lords in the early 19th century.]]
The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished. Moreover, the power of the House as a whole experienced a decrease, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the Reform Bill Crisis of [[1832]]. The electoral system of the House of Commons was not, at the time, democratic but antediluvian: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many of the constituencies had not been changed for centuries. Entire cities such as [[Manchester]] were not represented by a single individual in the House of Commons, but the 11 voters of [[Old Sarum]] retained their ancient right to elect two Members of Parliament. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous "[[rotten borough|pocket boroughs]]", and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons.
When, in [[1831]], the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in the Lords in 1832. The Prime Minister, [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]], then advised the King to overwhelm the opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] originally baulked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented. Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat, and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords, but did not altogether end it. Over the course of the century, however, the power of the Upper House experienced further erosion, and the Commons gradually became the stronger branch of Parliament.
[[Image:LloydGeorge.JPG|frame|right|The rejection of the [[People's Budget]], proposed by [[David Lloyd George]] (above), precipitated a political crisis in 1909.]]
The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront after the election of a Liberal Government in [[1906]]. In [[1908]], the Government under [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] introduced a number of [[social welfare]] programmes, which, together with an expensive [[arms race]] with [[Germany]], had forced the Government to seek more funding in the form of tax increases. In [[1909]], the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], [[David Lloyd George]], introduced the "[[People's Budget]]", which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. The unpopular measure, however, failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were re-elected in January [[1910]]. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. Proceedings on the bill were briefly interrupted by the death of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]], but were soon recommenced under the new monarch, [[George V of the United |
(sometimes referred to as a dumbbell). The three <math>p</math>-orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other, as determined by their respective values of <math>m_\ell</math>.
Four of the five <math>d</math>-orbitals look similar, each with four pear-shaped balls, each ball tangent to two others, and the centers of all four lying in one plane, between a pair of axes. Three of these planes are the <math>xy</math>-, <math>xz</math>-, and <math>yz</math>-planes, and the fourth has the centres on the <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> axes. The fifth and final <math>d</math>-orbital consists of three regions of high probability density: a [[torus]] with two pear-shaped regions placed symmetrically on its <math>z</math> axis.
== Orbital energy ==
In atoms with a single electron (essentially the [[hydrogen atom]]), the energy of an orbital (and, consequently, of any electrons in the orbital) is determined exclusively by <math>n</math>. The <math>n=1</math> orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. Each successively higher value of <math>n</math> has a higher level of energy, but the difference decreases as <math>n</math> increases. For high <math>n</math>, the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom.
In atoms with multiple electrons, the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital, but also on its interactions with the other electrons. These interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability distribution, and so the [[energy level]]s of orbitals depend not only on <math>n</math> but also on <math>\ell</math>. Higher values of <math>\ell</math> are associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2''p'' state is higher than the 2''s'' state. When <math>\ell</math> = 3, the increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the ''s''-orbital in the next higher shell; when <math>\ell</math> = 4 the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher.
The energy order of the first 24 subshells is given in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell with <math>n</math> and <math>\ell</math> given by its row and column indices, respectively. The number in the cell is the subshell's position in the sequence. Empty cells represent subshells that either do not exist or stand farther down in the sequence.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! <math>s</math>
! <math>p</math>
! <math>d</math>
! <math>f</math>
! <math>g</math>
|-
! 1
| 1 || || || ||
|-
! 2
| 2 || 3 || || ||
|-
! 3
| 4 || 5 || 7 || ||
|-
! 4
| 6 || 8 || 10 || 13 ||
|-
! 5
| 9 || 11 || 14 || 17 || 21
|-
! 6
|12 || 15 || 18 || 22 ||
|-
! 7
|16 || 19 || 23 || ||
|-
! 8
|20 || 24 || || ||
|}
== Electron placement and the periodic table ==
Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (''[[electron configuration]]''). The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]). These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals , as well as (the hitherto unmentioned) [[Spin quantum number|''s'']]. Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of <math>s</math>. However, ''only'' two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital.
Additionally, an electron always tries to occupy the lowest possible energy state. It is possible for it to occupy any orbital so long as it does not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, but if lower-energy orbitals are available, this condition is unstable. The electron will eventually lose energy (by releasing a [[photon]]) and drop into the lower orbital. Thus, electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above.
This behavior is responsible for the structure of the [[periodic table]]. The table may be divided into several rows (called 'periods'), numbered starting with 1 at the top. The presently known elements occupy seven periods. If a certain period has number <math>i</math>, it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the <math>i</math>th shell.
The periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'. The elements belonging to a given block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all belong to the same <math>\ell</math>-state (but the <math>n</math> associated with that <math>\ell</math>-state depends upon the period). For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'. The outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell.
The number of electrons in a neutral atom increases with the [[atomic number]]. The electrons in the outermost shell, or ''[[valence electron]]s'', tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. Elements that contain the same number of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties.
===See also===
* [[List of Hund's rules]]
* [[Electron configuration]]
* [[Atomic electron configuration table]]
* [[Molecular orbital]]
* [[Energy level]]
== External links ==
*[http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_07.html Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure]
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/orbitron/ The Orbitron], a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals, from 1s to 7g
* David Manthey's [http://www.orbitals.com/orb/index.html Orbital Viewer] renders orbitals with ''n''&nbsp;&le;&nbsp;30
* [http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/ Java orbital viewer applet]
== References ==
* Tipler, Paul & Ralph Llewellyn (2003). ''Modern Physics'' (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0
[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[ca:Orbital atòmic]]
[[de:Orbital]]
[[es:Orbital atómico]]
[[fa:اوربیتال]]
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[[he:אורביטל]]
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[[pl:Orbital]]
[[pt:Orbital]]
[[ru:Атомная орбиталь]]
[[sl:Orbitala]]
[[fi:Orbitaali]]
[[zh:原子轨道]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amino acid</title>
<id>1207</id>
<revision>
<id>41581786</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:43:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorisTM</username>
<id>198330</id>
</contributor>
<comment>129.130.214.183 and Atemperman, next time take the discussion to the [[Talk:Amino_acid|Amino acid talk page]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], an '''amino acid''' is any [[molecule]] that contains both [[amino]] and [[carboxylic acid]] [[functional group|functional groups]]. In [[biochemistry]], this shorter and more general term is frequently used to refer to alpha amino acids: those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same [[carbon]], the so-called [[alpha carbon|&alpha;&ndash;carbon]].
An '''amino acid residue''' is what is left of an amino acid once a molecule of [[water]] has been lost (an [[hydrogen ion|H<sup>+</sup>]] from the nitrogenous side and an [[hydroxyl ion|OH<sup>-</sup>]] from the carboxylic side) in the formation of a [[peptide bond]].
==Overview==
Amino acids are the basic structural building units of [[protein]]s. They form short [[polymer]] chains called [[peptide]]s or [[polypeptides]] which in turn form structures called [[protein]]s. The process of such formation is known as [[translation (biology)|translation]], which is part of [[protein synthesis]].
[[Image:Phe-stick.png|thumb|[[Phenylalanine]] is one of the standard amino acids.]]
Twenty amino acids are encoded by the standard [[genetic code]] and are called [[proteinogenic]] or '''standard amino acids'''.
At least two others are also coded by DNA in a non-standard manner as follows:
* [[Selenocysteine]] is incorporated into some proteins at a UGA [[codon]], which is normally a stop codon.
* [[Pyrrolysine]] is used by some [[methanogen]]s in [[enzyme]]s that they use to produce [[methane]]. It is coded for similarly to selenocysteine but with the codon UAG instead.
Other amino acids contained in proteins are usually formed by [[post-translational modification]], which is modification after translation in protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function of the protein.
[[Proline]] is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side group is cyclic and links to the a-amino group, forming a secondary amino group. Formerly, proline was misleadingly called an [[imino acid]].
Over one hundred amino acids have been found in nature. Some of these have been detected in [[meteorite]]s, especially in a type known as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. [[Microorganism]]s and [[plant]]s often produce very uncommon amino acids, which can be found in peptidic [[antibiotics]] (e.g., [[nisin]] or [[alamethicin]]). [[Lanthionine]] is a sulfide-bridged alanine dimer which is found together with [[saturation (chemistry)|unsaturated]] amino acids in [[lantibiotics]] (antibiotic peptides of microbial origin). [[1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid|1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)]] is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid and a key intermediate in the production of the plant [[hormone]] [[ethylene]].
In addition to protein synthesis, amino acids have other biologically-important roles. [[Glycine]] and [[glutamate]] are [[neurotransmitter]]s as well as standard amino acids |
stence of female occupants of the throne. A change to this law is being considered, since, [[as of 2005]], the only child of The Imperial Highness the Crown Prince [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan|Naruhito]] is female. (In the [[List of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors of Japan]], the empresses regnant are those with an [[asterisk]] after their reigning periods.) This creates a logistical challenge as well as political: any change in the law would most likely mean a revision to allow the succession of the first born rather than the first born son; however, the current emperor is not the first born, he has elder sisters.
There is a potential succession crisis since no male child has been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of [[Aiko, Princess Toshi|Princess Aiko]], there was some public debate about amending the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister [[Koizumi Junichiro]] appointed a special panel comprised of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study changes to the Imperial Household Law and to make recommendations to the government.
The panel dealing with the succession issue recommended on [[October 25]], [[2005]] amending the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On [[January 20]], [[2006]], [[Prime Minister]] [[Junichiro Koizumi]] devoted part of his annual keynote speech to the controversy, pledging to submit a bill allowing women to ascend the throne to ensure that the succession continues in the future in a stable manner. However, shortly after the announcement that [[Kiko, Princess Akishino|Princess Kiko]] was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi suspended such plans. If the child is a male, he will be the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.
==trivia==
According to [[Shoku Nihongi]](続日本紀, the Chronicles of Japan II), [[Emperor Kammu]]'s mother, [[Takano no Niigasa]] was a descendant of King of [[Baekje]], who reigned 200 years earlier.
==See also==
*[[Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan]]
*[[Shogun]]
*[[Bakufu]]
*[[Cloistered rule]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[List of Emperors of Japan]]
*[[Lists of incumbents]]
*[[Imperial Household of Japan]]
*[[Ningen-sengen]]
*[[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]]
*[[Japanese nationalism]]
*[[Imperial Regalia of Japan]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html The Imperial Household Agency]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=158 Photos of Emperor's birthday at the Imperial Palace]
*[http://www.friesian.com/sangoku.htm#japan List of the Emperors], accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family
*[http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/GLOSSARY/TENNO.HTM A Page from Washington State University]
*[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=17&ItemID=8081 Emperor, Shinto, Democracy]: Japan's Unresolved Questions of Historical Consciousness
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/royalty/japan.htm The Emperor of Japan], explanation of the title of emperor in the context of western terminology
[[Category:Japanese emperors| ]]
[[Category:Japanese monarchy]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
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[[Category:Tokyo]]
[[Category:Yamato line]]
[[Category:History of Japan]]
[[Category:People involved with Shinto]]
[[cy:Rhestr Ymerawdwyr Siapan]]
[[de:Tennō]]
[[es:Emperador de Japón]]
[[eo:Imperiestro de Japanio]]
[[fr:Empereur japonais]]
[[gd:Impirean Iapanach]]
[[ko:천황]]
[[it:Imperatori del Giappone]]
[[he:קיסר יפן]]
[[la:Imperatores Iaponiae]]
[[nl:Keizer van Japan]]
[[ja:天皇]]
[[pl:Cesarze Japonii]]
[[pt:Lista de imperadores do Japão]]
[[sv:Lista över kejsare av Japan]]
[[zh:日本天皇]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor</title>
<id>10111</id>
<revision>
<id>40560239</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T12:44:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Emperor/Empress in the meaning of "monarch", for all other uses, see: [[Emperor (disambiguation)]] or [[Empress (disambiguation)]]''
An '''emperor''' is a (male) [[monarch]], usually the [[monarch|sovereign]] ruler of an [[empire]] or another type of imperial realm. '''Empress''' is the feminine form and can either be the wife of an emperor or a woman being an imperial monarch herself. Emperors are generally recognised to be above [[monarch|king]]s in [[honour]] and [[Royal and noble ranks|rank]].
[[Emperor Akihito]] of [[Japan]] is currently the world's only reigning emperor.
==Distinction between Emperor and other types of monarch==
Both kings and emperors are [[monarch]]s. There is no single rule to distinguish the one from the other: several factors, like interpretations of historians, the size and characteristics of the governed realm, and the title(s) chosen by the monarch play a part in distinguishing the one from the other. General characteristics indicating that a monarch is to be considered an emperor rather than a king include:
* The monarch chose a title that usually translates as "emperor" in English, and/or is accepted as the equivalent of "emperor" in international diplomatic relations;
* The monarch rules over other monarchs, without stripping monarchy-related titles from these subjects ("[[vassal]]s" or non-sovereign monarchs);
* The monarch assumes divine or other high-ranked religious characteristics (see: [[imperial cult]], [[caesaropapism]]);
* The monarch rules several formerly sovereign countries, or peoples from different nations or ethnic provenance.
Where the title chosen by the monarch has become a separate concept in the English language, the distinction whether this monarch would have been an "emperor" or a "king" is often no longer made: for instance [[caliph]], [[sultan]] or [[khan]] as a concept of a type of monarch is usually defined separately, making it redundant to apply the emperor/king distinction to these types of [[monarchy]].
===Imperium maius===
In [[Christian]] Europe the use of the title emperor is more than an affectation. A king recognises that the [[church]] is an equal or superior in the religious sphere, emperors do not. This was illustrated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] of [[England]] who started to use the word [[imperium]] in his dispute with the [[Pope]] over his first [[divorce]]. By stating that they were emperors the Russian [[Tsar]]s claimed to be the head of the [[Russian Orthodox]] Church and did not recognise any superior authority but [[God]]. The distinction began to blur when kings began to claim [[Divine right of kings|divine rights]].
==Historical development of the Roman & Christian tradition==
===Europe & Byzantium===
====The Roman empires and their Tradition====
In the Roman tradition a large variety in the meaning and importance of the Imperial form of monarchy developed: in ''intention'' it was always the highest office, but it could as well fall down to a redundant title for nobility that had never been near to the "Empire" they were supposed to be reigning. Also the ''name'' of the position split in several branches of Western tradition, see section on the [[#Ancient Rome - origin of Western terminology|Origin of the Western terminology]] below.
Importance and meaning of [[Coronation]] ceremonies and [[regalia]] also varied within the tradition: for instance [[Holy Roman Emperors]] could only be crowned emperor by the [[pope]], which meant the coronation ceremony usually took place in Rome, often several years after these emperors had ascended to the throne (as "king") in their home country. The first [[Latin Empire of Constantinople|Latin Emperors of Constantinople]] on the other hand had to be present in the newly conquered capital of their Empire, because that was the only place where they could be granted to become Emperor.
Early [[Roman Emperor]]s on the other hand avoided any type of ceremony or regalia different from what was already usual for ''republican'' offices in the [[Roman Republic]]: the most intrusive change had been changing the color of their robe to ''purple''. Later new symbols of worldly and/or spiritual power, like the [[Globus cruciger|orb]] became an essential part of the Imperial accessories.
Rules for indicating successors also varied: there was a tendency towards ''male'' ''inheritance'' of the supreme office, but as well election by noblemen, as ruling Empresses (for empires not too strictly under [[salic law]]) are known. Ruling monarchs could additionally steer the succession by adoption, as often occurred in the two first centuries of Imperial Rome. Of course, intrigue, murder and military force could also mingle in for appointing successors, the Roman Imperial tradition made no exception to other monarchical traditions in this respect. Probably the epoch best known for this part of the Imperial tradition is [[Roman Emperor (Crisis of the Third Century)|Rome's third century]]
====Roman Emperors====
=====Ancient Rome - origin of Western terminology=====
:''see: [[Roman Emperor]]''
When [[Roman Republic|Republican Rome]] turned into a [[monarchy]] again, in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch: ancient Romans abhorred the name [[Roman king|Rex ("king")]], and after [[Julius Caesar]] also [[Roman dictator|Dictator]] (which was an acknowledged office in Republican Rome, Julius Caesar not being the first to hold it).
In fact [[Caesar Augustus]], who can be considered the first [[Roman Emperor]], avoided naming himself anything that could be remindin |
the demonstrated helplessness of the French column against the British line, the French commanders in Iberia continued to attack in column. Thus, in many instances, a single British battalion would defeat an entire French division.
Wellington is often viewed as a 'defensive general,' despite the fact that many of his greatest victories (Assaye, Douro, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse), were all offensive battles. In fact, on the defensive, Wellington made a number of mistakes, most famously, at the battle of Funtes de Onero, where a disaster was only averted by the his quick thinking and the steadiness of the British and Portuguese troops.
Strategically, Wellington also appears somewhat anachronistic, with the Peninsular War revolving partly upon the possession and besieging of fortified strongholds. Conventional military wisdom of the era, especially under Napoleon, dictated that the opposing field army was to be eliminated at any price necessary, before disease and wastage could reduce the attacking force to nothing. In pursuit of this aim, desperate measures would be taken, such as winter battles, forced marches, and privation allievated only by foraging. Wellington's campaign displayed carefully planned offensives, tempered by subsequent consolidation of gains.
In other strategic areas however, Wellington seemed to forecast the tide of the future. The construction of the fortifications near Torres Vedras, and the subsequent attritional campaign which ensued, seems to typify the manner that warfare would evolve within the following century.
Wellington should be considered a model for multi-national leadership. He efficiently coordinated the efforts of Portuguese, Spanish, and a multitude of other foreign units, as well as negotiating with a home government not always empathetic to military concerns. It is a testament to Wellington's ability that he successfully integrated and commanded British, Spanish, Portuguese, Hanoverian, Saxon Prussian, Swiss, Indian, Dutch, and Belgian troops; a retinue only Napoleon himself could probably match. In command of these forces, he was almost always outnumbered, and succeeded by the merits of his attention to detail, tactical foresight (and not least of all); the bravery and skill of the incomparable British infantry.
An important point when comparing Wellington and Napoleon, is that whereas Napoleon was effectively supreme commander of the armed forces of his Empire, Wellington was merely a general in the field, with little or no influence on the organisation or administration of the British Army as a whole. He was driven to exasperation on several occasions, for example by the fact that his artillery were administered separately from the infantry and cavalry; and by the quality of some of the commanders and staff officers imposed on him by the Commander-in-Chief, the [[Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany|Duke of York]].
However, when he himself became Commander-in-Chief, he made no major changes to the Army's policies, maintaining practices such as flogging for disciplinary offences and purchase of commissions, unchanged for almost forty years.
==Later life==
[[Image:Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|frame|right|250px|The Duke of Wellington in later life]]
Politics beckoned once again in [[1819]], when Wellington was appointed [[Master-General of the Ordnance]] in the [[Tory]] government of [[Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]]. In [[1827]], he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, a position he would hold for the remainder of his life, except during his premiership. Along with [[Robert Peel]], Wellington became one of the rising stars of the Tory party, and by [[1828]], had become [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]].
As Prime Minister, Wellington was the picture of the arch-conservative, though oddly enough the highlight of his term was [[Catholic Emancipation]], the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics in the United Kingdom. The change was forced by the landslide [[by-election]] win of [[Daniel O'Connell]], a Catholic proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. [[George Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea|Lord Winchilsea]] accused the Duke of having "treacherously plotted the destruction of the Protestant constitution". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. The duel is also one of the reasons for the founding of [[King's College London]]. On [[21 March]] [[1829]], Wellington and Winchilsea met on [[Battersea Park|Battersea fields]]. When it came time to fire, the Duke deliberately aimed wide and Winchilsea fired into the air. He subsequently wrote Wellington a grovelling apology. In the [[House of Lords]], facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic emancipation, giving one of the best speeches of his career [http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/terrace/adw03/polspeech/catholic.htm]. The [[Catholic Emancipation Act]] was passed with a majority of 105. Many of the Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the [[Whig]]s.
Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for all but a few years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of the franchise, and as a result lost a vote of no confidence on [[15 November]] [[1830]]. He was replaced as Prime Minister by [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Lord Grey]].
The Whigs introduced the first [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Act]], but Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The bill passed in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], but was defeated in the [[House of Lords]]. An election followed in direct response, and the Whigs were returned with an even larger majority. A second Reform Act was introduced, and defeated in the same way, and another wave of near insurrection swept the country. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], and eventually the bill was passed after the Whigs threatened to have the House of Lords packed with their own followers if it were not. Though it passed, Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life". During this time, Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel; when the Tories were brought back to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become Prime Minister, and Peel was selected instead. Unfortunately Peel was in Italy, and for three weeks in November and December 1834, Wellington acted as a caretaker, taking the responsibilities of Prime Minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first Cabinet (1834&ndash;1835), Wellington became [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], while in the second (1841&ndash;1846) he was a [[Minister without Portfolio]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]].
[[Image:EmilySDrummondWellingtonFuneral1852.jpg|thumb|250px|The Duke's funeral procession passing through [[Trafalgar Square]].]]
Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained [[Commander-in-Chief of the Forces]], and returned briefly to the spotlight in 1848 when he helped organize a military force to protect London during that year of European revolution. He died at [[Walmer Castle]] (his honorary residence as [[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]], which he enjoyed and at which he hosted [[Queen Victoria]]) in 1852. Although in life he hated travelling by rail, his body was then taken by train to [[London]], where he was given a [[state funeral]] - one of only a handful of British subjects to be honoured in that way (other examples are [[Nelson]] and [[Churchill]]) - and was buried in a [[sarcophagus]] of [[luxulyanite]] in [[St Paul's Cathedral]].
==Afterlife==
In 1838 a proposal to build a statue of Wellington resulted in the building of a giant statue of him on his horse ''Copenhagen'', placed above the Arch at [[Constitution Hill]] in London directly outside [[Apsley House]], his former London home, in 1846. The enormous scale of the 40 ton, 30 feet high monument resulted in its removal in 1883 and the following year it was transported to [[Aldershot]] where it still stands near the [[Royal Garrison Church Aldershot|Royal Garrison Church]].
==Titles & Honours==
[[Image:Arthur-Wellesley-arms.PNG|frame|right|150px|Arms of Arthur Wellesley]]
===[[Peerage of the United Kingdom]]===
*Baron Douro, of Wellington in the County of Somerset ([[4 September]] [[1809]])
*Viscount Wellington, of Talavera and of Wellington in the County of Somerset ([[4 September]] [[1809]])
*Earl of Wellington, in the County of Somerset ([[28 February]] [[1812]])
*Marquess of Wellington, in the County of Somerset ([[3 October]] [[1812]])
*Marquess Douro ([[11 May]] [[1814]])
*[[Duke of Wellington]], in the County of Somerset ([[11 May]] [[1814]])
===British & Irish Honours===
*[[Order of the Bath|Knight of the Bath]] (1804)
*[[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]lor of [[Great Britain]] ([[8 April]] [[1807]])
*[[Privy Council of Ireland|Privy Council]]lor of [[Ireland]] ([[28 April]] [[1807]])
*[[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]] (1813)
*[[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] (1815)
*[[Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire]] (1820)
*[[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports|Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]] (1829)
*Peninsular Cross [[medal]] with nine bars for all campaigns--the only one so issued. Displayed at [[Apsley House]] along with a Waterlo |
have achieved scientific recognition. (See below for further information about the relationship of anthroposophy to the natural sciences.) Anthroposophy has been fruitful for many areas of life, especially [[education]], [[organic farming]], [[medicine]] including care of the [[mentally handicapped]], and [[Spiritual Science|spirituality]]; see ''Successes of Anthroposophy'', below.
==History==
In his early twenties, Steiner was asked to edit [[Goethe]]'s scientific writings for a major publication of that writer's complete works. In the course of this work, Steiner began publishing various works that foreshadowed his later ideas, but were still set within the philosophical and scientific framework of his age: chiefly ''Goethe's Conception of the World'' and his commentaries on Goethe's scientific essays. His first [[Philosophy of Freedom | masterwork, ''Die Philosophie der Freiheit'']] (translated variously as ''The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity'', ''The Philosophy of Freedom'', or ''Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path''), was published when he was in his early thirties. Here, Steiner set forth a conception of free will that was strongly founded upon inner experiences, especially those that occur in independent thought, without any explicit references to the potentially spiritual nature of these experiences. His first reference to 'anthroposophy' dates from this early period.
Steiner's further development led him further and further into explicitly spiritual philosophical studies. These studies were chiefly interesting to others who were already oriented towards spiritual ideas; chief amongst these, at least in Steiner's middle phase of development, was the [[Theosophical Society]]. He was asked to lead the German section of this primarily [[Anglo-American]] group. His work was distinct from that of most other members of the Society (exceptions included [[Bertram Kingsley]] in England) and both he and the then president of the Theosophical Society appear to have 'agreed to disagree' in an at first harmonious way. By [[1907]], however, there was a growing split between the group around Steiner, who was trying to develop a path that embraced such cornerstones of Western civilizations as [[Christianity]] and [[natural science]], and the mainstream Theosophical Society, which was oriented toward an [[Eastern Region|Eastern]], and especially [[India|Indian]], approach.
The [[Anthroposophical Society]] was formed in [[1912]] after Steiner left the [[Theosophical Society Adyar]] over differences with its leader, [[Annie Besant]]. She intended to present to the world the child [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] as [[Christ]] [[reincarnation|reincarnated]]. Steiner strongly objected, and considered any equation between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense (as did Krishnamurti himself once he had reached adulthood). This and the philosophical differences mentioned above led Steiner to leave the Theosophical Society. He was followed by a large number of members of the Theosophical Society's German Section, of which he had been secretary. Members of other national chapters of the Theosophical Society followed.
By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher. He claimed to have direct experiences of the [[Akashic Records]] (by Steiner sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), a spiritual chronicle of the history and pre-history of the world encoded in the [[Aether (classical element)|aether]], and allegedly available to anyone who takes the time to develop sufficient powers of spiritual vision. Sound vision could be developed, Steiner said, in part by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration and meditation. However, no anthroposophist since Steiner has yet claimed to be able to read the Akashic Records to any great degree. According to Steiner, one's ethical development must precede the development of spiritual faculties. By all accounts, Steiner was an unusually upright and ethical human being who fostered an atmosphere of freedom, tolerance, creativity and humor in all his personal and work relationships.
By [[1912]], a flowering of artistic work inspired by Steiner and the anthroposophical movement was well underway. New directions in [[drama]], [[painting]], [[sculpture]], [[Eurythmy|artistic movement]] and [[architecture]] all came together in a grand theatre center, the First [[Goetheanum]], built in the years [[1913]]-[[1920]]. To a significant extent this was built by volunteers from many countries and much of the work was accomplished during the [[First World War]]. The international community of workers, artists and scientists that came together around the project in [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[Switzerland]] existed in sharp contrast to the war-torn European nations around.
After [[World War I]], the anthroposophical movement took on new directions. Practical projects such as schools, centers for the handicapped, organic farms and medical clinics were established, all inspired by anthroposophical research. Each of these used ideas that seemed radical at the time; many of these ideas - such as organic agriculture - are now, nearly a century later, appreciated as important directions for our society's future development.
Steiner died in [[1925]], but anthroposophical work has continued in all of the areas established during his lifetime as well as in many new projects established since. Seminars, artistic trainings, and institutions such as schools, banks, farms and clinics flourish throughout the world, all inspired by the idea that spiritual work can be systematically and methodically pursued in harmony with outer endeavors.
==Description==
Anthroposophy, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes recent Western (rather than older [[Hindu]] or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]) esoteric thought as being more appropriate to contemporary needs, and perceives [[Christ]] and His mission on earth as having a particularly important place in human evolution, though these are not viewed in the same way as in the mainstream Christian churches. Steiner emphasized that the being that manifests in Christianity also manifests in all faiths and religions; it is the being that unifies all religions, and not a particular religious faith, that Steiner saw as the central force in human evolution. Steiner's [[Christianity]] differs also from that of the [[Gnostics]] who viewed the Christ phenomenon through the knowledge gained through earlier [[gnosticism]], whereas for Steiner Christ's incarnation was a historical reality and a pivotal and unique point in human history.
Anthroposophy encourages clear and free thought, and the development of human consciousness beyond the material senses. It also encourages the artistic expression of one's perceptions. Steiner defined it as "a path of knowledge leading the Spiritual in the human being to the Spiritual in the universe."
His concept of man includes the idea that man has inhabited [[earth]] since its creation, albeit in a spiritual form. This spiritual form then processed through a number of stages to reach its current form, stages which included emanation of lesser beings such as animals and plants. Thus every living thing has evolved from mankind (although "mankind" is not here seen in its usual sense, but includes its earlier spiritual forms).
The anthroposophist's way could be said to go through becoming more conscious and deliberate about one's thoughts and deeds, but also by becoming more perceptive of and in tune with the spirit in himself and outside of himself . One may reach higher levels of [[consciousness]] through [[meditation]] and [[observation]]. Steiner described and developed numerous exercises for the realization of these goals.
Steiner's description of the [[human being]] as consisting of seven intimately connected parts, starting on the material level and reaching up into the spiritual levels - and several of which are still in development - is similar to that found in Theosophy.
This view is thoroughly explained in many of Steiner's writings and lectures, particularly in his books ''Theosophy'', and ''An Outline of Occult Science''.
Anthroposophists however also hold a fourfold view, which Steiner expands on very frequently and puts to practical uses in subjects such as medicine and child education:
*the [[physical body]],
*the life or [[etheric body]], the organization of forces of metamorphosis and growth for living beings
*the consciousness or [[astral body]], and
*the [[ego]] or "[[I]]" of the human being.
==Place in Western Philosophy==
The [[Epistemology|Epistemic]] basis for Anthroposophy is contained in the seminal work, [[Philosophy of Freedom | ''The Philosophy of Freedom'']], as well as in Steiner's doctoral thesis, ''Truth and Science''. These and several other early books by Steiner anticipated 20th century continental philosophy's gradual overcoming of [[Cartesian dualism|Cartesian]] idealism and of [[Kant|Kantian]] subjectivism. Like [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Ortega y Gasset]], Steiner was profoundly influenced by the works of [[Franz Brentano]] (whose lectures he had heard as a student at the University of Vienna) and had read [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] in depth. Through Steiner's early epistemological and philosophical works, he became one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split that [[Descartes]], classical physics, and various complex historical forces had impressed upon [[Western thought]] for several centuries. His philosophical work was taken up in the middle of the twentieth century by [[Owen Barfield]], a philosopher of language from [[Oxford University]] and through him influenced the [[Inklings]], a group that included such writers as [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] and [[C.S. Lewis]]. It was also taken up by the philosopher (and prolific author) Herbert Witzenmann. Steiner' |
900), ''[[Man and Superman]]'' (1903), ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' (1901), ''[[Major Barbara]]'' (1905), ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]'' (1912), and ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' (1913). After [[World War I]], during which he was a staunch pacifist, he produced more serious dramas, including ''Heartbreak House'' (1919) and ''[[Saint Joan (play)|Saint Joan]]'' (1923). A characteristic of Shaw's published plays is the lengthy prefaces that accompany them. In these essays, Shaw wrote more about his usually controversial opinions on the issues touched by the plays than about the plays themselves. Some prefaces are much longer than the actual play.
The political turmoil in his native country did not leave him untouched. He is said to have commented regarding the [[Easter Rising]] that not enough slum homes were destroyed that could have been rebuilt, and he campaigned against the executions of the rebel leaders. Shaw became a personal friend of the [[County Cork|Cork]]-born [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]] leader [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], whom he invited to his home for dinner while Collins was negotiating the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] with [[Lloyd-George]] in London. After Collins' assassination in 1922, Shaw sent a personal message of condolence to one of Collins' sisters.
Shaw's correspondence with [[Mrs Patrick Campbell|Mrs. Patrick Campbell]] was adapted for the stage by Jerome Kilty as ''DEAR LIAR: A Comedy of Letters''. His letters to another prominent actress, [[Ellen Terry]], have also been published and dramatised.
By the time of his death, Shaw was not only a household name in [[Britain]], but a world figure. His ironic wit endowed the language with the adjective "Shavian", to refer to such clever observations as "England and [[United States|America]] are two countries divided by a common language." [http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/may/bkpub.asp]
Concerned about the inconsistency of [[English spelling]], he willed a portion of his wealth to fund the creation of a new [[Phoneme|phonemic]] alphabet for the [[English language]]. On his death bed, he did not have much money to leave so no effort was made to start such a project. However, his estate began to earn significant royalties from the rights to ''Pygmalion'' when ''[[My Fair Lady]]'', a [[musical theater|musical]] based on the play, became a hit. It then became clear that the will was so badly worded that the relatives had grounds to challenge the will and in the end an out of court settlement granted a small portion of the money to promoting a new alphabet. This became known as the [[Shavian alphabet]]. The [[National Gallery of Ireland]] also received a substantial donation.
Shaw had a long time friendship with [[G. K. Chesterton]], the [[Catholic]]-convert British writer, and there are many humorous stories about their complicated relationship. Another great friend was the composer [[Edward Elgar]].
Shaw is the only person ever to have won both a Nobel Prize (Literature in 1925) and an [[Academy Award]] (Best Screenplay for Pygmalion in 1938).
From 1906 until his death in 1950 at the age of 94 from natural causes, Shaw lived at [[Shaw's Corner]] in the small village of [[Ayot St Lawrence]], [[Hertfordshire]]. The house is now a [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] property, open to the public.
The Shaw Theatre, Euston Road, London was opened in 1971 to honour G.B. Shaw.
==Vegetarianism==
George Bernard Shaw was a noted vegetarian. The following was taken from the archives of the Vegetarian UK:
<blockquote>The Summer of 1946 seems to have been a season of anniversaries and memorials. The Vegetarian Society itself was looking forward to its 100th anniversary and giving its members advance warnings of celebratory plans.</blockquote>
<blockquote>But the big story of the July issue of The Vegetarian Messenger was the tribute to George Bernard Shaw, celebrating his 90th birthday on the 26th of that month. He had, at that time, been a vegetarian for 66 years and was commended as one of the great thinkers and dramatists of his era. "No writer since Shakespearean times has produced such a wealth of dramatic literature, so superb in expression, so deep in thought and with such dramatic possibilities as Shaw." The writer was a staunch vegetarian, anti-vivisectionist and opponent of cruel sports.</blockquote>
See link below for quotes related to vegetarianism and George Bernard Shaw.
==Socialism and Political Beliefs==
Shaw had a vision (letter to Henry James in 1, 17, 1909): “I, as a Socialist, have had to preach, as much as anyone, the enormous power of the environment. We can change it; we must change it; there is absolutely no other sense in life than the task of changing it. What is the use of writing plays, what is the use of writing anything, if there is not a will which finally moulds chaos itself into a race of gods.” Shaw held that each class worked towards its own ends, and that those from the upper echelons had won the struggle; for him, the working class had failed in promoting their interests effectively, making Shaw highly critical of the democratic system of his day. The writing of Shaw, such as Major Barbara and Pygmalion, has a background theme of class struggle. An awareness of his socialism is required to understand the man and his plays.
Shaw’s second labor—after theater—was in support of socialism. In 1882 Henry George’s lecture on land nationalization gave depth and direction to Shaw’s political ideology. Shortly thereafter he applied to join the [[Social Democratic Federation]]. Its leader [[H. M. Hyndman]] introduced him to the works of Karl Marx. Instead in May of 1884 he joined the newly-formed [[Fabian Society]]. He played a pivotal role with the Fabian Society and wrote a number of their pamphlets. He argued that property was theft and for an equitable distribution of land and capital. Shaw favored gradualism over revolution. He was involved with the formation of the Labour Party. For a common sense statement of his position read ''The Intelligent Women’s Guide to Socialism, Capitalism, Sovietism, and Fascism''. A second source for Shaw’s radical ideas are the often lengthy prefaces to his plays.
==Quotations==
{{wikiquote}}
*"The power of accurate observation is commonly called cynicism by those who have not got it."
*"Whilst we have prisons it matters little which of us occupy the cells."
*"The reasonable man adapts himself to the world. The unreasonable man persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man."
*"Do not do unto others as you expect they should do unto you. Their tastes may not be the same."
*"Most people would rather die sooner than think. In fact, they do so."
*"Lack of money is the root of all evil."
*"Youth is wasted on the young."
*"Democracy is a system ensuring that the people are governed no better than they deserve."
*"I can forgive Alfred Nobel for inventing dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize."
*"The main difference between the opposition of Islam to Hinduism and the opposition between Protestant and Catholic is that the Catholic persecutes as fiercely as the Protestant when he has the power; but Hinduism cannot persecute, because all the Gods---and what goes deeper, the no Gods---are to be found in its Temples."
*"Democracy substitutes election by the incompetent many for appointment by the corrupt few."
*"The fact that a believer is happier than a skeptic is no more to the point than the fact that a drunken man is happier than a sober one. The happiness of credulity is a cheap and dangerous quality."
* (To a woman who wrote to him that she wanted to have children with him because, she was beautiful and he was very smart. Therefore, their children would be smart and beautiful.) "What if our children are as ugly as I am and as silly as you are?"
* "Irish history is something no Englishman should forget and no Irishman should remember."
* "I learned long ago, never to wrestle with a pig. You get dirty, and besides, the pig likes it."
* "Hell is full of musical amateurs."
* "No man ever believes that the Bible means what it says: He is always convinced that it says what he means."
* "The secret of success is to offend the greatest number of people."
* "I have always held the religion of Muhammad in high estimation because of its wonderful vitality. It is the only religion which appears to me to possess that assimilating capacity to the changing phase of existence which can make itself appeal to every age. I have studied him - the wonderful man and in my opinion far from being an anti-Christ, he must be called the Saviour of Humanity. I believe that if a man like him were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving its problems in a way that would bring it the much needed peace and happiness: I have prophesied about the faith of Muhammad that it would be acceptable to the Europe of tomorrow as it is beginning to be acceptable to the Europe of today."
* "This is the true joy in life, the being used for a purpose recognized by yourself as a mighty one; the being thoroughly worn out before you are thrown on the scrap heap; the being a force of nature instead of a feverish selfish little clod of ailments and grievances complaining that the world will not devote itself to making you happy. I am of the opinion that my life belongs to the whole community and as long as I live it is my privilege to do for it whatever I can."
* "It is impossible for an Englishman to open his mouth without making some other Englishma |
(103 km) north-south section from [[Watervliet, New York|Watervliet]] to [[Lake Champlain]] was declared open on the same date.
After Montezuma, the next obstacle was crossing the [[Niagara Escarpment]], an 80-foot (24 m) wall of hard dolomitic [[limestone]], in order to rise to the level of Lake Erie. The route followed the channel of a creek that had cut a ravine steeply down the escarpment, with five locks in a series, thus giving rise to the community of [[Lockport, New York]]. The final leg of the canal had to be cut as much as 30 feet (9 m) through another limestone layer, the [[Onondaga]] ridge. Much of that section was blasted with [[black powder]]. The inexperience of the crews often led to accidents, and sometimes rocks falling on nearby homes.
[[Image:ErieCanalAtNiagaraEscarp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Original five step lock structure crossing the Niagara
Escarpment at Lockport, now used as a cascade for excess water. Two modern 40 foot (12 meter) locks are to the left, replacing the original.]]
Two villages competed to be the terminus of the canal, [[Black Rock (NY)|Black Rock]], on the [[Niagara River]], and [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], at the eastern tip of Lake Erie. Buffalo expended great energy to widen and deepen [[Buffalo Creek]] to make it navigable, and to create a harbor at its mouth. Buffalo won over Black Rock, and quickly grew into a great city, eventually swallowing its former competitor.
Work was completed in [[1825]]. Officially the event was celebrated by cannon shots along the length, and by Governor Clinton ceremonially pouring Lake Erie water into the New York Harbor in the "Wedding of the Waters."
Problems developed but were quickly solved. Leaks developed along the entire length of the canal, but these were sealed with a newly invented [[concrete]] that hardened under water. Erosion on the clay bottom proved to be a problem and the speed was limited to 4 mph (6 km/h). The original design planned for an annual tonnage of 1.5 million tons (1.36 million tonnes), but this was exceeded immediately. A program to enlarge the canal, notably the locks, started only a year later. This First Enlargement was completed in 1862, with further minor enlargements in later decades. By [[1883]] the tolls on the canal had raised 121 million dollars, and all fees were waived for future use.
Concerns that erosion caused by logging in the [[Adirondack Mountains|Adirondacks]] could silt up the canal led to the creation of the [[Adirondack State Park|Adirondack Park]] in 1885.
Additional canals (called feeder canals) soon added to the coverage, including the Cayuga-Seneca south to the [[Finger Lakes]], the Oswego from Three Rivers north to [[Lake Ontario]] at [[Oswego, New York|Oswego]], and the Champlain running north from Troy to [[Lake Champlain]]. A short canal, the Crooked Lake Canal, from [[1833]] to [[1877]] connected [[Keuka Lake]] and [[Seneca Lake]]. The [[Chemung River|Chemung Canal]] connected the south end of Seneca Lake to [[Elmira, New York|Elmira]] in 1833, and was an important route for Pennsylvania coal and timber to be shipped throughout the canal system. The [[Chenango Canal]] in [[1836]] connected the Erie at [[Utica, New York|Utica]] to [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]] and caused a business boom in the [[Chenango River]] valley. The Chenango and Chemung canals linked the Erie with the [[Susquehanna River]] system. The [[Genesee Valley Canal]] was run along the [[Genesee River]] to connect with the [[Allegheny River]] at Olean, but the Allegheny section which would have connected to the Ohio and Mississippi was never built. The Genesee Valley Canal was later abandoned and became the [[Genesee Valley Canal Railroad]].
===The route===
The canal began on the west side of the [[Hudson River]] at [[Albany, New York|Albany]], and ran north to a split with the [[Champlain Canal]] at [[Troy, New York|Troy]]. At [[Cohoes, New York|Cohoes]] it turned west along the south shore of the [[Mohawk River]], crossing to the north side at [[Crescent, New York|Crescent]] and again to the south at [[Rexford Flats, New York|Rexford Flats]]. The canal continued west near the south shore of the Mohawk River all the way to [[Rome, New York|Rome]], where the Mohawk turns north.
At Rome, the canal continued west parallel to [[Wood Creek, New York|Wood Creek]], which flows from [[Oneida Lake]], and turned southwest and west cross-country to avoid the lake. From [[Canastota, New York|Canastota]] west it ran roughly along the north (lower) edge of the [[Niagara Escarpment]], passing through [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]]. At [[Lockport, New York|Lockport]] the canal turned southwest to rise to the top of the escarpment, using the ravine of [[Eighteenmile Creek]]. The canal continued south-southwest to [[Pendleton, New York|Pendleton]], where it turned west and southwest, mainly using the channel of [[Tonawanda Creek]]. From [[Tonawanda, New York|Tonawanda]] south to [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] it ran just east of the [[Niagara River]], emptying out into the river in downtown Buffalo.
===Competition===
As the canal brought travelers to [[New York City]], it took them from other ports such as [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. Those cities and the states containing them chartered means of competition to the Erie Canal. In Pennsylvania, the [[Main Line of Public Works]] was a combined canal and railroad running west from Philadelphia to [[Pittsburgh (PA)|Pittsburgh]] on the [[Ohio River]], opened in [[1834]]. In Maryland, the [[Baltimore and Ohio Railroad]] ran west to [[Wheeling, West Virginia]], also on the Ohio River, and was completed in [[1853]].
Competition also came from inside New York State. The [[Mohawk and Hudson Railroad]] opened in [[1831]], providing a bypass to the slowest part of the canal between [[Albany (NY)|Albany]] and [[Schenectady (NY)|Schenectady]]. Other railroads were soon chartered and built to continue the line west to [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], and in [[1842]] a continuous line (which would become the [[New York Central Railroad]] and its [[Auburn Road]] in [[1853]]) was open the whole way to Buffalo. As the railroad served the same general route as the canal, but provided for faster travel, passengers soon switched to it. However as late as 1852, the canal carried thirteen times more freight tonnage than all the railroads in New York state, combined; it continued to compete well with the railroads through [[1882]], when tolls were abolished.
The [[New York, West Shore and Buffalo Railway]] was completed in [[1884]], as a route running closely parallel to both the canal and the New York Central Railroad. However it went [[bankrupt]] and was acquired the next year by the New York Central.
In [[1905]], construction of the [[New York State Barge Canal]] began, which was completed in [[1918]] at a cost of $101 million; freight traffic reached a total of 5.2 million tons by [[1951]] before declining in the face of combined rail and truck competition.
===Impact===
The Erie Canal made boom towns out of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Rome, Utica and Schenectady and made an immense contribution to the wealth and importance of New York City and New York state. But its impact went much further—as it increased trade throughout the nation by opening eastern markets to Midwest farm products and encouraged western immigration. New ethnic Irish communities formed in some towns along its route after completion, as Irish immigrants were a large portion of labor force involved in its construction. It also helped bind the still-new nation closer to Britain and Europe. British repeal of the [[Corn Law]] resulted in a huge increase in trade in Midwestern wheat to Britain. Trade between the US and Canada also increased as a result of the corn law and a reciprocity (free-trade) agreement signed in [[1854]], much of this trade flowed along the Erie.
Its success also prompted imitation: a rash of canal building followed. Also, the many technical hurdles that had to be overcome made heroes of those whose innovations made the canal possible; this would lead to an increased esteem for practical education.
Many wrote about the canal, including [[Herman Melville]], [[Frances Trollope]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Mark Twain]], and the [[Marquis de Lafayette]], and many tales and songs were written about life on the canal. The popular song [[Low Bridge]] by [[Thomas S. Allen]] was written in 1905 to memorialize the canal's early heyday, when barges were pulled by mules rather than engines.
==The Erie Canal today==
[[Image:Canal_tour_boat.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A commercial tour boat locks through Baldwinsville's Lock 24 on the Erie Canal.]]
[[Image:ErieCanalModernLock.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A modern lock at Lockport]]
[[Image:ErieCanalExchangeSt1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Several [[lift bridge]]s cross the canal at Lockport, as well as the [[Main Street Bridge (Lockport)|Main Street Bridge]], once the [[widest bridge in the world]] ({{coor d|43.169309|N|78.695101|W|}})]]
[[Image:Pleasure_Boat_Canal.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Today, the Erie Canal is predominantly a pleasure boat paradise, linking the state and providing a tremendous opportunity for travel and leisure.]]
In [[1918]] the canal was replaced by the larger [[New York State Barge Canal]]. The new canal replaced much of the original route, and sought to 'canalize' rivers along the way that the original canal sought to avoid, such as the [[Mohawk River|Mohawk]], [[Seneca River (New York)|Seneca]] and [[Clyde River (New York)|Clyde River]]s, and [[Oneida Lake]].
The new alignment began on the [[Hudson River]] at the border between [[Cohoes (NY)|Cohoes]] and [[Waterford, New York|Waterford]], where it ran northwest cross-country with five locks, running into the [[Mohawk River]] east of [[Crescent, New York|Crescent]]. While the old c |
pectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as [[Metal complex|metal complexes]] or fluoromanganates) as well.
== Uses and applications ==
Techniques have been developed to assess the quality of tea-leaves using infrared spectroscopy. This will mean that highly trained experts (also called 'noses') can be used more sparingly, at a significant cost saving.
Infrared spectroscopy is widely used in both research and industry as a simple and reliable technique for measurement, quality control, and dynamic measurement. The instruments are now small, and can be transported, even for use in field trials. With increasing technology in computer filtering and manipulation of the results, samples in solution can now be measured accurately (water produces a broad absorbance across the range of interest, and thus renders the spectra unreadable without this computer treatment). Some machines will also automatically tell you what substance is being measured from a store of thousands of reference spectra held in storage.
By measuring at a specific frequency over time, changes in the character or quantity of a particular bond can be measured. This is especially useful in measuring the degree of polymerization in [[polymer]] manufacture. Modern research machines can take infrared measurements across the whole range of interest as frequently as 32 times a second. This can be done whilst simultaneous measurements are made using other techniques. This makes the observations of chemical reactions and processes quicker, more accurate, and more
== Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy ==
'''[[Fourier transform]] infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy''' is a measurement technique for collecting infrared spectra. Instead of recording the amount of energy absorbed when the frequency of the infra-red light is varied (monochromator), the IR light is guided through an interferometer. After passing the sample the measured signal is the interferogram. Performing a mathematical Fourier Transform on this signal results in a spectrum identical to that from conventional (dispersive) infrared spectroscopy.
FTIR spectrometers are cheaper than conventional spectrometers because building of interferometers is easier than the fabrication of a monochromator. In addition, measurement of a single spectrum is faster for the FTIR technique because the information of all frequencies is collected simultaneously. This allows multiple samples to be collected and averaged together resulting in an improvement in sensitivity. Because of its various advantages, virtually all modern infrared spectrometers are of the FTIR variety.
==See also==
*[[Fourier transform spectroscopy]]
*[[Near infrared spectroscopy]]
*[[Vibrational spectroscopy]]
*[[Rotational spectroscopy]]
*[[Spectroscopy]]
==External links==
* [http://chipo.chem.uic.edu/web1/ocol/spec/IR.htm Tutorial]
* [http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine & health, environmental research, and consumer products.
* [http://www.gats-inc.com/spec_calc/spectral_calc.php Spectral calculator] - Quickly and easily calculate and plot transmission or radiance spectra.
* [http://www.gats-inc.com/hitran_browser/ High-resolution transmission molecular absorption database (HITRAN) browswer] - Browse the HITRAN 2004 database , plot absorption lines by position or intensity.
* A useful gif animation of different vibrational modes: [http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/chem/tutorials/molspec/irspec1.htm here]
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]
[[da:IR spektrometer]]
[[de:IR-Spektroskopie]]
[[es:Espectroscopia infrarroja]]
[[he:גלאי אינפרא אדום פסיבי ]]
[[ja:赤外分光法]]
[[nl:Infraroodspectroscopie]]
[[pl:Spektroskopia IR]]
[[pt:Espectroscopia de infravermelho]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>I Have a Dream</title>
<id>15413</id>
<revision>
<id>41697296</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:11:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.62.90.120|129.62.90.120]] ([[User talk:129.62.90.120|talk]]) to last version by Butros</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|Martin Luther King, Jr. delivering his speech at the DC Civil Rights March.]]
{{otherusespar|I Have A Dream}}
"'''I Have a Dream'''" is both the identifying phrase of and popular name for [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]'s most famous [[Public speaking|speech]], a defining moment of the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]--and often seen as one of the greatest speeches ever. The speech was delivered on the steps at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] as part of the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[August 28]], [[1963]]. It spoke powerfully and eloquently of King's desire for a future where blacks and whites would coexist harmoniously and as equals.
==Style==
Widely hailed as a masterpiece of [[rhetoric]], King's speech resembles the style of a black Baptist [[sermon]]. It appeals to such iconic and widely-respected sources such as the Bible and U.S. Constitution. These are not so much cited (since they do not discuss the issue of desegregation) as invoked. That is, King makes use of their phrases and language for his own purposes. Rhythmic repetition is an important stylistic feature.
==Controversies==
Though widely revered posthumously, King was immensely controversial in his day. His major premise, that whites ought to allow blacks to dwell amongst them, drew criticism from whites (not only Southern) who saw this as an attack on the principle of "free association." The supremacy of the federal government over the states ([[States' Rights]]) was similarly controversial. The controversy still rages, albeit in changed form, as courts must continue to rule on such issues as [[Desegregation busing|busing]].
King's allusion to the Declaration of Independence's dictum "that all men are created equal" has been cited by opponents of [[Affirmative Action]]. A California political advertisement arguing for a proposition banning Affirmative Action would have used a clip of King's speech. It was not allowed to air after King relatives asserted their copyright claims.
This speech has been through years of court cases, in various jurisdictions, to determine whether it was ever copyrighted &mdash; the dispute was based on the fact that King had made his speech publicly to a large audience both live and televised, and only one month later did he register for copyright of his speech (as was then required by [[United States copyright law|U.S. copyright law]]). Finally, on November 5, 1999, in ''[[Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.]]'', the 11th circuit of the United States Court of Appeals ruled that the public performance of his speech did not constitute "general publication" nor did it forfeit his copyright. Thus, King's [[estate]] is able to forbid redistribution of the speech or require a license fee, but they have since made the speech available to the [[Douglass Archives of American Public Address]] under terms that grant permission to "download, reprint, and/or otherwise redistribute this file, provided this distribution statement is included and appropriate point of origin credit is given to the preparer and Douglass" [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm].
== External links ==
* [http://douglassarchives.org/king_b12.htm I Have a Dream] (text of speech), ''Douglass Archives of American Public Address''.
* [http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/northamerican/IHaveaDream/chap1.html Text of speech] : World Wide School
* [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm Text of speech] : United States Department of State
* [http://www.hpol.org/record.asp?id=72 Audio and text of speech]: History and Politics Out Loud
* [http://www.negrospirituals.com/news-song/free_at_last_from.htm Lyrics of the traditional spiritual "Free At Last"]
* [http://www.afb.org/Section.asp?SectionID=38&DocumentID=2429 Digitally synchronized audio and text version of "I Have a Dream"]: downloadable DAISY file
* [http://blog.lextext.com/blog/_archives/2006/1/15/1676937.html mp3 of the speech for download]
[[Category:1963]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
[[Category:Speeches]]
[[ca:He tingut un somni]]
[[fr:I have a dream]]
[[it:I have a dream]]
[[he:יש לי חלום]]
[[ms:Saya Mempunyai Impian]]
[[ja:I Have a Dream]]
[[pt:Eu Tenho um Sonho]]
[[sl:I have a dream]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irenaeus</title>
<id>15414</id>
<revision>
<id>41771644</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:07:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JordanBarrett</username>
<id>339703</id>
</contributor>
<comment>copyright - see talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{copyright}}
[[Image:Saint Irenaeus.jpg|right|thumb| An engraving of Saint Irenaeus ([[Circa|ca.]] [[130]]&ndash;[[202]] [[Common Era|CE]]), bishop of Lugdunum in [[Gaul]] (now [[Lyons]], [[France]]).]]
'''Saint Irenaeus''' ([[Circa|ca.]] [[130]]-[[202]] [[Common Era|CE]]) was [[bishop]] of [[Lyon|Lugdunum]] in [[Gaul]], which is now [[Lyons]], [[France]]. His writings were formative in the early development of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]], and he is recognized as a [[saint]] by both the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church]]; the latter considers him a [[Father of the Church]]. He was a disciple of [[Polycarp]], who himself was a disciple of [[John the Evangelist]]. His feast day is [[June 28]].
==Biograph |
==
* [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/SEN/INDEX.HTM Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia]
* [http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/IES/BEGIN.HTM The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality]
*[http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/GUS_MAIN_INDEX.HTM Project Growing Up Sexually]
[[Category:Human behavior|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Human sexuality|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:LGBT|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Personal life|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Self|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Sexual health|Sexual behavior]]
[[fr:Comportement sexuel humain]]
[[lt:Seksas]]
[[nl:Seksualiteit]]
[[pl:Seks]]
[[pt:Comportamento sexual humano]]
[[fi:Seksuaalinen kanssakäyminen]]
[[zh:?????]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical-comparative linguistics</title>
<id>14338</id>
<revision>
<id>15911900</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-14T09:46:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dduck</username>
<id>29350</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merged with Historical linguistics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Historical linguistics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>How children acquire language</title>
<id>14339</id>
<revision>
<id>15911901</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Language acquisition]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydraulic ram</title>
<id>14340</id>
<revision>
<id>35007880</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T11:16:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fredrik</username>
<id>26675</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External Links */ lowercase</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''The use of the term hydraulic ram below describes a type of water pump''.
:''For the use of the term in vehicle extraction, see [[Jaws of Life]]''.
:''"Hydraulic ram" is sometimes used to mean a [[pneumatic cylinder]]''.
[[Image:DSCN3606-hydraulic-ram.JPG|thumb|right|A hydraulic ram that drives a fountain at the [[Centre for Alternative Technology]]]]
A '''hydraulic ram''' is a water-powered [[cyclic pump]]. It harnesses the forces of [[water hammer]] to [[pump]] a portion of the water being used to power the pump to a point higher than where the water originally started. It is sometimes used in remote areas, where the right conditions exist, since it requires no outside source of [[Power (physics)|power]] other than the [[kinetic energy]] of falling water.
==History==
In [[1772]] [[John Whitehurst]] of [[Cheshire]] in England invented a manually controlled precursor of the hydraulic ram called the "pulsation engine". The first one he installed, in [[1775]] at [[Oulton]], Cheshire, raised water to a height of 16 [[ft]] (4.9[[metre|m]]). He installed another in an [[Ireland|Irish]] property in [[1783]]. He did not [[patent]] it, and details are obscure, but it is known to have had an air vessel.
The first self-acting ram pump was invented by the Frenchman [[Montgolfier brothers|Joseph Michel Montgolfier]] in [[1796]] for raising water in his [[paper mill]] at [[Voiron]]. His friend [[Matthew Boulton]] took out an [[England|English]] patent on his behalf in [[1797]]. The sons of Montgolfier obtained an English patent for an improved version in [[1816]], and this was acquired, together with Whitehurst's design, in [[1820]] by [[Josiah Easton]], a [[Somerset]]-born engineer who had just moved to [[London]].
Easton's firm, inherited by his son [[James Easton|James]] ([[1796]] - [[1871]]), grew during the [[nineteenth century]] to become one of the more important engineering manufacturers in [[Britain]], with a large works at [[Erith]], [[Kent]]. They specialised in water supply and [[sewerage]] systems world-wide, as well as land [[drainage]] projects. Eastons had a good business supplying rams for water supply purposes to large [[country house]]s, and also to farms and village communities, and a number of their installations still survive in [[As of 2004|2004]].
The firm was eventually closed in [[1909]], but the ram business was continued by [[James R Easton]]. In [[1929]] it was acquired by [http://www.greenandcarter.com/ Green & Carter], of [[Winchester]], [[Hampshire]], who were engaged in the manufacturing and installation of the well-known [[Vulcan ram|Vulcan]] and [[Vacher]] Rams. Green & Carter now function from [[Ashbrittle]], near [[Wellington]], Somerset.
The first [[United States of America|US]] patent was issued to [[J. Cerneau]] and [[S.S. Hallet]] in [[1809]]. American interest in hydraulic rams picked up around [[1840]], as further patents were issued and domestic companies started offering rams for sale. Toward the end of the 19th Century, interest waned as [[electricity]] and electric [[pump]]s became widely available.
By the end of the [[twentieth century]] interest in hydraulic rams has revived, due to the needs of sustainable [[technology]] in [[developing countries]], and [[energy conservation]] in developed ones.
==Construction and principle of operation==
A hydraulic ram has only two moving parts, a spring or weight loaded "waste" [[valve]] sometimes known as the "clack" valve and a "delivery" [[check valve]], making it cheap to build, easy to maintain, and very reliable. In addition, there is a drive pipe supplying water from an elevated source, and a delivery pipe, taking a portion of the water that comes through the drive pipe to an elevation higher than the source.
===Sequence of operation===
[[Image:Hydraulic Ram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Hydraulic ram:<br>
1. Inlet - drive pipe;<br>
2. Free flow at waste valve;<br>
3. Outlet - delivery pipe;<br>
4. Waste valve;<br>
5. Delivery [[check valve]];<br>
6. Pressure vessel]]
Initially, the waste valve 4 is open, the delivery valve 5 is closed, The water in the drive pipe 1 starts to flow under the force of [[gravity]] and picks up speed and [[kinetic energy]] until it forces the waste valve closed. The [[momentum]] of the water flow in the supply pipe against the now closed waste valve causes a [[water hammer]], raises the pressure in the pump and opens the delivery valve, so some water flows into the delivery pipe. Since this water is being forced uphill through the delivery pipe farther than it is falling downhill from the source, the flow slows down and when it reverses the delivery check valve closes. If all water flow has stopped, the loaded waste valve reopens against the now [[hydrostatic pressure|static head]], allowing the process to begin again.
A common refinement is to add a pressure vessel containing some air between the pump and the delivery pipe. This cushions the shock when the waste valve closes and improves the efficiency by allowing a more constant flow through the delivery pipe. In a similar way a supply pipe and a [[barrel]] or a stand pipe may be added above the drive pipe so that the drive pipe does not have to be made too long. The optimum length of the drive pipe is 5 to 12 times the vertical distance between the source and the pump, or 500 to 1000 times the diameter of the drive pipe, whichever is less. This length of drive pipe typically results in a period between pulses of 1 to 2 seconds. A typical efficiency is 60%, but up to 80% is possible.
===Common operational problems===
Some common operational problems are intrusion of air into the drive pipe, blockage of the intake or valves with debris, knocking due to too little air in the pressure vessel, and freezing in winter.
==External links==
*[http://www.clemson.edu/irrig/Equip/ram.htm Details of how to make a homemade hydraulic ram]
*[http://www.greenandcarter.com/ Green and Carter]
*[http://cooperage.ne-design.net/ram-pump.html What is a Ram Pump?]
[[Category:Pumps]]
[[Category:Water]]
[[cs:Vodní trkač]]
[[de:Hydraulischer Widder]]
[[he:בוכנה הידראולית]]
[[sv:Vädurspump]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heresy</title>
<id>14341</id>
<revision>
<id>42084427</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:49:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>168.224.1.14</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heresy''', according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], is a "theological or religious opinion or [[doctrine]] maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the [[Catholic]] or [[Orthodox]] doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. By extension, [heresy is an] opinion or doctrine in philosophy, politics, science, art, etc., at variance with those generally accepted as authoritative."
==Etymology==
The word "heresy" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] αιρεσις, ''hairesis'' (from αιρεομαι, ''haireomai'', "choose"), which means either a ''choice'' of beliefs or a ''faction'' of dissident believers. It was given wide currency by [[Irenaeus]] in his tract ''Contra Haereses'' (''Against Heresies'') to describe and discredit his opponents in the early Christian Church. He described his own position as orthodox (from ''ortho-'' "straight" + ''doxa'' "thinking") and his position eventually evolved into the position of the early Christian Church.
Thus it will be perceived that "heresy" has no purely objective meaning: the category exists only from the point-of-view of a position within a [[sect]] that has been previously defined as "orthodox". Thus, too, any [[nonconformist]] view within any field may be perceived as "heretical" by others within that field who are convinced that their view is "orthodox" |
ѷ||Ѹ||ѹ||Ѻ||ѻ||Ѽ||ѽ||Ѿ||ѿ
|- align="center"
|<code>480</code>||&nbsp;||Ҁ||ҁ||҂||҃||҄||҅||҆||҇||҈||҉||Ҋ||ҋ||Ҍ||ҍ||Ҏ||ҏ
|- align="center"
|<code>490</code>||&nbsp;||Ґ||ґ||Ғ||ғ||Ҕ||ҕ||Җ||җ||Ҙ||ҙ||Қ||қ||Ҝ||ҝ||Ҟ||ҟ
|- align="center"
|<code>4A0</code>||&nbsp;||Ҡ||ҡ||Ң||ң||Ҥ||ҥ||Ҧ||ҧ||Ҩ||ҩ||Ҫ||ҫ||Ҭ||ҭ||Ү||ү
|- align="center"
|<code>4B0</code>||&nbsp;||Ұ||ұ||Ҳ||ҳ||Ҵ||ҵ||Ҷ||ҷ||Ҹ||ҹ||Һ||һ||Ҽ||ҽ||Ҿ||ҿ
|- align="center"
|<code>4C0</code>||&nbsp;||Ӏ||Ӂ||ӂ||Ӄ||ӄ||Ӆ||ӆ||Ӈ||ӈ||Ӊ||ӊ||Ӌ||ӌ||Ӎ||ӎ||ӏ
|- align="center"
|<code>4D0</code>||&nbsp;||Ӑ||ӑ||Ӓ||ӓ||Ӕ||ӕ||Ӗ||ӗ||Ә||ә||Ӛ||ӛ||Ӝ||ӝ||Ӟ||ӟ
|- align="center"
|<code>4E0</code>||&nbsp;||Ӡ||ӡ||Ӣ||ӣ||Ӥ||ӥ||Ӧ||ӧ||Ө||ө||Ӫ||ӫ||Ӭ||ӭ||Ӯ||ӯ
|- align="center"
|<code>4F0</code>||&nbsp;||Ӱ||ӱ||Ӳ||ӳ||Ӵ||ӵ||Ӷ||ӷ||Ӹ||ӹ||Ӻ||ӻ||Ӽ||ӽ||Ӿ||ӿ
|- align="center"
|<code>500</code>||&nbsp;||Ԁ||ԁ||Ԃ||ԃ||Ԅ||ԅ||Ԇ||ԇ||Ԉ||ԉ||Ԋ||ԋ||Ԍ||ԍ||Ԏ||ԏ
|- align="center"
|<code>510</code>||&nbsp;||Ԑ||ԑ||Ԓ||ԓ||Ԕ||ԕ||Ԗ||ԗ||Ԙ||ԙ||Ԛ||ԛ||Ԝ||ԝ||Ԟ||ԟ
|- align="center"
|<code>520</code>||&nbsp;||Ԡ||ԡ||Ԣ||ԣ||Ԥ||ԥ||Ԧ||ԧ||Ԩ||ԩ||Ԫ||ԫ||Ԭ||ԭ||Ԯ||ԯ
|}
==See also==
* [[Bosnian Cyrillic]]
* [[Cyrillization]]
* [[Faux Cyrillic]] a graphical embellishment combining Cyrillic with Latin text letters used in Western society
* [[Iotation]]
* [[Languages using Cyrillic]]
* ''[[palochka]]''
* [[Russian Manual Alphabet]] (the [[fingerspelling|fingerspelled]] Cyrillic alphabet)
* [[Slavic numerals]]
* [[Volapuk encoding]], an informal rendering of Cyrillic text over Latin-alphabet ASCII.
''Character Encodings''
* [[CP866]] (8-bit Cyrillic [[character encoding]] established by [[Microsoft]] for use in [[MS-DOS]])
* [[ISO/IEC 8859-5]] (8-bit Cyrillic [[character encoding]] established by [[International Organization for Standardization]])
* [[KOI8-R]] (8-bit native Russian [[character encoding]])
* [[KOI8-U]] (8-bit Ukrainian [[character encoding]])
* [[Windows-1251]] (8-bit Cyrillic [[character encoding]] established by [[Microsoft]] for use in [[Microsoft Windows]])
== External links ==
* [http://p.dimovi.net Bulgarian Online Transliterator]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cyrillic.htm Cyrillic alphabet at omniglot.com]
* [http://www.terena.nl/library/multiling/euroml/mlcs5-cyr.txt A Survey of The Use of Modern Cyrillic Script], including the complete required repertoire of graphic characters, by J. W. van Wingen.
* [http://www.peoples.org.ru/eng_index.html Minority Languages of Russia on the Net], a list of resources.
* [http://www.easybulgarian.com/members/u0a_sample.html Bulgarian Cyrillic Alphabet audio]
* [http://www.jewishgen.org/jri-pl/translit.htm Information on Cyrillic transliteration] and the handwritten script form of Cyrillic.
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf Unicode Code Charts "Cyrillic"] (PDF)
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf Unicode Code Charts "Cyrillic Supplement"] (PDF)
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrillic.html The Cyrillic Charset Soup], Roman Czyborra’s overview and history of Cyrillic charsets.
* [https://addons.mozilla.org/extensions/moreinfo.php?id=561 The Russ Key Mozilla Firefox extension], this extension allows typing in Russian and other languages and transliterating HTML text into Cyrillic.
*[http://www.QazTranslit.com Kazakh Online Transliterator], also allows viewing of Kazakh Cyrillic web pages in Latin characters.
[[Category:Cyrillic alphabet]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
[[af:Cyrilliese alfabet]]
[[als:Kyrillisches Alphabet]]
[[ast:Alfabetu cirílicu]]
[[bg:Кирилица]]
[[be:Кірыліца]]
[[bs:Ćirilica]]
[[br:Lizherenneg kirillek]]
[[ca:Alfabet ciríl·lic]]
[[cv:Кириллица]]
[[cs:Cyrilice]]
[[da:Kyrilliske alfabet]]
[[de:Kyrillisches Alphabet]]
[[et:Kirillitsa]]
[[es:Alfabeto cirílico]]
[[eo:Cirila alfabeto]]
[[eu:Alfabeto ziriliko]]
[[fr:Alphabet cyrillique]]
[[ga:Aibítir Chirilieach]]
[[gl:Alfabeto cirílico]]
[[ko:키릴 문자]]
[[hr:Ćirilica]]
[[id:Aksara Sirilik]]
[[is:Kýrillískt letur]]
[[it:Alfabeto cirillico]]
[[he:אלפבית קירילי]]
[[lv:Kirilica]]
[[lt:Kirilica]]
[[hu:Cirill írás]]
[[mk:Кирилица]]
[[nl:Cyrillisch alfabet]]
[[ja:キリル文字]]
[[no:Det kyrilliske alfabetet]]
[[nn:Det kyrilliske alfabetet]]
[[pl:Cyrylica]]
[[pt:Alfabeto cirílico]]
[[ro:Alfabetul chirilic]]
[[ru:Кириллица]]
[[sq:Alfabeti Çirillik]]
[[sk:Cyrilika]]
[[sl:Cirilica]]
[[sr:Ћирилица]]
[[fi:Kyrillinen kirjaimisto]]
[[sv:Kyrilliska alfabetet]]
[[tl:Alpabetong Siriliko]]
[[tt:Kirill älifbası]]
[[th:อักษรซีริลลิก]]
[[uk:Кирилиця]]
[[zh:西里尔字母]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carnegie-Mellon University</title>
<id>5640</id>
<revision>
<id>15903840</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-07T12:26:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.149.37.20</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*REDIRECT [[Carnegie Mellon University]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carnegie Mellon University]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Consonant</title>
<id>5641</id>
<revision>
<id>41354831</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:35:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>QuartierLatin1968</username>
<id>93392</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>kw</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[consonance]] in [[music]].''
A '''consonant''' is a [[sound]] in spoken [[language]] that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the [[vocal tract]] sufficient to cause audible turbulence. The word ''consonant'' comes from [[Latin]] and means "sounding with" or "sounding together", the idea being that consonants don't sound on their own, but only occur with a nearby [[vowel]], which is the case in Latin. This conception of consonants, however, does not reflect the modern linguistic understanding which defines consonants in terms of vocal tract constriction.
{{Place_of_articulation}}
{{Manner_of_articulation}}
Since the number of consonants in the world's languages is much greater than the number of consonant letters in any one alphabet, [[linguist]]s have devised systems such as the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) to assign a unique [[symbol]] to each possible consonant. In fact, the [[Latin alphabet]], which is used to write English, has fewer consonant letters than English has consonant sounds, so some letters represent more than one consonant, and [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s like "sh" and "th" are used to represent some sounds. Many speakers aren't even aware that the "th" sound in "this" is a different sound from the "th" sound in "thing" (in the IPA they're [&#240;] and [&#952;], respectively).
Each consonant can be distinguished by several ''[[Distinctive feature|features]]'':
* The [[manner of articulation]] is the method that the consonant is articulated, such as [[nasal consonant|nasal]] (through the nose), [[stop consonant|stop]] (complete obstruction of air), or [[approximant]] (vowel like).
* The [[place of articulation]] is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]] (both lips), [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] (tongue against the gum ridge), and [[velar consonant|velar]] (tongue against soft palate). Additionally, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as [[palatalisation]] or [[pharyngealisation]].
* The [[phonation]] of a consonant is how the [[vocal cords]] vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called [[voiced]]; when they do not vibrate at all, it's [[voiceless]].
* The [[voice onset time]] (VOT) indicates the timing of the phonation. [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] is a feature of VOT.
* The [[airstream mechanism]] is how the air moving through the vocal tract is powered. Most languages have exclusively [[pulmonic egressive]] consonants, which use the lungs and diaphragm, but [[ejective]]s, [[click consonant|click]]s, and [[implosive]]s use different mechanisms.
* The [[gemination|length]] is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts. This feature is not distinctive in English, but various languages such as Italian, Japanese and Finnish have two length levels, "single" and "[[geminate]]". [[Estonian_language|Estonian]] and some [[Sami]] languages have three lengths on the phonetic level: short, geminate, and long geminate.
* The articulatory [[force]] is how much muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.
All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as "voiceless alveolar stop consonant" [t]. In this case the airstream mechanism is omitted.
Some pairs of consonants like ''p::b'', ''t::d'' are sometimes called [[Fortis and lenis|fortis]] and [[Fortis and lenis|lenis]], but this is a [[phonology|phonological]] rather than phonetic distinction.
==Consonant as a symbol==
The word '''consonant''' is also used to refer to a [[letter]] of an [[alphabet]] that denotes a consonant sound. Consonant letters in the English alphabet are [[B]], [[C]], [[D]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]], [[N]], [[P]], [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[V]], [[W]], [[X]], [[Z]], and usually [[Y]]: The letter Y stands for the consonant [j] in "yoke" but for the vowel {{IPA|[&#618;]}} in "myth", for example.
==See also==
*[[Table of consonants]]
*[[List of consonants]]
*[[List of phonetics topics]]
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Consonant.ogg|2005-07-20}}
*[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~danhall/phonetics/sammy. |
ground: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''The Territory of Guam<br>Guåhån'''</big>
|-
| style=background:#efefef; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:Flag of Guam.svg|125px|Flag of Guam]]
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:Coat of arms of Guam.svg|70px|Guam coat of arms]]
|-
| align=center width=140px | <font size=-1>([[Flag of Guam|In Detail]])</font>
| align=center width=140px | <font size=-1>([[Coat of Arms of Guam|In Detail]])</font>
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | <font size=-1>''Territorial [[motto]]: Where America's Day Begins''</font>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationGuam.png]]
|-
| Official [[language]]s
| [[English language|English]], [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
|-
| Unofficial [[language]]s
| [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]], and various [[Micronesian languages]] (used in conversation); [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (used in conversation and some business transactions); other languages from islands and nations in this region. While not an official language, Tagalog is growing in usage due to the increase in the number of [[Filipino people|Filipinos]] residing on the island.
|-
| [[Capital]]
| [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]]
|-
| [[List of Guam Governors|Governor]]
| [[Felix Perez Camacho]]
|-
| [[Area]]<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 202nd]] <br>[[1 E8 m²|549]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (212 square miles) <br> Negligible
|-
| [[Population]] <br>&nbsp;- Total ([[2003]]) <br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked N/A]]<br> 163,941 (July 2003 est.) <br>299/km²
|-
| [[Independence]]
| none (territory of the [[United States|USA]])
|-
| [[Currency]]
| [[US dollar]] (USD)
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+10 (no DST)
|-
| [[National anthem|Territorial anthem]]
| ''Fanoghe Chamorro''
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
| [[.gu]]
|-
| [[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
| 1-671
|}
[[Image:Apra Guam.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Apra Harbor from the air]]
[[Image:GuamMap.png|thumb|right|Map of Guam]]
The '''Territory of Guam''' (''Guåhån'' in [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]) is an island in the Western [[Pacific Ocean]] and is an [[organized territory|organized]] [[unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]]. Its inhabitants are largely [[Chamorros]], who first populated the island approximately 3,500 years ago. It is the largest and southernmost of the [[Mariana Islands]]. The capital is [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]], formerly Agana (pronounced Agaña). Guam's economy is mainly supported by [[tourism]] (particularly from [[Japan]]) and [[United States armed forces]] bases. The latter takes up one-third of the entire land mass of the island. The [[United Nations]] Committee on Decolonization includes Guam on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]].
==History of Guam==
{{main|History of Guam}}
Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands. Guam's first contact with western civilization occurred when [[Ferdinand Magellan]] reached the island in [[1521]] during his around the world voyage. General [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] claimed Guam for Spain in 1565. Spanish colonization commenced in 1668. Between 1668 and 1815, Guam was an important resting stop on the [[Spain|Spanish]] trade route between the [[Philippines]] and [[Mexico]]. While Guam's Chamorro culture is unique (even when compared to neighboring [[Northern Mariana Islands]]), the cultures of both Guam and the Northern Marianas were heavily influenced by Spanish culture and traditions.
The [[United States]] took control of the island in [[1898]] after the [[Battle of Guam (1898)|Battle of Guam of 1898]] in the [[Spanish-American War]]. Guam was the southernmost island in the Marianas Group and this political change started Guam and the Northern Marianas (including [[Saipan]] and [[Tinian]]) down separate paths. Guam came to serve as a way station for American ships traveling to and from the Philippines.
During [[World War II]], Guam was attacked and invaded by the Japanese armed forces in [[1941]]. The Northern Mariana islands had become a Japanese protectorate before the war. The Northern Mariana Chamorros, as a result, were allies of the Japanese. The Guam Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military. The United States returned and fought the [[Battle of Guam]] in [[1944]] to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. While the Northern Marianas were also liberated from Japanese rule and came under the U.S. political rule and commonwealth status, some cultural rift between Guam and Northern Mariana Chamorros remains.
The [[Organic Act of 1950]] established Guam as an unincorporated [[Organized territory|organized territory]] of the United States, provided for the structure of the island's government, and granted the people United States citizenship.
== Politics of Guam ==
{{main|Politics of Guam}}
The population of Guam is largely proud of its U.S. connection, and its economy is greatly dependent on the US military bases. The U.S. connection also contributes to Guam's status as a Japanese tourist destination. The Guamanian population is generally culturally sympathetic toward the U.S., based especially in common tribulations during [[World War II|WWII]], and on good relations with the U.S. military since.
Maintenance of the status quo vis-à-vis the current political relationship between the territory and the U.S. is, however, not without controversy. There is a significant movement in favor of Guam becoming a [[commonwealth]] in political union with the U.S. (''i.e.'', the political status of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]]). Competing movements with less significant influence exist, one of which advocates political independence from the United States, while another movement advocates [[statehood]]. These proposals however, are not seen as favorable or realistic within the U.S. federal government, who argue Guam does not have the financial stability or self sufficiency to warrant such status. The same sources quickly provide evidence of Guam’s increasing reliance on Federal spending, and question how commonwealth status or statehood would benefit the United States as a greater whole.
In whatever form it takes, most people on Guam favor a modified version of the current territorial status, involving greater autonomy from the federal government (similar to the autonomy of individual states). Perceived indifference by the U.S. Congress regarding a change-of-status petition submitted by Guam has led many to feel that the territory is being unjustly deprived of the benefits of a more equitable union with the U.S.
''See: [[List of Guam Governors]]''
== Transportation and Communications in Guam ==
:''Main articles: [[Communications in Guam]], [[Transportation in Guam]]''
Guam is served by [[Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport]].
== Economy ==
Guam's economy depends primarily on tourism, the United States military base presence, and other federal spending. Although Guam receives no foreign aid, it does receive large transfer payments from the general revenues of the US Federal Treasury into which Guam pays no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guam Treasury, rather than the US Treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by military and civilian Federal employees stationed in Guam.
Guam is a favorite destination for Japanese tourists. Guam is a relatively short flight from Japan compared to [[Hawaii]], and a series of tourist hotels and golf courses were built to cater to the tourists. Today, about 90 percent of tourists to Guam are Japanese. Big sources of revenue to the area are the many [[duty-free]] designer shopping outlets, and the American-style [[Micronesia Mall]].
The main tourist beach, [[Tumon]] Bay has beautiful white sand, and Tumon Bay is now a marine preserve, teeming with fish. Recently completed infrastructure projects have brought underground fiber-optics and new roads to the busy Tumon area.
The economy had been booming since 2000 due to Japanese tourists, but took a downturn with the rest of Asia. Guam has a 14% unemployment rate, and the government suffered a $314 million shortfall in 2003 alone.[http://pacificweb.org/guam/2004%20Guam%20Yearbook/2004_Guam_Yearbook_FinalR2_Full%20Version.pdf]
The following is the amount in billion of dollars, that the Government of Guam has spent in Federal grants for various government and economic expenditures minus those of the United States Armed Forces:[http://investguam.com/Stats/FedExp93-03guam.pdf]
::1993 - $1.004
::1994 - $1.061
::1995 - $0.809
::1996 - $0.829
::1997 - $0.846
::1998 - $0.998
::1999 - $0.844
::2000 - $0.841
::2001 - $0.907
::2002 - $1.113
::2003 - $1.538
"The Compact of Free Association between the United States of America, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands was signed in 1982, and ratified in 1986. It accorded the former entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of 'free association.'" [http://www.fm/jcn/compact/introfr.html Compact of Free Association] The Compact was an agreement to which the Guam was not a party. However, Guam along with Hawaii and California have borne the economic brunt of this treaty.
==Geography==
:''Main articles: [[Geography of Guam]]''
Guam is located at {{coor dms|13|26|31|N|144|46|35|E|}}. Guam has an area of 212 mi² (549 km²). The northern part of the is |
een the chemical and [[peripheral neuropathy]], the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims" according to the ''[[Mercury News]]''.
South Koreans was the largest foreign contingent of US allies in Vietnam, contributing some 320 000 troups. It lost 5 077 soldiers and suffered 10 962 wounded, according to the ''Mercury News''. {{ref label|MercuryNews|1|a}}
== Miscellaneous ==
* The [[Union Carbide]] company produced the constituents of Agent Orange at [[Homebush Bay]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] where the [[2000 Summer Olympics]] were staged.[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/earth/stories/s160995.htm]
* The Uniroyal plant in [[Elmira,_Ontario|Elmira]], [[Ontario]] was one of seven suppliers producing Agent Orange for the U.S. military's use in Vietnam.
== Cultural references ==
Due to its politically sensitive nature, Agent Orange has become a common topic for reference in popular culture.
For example, the song "Orange Crush" by the group [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M]], and the [[punk rock|punk]] band [[Agent Orange (band)|Agent Orange]].
== Further reading ==
* Weisman, Joan Murray. ''The Effects of Exposure to Agent Orange on the Intellectual Functioning, Academic Achievement, Visual Motor Skill, and Activity Level of the Offspring of Vietnam War Veterans.'' Doctoral thesis. Hofstra University. 1986.
== Endnotes ==
#{{note|MercuryNews}}{{note label|MercuryNews|1|a}}{{Citenews | title=Korea orders Agent Orange payments | date=January 26, 2006 | org=Mercury News | url=http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/world/13714640.htm}}
== See also ==
* [[Teratogen]] (literally, ''monster-making'')
* [[Dow Chemical]]
* [[Monsanto]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Depleted uranium]]
* [[Thalidomide]]
== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3798581.stm Vietnam's war against Agent Orange] - the [[BBC]] reports that the effects of Agent Orange are still felt across Vietnam in 2004; mentions the victim's group lawsuit.
* Also on the [[BBC]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4494347.stm The legacy of Agent Orange], following Agent Orange Day 2005 (10 August).
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4336941.stm Agent Orange legal case dismissed] - report of the US Federal court ruling on the VAVA suit.
* [http://www.vietnam-dioxine.org/index.php?piIdLangue=2 www.vietnam-dioxin.org], an information website on the consequences of Agent Orange and dioxin in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos.
* [http://vava.portal.vinacomm.com.vn/ Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin] - victim's group's website
* [http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/en/exe-sum-final.pdf Assessment of the health risk of dioxins 1998] by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and the [[International Programme on Chemical Safety|IPCS]] (pdf).
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/dioxins/index.htm A summary of the previous report] by [[GreenFacts]].
* [http://adbusters.org/blogs/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=47 A Culture of Life]: On Agent Orange, depleted uraniuim, and the 2005 AO victims' lawsuit.
* [http://www.aoe.uk.com www.aoe.uk.com] Agent Orange Enterprises website
* [http://snopes.com/photos/medical/orange.asp Snope.com's] article on images of the Agent Orange.
* [http://www.vn-agentorange.org/ Vietnam Agent Orange Relief &amp; Responsibility Campaign] Campaign for helping support the Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange
* [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-02/05/content_303315.htm Children and the Viet Nam War 30-40 years after the use of Agent Orange], article with pictures (warning: uncensored, may be found shocking)
* [http://www.danangquangnamfund.org Thousands of letters and pictures supplied by the familes of victims of Agent Orange throughout Vietnam
[[Category:Vietnam War]]
[[Category:Herbicides]]
[[Category:Teratogens]]
[[Category:Defoliants]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Landmark cases]]
[[da:Agent Orange]]
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[[it:Agente Arancio]]
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[[fi:Agent Orange]]
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[[vi:Chất độc da cam]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Astounding Science Fiction</title>
<id>2549</id>
<revision>
<id>15900948</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-02T12:20:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Notinasnaid</username>
<id>86195</id>
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<comment>Redirect to renamed article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astounding (magazine)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomical year numbering</title>
<id>2551</id>
<revision>
<id>38890773</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T07:53:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joe Kress</username>
<id>45685</id>
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<comment>correct misconception, unlink non-historical years</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Astronomical year numbering''' is based on [[Common Era|BCE/CE]] (or [[anno Domini|BC/AD]]) year numbering, but follows normal [[decimal]] [[integer]] numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a [[year zero|year 0]] and the years before that are designated with a minus sign '−'. The era designations BCE/CE or BC/AD are dropped. So the year 1 BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BCE is numbered −1, and in general the year ''n'' BCE is numbered (1−''n''). The numbers of CE years are not changed, but CE (or AD) is not used, being replaced by either no sign or a positive sign. For normal calculation a [[0 (number)|number zero]] is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]]; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.
The system is so named due to its use in [[astronomy]]. Few other sciences outside [[history]] deal with the time before year 1, exceptions being [[dendrochronology]], [[archaeology]] and [[geology]], the latter two of which use 'years before the present'. Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred.
A zero year was first used by the [[eighteenth century]] [[France|French]] [[astronomer]]s [[Philippe de La Hire]] (1702) and [[Jacques Cassini]] (1740). However, both of these astronomers used the applicable BC/AD designations of [[Latin]] and [[French language|French]] with their year zero, thus near the epoch the years were designated 2 BC, 1 BC, 0, AD 1, AD 2, etc. They did not use −/0/+. During the [[nineteenth century]], astronomers designated years with either BC/0/AD or −/0/+. Astronomers did not exclusively use the −/0/+ system until the mid [[twentieth century]].
==See also==
*[[ISO 8601]]
{{num-stub}}
{{astronomy-stub}}
[[da:Astronomiske tidsregning]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Adam of Bremen</title>
<id>2552</id>
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<id>40046058</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T19:11:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adam of Bremen''' (also: '''Adam Bremensis''') was one of the most important [[Germany|German]] [[medieval]] [[chronicler]]s. He lived and worked in the second half of the [[11th century]]. He is most famous for his chronicle ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' (''Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church'').
==Background==
Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from [[Meissen]] ([[Latin]] ''Misnia'') in [[Saxony]]. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on [[October 12]] of an unknown year (Possibly [[1081]], latest [[1085]]). Gathering from his chronicles, he was well familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of ''Magister Adam'' shows that he has passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the ''[[Magdeburg]]er Domschule''.
In 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop [[Adalbert of Bremen]] to join the Church of Bremen, who Adalbert believed would improve the literary reputation of his see. Adam was accepted among the [[capitular]]s of Bremen, and by 1069 he appears as director of the cathedral's school. Soon thereafter he began to write the history of [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen]]/[[Hamburg]] and of the northern lands in his ''Gesta''.
Adam of Bremen benefited from his position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen to gather all kind of information on the history and the geography of northern [[Germany]]. He benefited from a stay at the court of [[Svend Estridson]] to find informations about the history and geography of Denmark, and the Scandinavian countries.
Bremen was a major trading town, and ships, traders and missionaries went from there to many different locations. The earlier archbishopric seat in Hamburg had been attacked and destroyed several times, and thereafter the sees of Hamburg and Bremen were combined for protection. For three hundred years Hamburg, beginning with bishop [[Ansgar]], the Hamburg-Bremen archbishopric had been designated as the "Mission of the North" and had jurisdiction over all missions in [[Scandinavia]], North-Western [[Russia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Greenland]]. Then the archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen had a falling-out with [[Pope Paschal II|the pope]] and in [[1105]] a separate archbishopric for the North was established in [[Lund]].
==Gesta==
Adam of Bremen's best-known work is the ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' (''Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church''), which he |
r 2005/Errors] reported by the ''Nature'' reviewers.
*On [[December 22]] [[2005]], a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2005-12-26/Semi-protection Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-12-26/Semi-protection] policy was implemented in Wikipedia's [[MediaWiki]] software.
===2006===
* On [[January 4]] the English language version of Wikipedia arrived at the 900,000 article mark.
* On [[January 10]] ''Wikipedia®'' became a registered trademark of Wikimedia Foundation.
* On [[January 15]] Wikipedia celebrated its fifth birthday.
* On [[January 30]] Wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Why_create_an_account%3F Wikipedia:Why create an account?] were made to [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2006-January/033833.html require a password].
* On [[February 28]], the one-millionth user account was registered for the English language edition.
* On [[March 1]], the English language Wikipedia passed the 1,000,000 article mark.
==Viability==
The German Wikipedia's issue on CD-ROM and DVD-ROM helped prove a market for Wikimedia products. Within the first ten days, it presold 10,000 copies, 8,000 of which were on Amazon.de. Sales of the product, issued by [[Directmedia Publishing GmbH]] of [[Berlin]], were certainly helped by the €9.90 price for the product.
The [[German Wikipedia]] will be printed in its entirety by Directmedia, in 100 volumes of 800 pages each. Publication will begin in October 2006, and finish in 2010.
==Access in Mainland China==
:''Main article: [[Blocking of Wikipedia in mainland China]]
The [[People's Republic of China]] and [[internet service provider]]s in Mainland China have adopted a [[internet censorship in mainland China|practice of blocking]] contentious Internet sites in [[mainland China]], and Wikimedia sites have been blocked at least three times in its history. Currently, Wikimedia appears to be undergoing the third block in its history.
The first and so far most significant block lasted between [[June 2]] and [[June 21]], [[2004]]. It began when access to the [[Chinese Wikipedia]] from [[Beijing]] was blocked on the fifteenth anniversary of the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]].
Possibly related to this, on [[May 31]] an article from the IDG News Service was published [http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,116323,00.asp], discussing the Chinese Wikipedia's treatment of the protests. The Chinese Wikipedia also has articles related to Taiwanese independence, written by contributors from Taiwan and elsewhere [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2004-June/015574.html]. A few days after the initial block of Chinese Wikipedia, all Wikimedia sites were blocked in Mainland China. In response to the blocks, two sysops prepared an appeal to lift the block and asked their regional [[internet service provider]] to submit it. All Wikimedia sites were unblocked between [[June 17]] and [[June 21]], [[2004]].
The first block had an effect on the vitality of Chinese Wikipedia, which [http://en.wikipedia.org/wikistats/EN/TablesWikipediaZH.htm suffered sharp dips in various indicators] such as the number of new users, the number of new articles, and the number of edits. In some cases, it took anywhere from six to twelve months in order to recover to the levels of [[May 2004]].
The second and less serious outage lasted between [[September 23]] and [[September 27]], [[2004]]. During this four day period, access to Wikipedia was erratic or unavailable to some users in mainland China &mdash; this block was not comprehensive and some users in mainland China were never affected. The exact reason for the block is unknown, but it may have been linked with the closing down of [[YTHT BBS]], a popular [[Peking University]]-based BBS that was shut down a few weeks earlier for hosting overtly radical political discussions. Refugees from the BBS had arrived en masse on Chinese Wikipedia. Chinese Wikipedians once again prepared a written appeal to regional ISPs, but the block was lifted before the appeal was actually sent out; the reasons of which are, once again, a mystery.
The third block began on [[October 19]], [[2005]], and once again there is no indication as to whether this block is temporary or permanent, or what the reasons or causes for this block are. According to the [http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:状况回报 status page] currently maintained on the Chinese Wikipedia, the Florida and Korea servers are blocked, while the Paris and Amsterdam servers are not. Dozens of editors from across [[Mainland China]] have [http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia talk:状况回报 reported] that they can only access Wikipedia using proxy servers.
==See also==
{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Announcements]], [[Wikipedia:Mailing lists]], [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia's oldest articles]] and [[Wikipedia:CamelCase and Wikipedia]].}}
==External links==
* [[:meta:History of Wikipedia|History of Wikipedia]] - from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meta Wikipedia:Meta]
* [http://nostalgia.wikipedia.org Nostalgia Wikipedia] - a snapshot of Wikipedia running on a modified version of [[UseModWiki]] 0.92 in read-only mode
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010331173908/http%3A//www.wikipedia.com/ Even older Wikipedia snapshot]--[[30 March]] [[2001]]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010303221706/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/HomePage Even older Wikipedia snapshot]- [[28 February]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource] &mdash; Free Software Foundation endorsement of Nupedia (later updated to include Wikipedia) 1999.
* [[Larry Sanger]], [http://features.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/04/18/164213&from=rss The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir] and [http://features.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/04/19/1746205&tid=95 Part II] [[Slashdot]] ([[18 April]]-[[19 April]] [[2005]])
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Larry_Sanger/Origins_of_Wikipedia&oldid=39843351 Larry Sanger about the origins of Wikipedia]
[[Category:History of Wikipedia|History of Wikipedia]]
[[Category:Internet]]
[[ar:تاريخ ويكيبيديا]]
[[de:Wikipedia:Geschichte der Wikipedia]]
[[es:Historia de Wikipedia]]
[[fr:Wikipédia:Historique du Wikipédia francophone]]
[[hr:Povijest Wikipedije]]
[[nl:Wikipedia:Geschiedenis van Wikipedia]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Wikipedije]]
[[sr:Википедија:Историја]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Historia]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hydropower</title>
<id>14073</id>
<revision>
<id>41729065</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:34:30Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Orontes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Undershot [[water wheel]]s on the [[Orontes River]] in [[Hama]], [[Syria]]]]
'''Hydropower''' is [[energy]] obtained from [[flow]]ing [[water]]. Energy in water can be harnessed and used for this usefulness, in the form of motive energy or temperature differences. The most common application is the [[dam]], but it can be used directly as a mechanical force or a thermal source/sink.
Prior to the widespread availability of commercial [[electricity]], hydropower was widely used for [[watermill|milling]], [[textile]] manufacture, and the operation of [[sawmill]]s. In the [[1830s]], at the height of the [[canal]]-building era, hydropower was used to transport [[barge]] traffic up and down steep hills using the technology of [[inclined plane railroad]]s.
== Types of water power ==
There are many forms of water power:
* [[Waterwheel]]s , used for hundreds of years to power mills and machinary
* [[Hydroelectric]] energy, a term usually reserved for hydroelectric dams.
* [[Tidal power]], which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction
* [[Tidal stream power]], which does the same vertically
* [[Wave power]], which uses the energy in waves
=== Hydroelectric power ===
''Main article: [[Hydroelectricity]]''
[[Image:Water turbine.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Water turbine|Hydraulic turbine]] and [[electrical generator]].]]
Hydroelectric power from potential energy of the elevation of waters, now supplies about 715,000 [[MWe]] or 19% of world electricity, and large dams are still being designed. Apart from a few countries with an abundance of it, hydro power is normally applied to peak-load demand, because it is so readily stopped and started. Nevertheless, hydroelectric power is probably not a major option for the future of energy production in the developed nations because most major sites within these nations with the potential for harnessing gravity in this way are either already being exploited or are unavailable for other reasons such as environmental considerations.
Hydroelectric energy produces essentially no [[carbon dioxide]] or other harmful emmissions, in contrast to burning [[fossil fuels]] or gas, and so is not a significant contributor to global warming through CO<sub>2</sub>. Recent reports have linked hydroelectric power to [[methane]], which forms out of decaying submerged plants which grow in the dried up parts of the basis in times of drought. Methane is a greenhouse gas.
Hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuel or nuclear energy. Areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry with low cost electricity. Recently, increased environmental concerns surrounding hydroelectric power, have begun to outweigh cheap electricity in some countries.
The chief advantage of hydroelectric dams is their ability to handle seasonal (as well as daily) high peak loads. When the electricity demands drop, the dam simply stores more water. Some electricity generators use water dams to store excess energy (often during the night), by using the electricity to pump water up into a basin. The electricity can be re-generated when demand increases.
In practice the utilization of stored water in riv |
r collapse or get replaced by a larger, more dynamic civilization.
By this definition, some societies, like [[Greece]], are clearly civilizations, whereas others like the [[Bushmen]] clearly are not. However, the distinction is not always clear. In the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the US, for example, an abundant supply of fish guaranteed that the people had a surplus of food without any agriculture. The people established permanent settlements, a social hierarchy, material wealth, and advanced artwork (most famously [[totem pole]]s), all without the development of intensive agriculture. Meanwhile, the [[Pueblo]] culture of southwestern North America developed advanced agriculture, irrigation, and permanent, communal settlements such as [[Taos Pueblo|Taos]]. However, the Pueblo never developed any of the complex institutions associated with civilizations. Today, many tribal societies live inside states and under their laws. The political structures of civilization have been superimposed on their way of life, so they too occupy a middle ground between tribal and civilized.
==Civilization as a cultural identity==
"Civilization" can also describe the [[culture]] of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of items and arts, that make it unique. Civilizations have even more intricate cultures, including literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion, and complex customs associated with the elite. Civilization is such in nature that it seeks to spread, to have more, to expand, and it has the means by which to do this.
Nevertheless, some tribes or peoples remained uncivilized even to this day (2006). These cultures are called primitive. They do not have hierarchical governments, organized religion, writing systems or money. The little hierarchy that exists, for example respect for the elderly, is mutual and not instituted by force, rather by a sort of mutual agreement. Government does not exist, or at least the civilized version of government which most of us are familiar with.
The civilized world is spread by introducing agriculture, writing and religion to primitive tribes. Some tribes may willingly adapt to civilized behavior. But civilization is also spread by force: if a tribe does not wish to use agriculture or accept a certain religion it is often forced to do so by the civilized people, and they usually succeed due to their more advanced technology. Civilization often uses religion to justify its actions, claiming for example that the uncivilized are savages, barbarians or the like, which should be subjugated by civilization.
It is difficult for the uncivilized world to mount any counter-assault on civilization since that would mean complying to civilization's standards and concepts of advanced violence (war). They would need to become civilized in order to engage in any sort of war.
Thus, the intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being [[India|Indian]] civilization and its influence on [[China]], [[Xanadu]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Tibet]], [[Southeast Asia]] and so forth). Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity. A female of [[African-American|African]] descent living in the [[United States]] has many roles that she identifies with. However, she is above all a member of "[[Western civilization]]". In the same way, a male of [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] ancestry living in [[Iran]] is above all a member of "[[Persians|Persian]] civilization".
Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as single units. One example is early twentieth-century philosopher [[Oswald Spengler]], even though he uses the German word "Kultur", "culture", for what we here call a "civilization". He said that a civilization's coherence is based around a single primary cultural symbol. Civilizations experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a new civilization with a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol.
This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume ''[[A Study of History]]'', which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations". Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of moral or religious decline, rather than economic or environmental causes.
[[Samuel P. Huntington]] similarly defines a civilization as "the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species." Besides giving a definition of a civilization, Huntington has also proposed several theories about civilizations, discussed [[#The future of civilizations|below]].
==Civilizations as complex systems==
Another group of theorists, making use of [[systems theory]], look at civilizations as [[complex systems]] or networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures, and are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, and cultural interactions between them.
For example, urbanist [[Jane Jacobs]] defines cities as the economic engines that work to create large networks of people. The main process that creates these city networks, she says, is "import replacement". Import replacement is the process by which peripheral cities begin to replace goods and services that were formerly imported from more advanced cities. Successful import replacement creates economic growth in these peripheral cities, and allows these cities to then export their goods to less developed cities in their own hinterlands, creating new economic networks. So Jacobs explores economic development across wide networks instead of treating each society as an isolated cultural sphere.
Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the [[silk road]] through [[Central Asia]] and [[Indian Ocean]] sea routes linking the [[Roman Empire]], [[Persian empire|Persia]], [[India]], and [[China]], were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations.
Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "world system," a process known as [[globalization]]. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration - cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic - is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. [[David Wilkinson]] has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around 1500 BCE. Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or relatively homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the [[Crusades]] as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.
==The future of civilizations==
Political scientist [[Samuel P. Huntington]] has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a [[clash of civilizations]]. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between [[nation-state]]s and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries.
Currently, world civilization is in a stage that has created what may be characterized as an [[industrial society]], superseding the [[agrarian society]] that preceded it. Some futurists believe that civilization is undergoing another transformation, and that world society will become an [[informational society]].
The [[Kardashev scale]] classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist. ''(see also: [[Civilizations and the Future]], [[Space civilization]])''
==The Fall of Civilizations==
There have been many explanations put forwards for the collapse of civilization.
'''[[Edward Gibbon|Edward Gibbon's]]''' massive work ''"[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]"'' began an interest in the Fall of Civilizations, that had begun with the [[historical divisions]] of [[Petrarch]][http://www.artsci.lsu.edu/v |
w.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=41869 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/people/key/bio.asp?lang=E&query=1875&s=M Political biography from the Library of Parliament]
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{{canPM}}
{{Conservative Leaders}}
[[Category:1821 births|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:1915 deaths|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian Ministers of Finance|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian Ministers of Railways and Canals|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian lawyers|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian physicians|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Companions of the Bath|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Fathers of Confederation|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Nova Scotia|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Nova Scotia premiers|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian diplomats|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Ulster-Scottish Canadians|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:People from Cumberland County, Nova Scotia|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of St Michael and St George|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia people|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Irish Canadians|Tupper, Charles]]
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Pearson, Lester Bowles "Mike"
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=6th Prime Minister of Canada ([[1896]])
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 2]], [[1821]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Amherst, Nova Scotia]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[October 30]], [[1915]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Bexleyheath]], [[Kent]]
}}
[[de:Charles Tupper]]
[[fr:Charles Tupper]]
[[pl:Charles Tupper]]
[[pt:Charles Tupper]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cracker</title>
<id>5982</id>
<revision>
<id>42093940</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:05:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Leandrod</username>
<id>3915</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Consolidation, hyperl.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''cracker''' can refer to:
* [[Cracker (food)]], a thin, crisp, edible wafer, usually salty rather than sweet (usually "biscuit" in Commonwealth English)
* A person who engages in [[security cracking | security]] or [[software cracking]], circumventing computer security systems; also known as a [[black hat]] [[hacker]].
* [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[White cracker]], a slang word for a white person that is usually considered pejorative
* The television crime drama series [[Cracker (British television)|''Cracker'' (British television)]]
* [[Cracker (U.S. television)|''Cracker'' (U.S. television)]], the U.S. remake of the British television series
* [[Cracker (band)]], a rock music band
* [[Cracker (comic)]], a British children's comic
* A short length of twisted twine or string attached to the end of a [[whip]]
* Someone who smokes or sells crack [[cocaine]]
==See also==
* [[Crack (disambiguation)]]
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]], a chemical process in which large molecules are broken up into simpler, smaller ones
* [[Crackers (1984 film)|''Crackers'' (1984 film)]], starring Sean Penn
* [[Crackers (1998 film)|''Crackers'' (1998 film)]], Australian comedy
* [[Firecracker]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Cracker]]
[[fr:Cracker]]
[[it:Cracker]]
[[ja:クラッカー]]
[[pl:Cracker]]
[[pt:Cracker]]
[[sl:Lomač]]
[[fi:Krakkeri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer Science</title>
<id>5983</id>
<revision>
<id>15904150</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-13T22:33:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by Arvind Singh to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer science]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>CRTC</title>
<id>5984</id>
<revision>
<id>15904151</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission</title>
<id>5985</id>
<revision>
<id>39761582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T18:24:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.216.110.29|199.216.110.29]] ([[User talk:199.216.110.29|talk]]) to last version by Gaius Cornelius</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CRTC.jpg|right]]The '''Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission''' ('''CRTC''', in [[French language|French]] ''Conseil de la radiodiffusion et des télécommunications canadiennes'') was established in [[1968]] by the [[Parliament of Canada|Canadian Parliament]] to replace the [[Board of Broadcast Governors]].
==What the CRTC regulates==
It regulates all [[Canada|Canadian]] broadcasting and telecommunications activities and enforces rules it creates to carry out the policies assigned to it; the best-known of these is probably the [[Canadian content]] rules. The CRTC reports to the [[Parliament of Canada]] through the [[Minister of Canadian Heritage]], which is responsible for the Broadcasting Act, and has an informal relationship with [[Industry Canada]], which is responsible for the Telecommunications Act. Provisions in these two acts, along with less-formal instructions to the CRTC known as [[Order-in-Council|orders-in-council]], represent the bulk of the CRTC's jurisdiction, sometimes leaving the CRTC less room to manoeuvre than some critics appear to allow, and the result is that the CRTC is often the lightning rod for policy criticism that could arguably be better directed at the government itself.
The CRTC was originally known as the Canadian Radio-Television Commission. In 1976, jurisdiction over telecommunications services, most of which were then delivered by monopoly common carriers (e.g. telephone companies), was transferred to it from the [[Canadian Transport Commission]], and although the abbreviation CRTC remained the same, the "T" now refers to Telecommunications. On the telecom side, the CRTC originally regulated only privately-held common carriers, such as B.C. Tel (now part of Telus), in which a U.S. company had a substantial stake; Bell Canada, which served [[Ontario]], most of [[Quebec]], and part of the [[Northwest Territories]]; and operations in Newfoundland, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and northern B.C. Other telephone companies, many of which were publicly-owned, were regulated by provincial authorities until court rulings during the 1990s affirmed federal jurisdiction over the sector, which also included some fifty small independent incumbents, most of them in Ontario and Quebec.
==Regulation of broadcast distributors==
The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices [[cable television]] broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from [[satellite television]].
The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/B-9.01/8815.html Broadcasting Act] (at 3.(1)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals&mdash;many non-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada. The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation. Some people, however, consider this tantamount to [[censorship]].
The CRTC's [[simultaneous substitution]] rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a [[United_States|US]] network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials. If |
and include similar [[gene]]s.
=== Evolution: The central principle of biology ===
''Main article:'' [[Evolution]]
The central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of [[evolution]] (see [[Common descent]]). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. [[Charles Darwin]] established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, [[natural selection]] ([[Alfred Russell Wallace]] is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). [[Genetic drift]] was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the [[modern synthesis]] of the theory.
The evolutionary history of a [[species]]&mdash; which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended&mdash; together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its [[phylogeny]]. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of [[DNA sequence]]s conducted within [[molecular biology]] or [[genomics]], and comparisons of [[fossil]]s or other records of ancient organisms in [[paleontology]]. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]] (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this [[evolutionary timeline]]).
=== Diversity: The variety of living organisms ===
[[image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|340px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of [[evolutionary tree|all living things]], based on [[rRNA]] [[gene]] data, showing the separation of the three domains [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s as described initially by [[Carl Woese]]. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.]]
Despite its underlying unity, life exhibits an astonishingly wide diversity in [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[behavior]], and [[life history|life histories]]. In order to grapple with this diversity, biologists attempt to classify all living things. Scientific classification seeks to reflect the evolutionary trees ([[phylogenetic tree]]s) of the organism being classified. Classification is the province of the disciplines of [[systematics]] and [[taxonomy]]. Taxonomy places organisms in groups called [[taxa]], while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This clasification technique has evolved to reflect advances in [[cladistics]] and [[genetics]], shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to [[phylogenetics]].
Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:
:[[Monera]] -- [[Protist]]a -- [[Fungi]] -- [[Plant|Plantae]] -- [[Animal|Animalia]]
However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the [[three-domain system]]:
:[[Archaea]] (originally Archaebacteria) -- [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] (originally Eubacteria) -- [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors.
Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is seperately classified. The order is 1)Kingdom, 2)Phylum, 3)Class, 4)Order, 5)Family, 6)Genus, 7)Species. The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its Genus and Species. For example, humans would be listed as ''Homo sapien''. Homo would be the Genus and Sapien is the species. Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and all of the species is lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics. The term used for classification is called Taxonomy.
There is also a series of intracellular [[parasite]]s that are progressively "less alive" in terms of [[metabolism|metabolic]] activity:
:[[virus (biology)|Viruses]] -- [[Viroid]]s -- [[Prion]]s
===Continuity: The common descent of life===
''Main article:'' [[Common descent]]
Up into the [[19th century]], it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see [[abiogenesis]]). This misconception was challenged by [[William Harvey]]'s diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the [[Latin]] "[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.
A group of organisms is said to share a common descent if they share a common [[ancestor]]. All [[organism]]s on the [[Earth]] have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral [[gene pool]]. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]]. Biologists generally regard the universality of the [[genetic code]] as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see: [[origin of life]]).
===Homeostasis: Adapting to change ===
<!--[[Image:Lac_operon.png|thumb|left|250px|An example of [[homeostasis]]: the [[Lac operon]] is mechanism of [[gene regulation]] which prevents the build-up of [[lactose]].]] in the process of checking this is actually homeostatic-->
''Main article:'' [[Homeostasis]]
Homeostasis is the ability of an [[open system]] to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple [[dynamic equilibrium]] adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living [[organism]]s, whether [[unicellular]] or [[multicellular]], exhibit homeostasis. Homeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity ([[pH]]); at the organismic level, [[warm-blooded]] animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the [[ecosystem]], as when atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] levels rise and [[plant]]s are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere. [[Biological tissue|Tissue]]s and [[organ (biology)|organ]]s can also maintain homeostasis.
===Interactions: Groups and environments===
[[image:Common_clownfish.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mutual [[symbiosis]] between [[clownfish]] of the genus [[Amphiprion]] that dwell among the tentacles of tropical [[sea anemone]]s. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown fish from its predators]]
Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its [[natural environment|environment]]. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic [[bacterium]] responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a [[lion]] is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the [[Africa]]n [[Savanna|savannah]]. For any given species, [[behavior]]s can be [[co-operation|co-operative]], [[aggression|aggressive]], [[parasite|parasitic]] or [[symbiosis|symbiotic]]. Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an [[ecosystem]]. Studies of this type are the province of [[ecology]].
==Scope of biology==
''Main article:'' [[List of biology disciplines]]
Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines. This article considers four broad groupings. The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, [[gene]]s etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final constellation of disciplines focuses on their interactions. It is important to note, however, that these boundaries, groupings, and descriptions are a simplified characterization of biological research. In reality, the boundaries between disciplines are fluid, and most disciplines frequently borrow techniques from each other. For example, evolutionary biology leans heavily on techniques from molecular biology to determine [[DNA sequence]]s, which assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems.
===Structure of life===
[[image:biological_cell.png|thumb|300px|Schematic of typical animal [[cell (biology)|cell]] depicting the various [[organelle]]s and structures]]
''Main articles:'' [[Molecular biology]], [[Cell biology]], [[Genetics]], [[Developmental biology]]
[[Molecular biology]] is the study of biology at a [[molecular]] level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.
[[Cell biology]] studies the [[physiology|physiological]] properties of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, as well as their [[behavior]]s, interactions, and [[natural environment|environment]]. This is done both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and specialized cells in multicel |
of the countries.
==Major geographical features==
[[Image:Iraq_2004_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Iraq]]
[[Image:Iraq.A2003060.0750.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Iraq, March 2003]]
Most geographers, including those of the Iraqi government, discuss the country's geography in terms of four main zones or regions: the desert in the west and southwest; the rolling upland between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Arabic the Dijlis and Furat, respectively); the highlands in the north and northeast; and the alluvial plain through which the Tigris and Euphrates flow. Iraq's official statistical reports give the total land area as 438,446 square kilometers (169,285&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), whereas a United States Department of State publication gives the area as 434,934 square kilometers (167,929&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi).
The desert zone, an area lying west and southwest of the Euphrates River, is a part of the Syrian Desert, which covers sections of Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The region, sparsely inhabited by pastoral nomads, consists of a wide, stony plain interspersed with rare sandy stretches. A widely ramified pattern of wadis--watercourses that are dry most of the year--runs from the border to the Euphrates. Some Wadis are over 400 kilometers (250&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) long and carry brief but torrential floods during the winter rains.
The uplands region, between the Tigris north of Samarra and the Euphrates north of Hit, is known as Al Jazirah (the island) and is part of a larger area that extends westward into Syria between the two rivers and into Turkey. Water in the area flows in deeply cut valleys, and irrigation is much more difficult than it is in the lower plain. Much of this zone may be classified as desert.
The northeastern highlands begin just south of a line drawn from Mosul to Kirkuk and extend to the borders with Turkey and Iran. High ground, separated by broad, undulating steppes, gives way to mountains ranging from 1,000 to nearly 4,000 meters (3,300&nbsp;to&nbsp;13,100&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) near the Iranian and Turkish borders. Except for a few valleys, the mountain area proper is suitable only for grazing in the foothills and steppes; adequate soil and rainfall, however, make cultivation possible. Here, too, are the great oil fields near Mosul and Kirkuk. The northeast is the homeland of most Iraqi Kurds.
The alluvial plain begins north of Baghdad and extends to the Persian Gulf. Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the level of the plain in many places, and the whole area is a delta interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation canals. Intermittent lakes, fed by the rivers in flood, also characterize southeastern Iraq. A fairly large area (15,000&nbsp;[[square kilometer|km²]]&nbsp;or&nbsp;5,800&nbsp;mi²) just above the confluence of the two rivers at Al Qurnah and extending east of the Tigris beyond the Iranian border is marshland, known as Hawr al Hammar, the result of centuries of flooding and inadequate drainage. Much of it is permanent marsh, but some parts dry out in early winter, and other parts become marshland only in years of great flood.
Because the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates above their confluence are heavily silt laden, irrigation and fairly frequent flooding deposit large quantities of silty loam in much of the delta area. Windborne silt contributes to the total deposit of sediments. It has been estimated that the delta plains are built up at the rate of nearly twenty centimeters in a century. In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud.
The Tigris and Euphrates also carry large quantities of salts. These, too, are spread on the land by sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding. A high water table and poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near the surface of the soil. In general, the salinity of the soil increases from Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in the region south of Al Amarah. The salinity is reflected in the large lake in central Iraq, southwest of Baghdad, known as Bahr al Milh (Sea of Salt). There are two other major lakes in the country to the north of Bahr al Milh: Buhayrat ath Tharthar and Buhayrat al Habbaniyah.
The Euphrates originates in Turkey, is augmented by the Nahr (river) al Khabur in Syria, and enters Iraq in the northwest. Here it is fed only by the wadis of the western desert during the winter rains. It then winds through a gorge, which varies from two to sixteen kilometers in width, until it flows out on the plain at Ar Ramadi. Beyond there the Euphrates continues to the Hindiyah Barrage, which was constructed in 1914 to divert the river into the Hindiyah Channel; the present day Shatt al Hillah had been the main channel of the Euphrates before 1914. Below Al Kifl, the river follows two channels to As Samawah, where it reappears as a single channel to join the Tigris at Al Qurnah.
The Tigris also rises in Turkey but is significantly augmented by several rivers in Iraq, the most important of which are the Khabur, the Great Zab, the Little Zab, and the Uzaym, all of which join the Tigris above Baghdad, and the Diyala, which joins it about thirty-six kilometers below the city. At the Kut Barrage much of the water is diverted into the Shatt al Gharraf, which was once the main channel of the Tigris. Water from the Tigris thus enters the Euphrates through the Shatt al Gharraf well above the confluence of the two main channels at Al Qurnah.
Both the Tigris and the Euphrates break into a number of channels in the marshland area, and the flow of the rivers is substantially reduced by the time they come together at Al Qurnah. Moreover, the swamps act as silt traps, and the Shatt al Arab is relatively silt free as it flows south. Below Basra, however, the Karun River enters the Shatt al Arab from Iran, carrying large quantities of silt that present a continuous dredging problem in maintaining a channel for ocean-going vessels to reach the port at Basra. This problem had been superseded by a greater obstacle to river traffic, however, namely the presence of several sunken hulks that had been rusting in the Shatt al Arab since early in the war.
The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates are essential to the life of the country, but they may also threaten it. The rivers are at their lowest level in September and October and at flood in March, April, and May when they may carry forty times as much water as at low mark. Moreover, one season's flood may be ten or more times as great as that in another year. In 1954, for example, Baghdad was seriously threatened, and dikes protecting it were nearly topped by the flooding Tigris. Since Syria built a dam on the Euphrates, the flow of water has been considerably diminished and flooding was no longer a problem in the mid-1980s. In 1988 Turkey was also constructing a dam on the Euphrates that would further restrict the water flow.
Until the mid-twentieth century, most efforts to control the waters were primarily concerned with irrigation. Some attention was given to problems of flood control and drainage before the revolution of July 14, 1958, but development plans in the 1960s and 1970s were increasingly devoted to these matters, as well as to irrigation projects on the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates and the tributaries of the Tigris in the northeast. During the war, government officials stressed to foreign visitors that, with the conclusion of a peace settlement, problems of irrigation and flooding would receive top priority from the government.
==Settlement patterns==
In the rural areas of the alluvial plain and in the lower Diyala region, settlement almost invariably clusters near the rivers, streams, and irrigation canals. The bases of the relationship between watercourse and settlement have been summarized by Robert McCormick Adams, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. He notes that the levees laid down by streams and canals provide advantages for both settlement and agriculture. Surface water drains more easily on the levees' backslope, and the coarse soils of the levees are easier to cultivate and permit better subsurface drainage. The height of the levees gives some protection against floods and the frost that often affect low-lying areas and may kill winter crops. Above all, those living or cultivating on the crest of a levee have easy access to water for irrigation and household use in a dry, hot country.
Although there are some isolated homesteads, most rural communities are nucleated settlements rather than dispersed farmsteads; that is, the farmer leaves his village to cultivate the fields outside it. The pattern holds for farming communities in the Kurdish highlands of the northeast as well as for those in the alluvial plain. The size of the settlement varies, generally with the volume of water available for household use and with the amount of land accessible to village dwellers. Sometimes, particularly in the lower Tigris and Euphrates valleys, soil salinity restricts the area of arable land and limits the size of the community dependent on it, and it also usually results in large unsettled and uncultivated stretches between the villages.
Fragmentary information suggests that most farmers in the alluvial plain tend to live in villages of over 100 persons. For example, in the mid-1970s a substantial number of the residents of Baqubah, the administrative center and major city of Diyala Governorate, were employed in agriculture.
The Marsh Arabs (the Madan) of the south usually live in small clusters of two or three houses kept above water by rushes that are constantly being replenished. Such clusters often are close together, but access from one to another is possible only by small boat. Here and there a few natural i |
=== Student groups ===
There are approximately 240 [http://www.brown.edu/web/gab3/ registered student organizations] on campus with diverse interests. The Student Activities Fair, during the orientation program, is an opportunity for first-years to become acquainted with the wide range of clubs.
==== Residential / Greek ====
9% of Brown students are in [[fraternity|fraternities]] and just over 1% are in [[sorority|sororities]]. There are eleven residential Greek houses: six all-male fraternities (Alpha Epsilon Pi, Delta Tau, Delta Phi, Theta Delta Chi, Sigma Chi, and Phi Kappa Psi), two sororities (Alpha Chi Omega and Kappa Alpha Theta), two co-ed fraternities (Delta Psi and [[Zeta Delta Xi]]), and a co-ed literary society (Alpha Delta Phi). All recognized Greek letter organizations live on-campus in University-owned dorm housing. Ten of the houses are overseen by the Greek Council and are located on Wriston Quadrangle. [[St. Anthony Hall]], a co-ed fraternity (Delta Psi) that does not participate in Greek Council, is located in King House. Greek letter organizations that "discriminate on the basis of race" are not sanctioned, forcing groups like the [[Alpha Phi Alpha|Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity]], an [[African American]] fraternity, to operate off-campus.
An alternative to fraternity life at Brown are the program houses, which are organized around various themes. As with Greek houses, the existing residents of each house take applications from students returning for the fall semester. Examples of program houses include: Buxton International House, [[French language|French]]/[[Spanish language|Spanish]] House, Art House, Technology House, Environmental House and [[Interfaith]] House.
==== Secret societies ====
Like at most other Ivies, secret societies have existed at Brown since the mid-18th century. They originated as literary clubs and organized disputes among their members, a forensic tradition that continues today in the [[Brown Debating Union]]. The first known literary society was Athenian at Queen's, founded in 1776, but this group disbanded by the mid-1780's. The Philermenian Society (founded as the Misokosmian Society) arose in 1794. In reaction to the [[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] Philermenians, a [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] society called the United Brothers Society was formed in 1806. In 1824 a third society, the Franklin Society, was formally recognized by the university president, and counted as honorary members [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[John Quincy Adams]], and [[Henry Clay]]. All of these societies had libraries and meeting rooms on the top floor of Hope College, and few written documents were preserved in order to protect against inter-society espionage. By the mid-19th century, these societies diminished on account of the growth in the number of [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[Fraternities and sororities|fraternities]]. In recent years, the Society of the Pacifica House has claimed to be the continuation of the Franklin Society and the sole remaining secret society at Brown, although this has not been verified.
== Traditions ==
[[Image:Van Wickle in snow.jpg|frame|right|The Van Wickle Gates, built in 1901, in the middle of a Providence winter.]]
Though the early history of Brown's traditions as a men's school includes a number of unusual [[hazing]] traditions, the University's present-day traditions tend to be non-violent while maintaining the spirit of zaniness ([http://www.browndailyherald.com/post/stories.asp?ID=84 Poulson 2004]).
=== Van Wickle Gates ===
The Van Wickle Gates, dedicated on [[June 18]], [[1901]], have a pair of center gates and a smaller gate on each side. The side gates remain open throughout the year, while the center gates remain closed except for two occasions each year. At the beginning of the academic year, the center gates open inward to admit students during Convocation. At the end of the second semester, the gates open outward for the Commencement Day procession. A traditional superstition is that students who pass through the gates for a second time before graduation do not graduate. Undergraduate members of the Brown Band who must pass through the gates during the Commencement ceremonies walk through it backwards. Formerly, the graduation superstition only applied to male students, as female students had their own fear of never marrying. Similar superstitions apply to the Pembroke seal on the stone steps leading to the Pembroke quad from Meeting Street, a holdover from when Pembroke College was a separate college for women. Another traditional superstition is that students rub the nose of the statue of [[John Hay]] in the John Hay Library for good luck on exams, a superstition that has been in effect since around 1910, resulting in a very shiny nose.
=== Josiah S. Carberry ===
One of Brown's most notable traditions is keeping alive the spirit and accomplishments of [[Josiah Carberry|Josiah S. Carberry]], the fictional Professor of Psychoceramics (the equally fictional study of cracked pots), who was born on a University Hall billboard in 1929. He is the namesake of "Josiah's", a University-run snackbar. "Josiah" is also the name of the University's electronic library [http://josiah.brown.edu catalog]. Every [[Friday the 13th]] is "Josiah Carberry Day" and students throw pennies into cracked pots.
=== Spring Weekend ===
Starting in 1960, Brown replaced a traditional Junior Dance with a Spring Weekend concert on the college's main green, which has, in the past, brought in acts such as [[Ray Charles]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[Ike Turner|Ike]] and [[Tina Turner]], [[Blue Öyster Cult]], [[U2]], [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[A Tribe Called Quest]], [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], [[The Fugees]], [[Busta Rhymes]], and [[G. Love & Special Sauce]]. Recent acts include [[They Might Be Giants]], [[Ben Harper]], [[The Get Up Kids]], [[The Roots]], [[The Wallflowers]], [[Béla Fleck and the Flecktones]], [[Jurassic 5]], [[Ben Folds]], [[Howie Day]], [[The Shins]], and [[Talib Kweli]]. This year's acts (academic year 2005-2006) will feature [[Wilco]] and [[Common]].
=== Other Campus Traditions ===
==== Naked donut run ====
At the end of each semester, usually on the night before the first day of exams (the last day of "reading period"), naked students walk (despite the word "run" in the name) through the Rockefeller and Sciences Libraries and hand out donuts to their peers. Neither the organization nor the precise timing of the "run" are publicly known, with the recruitment of participants usually occurring within 24 hours of the actual run. The role of head organizer is secretly passed from an upperclassman to an underclassman every year or two, and has usually been associated with one of the campus's co-ed fraternities or residential co-ops. If a naked donut run fails to occur during a semester, a new organizer will often take up the tradition the following term.
==== Naked party ====
Every fall, the [[Brown Association for Cooperative Housing]] (BACH) throws an invitation-only "naked party" where all guests remove their clothes upon entry. The hosts aim to create a comfortable setting where people of all body types can celebrate the naked human body. In contrast to the sexually suggestive dancing that can be found at many college parties, dancing at a "naked party" is paradoxically much more tame and devoid of physical contact.
==== Miscellaneous traditions ====
* Seniors sleep in the Sciences Library some time before graduation.
* Students have sex on the 13th floor of the Sciences Library. The restroom is usually used by all but the most adventuresome of students.
* Students attempt to complete the "SciLi Challenge," a shot of liquor on each of the library's 14 floors.
* It is said that a student who enters all seven of the Brown libraries during his or her first year will never marry anyone of the opposite sex.
=== Brown songs ===
==== Alma Mater ====
The "Alma Mater" was written by James Andrews DeWolf (Class of 1861) in 1860, who named it "Old Brown" and set it to the tune of "[[1822 in music|Araby's Daughter]]" (which was later known as "[[Samuel Woodworth|The Old Oaken Bucket]]"). The song was renamed "Alma Mater", after the [[incipit]], in 1869.{{ref|almamater}} It is sung and played after varsity athletic victories and at formal events such as Convocation and Commencement.
::Alma Mater! we hail thee with loyal devotion,
::And bring to thine altar our off'ring of praise;
::Our hearts swell within us, with joyful emotion,
::As the name of old Brown in loud chorus we raise.
::The happiest moments of youth's fleeting hours,
::We've passed, 'neath the shade of these time-honored walls,
::And sorrows as transient as April's brief showers
::Have clouded our life in Brunonia's halls.
::And when we depart from thy friendly protection,
::And boldly launch out upon life's stormy main,
::We'll oft look behind us, with grateful affection,
::And live our bright college days over again.
::When from youth we have journeyed to manhood's high station,
::And hopeful young scions around us have grown,
::We'll send them, with love and deep veneration,
::As pilgrims devout, to the shrine of Old Brown.
::And when life's golden autumn with winter is blending,
::And brows, now so radiant, are furrowed by care;
::When the blightings of age on our heads are descending.
::With no early friends all our sorrows to share; -
::Oh! then, as in memory backward we wander,
::And roam the long vista of past years adown,
::On the scenes of our student life often we'll ponder,
::And smile, as we murmur the name of Old Brown.
==== Ever True To Brown ====
Brown's of |
[Vertebral subluxation|subluxation]] is a complex of functional and/or structural and/or pathological articular changes that compromise neural integrity and may influence organ system and general health."'' In [[1997]] the Foundation for Chiropractic Education and Research defined a subluxation as "a joint problem (whether a problem with the way the joint is functioning, a physical problem with the joint, or a combination of any of these) that affects the function of nerves and therefore affects the body's organs and general health."
Most chiropractors subscribe to the principle that the body has an intelligent and self-healing physiology. One result of this is the general chiropractic belief that healthcare interventions should consider the person as a [[holistic health|whole]] and that conservative (non-invasive) treatment approaches should be used where possible.
=====Philosophy of the subluxation=====
Both chiropractic and mainstream medicine hold that much of the body is controlled by [[nerve impulses]] sent to and from the [[brain]] along the [[spinal cord]]. Whether the brain commanding the foot to move, the foot signaling the brain that it is in pain, or even a simple [[patellar reflex]], the spinal cord is involved. Outgoing impulses from the brain pass down the spinal cord and exit through the appropriate [[spinal nerve]] branch held between the [[vertebrae]] on either side of the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord; all of which are housed by vertebrae. If the vertebrae are misaligned (subluxated), chiropractic doctors believe that a spinal nerve can be squeezed or pinched and therefore message flow can be compromised. By aligning the vertebrae and removing restrictions on the spinal nerves, chiropractic claims to allow the spinal cord to more effectively relay messages to and from the brain; thus promoting better health.
== Scientific support for chiropractic ==
A study in the October 2005 issue of the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics (JMPT)[http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS0161475405002277/abstract] found that chiropractic and medical care have comparable costs for treating chronic low-back pain, with chiropractic care producing "clinically important differences in pain and disability improvement". A group of chronic low-back patients who underwent chiropractic treatment showed higher pain relief and satisfaction with the care and lower disability scores than a group that underwent medical care.
A 2002 investigation supports that spinal manipulation may benefit patients afflicted with [[asthma]] [http://www.chiro.org/research/ABSTRACTS/Manipulation_May_Benefit_Asthma.shtml]. A 2004 case study showed that spinal manipulation may benefit [[ADHD]] patients [http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS0161475404001642/fulltext]. Advocates of chiropractic claim that other recent case studies and research support chiropractic's claim to be effective with a range of conditions including [[autism]], asthma and [[Irritable Bowel Syndrome]][http://www.pacificchiro.com/pacific_chiropractic_and_research/article_autism_asthma.htm], [[Bell's palsy]] [http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS0161475402541129/fulltext], [[glaucoma]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10951314&dopt=Abstract], [[Crohn's disease]] [http://www.jvsr.com/abstracts/4402-1017_takeda.htm], [[colic]] [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=GatewayURL&_method=citationSearch&_uoikey=B758B-4C708NS-1&_origin=SDEMFRASCII&_version=1&md5=c5d03751c35cce8b54fdf9af77457e0e], [[ulcer]]s [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=7930964&dopt=Abstract], and [[Parkinson's disease]] [http://www.erinelster.com/Articles/parkinsons_article%20_10_00.html], and, in one case, a combination of [[cortical blindness]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and recurring [[otitis media]] [http://www.chiro.org/research/FULL/Cortical_Blindness.html]. It's worthwhile to note that [[case study|case studies]] are considered "Class V" evidence by medical science, and are thus the least suggestive of all forms of medical evidence.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3969/is_200401/ai_n10298227]
==Chiropractic education, licensure, and regulation==
===United States===
In the [[United States]], the Council on Chiropractic Education[http://www.cce-usa.org/] (CCE) is in charge of setting minimum guidelines for chiropractic colleges; however, additional requirements may be needed for a license depending on the [[jurisdiction]] where a chiropractor chooses to practice. In 2005, 15 chiropractic programs and 2 chiropractic institutions in the United States were accredited by the CCE. The process of [[credentialing]] varies widely by country.
Students often enter chiropractic school with a Bachelor's degree, or with three years of post-secondary education in the sciences and other appropriate coursework. However, in 2005 "only one chiropractic college required a baccalaureate degree as an admission requirement."[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1181629] The minimum [[prerequisite]] for enrollment in a chiropractic college set forth by the CCE is 90 semester hours. The minimum cumulative GPA for a student entering a chiropractic college is 2.50. Commonly required classes include: [[language arts|communication or language skills]], [[psychology]], [[social science]] or [[humanities]], [[biology]], [[organic chemistry|organic]] and [[inorganic chemistry|inorganic]] [[chemistry]], and [[physics]]. Other common medical classes are: [[anatomy]] or [[embryology]], [[physiology]], [[microbiology]], [[diagnosis]], [[neurology]], [[x-ray]], [[orthopedics]], [[obstetrics]], and [[gynecology]].
In the United States, chiropractic programs require a minimum of 4,200 hours of combined classroom, laboratory, and clinical experience. The last 2 years stress courses in manipulation and spinal adjustment and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, [[orthopedics]], [[neurology]], geriatrics, [[physiotherapy]], and [[nutrition]]. Coursework in Chiropractic school may also include study in [[gross anatomy]], [[biochemistry]], [[embryology]], [[microbiology]], [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]] in the first half of formal schooling.
Graduates of chiropractic schools have to complete 5 years of schooling and pass 4 national board exams in order to complete their education. To qualify for licensure, graduates of chiropractic schools must sit for State examination. Most State boards require at least 2 years of undergraduate education; an increasing number are requiring a 4-year bachelor’s degree. All boards require the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited chiropractic college leading to the Doctor of Chiropractic degree. Once licensed, most States require chiropractors to annually attend 12 to 48 hours of continuing education courses.
Chiropractic colleges also offer [[Postdoctoral]] training in [[neurology]], [[orthopedics]], [[sports injuries]], [[nutrition]], [[physical therapy|rehabilitation]], industrial consulting, [[radiology]], family practice, [[pediatrics]], and applied chiropractic sciences. Once such training is complete, chiropractors may take specialty exams leading to “diplomate” status in a given specialty including orthopedics, neurology and radiology. Exams are administered by specialty chiropractic associations.
==Practice styles and schools of thought==
Contemporary chiropractic is divided into three schools of thought - straight, mixer, and reform - which differ in their approaches to patient care. All chiropractic approaches are based on non-invasive, non-medication approaches, with many based on the use of manipulation as a treatment for mechanical musculoskeletal dysfunction of the spine and extremities. The three schools of thought do not correspond exactly to the existing membership organizations, but there are clear trends, with adherents tending to favor certain organizations.
The three categorizations are currently used mainly within the profession and in discussions. Since the actual differences are very real, they are explained here for the benefit of the general public, which is generally unaware of these differences:
#'''Straight''' chiropractors primarily concern themselves with [[vertebral subluxation]] correction. Practitioners often use varying vertebral manipulation techniques known as "adjustments" for the purpose of preventive medicine and pain relief. Straight chiropractors hold that only the body can cure the body. By aligning the vertebrae, straight chiropractors believe that they are clearing nerve impulse restrictions and therefore providing a more efficient dialogue between the brain and the rest of the body's systems, thus putting the body in a better position to cure (or heal) itself. Straight chiropractors represent a minority position, and tend to be members of the International Chiropractors Association (ICA), and the World Chiropractic Alliance (WCA).
#'''Mixing''' chiropractors combine contemporary medical diagnosis and treatment with chiropractic adjustments. Mixing style practitioners utilize adjustments to treat chiropractic subluxations, as well as nutrition and naturopathic style remedies for other disorders. Methods used might include ultrasound, TENS, rehabilitation or the use of other diagnostic methods such as [[applied kinesiology|Applied Kinesiology]] (AK). Mixing chiropractic is itself divided into conservative and liberal groups{{fn|2}}. Many mixers are members of the American Chiropractic Association (ACA), but there are also many exceptions.
#'''Reform''' chiropractors are oriented at mainstream medicine, advocating a highly limited |
football team|Trinidad & Tobago]], 15th June at [[Frankenstadion]], Nuremberg (5pm BST)
**[[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] v England, 20th June at [[RheinEnergieStadion]], Cologne (8pm BST)
**Up to four other fixtures (Round of 32, Quarter Final, Semi Final, Final/Third Place Playoff), pending on results in the three group games.
*'''[[2008 European Football Championship (qualifying)|Euro 2008 Qualifying]]''' Group E:
**England v [[Andorra national football team|Andorra]], September 2 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**[[Republic of Macedonia national football team|Republic of Macedonia]] v England, September 6
**England v [[Republic of Macedonia national football team|Republic of Macedonia]], October 7 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**[[Croatia national football team|Croatia]] v England, October 11
**[[Israel national football team|Israel]] v England, March 24, 2007
**[[Andorra national football team|Andorra]] v England, March 28, 2007
**[[Estonia national football team|Estonia]] v England, June 6, 2007
**England v [[Israel national football team|Israel]], September 8, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**England v [[Russia national football team|Russia]], September 12, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**England v [[Estonia national football team|Estonia]], October 13, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**[[Russia national football team|Russia]] v England, October 17, 2007
**England v [[Croatia national football team|Croatia]], November 21, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
==Famous past players==
{|width=100%
|valign="top" width=33%|
*[[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]] 1987-2000
*[[Viv Anderson]] 1978-1988
*[[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] 1965-1975
*[[Gordon Banks]] 1963-1972
*[[John Barnes (footballer)|John Barnes]] 1983-1995
*[[Peter Beardsley]] 1986-1996
*[[Steve Bloomer]] 1895-1910
*[[Terry Butcher]] 1980-1990
*[[Bobby Charlton]] 1958-1970
*[[Ray Clemence]] 1972-1983
*[[Dixie Dean]] 1927-1932
*[[Duncan Edwards]] 1955-1957
*[[Tom Finney]] 1946-1958
|valign="top" width=33%|
*[[Paul Gascoigne]] 1988-1998
*[[Jimmy Greaves]] 1959-1967
*[[Johnny Haynes]] 1954-1962
*[[Glenn Hoddle]] 1979-1988
*[[Emlyn Hughes]] 1969-1980
*[[Geoff Hurst]] 1966-1972
*[[Paul Ince]] 1992-2000
*[[Kevin Keegan]] 1972-1982
*[[Gary Lineker]] 1984-1992
*[[Nat Lofthouse]] 1950-1958
*[[Stanley Matthews]] 1934-1957
*[[Bobby Moore]] 1962-1973
*[[Stuart Pearce]] 1987-1999
|valign="top" width=33%|
*[[Martin Peters]] 1966-1974
*[[David Platt]] 1989-1996
*[[Bryan Robson]] 1980-1991
*[[Kenny Sansom]] 1979-1988
*[[Paul Scholes]] 1997-2004
*[[David Seaman]] 1988-2002
*[[Alan Shearer]] 1992-2000
*[[Teddy Sheringham]] 1993-2002
*[[Peter Shilton]] 1970-1990
*[[Nobby Stiles]] 1965-1970
*[[Chris Waddle]] 1985-1991
*[[Ray Wilkins]] 1976-1986
*[[Vivian Woodward]] 1903-1911
*[[Billy Wright]] 1946-1959
|}
==Current players==
<!--Criteria for inclusion: Any players capped during the latest World or European qualifying campaign; any players capped during the last 18 months; any players called to the squad but not capped within the last year-->
Players who have recently been called up to England squads include:
;Goalkeepers
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[David James (footballer)|David James]] || [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] || 33 (0) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], March 29 1997 || v [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], [[March 1]] 2006
|-
| [[Paul Robinson (goalkeeper)|Paul Robinson]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 19 (0) || v [[Australia national football (soccer) team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Robert Green]] || [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]] || 1 (0) || v [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], May 31 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|- valign=top
| [[Chris Kirkland]] || [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] <br><small>(on loan from [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]])</small> || 0 (0) || n/a || v [[Poland national football team|Poland]], October 12 2005
|-
| [[Scott Carson]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 0 (0) || n/a || v [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], [[May 31]] 2005
|-
|}
;Defenders
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[Gary Neville]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 78 (0) || v [[Japan national football team|Japan]], June 3 1995 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Sol Campbell]] || [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] || 66 (1) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], May 18 1996 || v [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], [[November 12]] 2005
|-
| [[Rio Ferdinand]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 45 (1) || v [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]], November 15 1997 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Ashley Cole]] || [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] || 44 (0) || v [[Albania national football team|Albania]], March 28 2001 || v Poland, October 12 2005
|-
| [[Jamie Carragher]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 23 (0) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], April 28 1999 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|- valign=top
| [[Wayne Bridge]] || [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]<br><small>(on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]])</small> || 22 (1) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 13 2002 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[John Terry]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 22 (0) || v [[Serbia & Montenegro national football team|Serbia & Monten.]], June 3 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Ledley King]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 16 (1) || v [[Italy national football team|Italy]], March 27 2002 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Wes Brown]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 9 (0) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], April 28 1999 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Matthew Upson]] || [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]] || 7 (0) || v [[South Africa national football team|South Africa]], May 22 2003 || v [[Northern Ireland national football team|N. Ireland]], September 7 2005
|-
| [[Luke Young]] || [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] || 7 (0) || v [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], May 28 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Jonathan Woodgate]] || [[Real Madrid]] || 6 (0) || v [[Bulgaria national football team|Bulgaria]], June 9 1999 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 4(0) || v [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]], November 16 2003 || v [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]], [[August 17]] 2005
|-
| [[Zat Knight]] || [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]] || 2 (0) || v [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], May 28 2005 || v N. Ireland, September 7 2005
|-
| [[Paul Konchesky]] || [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham]] || 2 (0) || v [[Australia national football team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Stephen Warnock]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 0 (0) || n/a || v Poland, October 12 2005
|-
|}
;Midfielders
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[David Beckham]] (Captain) || [[Real Madrid]] || 87 (16) || v [[Moldova national football team|Moldova]], September 1 1996 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Steven Gerrard]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 40 (6) || v [[Ukraine national football team|Ukraine]], May 31 2000 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Frank Lampard]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 38 (10) || v [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]], October 10 1999 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Owen Hargreaves]] || [[Bayern München]] || 31 (0) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], August 15 2001 || v N. Ireland, September 7, 2005
|-
| [[Joe Cole (footballer)|Joe Cole]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 30 (5) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], May 25 2001 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Kieron Dyer]] || [[Newcastle United]] || 28 (0) || v [[Luxembourg national football team|Luxembourg]], September 4 1999 || v [[Azerbaijan national football team|Azerbaijan]], [[March 30]] 2005
|-
| [[Phil Neville]] || [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] || 52 (0) || v [[China national football team|China]], May 23 1996 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Alan Smith]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 16 (1) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], May 25 2001 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Jermaine Jenas]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 15 (0) || v [[Australia national football team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Shaun Wright-Phillips]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 8 (1) || v [[Ukraine national football team|Ukraine]], August 18 2004 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Michael Carrick]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 5 (0) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], May 25 2001 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Kieran Richardson]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 4 (2) || v [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], May 28 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Stewart Downing]] || [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] || 1 (0) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 9 2005 || v Colombia, May 31 2005
|-
|}
;Strikers
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[Michael Owen]] || [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] || 75 (35) || v [[Chile national football team|Chile]], February 11 1998 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Emile Heskey]] || [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]] || 43 (5) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hu |
shown below. As sung in English in Canada, ''God Save the Queen'' has an additional English verse, sung after the first or second verse, which is also given below. In general use in Canada, however, only the first verse is sung. In [[New Zealand]], the second verse, which proved to be more militaristic, was replaced with the fourth verse, otherwise known as a ''Commonwealth verse''. However, that verse is primarily used only when the anthem is played past the first verse.
; 1
: God save our gracious Queen,
: Long live our noble Queen,
: God save the Queen:
: Send her victorious,
: Happy and glorious,
: Long to reign over us:
: God save the Queen.
; 2
: O Lord, our God, arise,
: Scatter her enemies,
: And make them fall.
: Confound their politics,
: Frustrate their knavish tricks,
: On thee our hopes we fix:
: God save the Queen.
; 3
: Thy choicest gifts in store,
: On her be pleased to pour;
: Long may she reign:
: May she defend our laws,
: And ever give us cause
: ''To sing with heart and voice''
: ''God save the Queen'' <sup>1</sup>.
Although in the original lyrics, verses 4-6 are now omitted entirely - partly to reduce the length of the anthem and partly due to the 'rebellious Scots to crush' line in verse six:
; 4
: Not in this land alone,
: But be God's mercies known,
: From shore to shore!
: Lord make the nations see,
: That men should brothers be,
: And form one family,
: The wide world o'er.
; 5
: From every latent foe,
: From the assassins blow,
: God save the Queen!
: O'er her thine arm extend,
: For Britain's sake defend,
: Our mother, prince, and friend,
: God save the Queen!
; 6
: Lord grant that [[George Wade|Marshal Wade]]
: May by thy mighty aid
: Victory bring.
: May he sedition hush,
: And like a torrent rush,
: Rebellious [[Scotland|Scots]] to crush.
: God save the Queen!
Verse 6 was a reaction to Sir [[John Cope]]'s defeat by the [[Jacobite Rising|Jacobites]] at the [[Battle of Prestonpans]] with a prayer for the success of Wade's army then assembling at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].
The Jacobite forces bypassed his force and reached [[Derby]], but then retreated and when their garrison at [[Carlisle]] surrendered to a second government army led by King George's son the [[William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland|Duke of Cumberland]] another verse was added, according to Fitzroy Maclean {{fn|1}}: The verse he quotes appears to have a line missing.
; 7
: George is magnanimous,
: Subjects unanimous;
:: Peace to us bring:
: His fame is glorious,
: Reign meritorious,
:: God save the King!
In the 19th century, there was some lively debate about the national anthem. Even then, verse two was considered to be slightly offensive. Notably, the question arose over the phrase "scatter her (or his) enemies". Some thought it placed better emphasis on the respective power of Parliament and the Crown to change "her" to "our"; others pointed out that the theology was somewhat dubious and substituted "thine" instead. In 1836, [[William Edward Hickson]] wrote four alternative verses:
; 1
: God bless our native land!
: May heaven's protecting hand
: Still guard our shore:
: May peace her power extend,
: Foe be transformed to friend,
: And Britain's rights depend
: On war no more.
; 2
:O Lord, our monarch bless
:With strength and righteousness:
:Long may she reign:
:Her heart inspire and move
:With wisdom from above;
:And in a nation's love
:Her throne maintain
; 3
:May just and righteous laws
:Uphold the public cause,
:And bless our isle:
:Home of the brave and free,
:Thou land of liberty,
:We pray that still on thee
:Kind heaven may smile.
; 4
: Nor on this land alone,
: But be God's mercies known
: From shore to shore:
: Lord make the nations see
: That men should brothers be,
: And form one family
: The wide world o'er
The first, third, and fourth of these verses are appended to the National Anthem in the ''[[English Hymnal]]''. However, only the fourth seems to get even the rarest airing nowadays, often with the first word erroneously changed to "not". Charles T. Brooks, in [[1833]], translated a German [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[hymn]] also starting with the words ''God bless our native land''. This hymn inspired Rev. [[Samuel F. Smith]] to write the words to the [[United States|American]] patriotic song ''[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]'' (also known as ''America''), sung to the same tune, in 1832.
; 1
: God bless our native land!
: Firm may she ever stand
: Thro' storm and night!
: When the wild tempests rave,
: Ruler of wind and wave
: Do Thou our country save
: By Thy great might.
; 2
: For her our prayer shall rise
: To God above the skies;
: On Him we wait.
: Thou who art ever nigh,
: Guarding with watchful eye,
: To Thee aloud we cry,
: God save the State!
To this hymn is often added the fourth of Hickson's verses.
===First verse in French, as sung in Canada===
: Dieu protège la reine
: De sa main souveraine!
: Vive la reine!
: Qu'un règne glorieux,
: Long et victorieux
: Rende son peuple heureux.
: Vive la reine!
===Bilingual verse in Canada - often song on Remembrance Day===
: Dieu sauve notre reine,
: Notre glorieuse reine,
: Vive la reine!
: Send her victorious,
: Happy and glorious,
: Long to reign over us,
: God Save the Queen!!
===Additional verse sung in Canada===
: Our loved Dominion bless
: With peace and happiness
: From shore to shore;
: And let our Empire be
: Loyal, united, free
: True to herself and Thee
: ''God save the Queen''{{footnote|1}}.
===Official peace version===
Although known as the "official peace version, [[1919]]", these less militaristic verses are not the official national anthem. They are found in some hymn books.
; 1
: God save our gracious Queen
: Long live our noble Queen
: God save the Queen!
: Send her victorious
: Happy and glorious
: Long to reign over us
: God save the Queen!
; 2
: One realm of races four
: Blest more and ever more
: God save our land!
: Home of the brave and free
: Set in the silver sea
: True nurse of chivalry
: God save our land!
; 3
: Of many a race and birth
: From utmost ends of earth
: God save us all!
: Bid strife and hatred cease
: Bid hope and joy increase
: Spread universal peace
: God save us all!
==Footnote==
# When the monarch of the time is male, the last two lines of Verse 3 become 'with heart and voice to sing, God Save the King'
== A naval version ==
: God save Great George our King,
: Long live our Noble King,
: God Save the King!
: Fulfill his heart's desire,
: And all our youth inspire,
: With pure celestial fire,
: Thy praise to sing!
: When insults rise to wars,
: Oak-hearted British Tars
: Scorn to be slaves;
: Ranged in our wooden walls,
: Ready when duty calls
: To send our cannon balls
: O'er oceans' waves.
== See also ==
* ''[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]'', patriotic in the [[United States]], sung to the same music.
* ''[[Oben am jungen Rhein]]'', national anthem of [[Liechtenstein]], sung to the same music.
* ''[[Heil dir im Siegerkranz]]'', national anthem of the [[German Empire]] from [[1871]] to [[1918]], sung to the same music.
* ''[[God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)]]''
* [[UK topics]]
==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://david.jamesnet.ca/britannica/God_Save_the_Queen.ra British National Anthem (Choir)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/1035000/audio/_1038758_united_kingdom.ram Listen to the British National Anthem]
* [http://www.nationalanthems.info/gb.mid God Save The Queen (MIDI)]
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page317.asp Official Royal Family site] - National anthem page
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/godsave_e.cfm Department of Canadian Heritage] - Royal anthem page
* [http://www.shakespeare-w.com/sounds/uksong.ram British National Anthem sung by choir]
* [http://portal.omroep.nl/mplayer?nav=otgklCsHEbGcZpHpPyB ''God Save the Queen'', recorded at wedding ceremony of Charles and Camilla at St. George's Chapel Windsor - Video from Dutch public television website]
* [http://www.stgeorgesnews.org/2005/04f05.htm God Save Great George our King] - article discussing different versions of the lyrics
* [http://www.gmarchal.net/godsavetheking.htm Dieu sauve le Roi ! (Loulou la fistule...)], by [[Gilles Marchal]]
==Sources==
* {{fnb|1}}Maclean, Fitzroy, ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'', Canongate Books Ltd. 1989 ISBN 0-86241-568-3
* {{fnb|2}}Percy A Scholes: ''Oxford Companion to Music, Tenth Edition'', OUP
* ''The English Hymnal with Tunes'', OUP, 1906
[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Royal anthems]]
[[Category:British cultural icons]]
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[ang:God Save the Queen]]
[[cs:Hymna Velké Británie]]
[[de:God Save the Queen]]
[[et:God Save the Queen]]
[[es:God Save the Queen]]
[[eo:God Save the Queen]]
[[fr:God Save the Queen]]
[[gl:God Save the Queen]]
[[hr:God Save the Queen]]
[[id:God Save the Queen]]
[[it:God Save the Queen]]
[[he:המנון הממלכה המאוחדת]]
[[lt:Jungtinės Karalystės himnas]]
[[hu:Az Egyesült Királyság himnusza]]
[[ms:God Save the Queen]]
[[nl:God Save the Queen]]
[[ja:女王陛下万歳]]
[[no:God Save the King/Queen]]
[[nn:God Save the King/Queen]]
[[pl:Hymn Wielkiej Brytanii]]
[[pt:Hino nacional do Reino Unido]]
[[ro:God Save the Queen]]
[[simple:God Save the Queen]]
[[sk:God Save the Queen]]
[[sl:God Save the Queen]]
[[sr:God Save the Queen]]
[[fi:God Save the Queen]]
[[sv:God Save the Queen]]
[[vi:God Save the Queen]]
[[tr:Tanrı Kraliçeyi Korusun]]
[[zh:天佑吾王]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gwat Pai</title>
<id>12335</id>
<revision>
<id>40363901</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseDominoes.JPG|thumb|right|A set of Chinese dominoes]]
'''Gwat Pai''' (&#39592;&#29260;) li |
ake the Premiership by storm, with many pundits predicting a challenge for the UEFA cup or even Champions League places. The expected challenge never materialised and a mid-table campaign was the result. The following season saw Fulham dangerously close to the relegation zone, and Tigana announced that he would leave his job at the end of the season. He left slightly sooner than that, with Chris Coleman taking charge for five games at the end of the season.
Coleman was named as Fulham's head coach at the start of the 2003/2004 season. He had spent a number of months in temporary charge prior to that, Tigana had been fired after two and a half average Premiership seasons, with the only highlight being a short run in the [[UEFA Cup]]. This came courtesy of victory in the [[UEFA Intertoto Cup|Intertoto Cup]], a UEFA Cup qualifying system often shunned by bigger clubs.
Coleman's guided Fulham to a club best ninth place finish in his first season as manager, and a 13th place in the 2004/05 season.
Chris Coleman's assistant manager is [[Steve Kean]]. The pair are helped in their roles by three coaches including ex-manager [[Ray Lewington]], Scottish legend [[Billy McKinlay]]. The third is goalkeeping coach [[Dave Beasant]]. The first team [[physiotherapist|physio]] is Australian [[Jason Palmer]] and the [[Fulham Academy]] is headed by [[John Murtough]].
[[Craig Brown (football)|Craig Brown]] was appointed by the club in summer 2005 as their "International Representative".
==Managers==
Fulham have had 30 full-time managers in their history. All but one have been British, the exception being Frenchman Jean Tigana. The dates given here are for their stretches as club manager, numerous people have played at the club (e.g. [[Paul Bracewell|Bracewell]]) or been employed by the club before or after actually being first-team manager (e.g. [[Kevin Keegan|Keegan]]).
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!Name
!From
!To
|-
|[[Harry Bradshaw]]
|1904
|1909
|-
|[[Phil Kelso]]
|1909
|1924
|-
|[[Andy Ducat]]
|1924
|1926
|-
|[[Joe Bradshaw]]
|1926
|1929
|-
|[[Ned Liddell]]
|1929
|1931
|-
|[[James McIntyre (footballer)|James McIntyre]]
|1931
|1934
|-
|[[Jimmy Hogan]]
|1934
|1935
|-
|[[Jack Peart]]
|1935
|1948
|-
|[[Frank Osborne]]
|1948
|1949
|-
|[[Bill Dodgin, Sr.]]
|1949
|1953
|-
|[[Frank Osborne]]
|1953
|1956
|-
|[[Dugald Livingstone]]
|1956
|1958
|-
|[[Bedford Jezzard]]
|1958
|1964
|-
|[[Vic Buckingham]]
|1965
|1968
|-
|[[Bobby Robson]]
|1968
|1968
|-
|[[Bill Dodgin, Jr.]]
|1969
|1972
|-
|[[Alec Stock]]
|1972
|1976
|-
|[[Bobby Campbell (footballer)|Bobby Campbell]]
|1976
|1980
|-
|[[Malcolm Macdonald|Malcolm MacDonald]]
|1980
|1984
|-
|[[Ray Harford]]
|1984
|1986
|-
|[[Ray Lewington]]
|1986
|1990
|-
|[[Alan Dicks]]
|1990
|1991
|-
|[[Don Mackay]]
|1991
|1994
|-
|[[Ian Branfoot]]*
|1994
|1996
|-
|[[Micky Adams]]
|1996
|1997
|-
|[[Ray Wilkins]]
|1997
|1998
|-
|[[Kevin Keegan]]**
|1998
|1999
|-
|[[Paul Bracewell]]***
|1999
|2000
|-
|[[Jean Tigana]]
|2000
|2003
|-
|[[Chris Coleman]]
|2003
|}
* *Ian Branfoot continued to be employed by the club after his dismissal as manager.
* **Kevin Keegan was employed by the club as Chief Operating Officer during his predecessor's reign.
* ***When Paul Bracewell was fired half way through the [[1999-2000 in English football|1999-2000]] season, there was a temporary period of Fulham being managed by their [[striker (football)|striker]] [[Karlheinz Riedle]] and his old boss at [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] [[Roy Evans]]. Riedle actually injured a lung in the season's penultimate game - his last for the club.
==Grounds==
* 1879-1883 - [[Star Road]], [[Fulham]]
* 1883-1884 - [[Eel Brook Common]], Fulham
* 1884-1885 - [[Lillie Rec]], Fulham
* 1885-1886 - [[Putney Lower Common]], [[Putney]]
* 1886-1888 - [[Ranelagh House]], Fulham
* 1888-1889 - [[Barn Elms]], [[Barnes]]
* 1889-1891 - [[Parsons Green (Park)|Parsons Green]], Fulham
* 1891-1895 - [[Half Moon]], Putney
* 1895-1896 - [[Cpt. James Field]], [[Brompton|West Brompton]]
* 1896-2002 - [[Craven Cottage]], Fulham
* 2002-2004 - [[Loftus Road]], [[White City]] (groundshare with [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] during Craven Cottage renovation)
* 2004 to present - [[Craven Cottage]] (read the Craven Cottage article for future prospects of the ground.)
==Honors==
Fulham Football Club have never won a major trophy, however, they have a reasonably long list of achievements. In the list below, all trophies and leagues are referred to by the names they held at the time, which due to commercial and practical reasons have changed over time. For more information see articles in individual leagues from [[English football league system|here]].
*[[1907]] - [[Southern Football League|Southern League]] Champions
*[[1907]] - Admission to [[The Football League]] as Southern League Champions
*[[1908]] - [[FA Cup]] Semi-Finalists
*[[1932]] - [[Football League Third Division South|Division Three South]] Champions
*[[1936]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[1949]] - [[Football League Second Division|Division Two]] Champions
*[[1958]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[1959]] - Promotion from Division Two
*[[1962]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[1970]] - Promotion from [[Football League Third Division|Division Three]]
*[[1975]] - FA Cup Finalists
*[[1975]] - [[Anglo-Scottish Cup]] Finalists
*[[1982]] - Promotion from Division Three
*[[1997]] - Promotion from Division Three
*[[1999]] - Division Two Champions
*[[2001]] - [[Football League First Division|Division One]] Champions
*[[2002]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[2002]] - [[UEFA Intertoto Cup|Intertoto Cup]] Winners
==Club Records and Statistics==
[[Image:fulham.gif|right|thumb|150px|Club Crest during the [[1970s]]]]
===All Time Results Record===
''Correct for the start of the [[2004-05 in English football|2004-05 Season]]''
{|
|-
|Played|| :||3434
|-
|Won||:||1289
|-
|Drawn||:||853
|-
|Lost||:||1292
|-
|Scored||:||5085
|-
|Conceded||:||4956
|-
|Points (3pts/win)||:||4720
|}
*Won = 37.5% (Roughly equal to winning 3 in every 8 games)
*Drawn = 24.8% (2 in 8)
*Lost = 37.6% (3 in 8)
*Goals scored per Game = 1.48
*Goals conceded per Game = 1.45
*Points per Game = 1.44
===Performance in the top division===
Fulham have spent 15 seasons in the national top flight, finishing in these positions:
*9th - Once ([[FA Premier League 2003-04|2004]])
*10th - Once
*13th - Twice
*14th - Once
*15th - Once
*16th - Once
*17th - Twice
*18th - Twice
*20th - Three Times
*22nd - Twice
;Correct for Start of [[2005-06 in English football|2005-2006]] season.
===Appearances===
There are five Fulham players who have been in the club's starting line-up more than 450 times, all of whom have since retired from football.
{|
|-
|[[Johnny Haynes]]|| :||657
|-
|[[Eddie Lowe]]|| :||511
|-
|[[Les Barrett]]|| :||487 + 4 as substitute
|-
|[[Frank Penn (footballer)|Frank Penn]]|| :||460
|-
|[[George Cohen]]|| :||459
|-
|}
:Correct for start of [[2005-06 in English football|2005-2006]] season.
====Current Players====
The three most often-starting players still at the club as of January 2006 are:
{|
|-
|[[Luis Boa Morte]]|| :||220
|-
|[[Steed Malbranque]]|| :||196
|-
|[[Sylvain Legwinski]]|| :||163
|-
|}
===Goalscorers===
There are seven men to have scored more than one hundred goals for the club, all of whom have since retired from football:
{|
|-
|[[Gordon Davies]]|| :||178
|-
|[[Johnny Haynes]]|| :||157
|-
|[[Bedford Jezzard]]|| :||154
|-
|[[Jim Hammond]]|| :||150
|-
|[[Graham Leggatt]]|| :||134
|-
|[[Arthur Stevens]]|| :||124
|-
|[[Steve Earle (footballer)|Steve Earle]]|| :||108
|-
|}
====Current players====
The three most prolific scorers still at the club as of January 2006 are:
{|
|-
|[[Luis Boa Morte]]|| :||51
|-
|[[Steed Malbranque]]|| :||41
|-
|[[Brian McBride]]|| :||23
|-
|}
==Current Squad==
:''As of [[January 31]]st, [[2006]]:''
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player| no= 1| nat=Wales | pos=GK| name=[[Mark Crossley]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 2| nat=Germany | pos=DF| name=[[Moritz Volz]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 3| nat=United States| pos=DF| name=[[Carlos Bocanegra]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 4| nat=France | pos=MF| name=[[Steed Malbranque]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 5| nat=France | pos=MF| name=[[Sylvain Legwinski]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 6| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Zat Knight]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 7| nat=Wales | pos=MF| name=[[Mark Pembridge]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 8| nat=Denmark | pos=MF| name=[[Claus Jensen]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 9| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Michael Brown (footballer)| Michael Brown]]}}
{{Fs player| no=10| nat=Iceland | pos=FW| name=[[Heiðar Helguson]]}}
{{Fs player| no=11| nat=Portugal | pos=FW| name=[[Luís Boa Morte]]}} (captain)
{{Fs player| no=13| nat=Canada | pos=FW| name=[[Tomasz Radzinski]]}}
{{Fs player| no=14| nat=Senegal | pos=MF| name=[[Papa Bouba Diop]]}}
{{Fs player| no=15| nat=Netherlands | pos=FW| name=[[Collins John]]}}
{{Fs player| no=17| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Liam Rosenior]]}}
{{Fs player| no=18| nat=Australia | pos=MF| name=[[Ahmad Elrich]]}}
{{Fs player| no=19| nat=France | pos=DF| name=[[Philippe Christanval]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player| no=20| nat=United States| pos=FW| name=[[Brian McBride]]}}
{{Fs player| no=22| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Dean Leacock]] }}
{{Fs player| no=23| nat=Ireland | pos=MF| name=[[Michael Timlin]]}}
{{Fs player| no=24| nat=France | pos=DF| name=[[Alain Goma]]}}
{{Fs player| no=26| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Adam Green (footballer)|Adam Green]]}}
{{Fs player| no=27| nat=New Zealand | pos=MF| name=[[Simon Elliott]]}}
{{Fs player| no=28| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Liam Fontaine]]}}
{{Fs player| no=29| nat=Finland | pos=GK| name=[[Antti Niemi]]}}
{{Fs player| no=30| nat=Trinidad and Tobago| pos=GK| name=[[Tony Warner]]}}
{{Fs player| no=31| nat=England | pos=DF| name=[[Wayne Bridge]] |other= On loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Fs player| no=32| nat=England | pos=MF| name=[[Matthew Coll |
ge>
<page>
<title>Gemini 10</title>
<id>11982</id>
<revision>
<id>37851997</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T15:27:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ze miguel</username>
<id>457631</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|+<font size="+1">'''Gemini 10'''</font>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Ge10Patch orig.jpg|200px|Gemini 10 insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Gemini 10
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||''Gemini 10''
|-
|'''Number of<br>crew:'''||2
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[July 18]], [[1966]]<br>22:20:26.648 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br>[[Cape Canaveral]]<br>LC 19
|-
|'''Landing:'''||[[July 21]], [[1966]]<br>21:07:05 UTC<br>{{coor dm|26|44.7|N|71|57|W|}}
|-
|'''Duration:'''||2 days, 22 hours<br>46 minutes<br>39 seconds
|-
|'''Distance traveled:'''||~1,968,823 km
|-
|'''Orbits:'''||43
|-
|'''[[Apogee]]:<br>(1st orbit)'''||268.9 km
|-
|'''[[Perigee]]:<br>(1st orbit)'''||159.9 km
|-
|'''Period:<br>(1st orbit)'''||88.79 min
|-
|'''Inclination:'''||28.87 deg
|-
|'''Mass:'''||3,762.6 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:S66-44601.jpg|280px|Gemini 10 crew portrait (L-R: Young, Collins)]] <br/>Gemini 10 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Young, Collins)
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Gemini 10 crew
|}
'''Gemini 10''' (officially '''Gemini X''') was a 1966 [[manned spaceflight]] in [[NASA]]'s [[Gemini program]]. It was the 8th manned [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] flight, the 16th manned American flight and the 24th spaceflight of all time (includes [[X-15]] flights over 100 km).
==Crew==
*[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''Gemini 10'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', & ''[[STS-9]]''), Command Pilot
*[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] (flew on ''Gemini 10'' & ''[[Apollo 11]]''), Pilot
===Backup crew===
*[[Alan Bean|Alan L. Bean]], Command Pilot
*[[Clifton Williams|Clifton C. Williams, Jr.]], Pilot
==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' 3,762.6 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 159.9 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 268.9 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 28.87°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.79 min
===Docking===
*'''Docked''': [[July 19]], [[1966]] - 04:15:00 UTC
*'''Undocked''': [[July 20]], [[1966]] - 19:00:00 UTC
===Space walk===
* Collins - EVA 1 (stand up)
**'''Start''': [[July 19]], [[1966]], 21:44:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[July 19]], [[1966]], 22:33:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 0 hours, 49 minutes
* Collins - EVA 2
**'''Start''': [[July 20]], [[1966]], 23:01:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[July 20]], [[1966]], 23:40:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 0 hours, 39 minutes
===See also===
* [[Agena Target Vehicle]]
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
==Objectives==
Gemini established that radiation at high attitude was not a problem. After docking with their Agena booster in low orbit, Young and Collins used it to climb another 763.8 kilometers to meet with the dead, drifting Agena left over from the aborted Gemini VIII flight-thus executing the program's first double rendezvous. With no electricity on board the second Agena the rendezvous was accomplished with eyes only-no radar. After the rendezvous, Collins space-walked over to the dormant Agena at the end of a 15.24 meter tether, making Collins the first person to meet another spacecraft in orbit. He retrieved a cosmic dustcollecting panel from the side of the Agena, but returned no pictures of his close encounter &mdash; in the complicated business of keeping his tether clear of the Gemini and Agena, Collins' Hasselblad camera worked itself free and drifted off into orbit.
Gemini 10 was designed to achieve the objectives planned for the last two missions &mdash; [[rendezvous]], docking and [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]. As well as this it was also hoped to dock with the [[Agena Target Vehicle]] from the Gemini 8 mission. This Agena's battery power had failed many months earlier and this would demonstrate the ability to rendezvous with a dormant object. It would be also the first mission to fire the Agena's own rocket, allowing them to reach higher orbits.
==Flight==
The Agena launched perfectly for the second time, after problems had occurred with the targets for Gemini 6 and 9. Gemini 10 followed 100 minutes later and entered into a 159.9 x 268.9 km orbit. They were 1800 km behind the Agena.
<br>
[[image:Gemini 10 Agena S66-46249.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Gemini 10's Agena fires its rocket engine (NASA)]]
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="left"
!'''Gemini 10'''
!'''Agena Info'''
|-
|Agena
|GATV-5005
|-
|NSSDC ID:
|1966-065A
|-
|Mass
|3,175 kg
|-
|Launch site
|LC-14
|-
|Launch date
|July 18, 1966
|-
|Launch time
|20:39:46 UTC
|-
|1st perigee
|294.7 km
|-
|1st apogee
|302.8 km
|-
|Period
|90.46 m
|-
|Inclination
|28.85
|-
|Reentered
|December 29, 1966
|}
<br style="clear: left"/>
<br>
===Rendezvous number 1===
Collins discovered that he was unable to use the sextant for navigation as it did not seem to work as expected. At first he mistook airglow as the real horizon when trying to make some fixes on stars. Then the image didn't seem right. He tried another instrument that they had on board but this was not practical to use at it had a very small field of view.
They fortunately had a backup in the form of the computers on the ground. They made their first burn to put them into a 265 by 272 kilometres orbit. However Young didn't realise that during the next burn he had the spacecraft turned slightly which meant that they introduced an out of plane error. This meant two extra burns using 60% of the fuel on board by the time they docked with the Agena. It was decided to keep the Gemini docked to the Agena as long as possible as this would mean that they could use the fuel on board the Target Vehicle for attitude control.
They made the first burn of the Agena engine was 80 seconds long and put them in a 294 by 763 kilometres orbit. This was the highest a person had ever been (until the next mission when Gemini 11 went to over 1000 km). This burn was quite a ride for the crew. Because the Gemini and Agena docked nose to nose, the forces experienced were eyeballs out as opposed to eyeballs in for a launch from Earth. The crew took a couple of pictures when they reached [[apogee]] but were more interested in what was going on in the spacecraft &mdash; checking the systems and watching the radiation dosage meter.
After this they had their sleep period which lasted for eight hours and then they were ready for another busy day. First order of business was to make a second burn with the Agena engine to put them into the same orbit as the Gemini 8 Agena. This was at 20:58 UTC on [[19 July]] and lasted 78 seconds and took 105 metres per second of their speed, putting them into a 294 by 382 km orbit.
They made one more burn of the Agena to circularise their orbit to 377.6 km.
===EVA number 1===
It was now time for the first of two EVAs on Gemini 10. This was to be just a standup EVA, where Collins would 'stand' in the open hatch and take some photographs of stars as part of experiment S-13. They used a 70 mm general purpose camera to image the Southern Milky Way in ultraviolet. After orbit sunrise, Collins then photographed a colour plate on the side of the spacecraft (MSC-8) to see whether film reproduced colours accurately in space. They reentered the spacecraft six minutes early when they both found their eyes were irritated. After repressurising they ran the oxygen at high rates and flushed the environment system.
Young and Collins were both tired after the exercise of the EVA and slept well on their second 'night' in space. The next 'morning' they started preparing for the second rendezvous and another EVA.
===Rendezvous number 2===
After undocking from their Agena they thought they sighted the Gemini 8 Agena. It however turned out to be their own Agena 5.5 km away, while their target was 176 km away. It wasn't until just over 30 km away that they saw it as a faint star. After a couple more correction burns they were station keeping 3 metres away. They found the Agena to be very stable and in good condition.
===EVA number 2===
48 hours and 41 minutes into the mission, the second EVA began. Collins first task was to retrieve a Micrometeorite Collector (S-12) from the side of the spacecraft. This he accomplished with some difficulty (like those experienced by Cernan on Gemini IX-A). However it floated out of the cabin some time during the rest of the EVA and was lost.
He next travelled over to the Agena. He tried to grab onto the docking cone but found this impossible as it was smooth and had no grip. He used the [[gas gun]] to move himself towards the Gemini and then back to the Agena. This time he was able to grab hold of some wire bundles and retrieved the Micrometeorite Collector (S-10) from the Agena. He decided against replacing it as he could lose the one he had just retrieved.
He last task on this EVA was to test out the gas gun. However this stopped working and meant they finished the EVA after only 25 minutes. It took the crew eight minutes to close the hatch as they had some difficulty with the 15 metres of umbilical cord. It was jettisoned along with the chestpack use |
elist]], member of [[Aosdána]]
*[[Flann O'Brien|O'Brien, Flann]], ''[[At Swim-Two-Birds]]''
*[[Conan O'Brien|O'Brien, Conan]], (born 1963), US comedian and talk show host.
*[[Loughlin O'Brien|O'Brien, Loughlin]], New Zealand politician
*[[Richard O'Brien|O'Brien, Richard]], (born 1942), [[The Rocky Horror Show|Rocky Horror Show]] and [[The Rocky Horror Picture Show|Rocky Horror Picture Show]] writer and actor
*[[Robert C. O'Brien|O'Brien, Robert C.]], ''[[Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH]]''
*[[Tim O'Brien (author)|O'Brien, Tim]], (born 1946), [[United States|American]] author
*[[Tim O'Brien (musician)|O'Brien, Tim]], [[United States|American]] musician
==Oc==
=== Oca - Ock ===
*[[Pat O'Callaghan|O'Callaghan, Pat]], Olympic gold medal/hammer, 1928, 1932
*[[Aguas Santas Ocaña Navarro|Ocaña Navarro, Aguas Santas]] (born 1963), Honduras' first lady, originally from Spain
*[[Turlough O'Carolan|O'Carolan, Turlough]], 17th century harpist and composer ("Last of the Bards")
*[[Ric Ocasek|Ocasek, Ric]], (born 1949), musician ("[[The Cars]]")
*[[Sean O'Casey|O'Casey, Sean]], (1880-1964), playwright
*[[Daisy Ocasio|Ocasio, Daisy]], (born 1964), Puerto Rican multi-sports athlete
*[[Ossie Ocasio|Ocasio, Ossie]] world champion boxer
*[[Tony Ocasio|Ocasio, Tony]], (born c. 1968), Puerto Rican singer, member of Los Chicos
*[[Billy Ocean|Ocean, Billy]], (born 1950), British musician
*[[Bernardino Ochino|Ochino, Bernardino]], (1487-1564)
*[[Ellen Ochoa|Ochoa, Ellen]], astronaut
*[[Severo Ochoa|Ochoa, Severo]], biochemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (1905-1993)
*[[Phil Ochs|Ochs, Phil]], (1940-1976), musician
*[[Ulrich Ochsenbein|Ochsenbein, Ulrich]], (1811-1890), Swiss president
*[[Alton Ochsner|Ochsner, Alton]], surgeon & medical researcher
*[[Johannes Ockeghem|Ockeghem, Johannes]], (c.1430-c.1495), Belgian composer
*[[Wubbo Ockels|Ockels, Wubbo]], astronaut
*[[Simon Ockley|Ockley, Simon]], (1678-1720)
===Oco - Oct===
*[[Arthur O'Connell|O'Connell, Arthur]] (1908-1981), actor
*[[Daniel O'Connell|O'Connell, Daniel]] (1776-1847), Irish activist
*[[Kevin O'Connell|O'Connell, Kevin]], Irish cultural figure <!-- member of [[Aosdána]] -->
*[[Paul O'Connell|O'Connell, Paul]] (born 1979), Irish rugby player
*[[Bryan O'Connor|O'Connor, Bryan]] (born 1946), astronaut
*[[Carroll O'Connor|O'Connor, Carroll]] (1925-2001), American actor
*[[Des O'Connor|O'Connor, Des]] (born 1932), British comedian
*[[Donald O'Connor|O'Connor, Donald]] (1925-2003), performer
*[[Edwin O'Connor|O'Connor, Edwin]] (1918-1968), American writer
*[[Feargus O'Connor|O'Connor, Feargus]] (1794-1855), Irish activist
*[[Flannery O'Connor|O'Connor, Flannery]] (1925-1964), American author
*[[Frank O'Connor (actor)|O'Connor, Frank]] (1897-1979), actor
*[[Frank O'Connor|O'Connor, Frank]] (1903-1966), writer
*[[Hazel O'Connor|O'Connor, Hazel]] (born 1955), British singer
*[[Richard O'Connor|O'Connor, Richard]] (1889-1981), British soldier
*[[Sandra Day O'Connor|O'Connor, Sandra Day]] (born 1930), American jurist
*[[Sinéad O'Connor|O'Connor, Sinéad]] (born 1966), Irish singer & activist
*[[Ulick O'Connor|O'Connor, Ulick]] (born 1929), Irish cultural figure <!-- [[Aosdána]] -->
*[[Herbert R. O'Conor|O'Conor, Herbert R.]] (1896-1960), American politician
*[[Thomas O'Crohan|O'Crohan, Thomas]]
*[[Caesar Augustus|Octavianus, Gaius Julius Caesar]], Roman emperor
==Od==
=== Oda - Odi ===
*[[Oda Chikazane]], (????-????), reputed progenitor of the Japanese Oda clan
*[[Oda Nagamasu]], (1548-1622), Japanese personality
*[[Oda Nobuhide]], (1510-1551), Japanese warlord
*[[Oda Nobunaga]], (1534-1582), Japanese ''daimyo''
*[[Oda Nobuyuki]], (????-1557), Japanese personality
*[[W. Lee O'Daniel|O'Daniel, W. Lee]], (1890-1969), American politician
*[[Anita O'Day|O'Day, Anita]], (born 1919), American musician
*[[Bill Oddie|Oddie, William Edgar (Bill)]], (born 1941), British comedian
*[[Tasker Oddie|Oddie, Tasker Lowndes]], (1870-1950), American politician
*[[Davíð Oddsson|Oddsson, Davíð]], (born 1948), Icelandic politician
*[[Erik Ode|Ode, Erik]], (1910-1983), film director and actor
*[[Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.|Odell, Benjamin B., Jr.]] (1854-1926), American politician
*[[Scott O'Dell|O'Dell, Scott]], (1898-1989), American author
*[[Thomas C. Oden|Oden, Thomas C.]] (born 1931), American theologian
*[[Clifford Odets|Odets, Clifford]], (1906-1963), American playwright, screenwriter, and social protester
*[[Odetta]], (born 1930), African-American singer
*[[Jaramogi Oginga Odinga|Odinga, Jaramogi Ajuma Oginga]], (1911?-1994), Kenyan politician, spirtual leader to the Luo people
=== Odo - Odz ===
*[[Odo of Châteauroux]], scholastic philosopher
*[[Odo, Count of Paris]] (died 866), Frankish king
*[[Jerry Wayne Odom Jr.|Odom, Jerry Wayne Jr.]] (born 1978), [[Baton Rouge]], [[Louisiana]] [[Computer_Programmer]] and [[Ford Mustang]] fanatic.
*[[Daniel O'Donnell|O'Donnell, Daniel]], C and W singer
*[[Peter O'Donnell|O'Donnell, Peter]] (born 1920), British creator of [[Modesty Blaise]]
*[[Rosie O'Donnell|O'Donnell, Rosie]] (born 1962), [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[comedian]] and [[talk show]] host
*[[Brendan O Donoghue|O'Donoghue, Brendan]], [[Chief Herald of Ireland]], 1997-date
*[[Lefty O'Doul|O'Doul, Lefty]] (1897-1969), [[baseball]] star, restaurateur
*[[Brian O'Driscoll|O'Driscoll, Brian]] (born 1979), Irish [[rugby union]] player
*[[General Eoin O'Duffy|O'Duffy, General Eoin]], leader of the [[Blueshirt]]s
*[[Mick O'Dywer|O'Dywer, Mick]], successful gaelic inter-county football manager
*[[William O'Dwyer|O'Dwyer, William]]
*[[Arsena Odzelashvili|Odzelashvili, Arsena]], (1797–1842) Georgian outlaw
== Oe ==
<!--
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[[List of people by name: Œ]]
Don't collapse it into another!
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*[[Kenzaburo Oe|Oe, Kenzaburo]], (born 1935), novelist
*[[Oe no Hiromoto]], (1148-1225), Japanese politician
*[[Jean Francis Oeben|Oeben, Jean Francois]], (c.1721-1763)
*[[Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger|Oehlenschläger, Adam Gottlob]], (1779-1850), Danish poet
*[[Al Oerter|Oerter, Al]], (born 1936), track and field athlete
*[[Alexander von Oettingen|Oettingen, Alexander von]], (1827-1905), theologian, statistician
== Of - Og ==
*[[Offa of Essex]], ruler
*[[Offa of Mercia]], (died 796), king of Mercia, Bretwalda
*[[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach, Jacques]], (1819-1880), composer
*[[Nick Offerman|Offerman, Nick]] (born 1970), American actor
*[[John Offord|Offord, John]], British religious leader <!-- Archbishop of Canterbury -->
*[[Liam O'Flaherty|O'Flaherty, Liam]], (1896-1984), author
*[[Ronan O'Gara|O'Gara, Ronan]], (born 1977), Irish rugby player
*[[Nikolai Ogaryov|Ogaryov, Nikolai]], (1813-1877), author
*[[William Butler Ogden|Ogden, William Butler]] (1805-1877), American politician & railway business manager
*[[Mart Ogen|Ogen, Mart]], poet
*[[Adolf Ogi|Ogi, Adolf]], (born 1942), Swiss politician
*[[John Ogilby|Ogilby, John]], (1600-1676)
*[[Angus Ogilvy|Ogilvy, Sir Angus]], British businessman
*[[David Ogilvy|Ogilvy, David]], British advertiser
*[[Emperor Ogimachi of Japan|Ogimachi, emperor of Japan]], (1517-1593)
*[[Benjamin Ogle|Ogle, Benjamin]], American politician
*[[James Edward Oglethorpe|Oglethorpe, James Edward]], (1696-1785)
*[[Blaz Ogorevc|Ogorevc, Blaz]], poet
*[[Juan O'Gorman|O'Gorman, Juan]], (1905-1982), Mexican artist
*[[Sean O' Grady|O' Grady, Sean]], (born 1959), boxer
== Oh ==
*[[Sandra Oh|Oh, Sandra]], (born 1971), Canadian actor
*[[Hans von Ohain|Ohain, Hans von]], (1911&ndash;1998), co-founder of the [[jet engine]]
*[[Madalyn Murray O'Hair|O'Hair, Madalyn Murray]], (1919&ndash;1995), US atheist
*[[George O'Hanlon|O'Hanlon, George]], (1912&ndash;1989), actor/director.
*[[Michael O'Hanrahan|O'Hanrahan, Michael]], (1877&ndash;1916), Irish nationalist
*[[Catherine O'Hara|O'Hara, Catherine]], (born 1954), actress
*[[Frank O'Hara|O'Hara, Frank]], (1926&ndash;1966), poet
*[[Geoffrey O'Hara|O'Hara, Geoffrey]], (1882&ndash;1967), Canadian songwriter
*[[Jean O'Hara|O'Hara, Jean]], prostitute
*[[Mary O'Hara|O'Hara, Mary]], harpist/singer
*[[Maureen O'Hara|O'Hara, Maureen]], (born 1920), actress
*[[Edward O'Hare|O'Hare, Edward]] (1914&ndash;1943), US pilot
*[[Dan O'Herlihy|O'Herlihy, Dan]], (1919&ndash;2005), actor
*[[Bernardo O'Higgins|O'Higgins, Bernardo]] (1778&ndash;1842), Chilean revolutionary leader and statesman
*[[Bertil Ohlin|Ohlin, Bertil]], (1899&ndash;1979), Swedish economist
*[[Georg Ohm|Ohm, Georg]], (1789&ndash;1854), physicist
*[[Benno Ohnesorg|Ohnesorg, Benno]], (1940&ndash;1967), German student of Roman languages and literature
*[[Martine Ohr|Ohr, Martine]], (born 1964), Dutch field hockey player
*[[Ohshima Naoto]], character designer of [[Sonic the Hedgehog]]
== Oi - Ok ==
*[[Jarkko Oikarinen|Oikarinen, Jarkko]], Finnish creator of [[Internet relay chat|IRC]]
*[[David Oistrakh|Oistrakh, David]], (1908-1974), violinist
*[[Igor Davidovich Oistrakh|Oistrakh, Igor Davidovich]], (born 1931), violinist
*[[Luis Francisco Ojeda|Ojeda, Luis Francisco]] (born 1941), Puerto Rican television reporter, talk show host
*[[Emperor Ojin|Ojin, Emperor]], emperor of Japan
*[[Odumegdu Ojukwu|Ojukwu, Odumegdu]], leader of Biafra
*[[Kristiina Ojuland|Ojuland, Kristiina]], (born 1966), Estonian politician
*[[Emeka Okafor|Okafor, Emeka]] (born 1982), NBA player
*[[Paul of Greece|Okalik, Paul]], (1947-1964), Greek King
*[[Paul Okalik|Okalik, Paul]], premier of [[Nunavut]]
*[[Sean O'Keefe|O'Keefe, Sean]], (born 1956), 10th Administrator of [[NASA]]
*[[Georgia O'Keeffe|O'Keeffe, Georgia]], (1887-1986), American painter
*[[Ugonna Okegwo|Okegwo, Ugonna]]
*[[Malcolm O'Kelly|O'Kelly, Malcolm]] (born 1974), Irish rugby player
*[[Sean T. O'Kelly|O'Kelly, Sean T.]], (1882-1966), president of Ireland
*[[Tom Okker|Okker, Tom]], (born 1944), Dutch tennis player
*[[Edward Okun|Okun, Edward]], Polish painter
[[ |
friends, Kildall was wary of engaging IBM in a lengthy and costly [[lawsuit]]. Nevertheless, he confronted IBM in late 1980 with his allegation, and they agreed to offer CP/M as an OS option for the PC in return for Digital's release of liability{{ref|Eubanks_History2}}.
When the IBM PC was introduced, IBM sold the operating system as an unbundled (but necessary) option. One of the operating system options was PC-DOS, priced at US$60. A new port of CP/M, called [[CP/M-86]], was offered a few months later and priced at $240. Largely due to its early availability and the substantial price difference, PC-DOS became the preferred operating system. IBM's decision to source its favored operating system from [[Microsoft]] marked the beginning of Digital Research's decline.
After CP/M, concerned by the proliferation of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] on microcomputers, Kildall created PL/I-80, a ANSI standard subset of the full PL/I programming language, to run on CP/M based microcomputers. He also went on to create a variety of experimental projects, including an implementation of the [[Logo programming language|Logo]] educational programming language and interfaces between computers and [[CD-ROM]] drives and [[videodisc]] players. He created a CD-ROM version of [[Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia|Grolier's]] [[Encyclopedia]]. He left Digital Research in [[1991]] when the company was sold to [[Novell]], and moved to suburban [[Austin, Texas]], keeping a second home in California.
==Death==
Friends and acquaintances reported that Kildall remained bitter that MS-DOS and Microsoft thrived while he languished in obscurity. Most of the internal features of MS-DOS based on CP/M were superseded in later versions, but DOS retained many user-visible similarities. Kildall was particularly piqued when the University of Washington asked him, as a distinguished graduate, to attend their computer science program anniversary in 1992, but gave the keynote speech to college [[dropout]] Bill Gates. Kildall died in 1994 of uncertain causes in [[Monterey, California]] at the age of 52. Some reports say he fell off of a bar stool at the Franklin Street Bar and Grill in Monterey on [[July 8]] and died of internal bleeding three days later. Gary Kildall was buried in Evergreen-Washelli Cemetery North Seattle, Washington
==Recognition==
In March [[1995]], Kildall was posthumously honored by the [[Software and Information Industry Association|Software Publishers Association]] (now the Software and Information Industry Association) for his contributions to the computer industry:
* Introduction of operating systems with preemptive multitasking and windowing capabilities and menu-driven user interfaces.
* Creation of the first diskette track buffering schemes, read-ahead algorithms, file directory caches, and RAM disk emulators.
* Introduction of a binary recompiler in the 1980s.
* The first programming language and first compiler specifically for microprocessors.
* The first microprocessor disk operating system, which eventually sold a quarter million copies.
* The first computer interface for video disks to allow automatic nonlinear playback, presaging today's interactive multimedia.
* The file system and data structures for the first consumer CD-ROM.
* The first successful open-system architecture by segregating system-specific hardware interfaces in a set of [[BIOS]] routines, making the whole third-party software industry possible.
==Footnotes==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
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1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
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5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes.
NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
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#{{Note|Eubanks_History1}} [http://www.cwheroes.org/archives/histories/Eubanks.pdf Gordon Eubanks oral history], p. 12 ([[PDF]] file) recorded November 8, 2000 by ComputerWorld magazine
#{{Note|Eubanks_History2}} Eubanks oral history, p. 13
==External links==
*[http://www.archive.org/details/GaryKild Computer Chronicles] tribute to Dr. Kildall, a TV show he co-hosted in the 1980s
*[http://www.digitalresearch.biz/Gary.Kildall.htm Digital Research] tribute to Dr. Kildall
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041010032349/http://www.maxframe.com/DR.HTM Internet archive] of defunct Digital Research website
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/History/Pioneers/Kildall,_Gary/ Category at ODP]
*[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_43/b3905109_mz063.htm 2004 ''Businessweek'' review] of ''They Made America: Two Centuries of Innovators from the Steam Engine to the Search Engine'' by Harold Evans, (2004) ISBN 0316277665, which contains a chapter on Gary Kildall
[[Category:1942 births|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:Digital Research|Kildall, Gary]]
[[de:Gary Kildall]]
[[es:Gary Kildall]]
[[fr:Gary Kildall]]
[[ko:게리 킬달]]
[[nl:Gary Kildall]]
[[ja:ゲイリー・キルドール]]
[[pt:Gary Kildall]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gesta Danorum</title>
<id>12741</id>
<revision>
<id>38553072</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T01:55:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Twthmoses</username>
<id>173821</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Latin versions */ ISBN</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saxo horn version 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bishop Asgar, etching by the Danish-Norwegian illustrator Louis Moe (1857&mdash;1945)]]
'''Gesta Danorum''' ("Deeds of the Danes") is a work of [[Denmark|Danish]] history, by 12th century author [[Saxo Grammaticus]] ("Saxo the Grammarian"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of [[medieval]] Denmark.
==Gesta Danorum==
In sixteen books, written in [[Latin]] on the invitation of [[Archbishop]] [[Absalon]], it describes Danish history and to some degree [[Scandinavian]] history in general, from prehistory to the late [[12th century]]. It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark, told in a sparkling and entertaining language, that reads as well today as it did back then.
The sixteen books can be categorized into two parts, book 1-9 being what is known as the [[Norse mythology|Old Norse]] part and Book 10-16 being medieval history. Book 9 ends with [[Gorm the Old]], the first factual documented [[King of Denmark]].
Since the work itself contains not a single date of any kind, neither for events nor to identify when it was written it can be problematic dating some persons and events of the Old Norse part. The only timeframe is the mention of Jesus' birth during [[Frode III]] reign, in book 5. This single fixed point established the dating of persons and events contained in the first 9 books. By counting back the number of generations told of by Saxo, one arrives roughly at 600 BC for the start of the work.
[[Image:Saxo original 001.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Angers Fragment]], page 1, front]]
===Chronology===
When the book was written, and in what order the books were written, is a matter of historical interpretation.
When exactly it was written is the subject of numerous books, however it is generally agreed that it was not finished before [[1208]].
The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King [[Canute VI]] of Denmark subduing [[Wendland|Vendenland]] in [[Pomerania]] under Duke [[Bogislaw I]], in [[1186]]. However the preface of the work, dictated to Archbishop [[Anders Sunesen]], mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the [[Elbe]] in [[1208]].
Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with [[Absalon]]'s appointment to Archbishop in [[1178]]. This comparably large book and the fact ''Absalon'' takes up a much more predominating position than King [[Valdemar I]] in this Book, makes it likely that this book is written first and comprised a work on its own. Saxo would then later enlarge it with Book 15 and 16, telling the story of King [[Valdemar I]] last years and King [[Canute VI]] first years.
It is then believed that Saxo wrote Book 11, 12 and 13. We know from [[Svend Aagesen]]'s history of Denmark, [[Brevis Historia Regum Dacie]], ca [[1186]], were it is stated that Saxo had decided to write about "The king-father and his sons" which would be King [[Sweyn Estridson]], which is book 11, 12, 13. He would then later add the 10 first books. This would also explain the 22 years between that last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the [[1208]] event described in the preface.
[[Image:Saxo Chr P front version 001.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Front page of Christiern Pedersen's Saxo version, Paris 1514]]
===Manuscripts ===
The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except four fragments known as the [[Angers Fragment]], [[Lassen Fragment]], [[Kall-Rasmussen Fragment]] and [[Plesner Fragment]].
The [[Angers Fragment]], the biggest fragment and the only one attested to be on [[Saxo]]’ own handwriting. The other ones are copies from ca. [[1275]].
They now all reside in the [[Royal Library]] in [[Copenhagen]].
We do have the text, however. In [[1510]]-[[1512]], [[Christiern Pedersen]], a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo’s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo’s work came fr |
particularly admired the work of [[Pablo Picasso]].
Cummings first received critical acclaim for his drawings and [[caricature]]s published in the literary magazine the ''[[The Dial|Dial]]'' during the 1920s. Cummings later gained recognition as a painter, participating in a number of art shows. He also published ''[[CIOPW]]'', a collection of works in the mediums charcoal, ink, oil, pastel, and watercolor, in [[1931]].
===List of shows===
Cummings' paintings were placed in a number of shows during his lifetime, including:
*Two paintings in a show of the New York Society of Independent Artists ([[1919]], [[1920]])
*Show of paintings at the Painters and Sculptors Gallery in New York, New York ([[1931]])
*Show at the Kokoon Arts Club in [[Cleveland, Ohio]] (1931)
*Show of oils and watercolors at the American British Art Gallery in New York, New York ([[1944]])
*Show of oils, watercolors, and sketches in [[Rochester, New York]] ([[1945]])
*Show of watercolors and oils at the American British Art Gallery in New York, New York ([[1948]])
==Cummings as a playwright==
During his lifetime, Cummings published four plays: ''him'' ([[1927]]), ''Anthropos: or, the Future of Art'' ([[1930]]), ''Tom: A Ballet'' ([[1935]]), and ''Santa Claus: A Morality'' ([[1946]]).
*''him'', a three-act play, was first produced in 1928 by the Provincetown Players in New York City. The production was directed by James Light. The play's main characters are "Him", a playwright, and "Me", his girlfriend. Cummings said of the unorthodox play:
::"Relax and give the play a chance to strut its stuff—relax, stop wondering what it is all 'about'—like many strange and familiar things, Life included, this play isn't 'about,' it simply is. . . . Don't try to enjoy it, let it try to enjoy you. DON'T TRY TO UNDERSTAND IT, LET IT TRY TO UNDERSTAND YOU." {{ref|Kennedy2}}
*''Anthropos, or the Future of Art'' is a short, one-act play that Cummings contributed to the anthology ''Whither, Whither or After Sex, What? A Symposium to End Symposiums''. The play consists of dialogue between Man, the main character, and three "infrahumans", or inferior beings. The word ''anthropos'' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "man", in the sense of "mankind".
*''Tom, A Ballet'' is a [[ballet]] based on ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''. The ballet is detailed in a "synopsis" as well as descriptions of four "episodes", which were published by Cummings in 1935. It has never been performed. More information about the play as well as an illustration can be found at [http://www.gvsu.edu/english/cummings/Tom.html this webpage] from the E. E. Cummings Society.
*''Santa Claus: A Morality'' was probably Cummings' most successful play. It is an allegorical Christmas fantasy presented in one act of five scenes. The play was inspired by his daughter Nancy, with whom he was reunited in 1946. It was first published in the Harvard University magazine the ''Wake''. The play's main characters are Santa Claus, his family (Woman and Child), Death, and Mob. At the outset of the play, Santa Claus' family has disintegrated due to their lust for knowledge (Science). After a series of events, however, Santa Claus' faith in love and his rejection of the materialism and disappointment he associates with Science are reaffirmed, and he is reunited with Woman and Child.
==The final decade==
In [[1952]], his [[alma mater]] Harvard awarded Cummings an honorary seat as a guest professor. The lectures he gave in 1952 and 1953 were later collected as ''i:six nonlectures''.
Cummings spent the last decade of his life largely traveling, fulfilling speaking engagements, and spending time at his summer home, Joy Farm, in New Hampshire.
==Awards==
During his lifetime, E. E. Cummings received numerous awards in recognition of his work, including:
*Dial Award ([[1925]])
*[[Guggenheim Fellowship]] ([[1933]])
*Shelley Memorial Award for Poetry ([[1944]])
*[[Harriet Monroe]] Prize from ''Poetry'' magazine ([[1950]])
*Fellowship of [[American Academy of Poets]] (1950)
*[[Guggenheim Fellowship]] ([[1951]])
*[[Charles Eliot Norton]] Professorship at Harvard ([[1952]]-[[1953]])
*Special citation from the [[National Book Award]] Committee for his ''Poems, 1923-1954'' ([[1957]])
*[[Bollingen Prize]] in Poetry (1957)
*Boston Arts Festival Award (1957)
*Two-year [[Ford Foundation]] grant of $15,000 ([[1959]])
==Personal life==
E. E. Cummings was born in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], to Edward and Rebecca Haswell Clarke Cummings. Cummings' father was a professor of [[sociology]] and [[political science]] at [[Harvard University]] and later a [[Unitarian]] minister. Raised in a liberal family, Cummings was writing poetry as early as [[1904]] (age 10). His only sibling, a sister, Elizabeth, was born six years after he was.
[[Image:EECummings pd1.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Graduation photo from the Cambridge Latin School, 1911.]]
In his youth Cummings attended [[Cambridge Rindge and Latin|Cambridge Latin High School]]. Early stories and poems were published in the ''Cambridge Review'', the school newspaper.
In [[1926]], Cummings' father, whom he was close to, and who was one of Cummings' most ardent supporters, was killed suddenly and tragically in a car accident. Though severely injured, Cummings' mother survived, and lived for more than twenty years until her death in [[1947]]. Cummings detailed the accident in the following quote, from Richard S. Kennedy's biography of Cummings, ''Dreams in the Mirror'' {{ref|Kennedy}}:
:''"... a locomotive cut the car in half, killing my father instantly. When two brakemen jumped from the halted train, they saw a woman standing &ndash; dazed but erect &ndash; beside a mangled machine; with blood spouting (as the older said to me) out of her head. One of her hands (the younger added) kept feeling her dress, as if trying to discover why it was wet. These men took my sixty-six year old mother by the arms and tried to lead her toward a nearby farmhouse; but she threw them off, strode straight to my father's body, and directed a group of scared spectators to cover him. When this had been done (and only then) she let them lead her away."''
His father's death had a profound impact on Cummings, who entered a new period in his artistic life. Cummings began to focus on more important aspects of life in his poetry. He began this new period by paying homage to his father's memory in the poem "[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~richie/poetry/html/aupoem114.html my father moved through dooms of love]" {{ref|Lane}}.
Cummings died in [[1962]] in [[North Conway, New Hampshire]], after having a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] at the age of 69. He is buried in [[Forest Hills Cemetery]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
===Marriages===
Cummings was married twice, including a long [[common-law marriage]].
Cummings' first marriage, to Elaine Orr, began as a love affair in [[1919]] while she was married to [[Scofield Thayer]], one of Cummings' friends from Harvard. The affair produced a daughter, Nancy, who was born on [[December 20]], [[1919]]. Nancy was Cummings' only child. After obtaining a divorce from Thayer, Elaine and Cummings married on [[March 19]], [[1924]]. However, the marriage ended in divorce less than nine months later, when Elaine left Cummings for a wealthy Irish banker, moving to [[Ireland]] and taking Nancy with her. Although under the terms of the divorce Cummings was granted custody of Nancy for three months each year, Elaine refused to abide by the agreement. Cummings did not see his daughter again until [[1946]].
Cummings married his second wife, Anne Minnerly Barton, on [[May 1]], [[1929]]. The two separated three years later in [[1932]]. That same year, Anne obtained a divorce in Mexico, although it was not officially recognized in the United States until [[August]] [[1934]].
In [[1932]], the same year he and his second wife separated, Cummings met Marion Morehouse, a fashion model and photographer. Although it is not clear if the two were ever officially married, Morehouse would live with Cummings for the remainder of his life.
==Bibliography==
* ''The Enormous Room'' (1922)
*''[[Tulips and Chimneys]]'' (1923)
*''&'' (1925) (Self-published)
*''XLI Poems'' (1925)
*''[[is 5]]'' (1926)
*''ViVa'' (1931)
*''[[Eimi]]'' (1933)
*''[[No Thanks]]'' (1935)
*''Collected Poems'' (1938)
*''50 Poems'' (1940)
*''1 × 1'' (1944)
*''Xaipe: Seventy-One Poems'' (1950)
*''Poems, 1923-1954'' (1954)
*''95 Poems'' (1958)
*''73 Poems'' (1963) (Posthumous)
*''[[Fairy Tales]]'' (1965) (Posthumous)
== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Cummings+E.+E.+(Edward+Estlin) | name=E. E. Cummings}}
==Further reading==
A number of books have been written about E. E. Cummings, notably:
*''Dreams in the Mirror: A Biography of E. E. Cummings'', by [[Richard S. Kennedy]]
*''E. E. Cummings: A Collection of Critical Essays'', edited by [[Norman Friedman]]
*''E. E. Cummings: The Art of his Poetry'', by Norman Friedman
*''E. E. Cummings: A Bibliography'', by [[George James Firmage]]
==Notes==
*{{note|capsokay}} {{cite web
| last = Friedman | first = Norman
| year = 1992
| title = NOT "e. e. cummings"
| url = http://www.gvsu.edu/english/cummings/caps.htm
| accessdate = 2005-12-13
}}
*{{note|Kennedy}} p. 293, Kennedy (1980)
*{{note|Lane}} {{cite book
| first = Gary | last = Lane
| authorlink = Gary Lane
| year = [[1976]]
| title = I Am: A Study of E. E. Cummings' Poems
| location = [[Lawrence, Kansas]]
| publisher = University Press of Kansas
| id = ISBN 0700601449
| pages = p. 41–43
}}
*{{note|Landles}} {{cite journal
| first = Iain | last = Landles
| authorlink = Iain Landles
| year = 2001
| title = An Analysis of Two Poems by E.E. Cummings
| journal = SPRING, The Journal of the E. E. Cummings Society
| volume = 10
| pages = 31–43
}}
*{{note|empzine |
ractice.
== The Polish Constitution and religion ==
<br /> Chapter 2, Article 53:
<br /> 1. Freedom of faith and religion shall be ensured to everyone.
<br /> 2. Freedom of religion shall include the freedom to profess or to accept a religion by personal choice as well as to manifest such religion, either individually or collectively, publicly or privately, by worshipping, praying, participating in ceremonies, performing of rites or teaching. Freedom of religion shall also include possession of sanctuaries and other places of worship for the satisfaction of the needs of believers as well as the right of individuals, wherever they may be, to benefit from religious services.
<br /> 3. Parents shall have the right to ensure their children a moral and religious upbringing and teaching in accordance with their convictions. The provisions of Article 48, para. 1 shall apply as appropriate.
<br /> 4. The religion of a church or other legally recognized religious organization may be taught in schools, but other peoples' freedom of religion and conscience shall not be infringed thereby.
<br /> 5. The freedom to publicly express religion may be limited only by means of statute and only where this is necessary for the defence of State security, public order, health, morals or the freedoms and rights of others.
<br /> 6. No one shall be compelled to participate or not participate in religious practices.
<br /> 7. No one may be compelled by organs of public authority to disclose his philosophy of life, religious convictions or belief.
<br />
<br /> Chapter 2, Article 85
<br /> 3. Any citizen whose religious convictions or moral principles do not allow him to perform military service may be obliged to perform substitute service in accordance with principles specified by statute.
<br />
<br /> Chapter 2, Article 35
<br /> 2. National and ethnic minorities shall have the right to establish educational and cultural institutions, institutions designed to protect religious identity, as well as to participate in the resolution of matters connected with their cultural identity.
== Major denominations in Poland ==
=== A list of churches according to special legislation ===
=== [[Catholic Church in Poland]] ===
(''see:'' [[Catholicism]], [[Roman Catholic Church]])
(Kościół Katolicki w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
* Latin Rite (Obrządek Łaciński)
* Byzantine-Slavonic Rite (Obrządek Bizantyjsko-Słowiański)
* Armenian Rite (Obrządek Ormiański)
* [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Byzantine-Ukrainian Rite]] (Obrządek Bizantyjsko-Ukraiński)
legislation:
<br />Concordate between the [[Holy See|Apostolic Seat]] and the Republic of Poland signed [[28 July]] [[1993]] (Konkordat między Stolicą Apostolską i Rzeczpospolitą Polską podpisany w Warszawie dnia 28 lipca 1993 r. (Dz. U. Nr 51, poz. 318)
<br /> Act of State Relations to the Catholic Church Relations of [[17 May]] [[1989]] (Ustawa z dnia 17 maja 1989r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Katolickiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 29, poz. 154)
<br /> leaders:
<br /> [[Józef Glemp]], [[Primate (religion)|Prymas]] of Poland,
<br /> Józef Michalik, Chairman of Polish Episcopate,
<br /> Józef Kowalczyk, [[Apostolic Nuncio]] to Poland
<br /> [[Jan Martyniuk]], [[Archbishop]] [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolite]] of Byzantine-Ukrainian Rite
=== Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church ===
(''see:'' [[Eastern Orthodoxy]])
(Polski Autokefaliczny Kościół Prawosławny)
legislation: Act of State Relations to the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox ChurchState of [[4 July]] [[1991]] (Ustawa z dnia 4 lipca 1991 r. o stosunku Państwa do Polskiego Autokefalicznego Prawosławnego Kościoła - Dz. U. Nr 66, poz. 287).
leaders: Abp Metropolita Warszawski i Całej Polski Sawa, Zwierzchnik Kościoła
Przewodniczący Soboru Biskupów
=== Evangelic-Reformist Church in Poland ===
(Kościół Ewangelicko-Reformowany w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej
legislation: Ustawa z dnia 13 maja 1994 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Reformowanego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 73, poz. 324).
leaders: Prezes Konsystorza Dr Witold Brodziński
=== Evangelic-Augsburg Church in Poland ===
(Kościół Ewangelicko- Augsburski w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
legislation: Ustawa z dnia 13 maja 1994 r.o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 73, poz. 323).
leader: Biskup Kościoła ks. Janusz Jagucki, Prezes Konsystorza
=== Evangelic-Methodist Church in Poland ===
(Kościół Ewangelicko-Metodystyczny w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Metodystycznego (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 479).
leader: Zwierzchnik Kościoła ks.bp Edward Puślecki
=== Old-Catholic Church of the Mariavites in Poland ===
(Starokatolicki Kościół Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej.)
law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997r. o stosunku Państwa do Starokatolickiego Kościoła Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 41, poz. 253).
leader: Biskup Naczelny ks. Zdzisław M. Włodzimierz
=== Catholic Church of the Mariavites in Poland ===
(''see:'' [[Mariavite Church]])
(Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (DZ. U. Nr 41 poz. 252).
leader: Abp Kościoła Józef Maria Rafael Wojciechowski, Przewodniczący
Rady Przełożonych Kościoła
=== Eastern Old-Rites Church in Poland ===
(Wschodni Kościół Staroobrzędowy w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej nie posiadającego hierarchii duchownej)
law: Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 28 marca 1928 r. o stosunku Państwa do Wschodniego Kościoła Staroobrzędowego nie posiadający hierarchii duchownej (Dz. U. Nr 38, poz. 363 z 1928 r.).
leader: Przewodniczący Naczelnej Rady Wacław Jafiszow
=== Islamic Religious Union in Poland ===
(Muzułmański Związek Religijny w Rzeczypospolitej)
law: Polskiej Ustawa z dnia 21 kwietnia 1936 r. o stosunku Państwa do Muzułmańskiego Związku Religijnego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 30, poz. 240 z 1936r.).
leader: Przewodniczący Najwyższego Kolegium Muzułmańskiego Stefan Korycki
=== Karaim Religious Union in Poland ===
(Karaimski Związek Religijny w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 21 kwietnia 1936 r. o stosunku Państwa do Karaimskiego Związku Religijnego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 30, poz. 241 z 1936 r.).
leader: Przewodniczący Zarządu Związku prof. dr hab. Szymon Pilecki
=== Polish-Catholic Church in Poland ===
(Kościół Polskokatolicki w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Polskokatolickiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 482).
leader: Biskup prof. dr hab.Wiktor Wysoczański, Zwierzchnik Kościoła, Przewodniczący Rady Synodalnej
=== Seventh Day Adventists Church in Poland ===
(Kościół Adwentystów Dnia Siódmego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Adwentystów Dnia Siódmego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 481).
leader: ks. Paweł Lazar, Przewodniczący Kościoła
=== Baptist Christians Church in Poland ===
(''see:'' [[Baptist Church]]; [[Baptist Union of Poland]])
(Kościół Chrześcijan Baptystów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Chrześcijan Baptystów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 480).
leader: Prezbiter Kościoła Andrzej Seweryn, Przewodniczący Rady Kościoła
=== Union of Jewish Confessional Communities in Poland ===
(Związek Gmin Wyznaniowych Żydowskich w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997 r. o stosunku Państwa do Gmin Wyznaniowych Żydowskich w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 41, poz. 251). <br>
leaders: <br>
President of the Main Board - [[Piotr Kadlcik]] <br>
[[Chief rabbi]] of Poland - [[Michael Schudrich]]
=== Pentecost Church in Poland ===
(Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 41, poz. 254).
leader: Prezbiter Naczelny, Przewodniczący Naczelnej Rady Kościoła, Mieczysław Czajko
== List of minor denominations registered in Poland ==
(Currently available only in Polish, see [[Talk:Religious freedom in Poland|talk page]])
== Relations between denominations ==
Relations between the various religious communities are generally amicable.
See also: [[Poland]], [[Religious pluralism]], [[Religious freedom]]
== Threats to religious freedom ==
[[Anti-Semitism]] persists among certain sectors of the population, occasionally manifesting themselves in acts of vandalism and physical or verbal abuse. However, surveys in recent years show a continuing decline in anti-Semitic sentiment, and avowedly anti-Semitic candidates fare very poorly in elections. ''See [[History of the Jews in Poland]].''
== External links ==
*[http://www.mswia.gov.pl/wyzn_zw_in.html List of churches and religious unions registered according to special legislation]
*[http://www.mswia.gov.pl/wyzn_zw.html List of churches and religious unions from the Register of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Administration]
[[Category:Religion in Poland]]
[[de:Konfessionen in Polen]]
[[pl:Kościoły i związki wyznaniowe w Polsce]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Arabic alphabet</title>
<id>2204</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:02:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.207.167.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ligatures */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Arabic alphabet}}
{{alphabet}}
The '''Arabic alphabet |
owth due to its strong commuter links with the city of Aberdeen.
;'''Kincardine and Mearns'''
Population 38,506 (2001 Census)
Transport links with Aberdeen have encouraged very rapid population growth, especially to the north of the area. Existing settlements such as [[Portlethen]] and [[Stonehaven]] have greatly expanded, along with industrial activity. The southern part is more self-contained, with the fertile Mearns area sustaining a strong agricultural economy. Small scale tourism activity exists along its attractive coastline and former fishing villages.
{{Scotland subdivisions}}
[[Category:Unitary authorities of Scotland]]
[[Category:Aberdeenshire| ]]
[[de:Aberdeenshire]]
[[fr:Aberdeenshire]]
[[no:Aberdeenshire]]
[[pl:Aberdeenshire]]
[[zh:阿伯丁郡]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AU</title>
<id>858</id>
<revision>
<id>15899372</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-01T09:47:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>au is sometimes capitalized AU</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[au]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aztlan Underground</title>
<id>859</id>
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<id>36881488</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T02:00:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aztlan Underground''' is a fusion band from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Since the early 1990s, Aztlan Underground has played [[Rapcore]]. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are commonplace in its musical compositions.
This unique sound is the backdrop for the band's message of dignity for indigenous people, all of humanity, and Earth. Aztlan Underground has been cultivating a grass roots audience across the country, which has become a large and loyal underground following. Their music includes spoken word pieces and elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, and indigenous music, among others.
The artists are Chenek "DJ Bean" (turntables, samples and percussion), Yaotl (vocals, indigenous percussion), Joe "Peps" (bass, rattles), Zo Rock (Guitars), Ace (drums, indigenous percussion), and Bulldog (vocals, flute).
Aztlan Underground appeared on television on [[Culture Clash]] on Fox in [[1993]], was part of ''Breaking Out'', a concert on pay per view in [[1998]], and was featured in the independent films ''Algun Dia'' and ''Frontierlandia''.
The band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: the [[Vancouver Sun]], [[Northshore News]] (Vancouver, Canada newspaper), [[New Times]] (Los Angeles weekly entertainment newspaper), BLU Magazine (underground hip hop magazine), [[BAM Magazine]] (Southern California), [[La Banda Elastica Magazine]], and the [[Los Angeles Times]] Calendar section. It is also the subject of a chapter in ''It's Not About A Salary'', by Brian Cross.
It was nominated in the New Times 1998 "Best Latin Influenced" category, the BAM Magazine 1999 "Best Rock en Español" category, and the [[LA Weekly]] 1999 "Best Hip Hop" category.
Mailing address: Aztlan Underground, P.O. Box 921776, San Fernando, CA 91392.
[[Category:American musical groups]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aland</title>
<id>860</id>
<revision>
<id>15899374</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-06T17:23:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mic</username>
<id>6273</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Åland]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anschluss</title>
<id>862</id>
<restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:43:12Z</timestamp>
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<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:1anschluss.gif|thumb|right|250px|German troops march into [[Austria]] on [[12 March]] [[1938]].]]
The '''Anschluss'''{{ref|spelling}} ([[German language|German]]: ''connection'', or ''political union''), also known as the '''Anschluss Österreichs''', was the 1938 inclusion of [[Austria]] into "[[Großdeutschland|Greater Germany]]" by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]].
The events of [[March 12]], [[1938]], were the first major steps in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s long-desired expansion of [[Germany]]. The Anschluss followed the return to Germany of the [[Saarland#History|Saar]] region, which had been under the control of the [[League of Nations]] for 15 years by the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. It was followed by the inclusion of the [[Sudetenland]] later in 1938, the invasion of the remainder of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, and the [[Polish September Campaign|invasion of Poland]].
The Anschluss was preceded by a period of growing political pressure on [[Austria]], exerted by Germany, demanding recognition of the outlawed Austrian National-Socialist party and later, their share of Government. In 1938 Austrian chancellor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]], in a last bid to retain Austrian independence, announced a referendum to determine independence or union with Germany. Germany then pressured Schuschnigg into handing over power to the Nazi party. This well-planned [[Coup d'état|internal overthrow]] by the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian Nazi Party]] of Austria's state institutions in [[Vienna]] on [[March 11]] meant that when [[Wehrmacht]] troops entered into Austria to enforce the Anschluss, no fighting ever took place. The international response to the Anschluss was mild: The [[World War I]] [[Allies]] only lodged diplomatic protests, and no concrete action was taken to reverse the Anschluss, even though the allies were, on paper, committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. Austria ceased to exist as an independent nation until a preliminary Austrian government was finally reinstated on [[April 27]], [[1945]], and was legally recognized by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in the following months.
==Situation before the Anschluss==
[[Image:Österreich-Ungarns Ende.png|thumb|right|400px|The dissolution of [[Austria-Hungary]]
{{legend-line|gray solid 2px|Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914}}
{{legend-line|black solid 2px|Borders in 1914}}
{{legend-line|red solid 2px|Borders in 1920}}
{{legend|#EB955C|[[Empire of Austria]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#FAF0EE|[[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#92A2CB|[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1914}}
]]
:''Main articles: [[German Empire]] and [[Austrofascism]]''
The idea of grouping all German people into one state had been the subject of inconclusive debate since the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806. Prior to 1866, it was generally thought that the unification of the German peoples could only succeed under Austrian leadership (''[[Grossdeutschland]]''), but the loss of the [[Austro-Prussian War]] by Austria allowed [[Otto von Bismarck]] to establish the [[Prussia]]n-dominated [[German Empire]] in 1871 without the German-speaking parts of [[Austria-Hungary]] (''[[Kleindeutschland]]''). When the latter broke up in 1918, many German-speaking Austrians hoped to join with Germany in the realignment of Europe, but the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]] of 1919 explicitly vetoed the inclusion of Austria within a German state, because [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] feared the power of a larger Germany.
In the early 1930s, popular support for union with Germany remained overwhelming, and the Austrian government looked to a possible [[customs union]] with Germany in 1931. However Hitler's and the [[Nazi]]s' rise to power in Germany left the Austrian government with little enthusiasm for such formal ties. Hitler, born in Austria, had promoted an "all-German Reich" from the early beginnings of his leadership in the [[NSDAP]] and had publicly stated as early as 1924 in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' that he would attempt a union, by force if necessary.
[[Austria]] shared the economic turbulence of post-1929 Europe with a high unemployment rate and unstable commerce and industry. Similar to its northern and southern neighbours these uncertain conditions made the young democracy very vulnerable. The [[First Republic]], dominated from the late 1920s by the Catholic nationalist [[Christian Social Party]] (CS), gradually disintegrated from 1933 (dissolution of parliament and ban of the Austrian National Socialists) to 1934 ([[Austrian Civil War]] in February and ban of all remaining parties except the CS) and evolved into a pseudo-[[fascist]], [[corporatist]] model of one-party government which combined the CS and the paramilitary [[Heimwehr]] with absolute state domination of [[labour relations]] and no [[freedom of the press]] (see [[Austrofascism]] and [[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Patriotic Front]]). Power was centralized in the office of the [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] who was empowered to [[rule by decree]]. The predominance of the Christian Social Party (whose economic policies were based on the [[pope|papal]] [[encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'') was an Austrian phenomenon in that Austria's national identity had strong Catholic elements which were incorporated into the movement by way of clerical authoritarian tendencies which are certainly not to be found in Nazism. Both [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and his successor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] turned to Austria's other fascist neighbour, [[Italy]], for inspiration and support. Indeed, the statist corporatism often referred to as Austrofascism bore more resemblance to [[Fascism|Italian Fascism]] than Ger |
high density]] (1.6MB) and [[CMD FD-4000|FD-4000]] [[extended density]] (3.2MB) 3&frac12;" drives, both of which offered not only a 1581 emulation mode but also 1541 and 1571 modes.
Utilities to read 1581-formatted disks in standard PC floppy drives under [[Linux]] or [[Microsoft Windows]] exist.
==Specifications==
*Onboard CPU: [[MOS Technology 6502]] @ 2 [[megahertz|MHz]]
*RAM: 16 [[kilobyte|KB]]
*ROM: 32 KB
*Transfer protocols: standard and fast serial; [[burst mode]]; and commands for parallel interface (the latter not used)
*Disk type: 3&frac12; inch
*Storage format: [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]], double density, double-sided
*Interface: CBM's proprietary 'serial IEEE-488'
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:CBM storage devices]]
[[Category:Commodore 64]]
[[de:VC1581]]</text>
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<page>
<title>CDP1802</title>
<id>6770</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2005-03-14T18:03:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<comment>chg art to #re after merging contents with [[RCA 1802]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[RCA_1802]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>College football</title>
<id>6771</id>
<revision>
<id>41884089</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.208.186.158</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:College_Football_CSU_AF.jpg|thumb|300px|A college football game between [[Colorado State University]] and the [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force Academy]].]]
'''College football''' is [[American football]] played by teams of students fielded by American [[University|universities]] and [[college|colleges]], including [[United States military academies]]. It was the venue through which American football first gained popularity in the [[United States]]. College football remains extremely popular today among students, alumni, and other fans of the sport. College football is also used to refer to [[Canadian football]] played by students at Canadian universities; this article focuses on the American version of the sport.
==History==
[[Image:College football TT USNA.jpg|thumb|250px|A college football game between [[Texas Tech University]] and the [[United States Naval Academy|U.S. Naval Academy]].]]
The first game played between teams representing different colleges or universities was played on [[November 6]], [[1869]] between [[Rutgers University]] and [[Princeton University]], at College Field (now the site of the College Avenue Gymnasium), [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]]. Rutgers won, by a score of 6 to 4. As the score would seemingly indicate, the game bore little resemblance to the game of today. The rules of that game were the [[1863]] rules of the English [[The Football Association|Football Association]], the basis of the modern form of [[football (soccer)|soccer]].
The development of the American game can be traced back to the sport of '''[[soccer]]''' in England. In 1823, in a soccer game at Rugby, England, a player picked up the ball and ran with it, and the sport of [[Rugby_football|Rugby football]], or rugby, was born. The game moved to Canada with British soldiers stationed there, and began to be played at Canadian colleges. The American experience with the game began in [[1874]] at a meeting in Cambridge, Massachusetts between [[Harvard University]] and Montreal, Quebec's [[McGill University]]. The two teams were used to playing different brands of football &mdash; the McGill team played a [[Rugby_football|rugby]]-style game, while Harvard played a soccer-style game. The teams agreed to play under compromise rules, and from this meeting the game of football began to evolve in both the United States and Canada.
[[Walter Camp]], known as the "Father of American Football," is credited with changing the game from a variation of rugby into a unique sport. Camp is responsible for pioneering the play from scrimmage (earlier games featured a rugby [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]]), most of the modern elements of scoring, the eleven-man team, and the traditional offensive setup of the seven-man line and the four-man backfield. Camp not only shaped the game, but also had a hand in popularizing it. He published numerous articles in publications such as [[Collier's Weekly]] and [[Harper's Weekly]] and chose the first [[College Football All-America Team]].
College football increased in popularity through the remainder of the [[19th century]]. It also became increasingly violent. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] threatened, in [[1906]], to ban the sport following a series of player deaths from injuries suffered during games. The response to this was the formation of what became the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]], which set rules governing the sport. One of the resulting rule changes was the introduction of the forward pass. Another was the banning of "mass momentum" plays (many of which, like the infamous "flying wedge", were sometimes literally deadly).
Prior to the founding of the [[National Football League]], and for a few decades thereafter, college football was the predominant venue of American football. Innovations in strategy and style of play originated in college football and spread to the pro game gradually. It was not until the post-[[World War II]] era that the pro game achieved ascendancy in the eyes of the average American sports fan.
Even with the emergence of the NFL, college football remains extremely popular throughout the U.S. Because the accessibility of the pro game is limited to major urban areas, the college game is especially popular in more rural areas; some particularly notable examples of this may be found in [[Oklahoma]], [[Nebraska]], [[West Virginia]], [[Iowa]], Central [[Pennsylvania]], and throughout the [[Southern United States]].
Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs playing in, and consistently selling out huge stadiums (several of which have [[seating capacity]] exceeding 100,000). In many cases, the college stadiums employ bench-style seating (as oppsed to individual seats with backs and arm rests). This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical pro stadium, which tends to be a bit more luxurious.
A lack of a pro franchise is not necessarily an indicator of where the college game is most successful; for example, in [[California]], [[Ohio]], [[Texas]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Florida]] -- states which all have multiple NFL franchises -- there are universities that also rank in the upper financial echelons of the college football. However, some of the the most successful college teams in those states do not reside in the same city as an NFL team. For example, [[The University of Texas]] [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|Longhorns]] play in [[Austin, Texas]], the [[USC Trojans]] play in [[Los Angeles, California]], and [[The Ohio State University]] Buckeyes play in [[Columbus, Ohio]]. None of those cities have pro football teams located within one hour's drive. Austin and Columbus do not have major league baseball or basketball teams either, leaving much of those cities attentions focused on their respective college football programs.
Generally, college games are played on Saturdays, while professional games happen on Sundays. This arrangement has allowed the two games to flourish simultaneously, rather than compete with one another.
==The season schedule==
The college football season begins two to three weeks earlier than the NFL, toward the end of August. Until [[2003 in sports|2003]], the regular season was officially ushered in by the [[Kickoff Classic]] (other pre-season games such as the [[Eddie Robinson Classic]] and the [[Pigskin Classic]] have also been played). Recent NCAA policy changes have eliminated some of these games. The regular season continues through early December, ending with the annual [[Army-Navy Game]] and several conference championship games on the same weekend.
The postseason consists of a series of [[NCAA football bowl games, 2005-06|bowl games]] that showcase top college teams. Bowl games generally match two teams of similar standing from different conferences, although some pit a high ranked team from a smaller conference against a lower ranked team from a more prestigious one. Division I-A football is the only NCAA sport which doesn't decide its champion with a playoff. In the past, the unofficial national champion was determined by various polls, such as the [[Associated Press]] Poll, [[CNN]]/[[USA Today]] Coaches Poll, and the [[United Press International]] Poll. This system was problematic, as two polls often named different champions.
Since 1998, the National Championship has been determined by the [[Bowl Championship Series]]. This formula, incorporating numerous computer rankings and human polls, is used to determine the top two teams in the country. The two teams compete for the championship in one of the four BCS bowls. This system is not without controversy. Some critics argue that the system unfairly favors teams from large conferences, and that the process used to select the teams can be just as ambiguous as the earlier poll system. Also, to add to the controversy, the Bowl Championship Series champion has not always been the undisputed national champion; for example, in 2003, the [[Associated Press]] and Bowl Championship Series chose different champions, which is precisely what the system was designed to prevent. The [[2005 in sports|2005]] season did produce a consensus national champion, with the [[USC Trojans]] and [[Texas Longho |
ot;she who fights in the front line"), built between [[450 BC]] and [[448 BC]], dominated the ensemble. The base was 1.50 meters high, while the total height of the statue was 9 meters. The goddess held a lance whose gilt tip could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape [[Sounion]], and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by [[Mys]] with images of the fight between the [[Centaur]]s and the [[Lapiths]]. Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the [[Chalcotheke]], the [[Pandroseion]], [[Pandion's sanctuary]], Athena's altar, Zeus Polieus's sanctuary and, from Roman times on, the circular temple of [[Augustus]] and [[Rome]].
== Cultural significance ==
[[Image:Acropolis of Athens 01391.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Erechtheum and Athena's olive tree.]]
Every four years the Athenians held a festival called the [[Panathenaea]] that rivalled the [[Olympic Games]] in popularity. During the festival, a procession moved through Athens up to the Acropolis and into the [[Parthenon]] (as depicted in the frieze on the inside of the Parthenon). There, a vast robe of woven wool (''[[peplos]]'') was ceremoniously placed on Phidias' massive ivory and gold statue of [[Athena]].
== Art and architecture ==
The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the [[Propylaea]]. At the near right of the Propylaea is the tiny [[Temple of Athena Nike]]. A bronze statue of Athena, sculpted by [[Phidias]], originally stood at its center. At the center of the acropolis is the [[Parthenon]] or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). To the left of the Propylaea is the [[Erechtheum]] with columns known as caryatids sculpted as figures of women . There is also the remains of an outdoor theater called [[Theatre of Dionysus]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21101a/e211aa01.html The Acropolis of Athens] (Greek Government website)
* [http://ysma.culture.gr/english/index.html The Acropolis Restoration Project] (Greek Government website)
* [http://www.acropolisofathens.gr/ Acropolis of Athens — AcropolisofAthens.gr — one monument, one heritage]
* [http://culture.gr/6/68/682/ The Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles]
* [http://parthenon2004.com/ Parthenon 2004 — The Campaign to Return the Parthenon Marbles to Athens]
* [http://marblesreunited.com/ Marbles Reunited]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=37.971421,23.726166&spn=0.009499,0.012700&t=k&hl=en Google Maps link]
* [http://www.athensguide.gr/pop/acropolis.html A Historical Account of the Acropolis]
* [http://www.greece-athens.com/place.php?id=1 The Acropolis of Athens] (Athens guide)
* [http://asclepieion.mpl.uoa.gr/Parko/slides/images/Acropolis%20and%20Asklepieion%20artist%20reconstruction%20.gif Reconstruction of the ancient Acropolis]
* [http://www.tolomeus.net/atene/acropoli.html Greece, Athens, Acropolis] Virtual Tour with map and compass effect by Tolomeus (english)
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Athens]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek geography]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
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[[zh:雅典衛城]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adam Weishaupt</title>
<id>2077</id>
<revision>
<id>40314862</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T19:34:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schizombie</username>
<id>670858</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+source for Jefferson quote</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adam Weishaupt''' ([[February 6]], [[1748]] - [[November 18]], [[1811]]) was a German who founded the Order of the [[Illuminati]].
He was born and raised in [[Ingolstadt]], where he attained the rank of Professor of Canon Law in [[1772]]. Though he was educated by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] and was clearly influenced by the discretion, loyalty and the hierarchic obedience of the Society of Jesus and was for a time a member of their order, his appointment as Professor of Natural and Canon Law at the University of Ingoldstadt in [[1775]] offended them. He broke with them and became increasingly [[liberalism|liberal]] in his religious and political views, favoring [[deism]] and a kind of [[millennial]] natural order that swept aside [[state]]s and [[organized religion]].
With the help of [[Adolf Freiherr Knigge]], on [[May 1]], [[1776]] Weishaupt formed the "Order of Perfectibilists", which was later known as the [[Illuminati]]. Some claim that this founding date is the origin for the date of the [[Communist]] [[May Day]] observance. He adopted the name of "Brother [[Spartacus]]" within the order. Though the Order was not [[egalitarian]] or [[Democracy|democratic]], its mission was to establish a New World Order, which meant the abolition of all governments and religions.
Weishaupt wrote: '''the ends justified the means'''. The actual character of the society was determined by its [[traditionalist]] enemies to be an elaborate network of [[spies]] and counter-spies. Each isolated [[covert cell|cell]] of initiates reported to a superior, whom they did not know, a party structure that was effectively adopted by some later groups, including more recently by the early [[Ba'ath]] party in [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]].
Weishaupt was initiated into [[Freemasonry]] Lodge "Theodor zum guten Rath", at [[Munich]] in [[1777]] by Baron Adolph von Knigge. His project of "illumination, enlightening the understanding by the sun of reason, which will dispel the clouds of superstition and of prejudice" was an unwelcome reform. Soon however he had developed [[gnostic]] mysteries of his own, with the goal of "perfecting human" nature through re-education to achieve a communal state with nature, freed of government and organized religion. He began working towards incorporating his system of [[Illuminism]] into that of Masonry, with the aim of creating a New World Order.
He wrote: ''"I did not bring Deism into [[Bavaria]]," he wrote, "more than into [[Rome]]. I found it here, in great vigour, more abounding than in any of the neighboring [[Protestant State]]s. I am proud to be known to the world as the founder of the Illuminati."''
Weishaupt's [[radical]] [[rationalism]], sweeping away nations and religions, [[private property]] and [[marriage]], with the vocabulary used by the [[French Revolution]], was not likely to succeed. Writings that were intercepted in [[1784]] were interpreted as [[seditious]], and the Society was banned by [[Bavaria]]'s government in [[1784]], Weishaupt lost his position at the [[University of Ingolstadt]] and fled Bavaria. He received the assistance of [[Duke Ernst II]] of [[Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]] (1745-1804), and lived in [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]] writing a series of works on Illuminism, including <cite>A Complete History of the Persecutions of the Illuminati in Bavaria</cite> ([[1785]]), <cite>A Picture of Illuminism</cite> ([[1786]]), <cite>An Apology for the Illuminati</cite> ([[1786]]), and <cite>An Improved System of Illuminism</cite> ([[1787]]). He died there in [[1811]], though his later career was so obscure that some sources place the year of his death at [[1830]].
A century after his death, [[Occult|occultist]] interest in Weishaupt and the Bavarian Illuminati picked up, through the writings of [[Aleister Crowley]]. Modern adepts trace the imagery of [[symbolism]] like the [[eye in the pyramid]], and embrace the secrecy of the Illuminati traditions...
==Quotes about Weishaupt==
:''A human devil.''
:--[[Augustin Barruél]]
:''An enthusiastic philanthropist.''
:--[[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field(DOCID+@lit(tj090050)) ''Thomas Jefferson to Reverend James Madison, January 31, 1800,'' The Thomas Jefferson Papers (American Memory from the Library of Congress)]</ref>
==Weishaupt in Fiction==
Adam Weishaupt is referred to repeatedly in the ''[[Illuminatus Trilogy]]'', by [[Robert Shea]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson]], as the founder of the [[Bavarian Illuminati]], and as an imposter who killed [[George Washington]] and took his place as the first president of the [[United States]]. Washington's portrait on the [[U.S. one-dollar bill|one-dollar bill]] is said to actually be Weishaupt's.
Another fictionalized version, Adam Weisshaupt, appears in ''[[Cerebus]]'', as a combination of Weishaupt and [[George Washington]]. He appears primarily in the '''Cerebus''' and '''Church and State I''' volumes. His motives are [[Republic]]an confederalizing of city-states in Estarcion (a pseudo-Europe) and the accumulation of capital unencumbered by government or church.
Weishaupt is also mentioned among the mish-mash of complicated conspiricies in the PC game ''[[Deus Ex]]''. During JC Denton's escape from Versalife labs in Hong Kong, he recovers a virus engineered with the molecular structure of 1748. This is revealed to be an Illuminati signature, honoring Weishaupt (it is his birthdate) while at the same time furthering the secret society's objectives.
==Notes==
<references />
==External links==
{{Commons|Adam Weishaupt}}
*[http://www.thetruthseeker.co.uk/article.asp?ID=41 History and politics of Weishaupt's illuminati, without an occultist slant]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07661b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] "Illuminati"; a critical view
*[http://www.xnetbg.com/www/siteng/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=40''Conspiracy Web Portal'':] "The history of Illuminati";
*[http://fr |
[1960]] it produced the first [[transistor]] [[television]] in the world.
In [[1961]] Sony Corporation of America was the first Japanese company to be listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]]. In [[1989]] Sony bought [[Columbia Pictures]].
In the early 1990's, he was famous for co-authoring an essay ''[[The Japan that Can Say No]]'' with politician [[Shintaro Ishihara]], which was critical of United States business practices, and encouraged Japanese to take a more independent role in business and foreign affairs.
On [[November 25]], [[1994]], Morita announced his resignation as Sony chairman, after suffering a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] while playing [[tennis]]. His successor, [[Norio Ohga]], had joined the company after sending Morita a letter denouncing the poor quality of the company's tape recorders.
Morita also wrote a book called ''[[Never Mind School Records]]'' in the '60s, which stressed that school records are not important in one's success or ability to do business. He was also Vice Chairman of the [[Keidanren]] ([[Japan Federation of Economic Organizations]]) and was a member of the [[Japan-U.S. Economic Relations Group]], (also known as the "[[Wise Men's Group]]").
He was awarded the [[Albert Medal]] from the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Royal Society of Arts]] in 1982; he was the first Japanese to receive the honour. Two years later, he received the prestigious [[Légion d'honneur | National Order of the Legion of Honor]] and in 1991, he was awarded the [[First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure]] from H. M. the Emperor of Japan.
He died of [[pneumonia]] at the age of 78.
==External links==
* [http://www.time.com/time/time100/builder/profile/morita.html Time magazine profile]
* [http://www.sony.com/SCA/press/morita_bio.shtml Sony Biographical notes]
* [http://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/addlbios/morita.html PBS notes]
* [http://www.worldofbiography.com/9078%2DAkio%20Morita/ - Full Biography at World of Biography]
==Further reading==
* Morita, Akio. ''Made in Japan'' (New York: Dutton, 1986)
* Morita, Akio. ''Never Mind School Records'' (??, 1966)
* Morita, Akio (Co-Author) and Shintaro Ishihara. ''The Japan That Can Say No'' (Simon & Schuster, 1991)
{{commons|Sony}}
[[Category:1921 births|Morita, Akio]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Morita, Akio]]
[[Category:People from Aichi Prefecture|Morita, Akio]]
[[Category:Japanese entrepreneurs|Morita, Akio]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anode</title>
<id>2392</id>
<revision>
<id>41643123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:17:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<comment>corrected polarity of electrolytic cell</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zinc anode.png|thumb|Diagram of a [[zinc]] anode in a [[galvanic cell|Daniell's cell]].]]
An '''anode''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''άνοδος'' = 'going up') is the [[electrode]] in a device that electrons flow out of to return to the circuit. Literally, the path through which the [[electron]]s ascend out of an [[electrolyte]] solution. The other charged electrode in the same cell or device is the [[cathode]]. For electrons to flow through the anode, a positive charge is applied to the anode (attracting electrons).
== Flow of electrons ==
The flow of electrons is '''always''' from '''''anode–to–cathode''''' '''outside''' of the cell or device, and from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell or device, regardless of the cell or device type. Inside a chemical cell, ions are carrying the electrons, but the flow is still from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell.
Note that most [[electronics|electronic]] circuit diagrams, and their symbols for diodes and transistors, show "conventional" current, which flows from positive to negative, but the actual '''electrons''' in the circuit flow the '''OPPOSITE''' way.
== Electrolytic anode ==
In [[electrochemistry]], the '''anode''' is where [[oxidation]] occurs, and is the positive polarity contact in an [[electrolytic cell]]. At the anode, anions are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit.
== Battery or galvanic cell anode ==
In a [[battery (electricity)|battery]] or [[galvanic cell]], the anode is the negative contact from which electrons flow towards the circuit. Internally the anions are flowing to the anodic material inside the cell which is connected to the negative contact of the cell; but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential of the cell.
== Vacuum tube anode ==
In electronic vacuum devices such as a [[cathode ray tube]], the anode is the positively-charged electron collector. In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction.
== Diode anode ==
In a [[semiconductor]] [[diode]], the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies '''[[electrons]]''' to the junction. In the junction region, the electrons supplied by the anode combine with holes supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies electrons to the depleted region, positive dope ions are left behind in the P-doped layer ('P' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base positive charge on the anode. When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more '''[[electrons]]''' are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit. The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage).
== Sacrificial anode ==
In [[cathodic protection]], a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment of the system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system, and partially [[corrosion|corrodes]] or dissolves, which protects the metal of the system it is connected to. As an example, an [[iron]] or [[steel]] [[hull (watercraft)|ship's hull]] may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded. Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a [[electrostatics|static charge]] is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft.
== Related antonym ==
The opposite of an anode is a [[cathode]]. When the charge on the system is reversed, the [[electrodes]] switch functions, so [[anode]] becomes [[cathode]], while [[cathode]] becomes [[anode]], as long as the reversed charge is applied.
== See also ==
*[[Cathode]]
*[[Anodising]] (a method of enhancing the surface properties of [[aluminium]])
*[[Battery (electricity)|Battery]]
*[[Cathodic protection]]
*[[Electron tube]]
*[[Electrolysis]]
*[[Galvanic cell]]
*[[Redox]] (oxidation-reduction)
[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[da:Anode]]
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==External links==
*[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19 The Cathode Ray Tube site]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analog television</title>
<id>2393</id>
<revision>
<id>41783201</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cburnett</username>
<id>140084</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed redundant phrase: by varying the frequencies you necessarily are talking about varying the voltage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Analog television''' (or '''analogue television''') encodes [[television]] picture information as an [[analog signal]], that is, by varying the and/or [[Frequency|frequencies]] of the [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]. All systems preceding [[digital television]] can be considered analog.
Analog signals will cease to operate in the United States starting on [[February 17]], [[2009]], making all television sets without a digital tuner unable to receive television broadcasts without an external digital broadcast receiver.
Starting in 2008, the analogue service in the [[United Kingdom]] will cease to operate with the entire country have analogue switched off by 2012. The [[BBC]] have been encouraging viewers to get digital television by broadcasting digital television programs on their terrestial channels. London will be hosting the [[London 2012|Olympic Games]] in [[2012]] so all British coverage of the games will be in digital.
Common analog television systems:
* [[NTSC]]
* [[PAL]]
* [[SÉCAM]]
* [[Slow-scan television]]
* [[Narrow-bandwidth television]]
==See also==
* [[Broadcast television system]]
* [[Terrestrial television]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ee.washington.edu/conselec/CE/kuhn/ntsc/95x4.htm Conventional Analog Television - An Introduction]
[[Category:Video and movie technology]]
[[Category:History of television]]
[[de:Analoges Fernsehen]]
[[id:Televisi analog]]
[[sv:Analog television]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Africa-Eurasia</title>
<id>2394</id>
<revision>
<id>39774995</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T20:14:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GCarty</username>
<id>10379</id>
</contributor>
<comment>World Island is mainland only</comment>
<text xml:spa |
Tonkin]].
*[[1969]] - [[Mariner program]]: [[Mariner 7]] makes its closest fly-by of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] (3,524 kilometers).
*[[1974]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] places a $1 billion dollar limit on military aid to [[South Vietnam]].
*[[1981]] - [[Ronald Reagan]] fires 11,359 [[Strike action|striking]] air-traffic controllers who ignored his order for them to return to work.
*[[1993]] - Popular trading card game [[Magic: the Gathering]] is released. First trading card game to date.
*[[1995]] - The city of [[Knin]], a significant Serb stronghold, is liberated by Croatian forces during [[Operation Storm]]. The date is celebrated as the day of victory ("Homeland Thanksgiving Day") in Croatia.
*[[1999]] - [[Mark McGwire]] becomes the 16th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Busch Stadium]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]].
*[[2001]] - The [[Cleveland Indians]] defeat the [[Seattle Mariners]] 15-14 in a record-setting game known as the [[The Impossible Return|Impossible Return]].
*[[2003]] - A [[2003 Marriott Hotel bombing|car bomb]] explodes in the [[Indonesia]]n capital of [[Jakarta]].
==Births==
*[[1301]] - [[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent]], English politician (d. [[1330]])
*[[1623]] - [[Antonio Cesti]], Italian composer (d. [[1669]])
*[[1641]] - [[John Hathorne]], American magistrate (d. [[1717]])
*[[1662]] - [[James Anderson (lawyer)|James Anderson]], Scottish historian (d. [[1728]])
*[[1694]] - [[Leonardo Leo]], Italian composer (d. [[1744]])
*[[1802]] - [[Niels Henrik Abel]], Norwegian mathematician (d. [[1829]])
*[[1813]] - [[Ivar Aasen]], Norwegian poet and language reformer (d. [[1896]])
*[[1815]] - [[Edward John Eyre]], English explorer (d. [[1901]])
*[[1850]] - [[Guy de Maupassant]], French author (d. [[1893]])
*[[1872]] - [[Oswaldo Cruz]], Brazilian physician (d. [[1917]])
*[[1866]] - [[Carl Harries]], German chemist (d. [[1923]])
*[[1877]] - [[Tom Thomson]], Canadian painter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1889]] - [[Conrad Aiken]], American writer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1890]] - [[Erich Kleiber]], Austrian-born conductor (d. [[1956]])
*1890 - [[Naum Gabo]] (born Naum Pevsner), Sculptor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1897]] - [[Aksel Larsen]], Danish politician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1906]] - [[John Huston]], American director (d. [[1987]])
* 1906 - [[Wassily Leontief]], Russian economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1999]])
* 1906 - [[Joan Hickson]], British actress (Miss Marple) (d. [[1998]])
*[[1908]] - [[Harold Holt]], seventeenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1911]] - [[Robert Taylor (actor)|Robert Taylor]], American actor (d. [[1969]])
*[[1918]] - [[Betty Oliphant]], co-founder of National Ballet of Canada (d. [[2004]])
*[[1923]] - [[Devan Nair]], [[President of Singapore]]
*[[1930]] - [[Neil Armstrong]], astronaut
*[[1935]] - [[John Saxon (actor)|John Saxon]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Herb Brooks]], American hockey coach (d. [[2003]])
*[[1939]] - [[Princess Irene of the Netherlands]]
*[[1943]] - [[Nelson Briles]], baseball player (d. [[2005]])
*[[1946]] - [[Loni Anderson]], American actress
* 1946 - [[Jimmy Webb]], American composer and musician
*[[1947]] - [[Rick Derringer]], American musician
* 1947 - [[Angry Anderson]], Australian rock singer, actor and TV presenter
*[[1951]] - [[John Jarratt]], Australian actor and television presenter
*[[1953]] - [[Rick Mahler]], baseball player (d. [[2005]])
* 1953 - [[Samantha Sang]], Australian singer
*[[1956]] - [[Maureen McCormick]], American actress
*[[1961]] - [[Clayton Rohner]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Patrick Ewing]], American basketball player
*[[1964]] - [[Adam Yauch]], American musician
*[[1966]] - [[Jonathan Silverman]], American actor
*[[1972]] - [[Christian Olde Wolbers]], Belgian bassist ([[Fear Factory]])
*[[1974]] - [[Antoine Sibierski]], French footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Kajol Mukherjee]], Indian actress
*[[1977]] - [[Mark Mulder]], baseball player
*[[1979]] - [[David Healy (footballer)|David Healy]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Wayne Bridge]], English footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Carl Crawford]], baseball player
*1981 - [[Kou Shibasaki|K&#333; Shibasaki]], Japanese singer and actress
<!--Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list-->
==Deaths==
*[[882]] - King [[Louis III of France]] (b. [[863]])
*[[1063]] - [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], Welsh prince
*[[1364]] - [[Emperor Kogon]] of Japan (b. [[1313]])
*[[1572]] - [[Isaac Luria]], Palestinian-born Kabbalist (b. [[1534]])
*[[1579]] - [[Stanislaus Hosius]], Polish Catholic cardinal (b. [[1504]])
*[[1633]] - [[Archbishop George Abbot]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[1562]])
*[[1678]] - [[Juan García de Zéspedes]], Mexican musician and composer (b. [[1619]])
*[[1743]] - [[John Hervey, Lord Hervey]], English statesman and writer (b. [[1696]])
*[[1778]] - [[Charles Clémencet]], French historian (b. [[1703]])
*[[1799]] - [[Richard Howe]], British admiral (b. [[1726]])
*[[1868]] - [[Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes]], French archaelogist (b. [[1788]])
*[[1880]] - [[Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra]], Austrian physician (b. [[1816]])
*[[1895]] - [[Friedrich Engels]], German philosopher (b. [[1820]])
*[[1923]] - [[Vatroslav Jagic]], Croatian slavist (b. [[1835]])
*[[1929]] - [[Millicent Fawcett]], British suffragist and feminist (b. [[1847]])
*[[1952]] - [[Sameera Moussa]], Egyptian nuclear scientist (b.[[1917]])
*[[1955]] - [[Carmen Miranda]], Portuguese actress and singer (b. [[1909]])
*[[1957]] - [[Heinrich Otto Wieland]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1877]])
*[[1959]] - [[Edgar Guest]], English poet (b. [[1881]])
*[[1960]] - [[Arthur Meighen]], ninth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1874]])
*[[1962]] - [[Marilyn Monroe]], American actress (b. [[1926]])
*[[1984]] - [[Richard Burton]], British actor (b. [[1925]])
*[[1991]] - [[Paul Brown]], American football coach (b. [[1908]])
*[[2000]] - Sir [[Alec Guinness]], British actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[2002]] - [[Josh Ryan Evans]], actor (b. 1982)
*2002 - [[Chick Hearn]], American basketball announcer (b. [[1916]])
*[[2005]] - [[Polina Astakhova]], Russian gymnast (b. [[1936]])
*2005 - [[Jim O'Hora]], American football coach (b. [[1915]])
*2005 - [[Raul Roco]], Philippine senator (b. [[1941]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Burkina Faso]] - Independence Day
*[[Croatia]] - Victory Day and National Thanksgiving Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/5 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050805.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[August 4]] - [[August 6]] - [[July 5]] - [[September 5]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:5 Augustus]]
[[ar:5 أغسطس]]
[[an:5 d'agosto]]
[[ast:5 d'agostu]]
[[bg:5 август]]
[[be:5 жніўня]]
[[bs:5. avgust]]
[[ca:5 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 5]]
[[cv:Çурла, 5]]
[[co:5 d'aostu]]
[[cs:5. srpen]]
[[cy:5 Awst]]
[[da:5. august]]
[[de:5. August]]
[[et:5. august]]
[[el:5 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:5 de agosto]]
[[eo:5-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 5]]
[[fo:5. august]]
[[fr:5 août]]
[[fy:5 augustus]]
[[ga:5 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:5 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 5일]]
[[hr:5. kolovoza]]
[[io:5 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 5]]
[[id:5 Agustus]]
[[ia:5 de augusto]]
[[ie:5 august]]
[[is:5. ágúst]]
[[it:5 agosto]]
[[he:5 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:5 Agustus]]
[[ka:5 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:5 zélnika]]
[[ku:5'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 5]]
[[lb:5. August]]
[[li:5 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 5]]
[[mk:5 август]]
[[ms:5 Ogos]]
[[nap:5 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:5 augustus]]
[[ja:8月5日]]
[[no:5. august]]
[[nn:5. august]]
[[oc:5 d'agost]]
[[pl:5 sierpnia]]
[[pt:5 de Agosto]]
[[ro:5 august]]
[[ru:5 августа]]
[[sco:5 August]]
[[sq:5 Gusht]]
[[scn:5 di austu]]
[[simple:August 5]]
[[sk:5. august]]
[[sl:5. avgust]]
[[sr:5. август]]
[[fi:5. elokuuta]]
[[sv:5 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 5]]
[[tt:5. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 5]]
[[th:5 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:5 tháng 8]]
[[tr:5 Ağustos]]
[[uk:5 серпня]]
[[wa:5 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 5]]
[[zh:8月5日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angula</title>
<id>1991</id>
<revision>
<id>15900447</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-20T04:15:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ingoolemo</username>
<id>71699</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[eel]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[eel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Ayckbourn/Plays</title>
<id>1993</id>
<revision>
<id>15900449</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-02T06:58:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge subpage with article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alan Ayckbourn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ASP</title>
<id>1994</id>
<revision>
<id>36507020</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T15:18:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>S.K.</username>
<id>89293</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Only one link per item in disambiguation pages ([[MoS:DP]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ASP''' may stand for:
* [[ASP (band)]], the name of a German Electrogoth/Alternative band
* [[ASP (handgun)]], the name for a custom-designed 9&nbsp;mm pistol based on the S&W Model 39
* [[Active Server Pages]], a web-scripting interface by Microsoft
* [[Adipocyte Stimulating Peptide]]
* [[Advanced Simple Profile]], an MPEG-4 video codec profile
* [[Agouti Signal Protein]]
* [[American Self Protection]]
* [[American Soccer Pyramid]]
* Amnesic shellfish poison, a marine biotoxin and neurotoxin, see under its alternate name [[domoic acid]]
* Anglo-Saxon Protestant, as part of the acronym [[WASP]]
* [[Answer set p |
a, K., Ndinya-Achola, J., and Kreiss, J. K.
| title=Hormonal contraception and risk of HIV-1 acquisition: results of a 10-year prospective study
| journal=AIDS | year=2004 | pages=695-697 | volume=18 | issue=4
| id={{PMID|15090778}}
}}</ref>. Also, people who are infected with HIV can still be infected by other, more virulent strains.
====Prevention strategies====
During a sexual act, only [[condom]]s, be they male or female, can reduce the chances of infection with HIV and other STIs and the chances of becoming pregnant. They must be used during all penetrative sexual intercourse with a partner who is HIV positive or whose status is unknown <ref name=Cayley>{{
cite journal
| author=Cayley, W. E. Jr.
| title=Effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV
| journal=Am. Fam. Physician | year=2004 | pages=1268-1269 | volume=70 | issue=7
| id={{PMID|15508535}}
}}</ref>. The effective use of condoms and screening of blood transfusion in North America, Western and Central Europe is credited with the low rates of AIDS in these regions.
Promoting condom use, however, has often proved controversial and difficult. Many religious groups, most visibly the [[Roman Catholic Church]], have opposed the use of condoms on religious grounds, and have sometimes seen condom promotion as an affront to the promotion of marriage, monogamy and sexual morality. Other religious groups have argued that preventing HIV infection is a moral task in itself and that condoms are therefore acceptable or even praiseworthy from a religious point of view.
[[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|right|Condoms in many colors]]
''The male latex condom'' is the single most efficient available technology to reduce the sexual transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. In order to be effective, they must be used correctly during each sexual act. Lubricants containing oil, such as petroleum jelly, or butter, must not be used as they weaken [[latex]] condoms and make them porous. If necessary, lubricants made from water are recommended. However, it is not recommended to use a lubricant for fellatio. Also, condoms have standards and expiration dates. It is essential to check the expiration date and if it conforms to European (EC 600) or American (D3492) standards before use.
''[[Condom#Female condoms|The female condom]]'' is an alternative to the male condom and is made from [[polyurethane]], which allows it to be used in the presence of oil-based lubricants. They are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the vagina. The female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina - inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring.
With consistent and correct use of condoms, there is a very low risk of HIV infection. Studies on couples where one partner is infected show that with consistent condom use, HIV infection rates for the uninfected partner are below 1% per year <ref name=WHOCondoms>{{
cite web
| author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2003
| url=http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_200308_Condoms.htm
| title=Condom Facts and Figures
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
====Governmental programs====
The U.S. government and U.S. health organizations both endorse the '''''ABC Approach''''' to lower the risk of acquiring AIDS during sex:
: '''A'''bstinence or delay of sexual activity, especially for youth,
: '''B'''eing faithful, especially for those in committed relationships,
: '''C'''ondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior.
This approach has been very successful in [[Uganda]], where HIV prevalence has decreased from 15% to 5%. However, the ABC approach is far from all that Uganda has done, as "''Uganda has pioneered approaches towards reducing stigma, bringing discussion of sexual behavior out into the open, involving HIV-infected people in public education, persuading individuals and couples to be tested and counseled, improving the status of women, involving religious organizations, enlisting traditional healers, and much more.''" (Edward Green, [[Harvard]] medical anthropologist). Also, it must be noted that there is no conclusive proof that abstinence-only programs have been successful in any country in the world in reducing HIV transmission. This is why condom use is heavily co-promoted. There is also considerable overlap with the '''''CNN Approach'''''. This is:
: '''C'''ondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior.
: '''N'''eedles, use clean ones
: '''N'''egotiating skills; negotiating safer sex with a partner and empowering women to make smart choices
The '''ABC approach''' has been criticized, because a faithful partner of an unfaithful partner is at risk of AIDS <ref name=EconomistABC>{{
cite web
| author=[[The Economist]] | publisher= | year=2005
| url=http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4223619
| title=Too much morality, too little sense
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. Many think that the combination of the CNN approach with the ABC approach will be the optimum prevention platform.
====Circumcision====
Current research is clarifying the relationship between male circumcision and HIV in differing social and cultural contexts. UNAIDS believes that it is premature to recommend male circumcision services as part of HIV prevention programmes <ref name=WHOcircumcision>{{
cite web
| author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year=2005
| url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/
| title=UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. Moreover, South African medical experts are concerned that the repeated use of unsterilised blades in the ritual circumcision of adolescent boys may be spreading HIV <ref name=Kaisercircum>{{
cite web
| author=Various | publisher=Kaisernetwork.org | year=2005
| url=http://www.kaisernetwork.org/daily_reports/rep_index.cfm?DR_ID=31199
| title=Repeated Use of Unsterilized Blades in Ritual Circumcision Might Contribute to HIV Spread in S. Africa, Doctors Say
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
===Prevention of blood or blood product route of HIV transmission===
====Underlying science====
Sharing and reusing syringes contaminated with HIV-infected blood represents a major risk for infection with not only HIV but also [[hepatitis B]] and [[hepatitis C]]. In the United States a third of all new HIV infections can be traced to needle sharing and almost 50% of long-term addicts have hepatitis C. The risk of being infected with HIV from a single prick with a needle that has been used on an HIV infected person though is thought to be about 1 in 150 ([[AIDS#Prevention|see table above]]). [[Post-exposure prophylaxis]] with anti-HIV drugs can further reduce that small risk <ref name=Fan>{{
cite book
| author =Fan, H. | year = 2005
| title =AIDS: science and society | chapter = | chapterurl =
| editor = Fan, H., Conner, R. F. and Villarreal, L. P. eds
| edition = 4th | pages =
| publisher =Jones and Bartlett Publishers
| location = Boston, MA
| id = ISBN 076370086X
}}</ref>. Universal precautions are frequently not followed in both sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia because of both a shortage of supplies and inadequate training. The WHO estimates that approximately 2.5% of all HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa are transmitted through unsafe healthcare injections <ref name=WHOJapan>{{
cite web
| author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2003
| url=http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:adH68_6JGG8J:tokyo.usembassy.gov//e/p/tp-20030317a3.html+site:tokyo.usembassy.gov+HIV+healthcare+injection&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1
| title=WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. Because of this, the [[United Nations General Assembly]], supported by universal medical opinion on the matter, has urged the nations of the world to implement universal precautions to prevent HIV transmission in health care settings <ref name=PHR>{{
cite web
| author=Physicians for Human Rights | publisher=Partners in Health | year=2003
| url=http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/who_031303.html
| title=HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights | accessdate=2006-03-01
}}</ref><ref name=UNGA>{{
cite web
| author=United Nations General Assembly | publisher= | year=2001
| url=http://www.un.org/ga/aids/coverage/FinalDeclarationHIVAIDS.html
| title=Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS ''Global Crisis — Global Action''
| accessdate=2006-03-01
}}</ref>.
====Prevention strategies====
In countries where improved donor selection and antibody tests have been introduced, the risk of transmitting [[HIV]] infection to [[blood transfusion]] recipients is extremely low. But according to the [[WHO]], the overwhelming majority of the world's population does not have access to safe blood and "between 5% and 10% of HIV infections worldwide are transmitted through the transfusion of infected blood and blood products" <ref name=WHO070401>{{
cite web
| author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2001
| url=http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html
| title=Blood safety....for too few
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
Medical workers who follow [[universal precautions]] or body substance isolation such as wearing latex gloves when giving injections and washing the hands frequently can help prevent infection of HIV.
All AIDS-prevention organizations advise drug-users not to share needles and other material required to prepare and take drugs (including syringes, cotton balls, the spoons, water for dilut |
pacified the [[kun]] tribes, but failed disastrously 150 years later when the un-disciplined Hungarian [[feudal]] knight army was totally destroyed by [[mongol]] invaders in the Battle of Muhi in [[1241]]. The Mongol herds used almost exactly the same kind of weaponry and tactics as brandished by Hungarian tribes two centuries earlier.
The Hungarian knight army had its golden age under king [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis the Great]], who himself was a famed warrior and conducted semi-successful campaigns in [[Italy]] due to family matters (his younger brother married Joan I, Queen of Naples who murdered him later.) King [[Matthias Corvinus]] maintained very modern mercenary-based royal troops, called the ''Black Army''. King Matthias favoured ancient artillery (catapults) as opposed to cannons, which were the favourite of his father, [[Johannes Hunyadi]] the ''ottoman-beater'', who defended [[Belgrade]] in [[1456]].
During the Ottoman invasion of Central Europe (between late 1300s and circa 1700) Hungarian soldiers protected fortresses and launched light cavalry attacks against the Turks (see [[hussar]]s). The northern fortress of [[Eger]] was famously defended in the autumn of [[1552]] against the combined force of two ottoman armies numbering circa 120,000 men and 16 ultra-heavy siege guns. The victory was very important, because two much stronger forts of [[Szolnok]] and [[Temesvár]] had fallen quickly during the summer. Public opinion attributed Eger's success to the all-Hungarian garrison, as the above two forts have fallen due to treason by the foreign mercenaries manning them. In [[1596]], Eger fell to the Ottomans for the same reason.
In the [[1566]] [[Battle of Szigetvár]], [[Zrínyi Miklós|Nicholas Šubić Zrinski]] defended [[Szigetvár]] for 30 days against the largest Ottoman army ever seen up to that day, and died leading his remaining few soldiers on a final suicide charge to become one of the best known national heroes. His great-grandson, [[Nicholas Zrinski]], poet and general became of the better known stratagems of 1660s. In [[1686]], the capital city [[Buda]] was freed from the ottomans by an allied Christian army composed of Hungarian, Austrian and Western European troops, each roughly 1/3rd of the army. The Habsburg then annexed Hungary.
==Habsburg Hungarian military==
Under Habsburg rule, Hungarian hussars rose to international fame and served as a model for light cavalry in many European countries. Hundreds of thousands of forcibly enrolled Hungarian males served 12 years or more as line infantry during the 1700s-1800s in the Austrian Imperial Army.
Two independence wars interrupted this era, that of Prince [[Francis II Rákóczi]] between [[1703]] and [[1711]] and that of [[Lajos Kossuth]] in [[1848]]&ndash;[[1849]]. Both time Hungarian armies were crushed by the Habsburgs, but the second time not until the help of mighty Czarist Russian armies was summoned to purge [[Józef Bem]]'s second army from Transylvania, opening the path into the heart of Hungary. [[Sándor Petőfi]], the great Hungarian poet became a [[missing in action|MIA]] in the [[Battle of Segesvár]].
Huge numbers of Hungarians served and fell in [[World War I]], especially at the battlefield of [[Isonzo]] and on the Russian front. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in late [[1918]], the Red Army of the Hungarian commune-state conducted successful campaigns to protect the borders, until eventually crushed by a coalition of [[Romania]]n, [[Yugoslavia]]n and [[France|French]] troops.
==Mid-twentieth century==
During the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was totally preoccupied with the idea of regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the [[Trianon peace treaty]] at [[Versailles]] in [[1920]]. This required strong armed forces to defeat the neighbouring states, something Hungary couldn't afford. Instead, governor [[Miklós Horthy]] made an alliance with [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Third Reich]] and got temporary territorial gains in exchange, for which Hungary had to pay very dearly during and after [[World War II]].
The [[Hungarian Second Army]] was totally devastated at banks of the Don River in January [[1943]], a supplement of the battle for [[Stalingrad]]. Many Hungarian cities received severe damage during allied carpet bombing. The Soviets occupied Hungary during the turn of [[1944]]&ndash;[[1945]], and even though they freed the country from the Nazis, they brought suffering and kept the country occupied. All the bridges were destroyed, cattles looted, women raped, men kidnapped for slave labour in the [[gulag]]s. After the fall of Hungary, [[Magyars|Magyar]] troops of [[Ferenc Szálasi]] continued to fight alongside the [[Wehrmacht]] until the very last day. The Hungarian Danube Flottila fired the last shells in anger on the morning of 8th of May, 1945 and the last Hungarian fighter squadrons torched their remining [[Me-109]]s on the 6th of May, deep inside Germany. Allies thus badged Hungary the ''last [[vassal]]'' of [[Hitler]] and imposed severe retributions on the country.
==Warsaw Pact==
During the Socialist and the [[Warsaw Pact]] era ([[1955]]&ndash;1989), the entire 200,000 strong ''Soviet South Army Group'' was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regimens, air force and missile troops (with nukes). It was by all means a very capable force, that made little contact with the local population. Between [[1949]] and 1955 there was also a huge effort to build a big Hungarian army. All procedures, disciplines, equipment were exact copies of the soviet Red Army in methods and material, but the huge costs collapsed the economy by [[1956]].
After the autumn 1956 anti-communist revolution was crushed in [[Budapest]], the Soviets took away most of the Hungarian army's equipment. A few years later, when offered a choice of pull-back, the new Hungarian leader [[János Kádár]] asked for all the 200,000 Soviet troops to stay, because it allowed the [[socialist]] [[Hungarian People's Republic]] to neglect its own draft-based armed forces, quickly leading to deterioration of the military. Large sums of money were saved that way and spent on feel-good measures for the population, thus Hungary could become "[[the happiest barrack]]" in the [[Soviet Bloc]].
Training for army conscripts was poor and most of those drafted were actually used as a free labour force (esp. railway track construction and agricultural work) after just a few weeks of basic rifle training. Popular opinion grew very negative towards the Hungarian army and most young man tried to avoid the draft with bogus medical excuses. By the late-1980s garrisons were in bad shape, often worse than slums or barns. There were several dozens of [[meningitis]] cases with some dead among the conscripts and nearby population, due to poor facilities at the garrisons (this was during the mid-1990s).
==After the Cold War==
[[Hungary]] spearheaded the movement to dissolve the [[Warsaw Pact|Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization]] in [[1990]]. The country's new democratic leaders quickly realized the disastrous shape of the domestic military and how it may block their ambitions towards a NATO alliance, but right-wing patriotic sentiments of the FIDESZ and MDF parties blocked the abolishment of conscription that time. Stuck with an obsolete organisational model and very limited funding, the draft-based Hungarian military constantly struggled for most of the 1990s. It was mostly due to pure chance (namely Hungary's location at the edge of the [[Balkan crisis]]) that Hungary was allowed to join the NATO. The country was in no way prepared for NATO membership.
Hungary has since worked to modernize and Westernize its armed forces. The effort is half-hearted at best. The prospect of imminent [[NATO]] membership has led the government to focus on assuring the interoperability of the Hungarian Home Defense Forces (Honvédség) with those of its future allies. This shall require not only a slow, expensive overhaul of military hardware but also a major restructuring of organization, military doctrine, and training. Hungary has been an active participant in the [[Partnership for Peace]] since [[1994]], as well as the NATO-led IFOR/SFOR operations in Bosnia, and regularly contributes to UN peacekeeping missions.
The Honvédség's largest service is the army, followed by the air force and a small naval contingent that patrols the [[Danube]] River, now essentially defunct. The size of the armed forces is now 45,000, down from over 130,000 in 1989. The aim is to reach 40,000 until end of 2006. The draft no longer exists, as the Constitution was modified to abolish mandatory armed service for males in late 2004, after 136 years of continuous conscription. The government has also pledged to increase defense spending to 2% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] until 2006 to bring Hungary's military budget in line with those of [[NATO]] countries. This promise will not be kept because of [[EU]] imposed budget restrictions for 2005-2006, thus Hungary must bear frequent [[NATO]] criticism for failing to meet its mutual defence obligations. The negative domestic opinion towards armed forces did not change significantly in the past decade.
==Current military==
The Hungarian armed forces has severely reduced the number of [[battle tank]]s in service, surplused all tracked [[IFV]]s and limits the number of flight hours available to rotary and fixed wing aircraft crews. A large number of [[garrison]]s were shut down, some of them sold to municipal authorities for peaceful uses.
In [[1997]], Hungary spent about 123 billion HUF ($560 million) on defense. Hungary became a member of NATO on [[March 12]], [[1999]]. Hungary provided airbases and support for [[NATO]]'s air campaign against [[Serbia]] and has provided military units to serve in [[Kosovo]] as part of the NATO-led KFOR operation. Hungary has sent a 300 strong logistics unit to [[Iraq |
itutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization.
The 26-year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Angola|President]]
|[[José Eduardo dos Santos]]
|[[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]]
|[[21 September]] [[1979]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Angola|Prime Minister]]
|[[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]] "Nando"
|[[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]]
|[[6 December]] [[2002]]
|}
The president is elected for a five year term by the people. The Council of Ministers appointed by the president.
==Legislative branch==
The '''[[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]]''' (''Assembleia Nacional'') has 220 members, elected for a four year term, 130 members by [[proportional representation]] and 90 members in provincial districts. The next elections, due for 1997, have been put off indefinitely.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Angola|Elections in Angola}}
The president has announced the government's intention to hold elections in [[2006]]. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.
{{Angola presidential election, 1992}}
{{Angola parliamentary election, 1992}}
==Judicial branch==
Supreme Court or Tribunal da Relacao, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president
==Administrative divisions==
Angola has eighteen provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO; Antonio Bento BEMBE]
* ''note:'' FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province
==International organization participation==
ACP, AfDB, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, SADC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Angola| ]]
[[pt:Política de Angola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Angola</title>
<id>706</id>
<revision>
<id>38981232</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:46:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Angola table}}
[[Angola]]'s is the fastest-growing economy in Africa, largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10 of socioeconomic conditions in the world. Aside from the oil sector and [[diamond]]s, it is in economic disarray because of 26 years of nearly continuous warfare. Despite abundant natural resources, output per capita remains among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture and dependence on humanitarian food assistance sustain the large majority of the population. Little industry exists.
By contrast, the rapidly expanding [[petroleum]] industry now producing up to 800,000 barrels (127,000 m&sup3;) per day, behind only Nigeria in Africa, accounts for more than 60% of GNP and 90% of government revenues. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy. Block Zero, located of the enclave of Cabinda, provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production. There, [[ChevronTexaco]], through its subsidiary Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, is the operator with a 39.2% share, with [[SONANGOL]] (the Angolan state oil company), [[Total S.A.|Total]], and [[ENI-Agip]] splitting up the rest. ChevronTexaco also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000. The U.S. takes more than half of Angola's production, by far the largest importer. Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, however, especially China. Significant discoveries have been made on deepwater Blocks 15, 17, 18, and 24, with [[ExxonMobil]], [[BP]], [[Statoil]], [[Norsk Hydro]], and [[Agip]] having major interests. Total operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with SONANGOL; plans for a second refinery in Lobito are moving forward.
In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now is forced to import almost all its food. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities have been brought to a near standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. In sharp contrast to a bleak picture of devastation and bare subsistence is expanding oil production, now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at 800,000 barrels (127,000 m&sup3;) a day. Diamonds make up most of the remaining exports--and have provided much of the revenue for [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[UNITA]] rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and countless fruits.
An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. In April 2000, Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context, the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with World Bank assistance, has begun with the BCI bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists.
Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports about 4% of its oil from Angola, a share which should continue to increase. By the same token, U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services--primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food--to Angola, while principally importing petroleum.
'''Economy - overview:''' Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare and corruption. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. To take advantage of its rich resources - [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement the peace agreement and reform government policies. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector.
[[Category:African Union member economies|Angola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Angola</title>
<id>707</id>
<revision>
<id>37393314</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T19:24:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZachPruckowski</username>
<id>626251</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Communication|Communications]] in [[Angola]]:
==Telephony==
Telephone service is limited mostly to government and business use. 96,300 [[landline|main lines]] were reported to be in use in 2003, and 130,000 [[mobile cellular]] lines were reported in 2002. [[high frequency|HF]] [[radiotelephone]] is used extensively for military links.
The domestic system consists of a limited system of [[wire]]. It also uses [[microwave radio relay]] and [[tropospheric scatter]].
The international [[country calling code|country code]] for Angola is 244. Angola has 2 [[Intelsat]] [[satellite earth station]]s for communications across the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[Fiber optic]] [[submarine cable]] ([[SAT-3/WASC]]) provides connectivity to [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].
==Radio==
:''' |
quot;Distinguished Service Medal" while the other branches of service use the service name as a prefix.
For service not related to actual war, the term "duty of a great responsibility" applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war, and requires evidence of conspicuously significant achievement. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of high positions of great importance.
Awards may be made to persons other than members of the Armed Forces of the [[United States]] for wartime services only, and then only under exceptional circumstances, with the express approval of the President in each case.
==Design of the Distinguished Service Medal==
The medal consists of the Coat of Arms of the United States in Gold surrounded by a circle of Dark Blue enamel, 1.5 inches (38 mm) in diameter, bearing the inscription "<small>FOR DISTINGUISHED SERVICE MCMXVIII</small>". On the reverse is a scroll for the name of the recipient (which is to be engraved) upon a trophy of flags and weapons. The medal is suspended by a bar attached to the ribbon. The ribbon is 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 5/16 inch (8 mm) scarlet 67111; 1/16 inch (2 mm) ultramarine blue 67118; 5/8 inch (16 mm) white 67101; 1/16 inch (2 mm) ultramarine blue; and 5/16 inch (8 mm) scarlet.
Additional awards of the Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by [[oak leaf cluster]]s.
==History of the Distinguished Service Medal==
The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated [[January 2]], [[1918]], and confirmed by Congress on [[July 9]], [[1918]]. It was announced by War Department General Order No. 6, [[January 12]], [[1918]], with the following information concerning the medal: "A bronze medal of appropriate design and a ribbon to be worn in lieu thereof, to be awarded by the President to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army shall hereafter distinguish himself or herself, or who, since [[April 6]], [[1917]], has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility in time of war or in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United States." The Act of Congress on [[July 9]], [[1918]], recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service and included such provisions for award criteria. The current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, [[United States Code]], Section 3743.
Among the first awards of the Distinguished Service Medal for service in World War I, were those to the Commanding Officers of the Allied Armies: Marshals Foch and Joffre, [[Henri Philippe Pétain|General Petain]] of France, Field Marshal Haig of the United Kingdom, General Monash of Australia, General Diaz of Italy, General Gillain of Belgium,then Colonel Douglas MacArthur, and General Pershing.
==Notable recipients==
*[[John Birch (missionary)|Birch, John]], USAAF (with Oak Leaf Cluster; posthumous)
*[[Tasker H. Bliss|Bliss, Tasker H.]]
*[[Omar Bradley|Bradley, Omar N.]] (recipient of both the Army (with three Oak Leaf Clusters) and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Arleigh Burke|Burke, Arleigh, Adm., USN]]
*[[Joseph Carroll| Carroll, Joseph F., Lt. Gen., USAF]]
*[[Hugh John Casey|Casey, Hugh John]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Mark W. Clark|Clark, Mark W.]] (with 3 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[Vern Clark|Clark, Vern]] (recipient of both the Army (with Oak Leaf Cluster) and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Wesley Clark|Clark, Wesley]]
*[[Lucius D. Clay|Clay, Lucius D.]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Benjamin O. Davis, Sr.|Davis, Sr., Benjamin O.]]
*[[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.|Davis, Jr., Benjamin O.]]
*[[Jane Delano|Delano, Jane]]
*[[William Donovan|Donovan, William J. 'Wild Bill']] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Hugh A. Drum|Drum, Hugh A.]]
*[[Ira Eaker|Eaker, Ira]] (recipient of both the Army (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters) and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower, Dwight D.]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Tommy Franks|Franks, Tommy]]
*[[Roy Geiger|Geiger, Roy]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Ulysses S. Grant III|Grant III, Ulysses S.]]
*[[William Halsey, Jr.|Halsey, Jr., William "Bull"]] USN (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Lewis Blaine Hershey|Hershey, Lewis Blaine]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[John L. Hines|Hines, John L.]]
*[[Oveta Culp Hobby|Hobby, Oveta Culp]]
*[[John P. Jumper|Jumper, John P.]] USAF (recipient of the Army, [[Air Force Distinguished Service Medal|Air Force]], and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Alan Goodrich Kirk|Kirk, Alan]]
*[[Richard Lally|Lally, Richard]]
*[[John A. Lejeune|Lejeune, John A (Lt. Gen. and Commandant, USMC)]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Orlando Llenza|Llenza, Orlando]]
*[[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur, Douglas]] (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[Peyton C. March|March, Peyton C.]]
*[[George Marshall|Marshall, George C.]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Richard J. Marshall|Marshall, Richard J.]] (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[Anthony McAuliffe|McAuliffe, Anthony]]
*[[Billy Mitchell|Mitchell, William 'Billy']]
*[[Chester Nimitz|Nimitz, Chester, Adm., USN]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[James B. Ord|Ord, James B.]]
*[[George S. Patton|Patton, George S.]] (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[John J. Pershing|Pershing, John 'Black Jack']]
*[[Colin Powell|Powell, Colin]]
*[[Keller E. Rockey|Rockey, Keller E., USMC]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[General John Wilson Ruckman|Ruckman, John Wilson]]
*[[Peter Schoomaker|Schoomaker, Peter]] (with Oak leaf Cluster)
*[[Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.|Schwarzkopf, Jr., Norman]] (recipient of both the Army (with Oak Leaf Cluster) and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Eric Shinseki|Shinseki, Eric]]
*[[Joseph Stilwell|Stilwell, Joseph]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Samuel D. Sturgis Jr.|Sturgis, Jr., Samuel D.]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Richard K. Sutherland|Sutherland, Richard Kerens]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Richard Winters]] (immortalized in the mini-series "Band of Brothers")
{{expand list}}
[[Category:United States Army awards]]
[[fr:Distinguished service Medal (États-Unis d'Amérique)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Defense Distinguished Service Medal</title>
<id>9120</id>
<revision>
<id>41388930</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T00:32:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nobunaga24</username>
<id>830002</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DDSM.jpeg|right|]]
The '''Defense Distinguished Service Medal''' is a [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|United States military award]] which is presented for exceptionally distinguished performance of duty contributing to national security or defense of the [[United States]]. The decoration is awarded only at the highest levels of the military while assigned to a joint activity. The DDSM may also be awarded to other senior officers whose direct and individual contributions to [[national security]] or defense are recognized as being so exceptional in scope and value as to be equivalent to contributions normally associated with positions encompassing broader responsibilities.
It is the [[United States]]'s highest peacetime defense award. Normally, such responsibilities deserving of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are held by the most senior officers such as the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], the Chiefs and Vice Chiefs of the Services, and [[Commander]]s and Deputy Commanders of the Unified Commands whose duties bring them into direct contact with the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] and other senior officials.
The medal is [[gold]] in color and on the obverse it features a medium blue [[enamel]]ed pentagon (point up). Superimposed on this is an [[Bald Eagle|American bald eagle]] with wings outspread facing left grasping three crossed arrows in its talons and on its breast is a shield of the United States. The pentagon and eagle are enclosed within a gold pieced circle consisting, in the upper half of thirteen five-pointed stars and in the lower half, a wreath of [[laurel]] on the left and [[olive]] on the right. At the top is a suspender of five graduated gold rays. The reverse of the medal has the inscription "For Distinguished Service" at the top in raised letters, and within the pentagon the inscription "From The Secretary of Defense To," all in raised letters. This decoration takes precedence over the [[Distinguished Service Medal (USA)|Distinguished Service Medal]]s of the separate services and is not to be awarded to any individual for a period of service for which an [[United States Army|Army]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] or [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] Distinguished Service Medal is awarded.
[[Category:Awards and decorations of the United States military]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dacoity</title>
<id>9121</id>
<revision>
<id>36305403</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T03:03:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmhermen</username>
<id>835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Dacoity''' is the [[anglicise|anglicized]] [[S |
From [[ancient Greece]] (''Ionic'') */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
== From [[ancient Greece]] (''Ionic'') ==
* An '''Ionian''' is a member of the [[Ionians]], one of the four great divisions of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] people.
* '''[[Ionia]]''' is an ancient region in western [[Anatolia]], in which the Ionian settlers established some colonies.
* In the ancient [[Greek language]], an '''[[Ionic dialect]]''' is any of several related [[dialect]]s.
* The '''[[Ionian Islands]]''' are seven [[Greece|Greek]] islands which lie on the eastern coast of the '''[[Ionian Sea]]''', in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] between [[Greece]] and [[Southern Italy]].
* In [[architecture]], the '''[[Ionic order]]''' is one of the [[classical orders|orders]] of [[classical architecture]].
* In [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] [[prosody]], an '''Ionic foot''' is a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] that consists of two long syllables followed by two short ('''major''' or '''greater ionic''') or two short followed by two long ('''minor''' or '''smaller ionic'''). An '''Ionic metre''' is a [[metre (poetry)|metre]] that consists of Ionic feet.
* The '''[[Greek numerals|Ionic numeral system]]''' is a [[numeral system]] using letters from the [[Greek alphabet]].
* In ancient [[Greek philosophy]], the '''[[Ionic school]]''' was founded by [[Thales of Miletus]] in [[Ionia]].
* '''[[Ionian mode]]''' is one of the [[musical mode|mode]]s in [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] music; it corresponds to the modern [[major diatonic scale]].
* In [[typography]], '''Ionic type''' is a typeface distinguished by prominent serifs and a high degree of legibility.
* In [[indie rock]] music, '''[[The Ionics]]''' are a band based in Tempe, Arizona.
== Physics and chemistry (''ionic'') ==
* An '''[[ion]]''' is an [[atom]] or group of atoms with a net [[electric charge]].
* An '''[[ionic bond]]''' is a [[chemical bond]] in which [[electrostatic]] attraction links oppositely charged [[ion]]s in a [[chemical compound]].
[[de:Ionisch]]
[[nl:Ionisch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ion</title>
<id>14748</id>
<revision>
<id>41925033</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:38:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>134.9.228.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other ions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the electrically charged particle. For other uses of this word, see ''[[ion (disambiguation)]]''.''
{{TOCright}}
An '''ion''' is an [[atom]] or [[Polyatomic ion|group]] of atoms with a net electric charge. A negatively-charged ion, which has more [[electron]]s in its [[electron shell]]s than it has [[proton]]s in its [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]], is known as an '''anion''', for it is attracted to [[anode]]s; a positively-charged ion, which has fewer electrons than protons, is known as a '''cation''' (pronounced ''cat-eye-on''), for it is attracted to [[cathode]]s. An ion with a single atom is a [[monatomic ion]], and an ion with more than one is a [[polyatomic ion]]. Larger ions containing many atoms are refered to as [[molecular ion]]s. The process of converting into ions and the state of being ionized is called '''ionization'''. The recombining of ions and electrons to form neutral atoms is called ''recombination''. A [[Polyatomic ion|polyatomic anion]] that contains [[oxygen]] is sometimes known as an '''oxyanion'''.
Atomic and polyatomic ions are denoted by a superscript with the sign of the net electric charge and the number of electrons lost or gained, if more than one. For example: [[Hydrogen|H]]<sup>+</sup>, [[Sulphur|S]][[Oxygen|O]]<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>.
A collection of non-[[aqueous]] gaseous ions, or even a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a '''[[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]''', which is called the ''fourth state of matter'' because its properties are quite different from [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es.
== Ionization potential ==
{{main_article|[[Ionization potential]]}}
The [[energy]] required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the ''ionization potential'', or ''ionization energy''. The ''n''th ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its ''n''th electron after the first ''n − 1'' electrons have already been detached.
Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of [[atomic orbital]]s is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, [[sodium]] has one ''[[valence electron]]'', in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as Na<sup>+</sup>. On the other side of the periodic table, [[chlorine]] has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as Cl<sup>−</sup>. [[Francium]] has the lowest ionization energy of all the elements and [[fluorine]] has the greatest.
== Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions ==
Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the combination of elemental ions such as H<sup>+</sup> with neutral molecules or by the loss of such elemental ions from neutral molecules. Many of these processes are acid-bases reactions. A simple example of this is the ammonium ion NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> which can be formed by ammonia NH<sub>3</sub> accepting a proton, H<sup>+</sup>. Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration but differ in protons. The charge has been added by the addition of a proton (H<sup>+</sup>) not the addition or removal of electrons. The distinction between this and the removal of an electron from the whole molecule is important in large systems because it usually results in much more stable ions with complete electron shells. For example NH<sub>3</sub><sup>'''·'''+</sup> is not stable because of an incomplete valence shell around nitrogen and is in fact a [[radical (chemistry)|radical]] ion.
== Other ions ==
A '''dianion''' is a species which has two negative charges on it. For example, the dianion of [[pentalene]] is [[aromatic]]. A [[zwitterion]] is an ion with a net charge of zero, but has both a positive and negative charge on it. [[radical (chemistry)|Radical]] ions are ions that contain an odd number of electrons and are mostly very reactive and unstable.
== History ==
Ions were first theorized by [[Michael Faraday]] around 1830, to describe the portions of molecules that travel either to an anode or to a cathode. However, the mechanism by which this was achieved was not described until 1884 by [[Svante August Arrhenius]] in his doctoral dissertation to the [[University of Uppsala]]. His theory was initially not accepted but his dissertation won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1903 in science|1903]].
=== Etymology ===
The word ''ion'' is a name given by [[Michael Faraday]], from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|&#7984;&#8057;&nu;}}'', neutral present participle of ''{{polytonic|&#7984;&#8051;&nu;&alpha;&iota;}}'', "to go", thus "a goer". So, ''anion'', ''{{polytonic|&#7936;&nu;&iota;&#8057;&nu;}}'', and ''cation'', ''&kappa;{{polytonic|&alpha;&tau;&iota;&#8057;&nu;}}'', mean "(a thing) going up" and "(a thing) going down", respectively; and ''anode'', ''{{polytonic|&#7940;&nu;&omicron;&delta;&omicron;&sigmaf;}}'', and ''cathode'', ''&kappa;{{polytonic|&#8049;&theta;&omicron;&delta;&omicron;&sigmaf;}}'', mean "a going up" and "a going down", respectively, from ''{{polytonic|&#8001;&delta;&#8057;&sigmaf;}}'', "way," or "road."
== Applications ==
Ions are essential to [[life]]. [[Sodium]], [[potassium]], [[calcium]] and other ions play an important role in the [[cell (biology)|cell]]s of living organisms, particularly in [[cell membrane]]s. They have many practical, everyday applications in items such as [[smoke detectors]], and are also finding use in unconventional technologies such as [[ion engines]] and [[ion cannons]].
[[Category:Ions| ]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[bg:Йон]]
[[ca:Ió (àtom)]]
[[cs:Ion]]
[[da:Ion (kemi)]]
[[de:Ion]]
[[et:Ioon]]
[[es:Ion]]
[[eo:Jono]]
[[fr:Ion]]
[[ko:이온]]
[[io:Iono]]
[[id:Ion]]
[[it:Ione]]
[[he:יון]]
[[la:Ion]]
[[lv:Jons]]
[[lt:Jonas (dalelė)]]
[[hu:Ion]]
[[ms:Ion]]
[[nl:Ion (deeltje)]]
[[nds:Ion]]
[[ja:イオン]]
[[no:Ion]]
[[nn:Ion]]
[[pl:Jon]]
[[pt:Íon]]
[[ro:Ion]]
[[ru:Ион]]
[[simple:Ion]]
[[sl:Ionizacijska energija]]
[[sr:Јон]]
[[fi:Ioni]]
[[sk:Ión]]
[[sv:Jon]]
[[tl:Iono]]
[[th:ไอออน]]
[[vi:Ion]]
[[uk:Іон (фізичний)]]
[[zh:离子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indium</title>
<id>14749</id>
<revision>
<id>42056178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:26:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edgar181</username>
<id>491706</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 40364360 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=49 | symbol=In | name=indium | left=[[cadmium]] | right=[[tin]] | above=[[gallium|Ga]] | below=[[thallium|Tl]] | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[poor metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=13 | period=5 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | In,49| silvery lustrous gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|114.818]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(3)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91 |
le redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centum-Satem isogloss]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intersexuality</title>
<id>15185</id>
<revision>
<id>40986609</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T08:12:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Torgo</username>
<id>427752</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''intersexual''' or '''intersex''' person (or organism of any [[unisexual]] species) is one who is born with [[genitalia]] and/or [[secondary sex characteristic]]s determined as neither exclusively male nor female, or which combine features of the male and female sexes. The terms ''[[hermaphrodite]]'' and ''pseudohermaphrodite'', introduced in the 19th century, are now considered misleading and stigmatizing, and patient advocates call for these terms to be abandoned. There is also a move to drop the term "intersex", replacing it with "Disorders of Sex Development" (DSD). The phrase "ambiguous genitalia" refers specifically to genital appearance, but not all intersex conditions result in atypical genital appearance.
==Overview==
According to the highest estimates (Fausto-Sterling et. al., 2000) perhaps 1 percent of live [[childbirth|birth]]s exhibit some degree of sexual ambiguity [http://www.isna.org/faq/frequency], and that between 0.1% and 0.2% of live births are ambiguous enough to become the subject of specialist medical attention, including [[surgery]] to disguise their sexual ambiguity. Other sources (Leonard Sax, 2002) estimate the incidence of true intersexual conditions as far lower, at approximately 0.018%.
In typical [[fetus|fetal]] development, the presence of the [[SRY|SRY gene]] causes the fetal [[gonad]]s to become testes; the absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries. Thereafter, the development of the [[sex organ|internal reproductive organs]] and the [[external genitalia]] is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads (ovaries or testes) and the cells' response to them. The initial appearance of the [[fetal genitalia]] (a few weeks after conception) is basically feminine: a pair of "[[urogenital folds]]" with a small protuberance in the middle, and the [[urethra]] behind the protuberance. If the fetus has testes, and if the testes produce testosterone, and if the cells of the genitals respond to the testosterone, the outer urogenital folds swell and fuse in the midline to produce the scrotum; the protuberance grows larger and straighter to form the penis; the inner urogenital swellings swell, wrap around the penis, and fuse in the midline to form the penile urethra.
Because there is variation in all of these processes, a child can be born with a [[sexual anatomy]] that is typically female, or feminine in appearance with a larger than average [[clitoris]]; or typically male, masculine in appearance with a smaller than average [[penis]] that is open along the underside. The appearance may be quite ambiguous, describable as female genitals with a very large clitoris and partially fused labia, or as male genitals with a very small penis, completely open along the midline ("[[hypospadic]]"), and empty scrotum.
There are dozens of named medical conditions that may lead to intersex anatomy. Fertility is variable. The distinctions "male pseudohermaphrodite", "female pseudohermaphrodite" and especially "true hermaphrodite" are vestiges of 19th century thinking that placed "true sex" in the [[histology]] (microscopic appearance) of the [[gonad]]s.
The common habit in the 21st century of elevating the role of the [[sex chromosomes]] above all other factors when determining gender may be analogous to the older habit of finding "true" sex in the gonads. Though high school biology teaches that men have XY and women XX chromosomes, in fact there are quite a few other possible combinations such as Turner syndrome [[Turner_syndrome|XO]], Metafemale Syndrome [[Triple-X_syndrome|XXX]], Klinefelter's Syndrome [[Klinefelter's Syndrome|XXY]], [[XYY]], XO/XY, XX male, Swyer syndrome [[Swyer_syndrome|XY female]], and there are many individuals who do not follow the typical patterns (such as cases with four or even more sex chromosomes).
Thus, people nowadays may be more likely to look towards the sex chromosomes than, for example, the histology of the gonads. However, according to researcher Eric Vilain at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], "the biology of gender is far more complicated than XX or XY chromosomes".[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-02/dnnl-dma020305.php] Many different criteria have been proposed, and there is little consensus.[http://www.isna.org/faq/what_is_intersex]
== Biological causes of intersexuality ==
Typical males have sex chromosomes XY and typical females XX. One biological definition of a male child is the presence of a Y chromosome. This definition has sometimes been used for sex determination at sports events, but it caused much confusion because it doesn't always apply.
The most common cause of sexual ambiguity is [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], an endocrine disorder in which the [[adrenal gland]]s produce abnormally high levels of virilizing hormones. In genetic females, this leads to an appearance that may be slightly masculinized (large clitoris) to quite masculine.
In many cases individuals are neither XX nor XY:
* The presence of one or two additional X chromosomes in a male (XXY or XXXY) may cause [[Klinefelter's syndrome]].
* A single X chromosome (XO) is called [[Turner's syndrome]]. It is characterized by a lack or incomplete development of certain primary and secondary female characteristics and is associated with a range of medical issues.
* Sex chromosomal [[mosaic_(genetics)|mosaicism]] or [[Chimera (genetics)|chimerism]] can cause what was once called "true hermaphroditism", the presence of both testicular and ovarian tissue in one individual.
In [[Persistent mullerian duct syndrome]] the child has XY chromsomes typical of a male. The child has a male body and an internal uterus and fallopian tubes because his body did not produce [[Mullerian inhibiting factor]] during fetal development.
The following further XY cases leads to intersexuality:
*[[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]. They develop either partially or fully as females, due to their bodies failing to respond to [[testosterone]]. In the case of complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), their tissues are totally insensitive to [[androgen]]s, and they will develop as females, with normal female external organs. However, they will not develop a uterus or fallopian tubes, due to the production of Mullerian inhibiting factor by their testes. At puberty breasts will develop due to the production of [[estrogen]] by the testes; but no menstruation will occur due to the lack of a uterus. The tissues of individuals with partial androgen insensitivity, by contrast, have partial sensitivity to testosterone, but it is reduced compared to the male normal. These individuals can develop with either male external anatomy, or female external anatomy, or some combination, depending on the degree of insensitivity.
*[[5-alpha-reductase deficiency]]. In this condition, individuals have testes, as well as vagina and labia, but with a small [[penis]] capable of ejaculation instead of a clitoris (this penis, however, appears to be a clitoris at birth). These individuals are normally raised as girls. However, come puberty, their testes will descend, their voice will deepen and they often will develop a male sexual identity. But they develop only limited facial hair. The number of people with this condition varies geographically, depending on how much of a given population is interrelated.
Excessive ''in utero'' exposure to androgens may lead to intersexuality in XX cases:
* [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]: Female internal anatomy, but ambiguous or male external genitalia, and develop male secondary sexual characteristics.
*[[Progestin-induced virilisation]]. In this case, the male hormones are caused by use of [[progestin]], a drug that was used in the 1950s and 1960s in order to prevent miscarriage. These individuals have internal and external female anatomy. They develop however some male secondary characteristics, and they frequently have unusually large clitorises.
A similar phenomenon occurs in cases where a cow brings two fraternal twins, one male and one female, to term. Because (unlike humans) such twins share hormones via their placental blood interface with the mother cow, male hormones produced in the body of the fetal bull find their way into the body of the fetal cow and masculinize her brain. The result is a [[freemartin]] (unconventional heifer), a cow that will eventually try to mount other cows the way that a bull would.
In [[XX male syndrome]] (also called [[de la Chapelle syndrome]]) the resulting child is usually a phenotypically normal male, but without sperm production. This syndrome is sometimes the result of an abnormal interchange of the [[SRY]] region from a Y chromosome to an X.
== Chimerism ==
According to the ''New England Journal of Medicine'', vol 338, p 166, physicians in the Western General Hospital of Edinburgh have reported on a child with a penis, one testicle, and an ovary and fallopian tube instead of a second testicle. Some of this child's body cells are XY (male), and some are XX (female). The child was conceived as the result of [[in-vitro fertilization]], and it appears most likely that two embryos, a male embryo and a female embryo, fused before or soon after embryos were transferred to the mother's uterus.
This kind of condition, where there is more than one set of [[cell line]]s with different sets of chromosomes making up the body is known as [[Chimera (genetics)|chimeri |
Euphoria was primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes. The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing, which can be quite difficult in many languages. It has been used in [[artificial intelligence]] experiments, the study of [[mathematics]], for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of characters. Also, Euphoria has been proven to be useful as a language to do [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] programing in.
Euphoria source code can be "bound" to the Euphoria run-time code
to produce a stand-alone program for distribution. The code may also
be "shrouded" to prevent others from viewing, copying, or changing the
source.
You can also use the Euphoria-to-C translator to convert your Euphoria source code into [[C programming language|C]] source code and then compile it into [[machine language]]. Using this technique, you can create stand-alone programs as well as [[Library (computer science)#Dynamic linking|Windows DLL]] files.
==Data types==
Euphoria has just two ''basic'' data types:
;atom : These are numbers, implemented as either 31-bit [[integer]] or 64-bit [[IEEE floating-point standard|IEEE floating-point]], depending on the current value. Euphoria dynamically changes the implementation to the most efficient one for the data item's current value.
;sequence : [[Array|Vector]]s which can have zero or more elements; each element is either an '''atom''' or a '''sequence'''. The number of elements in a sequence is not fixed; the coder can add or remove elements as required during run-time. Euphoria automatically handles the allocation and deallocation of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], and the [[garbage collection (computer science)|automatic garbage collection]] for you. Individual elements are referenced using an index value enclosed in square brackets. The first element in a sequence has an index of one [1]. Elements inside embedded sequences are referenced by additional bracked index values, thus X[3][2] refers to the second element contained in the sequence that is the third element of X.
Additionally, Euphoria has two ''specialized'' data types:
;integer : A special form of '''atom''', restricted to 31-bit [[integer]] values in the range -1073741824 to 1073741823. '''Integer''' data types are more efficient than the '''atom''' data types, but cannot contain the same range of values. Characters are stored as integers, eg coding [[ASCII]]-'A' is exactly the same as coding 65.
;object : A generic datatype that can contain any of the above, and can be changed during run-time. This means that if you have an object called X that is assigned the value 3.172, then later on you can assign it the value "ABC". Note that in fact, each element of a '''sequence''' is actually an '''object'''.
There is no character [[string (computer science)|string]] data type, as these are represented by a '''sequence''' of '''integer''' values. However, because literal strings are so commonly used in programming, Euphoria interprets double-quote enclosed characters as a sequence of integers. Thus
<code>"ABC"</code>
is seen as if the coder had written:
<code>{'A', 'B', 'C'}</code>
which is the same as:
<code>{65,66,67}</code>
==Hello World==
puts(1,"Hello World!\n")
==Examples==
'''Note:''' Code comments start with a double dash "--" and go through the end of line. There are no multi-line comments.
As brief examples, the following code
global function delete_item( object old, sequence group )
integer pos
-- Code begins --
pos = find( old, group )
if pos > 0 then
group = group[1..pos - 1] & group[pos + 1..length( group )]
end if
return group
end function
looks for an old item in a group of items. If found, it removes it by concatenating all the elements prior to it with all the elements after it. The result is then returned. Note that elements in sequences are 1-based indexed. This means that the first element has an index of 1.
Simplicity is apparent in that the code clearly delineates its constructs with words. Instead of braces, semicolons, and question marks, you see phrases like 'if..then', 'end if', and 'end function'.
Flexibility is present; the item 'old' could be strings, numbers, images, or whole collections of data themselves. A different function for each data type isn't needed, nor does the programmer have to check the data types. This function will work with any sequence of data of any type, and requires no external libraries.
global function replace_item( object old, object new, sequence group )
integer pos
-- Code begins --
pos = find( old, group )
if pos > 0 then
group[pos] = new
end if
return group
end function
Safety is present due to the fact that there are no pointers involved and subscripts are automatically checked. Thus the function cannot access memory out-of-bounds, and cannot go beyond the end of the sequence or before the beginning of it to corrupt the memory. There is no need to explicitly allocate or deallocate memory, and no chance of a leak.
The line
<code>group = group[1..pos - 1] & group[pos + 1..length( group )]</code>
shows some of the '''sequence''' handling facilities. A '''sequence''' can contain a collection of any types, and this can be sliced (to take a subset of the data in a '''sequence''') and concatenated in expressions, with no need for special functions.
Version 2.5 introduces the new '$' symbol, which is used for "length(sequence)." So, the above example could be written in 2.5 as follows:
<code>group = group[1..pos - 1] & group[pos + 1..$]</code>
==Parameter passing==
Another feature is that all arguments to routines are always passed by value. There is no pass-by-reference facility. This is implemented in a very efficient manner as sequences automatically have [[copy-on-write]] semantics. In other words, when you pass a sequence to a routine, initially only a reference to it passed but at the point that the routine first modifies a sequence parameter, the sequence is copied and the routine updates a copy of the original.
==Comparisons==
* [[D programming language]]
* [[Lua Programming Language]]
* [[Python programming language]]
==External links==
Free downloads of Euphoria for the various platforms, packages, Windows IDE, Windows API libraries, a GTK+ wrapper for Linux, graphics libraries (DOS, OpenGL, etc).
* [http://www.rapideuphoria.com Euphoria website]
* [http://www.rapideuphoria.com/contrib.htm User Contributions]
* [http://www.rapideuphoria.com/othersit.htm User Web Sites]
* [http://www.listfilter.com/EUforum EUforum Message Board]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/programming_euphoria/ Euphoria Yahoo Group]
* [http://uboard.proboards32.com UBoard: unofficial Message Board]
* [http://www.cklester.com/euphoria/ Programming with Euphoria - includes using Euphoria for CGI]
* [http://wxeuphoria.sourceforge.net/ wxEuphoria]
* [http://www.cklester.com/books/guiphoria/ GUIphoria]
===Commercial Use of Euphoria===
* [http://www.insight-concepts.com/ Insight-Concepts]
* [http://www.FormsOnADisk.com/ Forms On-A-Disk]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[de:Euphoria (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Euphoria]]
[[nl:Euphoria]]
[[pl:Euphoria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Energy</title>
<id>9649</id>
<revision>
<id>41841255</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:17:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ pdf warning.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lightning in Arlington.jpg|thumb|right|258px|[[Lightning]] is a highly visible form of energy transfer.]]
The term '''Energy''' (from Latin ''Energia'' and Greek ''Ενεργεια'') refers to the ability of a [[physical system]] to do [[mechanical work]].{{ref|nasa}} It is a fundamental [[concept]] pertaining to the ability for [[Action (physics)|action]]. The energy of a system can be quantified in many interdependent forms, but the total energy of a system is subject to [[energy conservation|conservation]].
Energy is not measured as an absolute quantity, but as relative to a [[Frame of reference|reference]] state or level. For example, a [[litre]] of [[water]] has more thermal energy when it is warm than when it is cold, and a car in motion has more kinetic energy than when it is at rest. It is important to realize that the selection of a reference state is arbitrary and has no effect on how a physical system operates, but that an informed selection can greatly simplify one's ''understanding'' of that system.
== Types of energy ==
Energy can be in several forms: mechanical [[potential energy|potential]]—due to possible physical interactions with other objects (for example, [[gravitational potential energy]]); [[kinetic energy|kinetic]]—contained in macroscopic [[motion]]; [[chemical energy|chemical]]—potential stored in [[chemical bonds]] between [[atoms]]; [[electrical energy|electrical]]—potential due to possible [[electrical charge|charge]] interactions; [[thermal energy|thermal]]—contained in the kinetic energy of individual [[molecules]]; [[nuclear energy|nuclear]]—potential stored between constituents of [[atomic nucleus |nuclei]]. Light can be viewed as energy in the form of [[photons]] or [[wave]]s, depending on context. The theory of [[general relativity]] provides a framework to envision [[mass]] itself as an expression of energy.
=== Forms of Energy ===
*[[Kinetic energy]]: the energy of moving objects
**[[Thermal energy]]: the energy associated with [[heat]]
**[[Sound| |
Car) &minus;0.72 '''[[Canopus (star)|Canopus]]''' or '''''Suhail''''' [''Suhel'']
:*: < Can&#333;pus < &#922;&#940;&#957;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#963;
:* ([[Beta Carinae|&beta; Car]]) 1.68 '''Miaplacidus''' [''Maiaplacidus'']
:*: < &#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607; ''miy&#257;h'' waters + ''placidus'' placid
:* ([[Epsilon Carinae|&epsilon; Car]]) 1.86 '''Avior'''
:* ([[Eta Carinae|&eta; Car]]) 6.22 '''''Tseen She''''' &ndash; hypergiant;
:*: < &#22825;&#31038; (Mandarin ''ti&#257;nshè'') Heaven's altar
:* ([[Iota Carinae|&iota; Car]]) 2.25 '''Aspidiske''' or '''Turais''' [''Tureis''] or '''''Scutulum''''' ["shield"]
:*: < &#1578;&#1615;&#1585;&#1614;&#1610;&#1618;&#1587; ''turais'' Shield [dimunitive]
:Stars with Bayer designations:
::[[Theta Carinae|&theta; Car]] 2.76; [[Upsilon Carinae|&upsilon; Car]] 2.92; [[Chi Carinae|&chi; Car]] 3.46; [[Omega Carinae|&omega; Car]] 3.29; [[a Carinae|a Car]] 3.43; [[b1 Carinae|b<sup>1</sup> Car]] 4.93; [[b2 Carinae|b<sup>2</sup> Car]] 5.17; [[c Carinae|c Car]] 3.84; [[d Carinae|d Car]] 4.31; [[e1 Carinae|e<sup>1</sup> Car]] 5.27; [[e2 Carinae|e<sup>2</sup> Car]] 4.84; [[f Carinae|f Car]] 4.50; [[g Carinae|g Car]] 4.34; [[h Carinae|h Car]] 4.08; [[i Carinae|i Car]] 3.96; [[k Carinae|k Car]] 4.79; [[l Carinae|l Car]] 3.69; [[m Carinae|m Car]] 4.51; [[p Carinae|p Car]] 3.30; [[q Carinae|q Car]] 3.39; [[r Carinae|r Car]] 4.45; [[s Carinae|s Car]] 3.81; [[t1 Carinae|t<sup>1</sup> Car]] 5.08; [[t2 Carinae|t<sup>2</sup> Car]] 4.69; [[u Carinae|u Car]] 3.78; [[w Carinae|w Car]] 4.58; [[x Carinae|x Car]] 3.93; [[y Carinae|y Car]] 4.59; [[z Carinae|z Car]] 4.62; [[z2 Carinae|z<sup>2</sup> Car]] 5.11; [[A Carinae|A Car]] 4.41; [[B Carinae|B Car]] 4.74; [[C Carinae|C Car]] 5.16; [[D Carinae|D Car]] 4.81; [[E Carinae|E Car]] 4.66; [[G Carinae|G Car]] 4.47; [[H Carinae|H Car]] 5.46; [[I Carinae|I Car]] 3.99; [[K Carinae|K Car]] 4.72; [[L Carinae|L Car]] 4.97; [[M Carinae|M Car]] 5.15; [[N Carinae|N Car]] 4.35; [[O Carinae|O Car]] 5.60; [[P Carinae|P Car]] 4.65; [[Q Carinae|Q Car]] 4.93
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[23 Carinae|23 Car]] 5.14
{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Carina}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/crux/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Carina]
[[Category:Carina constellation| ]]
[[ca:Quilla (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Lodní kýl (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Kølen]]
[[de:Schiffskiel (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Carina]]
[[fr:Carène (constellation)]]
[[ko:용골자리]]
[[id:Carina]]
[[la:Carina (sidus)]]
[[lt:Laivo Kilis]]
[[hu:Hajógerinc (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kiel (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:りゅうこつ座]]
[[pl:Kil (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[ru:Киль (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Kýl]]
[[sv:Kölen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวกระดูกงูเรือ]]
[[zh:船底座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Camelopardalis</title>
<id>6364</id>
<revision>
<id>39176245</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T05:51:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Camelopardalis |
abbreviation = Cam |
genitive = Camelopardalis |
symbology = the [[Giraffe]] |
RA = 6 |
dec= +70 |
areatotal = 757 |
arearank = 18th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = &beta; Cam |
starmagnitude = 4.03 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Draco (constellation)|Draco]]
*[[Ursa Minor]]
*[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]
*[[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]]
*[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]
*[[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]]
*[[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]
*[[Ursa Major]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 10 |
month = February |
notes=}}
'''Camelopardalis''', [[Latin]] for ''[[giraffe]]'', is the name of a large but faint [[celestial sphere|northern]] [[constellation]] first recorded by [[Jakob Bartsch]] in [[1624]], but probably created earlier by [[Petrus Plancius]].
==Notable features==
Although Camelopardalis is the 18th largest constellation, it is not a particularly bright constellation, as the brightest stars are only of fourth magnitude.
[[Beta Camelopardalis|&beta; Camelopardalis]] is the brightest star, at [[apparent magnitude]] 4.03. This star is a [[double star]], with components of magnitudes 4.0 and 7.4.
The second brightest is [[CS Camelopardalis]] (which has neither a [[Bayer designation|Bayer]] nor [[Flamsteed designation]]). It is of magnitude 4.21 (slightly [[Variable star|variable]]).
In some astronomical reference books, one will often see an alternate spelling of this constellation as Camelopardis.
==Notable deep sky objects==
<!--[[Image:Spiral_Galaxy_NGC_2403.jpg|100px|left|NGC 2403]]-->[[Spiral Galaxy NGC 2403|NGC 2403]] is a [[spiral galaxy]] approximately 11 million light years distant. It is of magnitude 8.4. [[NGC 1502]] is an [[open cluster]] around 6,800 [[light year]]s distant. It is of magnitude 6.0.
==Mythology==
Camelopardalis has no mythology associated with its stars, as it is a modern constellation, first recorded by Jakob Bartsch. The faintness of the constellation, and that of the nearby constellation [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]], lead to the early Greeks considering this area of the sky to be empty, and thus a [[desert]].
However, as a desert, together with other features in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Gemini]] (i.e. the [[Milky Way]], and the constellations [[Gemini]], [[Orion constellation|Orion]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Canis Major]]), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of [[Geryon]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].
==Table of leading stars==
The following table lists all stars in Camelopardalis with a Bayer or Flamsteed designation, as well as all stars brighter than magnitude 4.50.
{| class="wikitable"
! [[Bayer designation|BD]] !! [[Flamsteed designation]] !! [[Variable star designation|Variable designation]] !! Other designation !! [[Right ascension]] !! [[Declination]] !! [[Apparent magnitude|Magnitude]]
|-
| || || CS || ADS 2544 || 03h 29m 04.1s || +59&deg; 56&prime; 25&Prime; || 4.21v
|-
| &gamma; || || || || 03h 50m 21.5s || +71&deg; 19&prime; 56&Prime; || 4.63
|-
| || || BE || || 03h 49m 31.2s || +65&deg; 31&prime; 34&Prime; || 4.47v
|-
| || 1 || || ADS 3274 || 04h 32m 01.8s || +53&deg; 54&prime; 39&Prime; || 5.77
|-
| || 2 || || ADS 3358 || 04h 39m 58.1s || +53&deg; 28&prime; 23&Prime; || 5.35
|-
| || 3 || || ADS 3359 || 04h 39m 54.7s || +53&deg; 04&prime; 47&Prime; || 5.05
|-
| || 4 || || ADS 3432 || 04h 48m 00.3s || +56&deg; 45&prime; 26&Prime; || 5.30
|-
| &alpha; || 9 || || || 04h 54m 03.0s || +66&deg; 20&prime; 34&Prime; || 4.29
|-
| || 5 || || ADS 3508 || 04h 55m 03.1s || +55&deg; 15&prime; 33&Prime; || 5.52
|-
| || 7 || || ADS 3536 || 04h 57m 17.2s || +53&deg; 45&prime; 08&Prime; || 4.47
|-
| || 8 || || || 04h 59m 46.3s || +53&deg; 09&prime; 20&Prime; || 6.08
|-
| &beta; || 10 || || ADS 3615 || 05h 03m 25.1s || +60&deg; 26&prime; 32&Prime; || 4.03
|-
| || 11 || BV || || 05h 06m 08.5s || +58&deg; 58&prime; 21&Prime; || 5.08v
|-
| || 12 || BM || || 05h 06m 12.2s || +59&deg; 01&prime; 16&Prime; || 6.08v
|-
| || 14 || || || 05h 13m 31.3s || +62&deg; 41&prime; 29&Prime; || 6.50
|-
| || 15 || || || 05h 19m 27.8s || +58&deg; 07&prime; 02&Prime; || 6.13
|-
| || 16 || || || 05h 23m 27.8s || +57&deg; 32&prime; 40&Prime; || 5.28
|-
| || 17 || || || 05h 30m 10.2s || +63&deg; 04&prime; 02&Prime; || 5.42
|-
| || 18 || || || 05h 32m 33.8s || +57&deg; 13&prime; 16&Prime; || 6.48
|-
| || 19 || || ADS 4177 || 05h 37m 15.1s || +64&deg; 09&prime; 17&Prime; || 6.15
|-
| || 24 || || || 05h 43m 01.6s || +56&deg; 34&prime; 54&Prime; || 6.05
|-
| || 23 || || || 05h 44m 08.6s || +61&deg; 28&prime; 36&Prime; || 6.15
|-
| || 26 || || || 05h 46m 30.4s || +56&deg; 06&prime; 56&Prime; || 5.94
|-
| || 29 || || ADS 4412 || 05h 50m 34.0s || +56&deg; 55&prime; 08&Prime; || 6.54
|-
| || 30 || || || 05h 52m 17.4s || +58&deg; 57&prime; 51&Prime; || 6.14
|-
| || 31 || TU || || 05h 54m 57.8s || +59&deg; 53&prime; 18&Prime; || 5.20v
|-
| || 37 || || || 06h 09m 59.1s || +58&deg; 56&prime; 09&Prime; || 5.36
|-
| || 36 || || || 06h 12m 51.1s || +65&deg; 43&prime; 06&Prime; || 5.32
|-
| || 40 || || || 06h 15m 40.6s || +59&deg; 59&prime; 57&Prime; || 5.35
|-
| || 42 || || || 06h 50m 57.1s || +67&deg; 34&prime; 19&Prime; || 5.14
|-
| || 43 || || || 06h 53m 42.2s || +68&deg; 53&prime; 18&Prime; || 5.12
|-
| || 47 || || ADS 5995 || 07h 22m 17.2s || +59&deg; 54&prime; 07&Prime; || 6.35
|-
| || 51 || || || 07h 46m 40.1s || +65&deg; 27&prime; 21&Prime; || 5.92
|-
| || 49 || BC || || 07h 46m 27.4s || +62&deg; 49&prime; 50&Prime; || 6.49v
|-
| || 53 || AX || || 08h 01m 42.4s || +60&deg; 19&prime; 28&Prime; || 6.01v
|}
Source: ''The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.''
==Stars==
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Alpha Camelopardalis|9/&alpha; Cam]] 4.26; [[Beta Camelopardalis|10/&beta; Cam]] 4.03; [[Gamma Camelopardalis|&gamma; Cam]] 4.59
:* Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Camelopardalis|1 Cam]] 5.78; [[2 Camelopardalis|2 Cam]] 5.36; [[3 Camelopardalis|3 Cam]] 5.07; [[4 Camelopardalis|4 Cam]] 5.29; [[5 Camelopardalis|5 Cam]] 5.52; [[7 Camelopardalis|7 Cam]] 4.43; [[8 Cameloparda |
th a range extension to low C (written).
** A basset clarinet &mdash; Most common type.
** Basset clarinets in C, B&#9837;, and G also exist.
* [[Basset horn]] &mdash; This instrument was written for by [[Mozart]] often; his friend [[Anton Stadler]] was an accomplished player. It is not common in [[wind band]] or [[orchestra]]l music. [[Richard Strauss]] wrote for it in some of his operas, such as [[Elektra (opera)|Elektra]], and wind symphonies. It differs from the alto in that it has a range to low C and (usually) a smaller bore designed to be played with a soprano mouthpiece. In appearance, the basset horn is most often distinguished from the alto by the low C extension.
** F basset horn &mdash; Most common type.
** Shackleton lists also basset horns in G and D from the 18th century.
* [[Alto clarinet]] &mdash; About half an octave lower than the B&#9837; clarinet. Used in marching bands in previous centuries but not as common any more in the traditional setting. Used in clarinet choirs and some works for concert band. There is a limited solo repertiore. This instrument has the advantage of being more easily manufactured, carried and played than the bass clarinet, whilst retaining some of the appealing tonal character of the larger instrument.
** F alto clarinet &mdash; While the F Alto shares some design features of the basset horn, the alto has a range only to low E&#9837; (written) and presents a larger bore than most basset horns.
** E&#9837; alto clarinet &mdash; Most common type.
* [[Bass clarinet]] &mdash; About an octave below the B&#9837; clarinet.
** B&#9837; bass clarinet &mdash; Commonly used in [[concert band]]s and clarinet choirs; also fairly common in [[orchestra]]l writing, especially of the 20th century. Some marching bands may have marching bass clarinets, but this is rare, as the instrument is heavy and can be awkward and difficult to carry on the field. [http://home.arcor.de/wichtigstesregister/pagbkls.mp3 MP3 Sample]
** A bass clarinet &mdash; Obsolete. An octave below the A soprano. No longer manufactured, music for it occurs chiefly in works by [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] and [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]; players must transpose and play the part on the B&#9837; bass clarinet.
** C bass clarinet &mdash; Obsolete.
* [[Contra-alto clarinet]] &mdash; About an octave below the alto clarinet.
** EE&#9837; contra-alto clarinet &mdash; Fairly common, especially in wind band literature. Sometimes called the "EE&#9837; Contrabass". The lower range of the Contra-Alto (as opposed to the B&#9837; Bass Clarinet) can match some of the lower range passages written for [[bassoon]], [[tuba]] and [[double bass]]. Its popularity among players rests in the ease with which one [[transpose]]s parts for bassoon, tuba, and bass (the trick here is to imagine the bass clef as treble clef and take three flats off the key signature, or add three sharps).
* [[Contrabass clarinet]] &mdash; About an octave below the bass clarinet.
** BB&#9837; contrabass clarinet &mdash; Rare, except in large clarinet choirs and wind ensembles. Orchestratively, its usage is primarily supplemental, though some works for concert band and orchestra employ distinct passages expressly for this instrument; the [[contrabassoon]] is sometimes substituted. [http://home.arcor.de/wichtigstesregister/pagkbkl.mp3 MP3 Sample]
Two larger types have been built on an experimental basis:
* EEE&#9837; [[Octocontra-alto clarinet|Octocontra-alto]] &mdash; An octave below the contra-alto clarinet. Only three were ever built.
* BBB&#9837; [[Octocontrabass clarinet|Octocontrabass]] &mdash; An octave below the contrabass clarinet. Only one was ever built. (The only one that exists is in the personal collection of George Leblanc himself.)
== History ==
The clarinet started life as a small instrument called the [[chalumeau]]. Not much is known about this instrument, but it may have evolved from the [[recorder]]. The chalumeau had a similar reed to the modern clarinet, but lacked the register key which extends the range to nearly four octaves, so it had a limited range of about one and a half octaves. It also lacked certain chromatics. Like a recorder, it had eight finger holes, and usually had one or two keys for extra notes.
In [[1690]], a German instrument maker named [[Johann Christoph Denner]] added a register key to the chalumeau and produced the first clarinet. This instrument played well in the middle register with a loud, strident tone, so it was given the name ''clarinetto'' meaning "little trumpet" (from ''clarino'' + ''-etto''). Early clarinets did not play well in the lower register, so chalumeaus continued to be made to play the low notes and these notes became known as the ''chalumeau register''. As clarinets improved, the chalumeau fell into disuse.
The original Denner clarinets had two keys, but various makers added more to get extra notes. The classical clarinet of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s day would probably have had eight finger holes and five keys.
Clarinets were soon accepted into orchestras. Later models had a mellower tone than the originals. Mozart liked the sound of the clarinet and wrote much music for it, and by the time of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], the clarinet was a standard fixture in the orchestra.
The next major development in the history of clarinet was the invention of the modern pad. Early clarinets covered the tone holes with felt pads. Because these leaked air, the number of pads had to be kept to a minimum, so the clarinet was severely restricted in what notes could be played with a good tone. In [[1812]], [[Ivan Mueller]], a Russian-born clarinetist and inventor, developed a new type of pad which was covered in leather or fish bladder. This was completely airtight, so the number of keys could be increased enormously. He designed a new type of clarinet with seven finger holes and thirteen keys. This allowed the clarinet to play in any key with near equal ease. Over the course of the 19th century, many enhancements were made to Mueller's clarinet, such as the Albert system and the Baermann system, all keeping the same basic design. The Mueller clarinet and its derivatives were popular throughout the world.
The final development in the modern design of the clarinet was introduced by [[Hyacinthe Klosé]] in [[1839]]. He devised a different arrangement of keys and finger holes which allow simpler fingering. It was inspired by the [[Boehm system]] developed by [[Theobald Boehm]], a flute maker who had invented the system for flutes. Klosé was so impressed by Boehm's invention that he named his own system for clarinets the Boehm system, although it is different from the one used on flutes. This new system was slow to catch on because it meant the player had to relearn how to play the instrument. Gradually, however, it became the standard and today the Boehm system is used everywhere in the world except Germany and Austria. These countries still use a direct descendant of the Mueller clarinet known as the [[Oehler system]] clarinet. Also, some contemporary Dixieland and Klezmer players continue to use Albert system clarinets, as the simpler fingering system can allow for easier slurring of notes. At one time the reed was held on using string, but now the practice exists primarily in Germany and Austria, where the warmer, ''thicker'' tone is preferred over that produced with the ligatures that are more popular in the rest of the world.
== See also ==
* [[Clarinet makers]] &ndash; lists of makers of clarinets, clarinet mouthpieces, and clarinet reeds.
* [[Clarinetist]] &ndash; a list of some famous clarinet players.
* [[List of jazz clarinetists]].
==References==
* Pino, Dr. David ''The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing.'' Providence: Dover Pubns, 1998, 320 p.; ISBN 0486402703
* {{GroveOnline|Clarinet|Nicholas Shackleton|21 February|2006}}
== External links ==
{{commons|Clarinet}}
* [http://buffetcrampon.org/ Buffet: A prestigious brand]
* [http://www.woodwind.org/clarinet/Study/FingeringCharts/bbfinger.html B&#9837; clarinet fingering chart]
* [http://hem.passagen.se/eriahl/clarinet.htm Comprehensive list of clarinets]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/clarinetacoustics.html Clarinet acoustics]
* [http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/clarinet/ Comprehensive list of fingerings for Kinderklarinettes and Boehm-, Albert-, and Oehler-system clarinets]
* [http://www.clariperu.org/ Clariperu (Spanish) The clarinet in Latin America]
* [http://www.jean-christian-michel.com/en/clarinet2.html The clarinet from A toZ]
[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]
[[Category:Clarinets]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[ar:كلارينيت]]
[[zh-min-nan:O·-ta̍t-á]]
[[ca:Clarinet]]
[[da:Klarinet]]
[[de:Klarinette]]
[[es:Clarinete]]
[[eo:Klarneto]]
[[fr:Clarinette]]
[[gd:Clàirneid]]
[[ko:클라리넷]]
[[hr:Klarinet]]
[[it:Clarinetto]]
[[he:קלרינט]]
[[nl:Klarinet]]
[[ja:クラリネット]]
[[no:Klarinett]]
[[pl:Klarnet]]
[[pt:Clarinete]]
[[ru:Кларнет]]
[[simple:Clarinet]]
[[sl:Klarinet]]
[[sr:Кларинет]]
[[fi:Klarinetti]]
[[sv:Klarinett]]
[[th:คลาริเน็ต]]
[[vi:Kèn dăm đơn]]
[[zh:單簧管]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chojnów</title>
<id>6434</id>
<revision>
<id>38687580</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T23:54:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsca.bot</username>
<id>601940</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chojnow 021 mala fabryka.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A small factory in Chojnów]]
'''Chojnów''' is small city (as of 2000, 14,900 inhabitants) over [[Skora river]], in land country [[Legnica]], (region [[Dolnoslaskie]], [[Poland]]).
Its average altitude is 170 meters above sea level.
First note about Chojnów is dated [[1272]] (as '''Haynow''' settlement).
In [[1288]] it's |
ng
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''[[CIA World Factbook]]''
[[Category:Geography of Dominica|*]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Dominica]]
[[pt:Geografia da Dominica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Dominica</title>
<id>8053</id>
<revision>
<id>33246161</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T12:41:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rui Silva</username>
<id>224333</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Almost all [[Dominica]]ns are descendants of [[Africa]]n [[Slavery|slave]]s brought in by [[colony|colonial]] planters in the [[18th century]]. Dominica is the only island in the eastern [[Caribbean]] to retain some of its pre-Columbian population--the [[Carib]] Indians--about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.
The population growth rate is very low, due primarily to emigration to more prosperous Caribbean Islands, the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], and [[Canada]]. [[English language|English]] is the official language and universally understood; however, because of historic [[French language|French]] domination, [[Antillean Creole]], a French patois, is also widely spoken. About 80% of the population is [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]]. In recent years, a number of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches have been established.
'''Population:'''
71,540 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
29% (male 10,556; female 10,254)
<br>''15-64 years:''
63% (male 23,151; female 21,984)
<br>''65 years and over:''
8% (male 2,294; female 3,301) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
-1.14% (2000 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
18.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
7.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-22.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.69 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
17.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
73.35 years
<br>''male:''
70.5 years
<br>''female:''
76.36 years (2000 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Dominican(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Dominican
'''Ethnic groups:'''
black 90%, Mulatto, Carib Amerindian 2%
'''[[Religion]]s:'''
Roman Catholic 77%, Protestant 15% (Methodist 5%, Pentecostal 3%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Baptist 2%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6%
'''[[Language]]s:'''
English (official), French patois
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over has ever attended school
<br>''total population:''
94%
<br>''male:''
94%
<br>''female:''
94% (1970 est.)
[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Dominica]]
[[es:Demografía de Dominica]]
[[pl:Demografia Dominiki]]
[[pt:Demografia da Dominica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Dominica</title>
<id>8054</id>
<revision>
<id>32635125</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-24T22:51:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Political parties and elections */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Dominica}}
'''Politics of Dominica''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Dominica]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[House of Assembly of Dominica|House of Assembly]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[List of Presidents of Dominica|President]]
|[[Nicholas Liverpool]]
|
|[[7 October]] [[2003]])
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Dominica|Prime Minister]]
|[[Roosevelt Skerritt]]
|[[Dominica Labour Party|DLP]]
|[[8 January]] [[2004]])
|}
A president and prime minister make up the executive branch. Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a 5-year term by the parliament. The president appoints as prime minister the leader of the majority party in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister's recommendation, members of the parliament from the ruling party as cabinet ministers. The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote.
==Legislative branch==
The [[House of Assembly of Dominica|House of Assembly]] has 32 members, 21 members elected for a five year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], 9 appointed senators, the Speaker and 1 ex-officio member. a [[head of state]] - the [[president]] - is elected by the House of Assembly. is composed of 21 regional representatives and nine senators. The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed. If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader. If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives. Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every 5 years, although the prime minister can call elections any time.
Dominica has a [[two-party system]], which means that there are two dominant [[political parties]], with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the [[Dominica Labour Party]] and the greatly diminished [[Dominica Freedom Party]] have built a coalition.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Dominica|Elections in Dominica}}
{{Dominica legislative election, 2005}}
==Judicial branch==
Dominica's legal system is based on English common law. There are three magistrate's courts, with appeals made to the Eastern Caribbean court of appeal and, ultimately, to the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] in [[London]]. The [[Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court]] (located in Saint Lucia), one of the six judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction.
==Administrative divisions==
Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns. Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities. The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, Saint Peter.
==International organization participation==
ACCT, [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], C, [[Caricom]], [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean|ECLAC]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[World Bank|IBRD]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], ICRM, IDA, [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], IFRCS, [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], IMO, [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM (observer)]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States|OECS]], OPANAL, [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], WCL, [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], WTrO
== Further reading ==
* Matthias Catón: "Dominica" in: ''Elections in the Americas. A Data Handbook'', vol. 1, ed. by Dieter Nohlen. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005: pp. 223–237 ISBN 0-19-928357-5
[[Category:Dominica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dominica/Economy</title>
<id>8055</id>
<revision>
<id>15906078</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-14T14:30:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Dominica]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Dominica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Dominica</title>
<id>8056</id>
<revision>
<id>33273765</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T18:04:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ma3nocum</username>
<id>333140</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
18,000 ([[1995]])
'''Telephones - [[mobile cellular]]:'''
NA
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
fully automatic network
<br>''international:''
[[microwave]] radio relay and [[SHF]] [[radiotelephone]] links to [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]]; [[VHF]] and [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] radiotelephone links to [[Saint Lucia]]
'''[[Radio]] [[Broadc |
signal, which resets the current output. Because flip-flops are implemented as [[integrated circuit]] [[chips]], they also require [[Electric power|power]] and [[Ground (electricity)|ground]] connections. Pulsing, or ''strobing'', the clock causes the flip-flop to either change or retain its output signal, based upon the values of the input signals and the [[characteristic equation]] of the flip-flop. ''Strobing'' here means changing the clock, some flip-flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, and other change on the falling edge.
Four types of flip-flops find common applicability in [[clocked sequential systems]]: these are called the T ("toggle") flip-flop, the S-R ("set-reset") flip-flop, the J-K flip-flop, and the D ("delay") flip-flop. The behavior of the flip-flop is described by what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives the "next" (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, <math>Q_{next}</math>, in terms of the input signal(s) and/or the current output, <math>Q</math>.
The first electronic flip-flop was invented in [[1919]] by [[William Eccles]] and [[F. W. Jordan]] (Radio Review Dez 1919 pages 143 following). It was initially called the ''Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit''. The later name flip-flop describes the sound, which is produced on a speaker connected with one of the backcoupled amplifiers output during the triggerprocess within the circuit.
See also: [[monostable]] multivibrator, [[astable]] multivibrator.
==Types of flip-flops==
===T flip-flop===
If the T input is high, the T flip-flop changes state ("toggles") whenever the clock input is strobed. If the T input is low, the flip-flop holds the previous value. This behavior is described by the characteristic [[equation]]:
<math>Q_{next} = T \oplus Q</math>
and the [[truth table]]:
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
||T||Q||'''Q<sub>next</sub>'''
|-
||0||0||'''0'''
|-
||0||1||'''1'''
|-
||1||0||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||'''0'''
|-
|}
[[image:flipflopt.png|left|T-type flip-flop]]Left: A circuit symbol for a T-type flip-flop, where > is the clock input, T is the toggle input and Q is the stored data output.
<br clear=all>
===S-R flip-flop===
[[Image:SR FF timing diagram.png|thumb|225px|SR flip-flop timing diagram]]
The "set/reset" flip-flop ''sets'' (i.e., changes its output to logic 1, or retains it if it's already 1) if both the S ("set") input is 1 and the R ("reset") input is 0 when the clock is strobed. The flip-flop ''resets'' (i.e., changes its output to logic 0, or retains it if it's already 0) if both the R ("reset") input is 1 and the S ("set") input is 0 when the clock is strobed. If both S and R are 0 when the clock is strobed, the output does not change. If, however, both S and R are 1 when the clock is strobed, no particular behavior is guaranteed. This is often written in the form of a "[[truth table]]"
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
||S||R||Q||'''Q<sub>next</sub>'''
|-
||0||0||0||'''0'''
|-
||0||0||1||'''1'''
|-
||0||1||X||'''0'''
|-
||1||0||X||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||X||'''unstable'''
|-
|}
===J-K flip-flop===
[[Image:JK FF impulse diagram.png|thumb|225px|J-K flip-flop timing diagram]]
The J-K flip-flop augments the behavior of the S-R flip-flop by interpreting the S = R = 1 condition as a "flip" command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K turns the J-K flip-flop into a T flip-flop.
[[image:flipflopjk.png|left|J-K-type flip-flop]]
<br clear=all>
Left: A circuit symbol for a J-K flip-flop, where > is the clock input, J and K are data inputs, Q is the stored data output, and Q' is the inverse of Q.
The characteristic equation of the J-K flip-flop is:
<math>Q_{next} = J\overline Q + \overline KQ</math>
and the truth table is:
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
||J||K||Q||'''Q<sub>next</sub>'''
|-
||0||0||0||'''0'''
|-
||0||0||1||'''1'''
|-
||0||1||X||'''0'''
|-
||1||0||X||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||0||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||1||'''0'''
|-
|}
The origin of the name for the J-K flip-flop is detailed by P. L. Lindley, a [[JPL]] engineer, in a letter to EDN, an electronics newsletter. The letter is dated 13 June, 1968, and was published in the August edition of the newsletter. In the letter, Mr. Lindley explains that he heard the story of the J-K flip-flop from Dr. Eldred Nelson, who is responsible for coining the term while working at [[Hughes Aircraft]].
Flip-flops in use at Hughes at the time were all of the type that came to be known as J-K. In designing a logical system, Dr. Nelson assigned letters to flip-flop inputs as follows: #1: A & B, #2: C & D, #3: E & F, #4: G & H, #5: J & K. Given the size of the system that he was working on, Dr. Nelson realized that he was going to run out of letters, so he decided to use J and K as the set and reset input of each flip-flop in his system (using subscripts or somesuch to distinguish the flip-flops), since J and K were "nice, innocuous letters."
Dr. Montgomery Phister, Jr., an engineer under Dr. Nelson at Hughes, picked up the idea that J and K were the set and reset input for a "Hughes type" of flip-flop, which he then termed "J-K flip-flops," a name that he carried with him when he left for Scientific Data Systems in Santa Monica.
===D flip-flop===
The D ("delay") flip-flop takes one input, which it conveys to the output when the clock is strobed. Regardless of the current value of the output, it will assume a value 1 if D = 1 when the flip-flop is strobed or a value 0 if D = 0 when the flip-flop is strobed. This flip-flop can be interpreted as a primitive [[delay line]] or [[zero-order hold]], since the data is posted at the output one clock cycle after it arrives at the input.
[[image:flipflopd.png|left|D-type flip-flop]]
<br clear=all>
Left: A circuit symbol for a D-type flip-flop, where > is the clock input, D is the data input and Q is the stored data output.
The characteristic equation of the D flip-flop is:
<math>Q_{next} = D \,</math>
<!-- The \, is to force PNG rendering for consistency -->
The truth table is:
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
||D||Q||'''Q<sub>next</sub>'''
|-
||0||X||'''0'''
|-
||1||X||'''1'''
|}
== Uses ==
The flip-flop can be used to store one [[bit]], or binary digit, of data. The data contained in several such flip-flops may represent the state of a sequencer, the value of a [[counter]], an [[ASCII]] character in a computer's memory or any other piece of information.
One use is to build [[finite state machine]]s from electronic logic. The flip-flops remember the machine's previous state, and [[digital logic]] uses that state to calculate the next state.
The "T" flip-flop is useful for counting. Repeated signals to the clock input will cause the flip-flop to change state once per high-to-low transition of the clock input, if its T input is "1". The output from one flip-flop can be fed to the clock input of a second and so on. The final output of the circuit, considered as the array of outputs of all the individual flip-flops, is a count, in [[binary coding|binary]], of the number of cycles of the first clock input, up to a maximum of 2<sup>''n''</sup>-1, where ''n'' is the number of flip-flops used.
One of the problems with such a counter (called a ''ripple counter'') is that the output is briefly invalid as the changes ripple through the logic. There are two solutions to this problem. The first is to sample the output only when it is known to be valid. The second, more widely used, is to use a different type of circuit called a ''synchronous counter''. This uses more complex logic to ensure that the outputs of the counter all change at the same, predictable time.
[[Frequency]] division: a chain of "T" flip-flops as described above will also function to divide an input in frequency by 2<sup>''n''</sup>, where ''n'' is the number of flip-flops used between the input and the output.
[[Processor register|Register]]s to store numbers in [[computer]]s. A "D" flip-flop can represent one digit of a binary number. The computer's [[control unit]] puts out the clock signal at the right time to capture the data.
==Timing and metastability==
A flip-flop in combination with a [[Schmitt trigger]] can be used for the implementation of an [[Arbiter (electronics)|arbiter]] in [[asynchronous circuit]]s.
Clocked flip-flops are prone to a problem called [[Metastability in electronics|metastability]], which happens when a data or control input is changing at the instant of the clock pulse. The result is that the output may behave unpredictably, taking many times longer than normal to settle to its correct state, or even oscillating several times before settling. In a [[computer]] system this can cause corruption of data or a program crash.
In many cases, metastability in flip-flops can be avoided by ensuring that the data and control inputs are held constant for specified periods before and after the clock pulse, called the [[setup time]] (t<sub>su</sub>) and the [[hold time]] (t<sub>h</sub>) respectively. These times are specified in the data sheet for the device, and are typically between a few nanoseconds and a few hundred picoseconds for modern devices.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible |
to coin or print money was quite large. One could, literally, have "a license to print money"; many nobles had the right of coinage. Royal colonial companies, such as the Massachusetts Bay Company or the British East India Company could issue notes of credit&mdash;money backed by the promise to pay later, or exchangeable for payments owed to the company itself. This led to continual instability of the value of money. The exposure of coins to debasement and shaving, however, presented the same problem in another form: with each pair of hands a coin passed through, its value grew less.
The solution which evolved beginning in the late [[18th century]] and through the [[19th century]] was the creation of a central monetary authority which had a virtual monopoly on issuing currency, and whose notes had to be accepted for "all debts public and private". The creation of a truly national currency, backed by the government's store of precious metals, and enforced by their military and governmental control over an area was, in its time, extremely controversial. Advocates of the old system of [[Free Banking]] repealed central banking laws, or slowed down the adoption of restrictions on local currency. (See [[Gold standard]] for a fuller discussion of the creation of a standard gold based currency).
At this time both silver and gold were considered [[legal tender]], and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called [[bimetallism]] and the attempt to create a [[bimetallic]] standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of [[inflation| inflationists]]. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States [[Greenback]], to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed.
By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Governments too followed Gresham's Law: keeping gold and silver paid, but paying out in notes.
=== The paper money era ===
''See [[Banknote#History of Paper Money|the history of paper money]].''
== Modern currencies ==
To find out which currency is used in a particular country, start at the [[countries of the world]] or look at the [[table of historical exchange rates]].
Nowadays [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] have introduced a system, ''[[ISO 4217]]'', using three-letter codes to define currency (as opposed to simple names or [[currency sign]]s), in order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the [[dollar]] and many called the [[franc]]. Even the [[Pound (currency)|pound]] is used in nearly a dozen different countries, all, of course, with wildly differing values. In general, the three-letter code uses the ''[[ISO 3166-1]]'' country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency (D for dollar, for instance) as the third letter.
The [[International Monetary Fund]] uses a variant system when referring to national currencies.
:''For exchange rates, see [[Exchange rate#External links|here.]]''
== Privately-issued currencies ==
{{See also|Private currency}}
From the earliest times [[token coins]] were issued by companies in remote parts of the world to overcome the shortage of circulating currency.
Several large companies issue points to their customers, to be redeemed for products and services produced by that company. Often, a [[business network|network]] of companies will join to share in the offering and redemption of points. While these can hardly be considered stable currency systems, they present many of the same features as "legitimate" currency: they are a store of value, issued in discrete units; they are controlled by a central issuing authority; and they have varying rates of exchange with other forms of currency. For example, [[frequent flyer miles]] can be bought using U.S. dollars.
*[[Alternative currency]]: A currency such as the [[Liberty Dollar]], with a one-to-one exchange rate with the U.S. Dollar.
*[[Digital gold currency]]: Privately issued digital currency backed by [[gold]]
*[[Frequent flyer miles]]: A type of private currency, different versions of which are issued by most major [[airlines]] to encourage [[customer loyalty]]. Other customer loyalty incentives have followed this model, including points systems offered by soft drink manufacturers such as [[PepsiCo]]. [[Metro|Subway]] tokens, issued by city transit authorities, can be considered a highly specialized form of currency.
*[[Scrip]]: A type of private currency where a certain value is captured, and used to purchase goods from a company. Examples of scrip include gift certificates, gift cards, and [[Disney Dollar]]s or [[Canadian Tire Money]]. However, scrip is not considered a currency in itself, but merely a store of value, denominated in another currency.
== Local currencies ==
{{See also|Local currency}}
In economics, a local currency is a currency not backed by a national government, and intended to trade only in a small area. Advocates such as Jane Jacobs argue that this enables an economically depressed region to pull itself up, by giving the people living there a medium of exchange that they can use to exchange services and locally-produced goods (In a broader sense, this is the original purpose of all money.) Opponents of this concept argue that local currency creates a barrier which can interfere with economies of scale and comparative advantage, and that in some cases they can serve as a means of tax evasion.
Local currencies can also come into being when there is economic turmoil involving the national currency. An example of this is the Argentine economic crisis of 2002 in which IOUs issued by local governments quickly took on some of the characteristics of local currencies.
== World currency ==
With such developments as the [[euro]] allowing for facilitated trade and perhaps a corresponding increase in a wider identity, proposals for a [[global currency]] have accelerated, even while it is recognized that several political and economic factors would need to be addressed and intermediate steps taken before such a concept might be accepted by the diverse nations of the world.
== Circulating currencies ==
See [[List of currencies]] for a list of all current and historical currencies. See [[List of historical currencies]] or [[#Historical currencies|historical currencies]] below for historical currencies. See [[List of circulating currencies]] for a list of currencies by country.
The following is a list of currency '''names''' (denominations) of the world in alphabetic order by currency name:
===A-E===
*[[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] - [[Afghanistan]]
*[[Malagasy ariary|Ariary]] - [[Madagascar]]
*[[Thai baht|Baht]] - [[Thailand]]
*[[Panamanian balboa|Balboa]] - [[Panama]] ([[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] used for paper money)
*[[Ethiopian birr|Birr]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Venezuelan bolívar|Bolívar]] - [[Venezuela]]
*[[Bolivian boliviano|Boliviano]] - [[Bolivia]]
*[[Ghanaian cedi|Cedi]] - [[Ghana]]
*[[Costa Rican colón|Colón]] - [[Costa Rica]]
*[[Nicaraguan córdoba|Córdoba]] - [[Nicaragua]]
*[[Gambian dalasi|Dalasi]] - [[The Gambia]]
*[[Macedonian Denar|Denar]] - [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]
*[[Dinar]]
** [[Algerian dinar]] - [[Algeria]]
** [[Bahraini dinar]] - [[Bahrain]]
** [[Iraqi dinar]] - [[Iraq]]
** [[Jordanian dinar]] - [[Jordan]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]
** [[Kuwaiti dinar]] - [[Kuwait]]
** [[Libyan dinar]] - [[Libya]]
** [[Tunisian dinar]] - [[Tunisia]]
** [[Serbian dinar]] - [[Serbia]]
** [[Sudanese dinar]] - [[Sudan]]
*[[Dirham]]
** [[Moroccan dirham]] - [[Morocco]]
** [[United Arab Emirates dirham]] - [[United Arab Emirates]]
*[[São Tomé and Príncipe dobra|Dobra]] - [[Sao Tome and Principe|São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*[[Dollar]]
** [[Australian dollar]] - [[Australia]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]], [[Norfolk Island]], [[Kiribati]], [[Nauru]] and [[Tuvalu]]
** [[Barbados dollar]] - [[Barbados]]
** [[Bahamian dollar]] - [[Bahama]]
** [[Belize dollar]] - [[Belize]]
** [[Bermuda dollar]] - [[Bermuda]]
** [[Brunei dollar]] - [[Brunei]]
** [[Canadian dollar]] - [[Canada]]
** [[Cayman Islands dollar]] - [[Cayman Islands]]
** [[Cook Islands dollar]] - [[Cook Islands]]
** [[East Caribbean dollar]] - [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
** [[Fijian dollar]] - [[Fiji]]
** [[Guyanese dollar]] - [[Guyana]]
** [[Hong Kong dollar]] - [[Hong Kong]]
** [[International dollar]] - hypothetical currency pegged 1:1 to the [[United States dollar]]
** [[Jamaican dollar]] - [[Jamaica]]
** [[Kiribati dollar]] - [[Kiribati]]
** [[Liberian dollar]] - [[Liberia]]
** [[Namibian dollar]] - [[Namibia]]
** [[New Zealand dollar]] - [[New Zealand]], [[Cook Islands]], [[Niue]], [[Tokelau]], [[Pitcairn Islands]].
** [[Singapore dollar]] - [[Singapore]]
** [[Solomon Islands dollar]] - [[Solomon Islands]]
** [[Suriname dollar]] - [[Suriname]]
** [[New Taiwan dollar]] - [[Taiwan]]
** [[Trinidad and Tobago dollar]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
** [[Tuvaluan dollar]] - [[Tuvalu]] (not an independent currency, equivalent to [[Australian dollar]])
** [[United States dollar]] - [[United States of America]]; also used officially in several other countries: [[East Timor]] (has own [[East Timor centavo coins|centavo coins]]), [[Ecuador]] (has own centavo coins), [[El Salvador]], [[Marshall |
have a reputation for sturdiness and usability (the latter products are now part of spin-off [[Agilent Technologies|Agilent]]'s product line). The company's design philosophy in this period was summarized as "design for the guy at the next bench".
HP is recognized as the symbolic founder of [[Silicon Valley]], although it did not actively investigate semiconductor devices until a few years after the "[[Traitorous Eight]]" had abandoned [[William Shockley]] to create [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in [[1957]]. Hewlett-Packard's [[HP Associates]] division, established around [[1960]], developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use. Instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices.
===The eighties and beyond===
In [[1984]], HP introduced both [[inkjet printer|inkjet]] and [[laser printer]]s for the desktop. Along with its [[scanner (computing)|scanner]] product line, these have later been developed into successful [[multifunctional|multifunction]] products, the most significant being single-unit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines. As of [[2003]], HP's major competitors in this growing part of the [[Small Office, Home Office|home office]] market are [[Brother Industries, Ltd.|Brother]], [[Canon (company)|Canon]], [[Epson]], and [[Lexmark]]. Another vendor of note who rivals HP printers is [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], who rebrands and repackages Lexmark products.
In the [[1990s]], HP expanded their computer product line, which initially had been targeted at university, research, and business customers, to reach consumers. HP also grew through acquisitions, buying [[Apollo Computer]] in 1989, [[Convex Computer]] in 1995, and [[Compaq]] in 2002. Compaq itself had bought [[Tandem Computers]] in 1997 (which had been started by ex-HP employees), and [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] in 1998. Following this strategy HP became a major player in desktops, laptops, and servers for many different markets. The buyout made HP the world's largest manufacturer of personal computers.
In [[1987]], the [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] garage where Hewlett and Packard started their business was designated as a California State historical landmark. However, [[Agilent Technologies]], not HP, bears the legacy of the original company founded in 1939, as evidenced by Agilent's portfolio of electronic instruments descended from HP's earliest products. Agilent was spun off from HP in [[1999]].
'''HPshopping.com''' was launched in [[1998]] as HP's direct-to-consumer e-commerce store, and in [[1999]] became incorporated as a wholly owned subsidiary. In [[2002]], [[Compaq]]'s direct-to-consumer e-commerce store, CompaqAtHome, joined [[hpshopping.com]], creating a comprehensive, one-stop, on-line store for HP and Compaq home and home-office products.
Many long-time HP calculator users were surprised and disappointed when HP announced in March 2002 that the company would no longer manufacture financial and scientific calculators &ndash; a product line and, indeed, a market, that HP had started thirty years before. The decision was especially hard to fathom in light of the [[HP-48]] graphing calculator range's success. However, despite its spring 2002 press release stating the opposite, the company nevertheless returned to the market during the fall of [[2003]] with several new models (flagship: [[HP-49G_Plus#hp_49g.2B|HP-49g+]]) competing against similar offerings from competitor [[Texas Instruments]]. The extremely popular [[HP-12C]] financial calculator, introduced in 1981, still remains in production today.
==HP today==
In 2002, Hewlett-Packard merged with [[Compaq]], a controversial move intended to make the company the personal computing leader. The merger opposition was led by [[Walter Hewlett]], son of original founder William Hewlett.
Hewlett-Packard is a supporter of [[FOSS]] and [[Linux]]. Some HP employees, such as Linux CTO and former [[Debian]] Project Leader Bdale Garbee actively contribute &ndash; a few have official Open Source job responsibilities. Many others participate in the Open Source community as unpaid volunteers. HP is also known in the (GNU/)Linux community for releasing drivers for many of their printers under the [[GNU GPL]].
Hewlett-Packard also works extensively with [[Microsoft]] and uses technology from most major software and hardware vendors.
Other HP products/technologies include:
* [[Inkjet printer|Inkjet]] and [[LaserJet]] printers, consumables and related products.
* the [[HP-UX]] and [[Tru64]] [[operating system]]s (two [[Unix|UNIX]] implementations, the second from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]])
* the [[OpenVMS]] large-scale, highly-available server operating system (from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]])
* the [[Tandem Computers|NonStop]] high-reliability architecture and operating system (from [[Tandem Computers]])
* the [[PA-RISC family|PA-RISC]] [[processor architecture]]
* the [[IA64]] processor architecture (with [[Intel]])
* the [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] processor architecture (from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]])
* the [[HP 9000]] line of [[server]]s and [[workstation]]s
* the [[ProLiant]] line of x86 based servers (from Compaq)
* the [[UDC (Utility Data Center)]]
* the [[OpenView]] family of [[management software]]
* the Storage [http://welcome.hp.com/country/us/en/prodserv/storage.html] product line, which includes business class and enterprise class data storage and protection products.
* the ProCurve [http://www.hp.com/rnd/index.htm] family of network switches, wireless access points, and routers.
* the [[Indigo Digital Press]]
[[Image:HPLaptopzv6000series.jpg|thumb|left|A modern mid-range HP Laptop; the HP Pavilion zv6115EA.]]
HP has a successful line of printers, scanners, digital cameras, calculators, PDAs, servers, workstations, and home-small business computers. Until recently HP even offered a re-branded version of [[Apple Computer|Apple's]] famous [[Apple iPod|iPod]]. HP today promotes itself as not just being a hardware and software company, but also one that offers a full range of services to architect, implement and support today's IT infrastructure.
In [[2003]], HP had 140,000 [[employee]]s world wide. From July 1999 to [[February 9]], [[2005]], the chairman and [[CEO]] was [[Carly Fiorina]], the first woman ever to serve as CEO of a company included in the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]]. Amid controversy over her performance and threats of reductions in her responsibilities by the HP Board of Directors, Fiorina was eventually forced to resign. The current non-executive chairman is Patricia C. Dunn. She was given this responsibility in February 2005 after Ms. Fiorina left the company. Unlike previous CEOs, [[Mark Hurd]] the new CEO of HP does not hold the position of [[Chairman]].
==Management==
* Founder and CEO: [[David Packard]] (CEO: 1964 - 1969)
* Founder and CEO: [[William Hewlett]] (CEO: 1969 - 1978)
* CEO: [[John A. Young]] (1978 - 1992)
* CEO: [[Lewis Platt]] (1992 - July 18, 1999)
* Chairman and CEO: [[Carly Fiorina]] (July 19, 1999 - February 9, 2005, Appointed chairman in 2000)
* Interim CEO: [[Robert P. Wayman]] (Feburary 10, 2005 - March 28, 2005)
* CEO: [[Mark Hurd]] (March 29, 2005 - current)
==Diversity==
Hewlett-Packard received a 100% rating on the Corporate Equality Index released by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] starting in [[2003]], the second year of the report. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by ''Working Mothers'' [[magazine]].
Hewlett-Packard is also involved in the [[NEPAD e-school programme]] to provide all schools in Africa with computers and internet access.
==Ad campaigns==
A television ad campaign for Hewlett-Packards digital photography (titled "You + HP: digital photography") has been noted for its simple special effects and choice of music. It won "Campaign of the Year" from ''Adweek'' magazine.
===Songs used in "You + HP" Campaign===
*"Picture Book" by [[The Kinks]]
*"Out of the Picture" by [[The Robins]]
*"Pictures of You" by [[The Cure]]
*"The Rainbow" by [[The Apples in Stereo]]
*"Across the Universe" by [[The Beatles]]
==Merger of AppIQ==
In [[October]] of [[2005]], Hewlett-Packard acquired the private company AppIQ. The company was founded in 2001 by Ash Ashutosh and David Chang, and offered several digital storage solutions. The company had employed up to 235 people by June 2005.
Utilizing [[CIM]], [[SMI-S]], and web architecture, the company's feature product, AppIQ StorageAuthority Suite, seamlessly integrated new modules into an existing deployment managing [[SAN]], [[DAS]], [[Network-attached storage|NAS]], [[FSRM]], databases, hosts, and backup products all at once.
The company's name is short for "Application IQ" and reflected AppIQ's belief that storage must be managed as an application-focused utility to ensure that storage infrastructure is aligned with business imperatives. Its business model included joint development and OEM alliances which allowed it to provide the broadest distribution, service, support options available, and unequalled support with vendors.
==Competitors==
Major competitors of HP in the PC business include:
* [[Dell_Inc. | Dell, Inc]]
* [[Gateway, Inc.]]
* [[Lenovo]] (Purchased [[IBM]]'s Non-server Computer Business)
* [[Sony]]
* [[Toshiba]]
Major competitors of HP in the server business include:
* [[Sun Microsystems]]
* [[IBM]]
* [[Dell_Inc. | Dell, Inc]]
==See also==
*[[List of Hewlett-Packard products]]
*[[Packard Bell]] - A similarly named but autonomous company.
==External links==
;HP
*[http://www.hp.com HP corporate homepage]
*[http://index.hpshopping.com HP online store]
*[http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/ HP History and Facts]
*[http://opensource.hp.com/ HP Open Source portal]
*[http://www.hp.com/linux HP Linux portal]
*[http://www |
of the whole adult male population of Athens could vote; but this was a bar of [[nationality]], like the present German franchise, not of economic status: however poor they were, all Athenian citizens were free to vote and speak in the Assembly. Ancient Athenian citizens made decisions directly, rather than voting for representatives.
Over time, the meaning of "democracy" has changed, and the modern definition has largely evolved since the [[18th century]], alongside the successive introduction of "democratic" systems in many nations.
[[Freedom House]] argues that there was not a single liberal democracy with universal suffrage in the world in [[1900]] although this statement is inaccurate as [[New Zealand]] achieved universal suffrage well before this date, but that today 120 of the world's 192 nations, or 62% are such democracies. They count 25 nations, or 19% of the world's nations with "restricted democratic practices" in 1900 and 16, or 8% of the world's nations today. They counted 19 constitutional monarchies in 1900, forming 14% of the world's nations, where a constitution limited the powers of the monarch, and with some power devolved to elected legislatures, and none in the presnet. Other nations had, and have, various forms of non-democratic rule. Some states have changed their regimes after 2000, for example [[Nepal]] which has become a non-democracy after the government assumed [[emergency powers]] because of defeats in the [[Nepalese civil war]].
===20th century waves of democracy===
The [[20th century]] expansion of democracy has not taken the form of a slow transition in each country, but as successive "waves of democracy", some associated with [[war]]s and [[revolution]]s. In several cases there was an explicit imposition of democracy by external military force. To some supporters of democracy, this is a 'liberation', implying that no prior consent is required. The [[World War I]] resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them nominally democratic. It did not at first affect the existing democracies: France, Britain, Belgium and Switzerland kept their system of government, the [[German Revolution|revolutionary violence]] in Germany subsided, and the democratic [[Weimar Republic]] was established. The rise of [[fascism|fascist]] movements, and fascist regimes in [[Nazi Germany]], [[Mussolini]] in Italy, [[Francisco Franco]]'s regime in [[Spain]] and [[Salazar]]'s regime in Portugal]], limited the extent of democracy in the 1930s, and gave the impression of an "Age of Dictators". The status of most [[colonies]] remained unaffected. However democracy is evident from earlier years. For example during the Second GreatAwaking, beginning in the 1790s and last for 40 years, where religion became more democractic as people shifted away from [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] ideas during the 1820s-1830s.
[[World War II]] brought a definitive reversal of this trend, in western Europe. At the time, and since, it was seen as a "Victory for Democracy", showing that democracy can be extended by military force. The [[Allied Control Council|occupation of Germany]] and its successful ‘democratisation from above’, served as a model for the later theory of [[regime change]]. However, most of Eastern Europe became part of the non-democratic [[Soviet bloc]]. Unlike World War I, the war brought [[decolonisation]], and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions.
In the decades following World War II, most western democratic nations had a [[mixed economy]] and developed a [[welfare state]], reflecting a consensus among their electorates and political parties. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, economic growth was high in both the western and ‘communist’ countries, later it declined in the state-controlled economies, and in some western countries. Economic malaise in the 1980’s contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the [[democratisation]] and [[liberalisation]] of the former Soviet bloc countries, including newly independent [[Soviet Republic]]s. To western public opinion, and to part of their population, this also was a ‘liberation’. To a large section of their population, often the majority, the resulting economic collapse, and the sudden disappearance of state health and welfare provisions was a disaster. The sense of disillusion contributed to a political backlash, the rise of [[illiberal democracy]] in [[Central Asia]], and a trend to [[authoritarian]] rule in Russia itself. The most successful of the ‘new democracies’ were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the [[European Union]]. The initial negative effects of the ‘free-market reforms’ were corrected to some extent by the re-introduction of social services and programs, although not at western European level.
Although economic systems are in theory distinct from political systems, the [[centrally planned economy]] of the communist era is no longer seen as compatible with democracy. All modern democratic societies have a free-market economy, (although not in the sense that [[libertarian]]s would accept). However, it is possible for a democratic electorate to vote for a centrally planned economy.
By 1960, the vast majority of the world's nation-states were nominally independent democracies, although the majority of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, "limited democracy", "one-party system", "two-party system", "president for life" and other forms of subterfuge. Subsequent waves of democratization brought substantial leaps toward true representative or direct democracy to nations that already claimed the title. Eastern Europe and some of Central Asia in the 90s, much of Latin America and Southeast Asia, Taiwan and S Korea in the 90s and 00's, and some Arab states, notably Lebanon and the Palestinian Authority.
==Essential elements of a democracy==
True democracy as a form of government always has the following characteristics:
* there is constrained freedom to further the public good. Stated in negative terms, limits, sometimes vigorous ones, are essential to ensure that acts that infringe upon others freedom, such as [[murder]] and [[theft]], do not occur. This may be thought of as [[negative liberty]]. Stated in positive terms, infinite freedom is of the essence to explore within, but not exceed, the boundaries defined by the edge of chaos, such as populist revolutions which identify, advocate for, and create consensus around new forms of government that can achieve both the social justice envisioned by Karl Marx and the economic prosperity envisioned by Adam Smith, but without [[fascism]], [[anomie]], or [[violence]]. This is thought of as [[positive liberty]]. <ref>Kim J. Vicente, (1999). ''Cognitive Work Analysis : Toward Safe, Productive, and Healthy Computer-Based Work''. ISBN 0805823972.</ref>
* there is a ''demos'', a group which makes political decisions by some form of collective procedure. Non-members of the demos do not participate. In modern democracies the demos is the [[nation]], and [[citizenship]] is usually equivalent to membership.
* there is a ''territory'' where the decisions apply, and where the demos is resident. In modern democracies, the territory is the [[nation-state]], and since this corresponds (in theory) with the homeland of the nation, the demos and the reach of the democratic process neatly coincide. Colonies of democracies are not considered democratic in themselves, if they are governed from the colonial [[motherland]]: demos and territory do not coincide.
* there is a ''decision-making procedure'', which is either direct, in an instances such as a [[referendum]], or indirect, of which instances include the election of a [[parliament]].
* the procedure is regarded as ''legitimate'' by the demos, implying that its outcome will be accepted. [[Legitimacy (political science)|Political legitimacy]] is the willingness of the population to accept decisions of the [[state]], its government and courts, which go against personal choices or interests. It is especially relevant for democracies, since elections have both winners and losers.
* the procedure is ''effective'' in the minimal sense that it can be used to change the government, assuming there is sufficient support for that change. Showcase elections, pre-arranged to re-elect the existing regime, are not democratic.
* the demos has a long-term ''unity'' and continuity, from one decision-making round to the next, without [[secession]] of the minority.
* in the case of nation-states, the state must be [[sovereignty|sovereign]]: democratic elections are pointless if an outside authority can overrule the result.
However, that the political philosopher [[Charles Blattberg]] has criticized the attempt to define democracy with a set of necessary and sufficient conditions. <ref>[[Charles Blattberg]], (2000). From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First'', [[Oxford University Press]], ch. 5. ISBN 0-19-829688-6.</ref>
===Four conceptions of democracy===
Among political theorists, there are at least four major contending conceptions of democracy.
On one account, called minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not “rule” because on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not very intelligent. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] articulated this view most famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy'' <ref>[[Joseph Schumpeter]], (1950). ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0061330086.</ref>. Contemporary |
cias'' (with [[Anna Moo]]) ([[2002]])
==External links==
* Authorized Website [http://members.tripod.com/~Originator_2/index.html Bo Diddley-The Originator]
[[Category:1928 births|Diddley, Bo]]
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<title>Bela Lugosi</title>
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'''Béla Lugosi''' was the stage name of [[actor]] '''Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó''' ([[October 20]], [[1882]]&ndash;[[August 16]], [[1956]]). He was born in Lugos, [[Banat]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Lugoj]], [[Romania]]), the youngest of four children of a banker. The blue-eyed actor is best known for his portrayal of [[Dracula]] in the American [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[theatre|stage]] production, and subsequent [[film]], of [[Bram Stoker]]'s classic [[vampire]] story.
==Early career in Hungary==
Lugosi started his acting career on the stage in Hungary in several [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearean]] plays and other major roles, and also appeared in several [[silent film]]s of the [[Cinema of Hungary]] under the stage name '''Arisztid Olt'''. During [[World War I]] he served as an [[infantry]] [[lieutenant]] in the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] army.
Lugosi left his native [[Hungary]] for [[Germany]] in [[1919]]. Following the collapse of [[Bela Kun]]'s [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]], left-wingers and [[trade union]]ists were persecuted including Lugosi who was persecuted following his complicity in the forming of an actor's [[labor union|union]]. In exile, he began appearing in a small number of well received films in German cinema. One of his earliest appearances for the German film industry was in the 1920 adaptation of the [[Karl May]] penned novel ''Die Todeskarawane (The Death Caravan)'' opposite the ill-fated Jewish actress [[Dora Gerson]]. Lugosi emigrated to the [[United States]] in [[1921]] and on [[June 26]], [[1931]] became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States.
==''Dracula''==
On arrival in America, the 1.85 m (6'1"), 82 kg (180 lb) Lugosi worked for some time as a laborer, then returned to the theater within the Hungarian-American community. He was spotted there and approached to star in a play adapted by [[John Balderston]] from [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel ''[[Dracula]]''. The production was very successful. Despite his excellent notices in the title role, Lugosi had to campaign vigorously for the chance to repeat his stage success in [[Tod Browning]]'s movie version of ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931]]), produced by [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]].
A persistent rumor asserts that silent-film actor [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]] was originally scheduled for this film role, and that Lugosi was chosen only due to Chaney's death. Chaney, however, was under long-term contract to [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]], and his home studio refused to release him to Universal for this project. Further, although Chaney and Browning had worked together on several projects, Browning was only a last-minute choice to direct the movie version of ''[[Dracula]]'': this film was not a long-time pet project of Tod Browning, despite some claims to the contrary.
Following the success of ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931]]), Lugosi received a studio contract with Universal.
==Typecasting==
Through his association with Dracula (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily-accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a [[horror film|horror]] villain in such movies as ''[[Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932 film)|Murders in the Rue Morgue]]'', ''[[The Raven (1935 film)|The Raven]]'' and ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' for Universal, and the independent ''[[White Zombie (movie)|White Zombie]]''.
Lugosi declined an offer to appear as The Monster in ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' because the role had no dialogue and would have concealed Lugosi beneath heavy makeup. The role was taken by the man who became Lugosi's principal rival in horror films, [[Boris Karloff]]. Several films at Universal, such as ''[[The Black Cat]]'' (1934), ''[[The Raven (1935 film)]]'' (1935), and ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' (1939) paired Lugosi with Karloff. Regardless of the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably got second billing, below Karloff. Lugosi's attitude towards Karloff is the subject of contradictory reports, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to get good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were - for a time at least - good friends.
Attempts were made to give Lugosi more heroic roles, as in ''[[The Black Cat (1934 film)|The Black Cat]]'', ''[[The Invisible Ray]]'' and a small role in the comedy classic ''[[Ninotchka]]'' opposite [[Greta Garbo]], but did not help him break out of the "type" into which he had been placed.
==Decline==
After Universal changed management in 1936, he found himself consigned, along with their entire approach to horror films, to Universal's [[B-movie|b-film unit]], at times in small roles where he was obviously used for "name value" only. In the early 1940s, Universal did not renew its contract with Lugosi, and he ended up having to contract with the [[Poverty Row]] company [[Monogram Pictures]], where he received star billing in a succession of horror, [[psycho]] and [[Mystery_fiction|mystery]] B-films produced by [[Sam Katzman]].
Later on, the acting jobs dried up and Lugosi became addicted to [[morphine]], originally prescribed him for severe back pain in the early 1940s, though he did get to recreate the role of Dracula one last time in the film ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein|Bud Abbott and Lou Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' in [[1948]].
[[Image:DraculaLugosi1931Poster.jpg|thumb|[[1931]] film poster, promoting [[Bela Lugosi]]'s genre-defining turn as Dracula.]]
Late in his life, he again received star billing in movies when [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Ed Wood]], a would-be filmmaker and fan of Lugosi's, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as ''[[Glen or Glenda]]'' (in which his role made no more sense than the rest of the movie) and as a mad scientist in ''[[Bride of the Monster]]''. During post-production of the latter, Lugosi entered treatment for his morphine addiction, and the premier of the film was ostensibly intended to help pay for his treatment expenses. The extras in the DVD release of ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' include an impromptu interview with Lugosi upon his exit from the treatment center, which provide some rare personal insights into the man.
Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, ''[[The Black Sleep]]'', for [[Bel-Air Pictures]], which was released in the summer of 1956 through [[United Artists Corp.]] with an [[a-film]] campaign that included several personal appearances. To his disappointment, however, his role in this film was of a mute, with no dialogue.
==Death and posthumous performance==
Lugosi died of a drug-related [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] on [[August 16]], [[1956]] while sitting in a chair in his [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] home. He was 73. The script for ''Final Curtain'', written by Ed Wood, was in his lap. (His role in this film was later given to [[Kenne Duncan]], and shots from that production made their way into Wood's ''Night of the Ghouls'', a sequel of sorts to "Bride of the Monster".)
Bela Lugosi was buried wearing one of the many capes from the Dracula stageplay, as per the request of his fifth wife and son, in the [[Holy Cross Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]]. While it was stated that Lugosi made no requests regarding his burial, either verbally or through his will, this appears to be urban myth; verification can be obtained from the special edition DVD of Dracula.
One of Lugosi's most infamous roles was in a movie released after he was dead. Ed Wood's ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' features footage of Lugosi interspersed with a double who looks nothing like him. Wood had taken a few minutes of silent footage of Lugosi, in his Dracula cape, for a planned vampire picture but was unable to find financing for the project. When he later conceived of ''Plan 9'', Wood wrote the script to incorporate the Lugosi footage and hired his wife's [[chiropractor]] to double for Lugosi in additional shots. The "double" can easily be spotted by the fact that he looks nothing like Lugosi and covers his face with his cape in every shot.
==Legacy==
In the [[postmodern]] period, Lugosi became the subject of a song by [[gothic rock]] band [[Bauhaus (band)|Bauhaus]] entitled "[[Bela Lugosi's Dead]]", and a couple of his worst films turned up for mocking on the televison program ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]''.
The pseudo-biographical film ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]'' ([[Tim Burton]], [[1994]]) is a sentimental interpretation of the relationship between Lugosi and Wood. Lugosi is played by [[Martin Landau]] |
Anointing of the Sick once or twice a year, usually within celebration of [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]].
In the Latin Catholic Church, the priest anoints the sick person's forehead with oil (usually in the form of a cross), saying: "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit." He then anoints the hands, while saying, "May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up." He may also, in accordance with local culture and traditions and the needs of the sick person, anoint other parts of the body, but without repeating the sacramental formula. Anointing other parts of the body was obligatory in the Western Church before the [[Second Vatican Council]] (when the sacramental form was "Through this holy anointing, may the Lord pardon you whatever sins you have committed"), and still is in the Eastern Churches. The full form of the Eastern Christian anointing requires the presence of seven priests, though this is rarely the case today.
Some Protestant churches, especially [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]], [[Charismatic]]s, and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] perform Anointing of the Sick in a form usually very different from Catholic and Orthodox practice, drawing inspiration directly from the James passage quoted above. Generally (but not necessarily) a [[Clergy|minister]] performs the rite, with no set formula, and the sick person is prayed for. The ritual is not associated with nearness to death, and there is not necessarily any reference to forgiveness of sins. Catholic theology requires that administration of the sacrament be by a validly ordained priest, and thus holds that the rite in question, though helpful, like any prayer, for the sick person, is not a valid sacrament or channel of grace.
== External links ==
*[http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Anointing.asp Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05716a.htm "Extreme Unction" (Catholic encyclopaedia)]
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<title>Abstract data type</title>
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In [[computer science]], an '''abstract data type (ADT)''' is a mathematical specification of a set of data and the set of operations that can be performed on the data. Such a data type is abstract in the sense that the focus is on the definitions of the constructor that returns an abstract handle that represents the data, and the various operations with their arguments. The actual implementation is not defined, and does not affect the use of the abstract data type.
==Examples==
ADTs typically seen in textbooks and implemented in programming languages (or their libraries) include:
*[[String (computer science)|String]]
*[[List]]
*[[Stack (computing)|Stack]]
*[[Queue]]
*[[Binary search tree]]
*[[Priority queue]]
*[[Complex number]]
==Separation of interface and implementation==
When realized in a computer program, the ADT is represented by an interface, which shields a corresponding implementation. Users of an ADT are concerned with the interface, but not the implementation, as the implementation can change in the future. (This supports the principle of [[information hiding]], or protecting the program from design decisions that are subject to change.)
The strength of an ADT is that the implementation is hidden from the user. Only the interface is published. This means that the ADT can be implemented in various ways, but as long as it adheres to the interface, user programs are unaffected.
There is a distinction, although sometimes subtle, between the abstract data type and the data structure used in its implementation. For example, a List ADT can be represented using an array-based implementation or a linked-list implementation. A List is an abstract data type with well-defined operations (add element, remove element, etc.) while a linked-list is a pointer-based data structure that can be used to create a representation of a List. The linked-list implementation is so commonly used to represent a List ADT that the terms are interchanged and understood in common use.
Similarly, a Binary Search Tree ADT can be represented in several ways: binary tree, AVL tree, red-black tree, array, etc. Regardless of the implementation, the Binary Search Tree always has the same operations (insert, remove, find, etc.)
==Built-in abstract data types==
Because some ADTs are so common and useful in computer programs, some programming languages are building implementations of ADTs into the language as native types or adding them into their standard libraries. For instance, Perl arrays can be thought of as an implementation of the List or Deque ADTs and Perl hashes can be thought of in terms of Map or Table ADTs. The C++ Standard Library and Java libraries provides classes that implement the List, Stack, Queue, Map, Priority Queue, and String ADTs.
==Concrete examples==
===Rational numbers as an abstract data type===
For example, [[rational number]]s (numbers that can be written in the form a/b where a and b are integers) cannot be represented natively in a computer. A Rational ADT could be defined as shown below.
Construction: Create an instance of a rational number ADT using two integers, a and b, where a represents the numerator and b represents the denominator.
Operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, comparison, simplify, conversion to a real (floating point) number.
To be a complete specification, each operation should be defined in terms of the data. For example, when multiplying two rational numbers a/b and c/d, the result is defined as ac/bd. Typically, inputs, outputs, preconditions, postconditions, and assumptions to the ADT are specified as well.
===Stack===
====Interface====
In a more concrete example, written in C-style notation, the interface for a [[Stack (computing) | Stack]] ADT might be:
long stack_create(); /* create new instance of a stack */
void stack_push(long stack, void *item); /* push an item on the stack */
void *stack_pop(long stack); /* get item from top of stack */
void stack_delete(long stack); /* delete the stack */
====Usage====
This ADT could be used in the following manner:
long stack;
struct foo *f;
stack = stack_create(); /* create a stack */
stack_push(stack, f); /* add foo structure to stack */
f = stack_pop(stack); /* get top structure from stack */
====Implementation variants====
The above stack ADT could be initially implemented using an array, and then later changed to a linked list, without affecting any user code.
The number of ways a given ADT can be implemented depends on the programming language. For example, the above example could be written in C using a struct and an accompanying set of data structures using arrays or linked lists to store the entries; however, since the constructor function returns an abstract handle, the actual implementation is hidden from the user. In object-oriented languages such as C++ and Java, ADTs are typically represented using the class construct where the data is represented by data members (attributes) and the operations are represented by member functions (methods). In addition, some languages such as C++ and Java provide a mechanism of enforcement (the private or protected keywords) to only allow the defined functions to operate on the data. When using object-oriented ADTs, the user can often expand the ADT by creating a subclass of the ADT.
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n [[biology]], a '''dendrite''' is a slender, typically branched projection of a nerve cell, or [[neuron]], which conducts the electrical stimulation received from other cells to and from the cell body, or [[Soma (biology)|soma]], of the neuron from which it projects. These stimulations arrive through [[synapse]]s, which are located at various points throughout the dendritic arbor.
Dendrites were once believed to merely convey stimulation passively, without [[action potential]]s and without activation of voltage-gated [[ion channel]]s. In such dendrites the [[transmembrane potential|voltage change]] that results from stimulation at a synapse will depend on the passive cable properties of the dendrite. In excitable dendrites, [[voltage gated ion channel]]s help propagate excitatory synaptic stimulation whether or not an action potential is present in the [[axon]]. Additionally, action potentials can propagate back into the dendrites once initiated in the axon in most neurons. This backpropagating action potential is mediated by the activation of voltage-gated ion channels and can interact with synaptic input to alter the synaptic activity.
The structure and branching of a neuron's dendrites strongly influences how it integrates the input from many other neurons, particularly those that input only weakly. This integration is both "temporal" -- involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession -- as well as "spatial" -- entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches or "arbors."
The term "dendrite" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''dendron'', meaning "tree".
==See also==
*[[Dendritic spine]]
*[[Synapse]]
*[[Axon]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">:'' This article describes the Dalai Lama lineage. For information on the present Dalai Lama see [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]]. For the song see [[Dalai Lama (song)]].''
[[Image:HH wave.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The [[14th Dalai Lama|14th and current Dalai Lama]], Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935) ]]
[[Image:DalaiLama-13 lg.jpg|thumb|260px|The 13th Dalai Lama, [[Thubten Gyatso]] (1876-1933)]]
In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], the successive '''Dalai Lamas''' (''taa-la'i bla-ma'') form a [[tulku]] lineage of [[Gelugpa]] leaders which trace back to [[1391]]. Tibetan Buddhists believe the Dalai Lama to be the present incarnation of [[Avalokitesvara]] ("Chenrezig" [''spyan ras gzigs''] in Tibetan), the [[bodhisattva]] of compassion. Between the [[17th century]] and [[1959]], the Dalai Lama was the head of the Tibetan government, controlling a large portion of the country from the capital [[Lhasa]]. The Dalai Lamas never had authority over every region of [[Tibet]] nor over the other sects of Tibetan Buddhism. The current Dalai Lama (the 14th) is a respected [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] religious leader and figurehead of the [[International Tibet Independence Movement]]; in English, he is often granted the [[style (manner of address)|style]] "His Holiness" (or HH) before his title.
The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug school, but this position officially belongs to the [[Ganden Tripa]] (''dga' ldan khri pa'') (Holder of the Throne of Ganden [''dga' ldan''], the first monastery established by [[Je Tsongkhapa|Tsongkhapa]] [''btsong-ka-pa''], founder of the Gelug).
The [[5th Dalai Lama]], with the support of [[Gushri Khan]], a Mongol ruler of Khökh Nuur, united Tibet by force. The Dalai Lamas continued to rule in Tibet until the [[People's Republic of China]] took direct control of the region in [[1959]]. The 14th Dalai Lama then fled to [[India]] and has since maintained a [[government in exile]]. See [[History of Tibet]] for further information.
"Dalai" means "ocean" in Mongolian, and "[[Lama]]" (''bla ma'') is the Tibetan equivalent of the [[Sanskrit]] word "[[guru]]", and so may mean "teacher" or "[[monk]]." The actual title "Dalai Lama" is best translated as "Ocean of Wisdom"; it was first bestowed by the [[Mongolia|Mongolian]] ruler [[Altan Khan]] upon Sonam Gyatso, an abbot at the Drepung monastery who was widely considered the most eminent lama of his time. Although Sonam Gyatso became the first lama to hold the title "Dalai Lama", due to the fact that he was the third member of his lineage, he became known as the "3rd Dalai Lama". The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his earlier incarnations. The title "Dalai Lama" is presently granted to each of the spiritual leader's sucessive incarnations (for example, The 14th Dalai Lama's next incarnation will hold the title "the 15th Dalai Lama"). Tibetans call the Dalai Lama ''Gyawa Rinpoche'' (''rgya ba rin po che'') meaning "Precious Victor," or ''Yeshe Norbu'' (''ye shes nor bu'') meaning "Wisdom Jewel". The 14th Dalai Lama, as well as each of his predecessors, are considered to be the incarnations of the Buddha of Compassion.
Upon the death of the Dalai Lama, his monks institute a search for the Lama's [[reincarnation]], or ''tulku'' (''sprul sku''), a small child. Familiarity with the possessions of the previous Dalai Lama is considered the main sign of the reincarnation. The search for the reincarnation typically requires a few years, which results in a gap in the list of the Dalai Lamas. The reincarnation is then brought to Lhasa to be trained by the other Lamas.
Despite its officially secular stance, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] has claimed the power to approve the naming of high reincarnations in Tibet. This decision cites a precedent set by the [[Qianlong Emperor]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]], who instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the [[Panchen Lama]] by means of a lottery which utilised a golden urn with names wrapped in barley balls. Recently, this precedent was called upon to name the Panchen Lama, who is empowered to recognize the new Dalai Lama. There is some speculation that with the death of the current Dalai Lama, the PRC will direct the selection of a successor. The current Dalai Lama has repeatedly stated that he will never be reborn inside territory controlled by the People's Republic of China [http://www.tibet.com/DL/next-reincarnation.html], and has occasionally suggested that he might choose to be the last Dalai Lama by not being reborn at all. However, he has also stated that the purpose of his repeated incarnations is to continue unfinished work and, as such, if the situation in Tibet remains unchanged, it is very likely that he will be reborn to finish his work [http://dalailama.com/page.54.htm]. Additionally, in the draft constitution of future Tibet, the institution of the Dalai Lama can be revoked at any time by a democratic majority vote of two-thirds of the Assembly. It is also worth mentioning that the 14th Dalai Lama has stated "Personally, I feel the institution of the Dalai Lama has served its purpose."[http://dalailama.com/page.54.htm].
Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama, until the 14th Dalai Lama's exile in 1959, the Dalai Lamas resided in Lhasa in the [[Potala Palace]] during winter and in the [[Norbulingka]] residence during summer. Since 1959, the Dalai Lama has resided in [[Dharamsala]] in Northern India, and the Tibetan Government in Exile has its headquarters there.
== List of Dalai Lamas ==
# [[Gedun Drub, 1st Dalai Lama|Gedun Drub]], (dge 'dun 'grub) [[1391]]-[[1474]]
# [[Gendun Gyatso, 2nd Dalai Lama|Gendun Gyatso]], (dge 'dun rgya mtsho) [[1475]]-[[1541]]
# [[Sonam Gyatso, 3rd Dalai Lama|Sonam Gyatso]], (bsod nams rgya mtsho) [[1543]]-[[1588]]
# [[Yonten Gyatso, 4th Dalai Lama|Yonten Gyatso]], (yon tan rgya mtsho) [[1589]]-[[1616]]
# [[Lobsang Gyatso, 5th Dalai Lama|Lobsang Gyatso]], (blo bzang rgya mtsho) [[1617]]-[[1682]]
# [[Tsangyang Gyatso, 6th Dalai Lama|Tsangyang Gyatso]], (tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho) [[1683]]-[[1706]]
# [[Kelzang Gyatso, 7th Dalai Lama|Kelzang Gyatso]], (bskal bzang rgya mtsho) [[1708]]-[[1757]]
# [[Jamphel Gyatso, 8th Dalai Lama|Jamphel Gyatso]], (byams spel rgya mtsho)[[1758]]-[[1804]]
# [[Lungtok Gyatso, 9th Dalai Lama|Lungtok Gyatso]], [[1806]]-[[1815]]
# [[Tsultrim Gyatso, 10th Dalai Lama|Tsultrim Gyatso]], (tshul khrim rgya mtsho) [[1816]]-[[1837]]
# [[Khedrup Gyatso, 11th Dalai Lama|Khendrup Gyatso]], [[1838]]-[[1856]]
# [[Trinley Gyatso, 12th Dalai Lama|Trinley Gyatso]], (sprin las rgya mtsho) [[1856]]-[[1875]]
# [[Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama|Thubten Gyatso]], [[1876]]-[[1933]]
# [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]], (bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho) [[1935]] - present
==See also==
*[[Oath of Refuge]] (to the Dalai Lama)
*[[History of Tibet]]
*[[Free Tibet movement]]
*[[Government of Tibet in Exile]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dalailama.com The Official Site]
*[http://news.mpr.org/features/200105/07_newsroom_dalai/bios.shtml The 13 Previous Dalai Lamas]
*[http://www.peacemakersguide.org/peace/Peacemakers/Dalai-Lama.htm Bruderhof Peacemakers Guide profile on the Dalai Lama]
*[http://www.independent-media.tv/item.cfm?fmedia_id=7628&fcategory_desc=Philosophy The Dalai Lama : A Life Less Ordinary]
[[Category:Lamas]]
[[Category:Monks and nuns]]
[[Category:Politics of Tibet]]
[[Category:Gelug]]
[[Category:Lamas]]
[[Category:Tulkus]]
[[da:Dalai Lama]]
[[de:Dalai Lama]]
[[et:D |
ex and Sussex as ransom for the king: ''Hengistus sicut dixerat, vociferatus est et omnes seniores trecenti Guorthigirni regis iugulati sunt et ipse solus captus et catenatus est et regiones plurimas pro redemptione enimae suae illis tribuit, id est Estsaxum, Sutsaxum'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/histbrit.html].
It is probable that Saxon migrants had been colonizing the area for decades, and thus Saxons already heavily populated the region before the recorded dates of Hengist and Ælle. In late Roman times, the coast was already known as '''the Saxon Shore''': “The Saxon Shore Forts were built by the Romans in the late 3rd century AD along the southeast coast of Britain to guard against increasing invasion and piracy by Germanic tribes including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes” [http://www.athenapub.com/saxshor1.htm]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles were written in a dry, terse style for the purpose of informing rather than for entertaining, in contrast to the [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] stories or the story of Beowulf. Although the Chronicle entry describing AElle were written many years later, it is a mistake to assume that it is entirely fiction.
There are no easy answers to questions such as 'Who invented the motor car’: it was a gradual process over decades. Likewise, the colonization of South East England by Germanic migrants was a gradual process. But there is a human need for simple answers to complex question. It is for this reason that myths arise. The British (Welsh) myths assume that the provinces were lost due to foul trickery by wicked rebel mercenaries, while the English myths revolve around heroic deeds by noble warriors.
Slightly more relevant is that German king Fraomar and his people were settled in Britain by the Emperor Valentinian a century before the supposed arrival of Ælle: “Another point of view which has grown up from unfortunately reading only the Saxon Chronicle, is that Continental immigration began suddenly with the ‘three keels’. The evidence of tradition, and of tribal names, shows that there had been a continual flow of population into Britain before the Roman age. The Atrebates, the Belgae, the Parisii, the Brigantes, and others, are equally familiar names on both sides of the channel. Nor was this process stopped even by Rome: it was only regulated. Rome brought over masses of troops largely recruited from the Continent, even to the Huns on the Wall. Aurelius brought multitudes of the Marcomanni to settle in Britain. Similarly did Probus, with the colonies of Vandals and Burgundians. The Franks raided the south and occupied London under Allectus. Constantine was accompanied by the king of the Alamanni - and doubtless a good following - when he came over to Britain. Valentinian removed Fraomar and his tribe of Alamanni into Britain.” [http://www.sedwards.demon.co.uk/kafs/news/Tysilio%20Flinders%20Petrie-uncut.rtf]. However, once independent Germanic (English) kingdoms were established, there was a large immigration of their tribespeople to the island of Britain.
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]
*[[Kingdom of Sussex]]
*[[Kings of Sussex]]
[[Category:510s deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]
[[de:Aelle (Sussex)]]
[[no:Aelle av Sussex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atari</title>
<id>2234</id>
<revision>
<id>42101122</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nandesuka</username>
<id>221935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.247.175.83|165.247.175.83]] ([[User talk:165.247.175.83|talk]]) to last version by DrBob</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
company_name = Atari, Inc. |
company_logo = [[Image:atari_inc.gif]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] |
foundation = [[1972]] |
location = [[New York, N.Y.]] |
key_people = [[Bruno Bonnell]], Chairman, CEO and Chief Creative Officer<br>[[Diane Price Baker]], Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer|
industry = [[Computer and video games]] |
products = ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' franchise<br />[[Driver (video game)|''Driver'']] franchise |
revenue = [[Image:red_down.png]]$468.9 million [[USD]] ([[2004]]) |
num_employees = 1800 (2005) |
homepage = [http://www.atari.com/ www.atari.com]
}}
:''For the concept ''Atari'' (&#24403;&#12383;&#12426;) in the [[board game]] of [[Go (board game)|Go]], see [[Go terms#Atari|Atari (go term)]].''
'''Atari, Inc.''' {{NASDAQ|ATAR}} is a majority owned subsidiary of ''[[Infogrames Entertainment SA]]''
(IESA), encompassing its [[North America]]n operations. Atari develops, publishes and distributes games for all major [[video game console]]s, as well as for the [[personal computer]], and is currently one of the largest third-party publishers of [[Computer and video games|video games]] in the [[United States]].
The company that currently bears the Atari name was founded in 1993 under the name '''[[GT Interactive]]'''. GT Interactive was acquired by IESA in 1999 and renamed '''Infogrames, Inc.''' Infogrames acquired the Atari brand name from its purchase of [[Hasbro Interactive]], which in turn had acquired it from [[JT Storage|JTS Corporation]], which the original Atari had merged with in 1996. Infogrames, Inc. intermittently used the Atari name as a [[brand name]] for selected titles before IESA official changed the subsidiary's name to Atari, Inc. in 2003.
The original Atari was a pioneer in [[arcade game]]s, home [[video game console]]s, and [[personal computer]]s, and its dominance in those areas made it ''the'' major force in the [[computer]] entertainment industry in the early to mid-[[1980s]]. The brand has also been used at various times by [[Atari Games]], a separate company split off in 1984.
The name of the three-pronged Atari [[logo]] is "Fuji".
==History==
[[Image:atari_logo.png|left|Original Atari logo]]
Since the early days of coin operated machines, Atari has been responsible for home consoles such as the [[Atari 2600]] (VCS); produced a series of [[Atari 8-bit family|eight-bit computers]] (Atari 400 & 800); taken part in the 16 bit computer revolution with the [[Atari ST]]; made the revolutionary (for its time) 64-bit [[Atari Jaguar]]; and released a hand held video game console, the [[Atari Lynx]].
===The 1970s: The rise of a video game empire===
[[Image:Atari2600wood4.jpg|right|thumb| An early version of the Atari ''Video Computer System''.]]Founded in the United States in 1972 by [[Nolan Bushnell]] and Ted Dabney, Atari could be credited with starting the video arcade industry with the seminal [[PONG]]. The home version of PONG, which connected to a television set, was one of the first [[video game console]]s.
Atari Inc. was originally called [[Syzygy]], an astronomical term. However, as there already existed at least one company with that name (accounts varying as to whether it was a candle company or roofing company), Bushnell wrote down several words from the game [[Go (board game)|Go]], eventually choosing ''Atari'', a term that means that a [[Rules of go#Stones|stone]] or group of stones is in danger of being taken by one's opponent. The name "Atari" is arguably also rather more memorable in terms of spelling and pronunciation for most markets.
In 1973, Atari secretly spawned a "competitor" called [[Kee Games]], headed by long-time partner Joe Keenan, to circumvent the pinball distributor's insistence on exclusive distribution deals. Though the relationship to Atari was discovered in 1974, Joe Keenan did such a good job managing the subsidiary that he was promoted to president of Atari in 1974.
Bushnell sold Atari to [[Time-Warner|Warner Communications]] in 1976 for an estimated $28&ndash;$32 million, using part of the money to buy the [[Folgers Mansion]]. He departed from the division in 1979. While part of Warner, Atari achieved its greatest success, selling millions of Atari 2600 consoles. At its peak, Atari accounted for a third of Warner's annual income and became the fastest-growing company in the history of the United States (at the time).
===The 1980s: Hurdles ahead===
Although the [[Atari 2600]] had garnered the lion's share of the home video game market, it experienced its first stiff competition in 1980 from [[Mattel|Mattel's]] [[Intellivision]], which featured ads touting its superior graphics capabilities relative to the 2600. Still, the 2600 remained the industry standard-bearer, due to its market superiority, and due to Atari featuring (by far) the greatest variety of game titles available.
However, Atari ran into problems in the early 1980s. Its [[home computer]], [[video game console]], and [[Video arcade|arcade]] divisions operated independently of one another and rarely cooperated. Faced with fierce competition and price wars in the game console and home computer markets, Atari was never able to follow on the success of the 2600. In 1982, Atari released disappointing versions of two highly publicized games, [[Pac-Man]] and [[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]], causing a pileup of unsold inventory and depressing prices. Also in 1982, Atari settled a court case with [[Activision]], a competing game developer primarily composed of disgruntled Atari ex-employees, officially opening the 2600 to third-party development. The market quickly became saturated, depressing prices further. In addition, in December 1982, Atari executives [[Ray Kassar]] and [[Dennis Groth]] were investigated for insider trading (later found to be false). Larry Emmons, employee No.3, retired in 1982. He was head of research and development of the small group of talented engineers in Grass Valley, California. The [[Atari 5200]] game console, released as a next-generation follow up to the 2600, was based on the [[Atari 800]] computer (but was incompatible with Atari 800 game cartridges), and its sale |
name>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/156.63.113.54|156.63.113.54]] ([[User talk:156.63.113.54|talk]]) to last version by Rklawton</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CaponeMugShot.jpg|200px|right|frame|FBI [[mugshot]] of Capone, 1931]]
'''Alphonse Gabriel Capone''' ([[January 17]], [[1899]] &ndash; [[January 25]], [[1947]]), popularly known as '''Al "Scarface" Capone''', was an infamous [[United States|American]] [[gangster]] in the 1920s and 1930s, although his business card reportedly described him as a used [[furniture]] dealer. A [[Naples|Neapolitan]] born in [[New York]], Capone began his career in [[Brooklyn]] before moving to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and becoming Chicago's most notorious [[crime]] figure. By the end of the 1920s, the [[FBI|Federal Bureau of Investigation]] had placed Capone on its "[[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives|Most Wanted]]" list. Capone's downfall occurred in 1931 when he was indicted and convicted by the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] for [[Tax avoidance and tax evasion|income tax evasion]] and sent to the notorious island prison [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]].
==Birth and early life==
'''''Alphonse Capone''''' was born to Gabriele Capone (1865&ndash;1920) and his wife Teresina "T(h)eresa" Raiola ([[December 28]], [[1867]]&ndash;1952) in [[Brooklyn, New York]], at the turn of the [[20th century]]. Gabriele was a [[barber]] from [[Castellammare di Stabia]], a village about twenty-five kilometers south of [[Naples]], [[Italy]]. Teresina was a [[seamstress]] and the daughter of Angelo Raiola from [[Angri]], a town in the province of [[Salerno]]. The Capones emigrated to the [[United States]] in 1894, and settled in the [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] neighborhood in Brooklyn.
The couple had seven sons and two daughters:
*Vincenzo Capone (1892&ndash;[[October 1]], [[1952]]). Called James Vincenzo Capone upon entering the United States. He left the family in 1908 to join a [[Circus (performing art) | circus]] operating in the [[Midwest]]. Served as a [[lieutenant]] in the [[U.S. Army]] during [[World War I]]. Apparently changed his name to Richard Joseph Hart shortly after his discharge. He had a career as a [[law enforcement officer]], served in the [[Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs]] and later became [[Marshal]] in [[Homer, Nebraska]].
*Raffaele Capone (1894&ndash;[[November 22]], [[1974]]). Called Ralph upon entering the United States. Later joined his younger brother in Chicago.
*Salvatore Capone (1895&ndash;[[April 1]], [[1924]]). Better known as Frank Capone, he was a representative of his brother in [[Cicero, Illinois]]. Killed by members of the local police reportedly for attempting to draw a gun while they approached him.
*Alphonse Gabriel Capone ([[January 17]], [[1899]]&ndash;[[January 25]], [[1947]]).
*Erminio Capone (1901&ndash;?). Called John or affectionately "Mimi." Served prison terms for minor offenses such as [[vagrancy (people)|vagrancy]]. Changed his last name to "Martin." Reportedly still alive in 1994.
* Umberto Capone (1906&ndash;June, [[1980]]). Called Albert. Employee of the newspaper ''Cicero Tribune'' under the ownership of his brother Al. Changed his last name to Raiola in 1942.
*Amedeo Capone (1908&ndash;[[January 31]], [[1967]]). Called Matthew. [[Tavern]] owner.
*Rose Capone.
*Mafalda Capone.
Alphonse's life of [[crime]] started early: as a teenager he joined two gangs, the Brooklyn Rippers and the Forty Thieves Juniors, and engaged in petty crime.
Capone quit high school at the age of 14 when he fought with a teacher and worked odd jobs around Brooklyn, including a [[candy]] store and a [[bowling alley]]. After his initial stint with small-time gangs, Capone joined the notorious [[Five Points Gang]] headed by [[Frankie Yale|Frankie Yale]]. It was at this time he began working as a [[bartender]] and [[Doorman|bouncer]] at Yale's establishment, the seedy Harvard Inn. It was here, at the Harvard Inn, that Capone would engage in a knife fight with a thug named Frank Gallucio after Capone had made a bold move on Gallucio's sister. Gallucio had deeply slashed Capone's right cheek with a switchblade, earning him the nickname that he would bear for the rest of his life: "Scarface," a moniker he in fact detested. Capone had instead preferred the nickname "Snorky" which meant "well-dressed" in the slang of the 1920s.
In 1918 Capone married [[Mae Coughlin]], an [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] girl, who gave him a son that year, [[Sonny Capone|Albert "Sonny" Francis Capone]]. The couple lived in [[Brooklyn]] for a year. In 1919 he lived in [[Amityville]], [[Long Island]], to be close to "Rum Row." Capone was still working for Frankie Yale and is thought to have committed at least two homicides before he was sent to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] in 1919. Yale sent his protégé to Chicago after Capone was involved in a fight with a rival gang. Yale's intention was for Capone to "cool off" there; the move primed one of the most notorious crime careers in modern American history.
==Capone in Chicago==
The Capone family moved to a small, unassuming house at 7244 South Prairie Avenue in a [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] suburb that would serve as Al Capone's first headquarters. Initially, Capone took up grunt work with [[Johnny Torrio]]'s outfit, but the elder Torrio immediately recognized Capone's talents and by 1922 Capone was Torrio's second in command, responsible for much of the [[gambling]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], and [[prostitution]] [[Racket (crime) | racket]]s in the city of Chicago.
Severely injured in an assassination attempt in 1925, the shaken Torrio returned to [[Italy]] and gave the reins of the business to Capone. Capone was notorious during [[Prohibition]] for his control of the Chicago underworld and his bitter rivalries with gangsters such as [[Bugs Moran]] and [[Hymie Weiss]]. Raking in vast amounts of money from illegal gambling, prostitution, and alcohol (some estimates were that between 1925 and 1930 Capone was making $100 million a year), the Chicago [[kingpin]] was largely immune to prosecution due to [[witness intimidation]] and the bribing of city officials, such as Chicago mayor [[William Hale Thompson|William "Big Bill" Hale Thompson]]. Capone was reputed to have several other retreats and hideouts including [[French Lick, Indiana]], [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], and [[Johnson City, Tennessee]].
In 1928, Capone bought a retreat on [[Palm Island, Florida|Palm Island]], [[Florida]]. It was shortly after this purchase that he orchestrated seven of the most notorious gangland killings of the century, the 1929 [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]]. Although details of the massacre are still in dispute, and no person has ever been charged or prosecuted for the crime, the killings are generally linked to Capone and his henchmen, especially [[Jack McGurn|Jack "Machine Gun" McGurn]], who is thought to have led the operation. By staging the massacre, Capone was trying to dispose of his arch-rival [[Bugs Moran]], who controlled gang operations on the North Side of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. Moran himself was late for the meeting and escaped otherwise certain death.
Throughout the 1920s, Capone himself was often the target of attempted murders.
==Fall of Capone==
Although Capone always did his business through front men and had no accounting records linking him to his earnings, new laws enacted in 1927 allowed the federal government to pursue Capone on [[Tax avoidance and tax evasion|tax evasion]], their best chance of finally convicting him. Pursuing Capone were Treasury agent [[Eliot Ness]] and his hand picked team of incorruptible [[U.S. Treasury]] agents "[[The Untouchables]]" and [[US Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] agent [[Frank Wilson(IRS Agent)|Frank Wilson]], who was able to find receipts linking Capone to illegal gambling income and evasion of taxes on that income.
[[Image:Capone_prison.jpg|right|frame|Capone after his release from prison. FBI file photo.]]
The trial and indictment occurred in 1931. Initially, Capone pleaded guilty to the charges, hoping for a [[plea bargain]]. But, after the judge refused his [[lawyer]]'s offers and Capone's associates failed to bribe or tamper with the [[jury]], Al Capone was found guilty on five of twenty-three counts and sentenced to eleven years in a federal prison.
Capone was first sent to an [[Atlanta]] prison in 1932. However, the mobster was still able to control most of his interests from this facility, and he was ordered to be transferred to the infamous [[California]] island prison of [[Alcatraz]] in August of 1934. Here, Capone was strictly guarded and prohibited from any contact with the outside world. With the repeal of Prohibition and the arrest and confinement of its leader, the Capone empire soon began to wither. At [[Alcatraz]], Capone went in with his cocky attitude. However, when he attempted to bribe guards, he was sent to the "hole", or solitary confinement. The same also stood for socializing, and eventually Capone's mental stability began to deteriorate. One example of his erratic behavior was that he would make his bed and then undo it, continuing this pattern for hours. Sometimes, Capone did not even want to leave his cell at all, crouching in a corner of his cell and talking to himself in gibberish. He began telling people that he was being haunted by the ghost of James Clark, a victim in the [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]]. It was apparent over time that Capone no longer posed any threat of resuming his previous gangster-related activities.
== Death and aftermath ==
Sometime in the mid-1930s, and at [[A |
k would contain a significant dose of toasty Vienna or Munich malts. Then again, there is that middle ground that would make them neither (or both).
Many German breweries, especially in [[Bavaria]], may include a pale bock in their lineup. Einbecker itself brews both a helles and a maibock. Spaten makes a golden helles known as Premium Bock that is very much worth trying. Compare it to an Ayinger maibock, which is a little deeper in color and spicier on the palate. For something really unusual in the style, Schlenklera of Bamberg, Germany, makes a rauch maibock that uses the brewery's famous smoked malt quite liberally. The label is almost identical to its regular Rauch Märzen, so read carefully.
Not surprisingly, many North American [[microbrewery|microbreweries]] that specialize in German-style brews also make pale bocks. The Gordon Biersch brewery includes a blonde bock that is mellow, malty and crisp. Pittsburgh's Church Brew Works annually wins awards in the maibock style and employs decoction mashing. Breweries in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Colorado, and North Carolina are just that produce these seasonal brews.
*Haake-Beck Maibock
*Spaten Premium Bock
*Ayinger Maibock
*Summit Maibock (USA)
*Capital Maibock (USA)
===Weizenbocks===
Not technically a bock, a weizenbock is simply a stronger dunkel weizen (dark wheat ale) - brewed "to bock strength." It includes a substantial portion of wheat malt in the grain bill, and uses a top-fermenting wheat ale yeast which lends fruity ester flavors as well as clove and phenolic/medicinal notes to the beer.
*Capital Weizen Doppelbock (USA)
*Erdinger Pikantus Weizen Bock
*Schneider Aventinus
===Doppelbocks===
The Paulaner brewery of Munich can lay claim to the creation of doppelbock as a style. A group of Italian monks from the order of St. Francis of Paula crossed the Alps and settled near the city of Munich. Devout Catholics, they followed their traditions, which meant fasting occasionally. Solid food was forbidden but liquid was not. As the monks were expert brewers, making a brew that sustained them during these periods of dubious abstinence was a logical choice. Strong and nutritious, it fit the bill perfectly, providing both physical and mental sustenance.
Strong beer, brewed with local Germanic influence, resulted in what is now doppelbock. The monks established the Paulaner brewery in 1634 (coincidently, not long after Herr Pilcher from Einbeck visited Munich). Their beer became available to the public in 1780. The beer was named Salvator (The Savior) for obvious reasons, and it carries that moniker to this day. As the beer became popular, other breweries in Bavaria brewed it with great success and adopted the "-ator" suffix for their own versions.
Doppelbock literally means "double bock" but it isn't really twice the strength of traditional bock, only marginally stronger. Doppelbocks are generally dark in color, from dark amber to dark brown, though some pale versions exist. A beer can be considered a doppelbock if its original gravity is no lower than 1.074, which ensures a beer of substantial strength and character.
Doppelbocks are quite complex. As there is virtually no hop flavor and aroma, and just enough hop bitterness to be detectable, virtually all of this style's character can be attributed to its Munich-style malt and brewing practices. Munich malts are darkened from some extra kilning and they are also rendered less fermentable, resulting in a full-bodied, dextrinous wort. The character of these flavorful malts is augmented by using time-consuming, complicated decoction mashing techniques.
Decoction mashing was the method employed before thermometers were available. It consists of raising the mash temperature through its critical stages by boiling a little of the mash at a time and re-mixing it with the main portion. Repeated several times, this ensures that the all of the enzymes are able to do their job. The extra boiling, both during decoction and in the kettle, results in caramelization and a myriad of other complicated chemical reactions that benefit the wort and ultimately the flavor of the finished beer. All of this adds up to a complex, rich brew with unparalleled malt character.
Fermentation is done slowly, as with bottom-fermenting beers, and the lagering period is lengthy, often several months in duration.
Doppelbocks are not hard to find if you have a good package store and unrestricted beer laws. The majority of bocks available are, in fact, doppels. All of the major Bavarian breweries produce a doppelbock. All are good, some are excellent. Depending on local distribution, look for Spaten, Ayinger, Paulaner, Tucher and other brands with -ator in their name. Like other bocks, these are diverse, some relying solely on lighter malts, others on an influential dose of dark malts. The darker ones have distinct caramel and chocolate notes and sometimes a faint roastiness, whereas the amber versions have a slick, clean malt palate and a little less complexity.
Some breweries really push the envelope when it comes to strength. Most doppelbocks fall in the 7 to 8.5 % ABV range but some are significantly higher. Coming in at 9.6 % ABV is Urbock 23 from the Eggenberg brewery of [[Austria]], established in 1681. The designation "23" refers to its original gravity in degrees Plato, roughly a 1.092 specific gravity. It is very pale, pure tasting and honeyish.
Stronger still is a product from the [[Hürlimann Brewery]] in [[Zürich]] known as [[Samichlaus]]. Insanely strong at about 15 % ABV, and with a starting gravity of about 1.120, it is brewed but once a year, on St. Nicholas Day, December 6. After fermentation, it is lagered until the following St. Nick's day, when it is released just in time for winter. Reddish brown in color, and rich beyond description, it retains a smooth lager character despite its potency. This beer will keep for quite some time, so if you are lucky enough to find some, cellar it.
*Auer Peccator
*Andechser Doppelbock
*Ayinger Celebrator
*Capital Blonde Doppelbock
*Capital Dark Doppelbock
*Hacker-Pschorr Animator
*Löwenbräu Triumphator
*Paulaner Salvator (original)
*Sam Adams Double Bock
*Spaten Optimator
*Tucher Bajuvator
*Weltenburger Kloster Asam Bock
===Eisbocks===
In yet another twist in strong lager production, some breweries produce eisbock. Simply put, this is a strong beer that is made into a stronger beer by freezing. As only the water portion will freeze, the beer is concentrated by the removal of the resultant ice. Generally, the beer is concentrated by only 10 % or less.
One brewery that employs this strategy is Kulmbacher of Kulmbach, Germany. The beer is known as Reichelbräu, about 10 % ABV with the signature dark doppelbock color and malty character.
Another brewery from Kulmbach, EKU, produces a strong bock called EKU 28 that uses a minimal concentrating step of freezing. The "28" is a designation of its degrees Plato, which gives the beer a strength of about 12 % ABV. It is amber in color and aromatic. EKU also makes an excellent doppelbock called Kulminator.
*Niagara Eisbock
===[[Austria]]===
In Austria Bockbeer is traditionelly brewed only around Christmas and Easter, almost every Brewery brews its own Bock then.
==See also==
*[[German beer]]
[[Category:Beer styles]]
[[Category:German beer]]
[[de:Bockbier]]
[[fr:Bock]]
[[nl:Bokbier]]
[[th:บ๊อคเบียร์]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bitter beer</title>
<id>4120</id>
<revision>
<id>15902418</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-17T13:26:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Harry R</username>
<id>63691</id>
</contributor>
<comment>changing to a redirect to 'bitter (beer)'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bitter (beer)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bantu</title>
<id>4121</id>
<revision>
<id>42098609</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:44:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nectarflowed</username>
<id>100446</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Not in the header: Bantu-associated peoples don't live just in South Africa.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Niger-Congo.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. other [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] languages and peoples (bright yellow).]]
'''Bantu''' is a general term for over 400 different [[ethnic group]]s in [[Africa]], from [[Cameroon]] to [[South Africa]], united by a common language family, the [[Bantu languages]], and in many cases common [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|custom]]s.
==History==
Dr. [[Wilhelm Bleek]] was the first person to define the term "Bantu" in his [[1862]] book ''A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages''. He proposed the [[hypothesis]] that a vast number of languages spread across central, southern, eastern, and even western Africa shared so many characteristics that they must be part of a single language group. This basic thesis is still accepted today, although there have been many modifications to the details of the theory since 1862.
The Bantu languages are very closely related considering the vast territory they cover, leading historians to believe the Bantu came to dominate sub-equatorial Africa relatively recently and quickly. This is borne out by early [[North Africa]]n and [[Middle Eastern]] sources that do not report Bantus north of [[Mozambique]] before the year 1000.
Before the Bantu, the southern half of '''Africa''' is believed to have been populated by [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] speaking people, today relegated largely to the arid regions around the [[Kalahari]] and a few isolated pockets in [[Tanzania]]. The 'Pygmy' people are the indigenous inhabitants of central Africa . Other language groups such as [[Cushitic]], and [[Afro-Asiatic |
hiapas continues to be a very tourist-friendly state, safe to the visitor.
Its anthem is called ''[[Himno a Chiapas]]''.
== History of Chiapas ==
In [[Pre-Columbian]] times Chiapas was part of the heartland of the [[Maya civilization]].
Chiapas was conquered by [[Spain]] in the early [[16th century]], and became part of the [[Viceroy|Viceroyalty]] of [[New Spain]], administered as part of the "Kingdom of Guatemala" (what is now [[Central America]]), administered from [[Antigua Guatemala]].
When Central America achieved its independence from Mexico in [[1823]], western Chiapas was annexed to Mexico. More of current day Chiapas was transferred after the disintegration of the [[Central American Federation]] in [[1842]], and the remainder of the current state taken from Guatemala in the early [[1880s]] by President [[Porfirio Díaz]].
Chiapas remained one of the parts of Mexico least affected by change, with the descendants of the Spanish continuing to exercise much control over the native Indians through such institutions as [[peonage|debt peonage]], despite attempts by the central government to abolish those practices.
In [[1868]] there was an armed native rebellion, led by the [[Tzotzil]] Maya as well as [[Tzeltal]], Tojolabal, and Ch'ol; it almost succeeded in taking [[San Cristóbal de las Casas|San Cristóbal]], then the state capital, before it was suppressed by the Mexican army.
In the twentieth century some people in Chiapas felt that their poor and largely [[Agriculture|agricultural]] area had been ignored by the government since enactment of the [[Constitution of Mexico|constitution of 1917]]. One of the chief complaints was that many Indian farmers were required to pay absentee landlords, despite the fact that since the [[1920s]] the Mexican government had been promising the peasants ownership of the land they had farmed and lived on for generations. Article 27 of the 1917 constitution guaranteed [[indigenous peoples]] the right to an "[[ejido]]" or communal land. As Mexico restructured its economy after the 1982 financial crisis the state sector shrank due to privatizations and reorganization while land reform became less of a priority (it had long since been completed in most of the country, with Chiapas as a notable exception). The Mexican government under President Carlos Salinas de Gortari sought to modernize the traditionally closed and state dominated economy and increase its openness to trade. As part of this process Mexico repealed the constitutional guarantee of communally owned ejidos for rural communities. As the North America Free Trade Agreement (welcomed by Mexico's business sector) came into effect on January 1, 1994, the indigenous peoples of Chiapas - struggling to make a living with few resources - felt increasingly left behind.
Such dissatisfaction led to the rise of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Zapatistas, or ''Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional),'' which began an armed rebellion against the federal government on [[January 1]], [[1994]] as a response to the negative implications NAFTA had for the indigenous population especially in Southern Mexico. In this year, thousands of supporters of the [[anti-globalization]] movement gathered in Chiapas, and it was from this meeting that the modern movement was born.
The group is named after the iconic revolutionary leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] who fought during the [[Mexican Revolution]] in the [[1910s]]. Zapata gained enormous respect throughout Latin America for defending the rights of the poor agricultural sector of Mexico. The Zapatistas were in principle a peaceful movement that was pushed to use the force of arms to guarantee the indigenous right to ejidos. [[Subcomandante Marcos]], the face of the Zapatistas, succeeded in attracting international attention, with the innovative use of modern information and communication technologies for the struggle of the indigenous peoples in Chiapas.
After the initial seizure of [[San Cristóbal de las Casas]] in Chiapas, the Mexican army kept the Zapatistas bottled up in their rural strongholds. Sporadic armed repression by paramilitaries that appears to have been funded by local landowners, and with which elements in the federal government may have sympathized, followed. There was a series of massacres,most notably in [[1997]] in [[Acteal massacre|Acteal]], where [[refugees]] from indigenous communities, mainly women and children, were killed, after a National Peace Accord had been signed.
In [[2000]], the EZLN renewed its revolt, declaring control of a number of villages and sending a delegation into [[Mexico City]]. While the delegation was did not obtain everything it sought due to opposition in Congress, which the support of President Vicente Fox was not able to overcome, the villages remain under Zapatista control, in large part due to the resilience of local villagers and their unwavering support of the group. In [[August 2003]], the EZLN declared all Zapatista territory an autonomous government independent of Mexico. Since then, the armed EZLN has been laying low to some extent working on the government level to implement health care and educational institutions in poor rural indigenous communities that had until then been ignored and discriminated against by the central government.
== Some Landmarks ==
The [[Cañon del Sumidero]] [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca%C3%B1%C3%B3n_del_Sumidero] is occupied now by an artificial lake, the presa (dam) Chicoasen [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicoas%C3%A9n], which produces a large percent of the electricity in Mexico. The sides of the cañon are covered with tropical vegetation.
The [[Alvarez del Toro Zoo]], ZOOMAT [http://www.ihne.chiapas.gob.mx/zoomat], in [[Tuxtla Gutierrez]], featuring local, native fauna.
The [[Lagunas de Montebello]], near [[Comitan]].
The [[Cascadas de Agua Azul]] (Blue Waterfalls), near [[Palenque]].
The Maya ruins of [[Bonampak]], in the [[Lacandon]] rainforest ([[La Selva Lacandona]]), feature probably the finest and better-known Maya murals. These are very realistic, depicting human sacrifices, music players and life at the royal court.
The [[Lacandon]] rainforest [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Selva_Lacandona] itself is an important biodiversity spot, which recently yielded one of the newest and unique plant family discovered, represented by the plant ''[[Lacandonia schismatica]]''.
The Soconusco, the south-eastern coastal region bordering Guatemala, is a hot tropical agricultural area devoted to the intensive production of [[bananas]] and [[coffee]], for the national and international markets.
Chiapas is part of the [[Ruta Maya]] or [[Gringo Trail]] that links Cancun, Belice, Tikal, [[Lake Atitlan]], [[San Cristobal de las Casas]], [[Palenque]] and other Maya archeological sites.
[[San Cristobal de las Casas]], [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Crist%C3%B3bal_de_las_Casas] is a favorite international tourist destination due to its colorful indian traditions and customs.
== Islam in Chiapas ==
Long a bastion of [[Roman Catholicism]], the rites of which are frequently [[syncretism|syncretized]] with indigenous practices and beliefs, in recent years southern Mexico has seen major inroads by various protestant and evangelical churches. In addition, since about 2000, [[Islam]] has also been gaining a foothold &ndash; some 300 [[Tzotzil]] [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s are reported to have embraced Islam in recent years, and [[San Cristóbal de Las Casas|San Cristóbal]] now boasts two [[mosques]]. For more on Islam in Chiapas, see the [[Murabitun]] article.
===External links on Muslim conversions===
*Jens Glusing, [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,358223,00.html "Praying to Allah in Mexico: Islam is gaining a foothold in Chiapas"], ''Der Spiegel Online,'' [[May 28]], [[2005]].
*Dudley Althaus, [http://hispanicmuslims.com/articles/other/southernmx.html "Islam taking root in southern Mexico"], ''Houston Chronicle,'' [[June 22]], [[2002]].
*Chris Zambelis, [http://jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369812 "Al-Qaeda's Inroads into the Caribbean"], ''Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor,'' Volume 3, Issue 20 ([[October 21]], [[2005]])
*Chris Zambelis, [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369844 "Radical Islam in Latin America"], ''Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor,'' Volume 3, Issue 22 ([[December 2]], [[2005]])
== Municipalities ==
Chiapas is subdivided into 118 municipalities ''([[Municipality|municipios]])''. See
[[municipalities of Chiapas]]
==Mormonism==
In [[Mormonism|Mormon culture]], Chiapas is the most popular traditional location of the [[Book of Mormon]] land of [[Zarahemla]], though this is not official doctrine of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]]. The popular LDS [[tourism]] service, ''[[Israel Revealed]]'', has package tours that include various spots in Chiapas.
==See also==
*[[Chiapas Media Project]]
==External links==
*[http://www.turismochiapas.gob.mx Chiapas Tourism website] (Español, English, Français, Deutsch, Italiano)
*[http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,358223,00.html Islam is Gaining Foothold in Chiapas] (English)
{{States of Mexico}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chrysler Building</title>
<id>6788</id>
<revision>
<id>41066560</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:10:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.75.86.162</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>This building was only the world's tallest from 1930-31, not until |
directly to the target article, as it is reported that redirects lower search engine rankings.
'''''See also''': [[Wikipedia:Template messages/Redirect pages]] which contains a somewhat longer list of available redirect templates''
=== Renamings and merges ===
We try to avoid broken links, because they annoy visitors. Therefore, if we change the layout of some section of Wikipedia, or we merge two [[wikipedia:duplicate articles|duplicate articles]], we always leave redirects in the old location to point to the new location. Search engines and visitors will probably have linked to ''that'' page at ''that'' url. If the page is deleted, potential new visitors from search engines will be greeted with an edit window. The same is true for anyone who previously bookmarked ''that'' page, and so on.
On a small scale, this applies to cases where we had duplicate articles on some subject, or lots of twisty little stubs on different aspects of the same overall subject. On a larger scale, we've had a few fairly major reorganisations:
* Moving away from [[CamelCase]] article names
* Moving away from having homepages in the article namespace (see [[User:Tim Starling/Redirects from : to User:]] for a partial list)
* Moving away from using [[wikipedia:subpages|subpages]] in the article namespace
== When should we delete a redirect? ==
To delete a redirect '''without replacing it with a new article''', list it on [[wikipedia:redirects for deletion|redirects for deletion]]. See [[wikipedia:deletion policy|deletion policy]] for details on how to nominate pages for deletion.
This isn't necessary if you just want to replace a redirect with an article, or change where it points: see [[meta:redirect#How do I change a redirect?|How do I change a redirect?]] for instructions on how to do this. If you want to ''swap'' a redirect and an article, but are not able to move the article to the location of the redirect please use [[Wikipedia:Requested moves]] to request help from an [[Wikipedia:Administrators|admin]] in doing that.
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== What needs to be done on pages that are targets of redirects? ==
We follow the "[[Wikipedia:Guide to writing better articles#Principle of least astonishment|principle of least astonishment]]" &mdash; after following a redirect, the readers's first question is likely to be: "hang on ... I wanted to read about ''this''. Why has the link taken me to ''that''?". Make it clear to the reader that they ''have'' arrived in the right place.
Normally, we try to make sure that all "inbound redirects" are mentioned in the first couple of paragraphs of the article. For example:
* '''Longships''' were boats used by the Vikings...
** [[longship]], redirect from [[viking ship]]
* '''Edvard Munch''' ([[1863]]&ndash;[[1944]]) was ... The broadest collection of his works is at on display at the Munch Museum at...
** [[Edvard Munch]], redirect from [[Munch Museum]]
Don't cause a [[Wikipedia:Double redirects|secondary redirect]]. They don't work like a primary redirect; same with tertiary redirects.
== Self-links, duplicate links ==
Avoid [[Wikipedia:Self link|self-links]], including self-links through redirects ("loop links"). Also, avoid having two links that go to the same place. These can confuse readers, and cause them to unnecessarily load the same page twice.
== Don't fix redirects that aren't broken ==
Some editors are tempted, upon finding links using a legitimate redirect target, to edit the page to "fix" the redirect so that it points "straight" at the "correct" page. Unless the link ''displays'' incorrectly—for instance, if the link is to a misspelling or if the hint that appears when you hover over the link is misleading—there is no need to edit the link. Most especially, there should ''never'' be a need to replace <nowiki>[[redirect]] with [[direct|redirect]]</nowiki>.
Some editors are under the mistaken impression that fixing such links improves the capacity of the Wikipedia servers. But because editing a page is ''thousands'' of times more expensive for the servers than following a redirect, the opposite is actually true.
== See also ==
*[[Wikipedia:Soft redirect]]
*[[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|How to edit a page]]
*[[Wikipedia:How to rename (move) a page|How to rename (move) a page]]
*[[Wikipedia:Redirects for deletion|Redirects for deletion]]
*[[Wikipedia:Redirects with possibilities|Redirects with possibilities]]
*[[User:Daniel Quinlan/redirects]]-project
*[[Wikipedia:List of interwiki redirects|List of interwiki redirects]]
*[[Wikipedia:Multiple redirects]] (maintenance list for items to be fixed)
*[[Wikipedia:Speedy redirection|Speedy redirection]]
*[[Wikipedia:Redirects to be made|Redirects to be made]]
*[[Wikipedia:Disambiguation]]
[[Category:Redirects|*]]
[[Category:Wikipedia features|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Wikipedia how-to]]
[[af:Wikipedia:Aanstuur]]
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[[ko:위키백과:넘겨주기 문서]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia</title>
<id>13235</id>
<revision>
<id>35537964</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T13:44:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IMSoP</username>
<id>9876</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert: BASIC *was* based off of there, as can be seen [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BASIC_programming_language&oldid=238909 in the first revision]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{historical}}
[[Nupedia]] was a low activity [[open content]], international, peer reviewed [[encyclopedia]] project formerly run by [[Larry Sanger]]; Larry also started [[Wikipedia]] when he got the idea of supplementing Nupedia with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project. So there is a historical connection between the projects. Both [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]] are originated by [[Bomis]], a WebPortal company, so a wider management connection exists.
There is no editorial connection between the projects, however. The participants in Nupedia do not necessarily condone the contents or methods of [[Wikipedia]]--and vice-versa!
:'''Note that Nupedia is currently offline. There are no current plans to resurrect it.'''
==Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia==
To add a Nupedia article to Wikipedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate). Nupedia content is released under the [[GNU Free Documentation Licence]] (GFDL). You should note that Nupedia is the source of the article and provide a link to the original. For example:
:''<nowiki>An [http://www.nupedia.com/article/133/ earlier version] of the above article was posted on [[8 August]] [[2000]] on [[Nupedia]]; reviewed and approved by the Classics group; editor, Robert Dyer ; lead reviewer, James Allan Evans ; lead copyeditors, Charles Peyser and Jeri Bates.</nowiki>''
You may ''not'' add articles from the Nupedia chalkboard to Wikipedia, unless you have permission from the original author. Content on the Nupedia chalkboard is not covered by the GFDL.
However, content in the Nupedia ''articles-in-progress'' (see http://www.nupedia.com/aip.phtml ) do appear to qualify under the GFDL (see [[Wikipedia talk:Nupedia and Wikipedia|talk]] and [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2003-August/thread.html#11582]) so they ''can'' be ported to Wikipedia. An example citation might be:
:''<nowiki>An [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/ordiscuss_1.phtml?arean=biology&id=700
earlier version] of the above article was in review as of [[6 June]] [[2001]] on [[Nupedia]]. It was written by Claus Wilke. It was not officially approved in Nupedia, but was at the "open review" step by the Biology group: lead reviewer, Gaytha Langlois ; with the assistance of other area(s): Computers.</nowiki>''
=== Articles copied to Wikipedia ===
[[Bacterium]]
-- [[BASIC programming language]]
-- [[Case-based reasoning]]
-- [[Charles S. Peirce]]
-- [[Computation]]
-- [[Donegal fiddle tradition]]
-- [[Foot-and-mouth disease]]
-- [[Functional programming]] (needs merging)
-- [[Genotype-phenotype distinction|Genotype and phenotype]]
-- [[Herodotus|Herodotus of Halicarnassus]]
-- [[Hydatius]]
-- [[Imperative programming]]
-- [[Irish traditional music]]
-- [[Karl Raimund Popper]] (needs merging)
-- [[Plasmid]]
-- [[Polymerase chain reaction]]
-- [[Procopius of Caesarea]]
-- [[Pylos]]
-- [[Quasispecies model]]
-- [[SNOBOL|SNOBOL4]]
-- [[Virgil]]
=== Articles copied but effectively completely rewritten ===
[[Atonality]]
=== Articles not (yet) copied to Wikipedia ===
[[Classical Era (Music)]]
-- [[source code]]
=== Articles that Wikipedia has not copied===
* [[New Zealand]] - The CIA World Factbook provided a better base for improvement
=== Articles from ''articles in progress'' copied to Wikipedia ===
[[Fitness landscape]]
=== Articles from ''articles in progress'' not (yet) copied to Wikipedia ===
See: http://www.nupedia.com/aip.phtml
----
Outdated-but-related links (for more like these, see [[meta:Historical Wikipedia pages]])
* [[meta:Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia|Adding Wikipedia articles |
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Radiate gluon.jpg|thumb|right|In this [[Feynman diagram]], [[electron]]s [[annihilate]] and become a [[quark]]-[[antiquark]] pair. Then one '''radiates''' a [[gluon]]. (Time goes left to right.)]]
[[Image:Feynman-Diagram.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Feynman diagram of scalar bosons interacting via a gauge boson]]
A '''Feynman diagram''' is a method for performing calculations in [[quantum field theory]], invented by American [[physicist]] [[Richard Feynman]]. They are also (rarely) referred to as ''Stückelberg diagrams'' or (for a subset of special cases) ''penguin diagrams''.
The [[interaction]] between two particles is quantified by the [[cross section (physics) | cross section]] corresponding to their collision. If this interaction is not too large, i.e. if it can be tackled via [[perturbation theory]], this cross section (or more precisely the corresponding [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) | time evolution operator]], [[propagator]] or [[S matrix]]) can be expressed as a sum of terms (the [[Dyson series]]) which can be described as a short story in time sounding like:
* (once upon a time) two particles were moving freely with some relative speed (one draws two lines --[[ graph theory | edges ]]-- going upwards),
* they met each other (the two lines meet at a first point -- [[vertex (graph theory) | vertex]]),
* took a stroll together on a common path (the lines merge in one vertical line)
* and, then separated again (second vertex)
* but they realized their speed had changed and they were not really the same anymore (two lines are drawn upwards coming from the last vertex -- maybe in a different style for symbolizing the change experienced by the particles).
And this nice story can be drawn as a diagram (where the evolving time is the upwards direction) which is much easier to remember than the corresponding mathematical formula in the [[Dyson series]]. These diagrams are called '''Feynman diagrams'''. They are of course meaningful only if the [[Dyson series]] converges fast. Their easy story telling character and the similarity with the early [[bubble chamber]] experiments have made the Feynman diagrams very popular.
== Motivation and history ==
The problem of calculating [[scattering]] [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]]s in [[particle physics]] reduces to summing over the amplitudes of all possible intermediate states (each corresponding to one term in the [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation expansion]] which is known as the [[Dyson series]]). These states can be represented by Feynman diagrams, which are much easier to keep track of than frequently tortuous <!-- this word is not a misspelling of "torturous"; it means "convoluted" or "winding" --> calculations. Feynman showed how to calculate diagram amplitudes using so-called Feynman rules, which can be derived from the system's underlying [[Lagrangian]]. Each internal line corresponds to a factor of the corresponding [[virtual particle]]'s [[propagator]]; each vertex where lines meet gives a factor derived from an interaction term in the Lagrangian, and incoming and outgoing lines provide constraints on [[energy]], [[momentum]] and [[spin (physics)|spin]]. A Feynman diagram is therefore a symbolic notation for the factors appearing in each term of the [[Dyson series]].
However, being a perturbative expansion, [[nonperturbative]] effects do not show up in Feynman diagrams.
In addition to their value as a mathematical technology, Feynman diagrams provide deep physical insight to the nature of particle interactions. Particles interact in every way available; in fact, intermediate virtual particles are allowed to propagate faster than light. (This is due to the [[Uncertainty principle|Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle]] and does not violate [[special relativity|relativity]] for deep reasons; in fact, it helps preserve causality in a relativistic [[spacetime]].) The probability of each final state is then obtained by summing over all such possibilities. This is closely tied to the [[functional integral]] formulation of [[quantum mechanics]], also invented by Feynman&ndash;see [[path integral formulation]].
The naïve application of such calculations often produces diagrams whose amplitudes are [[infinity|infinite]], which is undesirable in a physical theory. The problem is that particle self-interactions are erroneously ignored. The technique of [[renormalization]], pioneered by Feynman, [[Julian Schwinger|Schwinger]], and [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga|Tomonaga]] compensates for this effect and eliminates the troublesome infinite terms. After such renormalization, calculations using Feynman diagrams often match experimental results with very good accuracy.
Feynman diagram and path integral methods are also used in [[statistical mechanics]].
=== Alternative names ===
[[Murray Gell-Mann]] always referred to Feynman diagrams as '''Stückelberg diagrams''', after a Swiss physicist, [[Ernst Stueckelberg | Ernst Stückelberg]], who devised a similar notation[http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2000/07/johnson.htm].
[[John Ellis (physicist)|John Ellis]] was the first to refer to a certain class of Feynman diagrams as '''penguin diagrams''', due in part to their shape, and in part to a legendary bar-room bet with [[Melissa Franklin]] (the loser reportedly had to incorporate the term "penguin" into their next research paper). [[Thorsten Ohl]]'s paper on generating Feynman diagrams with LaTeX (see the [[#External links|external links]]) illustrates their penguin-like shape.
Historically they were also called Feynman-Dyson diagrams.
== Interpretation ==
Feynman diagrams are really a graphical way of keeping track of [[deWitt notation|deWitt indices]], much like [[Penrose's graphical notation]] for indices in [[multilinear algebra]]. There are several different [[types]] for the indices, one for each field (this depends on how the fields are grouped; for instance, if the up quark field and down quark field are treated as different fields, then there would be different type assigned to both of them but if they are treated as a single multicomponent field with "flavors", then there would only be one type). The edges, (i.e. [[propagator]]s) are [[tensor]]s of [[rank of a tensor|rank]] (2,0) in deWitt's notation (i.e. with two [[contravariant]] indices and no [[covariant]] indices), while the vertices of degree n are rank n covariant tensors which are [[totally symmetric]] among all bosonic indices of the same type and [[totally antisymmetric]] among all fermionic indices of the same type and the [[tensor contraction|contraction]] of a propagator with a rank n covariant tensor is indicated by an edge incident to a vertex (there is no ambiguity in which "slot" to contract with because the vertices correspond to totally symmetric tensors). The external vertices correspond to the uncontracted [[contravariant]] indices.
A derivation of the Feynman rules using Gaussian [[functional integral]]s is given in the [[functional integral]] article.
Each Feynman diagram on its own does not have a physical significance. It's only the infinite sum over all possible (bubble-free) Feynman diagrams which gives physical results. Unfortunately, this infinite sum is only [[Asymptotic expansion|asymptotically convergent]].
== Mathematical details ==
''See main article: [[Feynman graph]]''
A Feynman diagram can be considered as a [[graph (mathematics)|graph]]. When considering a field composed of particles, the [[edge (graph theory)|edges]] will represent (sections) of particle [[world line]]s; the [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] represent virtual [[interaction]]s. Since only certain interactions are permitted, the graph is constrained to have only certain types of vertices. The type of field of an edge is its '''field label'''; the permitted types of interaction are '''interaction labels'''.
The value of a given diagram can be derived from the graph; the value of the interaction as a whole is gotten by summing over all diagrams.
== Examples ==
[[Image:Exampl2.gif|right]]
===Beta decay===
To the right is the Feynman diagram for [[beta decay]]. The straight lines in the diagrams represent [[fermion]]s, while the wavy line represents virtual [[boson]]s. In this particular case, the diagram is set in the [[manifold]] [[spacetime]], where the y-coordinate is time and the x-coordinate is space; the x-coordinate also represents the "location" for some interaction (think ''collision'') of particles. As time runs along the y-coordinate of the diagram, the [[neutrino]] looks as if it is moving backwards in time; however, that fermion is normally interpreted not as the particle travelling backwards, but its [[antiparticle]] travelling forwards in time. (There is no mathematical difference between the two concepts.) Hence the particle labelled ''neutrino'' is, in fact, an antineutrino. This applies to all particles and antiparticles.
===Quantum electrodynamics===
In [[Quantum electrodynamics|QED]], there are two field labels, called "[[electron]]" and "[[photon]]". "Electron" is oriented while "photon" is unoriented. There is only one interaction label with degree 3 called "&gamma;" to which is assigned a "photon", an "electron" "head" and an "electron" "tail".
===Real &phi;<sup>4</sup>===
In ([[real number|real]]) [[phi to the fourth|&phi;<sup>4</sup>]], there is only one field label, called "&phi;" which is unoriented. There is also only one interaction label with degree 4 called "&lambda;" to which is assigned four "&phi;"'s.
[[Image:phi4_feynrules.png]]
==See also==
* [[Stückelberg-Feynman interpretation]]
== References ==
* Gerardus 't Hooft, Martinus Veltman, ''D |
'[[Chelicerata|Chelicerates]]''' include [[spider]]s, [[mite]]s, [[scorpion]]s and related organisms. They are characterised by the presence of [[chelicerae]].
# '''[[Myriapoda|Myriapods]]''' comprise [[millipede]]s and [[centipede]]s and their relatives and have many body segments, each bearing one or two pairs of legs. They are sometimes grouped with the hexapods.
# '''[[Hexapoda|Hexapods]]''' comprise [[insect]]s and three small orders of insect-like animals with six thoracic legs. They are sometimes grouped with the myriapods, in a group called [[Uniramia]].
# '''[[Crustacean]]s''' are primarily marine (a notable exception being [[woodlouse|woodlice]]) and are characterised by having [[biramous]] appendages. They include [[lobster]]s, [[crab]]s, [[barnacle]]s, and many others.
Aside from these major groups, there are also a number of fossil forms as [[Cambropodus]], [[Anomalocarida]] and [[Euthycarcinoidea]], mostly from the lower [[Cambrian]], which are difficult to place, either from lack of obvious affinity to any of the main groups or from clear affinity to several of them.
==Related groups==
[[Image:31-Velvet Worm.JPG|thumb|left|[[Velvet worm]], a member of the Onychophora]]
At one point, it was considered that the different subphyla of arthropods had separate origins from segmented worms, and in particular that the [[Uniramia]] were closer to the [[Onychophora]] than to other arthropods. However, this is rejected by most workers, and is contradicted by genetic studies.
Traditionally the [[Annelida]] have been considered the closest relatives of these three phyla, on account of their common segmentation. More recently, however, this has been considered convergent evolution, and the arthropods and allies may be more closely related to certain [[body cavity|pseudocoelomates]] such as [[roundworm]]s that share with them growth by moulting, or [[ecdysis]]. These two possible lineages have been termed the [[Articulata]] and [[Ecdysozoa]].
<br clear="all">
== External links and references ==
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Arthropoda}}
{{commons2|Arthropoda|Arthropoda}}
*[http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/arthropodstory The Arthropod Story] (from [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ Understanding evolution] @ [http://berkeley.edu/ Berkeley.edu])
*http://www.itis.usda.gov [[Integrated Taxonomic Information System|ITIS]] TSN: 82696
* [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide] Photographs, life history information, and identification of North American terrestrial arthropods
*http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/Taxa/Arthropoda/Index.html Campbell, Reece and Mitchell. Biology. 1999
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mspiderhydraulic.html Do spiders have hydraulic legs?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
*[http://www.fossilmall.com/Cambrian_Shadows/euthycarcinoid.htm Euthycarcinoida]
*[http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/euthy.htm Euthycarcinoids]
[[Category: Arthropods]]
[[Category: Animals]]
[[bg:Членестоноги]]
[[ca:Artròpode]]
[[cs:Členovci]]
[[cy:Arthropod]]
[[da:Leddyr]]
[[de:Gliederfüßer]]
[[et:Lülijalgsed]]
[[es:Arthropoda]]
[[eo:Artropodoj]]
[[fa:بندپایان]]
[[fr:Arthropode]]
[[ga:Artrapód]]
[[gl:Artrópodo]]
[[ko:절지동물]]
[[io:Artropodo]]
[[id:Arthropoda]]
[[it:Arthropoda]]
[[he:פרוקי רגליים]]
[[la:Arthropoda]]
[[lt:Nariuotakojai]]
[[lb:Glidderfüssler]]
[[li:Gelidpoetege]]
[[nl:Geleedpotigen]]
[[ja:節足動物]]
[[no:Leddyr]]
[[pl:Stawonogi]]
[[pt:Artrópode]]
[[ru:Членистоногие]]
[[scn:Artropoda]]
[[sl:Členonožci]]
[[sr:Зглавкари]]
[[fi:Niveljalkaiset]]
[[sv:Leddjur]]
[[uk:Членистоногі]]
[[zh:节肢动物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acceleration</title>
<id>2443</id>
<revision>
<id>41664118</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:46:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Someones life</username>
<id>341311</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clarifying the 'd', as requested on talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Acceleration.png|frame|Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity, and at any point on a v-t graph, it is given by the slope of the tangent to that point]] In [[physics]], '''acceleration''' (symbol: ''a'') is defined as the rate of change (or [[derivative]] with respect to time) of [[velocity]]. It is thus a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] quantity with dimension [[length]]/[[time]]&sup2;. In [[SI|SI units]], acceleration is measured in [[Metre per second|metres/second&sup2;]].
== Explanation ==
To accelerate an object is to change its velocity in relation to time. In this strict scientific sense, acceleration can have positive and negative values &ndash; respectively called acceleration (velocity is increased) and '''deceleration''' (or retardation -- velocity is decreased) in common speech &ndash; as well as change of direction. Acceleration is a vector defined by properties of magnitude (size or mesurablility) and direction. When either speed or direction are changed, there is a change in acceleration.
Acceleration is defined technically as "the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time" and the instantaneous acceleration of an objection is given by the equation
:<math>
\mathbf{a} = {d\mathbf{v}\over dt}
</math>
where
:'''a''' is the acceleration [[vector (spatial)|vector]] (as acceleration is a vector, it must be described with both a [[direction]] and a [[magnitude]].
:'''v''' is the velocity vector
:''t'' is time
:''d'' is [[Leibniz's notation for differentiation]]
When velocity is plotted against time on a [[velocity vs. time graph]], the acceleration is given by the slope, or the [[derivative]] of the graph.
If used with [[SI|SI]] standard units (metres per second for velocity; seconds for time) this equation gives '''a''' the units of m/(s·s), or m/s&sup2; (read as "metres per second per second", or "metres per second squared").
An average acceleration, or acceleration over time, '''ā''' can be defined as:
:<math>
\mathbf{\bar{a}} = {\mathbf{v} - \mathbf{u} \over t}
</math>
where
:'''u''' is the initial velocity (m/s)
:'''v''' is the final velocity (m/s)
:''t'' is the time interval (s) elapsed between the two velocity measurements
[[Transverse]] acceleration ([[perpendicular]] to velocity) causes change in direction. If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity, we get a [[circular motion]]. For this [[centripetal acceleration]] we have
:<math> \mathbf{a} = - \frac{v^2}{r} \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} = - \omega^2 \mathbf{r}</math>
One common unit of acceleration is ''[[gee|g]]'', one ''g'' being the acceleration caused by the [[gravity]] of [[Earth]] at [[sea]] level at 45° [[latitude]] (Paris), or about 9.81 m/s&sup2;.
[[Jerk]] is the rate of change of an object's acceleration over time.
In [[classical mechanics]], acceleration <math> a \ </math> is related to [[Force (physics)|force]] <math>F \ </math> and [[mass]] <math>m \ </math> (assumed to be constant) by way of [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]]:
:<math>
F = m \cdot a
</math>
As a result of its [[invariant (physics)|invariance]] under the [[Galilean_transformation|Galilean transformations]], acceleration is an absolute quantity in [[classical mechanics]].
== Relation to relativity ==
After defining his theory of [[special relativity]], [[Albert Einstein]] realized that forces felt by objects undergoing constant acceleration are indistinguishable from those in a gravitational field, and thus defined [[general relativity]] that also explained how gravity's effects could be limited by the speed of [[light]].
If you accelerate away from your friend, you could say (given your frame of reference) that it is your friend who is accelerating away from you, although only ''you'' feel any force. This is also the basis for the popular [[Twin paradox]], which asks why only one twin ages when moving away from his sibling at near light-speed and then returning, since the aging twin can say that it is the other twin that was moving.
[[General relativity]] solved the "why does only one object feel accelerated?" problem which had plagued philosophers and scientists since Newton's time (and caused Newton to endorse absolute space). In ''special'' relativity, only [[Inertial frame of reference|inertial frames of reference]] (non-accelerated frames) can be used and are equivalent; ''general'' relativity considers ''all'' frames, even accelerated ones, to be equivalent. With changing velocity, accelerated objects exist in warped space (as do those that reside in a gravitational field). Therefore, frames of reference must include a description of their local [[spacetime]] [[curvature]] to qualify as complete.
Acceleration can be measured using an [[Accelerometer|accelerometer]].
{{Motion}}
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers | edition=6th ed. | publisher=Brooks/Cole | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0534408427}}
*{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics | edition=5th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708094}}
==External links and references==
*[http://calc.skyrocket.de/en/ Online Unit Converter - Conversion of many different units]
*[http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/labs-accomplish/2005/pulp.html Experiments on Z produced a world-record peak velocity of 34 km/s] (that is about 76,000 mph)
*[http://www.sandia.gov/media/NewsRel/NR2001/flyer.htm Magnetic field shocklessly shoots pellets 20 times faster than rifle bullet]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[bn:ত্বরণ]]
[[ca:Acceleració]]
[[cs:Zrychlení]]
[[da:Acceleration]]
[[de:Beschleunigung]]
[[es:Aceleración]]
[[eo:Akcelo]]
[[fr:Accélération]]
[[gl:Aceleración]]
[ |
ent>whatever people in Ireland may think, "British Isles" includes Ireland</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Indo-European}}
The '''Celtic languages''' are the [[language]]s descended from [[Proto-Celtic]], or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater [[Indo-European]] language family. During the [[1st millennium BC]], they were spoken across [[Europe]], from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today, Celtic languages are now limited to a few areas in the [[British Isles]], eastern [[Canada]], [[Patagonia]], scattered groups in the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], and on the peninsula of [[Brittany]] in [[France]].
Proto-Celtic apparently divided into four sub-families:
*[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] and its close relatives, [[Lepontic]] and [[Galatian language|Galatian]]. These languages were once spoken in a wide arc from [[France]] to [[Turkey]] and from [[Belgium]] to northern [[Italy]].
*[[Celtiberian Language|Celtiberian]], anciently spoken in the [[Iberian peninsula]], namely in the areas of modern [[Portugal]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]], [[Aragón]] and [[León (province)|León]].
*[[Goidelic]], including [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]].
*[[Brythonic]] (also called Brittonic), including [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], the hypothetical [[Ivernic]], and [[Pictish language|Pictish]]{{ref|Pictish}}.
Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of primary source data. Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-Celtic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group (except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic).
The Breton language is Brythonic, not Gaulish. When the [[Anglo-Saxons]] moved into [[Great Britain]], some of the native [[Brython]]s or "Welsh" (from the [[Old English language|Old English]] word for "foreigners") fled across the [[English Channel]] and landed in [[Brittany]]. They brought their Brythonic language with them, which evolved into Breton&nbsp;&mdash; which is still partially intelligible with Modern Welsh and Cornish.
The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families probably occurred about [[1000 BC]]. The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological [[Urnfield culture]], the [[La T&egrave;ne culture]], and the [[Hallstatt culture]].
==Classification==
{{Infobox Language family
|name=Celtic
|region=Originally widespread in Europe, today only [[British Isles]] and [[Brittany]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|child1=[[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]
|child2=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
}}
There are two competing schemata of categorization. One scheme, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a '''P-Celtic''' node, leaving Goidelic as '''Q-Celtic'''. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''k<sup>w</sup>'', which became *''p'' in the P-Celtic languages but *''k'' in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verb root *''k<sup>w</sup>rin-'' "to buy", which became ''pryn-'' in Welsh but ''cren-'' in [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]].
The other scheme, defended for example by McCone (1996), links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] sub-family, and Gaulish and Celtiberian as a [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] sub-family. According to this theory, the distinction of Q- and P-Celtic might have occurred independently or areally. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic {{IPA|[m]}} to {{IPA|[β̃]}}, a [[nasalization|nasalized]] [[voiced bilabial fricative]] (an extremely rare sound). There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common "Proto-Continental Celtic" ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually considers Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.
There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. Since the realization that Celtiberian was Q-Celtic in the [[1970s]], the division into Insular and Continental Celtic is the more widespread opinion.
It should be remembered, however, that this dispute is purely academic in that it concerns the relationship between modern-day groups of languages and groups that are now extinct. No serious authority disputes that the Celtic languages spoken at present divide into Goidelic and Brythonic clusters. When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, "Q-Celtic" and "P-Celtic" may be taken as synonymous with Goidelic and Brythonic, respectively (although this terminology usually implies acceptance of the overall Q-Celtic/P-Celtic hypothesis).
Within the [[Indo-European]] family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the [[Italic languages]] in a common [[Italo-Celtic]] subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely obsolete.
Assuming the Insular/Continental hypothesis, the family tree of the Celtic languages would be:
*[[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic]]
**[[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]
***[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
****[[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]
****[[Galatian language|Galatian]]
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
**[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
***[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
****[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]]
****[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]
****[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]]
*****[[Irish language|Irish]]
*****[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*****[[Manx language|Manx]]
***[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
****[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
****[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]]
****[[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]
****[[Middle Welsh language|Middle Welsh]]
*****[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
****[[British (language)|British]]
****[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]]
*****[[Breton language|Breton]]
*****[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
Assuming the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis, the Celtic family would be organised this way:
*[[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic]]
**[[P-Celtic]]
***[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
****[[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]
****[[Galatian language|Galatian]]
***[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
****[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
****[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]]
****[[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]
****[[Middle Welsh language|Middle Welsh]]
*****[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
****[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]]
*****[[Breton language|Breton]]
*****[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
**[[Q-Celtic]]
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
***[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
****[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]]
****[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]
****[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]]
*****[[Irish language|Irish]]
*****[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*****[[Manx language|Manx]]
==Characteristics of Celtic languages==
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics is necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include:
*[[Consonant_mutation|Initial consonant mutation]] (Insular Celtic only)
*Inflected [[preposition]]s (Insular Celtic only)
*[[Verb_Subject_Object|VSO]] word order as standard (Insular Celtic only)
*Two [[grammatical gender]]s (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders)
*Definite but no indefinite article (Insular Celtic only; no evidence for a definite article in Continental languages)
*Counting by twenties.
Examples:<br>
''Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.'' (Irish example)<br>
(Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.<br>
*''bhacaigh'' is the genitive of ''bacach''. The ''i'' is the genitive inflection; the ''bh'' is a mutation.
*''leat'' is the second person form of the preposition ''le''.
*The order is VSO in the second half.
''pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain'' (Welsh example)<br>
four on fifteen and four twenties
*''bymtheg'' is a mutated form of ''pymtheg'', which is ''pump'' five plus ''deg'' ten. Likewise, ''phedwar'' is mutated from ''pedwar''.
*The multiples of ten are ''deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant''.
==Mixed languages==
* [[Bungee language]], a Metis mix of [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Cree language]]
* [[Shelta]], a mix of [[Romany language]], the [[Irish language]] and [[English language|English]]
* Some forms of [[Romany language]] in Wales, also combined Romany itself with [[Welsh language]] and [[English language]] forms.
==See also==
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Celt]] (for the ancient Celts)
* [[Modern Celts]]
* [[Pronunciation of Celtic]] (on the pronunciation of this word in English)
|
rs later but remain friends.
DiFranco is currently taking time off from touring due to [[tendonitis]].
DiFranco's father died early in the summer of 2005; however she continued her summer tour as a legacy to him.
==Musical style and the "folk" label==
Many have noted a signature [[staccato]] style to DiFranco's work [http://folkmusic.about.com/od/artistsaz/p/AniD_profile.htm], [http://www.westnet.com/consumable/1997/06.11/revani.html]. Another important aspect is her skill in rapid [[fingerpicking]] and generally high ability on the acoustic guitar&mdash;notably in the song "Out of Range", appearing on the [[eponym]]ous [[Out of Range|album]]. Her lyrics have also received praise for their sophistication: [[alliteration]] (and wordplay in general) is an important component, and a more or less gentle [[irony]] fills many of her songs&mdash;especially those that deal with the intersection of the [[personal]] and [[Politics|political]]. She is known for her descriptive use of [[metaphors]]. She delivers many of her lines in a speaking style notable for its rhythmic variation. The song "Talkin' Ani DiFranco's Mom Blues," a [[talking blues]] song by [[Dan Bern]], strings together some of the most memorable lines from DiFranco's early career for comic effect.
DiFranco's music has been classified as [[folk rock]] and [[alternative rock]], but since her early albums she has reached across genres, having collaborated with a wide range of artists including the [[pop music]]ian [[Prince (artist)|Prince]], the folk musician [[Utah Phillips]], and both [[Maceo Parker|Maceo]] and [[Corey Parker]]. In various songs and albums, she has used a variety of [[musical instrument|instrument]]s as well as styles&mdash;from [[brass instrument|brass]], notably in 1998's ''[[Little Plastic Castle]]'', and [[string instrument|strings]], particularly noticeable on the live album ''[[Living in Clip]]'' and her latest studio recording, ''[[Knuckle Down]]''.
Regarding the "folk" label often applied, sometimes in qualified form, to her music, DiFranco has noted (in an interview with ''Pavement Magazine'') that "folk music is not an acoustic guitar--that's not where the heart of it is. I use the word 'folk' in reference to punk music and rap music. It's an attitude, it's an awareness of one's heritage, and it's a community. It's subcorporate music that gives voice to different communities and their struggle against authority."
==Lyrics and politics==
Much of DiFranco's material is autobiographical, in the personal lyric tradition of the singer-songwriter. Much of her material is also strongly political, concerned with contemporary social issues such as [[racism]], [[sexism]], [[sexual abuse]], [[homophobia]], [[reproductive rights]], [[poverty]], and [[war]]. The combination of these two characteristics is partially responsible for the early popularity DiFranco enjoyed among politically active college students, some of whom set up [[Fan (aficionado)|fan pages]] on the [[World Wide Web|web]] to document her career as early as 1994. Because of DiFranco's rapid rise in popularity in the mid-1990s&mdash;a rise that, with little [[Mainstream media|mainstream press]], was fueled by personal contact and word of mouth&mdash;fans often expressed a feeling of community with each other.
DiFranco has expressed political views outside of her music. During the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 U.S. presidential election]], she encouraged voting for [[Ralph Nader]] in non-[[swing state|battleground states]]. She supported [[Dennis Kucinich]] in the 2004 Democratic primaries.
==Label independence==
The success of her [[record label]], [[Righteous Babe Records]] (RBR), is also notable. Ownership of RBR allows DiFranco a great deal of artistic freedom, including the ability to release as much, and as often, as she has, and to include controversial material and language. References to her independence from major labels appear occasionally in her songs, most notably in "The Million You Never Made," which discusses the act of turning down a lucrative contract, "The Next Big Thing", a song from the early [[Not So Soft|''Not So Soft'']] album which describes an imagined meeting with a label headhunter who evaluates the singer based on her looks, and "Napoleon," on the album ''[[Dilate|Dilate]]'', which sympathises sarcastically with an unnamed friend who did sign with a label. A longstanding rumor, apparently begun by [[Spin Magazine]] in 1997, suggests that the friend addressed in "Napoleon" is the musician [[Suzanne Vega]]; Vega herself has denied this [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/rec.music.artists.ani-difranco/msg/f8cf4eef04c30307?dmode=source&hl=en].
DiFranco has occasionally joined with [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] in discussing publicly the problems associated with major record companies. DiFranco is proud of her label, which employs a number of people in her hometown of Buffalo. In a 1997 open letter to [[Ms. magazine]] [http://www.columbia.edu/~marg/ani/letter.html] she expressed displeasure that what she sees as a way to ensure her own artistic freedom, was seen by others solely in terms of its financial success.
==Recent work==
''[[Educated Guess]]'', was released on [[January 20]], [[2004]]. According to the Righteous Babe website, "not since the release of her second album back in 1991 has Ani been quite as much a solo act as she is on ''[[Educated Guess]]''."[http://www.righteousbabe.com/ani/educated_guess/more_info.asp] The only other person involved in the record was Greg Calbi, who mastered it. DiFranco did all the performance and recording herself at home, and was involved in much of the artwork and design for the packaging.
A new album, ''[[Knuckle Down]]'', was released on [[January 25]], [[2005]]. On [[July 22]], [[2005]], Righteous Babe announced by e-mail that DiFranco has developed a case of [[tendonitis]] and will take a one-year hiatus from touring, returning to the road in the summer of 2006. DiFranco had toured almost continuously in the preceding fifteen years, taking brief breaks to record studio albums. Her 2005 tour concluded with an appearance at the [[FloydFest]] [[World Music]] and genre [[Crossover (music)|crossover]] festival in [[Floyd, Virginia]].
DiFranco's former drummer, [[Andy Stochansky]], has pursued a solo career as a singer-songwriter since leaving DiFranco's band.
DiFranco performed with [[Cyndi Lauper]] on Lauper's latest collection, ''The Body Acoustic''. She also performed with fellow folk singer [[Dar Williams]] on her recent album, "My Better Self".
==Guitar Tunings==
Ani DiFranco is well-known in guitar player circles as an artist that uses a plethora of alternate tunings. Here is a partial list of alternate tunings she has employed in her music:
Standard 6-string Tunings:
* G#FA#D#GC: Bliss Like This, Raincheck (live)
* AF#BEG#C#: Raincheck (studio version)
* AADGAD: Dilate
* BF#C#F#BB: Your Next Bold Move (studio version)
* CFA#D#GG#: Callous, Parameters
* CFA#D#GA#: Sunday Morning
* CFA#D#GC: Manhole, Studying Stones, Wish I May
* CGDGCC: Your Next Bold Move (live)
* CGCFGC: Phase (studio version)
* CADGCC: Garden of Simple, So What, Subdivision
* C#F#BEG#C#: Swim (studio version)
* DACF#AD: Evolve
* DACGAD: Two Little Girls
* DACGBD: Letter to a John
* DADF#GD: Lag Time, Paradigm, Seeing Eye Dog
* DADF#AD: Anticipate (studio version)
* DADGAF: Hello Birmingham
* DADGBB: Bubble
* DADGBE: Everest
* DADGCC: Ain't That the Way
* EADGAD: Shameless
* EADGAE: Do Re Me, Recoil, Worthy
* EADGBC: Back Back Back (studio version)
* EADGBD: The Diner
* EADGCE: Nicotene
* EBBF#BE: 'Tis of Thee, Angry Anymore
* EBBGAD: Shy
* EBBGBD: Cradle and All, Done Wrong, Not a Pretty Girl
* EEEGAE: Jukebox
* FADGAE: Pixie, Swan Dive
* GGCGCD: Out of Range
Baritone Guitar Tunings:
* A#FA#D#G#G#: Grey
* A#F#A#D#F#C: Millennium Theater, School Night
* BEADF#G: Back Back Back (live)
* CGA#D#GA#: Slide
* C#FA#D#FC: Imagine That
Tenor Guitar Tunings:
* ADAD: Little Plastic Castle, Loom
==Discography==
===Studio albums===
* 1990 - ''[[Ani DiFranco (album)|Ani DiFranco]]''
* 1991 - ''[[Not So Soft]]''
* 1992 - ''[[Imperfectly]]''
* 1993 - ''[[Puddle Dive]]''
* 1994 - ''[[Out of Range]]''
* 1995 - ''[[Not a Pretty Girl]]''
* 1996 - ''[[Dilate]]''
* 1996 - ''[[The Past Didn't Go Anywhere]]'' (with [[Utah Phillips]])
* 1998 - ''[[Little Plastic Castle]]''
* 1999 - ''[[Up Up Up Up Up Up]]''
* 1999 - ''[[Fellow Workers]]'' (with Utah Phillips)
* 1999 - ''[[To the Teeth]]''
* 2001 - ''[[Revelling/Reckoning]]''
* 2003 - ''[[Evolve (album)|Evolve]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Educated Guess]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Knuckle Down]]''
===Compilation albums===
* 1993 - ''[[Like I Said: Songs 1990-91]]'' [http://www.mmguide.musicmatch.com/album/album.cgi?ALBUMID=476160&AMGLENGTH=full#review]
===Live albums===
* 1994 - ''[[Women in (E)motion]]'' (limited distribution)
* 1994 - ''[[An Acoustic Evening With]]''
* 1997 - ''[[Living in Clip]]''
* 2002 - ''[[So Much Shouting, So Much Laughter]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Atlanta - 10.9.03]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Sacramento - 10.25.03]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Portland - 4.7.04]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Boston - 11.16.03]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Chicago - 1.17.04]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Madison - 1.25.04]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Rome - 11.15.04]]''
===EPs===
* 1996 - ''[[More Joy, Less Shame]]''
* 1999 - ''[[Little Plastic Remixes]]'' (limited distribution)
* 2000 - ''[[Swing Set]]''
===Demos===
* 1989 - ''[[Demo tape (Ani DiFranco)|Demo tape]]'' (unreleased)
==Samples==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Napoleon.ogg|title="Napoleon"|description=from ''[[Dilate]]''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Little Plastic Castle.ogg|title="Little Plastic Castle"|description=from ''[[Little Plastic Castle]]''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==See also==
* [[Rig |
nd has ever appeared before or since... I was so unprepared for such a strange sight that I was really petrified with astonishment." [http://www.etcontact.net/researchers/detail107.htm] A similar shocked response has been reported by many other who claim to have seen mysterious aerial objects.
Another sighting by Tombaugh a year or two later while at a White Sands observatory was of an object of -6 magnitude, four times brighter than Venus at its brightest, going from the zenith to the southern horizon in about 3 seconds. The object executed the same maneuvers as in Tombaugh's first sighting. (Steiger, 280, reported by Hynek)
Tombaugh was also later to report having seen three of the mysterious [[Green Fireballs]], which suddenly appeared over New Mexico in late 1948 and continued at least through the early 1950s. [Despite this, the final report of [[Green Fireballs|Project Twinkle]] (see [[#External links|external link]]) claimed that he "... never observed an unexplainable aerial object despite his continuous and extensive observations of the sky".)] In 1956 Tombaugh had the following to say about his various sightings:
"I have seen three objects in the last seven years which defied any explanation of known phenomenon, such as Venus, atmospheric optic, meteors or planes. I am a professional, highly skilled, professional astronomer. In addition I have seen three green fireballs which were unusual in behavior from normal green fireballs...I think that several reputable scientists are being unscientific in refusing to entertain the possibility of [[extraterrestrial]] origin and nature." [http://virtuallystrange.net/ufo/updates/2004/sep/m20-022.shtml]
Shortly after this in January 1957, in an [[Associated Press]] article in the ''Alamogordo Daily News'' titled "Celestial Visitor's May Be Invading Earth's Atmosphere," Tombaugh was again quoted on his sightings and opinion about them. "'Although our own solar system is believed to support no other life than on Earth, other stars in the galaxy may have hundreds of thousands of habitable worlds. Races on these worlds may have been able to utilize the tremendous amounts of power required to bridge the space between the stars' ...Tombaugh said he has observed celestial phenomena which he could not explain, but has seen none personally since 1951 or 1952. 'These things, which do appear to be directed, are unlike any other phenomena I ever observed,' Tombaugh said. 'Their apparent lack of obedience to the ordinary laws of celestial motion gives credence.'" (Clark, p. 896; Alamogordo ''News'' article)
In 1949, Tombaugh had also told the Naval missile director at [[White Sands Missile Range]], Commander Robert McLaughlin, that he had seen a bright flash on Mars in August 1941, which he now attributed to an atomic blast (mentioned [[May 12]] [[1949]], in a letter from McLaughlin to Dr. [[James van Allen]]). [http://www.roswellproof.com/McLaughlin_Van_Allen_letter.html] Tombaugh also noted that the first atomic bomb tested in New Mexico would have lit up the dark side of the Earth like a neon sign and that Mars was coincidentally quite close at the time, the implication apparently being that the atomic test would have been visible from Mars.
In June 1952, Dr. [[J. Allen Hynek]], an astronomer acting as a scientific consultant to the Air Force's [[Project Blue Book]] UFO study, secretly conducted a survey of fellow astronomers on UFO sightings and attitudes while attending an astronomy convention. Tombaugh and four other astronomers told Hynek about their sightings, including Dr. Lincoln La Paz of the University of New Mexico. Tombaugh also told Hynek that his telescopes were at the Air Force's disposal for taking photos of UFOs, if he was properly alerted. (Steiger, 268 - 285)
==Near-Earth satellite search==
[[Image:Tombaugh Lapaz 3 3 1954.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Clyde Tombaugh (left) discussing search for near-Earth satellites with Dr. Lincoln La Paz (right), [[3 March]] [[1954]]. Photo from Albuquerque ''Journal'']]
Tombaugh's offer may have led to his involvement in a search for near-Earth [[satellites]], first announced in late 1953 and sponsored by the Army Office of [[Ordnance]] Research. Another public statement was made on the search in March 1954 (photo at right), emphasizing the rationale that such an orbiting object would serve as a natural [[space station]]. ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_LATimes_SciNL_1954.html articles]) However, according to [[Donald Keyhoe]], later director of the [[National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena]] (NICAP), the real reason for the sudden search was because two near-Earth orbiting objects had been picked up on new long-range radar in the summer of 1953, according to a [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] source of his.
By May 1954, Keyhoe was making public statements that his sources told him the search had indeed been successful, and either one or two objects had been found. ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_Keyhoe_May1954.html articles]) However, the story didn't really break until [[August 23]] [[1954]], when [[Aviation Week]] magazine stated that two satellites had been found only 400 and 600 miles out. They were termed "natural satellites" and implied that they had been recently captured, despite this being a virtual impossibility. The next day, the story was in many major newspapers. Dr. La Paz was implicated in the discovery in addition to Tombaugh. La Paz had earlier conducted secret investigations on behalf of the Air Force on the [[Green Fireballs]] and other unidentified aerial phenomena over New Mexico.
La Paz vehemently denied his involvement in the search, although the [[New York Times]] reported on [[August 29]] that a source close to the project said that the story was true and La Paz was indeed involved, in fact had been the one to spot and identify the objects as natural rather than artificial satellites. The same source denied the search had anything to do with [[flying saucers]]. ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_NYTIMES_1954.html N.Y. Times articles])
However, both La Paz and Tombaugh were to issue public denials that anything had been found. E.g., the May 1955 issue of [[Popular Mechanics]] magazine reported: "Professor Tombaugh is closemouthed about his results. He won't say whether or not any small natural satellites have been discovered. He does say, however, that newspaper reports of 18 months ago announcing the discovery of natural satellites at 400 and 600 miles out are not correct. He adds that there is no connection between the search program and the reports of so-called flying saucers." ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_PopMech_Oct55.html Popular Mechanics article with photo])
At a meteor conference in Los Angeles in 1957, Tombaugh reiterated that his four year search for "natural satellites" had been unsuccessful. (Los Angeles ''Times'', [[4 September]] [[1957]]) In 1959 Tombaugh was to issue a final report stating that nothing had been found in his search.
==Sources==
* Steiger, Brad, ''Project Blue Book'', 1976, Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-34525-8 (Has Dr. [[J. Allen Hynek]]'s 1952 letter to [[Project Blue Book]] about his astronomer UFO survey and Tombaugh's offer to assist the Air Force in photographing UFOs)
* Clark, Jerry, ''UFO Encyclopedia: Volume 2'', 1997
==Further reading==
* Falk, Dan, "More than a one-hit wonder", ''Astronomy'', Feb. 2006, 40-45.
* ''Clyde Tombaugh: Discoverer of Planet Pluto'', David H. Levy, Sky Publishing Corporation, March 2006
==External links==
* [http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~pbrosche/persons/pers_t.html Many biographical articles on Clyde Tombaugh]
* [http://www.ufo.se/ufofiles/issue_4/astro_uk.html Quote from Tombaugh on UFOs]
* [http://www.roswellproof.com/ramey_and_ufos.html UFO activities of Tombaugh]
* [http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/articles/pdf/13.4_swords.pdf Academic paper on Tombaugh's UFO activities and near-earth satellite search]
* [http://www.project1947.com/gfb/twinklereport.htm Final report of Project Twinkle]
[[Category:1906 births|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:1997 deaths|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:American astronomers|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:Asteroid discoverers|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:People buried in space|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:Planetary scientists|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:Pluto|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[ca:Clyde Tombaugh]]
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[[fr:Clyde William Tombaugh]]
[[id:Clyde Tombaugh]]
[[ja:クライド・トンボー]]
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[[sl:Clyde William Tombaugh]]
[[sv:Clyde Tombaugh]]
[[zh:克莱德·汤博]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crusades</title>
<id>6665</id>
<revision>
<id>34439609</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T02:08:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Member|Member]] ([[User talk:Member|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Crusade]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Christopher Báthory</title>
<id>6666</id>
<revision>
<id>26449623</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-25T15:45:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.158.132.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>edit stub tag</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christopher Bathory''' ([[1530]]-[[1581]]) was a [[prince]] of [[Transylvania]]. He succeeded his brother [[Stephen Bathory, King of Poland|Stephen Bathory]]. He was the father of [[Sigismund Bathory]].
{{euro-noble-stub}}
[ |
n of the second of the [[ten commandments]], which forbids the making and worshipping of "graven images". It has sometimes been motivated by [[christological]] or even political concerns as well.
People who engage in such practices are called '''[[iconoclast]]s''', a term that has come to be applied to any person who breaks or disdains established dogmas or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are called '''[[iconodules]]'''.
Iconoclasms can be carried out by people of a different religion, but are often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion.
Iconoclasm was a cultural product of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], and numerous (mainly peasant) revolts throughout history.
== Byzantine iconoclasm ==
A thorough understanding of the Iconoclastic Period in Byzantium is complicated by the circumstance that much of what exists as accounts and arguments of the time comes to us through the filter of the writings of the ultimate victor in the controversy: Pope Julius II, Warrior Pope, Keeper of Light. It is thus difficult to obtain a complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate account of events and various aspects of the controversy.
=== The first iconoclastic period: 730-787 ===
Sometime between 726-730 the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III]] the Syrian or "Isaurian," (reigned 717-741; born in eastern Turkey) ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the palace gate of Constantinople. At least some of those assigned to the task were murdered by a band of iconodules (see Theophanes, ''Chronographia''). Writings suggest that at least part of the reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the muslims and the eruption of the volcanic island of [[Thera]], which Leo possibly viewed as evidence of the wrath of God brought on by image veneration in the Church (according to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes). Leo is said to have described image veneration as "a craft of idolatry." He apparently forbade the worship of religious images in a 730 edict, which did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or even religious symbols such as the cross. "He saw no need to consult the church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered" (Warren Treadgold, ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Stanford University Press, 1997).
[[Germanus I of Constantinople]], the iconodule [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], either resigned or was deposed following the ban; letters Germanus wrote at the time say little of theology. "What worries Germanos is that the banning of images would only prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and so play into the hands of Jews and Muslims" (The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm, Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford University Press, 2002.) In the Western part of the Byzantine empire, [[Pope Gregory III]] held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions, with the result that Leo seized some papal lands. During this initial period concern on both sides seems to have had little to do with theology and more with practical evidence and effects. Icon veneration was forbidden simply because Leo saw it as a violation of the biblical commandment forbidding making and venerating images. There was initially no church council or prominent patriarch or bishop calling for the removal or destruction of icons. During the destruction or obscuring of images, Leo "''confiscated valuable church plate, altar cloths, and reliquaries decorated with religious figures''" (''History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Warren Treadgold, Stanford University Press, 1997), but took no severe action against the former patriarch or iconophile bishops.
Leo died in 740, but his ban on icons was dogmatically confirmed under his son [[Constantine V]] (741-775) who summoned a council in Hieria in 754 ("the Iconoclast Council") in which some 330 to 340 bishops participated. This council became known as a Robber Council due to its uncanonical nature. Edward J. Martin writes (''A History of the Iconoclastic Controversy'' , p.46), "On the ecumenical character of the Council there are graver doubts. Its president was Theodosius, archbishop of Ephesus, son of the Emperor Apsimar. He was supported by Sisinnius, bishop of Perga, also known as Pastillas, and by Basil of Antioch in Pisidia, styled Tricaccabus. Not a single Patriarch was present. The see of Constantinople was vacant. Whether the Pope and the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were invited or not is unknown. They were not present either in person or by deputy. The Council of Nicaea [II] considered this was a serious flaw in the legitimacy of the Council. 'It had not the co-operation of the Roman Pope of the period nor of his clergy, either by representative or by encyclical letter, as the law of Councils requires.' [citing [[J. D. Mansi]], XIII, 207d] The -Life of Stephen- borrows this objection from the Acts and embroiders it to suit the spirit of the age of Theodore. It had not the approval of the Pope of Rome, although there is a canon that no ecclesiastical measures may be passed without the Pope.' [citing Vit Steph, 1144c] The absence of the other Patriarchs is then noticed [Mansi above]."
The Iconoclast Council of Hieria was not the end of the matter, however. In this period complex theological arguments appeared, both for and against the use of icons. The monasteries were strongholds of icon veneration, and an underground network of iconodules was organized among monks. One Syrian monk, [[John of Damascus]], was the major opponent of iconoclasm through his theological writings. Another, [[Theodore the Studite]], wrote a letter against the emperor to Pope Paschal, an act with strong political implications. In a response recalling the later Protestant Reformation, Constantine moved against the monasteries, had relics thrown into the sea, and stopped the invocation of saints. Constantine's son, Leo IV (775-80) was less rigorous, trying to conciliate factions until near the end of his life, when he took severe measures against images and would have banned his secretly icon-venerating Athenian wife, Irene. But before that happened he died, and Irene took power as regent for her son, Constantine VI (780-97). With Irene's ascension as regent, the first Iconoclastic Period came to an end.
Irene initiated a new ecumenical council, ultimately called the [[Second Council of Nicaea]], which first met in Constantinople in 786 but was disrupted by military units faithful to the iconoclast legacy; it convened again at Nicea in [[787]] and reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council held at Constantinope and Hieria, and appropriated its title as [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]]. So there were two councils called the "Seventh Ecumenical Council," the first supporting iconoclasm, the second supporting icon veneration and negating the first. The decrees of this council, unlike those of the iconoclast council, were approved by the papacy. Eastern Orthodoxy today considers it the last genuine ecumenical council. Icon veneration lasted through the reign of [[Byzantine Empress Irene | Empress Irene]]'s successor, [[Nicephorus I]] (reigned 802-811), and the two brief reigns after his.
=== The second iconoclastic period: 814-842 ===
Emperor [[Leo V]] (reigned 813&ndash;820) instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in [[813]], again possibly moved in part by military failures seen as indicative of divine displeasure. Leo was succeeded by [[Michael II]], who in an 824 letter to Louis the Pious lamented the appearance of image veneration in the church and such practices as making icons baptismal [[Godparent|godfather]]s to infants. He confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754.
Michael was succeeded by his son, [[Theophilus (emperor)|Theophilus]]. Theophilus died leaving his wife [[Theodora, wife of Theophilus | Theodora]] regent for his minor heir, [[Michael III]]. Like Irene 50 years before her, Theodora mobilized the iconodules and proclaimed the restoration of icons in 843. Since that time the first Sunday of [[Lent]] is celebrated in the churches of the Orthodox tradition as the feast of the "Triumph of Orthodoxy".
===Issues in Byzantine Iconoclasm=== [[Image:Khludov.gif|thumb|225px|In this page of the [[Chludov Psalter]], the anti-Iconoclast minuaturist illustrated the line "They gave me gall to eat; and when I was thirsty they gave me vinegar to drink" with a picture of a soldier offering Christ vinegar on a sponge attached to a pole. Below is a picture of an Iconoclast deleting the image of Christ with a similar sponge attached to a pole.]]
What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in iconodule writings. To understand iconoclastic arguments, one must note the main points:
# Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g. painting or statue) that was intended to represent Jesus or one of the saints. The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in 754 declared: "Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (karakthr) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colours, let him be anathema! .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living |
in contrast to [[autosome]]s for body functions). These are XX in females and XY in males. In females, one of the two X chromosomes is inactive and can be seen under a microscope as [[Barr body|Barr bodies]].
{{-}}
==Human==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! Chromosome !! [[Genes]] !! [[Nucleobase|Bases]] !! Determined bases†
|-
| [[Chromosome 1 (human)|1]] || 2968 || 245,203,898 || 218,712,898
|-
| [[Chromosome 2 (human)|2]] || 2288 || 243,315,028 || 237,043,673
|-
| [[Chromosome 3 (human)|3]] || 2032 || 199,411,731 || 193,607,218
|-
| [[Chromosome 4 (human)|4]] || 1297 || 191,610,523 || 186,580,523
|-
| [[Chromosome 5 (human)|5]] || 1643 || 180,967,295 || 177,524,972
|-
| [[Chromosome 6 (human)|6]] || 1963 || 170,740,541 || 166,880,540
|-
| [[Chromosome 7 (human)|7]] || 1443 || 158,431,299 || 154,546,299
|-
| [[Chromosome 8 (human)|8]] || 1127 || 145,908,738 || 141,694,337
|-
| [[Chromosome 9 (human)|9]] || 1299 || 134,505,819 || 115,187,714
|-
| [[Chromosome 10 (human)|10]] || 1440 || 135,480,874 || 130,710,865
|-
| [[Chromosome 11 (human)|11]] || 2093 || 134,978,784 || 130,709,420
|-
| [[Chromosome 12 (human)|12]] || 1652 || 133,464,434 || 129,328,332
|-
| [[Chromosome 13 (human)|13]] || 748 || 114,151,656 || 95,511,656
|-
| [[Chromosome 14 (human)|14]] || 1098 || 105,311,216 || 87,191,216
|-
| [[Chromosome 15 (human)|15]] || 1122 || 100,114,055 || 81,117,055
|-
| [[Chromosome 16 (human)|16]] || 1098 || 89,995,999 || 79,890,791
|-
| [[Chromosome 17 (human)|17]] || 1576 || 81,691,216 || 77,480,855
|-
| [[Chromosome 18 (human)|18]] || 766 || 77,753,510 || 74,534,531
|-
| [[Chromosome 19 (human)|19]] || 1454 || 63,790,860 || 55,780,860
|-
| [[Chromosome 20 (human)|20]] || 927 || 63,644,868 || 59,424,990
|-
| [[Chromosome 21 (human)|21]] || 303 || 46,976,537 || 33,924,742
|-
| [[Chromosome 22 (human)|22]] || 288 || 49,476,972 || 34,352,051
|-
| X (sex chromosome) || 1184 || 152,634,166 || 147,686,664
|-
| Y (sex chromosome) || 231 || 50,961,097 || 22,761,097
|-
| unplaced various || ? || 25,263,157 || 25,062,835
|}
* † [[Human Genome Project]] goals called for determination of only the [[euchromatin|euchromatic]] portion of the genome. [[Telomere]]s, [[centromere]]s, and other [[heterochromatin|heterochromatic]] regions have been left undetermined, as have a small number of [[unclonable]] gaps. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/seq/]
== Chromosomal aberrations ==
[[Image:Chromosome 21.gif|In Down syndrome, chromosome 21 is affected|thumb]]
Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as [[translocations]], or [[chromosomal inversions]], although they may lead to a higher chance of having a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, [[aneuploidy]], may be lethal or give rise to genetic disorders. [[Genetic counseling]] is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement.
The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to a variety of [[genetic disorders]]. Examples include:
*[[Cri du chat]], which is caused by the [[Genetic deletion|deletion]] of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French, and the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw and are moderately to severely mentally retarded and very short.
*[[Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome]], which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by severe growth retardation and severe to profound mental retardation.
*[[Down syndrome]], usually is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 ([[trisomy 21]]). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.
*[[Edward's syndrome]], which is the second most common trisomy after Down syndrome. It is a trisomy of chromosome 18. Symptoms include mental and motor retardation as well as numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent die in infancy; however, those who live past their first birthday usually are quite healthy thereafter. They have a characteristic hand appearance with clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
*[[Patau Syndrome]], also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, but they do not have the characteristic hand shape.
*[[Jacobsen syndrome]], also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder.[http://www.11q.org] This is a very rare disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild mental retardation, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called [[Paris-Trousseau syndrome]].
*[[Klinefelter's syndrome]] (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile, and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers. Boys with the syndroms are often shy and quiet, and have a higher incidence of speech delay and [[dyslexia]]. During puberty, some of them grow breasts and get a curvy figure.
*[[Turner syndrome]] (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. People with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest.
*[[XYY]] syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their brothers. They are more likely to be hyperactive, enjoying active games. Despite what was previously believed, XYY boys are no more likely than other boys to be violent.
*[[Triple-X syndrome]] (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and are often shy. They have a higher incidence of dyslexia.
*[[Small supernumerary marker chromosome]]. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. [[Cat-eye syndrome]] and [[isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome]] are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is [[Pallister-Killian syndrome]].
A detailed graphical display of all human chromosomes and the diseases annotated at the correct spot may be found at [http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/posters/chromosome/].
==See also==
* [[Locus (genetics)|Locus]] (explains gene location nomenclature)
* [[Sex-determination system]]
** [[XY sex-determination system]]
*** [[X chromosome]]
**** [[Lyon hypothesis]]
*** [[Y chromosome]]
**** [[Y-chromosomal Adam]]
**** [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]]
* [[Genetic genealogy]]
** [[Genealogical DNA test]]
*[[Genetic deletion]]
*[[List of number of chromosomes of various organisms]]
==External links==
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/ What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?],an accessible and comprehensive look at chromosomes, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/karyotype.cfm Try making a karyotype yourself], from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chromosomes.html Kimballs Chromosome pages]
*[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/chromosomes.php Chromosome News from Genome News Network]
*[http://www.11q.org European Chromosome 11q Network]
*[http://www.chromosomehelpstation.com/eurochromnet.htm Eurochromnet], European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet
*http://www.ensembl.org [[Ensembl]] project, presenting chromosomes, their [[gene]]s and [[synteny|syntenic]] loci graphically via the web
==References==
#{{note|a}} Sakamura, T. (1918), ''Kurze Mitteilung uber die Chromosomenzahlen und die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der Triticum-Arten''. Bot. Mag., 32: 151-154.
{{Link FA|de}}
{{chromo}}
[[Category:Genetics]]
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[[ar:كروموسوم]]
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[[pl:Chromosom]]
[[pt:Cromossomo]]
[[ru:Хромосома]]
[[sk:Chromozóm]]
[[fi:Kromosomi]]
[[sv:Kromosom]]
[[th:โครโมโซม]]
[[tr:Kromozom]]
[[zh:染色體]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charge</title>
<id>6439</id>
<revision>
<id>41948516</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:48:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Charge''' is a word with many different meanings.
== Physics ==
In [[physics]], the concept of charge is derived from the observation of conserved [[quantum number]]s.
Various charge-like quantum numbers have been introduced by theories of [[particle physics]], e.g.
* [[electric charge]] for [[electromagnetic interaction]],
* [[magnetic charge]] (currently purely theoretic),
* [[colour charge]] for [[gluon]]s,
* [[quark]] charges like [[strangeness]], and
* [[isospin]] for [[electroweak interaction]]s.
In the formalism of particle theories charge-like quantum numbers can sometimes be inverted by means of a [[charge conjugation]] operator called ''C''. [[Chiral fermion]]s often cannot.
== Others ==
*to ''take charge'', or being ''in charge'' means to take or have authority and responsibility for decisions
*In [[law]]:
:# A ''criminal charge'' is an accusation before a [[court]] by a prosecuting authority
:# A ''jury charge'' is an instruction or set of instructions given by a judge to a [[jury]] concerning the law applicable to the case under consideration
* more loosely, charged or [[loaded language]] employs emotional overtones.
* In group dynamics, [[charge (group dynamics)]] is the build up of negative emotions
*In hera |
outh Georgia College]]
#[[South Mountain Community College]]
#[[South Plains College]]
#[[South Seattle Community College]]
#[[South Texas College of Law]]
#[[South Texas Community College]]
#[[Southampton College]]
#[[Southeast Missouri State University]]
#[[Southeast University]]
#[[Southeastern Illinois College]]
#[[Southeastern Louisiana University]]
#[[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]]
#[[Southern California College]]
#[[Southern College of Seventh-day Adventists]]
#[[Southern College of Technology]]
#[[Southern Connecticut State University]]
#[[Southern Cross University]]
#[[Southern Denmark Business School (HHS)]]
#[[Southern Illinois University]]
#[[Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville]]
#[[Southern Maine Technical College]]
#[[Southern Methodist University]]
#[[Southern Nazarene University]]
#[[Southern Oregon State College]]
#[[Southern Polytechnic State University]]
#[[Southern University]]
#[[Southern Utah University]]
#[[Southern Wesleyan University]]
#[[Southwest Agriculture University]]
#[[Southwest Baptist University]]
#[[Southwest Missouri State University]]
# Southwest Texas State University ([[Texas State University-San Marcos]])
#[[Southwest University of Finance and Economics]]
#[[Southwestern Adventist College]]
#[[Southwestern Assemblies of God University]]
#[[Southwestern College (Arizona)]]
#[[Southwestern College (California)]]
#[[Southwestern College (Kansas)]]
#[[Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Southwestern University]]
#[[Spartanburg Methodist College]]
#[[Spelman College]]
#[[Spring Hill College]]
#[[Springfield College]]
#[[Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering]]
#[[Sriram Engineering College, Perumalpattu,TN ,Inida]]
#[[Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering]]
#[[Srinakharinwirot University]]
#[[St John's Medical College, Bangalore]]
#[[St Aidan's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St Anne's College, Oxford]]
#[[St. Bonaventure University]]
#[[St Catherine's College, Oxford]]
#[[St Chad's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St. Cloud State University]]
#[[St Cross College, Oxford]]
#[[St Cuthbert's Society]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St Cyril and Methodius University]]
#[[St. Edmund's College]], [[Shillong]]
#[[St Edmund Hall, Oxford]]
#[[St. Edward's University]]
#[[St. Francis Xavier University]]
#[[St Hilda's College, Oxford]]
#[[St Hugh's College, Oxford]]
#[[St John's College, Cambridge]]
#[[St John's College, Durham|St John's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St John's College, Oxford]]
#[[St John's University]]
#[[St. Lawrence University]]
#[[St Louis College of Pharmacy]]
#[[St Louis University, Baguio]]
#[[St Mary's College, Durham|St Mary's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St Mary's University, Canada]]
#[[St Mary's University, Texas]]
#[[St. Norbert College|St Norbert College]]
#[[St. Olaf College]]
#[[St. Patrick's College, Maynooth]]
#[[St. Paul's College]]
#[[St Peter's College]]
#[[St Peter's College, Oxford]]
#[[St Petersburg State Polytechnical University]]
#[[St Stephens College, Delhi]]
#[[St. Stephen's University]]
#[[St. Thomas More College]]
#[[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)]]
#[[St Xavier's College]]
#[[St Andrews University]]
#[[St Patrick's College Maynooth]]
#[[Staffordshire University]]
#[[Stained Glass Craft and Fine Arts College]]
#[[Stanford University]] ([[Palo Alto, California]])
#[[Stanislaw Staszic University of Mining And Metallurgy]]
#[[State Engineering University of Armenia]]
#[[State University Lvivska Polytechnic]]
#[[State University of New York (SUNY)]]
#[[University at Albany|State University of New York at Albany]]
#[[State University of New York at Binghamton]]
#[[State University of New York at Brockport]]
#[[State University of New York at Canton]]
#[[State University of New York at Cortland]]
#[[State University of New York at Delhi]]
#[[State University of New York at Farmingdale]]
#[[State University of New York at Geneseo]]
#[[State University of New York at Morrisville]]
#[[State University of New York at New Paltz]]
#[[State University of New York at Old Westbury]]
#[[State University of New York at Oneonta]]
#[[State University of New York at Oswego]]
#[[State University of New York at Potsdam]]
#[[State University of New York at Plattsburgh]]
#[[Purchase College|State University of New York at Purchase]]
#[[Stony Brook University|State University of New York at Stony Brook]]
#[[Buffalo State College|State University of New York College at Buffalo]]
#[[Alfred State College|State University of New York College of Technology at Alfred]]
#[[State University of New York Institute of Technology]]
#[[State University of New York Maritime College]]
#[[University at Buffalo|University Center at Buffalo, State University of New York]]
#[[State University of West Georgia]]
#[[Stavanger College]]
#[[Stephen F. Austin State University]]
#[[Stephens College]]
#[[Stetson University]]
#[[Stevens Institute of Technology]]
#[[STMIK-Mikroskil]]
#[[Stockholm School of Economics]] ([[Stockholm, Sweden]])
#[[Stockholm University]] ([[Stockholm, Sweden]])
#[[Stonehill College]]
#[[Stord/Haugesund College]]
#[[Stranmillis College]]
#[[Strasbourg University]]
#[[Strayer College]]
#[[Suffolk Community College]]
#[[Suffolk University]]
#[[Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University]]
#[[Sundai College of Foreign Languages]]
#[[Sullivan University]]
#[[University of Sunderland]]
#[[Suranaree University of Technology]]
#[[Susquehanna University]]
#[[Suzhou Medical College]]
#[[Suzhou University]]
#[[Swansea University]]
#[[Swarthmore College]]
#[[Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Finland]]
#[[Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]]
#[[Sweet Briar College]]
#[[Swinburne University of Technology]]
#[[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich]]
#[[Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne]]
#[[Sydney Institute of Technology]]
#[[University of Sydney]]
#[[Syracuse University]]
#[[Szeged University]]
#[[Södertörns Högskola]]
==See also==
* [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|S]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with T</title>
<id>6493</id>
<revision>
<id>38732206</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T06:32:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.179.102.238</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- '''T''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Tabor College, Australia]]
#[[Tabor College, Kansas]]
#[[Tabriz University]]
#[[Tabriz University Of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Taegu University]]
#[[Taejeon Vocational Junior College]]
#[[Taft College]]
#[[Taipei Medical College]]
#[[Takuma National College of Technology]]
#[[Takshashila University]], [[Taxila]], [[Pakistan]]
#[[Tallinn University of Technology]]
#[[Tama Institute of Management and Information Sciences]]
#[[Tamkang University]]
#[[Tampere Institute of Technology]]
#[[Tampere University of Technology]]
#[[Tamsui Oxford University College]]
#[[Tanjore Medical College]]
#[[Tarleton State University]]
#[[Tatung Institute of Technology]]
#[[Taylor University]]
#[[Teachers College]]
#[[Teacher Training University in Tehran]]
#[[Technical University in Zvolen]]
#[[Technical University of Berlin]]
#[[Technical University of British Columbia]]
#[[Technical University of Brno]]
#[[Technical University of Budapest]]
#[[Technical University of Cluj]]
#[[Technical University of Crete (T.U.C)]]
#[[Technical University of Denmark]]
#[[Technical University of Iasi]]
#[[Technical University of Kosice]]
#[[Technical University of Madrid]]
#[[Technical University of Nova Scotia]]
#[[Technical University of Targu Mures]]
#[[Technical University of Timisoara]]
#[[Technical University of Valencia]]
#[[Technikon Southern Africa]]
#[[Technikum Vorarlberg]]
#[[Technikum Winterthur Ingenieurschule]]
#[[Technion Israel Institute of Technology]]
#[[Technische Fachhochschule Berlin]]
#[[Technische Hochschule Darmstadt]]
#[[Technische Universität Berlin]]
#[[Technische Universität Braunschweig]]
#[[Technische Universität Chemnitz-Zwickau ]]
#[[Technische Universität Clausthal]]
#[[Technische Universität Dresden]]
#[[Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg]]
#[[Technische Universität Graz]]
#[[Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg]]
#[[Technische Universität Ilmenau]]
#[[Technische Universität München]]
#[[Technische Universität Wien]]
#[[Tehran University of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Teikyo University]]
|
er]], [[Solinus]], [[Aelian]] and other naturalists.
Following the ''Physiologus'', Saint [[Isidore of Seville]] (Book XII of the ''[[Etymologiae]]'') and [[Saint Ambrose]] expanded the religious message with reference to passages from the [[Bible]] and the [[Septuagint]]. They and other authors freely expanded or modified pre-existing models, constantly refining the moral content without interest or access to much more detail regarding the factual content. Nevertheless, the often fanciful accounts of these beasts were widely read and generally believed to be true. A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the [[migration]] of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era.
The most well-known bestiary of that time is the [[Aberdeen Bestiary]]. There are many others and over 50 manuscripts survive today. (See [[List of Medieval Bestiaries]]).
In modern times, artists such as [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]] and [[Saul Steinberg]] have produced their own bestiaries. [[Jorge Luis Borges]] wrote a contemporary bestiary of sorts, the [[Book of Imaginary Beings]], which collects imaginary beasts from bestiaries and fiction. Writers of [[Fantasy]] fiction draw heavily from the fanciful beasts described in [[mythology]], [[fairy tales]], and bestiaries. The "worlds" created in Fantasy fiction can be said to have their own bestiaries. Similarly, authors of fantasy [[role-playing game]]s sometimes compile bestiaries as references, such as the ''[[Monster Manual]]'' for ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]''.
==See also==
*[[Allegory in the Middle Ages]]
*[[List of Medieval Bestiaries]]
==References==
* "[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/flowers/bestiary.html The Medieval Bestiary]", by James Grout, part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''.
* Payne, Ann. (1990) "Mediaval Beasts.''
* Hassig, Debra (1995) ''Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology.''
* Hassig, Debra, ed. (1999) ''The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature''.
* Benton, Janetta Rebold. (1992) ''The Medieval Menagerie: Animals in the Art of the Middle Ages''.
* George, Wilma and Brunsdon Yapp. (1991) ''The Naming of the Beasts: Natural History in the Medieval Bestiary''.
* Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn. (1989) ''The Bestiary and its Legacy.''
== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Bestiaries}}
* ''[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/HistSciTech.Bestiary The Bestiary:The Book of Beasts],'' [[T.H. White]]'s translation of a medieval bestiary in the [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] library.
* [http://bestiary.ca/ The Medieval Bestiary] online, edited by David Badke.
* ''[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/gks3466/index.htm The Bestiaire of Philippe de Thaon]'' at the National Library of Denmark.
* ''[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/gks1633/index.htm The Bestiary of Anne Walshe]'' at the National Library of Denmark.
* ''[http://www.abdn.ac.uk/bestiary/bestiary.hti The Aberdeen Bestiary]'' at the University of Aberdeen.
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Illuminated manuscripts]]
[[de:Bestiarium]]
[[es:Bestiario]]
[[fr:Bestiaire]]
[[he:ספר חיות]]
[[nl:Bestiarium]]
[[pl:Bestiariusz (literatura)]]
[[pt:Bestiário]]
[[ru:Бестиарий]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ballad of the Green Berets</title>
<id>4760</id>
<revision>
<id>39798275</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T23:04:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Compact allmusic URL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''"Ballad of the Green Berets"''' is a patriotic song in the [[ballad]] style about the [[Green Berets]], an elite [[Special Operations Forces|special operations force]] in the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]. The song was written by [[Robin Moore]] and [[Staff Sergeant|Staff Sgt.]] [[Barry Sadler]], while the latter was recuperating from a leg wound suffered as a medic in the [[Vietnam War]]. Moore wrote a non-fiction book, ''The Green Berets'', about the force.
The recording of the song was the number one hit in the [[United States]] for five weeks in [[1966]] and was the number 21 song of [[1960]]-[[1969]]. It has sold over nine million singles and albums. It was the top single of the year in which the [[British Invasion]], led by [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]], dominated the charts. The song is also heard in the [[John Wayne]] film ''[[The Green Berets (movie)|The Green Berets]]'', which was based on Moore's book. The score of the movie was never released as an album until [[Film score monthly|Film Score Monthly]] released it in 2005.
[[The Residents]] parodied the song on their ''[[Third Reich & Roll]]'' album. Another parody was used on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in [[1986]], "Ollie North, The Mute Marine" as a satire of [[Oliver North]] and his then-current refusal to speak up about his participation in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
[[Rhodesian]] singer-songwriter John Edmond recorded the "Ballad of the Green Berets" with reference to the soldiers of the [[Rhodesian Light Infantry]] (RLI), commando-style fireforce units of Rhodesian Security Forces who wore [[berets]] of [[green]] [[color]]. Also, in [[South Africa]], the "Ballad of the Green Berets" was recorded as the "Ballad of the Maroon Berets". Maroon is the [[beret]]'s color of [[South African Special Forces Brigade]] and [[South African 44 Parachute Regiment]].
{{anthem-stub}}
==External links==
* [http://my.homewithgod.com/heavenlymidis/USA/beret.html Full lyrics with instrumental audio (HTML)]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:7uddylk2xpsb Track listings of the album "Ballads of The Green Berets" by Ssgt. Barry Sadler]
{{American songs}}
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:1966 singles]]
[[Category:Number one singles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baroque dance</title>
<id>4763</id>
<revision>
<id>40632679</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:24:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Insouciance</username>
<id>302161</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Clean-up style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Baroque dance''' is [[dance]] of the [[Baroque]] era in [[Europe]] (roughly 1600–1750), closely linked with [[Baroque music]], theater and opera.
== English Country Dance ==
The majority of surviving choreographies from the period are [[English country dance]]s, such as those in the many editions of [[John Playford|Playford]]'s [[The Dancing Master]]. English country dance survived well beyond the Baroque era and eventually spread in various forms across Europe and its colonies, and to all levels of society. See the article on [[English country dance]] for more information.
== French Baroque Dance ==
The great innovations in dance in the 17th-century originated at the French court under [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], and it is here that we see the first clear stylistic ancestor of [[classical ballet]]. The same basic technique was used both at social events, and as theatrical dance in court ballets and at public theaters. The style of dance is now known to scholars as the ''French noble style'' or ''belle danse'' (French, literally "beautiful dance"), however the generic term ''Baroque dance'' is frequently understood to mean just the French style. The French style was also adopted widely outside of France.
Over three hundred choreographies survive in [[Beauchamp-Feuillet notation]], as well as manuals by [[Raoul Auger Feuillet]] and [[Pierre Rameau]] in France, [[Kellom Tomlinson]] and [[John Weaver]] in England, and [[Gottfried Taubert]] in Germany. This wealth of evidence has allowed modern scholars and dancers to recreate the style, although areas of controversy still exist. The standard modern introduction is Hilton<ref>Hilton, Wendy, ''Dance and Music of Court and Theater: Selected Writings of Wendy Hilton'' (Pendragon Press, 1997) ISBN 094519398X</ref>.
Many of the dance types of the French baroque are familiar from [[European classical music|classical music]]:
* [[Bourrée]]
* [[Canario (dance)|Canarie]] (canary)
* [[Chaconne]]
* [[Courante|(French) courante]]
* [[Entrée grave]]
* [[Forlane]] (forlana)
* [[Gavotte]]
* [[Gigue]]
* [[Loure]] (slow gigue)
* [[Minuet|Menuet]] (minuet)
* [[Musette]]
* [[Passacaglia|Passacaille]] (passacaglia)
* [[Passepied]]
* [[Rigaudon]]
* [[Sarabande]]
* [[Tambourin]]
The English, working in the French style, added their own [[hornpipe]] to this list.
== Other Styles ==
Other dance styles, such as the Italian and Spanish dances of the period are much less well studied than either English country dance or the French style. The general picture seems to be that during most of the 17th-century, a style close to that of late [[Renaissance dance]] was widespread, but as time progressed, French ballroom dances such as the minuet were widely adopted at fashionable courts. Beyond this, the evolution and cross-fertilisation of dance styles is an area of ongoing research.
== References ==
<references/>
[[Category:Historical dance]]
[[Category:Baroque art|Dance]]
[[fr:Danse baroque]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Borzoi</title>
<id>4764</id>
<revision>
<id>39305800</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T05:50:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bdalzell</username>
<id>921499</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Temperament */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
<!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Do |
]].
[[Image:Himmler_Hitler.jpg|thumb|right|[[Heinrich Himmler]] (left) chief of the SS, with [[Adolf Hitler]] (right)]]
=== Increasing power under the SS ===
Laws passed in 1936 effectively gave the Gestapo ''[[carte blanche]]'' to operate without judicial oversight. A further law passed in the same year declared the Gestapo to be responsible for the set-up and administration of [[concentration camp]]s. Also in 1936, [[Reinhard Heydrich]] became head of the Gestapo and [[Heinrich Müller]] chief of operations (although Müller assumed overall command after Heydrich's assassination in 1942). [[Adolf Eichmann]] was Müller's direct subordinate and head of department IV, section B4, which dealt with [[Jew]]s.
During [[World War II]], the Gestapo was expanded to around 45,000 members.
=== Keeping Hitler in power ===
By February and March 1942, student protests were calling for an end to the Nazi regime. These protests included non-violent resistance of [[Hans Scholl|Hans]] and [[Sophie Scholl]], two of the leaders of the [[White Rose]] student group. Despite the significant popular support for the removal of Hitler, resistance groups and those who were in moral or political opposition to the Nazis were stalled into inaction by the fear of reprisals from the Gestapo. In fact, reprisals did come in response to the protests. Fearful of an internal overthrow, the forces of Himmler and the Gestapo were unleashed on the opposition. The first five months of 1943 witnessed thousands of arrests and executions as the Gestapo exercised a severity hitherto unseen by the German public. Student leaders were executed in late February, and a major opposition organization, the [[Oster Circle]], was destroyed in April 1943.
The German opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943. On one hand, it was next to impossible for them to overthrow Hitler and the party. On the other hand, because of the Allied demand of unconditional surrender, and therefore no opportunity for a compromise peace, there seemed to be no other alternative but to continue the military struggle.
=== Opposition from within Germany ===
Despite fear of the Gestapo, some German people did speak out and show signs of protest during the summer of 1943. Despite the mass arrests and executions of the spring, the opposition still plotted and planned. Some Germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible, that is, to further the German defeat with all available means.
The fall of [[Benito Mussolini]] gave the opposition plotters more hope to be able to achieve similar results in Germany and seemed to provide a propitious moment to assassinate Hitler and overthrow the Nazi regime. Several Hitler assassination plots were planned, albeit mostly in abject terms. The only serious attempt was carried out under the codename [[Operation Valkyrie]], in which several of Hitler's generals attempted a [[coup d'état]]. On [[July 20]] [[1944]], Colonel [[Claus von Stauffenberg|Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg]] brought a bomb-laden suitcase into a briefing room where Hitler was holding a meeting. The bomb went off and several were killed. Hitler, along with several others, was wounded, but his life was saved by the conference table, which absorbed the blast. 7,000 people were arrested and 5,000, including von Stauffenberg, were executed in connection with the coup, some within twenty-four hours.
During June, July, and August, Himmler's forces continued to move swiftly against the opposition, rendering any organized opposition impossible. Arrests and executions were common. Terror against the people had become a way of life. A second major reason was that the opposition's peace feelers to the western Allies did not meet with success.
This was in part due to the aftermath of the [[Venlo incident]] of 1939, when Gestapo agents posing as anti-Nazis in the [[Netherlands]] kidnapped two British [[Secret Intelligence Service]] officers lured to a meeting to discuss peace terms. That prompted [[Winston Churchill]] to ban any further contact with the German opposition. In addition, the British and Americans did not want to deal with anti-Nazis because they were fearful that the [[Soviet Union]] would believe they were attempting to make deals behind their backs.
=== Nuremberg Trials ===
Between [[14 November]], [[1945]], and [[1 October]], [[1946]], the allies also established an [[International Military Tribunal]] (IMT) to try 24 major Nazi war criminals and six groups. They were to be tried for crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
Leaders, organizers, instigators, and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit the crimes so specified were declared responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan. The official positions of defendants as heads of state or holders of high government offices were not to free them from responsibility or mitigate their punishment; nor was the fact that a defendant acted pursuant to an order of a superior to excuse him from responsibility, although it might be considered by the IMT in mitigation of punishment.
At the trial of any individual member of any group or organization, the IMT was authorized to declare (in connection with any act of which the individual was convicted) that the group or organization to which he belonged was a criminal organization. And where a group or organization was so declared criminal, the competent national authority of any signatory was given the right to bring individuals to trial for membership in that organization, in which trial the criminal nature of the group or organization was to be taken as proved.
[[Image:Goering in Nuremberg.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gestapo founder [[Hermann Göring]] at the [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg trials]]]]
These groups, the [[Nazi leadership corps]], the [[Reich Cabinet]], the [[OKW|German General Staff and High Command]], the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] (Sturmabteilung), the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] (Schutzstaffel-including the [[Sicherheitsdienst]], or SD), and the [[Gestapo]] (Secret Police), had an aggregate membership exceeding two million, and it was estimated that approximately half of them would be made liable for trial if the groups were convicted.
The trials began in November 1945, and on [[October 1]], 1946, the IMT rendered its judgment on 21 top officials of the Third Reich. The IMT sentenced most of the accused to death or to extensive prison terms and acquitted three. The IMT also convicted three of the groups: the Nazi leadership corps, the SS (including the SD), and the Gestapo. Gestapo members [[Hermann Göring]] and [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] were individually convicted by the IMT.
Three groups were acquitted of collective war crimes charges, but this did not relieve individual members of those groups from conviction and punishment under the [[Denazification]] program. Members of the three convicted groups were subject to apprehension and trial as war criminals by the national, military, and occupation courts of the four allied powers. And, even though individual members of the convicted groups might be acquitted of war crimes, they still remained subject to trial under the Denazification program.
=== Today ===
After the [[Nuremberg Trials]], the Gestapo ceased to exist.
In 1997, [[Cologne]], Germany, transformed the former regional Gestapo headquarters in that city, the [[EL-DE Haus]], into a museum to document the organization's past actions. Although the museum's purpose is historical and educational, it is sometimes considered [[vulgar]] and [[offensive]], especially by those who were psychologically traumatized, [[torture]]d, or otherwise hurt by the Gestapo.
Mention of the word "Gestapo", even when using the word as a reference to any sort of unrestricted [[police]], is widely considered to be improper or insulting. In various countries of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]], the term is used to denote in a derogatory manner all police forces, but particularly the communist-era [[riot police]], such as [[ZOMO]].
== Organization ==
When the Gestapo was founded, the organization was already a well-established bureaucratic mechanism, having been created out of the already existing [[Prussian Secret Police]]. In 1934, the Gestapo was transferred from the Prussian Interior Ministry to the authority of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], and for the next five years the Gestapo underwent a massive expansion.
In 1939, the entire Gestapo was placed under the authority of the [[RSHA]], a main office of the SS. Within the RSHA, the Gestapo was known as "Amt IV". The internal organization of the group was as follows:
===Referat N: Central Intelligence Office===
The Central Command Office of the Gestapo, formed in 1941. Before 1939, the Gestapo command was under the authority of the office of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]] und [[SD]]'', to which answered the Commanding General of the Gestapo. Between 1939 and 1941, the Gestapo was run directly through the overall command of the ''Reichsicherheitshauptamt'' (RSHA).
===Department A (Enemies)===
* Communists (A1)
* Countersabotage (A2)
* Reactionaries and Liberals (A3)
* Assassinations (A4)
===Department B (Sects and Churches)===
* Catholics (B1)
* Protestants (B2)
* Freemasons (B3)
* Jews (B4)
* Colored People (B5)
===Department C (Administration and Party Affairs)===
The central administrative office of the Gestapo, responsible for card files of all personnel.
===Department D (Occupied Territories)===
* Opponents of the Regime (D1)
* Churches and Sects (D2)
* Records and Party Matters (D3)
* Western Territories (D4)
* Counter-espionage (D5)
* Alients (D6)
===Department E (Counter-Intelligence)===
* In the Reich (E1)
* Policy Formation (E2)
* In the West (E3)
* In Scandinavia (E4)
* In |
amily, who was running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Partido Ortodoxo, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process. However, the petition was not acted upon by the courts.
On [[July 26]], [[1953]] Castro led a historical attack on the [[Moncada Barracks]] near [[Santiago de Cuba]], but failed and was jailed until 1955, when amnesty was given to many political prisoners, including the ones that assaulted the Moncada barracks. Castro subsequently went into exile in Mexico. While in Mexico, he organized the [[26th of July Movement]] with the goal of overthrowing Batista. A group of over 80 men sailed to Cuba on board the yacht "[[Granma]]", landing in the eastern part of the island in December 1956. Despite a pre-landing rising in Santiago by Frank Pais and his followers of the urban pro-Castro movement, most of Castro's men were promptly killed, dispersed or taken prisoner by Batista's forces. Castro managed to escape to the [[Sierra Maestra]] mountains with about 12-17 effectives, aided by the urban and rural opposition, including Celia Sanchez and the bandits of Cresencio Perez's family, he began a guerrilla campaign against the regime. Castro's main forces supported by numerous poorly armed escopeteros, and with support from the well armed fighters of the Frank Pais urban organization who at times went to the mountains the rebel army grew more and more effective. The country was soon driven to chaos [http://www.holycross.edu/departments/history/alauria/revoltrevolution/cuba%20chronology.htm], particularly by a very effective sabotage and urban warfare campaign conducted in the cities by diverse groups of the anti-Batista resistance and notably a bloody crushed rising by the Batista Navy personnel in Cienfuegos. At the same time rival guerrilla groups in the Escambray Mountains also grew more and more effective.
Faced with a corrupt and ineffective military, dispirited by a U.S. Government embargo on weapons sales to Cuba and public indignation and revulsion at his brutality toward opponents, Batista fled on [[January 1]], [[1959]]. Within months of taking control, Castro moved to consolidate power by marginalizing other resistance groups and figures and imprisoning or executing opponents and former supporters. As the revolution became more radical, many hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled the island.
In July 1961, the '''Integrated Revolutionary Organizations''' (ORI) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castro's '''26th of July Revolutionary Movement''', the '''People's Socialist Party''' (the old Communist Party) led by [[Blas Roca]] and the '''Revolutionary Directory March 13th''' led by [[Faure Chomón]]. On March 26, 1962 the ORI became the '''United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution''' (PURSC) which, in turn, became the [[Communist Party of Cuba]] on October 3, 1965 with Castro as [[First Secretary]].
''See also:'' [[Cuban Revolution]]
==Communist Cuba==
Relations between the United States and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the U.S refusal to refine Soviet oil in refineries located in Cuba, expropriated U.S. properties, notably those belonging to the [[ITT|International Telephone and Telegraph Company]] (ITT) and the [[United Fruit Company]]. This was in line with Castro's anti-U.S. ideologies used to gain support at home and abroad. In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law on [[May 17]], 1959 it sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to agricultural workers in "Vital Minimum" tracts. In compensation, the Cuban government offered to pay the landholders based on the tax assessment values for the land, in reality little or no compensation was paid. Reasons for this include that actual payment would be with twenty-year bonds paying 4.5% interest (instead of the then U.S. investment grade corporate bond rate of 3.8%). Landholders from most other countries settled on this basis. The problem was with the tax assessed values. Most of the large landholdings had been acquired in the 1920 period when world sugar prices were depressed, and the land could be bought at bargain-basement prices. In the intervening period, former Cuban governments friendly to these interests had kept these bargain prices as the basis for calculating property taxes, thus insuring that those taxes would be kept low. However, as Castro's control of the island's assets tightened and more nationalization campaigns took place, promises such as these were not honored.
In response to the seizure of American properties and the increased repression carried out by Castro's government on the people, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations on [[January 3]], [[1961]] and imposed the [[U.S. embargo against Cuba]] on [[February 3]] [[1962]]. The embargo is still in effect [[as of 2006]], although some humanitarian trade in food and medicines is now allowed. At first, the embargo didn't extend to other countries and Cuba trades with most European, Asian and Latin American countries and especially Canada. But now the United States pressures other nations and U.S. companies with foreign subsidiaries to restrict trade with Cuba. This hinders Castro's historic argument of blaming the United States for Cuba's grave economic situation. Then again, due to Cuba's location, such trade is hindered by high transportation costs. Also, the Helms-Burton Act of 1996 makes it very difficult for companies that do business with Cuba to also do business in the United States, effectively forcing internationals to choose between the two. Another consideration here is that Cuba already was a very poor country in 1959 and hardly any poor countries, capitalist or socialist, have managed to escape poverty in the 20th century, so political orientation can't be conclusively said to be the determining factor.
The establishment of a Marxist system in Cuba led to the fleeing of many hundreds of thousands of Cuban exiles to the United States and various other countries since Castro's rise to power. One major exception to the embargo was made on [[November 6]], [[1965]] when Cuba and the United States formally agreed to start an airlift for Cubans who wanted to go to the United States. By [[1971]] these so-called [[Freedom Flights]] took 250,000 Cubans to the United States. Currently, there is an immigration lottery allowing 20,000 Cubans seeking political asylum to go to the United States legally every year. Perhaps a thousand or more take the terrible risks of escaping by sea.
=== Bay of Pigs Invasion ===
''Main article: [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]''
The United States then sponsored an unsuccessful attack on Cuba, using conservative political groups as the main source of support. The attack began on [[April 15]], [[1961]], when exiles, flying planes provided by the United States bombed several Cuban air force bases. This attack did not succeed in destroying all of Castro's air force. In response, Castro declared Cuba a [[socialism|socialist]] state in a speech on [[April 16]], [[1961]].
On [[April 17]], [[1961]], a force of about 1,500 Cuban exiles, financed and trained by the [[CIA]], landed in the south during the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]. The CIA's assumption was that the invasion would spark a popular rising against Castro. Castro's forces were forewarned of the invasion and had arrested hundreds of thousands of suspected "subversives," before the invasion landed (Priestland, 2003). Castro executed high level defectors from his own ranks notably William Morgan and Sori Marin [http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=3103]. There was no popular uprising. Most of the invasion force made it ashore, however all their supplies did not, despite some initial advances in which thousands of Castro militia died was quickly defeated as President [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] did not allow the US Navy already on site to provide the air support he had promised. Many believe that the invasion, instead of weakening Castro, actually helped him consolidate his grip on power.
For the next 30 years, Castro pursued closer relations with the [[Soviet Union]] until its demise in [[1991]]. Castro cast a big shadow in the Cold War. Castro’s enemies often died mysterious violent deaths. [[Castro-directed overt and covert operations]] were undertaken throughout much of the world.
The [[Organization of American States]], under pressure from the United States, suspended Cuba's membership in the body on [[January 22]], [[1962]] and the [[United States Government|U.S. Government]] banned all U.S-Cuban trade a couple of weeks later on [[February 7]]. The Kennedy administration extended this on [[February 8]], [[1963]] making travel, financial and commercial transactions by U.S. citizens to Cuba illegal.
Priestland, Jane (editor) 2003 British Archives on Cuba: Cuba under Castro 1959-1962. Archival Publications International Limited, 2003, London ISBN 1903008204
=== The Cuban Missile Crisis ===
''Main article: [[Cuban missile crisis]]''
Tensions between the two governments peaked again during the October 1962 [[Cuban missile crisis]]. The United States had a much stronger arsenal of long-range nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union, as well as some medium-range ballistic missiles ([[MRBM]]s) in Turkey, whereas the Soviet Union had a large stockpile of medium-range nuclear weapons which were primarily located in Europe. Cuba agreed to let the Soviets secretly place MRBMs on their territory. Reports from inside Cuba to exile sources questioned the need for large amounts of ice going to rural areas <!-- apparently the ships were reported as carrying ice? need source -->, and such lead to the discovery of the missiles, which was confirmed by U-2 flights. When the United States saw what was happening they put up a cordon in international waters to stop Sovi |
a]].[[Image:Girona river-street.jpeg|thumbnail|right|Girona]]
===Catalan Self-government===
After [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s death ([[1975]]) and the adoption of [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|a democratic constitution in Spain]] ([[1978]]), Catalonia recovered its autonomous status (lost with the fall of the [[Second Spanish Republic]] at the conclusion of the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1939).
With few exceptions, most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions. The legal system is uniform throughout the Spanish State, with the exception of so-called "[[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]". This is administered separately within Catalonia [http://civil.udg.es/normacivil/catalunya.htm]. Catalan civil law provides for an [[ombudsman]] (''Síndic de Greuges'') [http://www.sindicgreugescat.org] to address problems that may arise between private citizens or organizations and the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]] or local governments.
The region has gradually achieved a greater degree of autonomy since 1979. After the [[Navarre]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] regions, Catalonia has the greatest level of self-government in Spain. The [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]] holds exclusive jurisdiction in various matters of culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local governments. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/competencies/exclusives.jsp] In many aspects relating to education, health and justice, the region shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/competencies/concurrents.jsp]
One example of Catalonia's degree of autonomy is its own police force, the [[Mossos d'Esquadra]] (literally 'squad lads'), which is currently in the process of taking over most of the role within Catalonia of the [[Guardia Civil|''Guardia Civil'']] and [[Policia Nacional|''Policía Nacional'']], which are under the authority of the Spanish national government. However, even at the end of the transition process in 2008 [http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/desplegapdf/despleg.pdf], the Spanish government will keep a few agents in the region for matters relating to terrorism and immigration. Like the [[Mossos d'Esquadra]], national police forces are under the authority of the government of Catalonia [http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/organitzacio/contingutpdf/FuncPGME.pdf].
As an autonomous community of Spain, Catalonia has no official status or recognition at an international level. However, as the region has progressively gained a greater degree of autonomy in recent years, the Catalan Government has opened some representative offices overseas. Most of these carry out limited functions such as the promotion of Catalan culture, trade and foreign investment, and even the hiring of foreign labour (with a view toward easing problems with illegal immigration). [http://www.copca.com][http://www.cidem.com/cidem/cat/elcidem/info/cidem_en.jsp][http://www.copec.es/][http://nosaltres.vilaweb.com/info/vilaweb/vilaweb.generar_directori?p_idint=670561]
==Language==
{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}}
Catalonia is the original heartland of the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] language, and remains the most important and largest territory where the language is spoken.
Catalan is one of the two official languages of Catalonia, as established in the Catalan Statute of Autonomy [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/cat/generalitat/estatut/index.jsp]: the other is Spanish (Castilian), which is the language throughout Spain (its official status confirmed by the 1978 Spanish Constitution). Catalonia has regulated its institutions and their various jurisdictions within the framework provided by the Spanish constitution in the "Sau Statute."
The linguistic similarity of Spanish and Catalan eases [[bilingualism]], but it should be noted that the two are not dialects of a single language. Catalan is properly regarded by most [[linguistics|linguists]] as being an [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] language (the group that includes Spanish). It has many features of [[Gallo-Romance languages]] such as French.
[[Occitan language|Occitan]], in its Aranese variety (a dialect of [[Gascon language|Gascon]]) is official and subject to special protection in the [[Val d'Aran]] (Aran Valley). This small region of 7,000 is the only place where Occitan (spoken mainly in France and some Italian valleys) has full official status.
===Literacy===
According to the 2001 Linguistic Census [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/docs/censling2001.pdf], about 5,900,000 people in Catalonia, nearly 95% of residents, understand the Catalan language. The percentage of people aged two and older who can speak, read and write Catalan is as follows:
{| align=left border=1 cellpadding=6 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
! style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | Knowledge of Catalan
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Ability
! style="background:#efefef;" | Individuals
! style="background:#efefef;" | Percentage
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Understands
| 5,872,202
| 94.5%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Speaks
| 4,630,640
| 74.5%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Reads
| 4,621,404
| 74.4%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Writes
| 3,093,223
| 49.8%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | [[Statistical population|Population]]
| 6,215,281
| 100%
|}
<br clear=all>
Over the last 20 years, knowledge of Catalan has advanced significantly in all these areas, with the ability to write it having experienced the most pronounced increase, from 31.6% of the population in 1986 to 49.8% in 2001.
By age groups, those between 10 and 29 have the higher level of Catalan-language literacy (e.g., 98.2% aged 10&ndash;14 understand it, and 85.2% can write it); this is attributed to these individuals having received their full education in Catalan.
Geographically, Catalan is most understood in northwest Catalonia ([[Alt Pirineu]], [[Val d'Aran]]), at 97.4%, followed by south and western Catalonia, whereas [[Barcelona]]'s metropolitan area sees the lowest knowledge, at 93.8%. The situation is analogous for written-language skills, with central Catalonia scoring the highest percentages (61.4%), and Barcelona the lowest (46.4%).
Barcelona is one of the centres of the [[Spanish book industry]] in Spanish and the main one for Catalan-language publishing.
===Social Use===
According to a study carried out in 2003 by the Generalitat de Catalunya [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/docs/usos2003.pdf], Catalan is used by 50.1% of the population in everyday situations.
Significantly, over 55% of respondents use Spanish to address their parents (versus 42% who choose Catalan). This is attributed to massive immigration from southern Spain from the second half of the 20th century until the 1980s, as a consequence of which many Catalans have one or both parents from outside Catalonia. However, a majority (52.6%) use Catalan with their children (42.3% Spanish). This can be attributed to some Spanish-speaking citizens shifting from their mother tongue to Catalan at home.
Outside the family, 48.6% of the population indicate that they address strangers exclusively or preferentially in Catalan, while the proportion of those who use Spanish is 41.7%. 8.6% claim to use both equally.
See [[Catalan language]] for further information.
===Aranese===
According to the 2001 [[Aranese]] Linguistic Census [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/aran/docs/a_aran_cens.pdf], knowledge of Aranese in the Occitan-speaking territory of Aran is as follows:
{| align=left border=1 cellpadding=6 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
! style="background:#efefef;" colspan=3 | Knowledge of Aranese
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Ability
! style="background:#efefef;" | Individuals
! style="background:#efefef;" | Percentage
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Understands
| 6,712
| 88.88%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Speaks
| 4,700
| 62.24%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Reads
| 4,413
| 58.44%
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Writes
| 2,016
| 26.69%
|}
<br clear=all>
Comparing to previous data from 1996, the number of those able to understand Aranese has declined slightly (90.5% in 1996), while at the same time there has been a marginal increase in the number of those able to write it (24.97% in 1996).
By age groups, the largest percentage of those with knowledge of Aranese is in the 15-19 and 65-69 groups (both above 96%), while those aged 30-34 score lowest (just over 80%). Literacy is higher in the 10-19 group with over 88% declaring themselves able to read, and 76% able to write Aranese. Those over 80 are the least literate, with only about 1.5% of them being able to write the language.
According to their place of origin, it is significant to note that in the Val d'Aran those born outside Spain outnumber Spaniards born outside Aran and Catalonia in the active use of Aranese (17% of non-Spaniards can write Aranese, while the percentage for Spaniards excluding Catalans is 10%).
[[Image:ParlamentDeCatalunya.jpg|thumbnail|right|Present-day Parliament of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, held in [[Barcelona]].]]
==Politics of Catalonia==
:''See also [[Politics of Catalonia]]''
The first [[Catalan constitutions]] are of the [[Corts of Barcelona]] from [[1283]]. The last ones were promulgated by the court of [[1702]]. The compilations of the co |
azine|Esquire]]''. Prompted by this, ''[[Playboy]]'' reportedly offered the star over one million USD to pose nude for their magazine, but Spears publicly declined.{{ref|Playboy}} In an interview with [[Diane Sawyer]], she was asked if she had ever gone further than she wished she had with the sexualized photo shoots. Spears responded, "No, I don't think so, no." After the ''Esquire'' photos were held up in front of her, she said, "Okay. Now those are a little much. Yeah, those are a little much. That's one picture, I must say, that I felt kind of weird about, yeah".
* The 2004 ''Onyx Hotel Tour'' brought new criticism. While Spears and her on-stage dancers performed her songs "Touch of My Hand" and "Breathe on Me," they were seemingly nude and were performing routines simulating [[Human sexual behavior#Same-gender sexual practices|gay sex]], [[orgy|orgies]] and [[masturbation]]. As there were underage fans in the audience, there was some outrage at the alleged lack of decency of the performances, as well as reports of adult chaperones angrily storming out with children they brought to the concert. Spears has responded to parents' concerns by stating she is "not their babysitter. It's the parents' responsibility. If you don't like it, turn the TV off. The only person I want to be a role model is to my sister, [[Jamie Lynn Spears|Jamie Lynn]]". (''From [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s Primetime interview with Diane Sawyer'')
* Spears has also been criticized for [[lip-synching]]. Most critics and musicians publicly express a negative view on this way of performing, arguing that live entertainment should literally be what it suggests, singing included. Some argue that Spears, like other performers, can't practically sing while being engaged in complicated and demanding dance moves.{{ref|Lip-Synch}} This has lead to the counter-argument that performers shouldn't focus on things like dance moves, and instead focus more on singing.
* Spears' personal life has attracted considerable media attention. Some people feel that she has courted it by cultivating, in her early years at least, a chaste, God-fearing and "wholesome" image. It was somewhat at odds, not only with the traditional pressures, temptations and opportunities of "pop 'n' roll," but with the increasingly sexualized content of her own songs. Spears' kiss with Madonna at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards received much media attention, as have her recent marriages.
* In December 2005, Spears sued ''[[US Weekly]]'' for a story the magazine published in the column "HOTstuff" of their October 2005 publication. The column, with the headline ''"Brit & Kev: Secret Sex Tape? New parents have a new worry: racy footage from 2004."'' claimed that Spears and her husband had made a [[celebrity sex tape|sex video]] and feared it would be distributed. Spears denies the existence of any such tape while the magazine claims to have a credible source, which they failed to mention in the article, and stands by its story without any evidence or eyewitnesses (despite that, the article stated that many people had seen the tape).{{ref|SexTape}}
* Photos published on February 7, 2006 showed Spears driving her SUV on the [[Pacific Coast Highway]] in [[Los Angeles]] with her infant son, Sean, perched on her lap rather than strapped into a car seat in the back. The photos show Spears holding the wheel of the car with one hand, and her 4-month-old baby with the other. In a statement to ''[[People magazine|People]]'', Spears said she did it because of a "horrifying, frightful encounter with the paparazzi" and that "I was terrified that this time the physically aggressive paparazzi would put both me and my baby in danger. I instinctively took measures to get my baby and me out of harm’s way, but the paparazzi continued to stalk us. I love my child and would do anything to protect him". She later told ''[[Access Hollywood]]'', "It's kind of like I made a mistake and so it is what is, I guess". No charges were pressed. Later that month, U.S. [[Transportation Secretary]] [[Norman Mineta]], speaking at an event at the [[Children's Hospital of Philadelphia]] to mark the start of Child Passenger Safety Week said, "Recent photos of Britney Spears driving with her infant son on her lap are troubling...and while Ms. Spears has acknowledged her mistake, her actions still send the wrong message to millions of her fans."
==Career achievements==
* Spears is the best selling female artist of the 2000's (2000-2005),She was named woman of the century by VH1.
* Combined album and single sales topping 125 million.
* Having thirty-one million [[RIAA]]-certified albums sold in the U.S., Spears ranks as the eighth best-selling female artist in American music history.{{ref|AlbumSales4}}
* Only female artist in SoundScan history to have her first three albums debut at number one. Then she broke her own record for a female artist by having her first four albums debut at number one on the [[Billboard 200]] chart.
* In the U.S., Spears, [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], [[Mariah Carey]], [[Whitney Houston]], [[Shania Twain]] and the [[Dixie Chicks]] are the only female artists with multiple diamond (shipped over ten million copies) albums (Spears has two: '''...Baby One More Time'' and ''Oops!... I Did It Again'').
* Holds the record for youngest artist (at age seventeen) to have his or her first single ("...Baby One More Time") and first album (''...Baby One More Time'') simultaneously reach number one on the Billboard charts.
* Holds the record in the UK for biggest first-week sales for a greatest hits compilation by a female artist (115,341 copies) with ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]''.
* "...Baby One More Time" was the UK's biggest selling single of 1999.
* Has grossed over $145 million USD from tour ticket sales.
* Has grossed over $30 million USD in merchandise from her tours.
* Has topped [[Yahoo!]]'s annual list of the most-searched names three times in the past four years.{{ref|Yahoo!}}
==Voice==
Although Spears does not have the power of [[Whitney Houston]] or the range of [[Mariah Carey]], her soft vocal style has helped bring the pop soubrette into popularity. Spears' voice was seen as distinctive when she first came onto the music scene in 1999. Artists such as [[Ashanti (singer)|Ashanti]], [[Solange Knowles]] and [[Lea (singer)|Lea]] have borrowed from her style. Her detractors have accused her of being derivative of [[Paula Abdul]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and especially [[Janet Jackson]]. This is a claim Spears has not outwardly denied nor confirmed, saying "I grew up loving a wide variety of music". Although there has been some controversy over her singing abilities, with some even accusing her of lacking them or depending too much on backup singers or backing tracks, her style has remained consistent. Her range continues to be disputed and is subject to argument. Her classification as a [[soubrette]] is due to her singing style, which is generally light, sweet, and girly.
==Trivia==
*Spears has a younger sister, [[Jamie Lynn Spears]], who is an actress and singer and is currently starring in the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] show ''[[Zoey 101]]''. Spears wrote the theme song "Follow Me" for ''Zoey 101'', though it is sung by Jamie Lynn. Spears also has an older brother, Bryan Spears, who is one of her managers.
*She also performed a [[somersault|backflip]] for the "...Baby One More Time" video and several for the ''[[New Mickey Mouse Club]]''.
*Two Texas DJs created a panic for Britney's fans when they falsely reported that the pop princess and her boyfriend, 'NSYNC's Justin Timberlake, were in a car accident and that Britney Spears had died in the crash. In reality, both Britney and Justin were alive and well and had not been in any car wreck.
*She is rumoured to have had flirts with [[Colin Farrell]] and [[Limp Bizkit]]'s [[Fred Durst]] and has been romantically linked with [[Wade Robson]].
*For the film ''[[Chicago (2002 film)|Chicago]]'', producer [[Harvey Weinstein]] wanted Spears for the role that eventually went to [[Lucy Liu]]. Spears was also offered a role in ''[[Scary Movie]]'', but was forced to turn it down due to concert scheduling. She was considered for the part of Allie Hamilton in ''[[The Notebook]]'', but was beat out by [[Rachel McAdams]] and she also wanted the role in ''[[I ♥ Huckabees]]'' that went to [[Naomi Watts]]. Spears had also expressed interest in the role of [[Daisy Duke]] in ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard (film)|The Dukes of Hazzard]]'', but fellow pop singer [[Jessica Simpson]] was given the part.
*She is friends with [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]]. She was asked to appear in the ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' episode "[[I Was Made to Love You (Buffy episode)|I Was Made to Love You]]," but turned down the role due to scheduling conflicts.
*She is friends with [[Natalie Portman]]. Portman was an understudy in the off-Broadway play, ''Ruthless!'', in which Spears had a role. At a [[Manhattan]] hotel in 2003 they co-hosted a carnival-themed [[New Years Eve]] party together.
*She topped ''[[FHM]]'' magazine's 2004 U.S. and world polls for sexiest woman.
*In May 2004 Spears had a Hebrew tattoo (מהש) inked into the nape of her neck. She was under the impression that it meant "new era," but Hebrew speakers insist that word (which would probably be pronounced "mahash") is gibberish. A source said, "She's taken [[Kabbalah]] pretty seriously and this was a big deal for her." This echoes a similar incident in 2003 when Spears was informed by her friend, actress [[Taryn Manning]], that her hip tattoo (the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character 奇) read "strange" rather than "myst |
nted Palace'' (1963), an adaptation of ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' ([http://us.imdb.com/Title?0057128 IMDb entry])
*''Necronomicon'' (1994) Three short films based on his stories (The Rats in the Walls, Cool Air, The Whisperer in Darkness) ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0107664/ IMDb entry]) Curiously, this film depicts Lovecraft himself stealing the Necronomicon from some sort of religious order.
*''Out of Mind: The Stories of H.P. Lovecraft'' (1998), Excellent Lovecraft sampler. Show on ''[[Bravo!]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0213968/combined IMDb entry]
*''[[Re-Animator]]'' (1985) Comedic adaptation of "''Herbert West, the Re-Animator''" which had two sequels ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0089885/ IMDb entry])
*''The Resurrected'' (1992) Adaptation of ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105242/ IMDb entry])
*''Rough Magik'' (2000), BBC pilot for a Call of Cthulhu show ala "X-Files" starring Paul Darrow ([http://www.lurkerfilms.com Available on DVD])
*''The Call of Cthulhu'' (2005) Highly faithful adaptation of the short story; B/W, silent film, short film ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0478988/ IMDb entry: Available on DVD])
*[http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_mistero_di_Lovecraft_-_Road_to_L. ''Il mistero di Lovecraft - Road To L.''] (2005), feature film mockumentary based on a diary which states that Lovecraft was in Italy in 1926 ([http://www.roadtol.com Official Site]) ([http://www.rarovideo.com available on DVD here]) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0461331/ IMDb entry])
== Documentary and Historical Films==
*''The Eldritch Influence:The Life, Vision, and Phenomenon of H.P. Lovecraft
'' (2003), Hermetic Productions Looks at the influence of Lovecraft uponlarge number of artists, writers, mystics, and fanatics, via extensive interviews with Lovecraft biographer S.T. Joshi, authors Ramsey Campbell, Neil Gaiman, Brian Lumley, and filmmaker Stuart Gordon.
([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0388914/IMDb entry])
===Radio production===
*''The Call of Cthulhu'' (Broadcast in Tasmania, on Lovecraft's 100th birthday)
*''Jeffrey Combs reads Herbert West&mdash;Reanimator'' (Audio book CD by Beyond Books/Lurker Films)
*''At the Mountains of Madness'' (Atlanta Radio Theater Company, www.artc.org)
*''The Dunwich Horror'' (Atlanta Radio Theater Company, www.artc.org)
*''The Rats in the Walls'' (Atlanta Radio Theater Company, www.artc.org)
*''The Shadow Over Innsmouth'' (Atlanta Radio Theater Company, www.artc.org)
==Lovecraft's influence in popular culture==
:''Main article: [[Lovecraftian horror]]''
Beyond direct adaptation, Lovecraft and his stories have had a profound (if sometimes indirect and unnoticed) impact on popular culture, and has been praised by many modern writers of horror, science fiction, and fantasy. Much of his influence is secondary, as he was a friend, inspiration, and correspondent to many authors who would gain fame through their creations. He was a friend of [[Conan the Barbarian]] creator [[Robert E. Howard]]; [[Robert Bloch]], author of ''[[Psycho]]''; and [[Frank Belknap Long]], Lovecraft's biographer and contributor to the Mythos.
Many later creators of horror writing and films show influences from Lovecraft, including [[Clive Barker]], [[H. R. Giger]] and [[John Carpenter]]. Many authors have written stories that are explicitly set in the same "universe" as Lovecraft's original stories.
Lovecraft [[pastiche]]s are common. For more examples of specific references to and uses of the Mythos in popular culture, see [[References to the Cthulhu mythos|References to the Cthulhu Mythos]].
Lovecraft's "universe" is so distinctive that he is an [[eponym]] for strange creatures and settings. ''Lovecraftian'' horror may mean a story that references the Mythos, or that is simply too bizarre to be classified as normal horror. Examples include beings with hideous and completely unnatural features (innumerable sets of [[eyes]], far too many limbs) or architecture or geography of ''inhuman'' or ''alien'' design (such as the city of R'lyeh, which makes exclusive use of curves in its architecture). Lovecraftian horror stands in contrast to the predominantly humanoid and [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] designs in mainstream horror and [[mythology]].
==Race, Class, and Sex==
The [[racist]], [[classist]] and [[sexist]] themes in much of Lovecraft's writing evoke strong reactions in many modern readers. Lovecraft was an avowed [[Anglophile]], and held [[England|English]] culture to be the pinnacle of civilization, with the descendants of the English in America as something of a second-class offshoot, and everyone else below them (see, for example, his poem ''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_American_to_Mother_England An American to Mother England]''). Lovecraft's writing showed a distinct disinclination towards mixing with other ethnic groups, reverence for birth-issued social status, and a preference for traditional social roles for women.
Racial, ethnic, class, and sexual [[stereotype]]s are frequently encountered in Lovecraft's work. A typical example of this sentiment is found in the name of the black cat "Nigger-Man" in his tale ''[[The Rats in the Walls]]'', which was actually the name he gave to his real-life cat. The narrator in "The Rats in the Walls" expresses sentiments which could be considered hostile towards [[Jews]] (although several of Lovecraft's closer friends and correspondents were Jewish), [[Italians]], and [[Poles]]. Racist views can also be found in his poetry, particularly in ''On the Creation of Niggers,'' and ''New England Fallen'' (both 1912).
Contemporary critics have decried Lovecraft's presumed [[white supremacy|white supremicism]], particularly in the treatment of immigrants and [[African-American]]s. However, Lovecraft does not spare even northern European ethnic groups from his onslaught of negative ethnic stereotyping. The degenerate descendants of [[Dutch_people|Dutch]] immigrants in the [[Catskill Mountains]], "who correspond exactly to the decadent element of [[white trash]] in the [[Southern United States|South]]," (''Beyond the Wall of Sleep'', 1919) are common targets. ''The Temple'' presents a stereotypically arrogant and coldly murderous [[Prussia]]n aristocrat, a [[U-boat]] captain in [[World War I]] who makes frequent references to his "iron German will," supremely rational Prussian mental powers, and the insignificance of human life compared to the need to glorify the [[Fatherland]].
Perhaps the best example of his classist views can be found in the short story ''Cool Air'' (1926): the (presumably [[Anglo-Saxon]]) narrator speaks disparagingly of the poor [[Hispanic]]s of his neighborhood, but he worshipfully respects the wealthy and aristocratic [[Spaniard]] Dr. Muñoz, "a man of birth, cultivation, and discrimination."
Lovecraft drew upon the history of his own ethnic group for the environment of much of his work, and his love for Anglo-Saxon history and culture is often-times repeated in his work (such as King [[Kuranes]]' nostalgia for England in ''[[The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath]]''). Characteristically, this history is viewed sardonically.
A major Lovecraftian theme is the individual who finds that his lineage is accursed or interbred with a non-human strain. Important examples are ''Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family'' (1920), ''The Rats in the Walls'' (1923), and ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' (1931). This theme may represent concerns relating to Lovecraft's own family history, particularly the death of his father due to what Lovecraft must have suspected to be a [[syphilis|syphilitic]] disorder.
Lovecraft expressed racist and ethnocentric beliefs in his personal correspondence, and he gave a thorough summary of his views on race and culture in a letter to J. Vernon Shea written [[September 25]], 1933. This letter, 648, can be found in the book ''Selected Letters IV'' published by [[Arkham House]].
Women in Lovecraft's fiction are rare, and the few leading female characters in his stories often turn out to be agents of some evil, alien force. Paradoxically, Lovecraft married a woman of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Jewish]] ancestry, Sonia Greene.
Lovecraft's blunt expressions of his views on race, class, and sex may shock the early 21st century reader, but his attitudes and the frankness with which he expressed them were not at all unusual during Lovecraft's lifetime. The [[eugenics]] movement, for example, was quite mainstream in the [[United States]] and most of [[Europe]] before [[World War II]], to the point where harsh eugenics policies were actually written into the law in many US states. [[Racial segregation]] was still legally enforced throughout much of the United States. Very many prominent individuals in these times openly avowed attitudes similar to or even harsher than Lovecraft's.
==Further reading==
In the past few decades, the quantity of books ''about'' Lovecraft has increased considerably. Also, Lovecraft's stories themselves have enjoyed a veritable publishing renaissance in recent years. The titles mentioned below are a small sampling.
''Lovecraft, a Biography'', written by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], published in 1975, and now [[out of print]], was Lovecraft's first full-length biography. [[Frank Belknap Long]]'s ''Howard Phillips Lovecraft: Dreamer on the Night Side'' ([[Arkham House]], 1975) presents a more personal look at Lovecraft's life, combining reminiscence, biography, and literary criticism. Long was a friend and correspondent of Lovecraft, as well as a fellow fantasist who wrote a number of Lovecraft-influenced Cthulhu Mythos stories (including ''The Hounds of Tindalos''). A newer, more extensive biography is ''H. P. Lovecraft: A Life,'' written by Lovecraft scholar [[S. T. Joshi]]. It was for a long time [[out of print]], but has recently been republished |
e|sc_intdes_p47}} Dembksi. <cite>Intelligent Design</cite>, p. 47
#{{note|time_nowak}} Nowak quoted. Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]
#{{note|wilkins_elsberry}} John S. Wilkins and Wesley R. Elsberry, "The Advantages of Theft over Toil: The Design Inference and Arguing from Ignorance." ''Biology and Philosophy'' '''16:''' 711-724 (2001). [http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1023/A:1012282323054]
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#{{note|Gonzalez}} Guillermo Gonzalez, ''[[The Privileged Planet]],'' ISBN 0895260654
#{{note|PandaGonzo}} [http://www.pandasthumb.org/pt-archives/000390.html The Panda's Thumb review of The Privileged Planet].
<!-- Designer -->
#{{note|discovery_id_def}} "''The theory of Intelligent Design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.''" Discovery Institute. What is Intelligent Design? [http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign]
#{{note|dembski_ftu}} Dembski. The Act of Creation: Bridging Transcendence and Immanence [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/dembski/docs/bd-the_ac.html]
#{{note|Coyne}} Jerry Coyne, "The Case Against Intelligent Design," ''[[The New Republic]]'', [[August 22]] [[2005]].[http://www.tnr.com/docprint.mhtml?i=20050822&s=coyne082205]
#{{note|wdd3}}"One need not fully understand the origin or identity of the designer to determine that an object was designed. Thus, this question is essentially irrelevant to intelligent design theory, which merely seeks to detect if an object was designed... Intelligent design theory cannot address the identity or origin of the designer--it is a philosophical / religious question that lies outside the domain of scientific inquiry. Christianity postulates the religious answer to this question that the designer is God who by definition is eternally existent and has no origin. There is no logical philosophical impossibility with this being the case (akin to [[Aristotle]]'s 'unmoved mover') as a religious answer to the origin of the designer..." FAQ: Who designed the designer? IDEA [http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1147]
#{{note|wein_designer}} Richard Wein. 2002.''Not a Free Lunch But a Box of Chocolates'' [http://www.talkreason.org/articles/choc_nfl.cfm#unembodied]
<!-- Movement -->
# {{note|johnson_id_neocreationism}} Phillip Johnson: "''Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.''" Johnson 2004. Christianity.ca. [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html Let's Be Intelligent About Darwin]. "''This isn't really, and never has been a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy.''" Johnson 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution]. "''So the question is: "How to win?" That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the [[Wedge strategy|"wedge" strategy]]: "Stick with the most important thing"—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, "Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?" and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do.''" Johnson 2000. Touchstone magazine. [http://www.touchstonemag.com/docs/issues/15.5docs/15-5pg40.html Berkeley's Radical An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson] "''I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science."..."Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth?"..."I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.''" Johnson 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won]
#{{note|discovery_fellows}} [http://www.discovery.org/fellows/ Discovery Institute fellows and staff] [http://www.discovery.org/csc/fellows.php Center for Science and Culture fellows and staff]
#{{note|johnson_john1_2}} "''Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? ... I start with John 1:1. 'In the beginning was the word...' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right.''" Johnson, 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won]
# {{note|forrest_wedge}} Barbara Forrest, 2001. "[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html The Wedge at Work]." from ''Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics''. MIT Press.
<!-- Religion -->
#{{note|johnson_bible_out}} "...the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion. ...This is not to say that the biblical issues are unimportant; the point is rather that the time to address them will be after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact." Phillip Johnson. [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/le_wedge.htm "The Wedge," Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity]. July/August 1999.
#{{note|johnson_evangelical_message}} "Intelligent Design is an intellectual movement, and the Wedge strategy stops working when we are seen as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message. ... The evangelists do what they do very well, and I hope our work opens up for them some doors that have been closed." Phillip Johnson. "Keeping the Darwinists Honest," an interview with Phillip Johnson. In Citizen Magazine. April 1999.
# {{note|intro_dembski}} William Dembski, 1998. ''The Design Inference''. Cambridge University Press
#{{note|dembski_id_christ}} Dembski. 1999. Intelligent Design; the Bridge Between Science and Theology. ''"Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ."'' p. 210
#{{note|dembski_morris}} Dembski. 2005. Intelligent Design's Contribution to the Debate Over Evolution: A Reply to Henry Morris.[http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.02.Reply_to_Henry_Morris.htm]
#{{note|dembski_logos_john}} "Intelligent design is just the Logos theology of John's Gospel restated in the idiom of information theory," William Dembski. Touchstone Magazine. Volume 12, Issue4. July/August, 1999 [http://touchstonemag.com/archives/issue.php?id=49]
#{{note|johnson_john1}} "Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? When I preach from the Bible, as I often do at churches and on Sundays, I don't start with Genesis. I start with John 1:1. 'In the beginning was the word...' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves." Phillip E. Johnson. 1999 <cite>How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won</cite> Reclaiming America for Christ Conference" 1999. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp] at [http://www.reclaimamerica.org/ ReclaimAmerica.org]
#{{note|forrest_dembski_johnson_def}} "What I am talking about is the essence of intelligent design, and the essence of it is theistic realism as defined by Professor Johnson. Now that stands on its own quite apart from what their motives are. I'm also talking about the definition of intelligent design by Dr. Dembski as the Logos theology of John's Gospel. That stands on its own." ... "Intelligent design, as it is understood by the proponents that we are discussing today, does involve a supernatural creator, and that is my objection. And I am objecting to it as they have defined it, as Professor Johnson has defined intelligent design, and as Dr. Dembski has defined intelligent design. And both of those are basically religious. They involve the supernatural." Barbara Forrest. Expert Testimony. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' trial transcript, Day 6 (October 5)
<!-- Debate -->
#{{Note|Seattle}} [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002225932_design31m.html Does Seattle group "teach controversy" or contribute to it |
.edu/MRC/bergman.html Ingmar Bergman Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
[[Category:1918 births|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:Living people|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Bergman, Ingmar]]
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<page>
<title>Isaac Newton</title>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/206.77.103.101|206.77.103.101]] ([[User talk:206.77.103.101|talk]]) to last version by Dcandeto</comment>
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{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name=Sir Isaac Newton |
image_name=GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg |
image_caption= Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in [[Godfrey Kneller]]'s 1689 portrait. |
dead=dead |
date_of_birth={{OldStyleDate|4 January|1643|25 December 1642}} |
place_of_birth=[[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[England]] |
date_of_death={{OldStyleDate|31 March|1727|20 March}} |
place_of_death=[[Kensington]], [[London]]
}}
[[Knighthood|Sir]] '''Isaac Newton''', [[Presidents of the Royal Society|PRS]], ({{OldStyleDate|4 January|1643|[[25 December]] [[1642]]}} – {{OldStyleDate|31 March|1727|[[20 March]]}}) was an [[England|English]] [[physics|physicist]], [[mathematics|mathematician]], [[astronomy|astronomer]], [[alchemy|alchemist]], [[inventor]] and [[natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] who is generally regarded as one of the most influential [[scientists]] in history.
Newton wrote the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' wherein he described [[law of universal gravitation|universal gravitation]] and the three [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]], laying the groundwork for [[classical mechanics]]. By deriving [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of bodies on Earth and of [[celestial mechanics|celestial]] bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and [[determinism|deterministic]] power of his laws was integral to the [[scientific revolution]] and the advancement of [[heliocentrism]].
Among other scientific discoveries, Newton realized that the spectrum of [[color|colour]]s observed when [[white]] [[light]] passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as [[Roger Bacon]] had claimed in the 13th century), and notably argued that [[wave-particle duality|light is composed of particles]]. He also developed a [[Newton's law of cooling|law of cooling]], describing the rate of cooling of objects when exposed to air. He enunciated the principles of [[conservation of momentum|conservation of momentum and angular momentum]]. Finally, he studied the [[speed of sound]] in air, and voiced a theory of the origin of stars.
Newton shares credit with [[Gottfried Leibniz]] for the development of [[calculus]], which he used to formulate his physical laws. ([[Differential calculus]] however, was conceived centuries earlier in [[India]] by [[Bhaskara]] and the [[Kerala School]].) He also made contributions to other areas of mathematics, having derived the [[binomial theorem]] in its entirety. The mathematician and [[mathematical physicist]] [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] (1736&ndash;1813), said that "Newton was the greatest genius that ever existed and the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish." {{fn|20}}
==Biography==
===Early years===
{{IsaacNewtonSegments}}
{{details|Isaac Newton's early life and achievements}}
Newton was born in [[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]] (at [[Woolsthorpe Manor]]), a [[Hamlet (place)|hamlet]] in the county of [[Lincolnshire]]. Newton was prematurely born and no one expected him to live; indeed, his mother, Hannah Ayscough Newton, is reported to have said that his body at that time could have fit inside a quart mug (Bell, 1937). His father, Isaac, had died three months before Newton's birth. When Newton was two, his mother went to live with her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his grandmother.
According to [[Eric Temple Bell|E.T. Bell]] (1937, Simon and Schuster) and H. Eves:
:''Newton began his schooling in the village schools and was later sent to [[Grantham Grammar School]] where he became the top boy in the school. At [[Grantham]] he lodged with the local [[apothecary]], [[William Clarke (apothecary)|William Clarke]] and eventually became engaged to the apothecary's stepdaughter, Anne Storer, before he went off to [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] at the age of 19. As Newton became engrossed in his studies, the romance cooled and Miss Storer married someone else. It is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but Newton had no other recorded 'sweethearts' and never married.''
However, William Stukeley and Mrs Vincent, the source which Bell and Eves have embroidered so unhelpfully, merely say that Newton entertained 'a passion' for her while he lodged at the Clarke house. Mrs Vincent's maiden name was Katherine Storer, not Anne.
[[Image:newton.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving after Enoch Seeman's 1726 portrait of Newton]]
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at [[Grantham Grammar School|The King's School in Grantham]] (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed from school and by Oct 1659 he was to be found at Woolsthorpe where his mother attempted to make a farmer of him. He was, by later reports of his contemporaries, thoroughly unhappy with the work. It appears to be Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, who persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. This he did at the age of eighteen, achieving an admirable final report. His teacher said:
:''His genius now begins to mount upwards apace and shine out with more strength. He excels particularly in making verses. In everything he undertakes, he discovers an application equal to the pregnancy of his parts and exceeds even the most sanguine expectations I have conceived of him.''
In June 1661 he matriculated to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]. At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of [[Aristotle]], but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers such as [[René Descartes|Descartes]] and [[astronomers]] such as [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. In 1665 he discovered the [[binomial theorem]] and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become [[calculus]]. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in 1665, the University closed down as a precaution against the [[Great Plague]]. For the next 18 months Newton worked at home on calculus, [[optics]] and law of gravitation.
===Middle years===
====Mathematical research====
Newton became a fellow of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] in 1669. In the same year he circulated his findings in ''De Analysi per Aequationes Numeri Terminorum Infinitas'' (''On Analysis by Infinite Series''), and later in ''De methodis serierum et fluxionum'' (''On the Methods of Series and Fluxions''), whose title gave rise to the "method of fluxions".
Newton is generally credited with the [[binomial theorem]], an essential step toward the development of modern [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. Newton and [[Gottfried Leibniz]] developed the calculus independently, using different notations. Although Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, he published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704. Meanwhile, Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Moreover, Leibniz's notation and "differential Method" were universally adopted on the Continent, and after 1820 or so, in the British Empire. Newton claimed that he had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared being mocked for it. Starting in 1699, other members of the [[Royal Society]] accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. Thus began the bitter [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy|calculus priority dispute]] with Leibniz, which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716. This dispute created a divide between British and Continental mathematicians that may have retarded the progress of British mathematics by at least a century.
Newton discovered [[Newton's identities]], [[Newton's method]], classified polynomials of degree 3 in 2 variables, made substantial contributions to the theory of [[finite differences]], and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. He discovered new |
d]]
[[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Hemingway, Ernest]]
[[ar:إرنست همنغواي]]
Ernest Hemingway: Going The Other Way From Home. An online serial by Steve Newman [[http://www.humdrumming.co.uk/]]
Hemingway Goes To War, by Charles Whiting [[http://www.humdrumming.co.uk/]]
[[bg:Ърнест Хемингуей]]
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[[zh:欧内斯特·海明威]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Young and Innocent</title>
<id>9429</id>
<revision>
<id>40210169</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:54:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cammoore</username>
<id>119859</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Young and Innocent |
image = Hitchcock young and innocent.jpg |
imdb_id = 0029811 |
writer = [[Josephine Tey]] ((novel A Shilling For Candles))<br>[[Charles Bennett]]<br>[[Edwin Greenwood]]<br>[[Anthony Armstrong]]<br>[[Gerald Savory]] (dialog)<br>[[Alma Reville]] (uncredited)|
starring = [[Nova Pilbeam]]<br>[[Derrick De Marney]]<br>[[Percy Marmont]] |
director = [[Alfred Hitchcock]] |
producer = Edward Black |
distributor = General Film Distributors (GFD) Ltd. |
released = [[November]], [[1937]] U.K. release|
runtime = 80 mins |
language = English |
music = |
cinematography = [[Bernard Knowles]] |
budget = |
}}
'''''Young and Innocent''''' (U.S. title: '''''The Girl Was Young''''') is a British film ([[1937]]) directed by [[Alfred Hitchcock]] starring [[Nova Pilbeam]], [[Derrick De Marney]] and [[John Longden]]. It is very loosely based on [[Josephine Tey]]'s novel ''A Shilling for Candles'' ([[1936]]).
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:NovaPilbeam.JPG|thumb|left|Pilbeam as Erica Burgoyne]]
There were significant changes made in adapting the book for the film. The team of screenwriters took the main suspect of the novel, Robert Tisdall, and his unexpected, initially reluctant supporter, Erica Burgoyne, and left out all the other characters, including Tey's Inspector Alan Grant and even the murderer. In other words, the episode focusing on Tisdall as a fugitive from justice was elaborated and blown up into a full-length film, whereas the subplots and distractions of Tey's novel -- which make it a [[whodunit]] -- were omitted.
==Plot summary==
Christine Clay, an actress who owes her career to her husband, is severely criticized by him for playing around with other men. He makes particular reference to Robert Tisdall, a young man staying with (or at least near) them at their country retreat somewhere on the English coast. One night, Christine smacks her husband's face. He keeps himself calm except for his eyes, which twitch uncontrollably, then proceeds to strangle her with the belt from a trenchcoat he has stolen. For some reason, he is never suspected by the police.
Just when Christine Clay's body is washed ashore, Robert Tisdall happens to be walking along the cliffs. A belt is found next to the body. He runs away to get help or call the police and is seen doing so by two young female swimmers. He is arrested and becomes the main suspect, also because the actress has left him a large sum in her will. After talking to a hopelessly inadequate [[solicitor]], Tisdall doubts if his innocence will ever be established. In the corridor of the courthouse, while there are many people waiting for and attending different trials, he can make his escape. Soon he is joined by Erica Burgoyne, who gives him a lift in her dilapidated Morris. The two get more and more involved with each other -- not romantically at first -- so that the police think she is his accomplice. All Tisdall wants, however, is prove his innocence by getting hold of the coat (plus belt) that was stolen from him.
[[Image:Blackface_murderer.JPG|left|thumb|Blackface murderer]]
During their flight, they briefly stop at Erica's aunt, whose seven year-old daughter Felicity is having a birthday party (playing, among other games, Blind Man's Buff). Finally, in a lodging house frequented by tramps, Tisdall encounters the man he has been looking for: Old Will, a sociable china-mender wearing Tisdall's coat, sans belt, which he readily gives back to him. Furthermore, he agrees to help him and Erica Burgoyne find the murderer and clear Tisdall of all suspicion.
In the pocket of the coat they find a box of matches from the Grand Hotel, which eventually leads them to the real murderer of Christine Clay -- her own husband, the man with the twitching eyes. Since that nervous tic is the only thing Old Will can remember about the man who gave him the coat, they go to the hotel to find him, where he is employed as the drummer in a jazz band which performs in [[blackface]] . Recognizing Old Will in the audience, and observing nearby law enforcement, the husband has a [[nervous breakdown]] mid-set and passes out. He confesses his crime immediately after being revived. In the end, Robert Tisdall and Erica Burgoyne are united, with Erica's father smiling benevolently.
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0029811|title=Young and Innocent}}
{{Alfred Hitchcock's films}}
[[Category:1937 films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]
[[de:Jung und unschuldig]]
[[fr:Jeune et innocent]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Things Turn Sour</title>
<id>9430</id>
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<id>15907322</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-20T16:53:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
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<comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>The Endless Dark Nothingness</title>
<id>9431</id>
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<id>15907323</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-20T16:56:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
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<comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
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<page>
<title>The Time in Between</title>
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<timestamp>2003-01-20T16:43:27Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ap</username>
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<comment>folding article back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Spain in Flames</title>
<id>9433</id>
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<id>15907325</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-10T00:26:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Spain in Flames''''' was a [[propaganda film]] made during the [[Spanish Civil War]] in favour of the Loyalists ([[communism|Communist]]s, [[socialism|socialist]]s and [[libertarian socialism|anarchist]]s). Supporting the Loyalists further, [[Ernest Hemingway]] and [[John Dos Passos]] went to [[Spain]] and founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called ''[[The Spanish Earth]]'' (directed by [[Joris Ivens]]).
[[Category:Propaganda films]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ernest Hemingway/For Whom the Bell Tolls</title>
<id>9434</id>
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<timestamp>2002-12-14T07:16:39Z</timestamp>
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<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frederic Henry</title>
<id>9435</id>
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<id>24706295</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-04T04:58:36Z</timestamp>
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<ip>69.236.213.1</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
'''Frederic Henry''' is a character in the novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'', by [[Ernest Hemingway]].
Author [[Milan Kundera]] once wrote his characters were not of woman born, but of an idea, of a decision he faced and didn't exploit the possibilities, circumvented a border instead of crossing it. Beyond the border, in fact, beyond the border of his own "I", started the realm in which his characters exist. They were familiar to him, but he could never reach them. I think the same holds true for Hemingway and his characters. Frederic Henry and [[Robert Jordan (character)|Robert Jordan]] are perfect examples of "bordercrossers". Lt. Henry didn't want the medal of honor because he knew he didn't deserve it and deserted when realizing the true nature of war, Lt. Hemingway didn't take such drastic steps though he too had realized how pointless the war was. Robert Jordan took an active part in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and was wi |
nts of settlers who came later in the same century and re-founded Port-Royal. [[New France]] was generally the name given to the French colonies of Canada and Acadia (and later [[Louisiana]]).[[Image:Death-wolfe.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'', painted by [[Benjamin West]], depicts British [[James Wolfe|General Wolfe]]'s final moments during the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] in 1759.]]
[[British colonization of the Americas|British settlements]] were established along the [[East Coast of the United States|Atlantic seaboard]] and around [[Hudson Bay]]. As these colonies expanded, a struggle for control of North America took place between 1689 and 1763 (see [[French and Indian Wars]]), exacerbated by wars in Europe between France and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. [[France]] progressively lost territory to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], surrendering peninsular [[Nova Scotia]] in the 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]] and the remainder of [[New France]], including what was left of [[Acadia]], in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]].
===British control===
During and after the [[American Revolution]] approximately 70,000 [[Loyalists]] fled the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. {{ref|UEL1}} Of these, roughly 50,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] settled in the [[British North America|British North American]] colonies which then consisted of [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]], the [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]], and [[Prince Edward Island]] (created 1769). {{ref|UEL}} To accommodate the Loyalists, Britain created the colony of [[New Brunswick]] in 1784 from part of Nova Scotia, and divided Quebec and Ontario into [[Lower Canada]] and [[Upper Canada]] under the [[Constitutional Act of 1791]].
The [[War of 1812]] began when the U.S. attacked British forces in Canada in an attempt to end British influence in North America (and particularly, the British seizures of American merchant ships in the Atlantic). In April 1813, U.S. forces burned [[Battle of York|York]] (now [[Toronto]]). The British retaliated with the [[burning of Washington]] (DC) in a surprise attack in August 1814, resulting in the destruction of the President's residence, which was later rebuilt and painted white. The [[Treaty of Ghent]], signed in December 1814, ended the war with no land lost. It was only after the French and Napoleonic wars ended in Europe that large-scale [[immigration]] to Canada resumed from the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and Europe.
[[The Canadas]] were merged into a single colony, the [[United Province of Canada]], with the [[Act of Union (1840)]] in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Once the U.S. agreed to the [[49th parallel north]] as its border with western British North America, the British government created the colonies of [[British Columbia]] in 1848 and [[Vancouver Island]] in 1849. By the late 1850s, politicians in the Province of Canada had launched a series of western exploratory expeditions with the intention of assuming control of [[Rupert's Land]] (administered by the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]) and the [[Arctic]].
===Confederation===
[[Image:Johnamacdonald1870.jpg|thumb|left|The Right Honourable Sir [[John A. Macdonald]], First [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]].]]In 1864 and 1866, British North American politicians, in what became known as the [[Great Coalition]], held three conferences to create a federal union. Spearheaded by [[John A. Macdonald]], on [[July 1]], [[1867]], three colonies&mdash;Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick&mdash;were granted a [[constitution]], the [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act]], by the United Kingdom, creating the dominion of Canada. The term "[[Canadian Confederation]]" refers to this 1867 unification of the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Canada (formerly comprising Canada East or Lower Canada, and Canada West or Upper Canada). The remaining British colonies and territories soon [[Canadian Confederation#Joining Confederation|joined Confederation]]. By 1880 Canada included all of its present area except for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] (which would join in 1949). The vast area outside of the 7 provinces then existing formed the [[Northwest Territories]], but over the years much of it would be transferred to three existing provinces, two new ones ([[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]], 1905), and two new territories ([[Yukon]], 1898; [[Nunavut]], 1999).
[[Image:Canadian Red Ensign.svg|thumb|155px|Canadian [[Red Ensign]], former flag of Canada (1957-65 version shown)]]
In 1919, Canada became a member of the [[League of Nations]] and, in the [[Imperial Conference]] of 1926, Canada assumed full control of its own affairs through the [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]]. In 1927, Canada appointed its first [[ambassador]] to a foreign country, the [[United States]]. In 1931, the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] gave the [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]] constitutional force, confirming that no act of the UK's parliament would thereafter extend to Canada without its consent.
Canadian [[citizenship]] was first distinguished from British in 1947; judicial appeals to the British [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] ended in 1949. The power to amend Canada's [[constitution of Canada|constitution]] remained with the British parliament, although subject to the Statute of Westminster, until it was "patriated" to Canadian control by the [[Canada Act 1982]].
===Quebec sovereignty movement ===
The [[Quebec sovereignty movement]] has led to two [[referendum|referendums]] held in 1980 and 1995, with votes of 59.6% and 50.6% respectively against its proposals for [[sovereignty-association]]. In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] ruled unilateral secession by a province to be [[unconstitutional]]. Since then, the question of "national unity" has been raised in federal elections, in particular, the [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004]] and [[Canadian federal election, 2006|2006 federal elections]].
The cornerstone of the ideology for a sovereign Quebec was a strong impetus for the [[October Crisis]] and the need to counter Quebec sovereignty through a "[[sponsorship]] program" engendered under the administration of former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien]]. See [[sponsorship scandal]] for more details.
==Government==
{{main|Politics of Canada}}
[[Image:Canada Parliament2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Parliament Hill]], [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]].]]
Canada is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[federation|federal system]] of [[Parliament|parliamentary government]], and strong [[Democracy|democratic]] traditions. The [[political system]] under which Canada operates is a [[Westminster system]] derived from the [[United Kingdom]].
[[Constitution of Canada|Canada's constitution]] governs the legal framework of the country and consists of [http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html written text] and unwritten traditions and conventions. The federal government and the governments of nine provinces agreed to the [[Constitutional history of Canada|patriation of the constitution]], with procedures for amending it, at a meeting of First Ministers in November 1981. The Quebec government did not agree to the changes, and Quebec nationalists refer to that date as the [[Night of the Long Knives (1981)|Night of the Long Knives]].
The patriation of the Constitution included the adoption of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], which guarantees basic rights and freedoms for Canadians that, generally, cannot be overridden by legislation of any level of government in Canada. It contains, however, a "[[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]]", which allows the federal parliament and the provincial legislatures the power to override other sections of the Charter temporarily, for a period of five years.
===The Monarch===
{{main|Monarchy in Canada}}
[[Image:Queen of canada wob.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Queen Elizabeth II, [[Monarchy in Canada|Queen of Canada]].]]
Canada is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[Commonwealth Realm]] that formally recognizes [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada. {{ref|GG1}} Though the [[United Kingdom]] and Canada share the same Monarch, the Queen of the United Kingdom is a legally separate role from the Queen of Canada.
The role of the sovereign which on paper seems to be all-encompassing, is contrasted with the reality that the Queen is bound by convention to very rarely exercise her powers, and is thus largely a ceremonial figurehead. Instead the great majority of the Monarch's power, prerogatives, and duties are performed on a day-to-day basis by the Governor-General - at the federal level - by the Lieutenant-Governors at the provincial level. While her formal political role has diminished, and the Governor-General has taken on more of the Head-of-State functions, the Monarch is still the consitutional head of Canada. In that capacity, all government business, all laws, all elections, etc., are done or proclaimed in the Sovereign's name. {{ref|forsey1}}
The current Queen, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned as Canada's sovereign since her ascension on [[February 6]], [[1952]], and she has been a far more visible Monarch than any in the past, visiting Canada 21 times as Queen (and once as a Princess), more than any other Commonwealth Realm except the UK itself. {{ref|Her1}}
===Governor General===
[[Image:JeanSmile.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Michaëlle Jean]], [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]].]]
{{main|Governor General of Canada}}
While Queen Elizabeth II is currently Canada's [[sovereign]], the Queen's representative in Canada and ''de facto'' [[head of state]] is the [[Governor General of |
n in the power plant [[Organizational chart|org chart]], subordinate to an [[Inanimate Carbon Rod]], and additionally holds a record for longest time spent in an entry-level position.
*'''[[Carl Carlson]]''', along with Lenny, is not just Homer's coworker but one of his best friends since childhood, and he likes to call himself "an urban Lenny." He is black and handsome, a [[Buddhist]] with a [[master's degree]] in [[Nuclear Physics]], fond of bowling and having a drink at Moe's. He is likely a [[American liberalism|liberal]] in terms of his politics, having described local talk show host Birch Barlow as "a right-wing crackpot". But these are the only definitive details given. He has stated in passing that he has a family and that he's Homer's supervisor, but he mostly keeps things to himself due to his uncontrollably abrasive tongue.
*'''[[Lenny Leonard|Lenford "Lenny" Leonard]]''', the nasal-voiced friend and co-worker of Homer. A [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] native, he is unmarried, a Buddhist, often described as plain looking, although sometimes also seen as very attractive (and featured in a photo-spread in the New Yorker), and though possessing a [[master's degree]] he's undeniably dumb. His living arrangements have included a house that is literally falling apart around him and a beautifully furnished apartment that shares a glass wall with a [[jai alai]] court. His relationship with Carl is complicated. Lifelong friends, Lenny clearly adores Carl. Carl is the dominant partner and generally regards Lenny coolly. They are nonetheless constant companions.
*'''Charlie''', the bespectacled dangerous emissions supervisor. Often quiet and working in the background, he is a known [[militiaman]] and can frequently be found at [[Moe's Tavern]] after hours. Once landed a pencil in Homer Simpson's butt crack, thus stopping Homer's Train of Thought (Dental Plan! Lisa needs braces!) and used his sister's prosthetic leg as a [[softball]] bat so he could join the power plant's team.
*'''[[Frank "Grimey" Grimes]]''', hired as executive vice-president and immediately replaced, he was assigned to Sector 7G. As a self-made man who suffered through the worst of life's obstacles, he was naturally outraged at Homer's countless faults, both professional and personal, and his enormous success in spite of them (becoming an [[astronaut]], winning a [[Grammy]], etc.). Attempts by both sides to "deal with" their differences only exacerbated the situation, resulting in Grimes's freakish and untimely death by electrocution. He fathered a son (Frank Grimes, Jr.) with a prostitute, who tried to kill Homer in revenge for his father.
*'''Mindy Simmons''', one of the only female employees hired under [[equal opportunity]] statute (guest-voiced by [[Michelle Pfeiffer]]), and Homer's soul mate. On a trip to promote nuclear power in Capital City, they nearly have an affair. Following Homer's decision not to pursue a relationship, Mindy was dismissed from the plant due to alcohol abuse.
*'''Jack Marley''', a long time employee who was retired against his will.
*'''Unnamed supervisor''', Sherri and Terri's father (no surname ever given, though Homer referred to him as '''Eugene Fisk'''), formerly Homer's supervisor.
*'''Unnamed supervisor''', Homer claims he is one of the guys he never sees at work.
*'''Carol''', member of [[payroll]].
*'''Mike''', married member of [[shipping]]. Burns thought he and Carol were going to hook up.
*'''Ms. Finch''', a woman employee who is one of the people Homer sees at the plant while trying to find a potential suitor for Selma in the episode Principal Charming. Not a man.
*'''Tibor''', Homer's co-worker who eventually becomes his supervisor, and also whom Homer thanked for having "saved my (his) [[butt]]." He was used as a scapegoat for other employees' mistakes since he was also known as "the guy who doesn't speak any [[English language|English]]", and is an [[List of unseen characters|unseen character]].
*'''Unnamed''', worker whose hand was enlarged a hundred times after exposure to radioactive waste.
*'''Zutroy''', the dangerous emissions supervisor hired when Charlie was temporarily disposed of. He is "American as [[apple pie]]", according to Burns.
*'''Canary M. Burns''', [[canary]], the one-time legal owner of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant for reasons of [[prosecutory evasion]] by de facto owner Montgomery Burns. Now living in the [[Canary Islands]].
*'''Unknown''', [[Dobermann|Doberman]], the heroic dog made executive vice-president in lieu of previous choice, Frank Grimes in lieu of previous choice, Waylon Smithers.
*'''Queenie''', [[chicken]], a temporary replacement for Homer, deceased and consumed by Homer.
*'''Stuart''', [[duck]], an employee charged with intra-plant waste transport.
*'''Blinky''', three-eyed [[fish]], inadvertent resultant of the power plant's radioactive output and some-time mascot. Actually, one of many so "evolved" creatures found in Springfield's waters.
*'''[[Inanimate Carbon Rod]]''', named the plant's "Worker of the Week" after all others but prior to Homer. It becomes famous for saving the spaceship Homer was on with [[Buzz Aldrin]] in ''Deep Space Homer'', although Homer suggested its use to close a faulty opening. For its heroism, the rod was named [[Time Magazine]]'s [[Man of the Year]]. According to the SNPP flowchart, the rod out-ranks Homer.
*'''[[Brick]]''', another office fill-in during one of Homer's absences.
*'''Bernie''', plant employee assigned with Homer and another unnamed employee to watch a [[bee]] contained in a jar in the basement during a plant inspection.
*'''Unknown''', dog, trained to abort the core destruct sequence whenever Homer pushes the button while napping.
*'''Kathy''', more or less a female Mr. Burns, works in personnel. Her relationship to Burns is unknown.
*The power plant is also the work place of many [[robot]]s which have [[emotion]]s and feelings. Homer had to fire forty-seven robots when he became owner of the plant and had to watch them all cry.
*It is implied that an entire '''Brazilian Soccer Team''' is working for the plant, because "that plane landed on [Mr. Burns'] property!". This is a reference to the true story of a Uruguayan rugby team whose plane crashed in the Andes in the 70s, which was also the basis for the book/movie [[Alive]].
To win a bet between the Shelbyville Power Plant, Mr. Burns hired professional baseball players to play for SNPP's company [[softball]] team. The [[parenthesis|parentheses]] indicate the misfortune that the player had.
*'''[[Roger Clemens]]''', security guard, [[softball]] team player ([[Hypnotism|hypnotized]] into thinking he is a chicken)
*'''[[Wade Boggs]]''', janitor, softball team player (knocked out by Barney Gumble in a bar argument)
*'''[[Ken Griffey Jr.]]''', lunchroom cashier, softball team player (gigantism caused by overdose of nerve tonic)
*'''[[Steve Sax]]''', softball team player (six consecutive [[life sentence]]s for various unsolved murders in [[New York City]])
*'''[[Don Mattingly]]''', softball team player (booted off team for not understanding what Mr. Burns wanted him to remove that he referred to as [[sideburns]])
*'''[[Darryl Strawberry]]''', softball team player (the only professional player not to have a misfortune, although he was taken out [because he and the opposing pitcher were both left-handed] during the only game he played at SNPP)
*'''[[Ozzie Smith]]''', softball team player (vanished off the face of the Earth while visiting the "Springfield Mystery Spot")
*'''[[Mike Scioscia]]''', softball team player ([[radiation poisoning]])
*'''[[Jose Canseco]]''', softball team player (occupied by rescuing items and people from a burning house)
== Related Characters ==
*A variety of nuclear regulators, safety inspectors, and immigration agents periodically make visits to the plant.
*'''Aristotle "Ari" Amadopolis''', the owner of the Shelbyville Nuclear Powerplant. His relationship with Montgomery resides within the area of competitive mutual respect. He has collaborated with Montgomery Burns on safety measures in the past and been known to meet him in a modest wager. He is based on late Greek shipping tycoon [[Aristotle Onassis]].
*'''Smilin' Joe Fission''', an animated personification of atomic energy used in Springfield Nuclear Power Plant's public relations films and serves as its mascot. He wears a cowboy hat and talks in a Texan accent.
*'''Hans, Fritz, & Horst''', the faces of the German consortium that briefly owned the power plant during Montgomery's temporary retirement.
*'''Mrs. Burns''', Montgomery's 122 year old mother from the deep South. She had an unforgivable affair with [[William Howard Taft|President Taft]], but her capacities are now so limited she can only dial a telephone and [[scream|yell]].
*'''[[Larry Burns]]''', Montgomery's illegitimate son. Born in [[1940]], he has been an all-around failure both with and without the resources his father's station provides. Voiced by and modeled after [[Rodney Dangerfield]], right down to the trademark tie tug.
*'''Lily Bancroft''', daughter of Montgomery's Yale classmate Mimsy and mother of his illegitimate son, Larry Burns. She was sent off to be a nun in the South Seas.
*'''Waylon Smithers Sr.''', the first administrative assistant to Montgomery and the father of Waylon. He died while preventing a meltdown to save both his son and the town.
*'''Frank Grimes Jr.''', the illegitimate son of Frank Grimes due to the latter's apparent fondness for [[prostitution|prostitutes]]. He attempted to exact revenge upon Homer Simpson for his father's early death.
==Interesting Facts==
*A cawing [[crow]] is heard in nearly every establishing shot of the power plant.
*The SNPP maintains a map of the United States indicating the s |
ars, methods have been developed to allow computers to do things previously regarded as the exclusive domain of humans — for instance, "read" handwriting, play chess, or perform [[symbolic integration]]. However, progress on creating a computer that exhibits "general" intelligence comparable to a human has been extremely slow.
===Networking and the Internet===
Computers have been used to coordinate information in multiple locations since the 1950s, with the US military's [[SAGE]] system the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]].
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the US began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by [[Advanced Research Projects Agency|ARPA]], and the [[computer network]] that it produced was called the [[ARPANET]]. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the [[Internet]]. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. In the phrase of [[John Gage]] and [[Bill Joy]] (of [[Sun Microsystems]]), "the network is the computer". Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like [[e-mail]] and the [[World Wide Web]], combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like [[Ethernet]] and [[ADSL]] saw computer networking become ubiquitous almost everywhere. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of [[personal computers]] regularly connect to the [[Internet]] to communicate and receive information.
==Computing professions and disciplines==
In the developed world, virtually every [[profession]] makes use of computers. However, certain professional and academic disciplines have evolved that specialize in techniques to construct, program, and use computers. Terminology for different professional disciplines is still somewhat fluid and new fields emerge from time to time: however, some of the major groupings are as follows:
*[[Computer engineering]] is the branch of [[electronic engineering]] devoted to the physical construction of computers and their attendant components.
*[[Computer science]] is an academic study of the processes related to computation, such as developing efficient [[algorithm]]s to perform specific tasks. It tackles questions as to whether problems can be solved at all using a computer, how efficiently they can be solved, and how to construct efficient programs to compute solutions. A huge array of specialties has developed within computer science to investigate different classes of problems.
*[[Software engineering]] concentrates on methodologies and practices to allow the development of reliable software systems while minimizing, and reliably estimating, costs and timelines.
*[[Information system]]s concentrates on the use and deployment of computer systems in a wider organizational (usually business) context.
*Many disciplines have developed at the intersection of computers with other professions; one of many examples is experts in [[Geographic information system|geographical information systems]] who apply computer technology to problems of managing geographical information.
There are two major professional societies dedicated to computers, the [[Association for Computing Machinery ]] and [[IEEE]] [[Computer Society]].
==See also==
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Computer}}
*[[Association for Computing Machinery]]
*[[IEEE Computer Society]]
*[[Computer hardware]]
*[[Computability theory (computation) | Computability theory]]
*[[Computer datasheet]]
*[[Computer expo]]
*[[Computer science]]
*Computer types: [[analog computer]], [[hybrid computer]], [[supercomputer]], [[desktop computer|desktop]], [[laptop]], [[desknote]], [[roll-away computer]], [[embedded computer]], [[cart computer]], [[tablet pc]], [[handheld computer]], [[subnotebook]], and [[server]]
*[[Computing]]
*[[Computers in fiction]]
*[[Computer security]] and [[Computer insecurity]] challenges such as: [[malware]], [[phishing]], [[spam]], and how to solve them, such as [[firewall (networking)|firewall]], [[computer security audit]]
*[[Digital]]
*[[History of computing]]
*[[List of computing topics]]
*[[Personal computer]]
*[[Word processing]]
*[[Computer programming]]
*[[Quantum computer]]
==External links==
* [http://www.diycalculator.com/sp-mechcomp.shtml The first mechanical computers] - A brief history
* [http://www.diycalculator.com/sp-elecmechcomp.shtml The first electromechanical computers] - A brief history
* [http://www.diycalculator.com/sp-eleccomp.shtml The first electronic computers] - A brief history
* [http://www.compuforums.org/ Discuss Computers / Computing]
* [http://www.computerhistory.org/ Computer History]
* [http://www.apple.com Apple Computers]
* [http://www.computerinfoworld.info Purchasing A Computer]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Computing]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:Rekenaar]]
[[ar:حاسوب]]
[[ast:Computadora]]
[[bg:Компютър]]
[[bn:গণকযন্ত্র (কমপিউটার)]]
[[br:Urzhiataer]]
[[bs:Računar]]
[[ca:Ordinador]]
[[cs:Počítač]]
[[cy:Cyfrifiadur]]
[[da:Computer]]
[[de:Computer]]
[[eo:Komputilo]]
[[es:Computadora]]
[[et:Arvuti]]
[[fa:رایانه]]
[[fi:Tietokone]]
[[fo:Telda]]
[[fr:Ordinateur]]
[[fy:Kompjûter]]
[[gd:Coimpiutaireachd]]
[[gl:Ordenador]]
[[he:מחשב]]
[[hi:संगणक]]
[[hu:Számítógép]]
[[ia:Computator]]
[[id:Komputer]]
[[is:Tölva]]
[[it:Computer]]
[[iu:ᖃᕋᓴᐅᔭᖅ]]
[[ja:コンピュータ]]
[[ko:컴퓨터]]
[[ku:Kompûter]]
[[la:Computatrum]]
[[lb:Computer]]
[[li:Computer]]
[[lo:ຄອມພິວເຕີ]]
[[lt:Kompiuteris]]
[[lv:Datori]]
[[mg:Mpikajy]]
[[ml:കംപ്യുട്ടര്]]
[[ms:Komputer]]
[[my:က္ဝန္ပ္ရူတာ]]
[[nb:Datamaskin]]
[[nds:Reekner]]
[[nl:Computer]]
[[nn:Datamaskin]]
[[nv:Béésh bee ak'e'elchíhí t'áá bí nitsékeesígíí]]
[[pl:Komputer]]
[[pt:Computador]]
[[ro:Computer]]
[[ru:Компьютер]]
[[simple:Computer]]
[[sl:Računalnik]]
[[sq:Kompjuteri]]
[[sr:Рачунар]]
[[sv:Dator]]
[[ta:கணினி]]
[[te:కంప్యూటరు]]
[[th:คอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[tr:Bilgisayar]]
[[uk:Комп'ютер]]
[[vi:Máy tính]]
[[yi:קאָמפּיוטערס]]
[[zh:计算机]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Character</title>
<id>5269</id>
<revision>
<id>38746874</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T10:05:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Clemente</username>
<id>276393</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Character''' may mean:
*Persons:
** [[Fictional character]]
** [[Video game character]], either a [[player character]] or a [[non-player character]]
** [[Moral character]]
** [[Character structure]], in psychology, a constellation of enduring motivational and other traits that are manifested in the ways that an individual reacts to various challenges
*Symbols:
** [[Grapheme]] such as a letter, ideogram, numeral, or punctuation mark
** [[Character (computing)]]
** [[Character (mathematics)]]
* ''[[Character (1997 movie)]]''
* ''[[Character (album)]]'' by Dark Tranquillity
*[[Sacramental character]], a supernatural mark made on a person's soul by Catholic sacraments
'''See also:'''
*[[Typography]]
*[[In character]], a term used in role-playing games
*[[Break character]], a term used in drama
* [[Characteristic]] (another disambiguation page)
{{disambig}}
[[de:Charakter]]
[[eo:Litero]]
[[es:Carácter]]
[[nl:Letter]]
[[fr:Caractère]]
[[pl:charakter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Car (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5270</id>
<revision>
<id>39286475</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T02:34:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.109.189.243</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|car}}
'''Car''' may mean:
* [[Motorcar]] or [[Automobile]] (American usage)
* Car and [[cdr]], related functions in some computer programming languages such as Lisp
* [[Car (Carians)]] or Kar, the legendary ancestor of the [[Carians]] (Herodotus, 1.171)
* [[Carina (constellation)]], standard astronomical abbreviation
* [[Cars, France]], a commune in the [[Gironde]] département
* [[The Cars]], a musical group
* [[Chariot]], [[carriage]], or [[cart]] (archaic)
* [[Elevator]] car
* [[Railroad car]]
* [[Tsar]], sometimes transcribed ''car''
See also:
* [[CAR]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:Vogn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer printer</title>
<id>5272</id>
<revision>
<id>41819935</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:24:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pascal666</username>
<id>49293</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
A '''computer printer''' is a [[computer peripheral]] device that produces a [[hard copy]] (permanent [[human-readable]] [[text]] and/or [[graphics]], usually on [[paper]]) from [[data]] stored in a [[computer]] connected to it. The world's first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by [[Charles Babbage]] for his [[Difference Engine]].
[[Image:Kjobviewer.png|right]]
==Printing mode==
The data received by a printer may be:
# [[plain text|a string of characters]]
# [[raster graphics|a bitmapped image]]
# [[vector graphics|a vector image]]
Some printers can process all three types of data, others not.
[[Daisy wheel printer]]s can handle only plain text data or rather simple point plots.
[[Plotter] |
the [[Post Office Protocol|POP]] or [[IMAP]] protocols, though in a large [[corporate]] environment users are likely to use some [[proprietary]] protocol such as [[Lotus Notes]] or [[Microsoft Exchange Server]]'s.
Mails can be stored either on the [[client (computing)|client]] or on the [[server]] side. Standard formats for mailboxes include [[Maildir]] and [[mbox]]. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own, proprietary format, and require conversion software to transfer e-mail between them.
When a message cannot be delivered, the recipient MTA must send a [[bounce message]] back to the sender, indicating the problem.
== Spamming and e-mail worms ==
The usefulness of e-mail is being threatened by three phenomena, [[E-mail spam|spamming]], [[phishing]] and [[e-mail worm]]s.
Spamming is unsolicited commercial e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages each day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in [[information overload]] for many computer users who receive tens or even hundreds of junk e-mails each day.
E-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm affected early UNIX computers, this problem is today almost entirely confined to the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system.
The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of e-mail as a practical tool.
A number of [[stopping e-mail abuse|technology-based initiatives]] mitigate the impact of spam. In the [[United States]], [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has also passed a law, the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]], attempting to regulate such e-mail.
== Privacy problems regarding e-mail ==
{{main|e-mail privacy}}
E-mail privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because
* e-mail messages are generally not encrypted;
* e-mail messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages;
* many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of your e-mail messages on their mail servers before they are delivered. The backups of these can remain up to several months on their server, even if you delete them in your mailbox.
There are [[cryptography]] applications that can serve as a remedy to the above, such as [[Virtual Private Network]]s, message encryption using [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]] or the [[GNU Privacy Guard]], encrypted communications with the e-mail servers using [[Transport Layer Security]] and Secure Sockets Layer, and/or encrypted authentication schemes such as [[Simple Authentication and Security Layer]].
== See also ==
* [[E-mail art]]
* E-mail social issues:
** [[Netiquette]]
** [[Information overload]]
** [[Internet humor]]
** [[Internet slang]]
** [[Spam (electronic)|Spam]]
** [[Stopping e-mail abuse]]
** [[Bounce Address Tag Validation]] (BATV)
** [[Computer virus]]
* Clients and servers:
** [[E-mail client]]
** [[Mail transfer agent]]
** [[Webmail]] / [[HTMLmail]]
** [[Branded e-mail]]
** [[Unicode and e-mail]]
* Mailing list:
** [[Electronic mailing list]]
** [[Mailing list archive]]
* [[E-mail address]]
* [[E-card]]
* [[Internet mail standard]]s
* Free e-mail services/[[webmail]]:
** [[Hotmail]]
** [[Yahoo! Mail]]
** [[Gmail]]
** [[Temporary hosting]]
* [[Uniform Resource Identifier]]
* Alternative protocols and projects
** [[Trust-forum]]
** [[Internet Mail 2000]]
== Further reading ==
* Katie Hafner, Matthew Lyon, ''Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) also covers the early history of e-mail
* Abdullah, M. H. (1998). "Electronic discourse: Evolving conventions in online academic environments". Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication. [ED 422 593]
* Abras, C. (2002) The principle of relevance and metamessages in online discourse: Electronic exchanges in a graduate course. Language, "Literacy and Culture Review" 1(2), 39-53.
* Biesenbach-Lucas, S. & Wiesenforth, D. (2001). E-mail and word processing in the ESL classroom: How the medium affects the message. "Language Learning and Technology", 5 (1), 135-165. [EJ 621 506]
* Danet, B. (2001). Cyberplay: Communicating online. Oxford: Berg Publishing.
== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
== External links ==
* [[SourceForge]]'s database of [http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=28 free e-mail software]
* [http://openmap.bbn.com/%7Etomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html The First Network Email]
* M. A. Padlipsky, ''[http://www.lafn.org/~ba213/allnight.html And They Argued All Night...]'' is an alternative personal recollection of the origins of network e-mail
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB4-4F0GR6R-1/2/6e8130c8b281029598bc40fe5934fdaf E-mail training significantly reduces e-mail defects] — from International Journal of Information Management
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,1465950,00.html Guardian.co.uk] — 'Emails "pose threat to IQ"', Martin Wainwright, ''The Guardian'' ([[April 22]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html The History of Electronic Mail] is a personal memoir by the implementer of one of the first e-mail systems
* [http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Encrypting-Your-E-mail.html Is it Time to Start Encrypting Your E-mail?] — discusses the pros and cons of e-mail encryption
* [http://www.cyberbullying.us Cyberbullying News, Research, and Resources]
* [http://people.smu.edu/acambre/html_email_is_good.asp Commentary in favor of HTML-enhanced e-mail]
* [http://mailformat.dan.info/ Dan's Mail Format Site] — information about formatting e-mail messages.
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:E-mail| ]]
[[Category:Internet terminology]]
[[af:Elektroniese pos]]
[[bs:Email]]
[[ca:Correu electrònic]]
[[cs:E-mail]]
[[da:E-mail]]
[[de:E-Mail]]
[[es:Correo electrónico]]
[[eo:Retpoŝto]]
[[fa:پست الکترونیکی]]
[[fr:Courrier électronique]]
[[ga:Ríomhphost]]
[[gl:Correo electrónico]]
[[ko:전자 우편]]
[[id:Surat elektronik]]
[[is:Tölvupóstur]]
[[it:E-mail]]
[[he:דואר אלקטרוני]]
[[ku:E-name]]
[[lv:Elektroniskais pasts]]
[[lt:Elektroninis paštas]]
[[hu:E-mail]]
[[mk:Електронско писмо]]
[[nl:E-mail]]
[[nds:Nettbreef]]
[[ja:電子メール]]
[[no:E-post]]
[[pl:Poczta elektroniczna]]
[[pt:E-mail]]
[[ro:E-mail]]
[[rm:E-mail]]
[[ru:Электронная почта]]
[[simple:E-mail]]
[[sk:E-mail]]
[[sl:Elektronska pošta]]
[[sr:E-mail]]
[[su:Surélék]]
[[fi:Sähköposti]]
[[sv:E-post]]
[[tl:Elektronikong liham]]
[[ta:மின்னஞ்சல்]]
[[th:อีเมล]]
[[vi:Thư điện tử]]
[[tr:Elektronik posta]]
[[uk:Електронна пошта]]
[[wa:Emile]]
[[yi:בליצבריוו]]
[[zh:电子邮件]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emoticon</title>
<id>9739</id>
<revision>
<id>42152262</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:05:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garrett</username>
<id>55180</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Basic examples */ wasn't added to the table, and there's already an entry for it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''emoticon''', sometimes called a '''[[smiley]]''', is a sequence of printable characters such as <tt>:)</tt>, <tt>^_^</tt>, or <tt>:-)</tt> or a small image that is intended to represent a human [[facial expression]] and convey an [[emotion]].highlighter makes skin. Emoticons are a form of [[paralanguage]] commonly used in [[e-mail]] messages, in [[bulletin board system|online bulletin boards]], [[instant messengers]], or in [[Internet chat room|chat rooms]]. The word ''emoticon'' is a [[portmanteau]] which popular etymology bases on ''emotion'' and ''[[icon]]''. In truth, the second element is ''con'', short for ''[[console]]'', not ''icon''.
A similar portmanteau, '''verticon''' (based on ''[[vertical]]'' and ''icon''), is sometimes used when referring to the [[#East Asian style|East Asian style]] of emoticon.
{{wiktionarypar|emoticon}}
==History==
=== Background ===
In [[1963]] the ''[[smiley]] face'', a yellow button with a smile and two dots representing eyes, was invented by freelance artist [[Harvey Ball]]. This smiley presumably inspired later emoticons; the most basic [http://www.msnemoticons.org emoticon image] is a small yellow smiley face.
The earliest known non-[[ASCII]] emoticons were used in the [[PLATO System|PLATO IV]] program as early as [[1972]], which allowed users to type multiple text characters "on top" of each other. Many combinations of ordinary text characters were known to produce face-like patterns, which were used as emoticons.
Several sites on the [[World Wide Web]] (such as [http://www.connected-earth.com/Journeys/Frombuttonstobytes/ComputerNetworks/Thegrowthofe-mail/Firstemoticon/firstemoticon(1979).htm Connected Earth]) assert that Kevin Mackenzie proposed <tt>-)</tt> as a joke-marker in April [[1979]], on a message board called ''MsgGroup''. The idea was to indicate that a message was intended tongue-in-cheek — the [[hyphen]] was a tongue, not a nose. Although it has two out of the three characters of the smiley, its intended interpretation was different and it doesn't appear to have inspired the later smileys.
Every issue of the British fashion magazine [[i-D]], founded in [[1980]], has featured a cover model with a winking right eye (or sometimes obscured in a different way).
=== Creation of :-) ===
The creator of the original [[ASCII]] emoticons <tt>:-)</tt> and <tt>:-(</tt>, with a specific suggestion that they be used to express emotion, was [[Scott Fahlman]]; the original proposal made by Fahlman on [[Carnegie Mellon University]] CS general board on [[September 19]], [[1982]] (at 11:44< |
a spotter of talent and his various groups included such musical luminaries as [[Lowell George]], [[Jean-Luc Ponty]], [[George Duke]], [[Mike Keneally]] and [[Steve Vai]].
Zappa had a large and fiercely dedicated worldwide following throughout his varied career, throughout the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries, in particular. His early albums were a strong influence on other groups (including [[The Beatles]]) and his critically acclaimed work garnered brief mainstream success in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with hit singles "Dancing Fool" and "[[Valley Girl]]". Zappa, as demonstrated by his disparaging comments about the music business, never put much emphasis upon mainstream acclaim.
== Early life and influences ==
Frank Zappa was born in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] on [[December 21st]], [[1940]] to Francis Zappa (born in Partanico, [[Sicily]], of [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Lebanese]] descent) and Rose Marie Colimore (who was of 3 quarters [[Italian people|Italian]] including [[Sicilian]] and 1/4 [[French people|French]] descent). He was the oldest of four children (two brothers and a sister). In January of [[1951]], his family relocated to the West Coast because of Frank's [[asthma]]. They settled in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]], [[California]], about 100 miles south of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Shortly thereafter, they moved to [[Pomona, California|Pomona]], then to [[El Cajon, California|El Cajon]] before moving a short distance, once again, to [[San Diego, California|San Diego]] in the early [[1950s]].
During Zappa's earliest childhood, his father, a [[chemist]] and [[mathematician]], worked at the Edgewood Arsenal [[chemical warfare]] facility at nearby [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]]. Due to the Zappa home's close proximity to the Arsenal, Zappa's father kept gas masks on hand in case of an accident. Evidently, this had a profound effect on the young Zappa; references to germs, germ warfare and other aspects of the "secret" defense industry occur throughout his work.
By [[1955]] the Zappa family had relocated to [[Lancaster, California|Lancaster]]. Lancaster was a small [[aerospace]] and farming town in [[Antelope Valley]] of the [[Mojave Desert]], close to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and the [[San Gabriel Mountains]]. By age 15, Zappa had attended six different [[high school|high schools]], which may have contributed to his sense of alienation in adult life.
Lancaster's location gave the young Zappa access to the exciting sounds coming from radio stations in Los Angeles and KSPC 88.7 FM in Claremont, where Zappa had his own Saturday night show. In addition, his parents were affluent enough to afford a record player, records, a television, and musical instruments. Television also exerted a strong influence, as demonstrated by quotations from show themes and advertising jingles found in some of his work.
Among formative events was a chronic sinus problem during his early teens. To Frank's lasting horror, his doctor treated the stubborn ailment by inserting a pellet of [[radium]] on a probe into each of his [[nostrils]]. Nasal imagery and references to the nose recur, both in his writing and in the classic collage album covers created by his longtime visual collaborator, [[Cal Schenkel]].
As a student, Zappa was bored and given to distracting the rest of the class with his antics. He left community college after one semester to make low-budget films. Frank maintained his disdain for formal education throughout his life, taking his children out of school at age 15 and refusing to pay for their college. Nevertheless, he was in essence a [[polymath]]. He was highly intelligent as well as ambitious and articulate. Zappa possessed a voracious drive, singular concentration, enormous creativity and a huge capacity for work and organization. His passionate interest in music, highly idiosyncratic musical interests and superior ability were demonstrated at an early age. His parents, though not musicians, had broad musical tastes. Zappa grew up influenced in equal measures by [[avant-garde]] composers such as [[Edgard Varèse]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Anton Webern]], local [[rhythm and blues]] and [[doo-wop]] groups (particularly local [[pachuco]] groups), and modern jazz (including [[bebop]] and [[free jazz]]).
Zappa was, from the beginning, interested in sounds for their own sake. This led to his interest in modern composers. His introduction to [[Stravinsky]] seems to have been a pivotal musical discovery but he was soon ranging further afield musically. After reading a magazine review panning Varèse's dissonant drum piece "Ionisation" (found in ''The Complete Works of Edgard Varèse, Volume One'') as 'a weird jumble of drums and other unpleasant sounds', the teenage Zappa became convinced that he should seek out Varèse's music. When he spotted a copy of ''The Complete Works of Edgard Varèse, Volume One'' in a local record store, he convinced the salesman to sell him the copy, despite his inability to pay full price. Thus began a lifelong passion for Varèse and his music. Zappa's mother gave him considerable encouragement. Though she greatly disliked Varèse's music, she was indulgent enough to award Zappa the gift of a long distance call to the composer as a fifteenth birthday present. Unfortunately, Varèse was away in Europe at the time, so Frank spoke to the composer's wife.
Zappa began his musical career (at the age of 13) on drums, taking his first lessons at school in the summer of 1953. He played drums with local teenage combos, but later switched to guitar, which he quickly mastered. Although he performed as a singer-guitarist for most of his career, Zappa always retained a strong interest in rhythm and percussion. His bands have been noted for the excellence of their drummers. Works such as ''The Black Page'' are notorious for virtuosity and complexity in rhythmic structure and arrangement, featuring radical changes of tempo and metre as well as short, densely arranged passages contrasted by free-form breaks and extended improvisations. Classically trained percussionist and drummer [[Terry Bozzio]], who played for Zappa in the late [[1970s]] (along with many recordings of well-known classical and avant-garde works), is on record as saying that Zappa's writing for percussion is as difficult and complex as anything else he has played.
In [[1956]] Zappa met [[Captain Beefheart|Don Van Vliet]] (best known by his stage name "Captain Beefheart") while taking classes at [[Antelope Valley High School]] and playing drums in a local band, The Blackouts. The Blackouts, a racially-mixed outfit, included Euclid James "Motorhead" Sherwood (who later lived with Zappa at 'Studio Z' and was a member of the Mothers of Invention, playing on many of their most famous recordings). Zappa and Vliet became close friends, influencing each other musically, and collaborating in the late Sixties and mid-Seventies (on the album [[Bongo Fury]], released 1975). They later became estranged for a period of years. Van Vliet's own feelings about Frank Zappa were perhaps best summarized in a quote published in a March 1994 issue of Musician magazine: "I knew him for thirty-seven years, and in the end, the relationship was private."
In [[1957]] Zappa was given his first guitar and quickly developed into a highly accomplished and inventive player. He considered his solos "air sculptures", and developed an eclectic, fluent and individual style. Zappa eventually became one of the most highly regarded electric guitarists of his time. While it is possible that Zappa may have become a professional jazz musician, he was soon drawn into rock music. Throughout, he retained a lifelong attachment to jazz forms, voicing and structures and often drew his band members from the jazz world (if only because of the high degree of competence his music demanded).
Zappa's interest in composing and arranging burgeoned in his later high school years and he dreamed of being a [[composer]]. By his final year he was writing prolifically and had not only composed, arranged and conducted an avant-garde performance piece for the school orchestra, but had also contrived to have the event both broadcast on local radio and recorded. A portion of this historic recording is included on the CD ''The Lost Episodes''. Zappa did see his childhood dream realized, as the [[London Symphony Orchestra]] played a program of his music, and the [[Ensemble Modern]] in [[1992]] received a 20-minute ovation after performing a program of his work at the [[Frankfurt]] Opera House.
After graduating in June [[1958]] Zappa worked for a time in advertising. His sojourn in the commercial world was another important influence on his work, and within a few years Zappa was co-opting the techniques he learned as a commercial artist. Zappa used them to deconstruct music, the music business, the media and society at large by combining them with the ideas he had gleaned from his studies of [[dada]], [[situationism]], and [[surrealism]]. Zappa frequently referenced his advertising industry experiences in his lyrics.
Frank Zappa always took a keen interest in the visual presentation of his work, rapidly developing from album cover designer (e.g. ''[[Absolutely Free]]'') to director of his own films and videos. Zappa's album covers are highly distinctive; frequently bizarre and surreal. His two most important visual collaborators were [[Cal Schenkel]] in the [[Sixties]] and early [[Seventies]], and [[Donald Roller Wilson]] in the [[Eighties]] and [[Nineties]].
Zappa moved to Los Angeles in [[1959]] and spent most of the rest of his life there. Among his earliest professional recordings are two adventurous and remarkably accomplished scores for the low-budget fi |
[[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]], [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]]
Pool IV: [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]], [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]], [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]], [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]]
* The two top teams in each group will progress to a round robin second stage ("Super Eight") which is followed by knockout semi-finals and final.
* The venues are as follows:
Preliminary Round
VENUE 1 (hosts [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]' matches, plus Opening Ceremony and Opening Match): [[Jamaica]]
VENUE 2 (hosts [[English cricket team|England]]'s matches): [[St. Lucia]]
VENUE 3 (hosts [[Indian cricket team|India]]'s matches): [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
VENUE 4 (hosts [[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'s matches): [[St. Kitts and Nevis]]
Quarter-finals
VENUE 5 (hosts three of the biggest Super Eight matches): [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
VENUE 6 [[Grenada]]
VENUE 7 [[Guyana]]
VENUE 8 (hosts three of the biggest Super Eight matches): [[Barbados]]
Semi-finals
Same as VENUE 1: [[Jamaica]]
Same as VENUE 2: [[St. Lucia]]
Final
Same as VENUE 8: [[Barbados]]
* the mascot of the 2007 Cricket World Cup is an orange raccoon like creature called Mello wearing a blue short sleeved shirt over a white vest and blue sneakers leaning on a cricket bat. According to the organisers "he's fun and friendly, he's on the go, he's cool as they come...he's Mello".
==Cricket World Cup tournaments==
{| border=1 style="border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%;" cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 width=100%
|- bgcolor=#C1D8FF
!rowspan=2 width=5%|Year
!rowspan=2 width=15%|Host Nation
!rowspan=2 width=15%|Final Venue
|width=1% rowspan=35 bgcolor=ffffff|
!colspan=3|Final
|- bgcolor=#EFEFEF
!width=24%|Winner
!width=16%|Result
!width=24%|Runner-up
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|[[1975]]<br>''[[1975 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|30px]]<br>'''[[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]'''<br><small>291 for 8 (60 overs)</small>
|'''WI won by 17 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]<br>[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]<br><small>274 all out (58.4 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[1979]]<br>''[[1979 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|30px]]<br>'''[[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]'''<br><small>286 for 9 (60 overs)</small>
|'''WI won by 92 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|30px]]<br>[[English cricket team|England]]<br><small>191 all out (50 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|[[1983]]<br>''[[1983 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:India_flag_large.png|30px]]<br>'''[[Indian cricket team|India]]'''<br><small>183 all out (54.4 overs)</small>
|'''Ind won by 43 runs'''
|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|30px]]<br>[[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]<br><small>140 all out (52 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[1987]]<br>''[[1987 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[India]]/[[Pakistan]]
|[[Eden Gardens]], [[Calcutta]]
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]<br>'''[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'''<br><small>253 for 5 (50 overs)</small>
|'''Aus won by 7 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|30px]]<br>[[English cricket team|England]]<br><small>246 for 8 (50 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|[[1992]]<br>''[[1992 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[Australia]]/[[New Zealand]]
|[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[Melbourne]]
|[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|30px]]<br>'''[[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]'''<br><small>249 for 6 (50 overs)</small>
|'''Pak won by 22 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|30px]]<br>[[English cricket team|England ]]<br><small>227 all out (49.2 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[1996]]<br>''[[1996 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[India]]/[[Pakistan]]/[[Sri Lanka]]
|[[Gaddafi Stadium]], [[Lahore]]
|[[Image:Sri lanka flag large.png|30px]]<br>'''[[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]]'''<br><small>245 for 3 (46.2 overs)</small>
|'''SL won by 7 wickets'''
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]<br>[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]<br><small>241 for 7 (50 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF
|[[1999]]<br>''[[1999 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]<br>'''[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'''<br><small>133 for 2 (20.1 overs)</small>
|'''Aus won by 8 wickets'''
|[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|30px]]<br>[[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]<br><small>132 all out (39 overs)</small>
|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF
|[[2003]]<br>''[[2003 Cricket World Cup|Details]]''
|[[South Africa]]/[[Zimbabwe]]/[[Kenya]]
|[[Wanderers Stadium|Wanderers]], [[Johannesburg]]
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]<br>'''[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'''<br><small>359 for 2 (50 overs)</small>
|'''Aus won by 125 runs'''
|[[Image:India_flag_large.png|30px]]<br>[[Indian cricket team|India ]]<br><small>234 all out (39.2 overs)</small>
|}
==World Cup winners ranking==
# [[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Australian cricket team|Australia]] - [[1987 Cricket World Cup|1987]], [[1999 Cricket World Cup|1999]], [[2003 Cricket World Cup|2003]] (3 titles)
# [[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|25x15px]] [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] - [[1975 Cricket World Cup|1975]], [[1979 Cricket World Cup|1979]] (2 titles)
# [[Image:India_flag_large.png|25x15px]] [[Indian cricket team|India]] - [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983]] (1 title)<br>[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|25x15px]] [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] - [[1992 Cricket World Cup|1992]] (1 title)<br>[[Image:Sri lanka flag large.png|25x15px]] [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]] - [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]] (1 title)
==See also==
*[[Cricket World Cup Teams|World Cup Teams]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cricketworldcup.com/ Official ICC Cricket World Cup 2007 website]
{{Cricket World Cup}}
{{International_cricket}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting</title>
<id>7241</id>
<revision>
<id>35816714</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T14:41:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shermozle</username>
<id>87145</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting''' ('''CHOGM''') is a biennial [[summit meeting]] of the heads of government from all [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state, and is chaired by that nation's respective [[Prime Minister]] or [[President]]. Most meetings include an appearance by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], who is the titular Head of the Commonwealth. The first CHOGM was held in 1971. Previously to that year, and since [[1944]], Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers were held, always in [[London]].
In the past, CHOGMs have attempted to orchestrate common policies on certain contentious issues and current events, with a special focus on issues affecting member nations. In the past, CHOGMs have discussed the continuation of [[apartheid]] rule in [[South Africa]] and how to stop it, military [[coup]]s in [[Pakistan]] and [[Fiji]], and allegations of electoral fraud in [[Zimbabwe]]. Sometimes the member states agree on a common idea or solution, and release a joint statement declaring their opinion.
As the cultural and economic links between the Commonwealth countries continue to decline, the meeting's agenda has become more and more relaxed and its relevance questioned. The Commonwealth has grown increasingly large in recent years (it now has over 40 members) and as a result is becoming an increasingly difficult forum to establish any sort of political consensus in. Fears have also been raised that the Commonwealth's agenda is unfairly monopolized by [[Africa]]n issues. This is unpopular with non-African member states, who resent the exclusion of the affairs of their regions, but also with the African states themselves. Many of them view the Commonwealth as a neo-colonial organization dominated by a "White Commonwealth", that is to say those "[[Anglosphere]]" countries who are also members of the [[Commonwealth]]. The future of the Commonwealth thus remains in doubt. Some have proposed the organization be split in half, with one half for African affairs, and one for the affairs of all other member states.
==History of CHOGM meetings==
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Date !! Country !! City !! Chairman-in-Office
|-
| [[1971]] January 14-22 || [[Singapore]] || [[Singapore]] || [[Lee Kuan Yew]]
|-
| [[1973]] August 2-10 || [[Canada]] || [[Ottawa]] || [[Pierre Trudeau]]
|-
| [[1975]] April 29-May 6 || [[Jamaica]] || [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] || [[Michael Manley]]
|-
| [[1977]] June 8-15 || [[United Kingdom]] || [[London]] || [[James Callaghan]]
|-
| [[1979]] August 1-7 || [[Zambia]] || [[Lusaka]] || [[Kenneth Kaunda]]
|-
| [[1981]] September 30-October 7 || [[Australia]] || [[Melbou |
rst = James
| coauthors = ''et al''
| title = Philosophical Problems and Arguments - An Introduction
| edition = 4th ed.
| location = Indianapolis
| publisher = Hackett
| year = 1992
| id = ISBN 0872201244
}}
* {{cite book
| last = MacIntyre | first = A
| title = A Short History of Ethics
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2002
| id = ISBN 0415287499
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Singer, P. (Ed.)
| title = A Companion To Ethics
| location = Massachusetts
| publisher = Blackwell
| year = 1993
| id = ISBN 0631187855
}}
== External links ==
* [http://ethics.acusd.edu/ Ethics Updates] mega-list of ethics resources maintained by Lawrence Hinman of the University of San Diego.
* [http://www.ditext.com/broad/ftet/ftet.html C. D. Broad, ''Five Types of Ethical Theory'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1930).]
* [http://www.ditext.com/ross/right.html W. D. Ross, ''The Right and the Good'' (1930)]
* [http://www.www.josephsoninstitute.org The Josephson Institute of Ethics] An organization aimed to improve the ethical quality of society by changing personal and organizational decision making and behavior.
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int11.html An Introduction to Ethics] by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/ Ancient Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/ Environmental Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-ethics/ Feminist Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-ethics/ Natural Law Tradition in Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/ Virtue Ethics]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Equivalence relation</title>
<id>9259</id>
<revision>
<id>39865841</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T11:42:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haham hanuka</username>
<id>111674</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''equivalence relation''' on a [[set]] ''X'' is a [[binary relation]] on ''X'' that is ''reflexive'', ''symmetric'', and ''transitive''. That is, if the relation is denoted by the symbol "~", it holds for all ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' in ''X'' that
# ([[Reflexive relation|Reflexivity]]) ''a'' ~ ''a''
# ([[symmetric relation|Symmetry]]) if ''a'' ~ ''b'' then ''b'' ~ ''a''
# ([[Transitive relation|Transitivity]]) if ''a'' ~ ''b'' and ''b'' ~ ''c'' then ''a'' ~ ''c''
A set together with an equivalence relation is called a '''setoid'''.
Equivalence relations are often used to group together objects that are similar in some sense.
== Examples of equivalence relations ==
* The [[equality (mathematics)|equality]] ("=") relation between [[real numbers]] or [[set]]s.
* The relation "is congruent to ([[modular arithmetic|modulo]] [[five|5]])" between [[integers]].
* The relation "is similar to" on the set of all [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s.
* The relation "has the same birthday as" on the set of all human beings.
* The relation of [[logical equivalence]] on statements in [[first-order logic]].
* The relation "is [[isomorphic]] to" on [[model theory|models]] of a set of sentences.
* The relation "is in [[thermal equilibrium]] with".
* The relation "has the same [[image (mathematics)|image]] under a [[function (mathematics)|function]]" on the elements of the [[domain (mathematics)|domain of the function]].
* [[Green's relations]] are five equivalence relations on the elements of a [[semigroup]].
== Examples of relations that are not equivalences ==
* The relation "is friends with", among people.
* The relation "&ge;" between real numbers is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is reflexive and transitive, it is not symmetric. E.g. 7 &ge; 5 does not imply that 5 &ge; 7. It is, however, a [[Partially ordered set|partial order relation]].
* The relation "has a common factor greater than 1 with" between [[natural numbers]] greater than 1, is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive (2 and 6 have a common factor greater than 1, and 6 and 3 have a common factor greater than 1, but 2 and 3 do not have a common factor greater than 1).
* The empty relation R on a [[non-empty]] set ''X'' (i.e. ''a'' R ''b'' is never true) is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is [[vacuously true|vacuously]] symmetric and transitive, it is not reflexive (except when ''X'' is also empty).
* The relation "is approximately equal" between real numbers or other things, even if more precisely defined, is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive (it may seem so at first sight, but many small changes can add up to a big change).
* The relation "is the mother of" on the set of all human beings is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because it not reflexive ('''A''' is not the mother of '''A'''), symmetric (If '''A''' is the mother of '''B''', then '''B''' is not the mother of '''A'''), and is not transitive (if '''A''' is the mother of '''B''', and '''B''' is the mother of '''C''', it does not necessarily mean '''A''' is the mother of '''C''')
== Partitioning into equivalence classes ==
Every equivalence relation on ''X'' defines a [[partition of a set|partition]] of ''X'' into subsets called [[equivalence class]]es: all elements equivalent to each other are put into one class. Conversely, if the set ''X'' can be partitioned into subsets, then we can define an equivalence relation ~ on ''X'' by the rule "''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' lie in the same subset".
For example, if ''G'' is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] and ''H'' is a [[subgroup]] of ''G'', then we can define an equivalence relation ~ on ''G'' by writing ''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if ''ab''<sup>-1</sup> lies in ''H''. The equivalence classes of this relation are the right [[coset]]s of ''H'' in ''G''.
Since every equivalence relation can be identified with a partition and vice versa, the number of equivalence relations on a set ''X'' of ''n'' elements is given by the ''n''th [[Bell numbers|Bell number]], ''B<sub>n</sub>''.
If an equivalence relation ~ on ''X'' is given, then the set of all its equivalence classes is the '''quotient set''' of ''X'' by ~ and is denoted by ''X''/~.
== Generating equivalence relations ==
If two equivalence relations over the set ''X'' are given, then their intersection (viewed as subsets of ''X''&times;''X'') is also an equivalence relation. This allows for a convenient way of defining equivalence relations: given any binary relation ''R'' on ''X'', the equivalence relation ''generated by R'' is the smallest equivalence relation containing ''R''.
Concretely, the equivalence relation ~ generated by ''R'' can be described as follows: ''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if there exist elements ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>,...,''x''<sub>''n''</sub> in ''X'' such that ''x''<sub>1</sub> = ''a'', ''x''<sub>''n''</sub> = ''b'' and such that (''x''<sub>''i''</sub> , ''x''<sub>''i'' +1</sub>) or (''x''<sub>''i'' +1</sub>, ''x''<sub>''i''</sub>) is in ''R'' for every ''i'' = 1,...,''n'' -1.
Note that the resulting equivalence relation can often be trivial! For instance, the equivalence relation ~ generated by the binary relation ''&le;'' has exactly one equivalence class: ''x''~''y'' for all ''x'' and ''y''. More generally, the equivalence relation will always be trivial when generated on a relation R having the "antisymmetric" property that, given any ''x'' and ''y'', either ''x'' R ''y'' or ''y'' R ''x'' must be true.
In [[topology]], if ''X'' is a [[topological space]] and ~ is an equivalence relation on ''X'', then we can turn the quotient set ''X''/~ into a topological space in a natural manner. See [[quotient space]] for the details.
One often generates equivalence relations to quickly construct new spaces by "gluing things together". Consider for instance the square ''X'' = [0,1]x[0,1] and the equivalence relation on ''X'' generated by the requirements (''a'',0) ~ (''a'',1) for all ''a'' in [0,1] and (0,''b'') ~ (1,''b'') for all ''b'' in [0,1]. Then the quotient space ''X''/~ can be naturally identified with a [[torus]]: take a square piece of paper, bend it to glue together the upper and lower edge, then bend the resulting cylinder to glue together the two mouths.
==Common notions in Euclid's ''Elements''==
The first person who introduced the idea of equivalence relations was [[Euclid]] in his book ''[[Euclid's Elements|The Elements]]'', under the heading of "Common Notions".
Common Notion 1. Things which equal the same thing also equal one another.
Nowadays, a [[binary relation]] is called Euclidean if it satisfies this property.
Unfortunately, he did not mention symmetry or reflexivity. But this suggests an alternative formulation: An equivalence relation is a relation which is Euclidean, symmetric and reflexive.
==See also==
* [[Equivalence]]
===Equivalent concepts===
* [[Partition of a set]]
===Related concepts=== |
bassador Bridge is the nation's busiest border crossing in terms of trade volume; it carries 25% of all traded US-Canada merchandise.
[[Coleman A. Young International Airport]], known as Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side. Although [[Southwest Airlines]] once had service to the airport, there is currently no commercial passenger service. [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]] (DTW), the area's principal airport, is located in nearby [[Romulus, Michigan|Romulus]] and is a hub for [[Northwest Airlines]] and [[Spirit Airlines]]. [[Willow Run Airport]], in western Wayne and eastern Washtenaw counties near [[Ypsilanti, Michigan|Ypsilanti]] is a general aviation and cargo airport. Willow Run served as the primary manufacturing center for the [[B-24 Liberator]] during [[World War II]]. This and other area industries led to Detroit's WWII nickname as the ''Arsenal of Democracy''.[http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=73&category=locations]
[[Mass transit]] within the city functions within two separate spheres of influence. Transit services within the city are provided by the [[Detroit Department of Transportation]] (DDOT), which provides bus service that terminates at the suburbs' edges. Service in the suburbs is provided by [[Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation]] (SMART). Although SMART buses pick up passengers within Detroit, it cannot drop them off due to the exclusive jurisdiction the DDOT has over these routes. Combining the systems has been problematic and tainted by the racial politics that has affected all aspects of city-suburban relationships. The [[automated guideway transit]] system known as the [[Detroit People Mover|People Mover]] provides a 2.9 mile (4.6 km) loop in the downtown area and usually operates daily.
The city is also served by [[Amtrak]] with routes connecting to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], and other Michigan destinations. The current rail facility, north of downtown, replaced the still standing but neglected [[Michigan Central Station]] west of downtown. Abandoned at a time when crime was rising in the neighborhood, Amtrak vacated the building in 1988. Designed by Warren & Wetmore — the same architects who designed [[Grand Central Terminal]] in [[New York City]] — and opened in 1913, the station's fate remains unknown.
==See also==
*[[Black culture of Detroit]]
*[[Detroit in literature]]
*[[List of movies set in Detroit|Detroit in the movies]]
*[[Dances of Detroit]]
*[[East Detroit]]
*[[Nain Rouge]] - a red dwarf who is said to attack people and bring bad luck to the city.
*[[People from Detroit]]
== Further reading ==
* Burton, Clarence M. ''Cadillac's Village: A History of the Settlement, 1701-1710'' (Detroit, 1896).
* Burton, Clarence M. ''The Building of Detroit'' (1912).
* Farley, Reynolds, et al. ''Detroit Divided'' (New York, 2002).
* Gavrilovich, Peter and Bill McGraw. ''The Detroit Almanac'' (Detroit, 2000).
* Powell, L. P. "Detroit, the Queen City," ''Historic Towns of the Western States'' (New York, 1901).
* Farmer, Silas. ''The History of Detroit and Michigan'' (Detroit, 1889).
* Parkman, Francis. ''The Conspiracy of Pontiac'' (Boston, 1867).
* Poremba, David Lee. ''Detroit: A Motor City History''(2003).
* Sugrue, Thomas J. ''The Origins of the Urban Crisis'' (Princeton, 1996).
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Detroit, Michigan}}
*[http://www.ci.detroit.mi.us/ City of Detroit official website]
*[http://www.visitdetroit.com Detroit Metro Convention & Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.detroitchamber.com Detroit Regional Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.motorcityrocks.com MotorCityRocks.com:Chronicles the Detroit music scene]
*[http://www.forgottenmichigan.com Metro-Detroit Urban Exploration at Forgotten Michigan]
*[http://www.forgottendetroit.com/index.html Forgotten Detroit]
*[http://www.aperion.com/misc/Old_Detroiter_If.htm Old Detroiter?]
*[http://www.historydetroit.com/ HistoryDetroit]
*[http://www.detroitsportsonline.com/ Detroit Sports Online]
*[http://www.cityscapedetroit.org/Detroit_neighborhoods.html Detroit neighborhoods at CityscapeDetroit]
*[http://www.detroityes.com/index.html Fabulous ruins of Detroit]
*[http://doblevych.com/english/portfolio/photo/cities/detroit Detroit skyline]
*{{wikitravelpar|Detroit}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Deccan Traps</title>
<id>8688</id>
<revision>
<id>41737259</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:18:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shyamal</username>
<id>5798</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Deccan Traps''' is a [[large igneous province]] located in west-central [[India]] and is one of the largest [[volcanic]] features on [[Earth]]. It consists of multiple layers of solidified [[flood basalt]] that together are more than 2,000 m thick and cover an area of [[1 E11 m²|500,000 km²]]. The name is derived from the Swedish word for steps which refer to the step like hills forming the landscape of the region.
The Deccan Traps formed between 60 and 68 [[geologic timescale|million years ago]],[http://www.mantleplumes.org/Deccan.html][http://ksgeo.kj.yamagata-u.ac.jp/~iwata/personal/Deccan-e.htm] at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] [[Geologic period|period]]. The gases released in the process may have played a role in the [[extinction]] of the [[dinosaur]]s. Before it was reduced to its current size by [[erosion]] and [[continental drift]], it is estimated that the original area covered by the [[lava|lava flow]]s was as large as 1.5 million km². The volume of basalt is estimated to have been 512,000 km³.
It is postulated that the Deccan Traps eruption is associated with a deep [[mantle plume]] or [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]. The plume or hotspot, known as the [[Réunion hotspot]], is suspected of causing both the Deccan Traps eruption and opening the rift that once separated the [[Seychelles]] plateau from India. [[Seafloor spreading]] at the boundary between the Indian and [[African Plate]]s subsequently pushed India north over the hotspot, which now lies under [[Réunion]] island in the [[Indian Ocean]], southwest of India.
A large impact crater has been recently reported in the sea floor off the west coast of India. Called the [[Shiva crater]], it has also been dated at 65 million years, right at the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|Cretaceous-Tertiary (K/T) boundary]]. The researchers suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps as well as contributing to the acceleration of the Indian plate in the early [[Tertiary]]. [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm] However, opinion in the geologic community is not unanimous that this feature is actually an impact crater.[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html] Also, the reported age is in the middle of the ages given for the Deccan rocks.
The planet [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] is also thought to undergo vast basaltic flood eruptions, but on an even greater scale than those at Deccan Traps. It is not known whether the mechanisms are similar; Venus appears to lack Earth's [[plate tectonics]] and its internal structure may differ in other ways as well.
==See also==
* [[Deccan Plateau]]
* [[Siberian Traps]]
* [[Geology of Venus]]
* [[Geology of India]]
==References==
#[http://www.mantleplumes.org/Deccan.html The Deccan beyond the plume hypothesis]
#[http://ksgeo.kj.yamagata-u.ac.jp/~iwata/personal/Deccan-e.htm Geochronological Study of the Deccan Volcanism]
#[http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm 2003 GSA]
#[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html Space daily Deep Impact]
[[Category:Volcanoes of India]]
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Large igneous provinces]]
[[fr:Trapps du Deccan]]
[[nl:Deccan Traps]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Don't ask, don't tell</title>
<id>8690</id>
<revision>
<id>42141470</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:23:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Furby100</username>
<id>620309</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Don't ask, don't tell''''' is the common term for the current military policy which implements [[Public Law 103-160]], codified at [[10 U.S.C. Sec. 654]]. The policy prohibits anyone who has sexual bodily contact with a person of the same sex from serving in the [[Military of the United States|armed forces of the United States]], and prohibits any [[homosexual]] or [[bisexual]] from disclosing his or her [[sexual orientation]], or from speaking about any homosexual relationships, including marriages or other familial attributes, while serving in the [[United States armed forces]].
It was introduced as a compromise measure in 1993 by President [[Bill Clinton]], who while campaigning for the Presidency had promised to allow all citizens regardless of sexual orientation to serve openly in the military, a departure from the contemporary complete ban on those who are not heterosexual. The actual policy was crafted by [[Colin Powell]] and has been maintained by Clinton's successor, [[George W. Bush]]. The policy requires that as long as gay or bisexual men and women in |
octors recommend that women largely discontinue caffeine consumption during pregnancy and possibly also after birth until the newborn child is weaned.
The negative effects of caffeine on the developing fetus can be attributed to the ability of caffeine to inhibit two DNA damage response proteins known as Ataxia-Telangeictasia Mutated (ATM) or ATM-Rad50 Related (ATR). These proteins control much of the cells ability to stop cell cycle in the presence of DNA damage, such as DNA single/double strand breaks and nucleotide dimerization. DNA damage can occur relatively frequently in actively dividing cells, such as those in the developing fetus. Caffeine is used in laboratory setting as an inhibitor to these proteins and it has been shown in a study by Lawson et al. in 2004, that women who use caffeine during pregnancy have a higher likelihood of miscarriage than those who do not. Since the dosage rate of self-administration is difficult to control and the effects of caffeine on the fetus are related to random occurrence (DNA damage), a minimal toxic dose to the fetus has yet to be established.
== Caffeine pills ==
<!-- Section needs work, or even total elimination if it cannot be improved -->
Caffeine pills are often used by college students and [[Shift_work|shift]] workers as a convenient way to fight sleep, and are often considered harmless. However, like any medication, caffeine can be harmful or deadly in [[#Side_effects_of_caffeine|sufficient quantities]]. Due to the [[#Caffeine_equivalents|amount]] of caffeine present in standard pills, it is possible to consume a dangerous amount of caffeine in this form.
Periodically, caffeine pills come under media fire in connection with the death of a college student due to a large [[overdose]] of caffeine. One example is the death of a [[North Carolina]] student, Jason Allen, who swallowed most of a bottle of 90 such pills [http://www.collegepublisher.com/media/paper87/DFPArchive/science/1103981.html], equivalent of about 250 cups of [[coffee]]. A few other deaths by caffeine overdose have been known, almost always in the case of massive pill consumption.
==Extraction of pure caffeine==
[[Image: Caffeine_USP.jpg |thumb|250px|right| [[Anhydrous]] (dry) USP grade Caffeine]]
It is very difficult to know the exact amount of caffeine in a particular drink that is not automatically prepared. The amount of caffeine in a single serving of coffee varies considerably due to many variables. Concentration can vary from bean to bean within a given bush; preparation of the raw bean will affect concentration, as well as multiple variables involved in brewing.
Caffeine extraction is an important industrial process and can be performed using a number of different solvents. [[Benzene]], [[chloroform]], [[trichloroethylene]] and [[dichloromethane]] have all been used over the years but for reasons of safety, environmental impact, cost and flavour, they have been superceded by two main methods:
===Water extraction of caffeine===
Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water - which contains not only caffeine but also many other compounds which contribute to the flavour of coffee - is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with a good flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and medicines.
===Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of caffeine===
[[Supercritical carbon dioxide]] is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine (as well as for many other organic compounds) but is safer than the organic solvents that are used for caffeine extraction. The extraction process is simple: CO<sub>2</sub> is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1°C and pressures above 73 [[Atmosphere|atm]]. Under these conditions, CO<sub>2</sub> is said to be in a "[[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]]" [[Phase (matter)|state]]: it has gaslike properties which allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties which dissolve 97-99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden CO<sub>2</sub> is then sprayed with high pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by [[Activated carbon|charcoal adsorption]] (as above) or by [[distillation]], [[recrystallization]], or [[Reverse osmosis|reverse osmosis]].
==References==
* Weinberg BA, Bealer BK. ''The world of caffeine''. New York & London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-92722-6.
* {{fnb|(1)}} Noever, R., J. Cronise, and R. A. Relwani. [[1995]]. Using spider-web patterns to determine toxicity. NASA Tech Briefs 19(4):82. Published in [[New Scientist]] magazine, [[27 April]] 1995.
* JE James and KP Stirling, "Caffeine: A Summary of Some of the Known and Suspected Deleterious Habits of Habitual Use," ''British Journal of Addiction,'' 1983;78:251-58.
* Hughes JR, McHugh P, Holtzman S. "Caffeine and schizophrenia." ''Psychiatr Serv'' 1998;49:1415-7. [http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/49/11/1415 Fulltext]. PMID 9826240.
* Shannon MW, Haddad LM, Winchester JF. ''Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose, 3rd ed.''. 1998. ISBN 0721664091.
* ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' ISBN 0890420610
* Trice, I., and Haymes, E. (1995). "Effects of caffeine ingestion on exercise-induced changes during high intensity, intermittent exercise". International Journal of Sports Nutrition. 37-44.
* Tarnopolsky, M. A. (1994). "Caffeine and endurance performances". Sports Medicine (Vol. 18 Ed. 2): 109 – 125.
* Ivy, J., Costill, D., Fink, W. et al. (1979). "Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance". Medical Science Sports Journal (Vol. 11). 6-11.
* Dews, P.B. (1984). "Caffeine: Perspectives from Recent Research". Berlin: Springer-Valerag.
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202105.html US National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus&#174; Drug Information: Caffeine]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/caffeine/caffeine.shtml Erowid Caffeine Vault]
*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/moleculescompounds/a/caffeine.htm ''Caffeine Chemistry'']
*[http://www.CaffeineAwareness.org Caffeine Awareness Alliance - Sponsor of National Caffeine Awareness Month]
*[http://www.thenakedscientists.com/html/columnists/dalyacolumn2.htm Why do plants make caffeine?]
*[http://www.cspinet.org/new/cafchart.htm Caffeine Content of Foods]
*[http://www.benbest.com/health/caffeine.html Is Caffeine a Health Hazard?]
*[http://www.coffeefaq.com/caffaq.html The Caffeine FAQ]
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/11nov/caffeine.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Caffeine: A User's Guide]
*[http://www.cspinet.org/nah/caffeine.htm Center for Science in the Public Interest: Caffeine: The Inside Scoop]
*[http://www.cannabis.net/weblife.html Images of webs spun by spiders after eating flies laced with lsd, mescaline, hashish and caffiene]
*[http://www.energyfiend.com/the-caffeine-database/ The Caffeine Database]
===Caffeine as an ergogenic aid===
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1998/09sep/hawley.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Fat Burning During Exercise]
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/04apr/eichner.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Ergogenic Aids: What Athletes Are Using—and Why:]
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/01jan/schwenk.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Psychoactive Drugs and Athletic Performance]
===Caffeine toxicity===
* [http://www.caffeinedependence.org/caffeine_dependence.html#intoxication%20 Johns Hopkins University Caffeine Dependence Study]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3115.htm eMedicine Caffeine-Related Psychiatric Disorders]
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU21.html The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Caffeine-Part 1] [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU22.html Part 2]
* L Tondo and N Rudas, "The course of a seasonal bipolar disorder influenced by caffeine," ''Journal of Affective Disorders,'' 1991;22 (4):249-251 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1939933&dopt=Abstract Abstract]
* DC Mackay and JW Rollins, "Caffeine and caffeinism," ''Journal of the Royal Naval Medical Service,'' 1989;75(2):65-7. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2607498&dopt=Abstract Abstract]
* K Gilliland and D Andress, "Ad lib caffeine consumption, symptoms of caffeinism, and academic performance," ''American Journal of Psychiatry,'' 1981; 138:512-514 [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/138/4/512 Abstract]
* American Psychiatric Association, 158th annual meeting. Abstract #NR45. "First Graders' Behavior Problems Linked to Caffeinated Cola." [http://www.medpagetoday.com/tbindex.cfm?tbid=1091&topicid=43 Fulltext]
* Whalen R, "Caffeine-Induced Anaphylaxis, A Progressive Toxic Dementia" [http://www.doctoryourself.com/caffeine2.html Fulltext]
* JA Sours, "Case reports of anorexia nervosa and caffeinism," ''American Journal of Psychiatry,'' 1983; 140:235-236 [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/140/2/235 Abstract]
{{stimulants}}
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the Second World War.
Historians generally date Irish independence (for the 26 counties) from 1 April 1922 (transfer of executive power under the 1921 [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]], signed between Irish delegates and the British government after the [[Anglo-Irish War]], forming the [[Irish Free State]]) and 6 December 1922 (transfer of legislative power) rather than from the 1916 Rising. The Irish Free State existed until 1937 when Bunreacht na hÉireann (the Irish constitution) was introduced, renaming the country "Ireland". At this stage Ireland was a Republic in everything but name. In 1949 the [[Oireachtas]] declared Ireland to be a Republic.
==Socialism and the Easter Rising==
The Easter Rising has sometimes been described as the first [[socialist]] revolution in Europe. Whether or not such a statement is true is debatable. Of the leaders, only James Connolly was devoted to the socialist cause. Although the others nominally accepted the notion of a socialist state in order to convince Connolly to join them, their dedication to this concept is highly questionable at best. Political and cultural revolutions were much more important in their minds than economic revolution. Certainly men like Pearse were resigned to the notion that the rising would be a military failure, and thus any promises pertaining to its aftermath were inconsequential. Connolly clearly was skeptical of his colleagues' sincerity on the subject, and was prepared for an ensuing class struggle following the establishment of a republic. Furthermore, [[Eamonn De Valera ]], the most prominent surviving leader of the rising and a dominant figure in Irish politics for nearly half a century, could hardly be described as Socialist. Many years later, the [[Soviet Union]] would be the first and only country to recognise the [[Irish Republic]], later abolished under the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. [[Lenin]], who was an admirer of Connolly, rounded on communists who had derided the Easter Rising for involving bourgeois elements. He contended that communists would have to unite with other disaffected elements of society to overthrow the existing order, a point he went on to prove the following year during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]].
==Men executed for their role in the Easter Rising==
*[[Patrick Pearse]]
*[[Thomas J. Clarke]]
*[[Thomas MacDonagh]]
*[[Joseph Mary Plunkett]]
*[[Edward Daly]]
*[[William Pearse]]
*[[Michael O'Hanrahan]]
*[[John MacBride]]
*[[Eamonn Ceannt]]
*[[Michael Mallin]]
*[[Cornelius Colbert]]
*[[Sean Heuston]]
*[[Sean MacDermott]]
*[[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]]
*[[Thomas Kent]]
*[[ Roger Casement]]
==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/easterrising/personal/index.shtml Essay on the Rising, by Garret Fitzgerald]
==Footnotes==
[[fnb|1]] There was a [[Boer Revolt|Boer uprising]] in [[South Africa]] at the start of [[World War I]] when [[Afrikaner]]s who wished to break the link between South Africa and the British Empire, allied themselves with the Germans of [[German South West Africa]]. The revolt was crushed by the forces loyal to the South African Government. In contrast to the British reaction to the Easter Rising, in a gesture of reconciliation the South African government was lenient on those rebel leaders who survived the rebellion and encouraged them to work for change within the constitution. This strategy worked and there were no further armed rebellions by [[Afrikaners]] who opposed links with Britain. In [[1921]] [[Jan Smuts]] a leading South African statesman and soldier was able to bring this example to the notice of the British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] and it helped to persuade the British Government to compromise when negotiating the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]].
==References==
*Max Caulfield, ''The Easter Rebellion, Dublin 1916'' ISBN 1-57098-042-X
*Tim Pat Coogan, ''1916: The Easter Rising'' ISBN 0-304-35902-5
*Michael Foy and Brian Barton, ''The Easter Rising'' ISBN 0-7509-2616-3
*Robert Kee, ''The Green Flag''
*F.X. Martin (ed.), ''Leaders and Men of the Easter Rising, Dublin 1916''
*Dorothy McCardle, ''The Irish Republic''
*F.S.L. Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' ISBN 0006332005
*John A. Murphy, ''Ireland In the Twentieth Century''
*Edward Purdon, ''The 1916 Rising''
{{WWITheatre}}
[[Category:History of Ireland 1801-1922]]
[[Category:Irish rebellion]]
[[Category:Wars of Ireland]]
[[Category:History of Dublin]]
[[de:Osteraufstand]]
[[es:Alzamiento de Pascua]]
[[eo:Paska Ribelo]]
[[fr:Insurrection de Pâques 1916]]
[[ga:Éirí Amach na Cásca]]
[[is:Páskauppreisnin]]
[[ja:イースター蜂起]]
[[he:מרידת חג הפסחא]]
[[nl:Paasopstand]]
[[nn:Påskeopprøret i 1916]]
[[pl:Powstanie wielkanocne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earned income tax credit</title>
<id>10351</id>
<revision>
<id>40837889</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T09:18:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shangrilaista</username>
<id>851950</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[United States]]' federal '''Earned Income Tax Credit''' (EITC) is a [[refundable tax credit]] that reduces or eliminates the taxes that low-income working people pay (such as [[payroll tax|payroll taxes]]) and also frequently operates as a wage subsidy for low-income workers. Enacted in 1975, the then very small EITC was expanded in 1986, 1990, 1993, and 2001. Today, the EITC is one of the largest anti-poverty tools in the United States.
Other countries with EITCs include Britain, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Finland, Belgium, France, the Netherlands and Denmark. In some cases, these are small (the maximum EITC in Finland is 290 Euros), but others are even larger than the US EITC (the UK EITC is worth up to 6150 Euros).
== Structure ==
The EITC in the United States is characterized by a unique three-stage structure that consists of a phase-in range in which the credit increases as earnings increase, a plateau range in which the maximum credit has been reached and further earnings do not affect it, and a phase-out range in which the credit decreases as earnings increase. Currently, for a family with two dependent children, the credit is equal to 40 percent of the first $10,750 earned, plateaus at a maximum credit of $4,400, begins to phase-out when earnings increase beyond approximately $15,000, and reaches zero when earnings pass approximately $35,000. For a family with one dependent child, the structure is similar but has a phase-in rate of 34 percent and a maximum credit of $2,604. For those filing without dependents, there is a small credit of 7.65 percent of earnings with a maximum of $380. All dollar amounts are now indexed to inflation.
In addition to the federal EITC, 11 states have their own refundable EITCs. These state plans mimic the federal EITC’s structure on a smaller scale, as individuals receive a state credit equal to a fixed percentage – between 15 and 30 percent depending on the state – of what they received from the IRS. Furthermore, small local EITC’s have been enacted in New York City, Montgomery County in Maryland, and San Francisco.
== Impact ==
The EITC is the largest [[poverty]] reduction program in the country. Almost 21 million families received more than 36 billion dollars in refunds through the EITC in 2004. These EITC dollars had a significant impact on the lives and communities of the nation&rsquo;s lowest paid working people, lifting more than 5 million of these families above the federal poverty line. Since the poverty line can be a watermark for eligibility for state and federal benefits, taxpayers receiving the EITC are less eligible for [[entitlements]], and so the EITC reduces entitlement spending.
Economists suggest that every increased dollar received by low and moderate-income families has a [[multiplier]] effect of between 1.5 to 2 times the original amount, in terms of its impact on the local economy and how much money is spent in and around the communities where these families live. Using the conservative estimate that for every $1 in EITC funds received, $1.50 ends up being spent locally, would mean that low income neighborhoods are effectively gaining as much as $18.4 billion.
Research shows that the EITC has also boosted [[labor force participation]], particularly by low-educated single mothers. However, there is also evidence that this increase in labor supply has led to a [http://econrsss.anu.edu.au/~aleigh/pdf/EITC%20incidence.pdf fall in hourly wages] among those eligible for the credit.
== Uncollected tax credits ==
Millions of families who are eligible for the tax credit do not receive it, leaving billions of additional tax credit dollars uncollected. Research by the [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) and [[IRS]] indicates that between 15% and 25% of [[household|households]] who are entitled to the EITC do not claim their credit, or between 3.5 million and 7 million households.
The average EITC amount received per family in 2002 was $1,766. Using this figure and a 15% unclaimed rate would mean that low-wage workers and their families lost out on more than $6.5 billion, or more than $12 billion if the unclaimed rate is 25%.
==See also==
* [[Taxation in the United States]]
* [[Basic income]]
* [[Speenhamland]]
* [[Guaranteed minimum income]]
* [[Negative income tax]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cbpp.org/311eitc.htm New Research Findings on the Effects of the Earned Income Tax Credit, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, March 11, 1998]
*[http://www.tax-coalition.org/ The National Tax Coalition]
*[http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p596.pdf Internal Revenue Service Publication 596 - Earned Income Credit]
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/data/2005/meta-crs-7962.tkl The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): Percentage of Total Tax Returns and Credit Amount by State] a Congressional Research Servic |
ord "bull dyke" (a vulgar term for a [[lesbian]]); this is thought to be dubious.
In the [[1990s]], [[DC Comics]]' [[Green Lantern Corps]] included a member named Boodikka, portrayed as a fierce female warrior.
In 2003, an LTR [[retrotransposon]] from the [[genome]] of the human [[Schistosoma|blood fluke]] ''Schistosoma mansoni'' was named ''Boudicca''.{{ref|gene}}
==References==
#{{note|Tacitus}} ''[[Agricola (book)|Agricola]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0081&layout=&loc=14 14-17]; ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078;query=chapter%3D%23576;layout=;loc=14.30 14:29-39]
#{{note|Dio}} ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#1 62:1-12]
#{{note|Bodicca}} Graham Webster, ''Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978; Guy de la Bédoyère, [http://www.romanbritain.freeserve.co.uk/Legions.htm ''The Roman Army in Britain''], retrieved [[5 July]] [[2005]]
#{{note|Jackson}} [[Kenneth H. Jackson|Kenneth Jackson]], "Queen Boudicca?", ''Britannia'' 10, 1979
#{{note|disarm}} Tacitus, ''Annals'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.31 12:31-32]
#{{note|Bithynia}} [[H. H. Scullard]], ''From the Gracchi to Nero'', 1982, p. 90
#{{note|Galatia}} John Morris, ''Londinium: London in the Roman Empire'', 1982, pp. 107-108
#{{note|arch}} George Patrick Welch, ''Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain'', 1963, p. 107
#{{note|Ariovistus}} ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.31 12:31]
#{{note|HighCross}} Kevin K. Carroll, "The Date of Boudicca's Revolt", ''Britannia'' 10, 1979
#{{note|Mancetter}} [[Sheppard Frere]], ''Britannia: A History of Roman Britain'', 1987, p. 73
#{{note|Suetonius}} ''Nero'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#18 18], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#39 39-40]
#{{note|Gildas}} [[Gildas]], ''The Ruin of Britain and other documents'', ed & trans Michael Winterbottom, Phillimore 1978; Fabio P. Barbieri, [http://www.geocities.com/vortigernstudies/fabio/contents.htm ''History of Britain, 407-597''], [http://www.geocities.com/vortigernstudies/fabio/book1.2.htm Book 1, Chapter 2], 2002 (retrieved [[5 July]] [[2005]])
#{{note|Webster}} Graham Webster, ''Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978
#{{note|films}} [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0018713/ ''Boadicea'' (1928)], [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0338806/ ''Boudica'' (2003)], and [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0409457/ ''Warrior'' (2006)] at [http://www.imdb.com/ imdb.com]
#{{note|McDonald}} [http://www.daire.org/fanlistings/mcdonald/destiny.html ''Stone of Destiny'' lyrics from Official Steve McDonald Fanlisting]
#{{note|Libertines}} [http://www.seeklyrics.com/lyrics/The-Libertines/The-Good-Old-Days.html The Libertines, "The Good Old Days" lyrics]
#{{note|Bal}} [http://balsagoth-lyrics.wonderlyrics.com/Blood-Slakes-The-Sand-At-The-Circus-Maximus.html Bal-Sagoth, "Blood Slakes the Sand at the Circus Maximus" lyrics], [http://balsagoth-lyrics.wonderlyrics.com/When-Rides-The-Scion-Of-The-Storms.html "When Rides the Scion of the Storms lyrics]
#{{note|ghost}} Dan Asfar, ''Haunted Highways: Ghost Stories and Strange Tales'', 2003
#{{note|gene}} Copeland CS, Brindley PJ, Heyers O, Michael SF, Johnston DA, Williams DL, Ivens AC, Kalinna BH, "''Boudicca'', a retrovirus-like long terminal repeat retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke ''Schistosoma mansoni''". ''Journal of Virology'' 2003 Jun;77(11):6153-66; Copeland CS, Heyers O, Kalinna BH, Bachmair A, Stadler PF, Hofacker IL, Brindley PJ, "Structural and evolutionary analysis of the transcribed sequence of ''Boudicca'', a ''Schistosoma mansoni'' retrotransposon". ''Gene'' 2004;329:103-114.
#{{note|FaithAndTheMuse}} [http://www.mercyground.com/disc/burningseason.html#Boudiccea ''Boudiccea'' lyrics from the Faith and the Muse Site]
==Further reading==
*Vanessa Collingridge; ''Boudica'', Ebury, London, 2004
*Richard Hingley & Christina Unwin, ''Boudica: Iron age Warrior Queen'', 2004
==External links==
*[http://knowledgeoflondon.com/boudica.html/ 'Knowledge of London - Queen Boudica Story']
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/boudica/boudicanrevolt.html James Grout: ''Boudica'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3539652.stm Trying to Rule Britannia]; BBC; [[6 August]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/tribes/iceni.htm Iceni] at [http://www.roman-britain.org Roman-Britain.org]
*[http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/clb_tribe_iceni.htm Iceni] at [http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/ Romans in Britain]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6497 Find-A-Grave profile for Boudica]
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<page>
<title>Borneo</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Borneo,Sulawesi(Celebes).jpg|thumb|right|300px|Borneo and [[Sulawesi]].]]
'''Borneo''' (politically divided between [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]) is the [[List of islands by size|third largest island in the world]]. It has an area of 743,330 km² (287,000 mi²), and is located at the centre of the [[Malay archipelago]] and [[Indonesia]]. Borneo is considered part of the geographic region of [[Southeast Asia]].
==Geography==
Borneo is surrounded by the [[South China Sea]] to the north and northwest, the [[Sulu Sea]] to the northeast, the [[Celebes Sea]] and the [[Makassar Strait]] to the east, and the [[Java Sea]] and [[Karimata Strait]] to the south.
[[Image:Borneo-VE.JPG|thumb|Satellite photo of Borneo.]]To the west of Borneo are the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[Sumatra]]. To the south is [[Java (island)|Java]]. To the east is the island of [[Sulawesi|Sulawesi (Celebes)]]. To the northeast is the [[Philippines]].
Borneo's highest point is [[Mount Kinabalu]] in [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]], with an elevation of 4,095 m above [[sea level]].
==Administration==
[[Image:Borneo2 map english names.PNG|thumb|Map of Borneo]]
Borneo is divided politically into:
* The [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]] of [[East Kalimantan|East]], [[South Kalimantan|South]], [[West Kalimantan|West]] and [[Central Kalimantan|Central]] [[Kalimantan]].
* The [[Malaysia|Malaysian]] states of [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]].
* The independent sultanate of [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] in two parts.
==History==
The whole Borneo was controlled by Brunei Empire during its golden age from the 15th to 17th centuries.
Borneo was the main site of the [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] between [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] between 1962 and 1966.
==Natural resources==
The island historically had extensive [[rainforest]] cover, but the area is shrinking rapidly due to heavy [[logging]] for the needs of the Malaysian [[plywood]] industry and also multinational companies such as [[Mitsubishi]] take their share. One half of the annual [[tropical timber]] acquisition of the whole world comes from Borneo. Furthermore, palm plantations are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. The rainforest was also greatly destroyed due to the forest fires in 1997 to 1998 which were started by people and coincided with an exceptional drought season of [[El Niño]]. During the great fire, hotspots could be seen on satellite images and a [[haze]] was created that affected [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Singapore]]. The remaining Borneo rainforest is the only natural habitat for the endangered Bornean [[orangutan]]. It is also an important refuge for many [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] forest species, and the [[Asian Elephant]], the [[Sumatran Rhinoceros]] and the [[Clouded Leopard]].[[Image:Dawn in Borneo.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dawn]] in Borneo]]
In order to combat overpopulation in [[Java (island)|Java]], the Indonesian government started a massive migration of poor farmers to Borneo, called [[transmigrasi]] to farm the logged areas, albeit with little success as the fertility of the land has been removed with the trees and what soil remains is washed away in tropical downpours.
Indigenous people (e.g. [[Kayan]], [[Kenyah]], [[Punan Bah]] and [[Penan]]) living on the island have been fighting for decades for their rights to preserve their environment against loggers and transmigrasi settlers.
The type of rainforests found in Borneo include rare [[peat swamp forest]]s and [[heath forest]].
==References==
*Gudgeon, L. W. W. 1913. ''British North Borneo''. Adam and Charles Black, London. (An early well-illustrated book on "British North Borneo", now known as [[Sabah]].)
==See also==
* [[Islands of Indonesia]]
* [[Hikayat Banjar]]
==External links==
*[http://www.insightnewstv.com/d54 Borneo: Eco Warriors] - Online documentary
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ata]]. Bachata is usually slow, romantic, and [[Spanish guitar]] driven. However, bachata's rhythm can be sped up to the same [[syncopation]] as Merengue, and its called ''bacharengue''. Both genres of music are popular throughout the world. [[Reggaeton]], a style of music that orginated in Panama, Jamaica, [[Reggae]] and Puerto Rico, is the dominant music of the country's youth, and defines the party lifestyle of the country. The most successful producers of Reggaeton music are [[Luny Tunes]] from [[La Romana]] in the Dominican Republic; Luny Tunes has produced many successfull songs of [[Daddy Yankee]], [[Tego Calderón]], [[Ivy Queen]] and [[Don Omar]]. Reggaeton is a mix of [[hip hop music|hip hop]], [[reggae]], [[bomba]], and [[plena]].
*[[Music of the Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of Dominicans]]
*[[List of players from Dominican Republic in Major League Baseball]]
*[[Tigres de Licey]]
[[Image:Carnival 002 4550.JPG|250px|taino children, carnival Dominican Republic. photographer: www.hotelviewarea.com]]
[[Image:Carnival 002 4677.JPG|250px|whip men, carnival Dominican Republic. photographer: www.hotelviewarea.com]] [[Image:Carnival 002 4412.JPG|250px|taino girls, carnival Dominican Republic.]]
Carnival in the Dominican Republic, 27, February.
==See also==
* [[Communications in the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic]]
* [[List of Dominican companies]]
* [[List of Dominicans]]
* [[Music of the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Military of the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Transportation in the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Larimar]]
* [[Operation Power Pack]]
* [[International Commission of Science and Technology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.presidencia.gov.do Presidency of the Dominican Republic website, in Spanish]
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/dominican Latin Business Chronicle: Dominican Business Reports, Statistics and Links]
{{West_Indies}}
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[[an:Republica Dominicana]]
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[[bs:Dominikanska Republika]]
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[[zh:多明尼加共和國]]</text>
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<title>Dramatists</title>
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<page>
<title>DIN</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the German Institute for Standardization, for other uses of "DIN", see [[DIN (disambiguation)]]''
'''Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.''' (DIN, the German Institute for Standardization) is a German national organization for [[standardization]].
[[DIN plug|DIN and mini-DIN connectors]] are familiar to computer users all over the world, but DIN issues standards in any conceivable area. One of the oldest and surely most popular is [[DIN 476]], specifying paper sizes since [[1922]]. It became an international norm.
DIN is a registered association (''e.V.''), founded in [[1917]], originally as '''Normenausschuss der deutschen Industrie''' (NADI, standardisation committee of the German industry). In [[1926]] the NADI was renamed to '''Deutscher Normenausschuss''' (DNA, German standardisation committee), in [[1975]] the DNA was finally renamed to DIN. Its headquarters is in [[Berlin]]. Since [[1975]] it has been recognized by the German government as the national standards body and represents [[Germany|German]] interests at international and [[Europe|European]] level.
The [[acronym]] DIN is often wrongly expanded as ''Deutsche Industrienorm'' (German industry standard). This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as the NADI. The NADI indeed published their standards as ''DI-Norm'' (''Deutsche Industrienorm'', German industry standard). E.g. the first published standard in 1917 was 'DI-Norm 1' (about [[taper pin]]s). Many people still wrongly associate DIN as an abbreviation for the old ''DI-Norm'' naming of standards.
==DIN standard designation==
The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number):
* ''DIN #'' is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status. ''E DIN #'' is a draft standard and ''DIN V #'' is a preliminary standard.
*''DIN EN #'' is used for German edition of European standards. ''DIN ETS #'' is used for standards prepared by [[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]].
*''DIN ISO #'' is used for German edition of ISO standards. ''DIN EN ISO #'' is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard.
==Example of DIN standards==
See the [[List of DIN standards|list of DIN standards]] for
a complete list.
*[[DIN 476]]: international paper sizes (now [[ISO 216]] or DIN EN ISO 216)
*[[DIN 72552]]: electric terminal numbers in [[automobile]]s
*[[DIN 31635]]: transliteration of the Arabic language.
==See also==
*[[Standard data model]]
*[[List of standards topics]]
*[[List of electronics topics]]
*[[Film speed]]
==External links==
* [http://www.din.de/ DIN home page]
* [http://www2.din.de/index.php?lang=en English version]
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<page>
<title>History of the Dominican Republic</title>
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[[Image:15thcenturyhispaniola.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Early map of Hispaniola]]
==Early History to 1599==
The [[island]] of [[Hispaniola]], of which the [[Dominican Republic]] forms the eastern two-thirds and [[Haiti]] the remainder, was originally occupied by [[Taíno]]s, an [[Arawak]]-speaking people who called the island ''Quisqueya'' (or ''Kiskeya''). The Taínos welcomed [[Christopher Columbus]] when he first arrived on December 5, [[1492]] and on his second voyage in 1493 when he founded the first Spanish colony in the New World.
Repression and diseases reduced the Taíno population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years. To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African [[slaves]] to the island beginning in [[1503]].
==1600-1929==
In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which [[Spain]] ceded to [[France]] in [[1697]], and which, in [[1804]], became the Republic of Haiti. The French held on in the eastern part of the island, until defeated by the Spanish inhabitants at the battle of [[Palo Hincado]] on [[November 7]], [[1808]] and the final capitulation of the besieged Santo Domingo on [[July 9]], [[1809]], with help from the [[Royal Navy]]. The Spanish authorities showed little interest in their restored colony, and the following period is recalled as ''La España Boba'' &#8211; 'The Era of Foolish Spain'. In [[1821]] the Spanish settlers declared an independent state, but Haitian forces occupied the whole island just 9 weeks later and held it for 22 years.
[[Image:Juan_pablo_duarte.jpg.jpg|frame|right|Juan Pablo Duarte y Diez]]
On [[February 27]], [[1844]], independence was declared from the Haitians. This was the culmination of a movement led by [[Juan Pablo Duarte]], then in exile, the hero of Dominican independence. The military forces that drove the occupiers out were led by [[Pedro Santana]].
The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on [[November 6]], 1844. It adopted a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by [[Pedro Santana]] on the constitutional assembly by force, which gave him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over. These privileges not only served him to win the war, but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important.
In [[1861]], during one of his presidencies, Santana restored the Dominican Republ |
t-like demon of the wilderness (Leviticus xvi. 10ff), probably the chief of the ''se'irim'', and [[Lilith]] (Isaiah xxxiv. 14). Possibly "the roes and hinds of the field", by which Shulamit conjures the daughters of Jerusalem to bring her back to her lover (Canticles ii. 7, iii. 5), are [[Faun|faunlike spirits]] similar to the ''se'irim'', though of a harmless nature.
The "stones of the field" (Job v. 23), with which the righteous are said to be in league, seem to be field-demons of the same nature. The wilderness as the home of demons was regarded as the place whence such diseases as [[leprosy]] issued, and in cases of leprosy one of the birds set apart to be offered as an expiatory sacrifice was released, that it might carry the disease back to the desert (Leviticus xiv. 7, 52).
The evil spirit that troubled [[Saul the King|Saul]] (I Samuel xvi. 14 et seq.) may have been a demon, though the [[Masoretic text]] suggests the spirit was sent by God.
<!--The following paragraphy is inaccurate, Deuteronomy 4:35 states "To you it was shown so that you would acknowledge that the Lord is God; there is no other besides him." This clearly statest that there are no other Gods besides the Hebrew God. It is NOT saying that there is no supernatural power beyond God.-->
<!--None of these demons, however, has actually a place in the system of Biblical theology; it is God alone who sends pestilence. There is no supernatural power beyond God (Deuteronomy iv. 35.) in Judaism. ''Shedim'' are simply spirits similar in nature to humans; some are good and some are bad, but all procreate like humans (although they lack physical bodies, see Talmud Bavli) and are able to pass between this world and the spiritual (Talumud Bavli, Masechta Brochos).
-->
Some benevolent ''shedim'' were used in kabbalistic ceremonies (as with the golem of Rabbi Yehuda Loevy), and malevolent shedim (''mazikin'', from the root meaning to wound) are often responsible in instances of possesion. Instances of idol worship were often the result of a ''shed'' inhabiting an otherwise worthless statue;{{fact}} the shed would pretend to be a God with the power to send pestilence, although such events were not actually under his control.
===Influences from Chaldean mythology===
In [[Chaldea]]n mythology the seven evil deities were known as ''shedu'', meaning storm-demons. They were represented in [[Bull (mythology)| winged bull form]], derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name "shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in [[Babylon]]ian magic literature (see Delitzsch, ''Assyrisches Handwörterbuch''. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, ''Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen'', 1900, p. 453; [[Archibald Sayce]], l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; [[Lenormant]], l.c. pp. 48-51).
It was from Chaldea that the name "shedu" came to the Israelites, and so the writers of the Tanach applied the word as a dylogism to the Canaanite deities in the two passages quoted. But they also spoke of "the destroyer" (Exodus xii. 23) as a demon whose malignant effect upon the houses of the Israelites was to be warded off by the blood of the paschal sacrifice sprinkled upon the lintel and the door-post (a corresponding pagan talisman is mentioned in Isaiah lvii. 8). In II Samuel xxiv; 16 and II Chronicles xxi. 15 the pestilence-dealing demon is called "the destroying angel" (compare "the angel of the Lord" in II Kings xix. 35; Isaiah xxxvii. 36), because, although they are demons, these "evil messengers" (Psalms lxxviii. 49; A. V. "evil angels") do only the bidding of God; they are the agents of His divine wrath.
There are indications that popular Hebrew mythology ascribed to the demons a certain independence, a malevolent character of their own, because they are believed to come forth, not from the heavenly abode of God, but from the nether world (compare Isaiah xxxviii. 11 with Job xiv. 13; Psalms xvi. 10, xlix. 16, cxxxix. 8).
==In Jewish rabbinic literature==
[[Rabbi]]nical demonology has three classes of, demons, though they are scarcely separable one from another. There were the ''shedim'', the ''mazzi&#7731;im'' ("harmers"), and the ''ru&#7717;in'' ("evil spirits"). Besides these there were ''lilin'' ("night spirits"), ''&#7789;elane'' ("shade", or "evening spirits"), ''&#7789;iharire'' ("midday spirits"), and ''&#7827;afrire'' ("morning spirits"), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake" (Targ. Yer. to Deuteronomy xxxii. 24 and Numbers vi. 24; Targ. to Cant. iii. 8, iv. 6; Eccl. ii. 5; Ps. xci. 5, 6.)
In the main, Hebrew demons were workers of harm. To them were ascribed the various diseases, particularly such as affect the brain and the inner parts. Hence there was a fear of "Shabriri" (lit. "dazzling glare"), the demon of blindness, who rests on uncovered water at night and strikes those with blindness who drink of it (Pesachim 112a; Avodah Zarah 12b); also mentioned were the spirit of catalepsy and the spirit of headache, the demon of epilepsy, and the spirit of nightmare,
These demons were supposed to enter the body and cause the disease while overwhelming or "seizing" the victim (hence "seizure").. To cure such diseases it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, in which the [[Essenes]] excelled. [[Josephus]], who speaks of demons as "spirits of the wicked which enter into men that are alive and kill them", but which can be driven out by a certain root (''Bellum Judaeorum'' vii. 6, § 3), witnessed such a performance in the presence of the Emperor Vespasian ("Antiquities" viii. 2, § 5), and ascribed its origin to [[King Solomon]].
===The King and Queen of Demons===
In some rabbinic sources, the demons were believed to be under the dominion of a king or chief, either [[Asmodai]] (Targ. to Eccl. i. 13; Pes. 110a; Yer. Shek. 49b) or, in the older [[Haggadah]], [[Samael]] ("the angel of death"), who kills by his deadly poison, and is called "chief of the devils". Occasionally a demon is called "[[satan]]": "Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns" (Pes. 112b; compare B. &#7730;. 21a).
The queen of demons is [[Lilith]], pictured with wings and long flowing hair, and called the "mother of [[Ahriman]]" (B. B. 73b; 'Er. 100b; Nid. 24b). "When Adam, doing penance for his sin, separated from Eve for 130 years, he, by impure desire, caused the earth to be filled with demons, or shedim, lilin, and evil spirits" (Gen. R. xx.; 'Er. 18b.)
Though the belief in demons was greatly encouraged and enlarged in [[Babylonia]] under the influence of [[Parsee]] notions, demonology never became an essential feature of Jewish theology. The reality of demons was never questioned by the [[Talmudist]]s and late rabbis; most accepted their existence as a fact. Nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality. Only rationalists like [[Maimonides]] and [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], clearly denied their existence. Their point of view eventually became the mainstream Jewish understanding.
==In the New Testament and Christianity==
"Demon" has a number of meanings, all related to the idea of a spirit that inhabited a place, or that accompanied a person. Whether such a ''daemon'' was benevolent or malevolent, the Greek word meant something different from the later medieval notions of 'demon', and scholars debate the time in which first century usage by [[Jew]]s and [[Christianity|Christian]]s in its original Greek sense became transformed to the later medieval sense.
In the ''[[Gospel of Mark]]'', Jesus casts out many demons, or evil spirits, from those who are afflicted with various ailments (such as epileptic seizures). The imagery is very clear: Jesus is far superior to the power of demons over the human beings that they inhabit, and he is able to free these human victims by commanding and casting out the demons, by binding them, and forbidding them to return.
By way of contrast, in the book of [[Acts]] a group of Judaistic exorcists known as the sons of Sceva try to cast out a very powerful spirit without believing in or knowing Jesus , but fail with disastrous consequences. However Jesus himself never fails to vanquish a demon, no matter how powerful (see the account of the demon-possessed man at Gerasim), and even defeats Satan in the wilderness (see ''[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]]'').
There is a description in the ''[[Book of Revelation]]'' 12:7-17 of a battle between God's army and Satan's followers, and their subsequent expulsion from Heaven to earth to persecute humans &mdash; although this event is related as being foretold and taking place in the future. In ''[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]'' 10:18 it is mentioned that a power granted by Jesus to control demons made Satan "fall like lightning from heaven."
[[Augustine of Hippo]]'s reading of [[Plotinus]], in ''[[The City of God]]'' (ch.11) is ambiguous as to whether ''daemons'' had become 'demonized' by the early 5th century:
:"He (Plotinus) also states that the blessed are called in Greek ''eudaimones'', because they are good souls, that is to say, good demons, confirming his opinion that the souls of men are demons."&mdash;''City of God'', ch. 11.&mdash;''Of the Opinion of the Platonists, that the Souls of Men Become Demons When Disembodied''.
If Augustine meant 'demons' in the later, medieval sense, the passage would savor of a rhetorical casuistry that is not characteristic of him.
The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demo |
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