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poetry, and
*'''[[Urdu]]'''—It is a variant of Hindi (and also based on the ''Khariboli'' dialect), but written in [[Arabic script|Perseo-Arabic script]]. It utilizes a more extensive [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] vocabulary and fewer Sanskrit loanwords, especially in its formal register. Before the [[Partition of India]], Urdu's linguistic area was similar to that of High Hindi, but it was more commonly spoken as a mother tongue by Muslims and was identified as a cultural expression of [[Islam]] in north India.
===Dialects===
Hindi in the broad sense is a [[dialect continuum]] without clear boundaries. For example, both [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and [[Panjabi language|Panjabi]] are sometimes considered to be Hindi (based on the high level of mutual intelligibility for Panjabi and Hindi especially), though they are more often considered to be separate languages. Hindi is often divided into [[Western Hindi]] and [[Eastern Hindi]], and these are further divided. Following is a list of principal Hindi dialects; '''boldface''' indicates those that are classified as separate languages by some linguists.
*[[Hindustani]], including standard Hindi (or 'High Hindi') and standard [[Urdu]], as well as regional dialects of Urdu. Standard Hindi is the principal official languages of India, while standard Urdu is the official language of Pakistan and the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Urdu has a rich literary history, being the language of the Mughal court second only to Persian
*[[Khadiboli]] or ''Sarhindi'', spoken in western Uttar Pradesh; the dialect that forms the basis for Standard Hindi
*'''[[Chhattisgarhi]]''' (sometimes spelled "Chattisgarhi"; also known as Lahariya or Khalwahi), spoken mostly in the recently created state of [[Chhattisgarh]]
*'''Bagheli''', spoken mostly in the [[Baghelkhand]] region of the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]
*'''[[Awadhi]]''', spoken mostly in central [[Uttar Pradesh]], the area formerly comprising the kingdom of [[Awadh]] or "'''Oudh'''"
**Fijian Hindustani, a form of Awadhi spoken by [[Fiji|Fijians]] of Indian descent
*'''[[Bihari]]'''', mostly spoken in the state of [[Bihar]], which in turn is comprised of several principal dialects:
**'''Angika''',
**'''[[Bhojpuri]]'''
**Sarnami - a form of Bhojpuri with Awadhi influence spoken by Surinamers of Indian descent
**'''[[Maithili]]''', now an official language of [[Bihar]]
**'''Magahi''',
**'''Vajjika''',
*'''[[Rajasthani]]''', mostly spoken in the state of [[Rajasthan]], and also comprised of several notable (sub)dialects:
**'''[[Marwari]]'''
**Mewati or Mewari
**Jaipuri
*[[Braj Bhasha]], in a vaguely defined region of north central India, centered on Delhi
*[[Bundeli]], mostly spoken in the Bundelkhand region and the [[Jhansi]] district of Uttar Pradesh
*Hariyanvi, ''Bangaru'' or ''Jatu'', mostly spoken in the state of [[Haryana]]
*Kanauji, mostly spoken in [[Kanauj]], Uttar Pradesh
*The Eastern Hindi dialect centered on the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] holy city of [[Varanasi]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]], with a strong influence on the Sanskritized learned vocabulary of standard Hindi
*[[Bambaiya Hindi]], the dialect of the city of [[Bombay]] (Mumbai); the basis for the language of many popular [[Bollywood]] films
These dialects demonstrate a variety of influences including the adjacent Iranian, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman language families.
==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
There are approximately 11 vowels and 35 consonants in Standard Hindī. They are shown below:
===Vowels===
[[Image:Hindi vowel chart.png|right|The vowel phonemes of Hindi]]
The vowels of Hindi with their word-initial devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प (p), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and the vowel following / p /) in [[IPA]], equivalent in [[IAST]] and (approximate) equivalents in Standard English are listed below:
{|class="wikitable" align="center" border="2"
! '''Alphabet'''||'''Diacritical mark with “प”'''||'''Pronunciation'''||Pronunciation with / p /||'''[[IAST]] equiv.'''||'''English eqivalent'''
|-align="center"
| अ||प||{{IPA|/ ə /}}||{{IPA|/ pə /}}||a||short or long [[Schwa]]: as the ''a'' in '''a'''bove or '''a'''go
|-align="center"
| आ||पा||{{IPA|/ α: /}}||{{IPA|/ pα: /}}||ā||long [[Open back unrounded vowel]]: as the ''a'' in f'''a'''the
|-align="center"
| इ||पि||{{IPA|/ i /}}||{{IPA|/ pi /}}||i|| short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in b'''i'''t
|-align="center"
| ई||पी||{{IPA|/ i: /}}||{{IPA|/ pi: /}}||ī|| long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in mach'''i'''ne
|-align="center"
| उ||पु||{{IPA|/ u /}}||{{IPA|/ pu /}}||u|| short [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''u'' in p'''u'''t
|-align="center"
| ऊ||पू||{{IPA|/ u: /}}||{{IPA|/ pu: /}}||ū|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''oo'' in sch'''oo'''l
|-align="center"
| ए||पे||{{IPA|/ e: /}}||{{IPA|/ pe: /}}||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in g'''a'''me (not a diphthong)
|-align="center"
| ऐ||पै||{{IPA|/ æ: /}}||{{IPA|/ pæ: /}}||ai|| long [[near-open front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in c'''a'''t
|-align="center"
| ओ||पो||{{IPA|/ ο: /}}||{{IPA|/ pο: /}}||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''o'' in t'''o'''ne (not a diphthong)
|-align="center"
| औ||पौ||{{IPA|/ ɔ: /}}||{{IPA|/ pɔ: /}}||au|| long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght
|-align="center"
| <none>||<none>||{{IPA|/ ɛ /}}||{{IPA|/ pɛ /}}||<none>|| short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t
|-
|}
===Additional notes on vowels===
* The short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɛ /}}: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t), does not have any symbol or diacritic in Hindi script. It occurs only as an allophonic variant of [[schwa]] (in place word-middle '''a''', determined only by convention) in certain words in the standard Khariboli dialect. E.g., the orthography dictates that रहना must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ rəhənα: /}}, but it is actually pronounced as {{IPA|/ rɛhnα: /}}. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it might be accorded a new vowel symbol of ऍ (''chandra'': पॅ).
* The short [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɔ /}}: as ''o'' in h'''o'''t), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: ऑ (पॉ).
* There are some additional vowels traditionally listed in the Hindi alphabet. They are
**ऋ (originally in Sanskrit a vowel-like syllabic [[retroflex approximant]]), pronounced in modern Hindi as {{IPA|/ ri /}}, used only in Sanskrit loanwords (पृ).
**अं (called ''anusvāra''), pronounced as / əŋ /. Its diacritic (the dot above) is used both for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable and for the sound of a vowel-like / n / or / m /. (पं).
**अः (called ''visarga''), pronounced as / əh /. Used only in Sanskrit loanwords (पः).
**The diacritic अँ (called ''chandrabindu''), not listed in the alphabet, is used interchangeably with the ''anusvāra'' to indicate nasalization of the vowel (पँ).
* If a lonely consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/virāma'' diacritic below (प्).
* There is less lip-rounding than in English in the long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɔ: /}}: as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght). The vowel / α: / in Hindi is more central and less back than in English.
* '''All''' vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized.
* In Sanskrit and in some other dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel ऐ is pronounced as a diphthong / {{IPA|əi}} / or / ai / rather than / {{IPA|æ:}} /. Similarly, the vowel औ is pronounced in some words as the diphthong / {{IPA|əu}} / or / au / rather than / {{IPA|ɔ:}} /. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking).
* In the devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without a ''virāma'' (ie, freely standing in the orthography: प as opposed to प्), the short neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant to be in any position in the word. However in Hindi, even if the word-ending consonant is written without a ''virāma'', the associated [[schwa]] is almost '''never''' pronounced. The schwa ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is pronounced very short only if the absence of [[schwa]] would otherwise make the pronunciation of the word very difficult—such a situation arises when there is a consonantal cluster at the end of the word. The [[schwa]] in Hindi is usually dropped ([[syncope|syncopated]]) in ''khariboli'' even at certain instances in word-middle positions, where the orthography would otherwise dictate so. e.g., रुकना (to stay) is normally pronounced as {{IPA|/ ruknα: /}}, while according to the orthography, it should have been {{IPA|/ rukənα: /}}.
The dropping of [[schwa]] at the end in Hindi (for Sanskrit loanwords) causes a big problem for foreigners (Westerners learning Hindi). The IAST '''a''' appended to the end of these words rather confuses the foreigners to pronounce it as {{IPA|/ α: /}}—this makes the masculine Sanskrit/Hindi words sound like feminine! Some examples are given below:
{|align="center" border="2"
|'''Hindi/Sanskrit word'''||'''Usual transliterartion'''||'''Sanskrit pronunciation'''||'''Hindi pronunciation'''||'''Foreigners' pronunciation'''
|-
|शिव—a deity|| [[Shiva]]||{{IPA|/ ʃivə /}}||{{IPA|/ ʃiv /}}||{{IPA|/ ʃi:vα: /}}
|-
|वरुण—a deity|| [[Varuna]]||{{IPA|/ vəruɳə /}}||{{IPA|/ vəruɳ /}}||{{IPA|/ vαrunα: /}}
|-
|वेद—a scripture|| [[Veda]]||{{IPA|/ ve:də /}}||{{IPA|/ ve:d /}}||{{IPA|/ vedα: /}}
|-
|राम—a hero|| [[Rama]] or Rāma||{{IPA|/ rα:mə /}}||{{IPA|/ rα:m /}}|| |
ucleolus) ==
Nucleoli are densely-stained structures in the nucleus where [[ribosome]] subunits are assembled.
{{organelles}}
[[Category:Organelles]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]
[[ar:نواة (خلية)]]
[[cs:Buněčné jádro]]
[[da:Cellekerne]]
[[de:Zellkern]]
[[es:Núcleo celular]]
[[eo:Ĉelkerno]]
[[fr:Noyau (biologie)]]
[[is:Frumukjarni]]
[[it:Nucleo cellulare]]
[[he:גרעין התא]]
[[lt:Ląstelės branduolys]]
[[lb:Zellkär]]
[[mk:Клеточно јадро]]
[[ms:Nukleus]]
[[nl:Celkern]]
[[ja:細胞核]]
[[ko:세포핵]]
[[pl:Jądro komórkowe]]
[[pt:Núcleo celular]]
[[sk:Bunkové jadro]]
[[fi:Tuma]]
[[sv:Cellkärna]]
[[tr:Hücre çekirdeği]]
[[zh:细胞核]]
[[sr:Једро]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chardonnay socialist</title>
<id>6236</id>
<revision>
<id>41418662</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:48:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab welfare</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chardonnay socialist''' is a derogatory [[Australasia|Australasian]] term used to describe those on the political [[Left-wing_politics|left]] with comfortable [[middle-class]] (or better) incomes, [[tertiary education]], and a taste for the finer things in life. ([[Chardonnay]] is a style of white [[wine]].)
It is similar in thrust to the [[United States| America]]n term [[limousine liberal]], though without quite the same taint of great [[wealth]] attaching to it.
The term "chardonnay socialist" is regularly used by people from throughout the political spectrum to criticise opponents. For example, Australian left-wing "true believers" levelled it at supporters of the [[Australian Constitutional History|failed republic referendum]] of [[1999]] (where the vote was split not along conventional party lines but very much along socio-economic divides, with the rich overwhelmingly supporting the change while the less well-off were opposed &ndash; a superficially bizarre pattern for a non-economic issue). Staunch Australian [[right-wing]]ers, on the other hand, level it at those who support such things as government funding for the [[art|arts]], free tertiary education, and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] &ndash; all causes which are described by critics as "middle-class [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]]".
The older term for this or a similar kind of person was "salon communist;" it survives in a few places such as [http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/przemysl/prz286.html].
==See also==
*[[Champagne socialist]]
*[[Gauche caviar]] ([[France]])
*[[Left-wing politics]]
*[[Liberal elite]]
*[http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/wittfogel2.html Salon bolshevik]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[category:Pejorative terms for people]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christmas</title>
<id>6237</id>
<restrictions>move=autoconfirmed</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42123452</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:49:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chooserr</username>
<id>317628</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Holiday |
|holiday_name=Christmas
|image=WiseMenAdorationMurillo.png
|caption=[[Three Wise Men|Wise Men]] visiting [[Jesus]] on [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|Twelfth Night]] after his birth on Christmas in [[Bartolomé Estéban Murillo|Bartolomé Estéban Murillo's]] ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]''.
|color1=white
|color2=white
|color3=white
|nickname=Christ's Mass, [[Xmas|X-mas]]
|observedby=most [[Christian]]s, although many non-Christians around the world observe secular practices
|date=[[December 25]] or [[January 7]] ([[Eastern Orthodox]])
|observances=Religious services, Gift-giving, Family meetings, Decorating trees
|type=Religious, International
|significance=Traditional birthday of [[Jesus]]
|relatedto=[[Advent]], which precedes Christmas, [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]], which commemorate the death of [[Jesus]], and the period between the day after [[Thanksgiving]] and the Sunday after [[New Year's Day]], which is the North American holiday season}}
'''Christmas''' (literally, the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] of [[Jesus|Christ]]) is a traditional [[holiday]] commonly observed on [[25 December]]. In most [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Orthodox Churches]], even where the civil calendar used is the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]], the event is observed according to the [[Julian calendar]], which coincides with the predominant reckoning of [[7 January]]. It is celebrated by most [[Christianity|Christians]] to mark the [[Virgin birth|birth]] of [[Jesus]], which is believed to have occurred in [[Bethlehem]] in the Roman Province of [[Judea]] between [[6 BC]] and AD [[6]].
Christ's birth, or [[nativity]], was said by his followers to fulfill the prophecies of [[Judaism]] that a [[messiah]] would come, from the house of [[David]], to redeem the world from sin. Efforts to decide upon a date on which to celebrate his birth began some centuries later.
The word ''Christmas'' is a contraction of ''Christ's Mass'', derived from the [[Old English]] ''Cristes mæsse''. It is often abbreviated ''[[Xmas]]'', probably because ''X'' resembles the [[Greek language|Greek]] letter [[Chi (letter)|&Chi;]] (chi) which has often historically been used as an abbreviation for Christ (Χριστός in Greek).
Christmas has acquired many secular aspects, which are sometimes celebrated as often&mdash;or more&mdash;than the birth of Jesus. Many Christmas traditions originated with pre-Christian observances that were [[Syncretism|syncretised]] into Christianity. Examples of this process are the northern European [[Yule]], and the [[Winter solstice|Winter Solstice]] celebration found in many older as well as recent pagan celebrations.
In Western countries, Christmas has become the most economically significant holiday of the year. It is largely characterized by gifts being exchanged between friends and family members, and the appearance of [[Santa Claus]]. Various local and regional Christmas traditions are still practised, despite the widespread influence of [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] Christmas motifs disseminated by [[globalization]], popular literature, television, and other media.
==The Nativity==
The story of Christ's birth has been handed down for centuries, based mainly on the Christian [[gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]. The gospels of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of John|John]] do not address the childhood of Jesus, and those of Matthew and Luke highlight different events.
According to Luke, Mary learns from an [[angel]] that the [[Holy Spirit]] has caused her to be with child. Shortly thereafter, she and her husband [[Saint_Joseph|Joseph]] leave their home in [[Nazareth]] to travel about 150 kilometres (90 miles) to Joseph's ancestral home, [[Bethlehem]], to enroll in the [[census]] ordered by the Roman emperor, [[Augustus]]. Finding no room in inns in the town, they set up lodgings in a stable in Bethlehem in [[Judea]]. There Mary gives birth to Jesus. Jesus' being born in Bethlehem fulfills the prophecy of the [[Book of Micah]]. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke's Gospel]] has some references to historic events at this time, saying "In these days the Roman emperor [[Augustus]] ordered to excise a counting of all population in the world" (Lk 2,1), but the only known census was in the year [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[6]].
Matthew's gospel begins by telling the [[genealogy]] and birth of Jesus, and then moves to the coming of the [[Three Wise Men|Wise Men]] from the East to Bethlehem. Matthew mentions no trek to Bethlehem from Nazareth. The wise men, or [[Magi]], first arrive in Jerusalem and report to the king of [[Judea]], [[Herod the Great]], that they have seen a star, now called the [[Star of Bethlehem]], heralding the birth of a king. Further inquiry leads them to Bethlehem of Judea and the home of Mary and Joseph. They present Jesus with treasures of "[[gold]], [[frankincense]], and [[myrrh]]". While staying the night, the wise men have a dream that contains a divine warning that King Herod has [[murder]]ous designs on the child. Resolving to hinder the ruler, they go home without telling Herod of the success of their mission. Matthew then reports that the family next flees to [[Egypt]] to escape the murderous rampage of Herod, who has decided to have all children of Bethlehem under the age of two killed in order to eliminate any local rivals to his power. After Herod's death, Jesus and his family return from Egypt, but fearing the hostility of the new Judean king (Herod's son [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]]) they go instead to Galilee and settle in Nazareth.
Another aspect of Christ's birth which has passed from the gospels into popular lore is the announcement by [[angel]]s to nearby [[shepherd]]s of Jesus's birth. Some Christmas [[carol]]s refer to the shepherds observing a bright star directly over Bethlehem, and following it to the birthplace. The Magi, who Matthew also reports seeing a giant star, have been variously interpreted as wise men or as kings. They are supposed to have come from [[Arabia]] or [[Persia]], where they might have obtained their particular gifts. Through the years [[astronomy|astronomers]] and [[historian]]s have offered conflicting explanations of what combination of traceable [[celestial]] events might explain the appearance of a giant star that had never before been seen.{{ref|Note1}}
==Theories on the origins of Christmas==
Many different dates have been suggested for the celebration of Christmas. The theories for the reason Christmas is celebrated on December 25 are many and varied; none are universally accepted.
From early antiquity, the days following the [[winter solstice]] on [[December 21]] were of particular significance to cul |
ot;economy" and "economics" are derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''oikos-'' for "house" or "settlement", and ''nomos'' for "laws" or "norms".
Economic thought may be roughly divided into three phases: Premodern ([[ancient Greece|Greek]], [[ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Arab]]), Early modern ([[mercantilist]], [[physiocrats]]) and Modern (since [[Adam Smith]] in the late [[18th century]]). Systematic economic theory has been developed mainly since the birth of the [[modern era]].
== Schools of economic thought ==
There have been different and competing schools of economic thought pertaining to capitalism from the late 18th century to the early day. Important schools of thought are [[Mercantilism]], [[Kameralism]], [[Physiocracy]], [[Manchester school]], [[Protectionism]], [[Fiscalism]], [[Monetarism]], [[Chicago School]], [[Classical economics]], [[Marxian economics]], [[Keynesian economics]], [[Post-Keynesian economics]], [[Neoclassical economics]], [[Institutional economics]], [[Austrian School]], [[Evolutionary economics]], [[Dependency theory]], [[World systems theory]], and [[New classical economics]].
=== Modern 'mainstream' economics ===
Most academic economics today begins with the premise that resources are scarce and that it is necessary to choose between competing alternatives. That is, economics deals with [[tradeoff|tradeoffs]]. With scarcity, choosing one alternative implies forgoing another alternative&mdash;the [[opportunity cost]]. The opportunity cost creates an implicit price relationship between competing alternatives. In addition, in both market oriented and planned economies, scarcity is often explicitly quantified by [[price]] relationships.
Understanding choices by individuals and groups is central. Economists believe that incentives and desires play an important role in shaping [[decision making]]. Concepts from the [[utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] school of [[philosophy]] are used as analytical concepts within economics, though economists appreciate that society may not adopt utilitarian objectives. One example of this is the idea of a [[utility function]], which is assumed to represent how economic agents rank the choices given to them. Then the utility function ranks available choices from best to worst, and the agent gradually learns to choose the best-ranked choice in the [[feasible set]] of his alternatives.
Most economists also acknowledge the existence of [[market failure]] and many insights from [[Keynesian economics]]. They look to [[game theory]] and [[asymmetric information]] to solve problems on a microeconomic level. Many important insights on collective behavior (e.g. [[emergence]] of [[organization]]s) have been incorporated from [[institutional economics]] via [[new institutionalism]].
===Neoclassical economics ===
Economists who believe that models based on [[utility maximisation]] are applicable to a wide range of activities, including the very long term and the non-economic, are often referred to as [[neoclassical economics|neoclassical economists]].
On a microeconomic level, some economists extend economic analysis to all personal decisions. An alternative can be thought of as a [[vector space|vector]] where the entries are answers not only to questions like "How many eggs should I buy?", but also "How many hours should I spend with my kids?", and "How long should I spend brushing my teeth?".
===Post-Keynesian economics===
An alternative school - one of the successors to the Keynesian tradition with a focus on [[macroeconomics]]. They concentrate on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes, and research microfoundations for their models based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. Generally associated with Cambridge, England and the work of Joan Robinson.
===New-Keynesian economics===
The other school associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. These researchers tend to share with other [[Neoclassical]] economists the emphasis on models based on microfoundations and optimizing behavior but focus more narrowly on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of these models, rather than simply assumed as in older style Keynesian ones. The Nobel prize winners [[Joseph Stiglitz]] and [[George Akerlof]] are generally thought of as New-Keynsians.
===Other alternatives===
There are many types of economist, and many of them are considerably outside the mainstream. [[Socialist economics]], [[green economics]], [[Austrian economics]], and ''Old [[Keynesian]]'' economics still have many voices in academia.
== Economics and other disciplines ==
There is some tension between economics and theories of [[ethics]], historically a branch of philosophy, which emphasizes how people ought to conduct ourselves and balances of [[rights]] and [[duties]]. Modern economics deals with this tension explicitly: According to some thinkers such as Mr. John Syko, a theory of economics is also, or implies also, a theory of [[moral reasoning]]. One way economists deal with this is to qualify discussions of [[economic choice]] by noting the qualifier [[ceteris paribus]] ("all other things held constant...") referring to moral or social factors that are (for the sake of argument) held equivalent for all choices that one might make.
''For exploration of this issue, see the [[moral purchasing]] article.''
Another premise is that economics fits within a finite ecosystem where there are at least some abundant resources. For instance, when fuelling a fire, people are usually concerned with finding the wood, and not with finding the air to burn it with. Economics explicitly does not deal with free abundant inputs &ndash; one criticism is that it often conflicts with [[Ecological_economics|ecology's]] view of what affects what. Human beings are, according to ecologists, merely one species participating in a vast [[energy economics|energy system]] on this planet &ndash; economy is a subset of ecology that deals with just one species' habits and wants.
''See [[nature's services]] for the economic view of ecology and [[green economics]] for the view in which economics is a subset of ecology.''
A third premise is that economics suggests [[market form]]s and other means of distribution of scarce goods that affect not just "desires and wants" but also "needs" and "habits". Much of so-called economic "choice" is involuntary, certainly given the [[conditioning]] that people have to expect certain [[quality of life]]. This leads to one of the most hotly debated areas in economic policy: namely, the effect and efficacy of welfare policies. [[Libertarians]] view this as a failure to respect economic reasoning. They argue that redistribution of wealth is morally and economically wrong. And [[socialists]] view it as a failure of economics to respect society. They argue that disparities of wealth should not have been allowed in the first place. This led to both [[19th century]] [[labour economics]] and [[20th century]] [[welfare economics]] before being subsumed into [[human development theory]].
The older term for economics, ''[[political economy]]'', is still often used ''instead of'' '''economics''', especially by certain economists such as [[Marxists]]. Use of this term often signals a basic disagreement with the terminology or paradigm of market economics. Political economy explicitly brings political considerations into economic analysis and is therefore openly [[normative]], although this can be said of many economic recommendations as well, despite claims to being [[positive]]. Some mainstream universities (such as the [[University of Toronto]] and many in the [[United Kingdom]]) have a "political economy" department rather than an "economics" department.
[[Information theory]] has been applied to economics since the work of [[Ronald Coase]] in the 1930s. However, with [[Herbert Simon]] and [[John von Neumann]] in the 1950s, it gathered a more specific [[formalism]] as part of [[game theory]]. This emphasizes that the decision-making process itself is costly.
Marxist economics generally denies the trade-off of time for money. In the Marxist view, concentrated control over the means of production is the basis for the allocation of resources among classes. Scarcity of any particular physical resource is subsidiary to the central question of power relationships embedded in the means of production.
The question of the environment is viewed, in the traditional economic framework, as being related to the externalization of costs. That is, market economics assumes that underpriced goods are overconsumed. Externalization of cost, in this view, will be corrected by pricing the overconsumed resources at their true social marginal cost. See [[Pigovian tax]].
==See also==
{{portalpar|Business and Economics}}
;Microeconomics
:[[Microeconomics]] | [[supply and demand|Supply and Demand]] | [[Consumer theory|Consumer Theory]] | [[production, costs, and pricing|Production theory]] | [[Experimental economics]] | [[Behavioural economics]] | [[General equilibrium]] | [[Industrial organization]] | [[New institutionalism]] | [[Financial economics]] | [[Managerial economics]] | [[International trade]] | [[Labour market|Labour economics]] | [[Development economics]] | [[Environmental economics]] | [[Welfare economics]] | [[Public choice theory]] | [[Public good]]s | [[Transport economics]] | [[Health economics]] | [[Marginal demand]] | [[Political psychology]]
;Macroeconomics
:[[Macroeconomics]] | [[Keynesian economics]] | [[Phillips curve]] | [[IS/LM model]] | [[Aggregate demand]] | [[Economic policy]] | [[Stabilization policy]] | [[Monetary policy]] | [[Monetarism]] | [[Fiscal policy]] | [[Economic growth]] | [[Purchasing power parity]] | [[B |
settlements, Lonthoir, Selamon and Waer.
Some distance to the west:
*Pulau Ai or Pulau Ay
*Pulau [[Run (island)|Run]], further west again.
To the east:
*Pulau Pisang, also known as Syahrir.
To the southeast:
*Pulau Hatta formerly Rosengain or Rozengain
Others, possibly small and/or uninhabited, are:
*Nailaka, a short distance northeast of Pulau [[Run (island)|Run]]
*Batu Kapal
*Manuk, an active volcano
*Pulau Keraka or Pulau Karaka (Crab Island)
*Manukang
*Hatta Reef
==Bandanese culture==
Most of the present-day inhabitants of the Banda Islands are descended from migrants and plantation labourers from various parts of Indonesia, as well as from indigenous Bandanese. They have inherited aspects of pre-colonial ritual practices in the Bandas that are highly valued and still performed, giving them a distinct and very local cultural identity.
In addition, Bandanese speak a distinct [[Malay Dialect]] which has several features distinguishing it from [[Ambonese Malay]], the better-known and more widespread dialect that forms a lingua franca in central and southeast Maluku. Bandanese Malay is famous in the region for its unique, lilting accent, but it also has a number of locally identifying words in its lexicon, many of them borrowings or [[loanwords]] from [[Dutch language|Dutch]].
[[Image:BandaVolcanoSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|260px|Gunung Api as seen from Fort Belgica on Banda Neira.<br>Note people at left.]]
Examples :
* fork : forok (Dutch vork)
* ants : mir (Dutch mier)
* spoon : lepe (Dutch lepel)
* difficult : lastek (Dutch lastig)
* floor : plur (Dutch vloer)
* porch: stup (Dutch stoep)
Banda Malay shares many [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in Indonesia's national language [[Bahasa Indonesia]]. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation.
Examples :
* turtle : tetaruga (Banda Malay); totoruga (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese tartaruga)
* throat : gargontong (Banda Malay); gargangtang (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese garganta)
Finally, and most noticeably, Banda Malay uses some distinct pronouns. The most immediately distinguishing is that of the second person singular familiar form of address: pané.
The descendants of some of the Bandanese who fled Dutch conquest in the seventeenth century live in the [[Kai Islands]] (Kepulauan Kei) to the east of the Banda group, where a version of the original [[Banda language]] is still spoken in the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kai Besar Island. While long integrated into Kei Island society, residents of these settlements continue to value the historical origins of their ancestors.
==See also==
*[[Maluku Islands]]
==External links==
*[http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/aa/aa0102_full.html Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests]
*[http://home.planet.nl/~vdbroeke/bandalez.htm Rick van den Broek's site]
==References==
*Braudel, Fernand. 1984. The Perspective of the World. In: ''Civilization and Capitalism'', vol. III.
*Hanna, Willard A. 1978. ''Indonesia Banda:Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands.'' Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Affairs.
*Lape, Peter. 2000. Political dynamics and religious change in the late pre-colonial Banda Islands, Eastern Indonesia. ''World Archaeology'' 32(1):138-155.
*Loth, Vincent C. 1995. Pioneers and perkerniers:the Banda Islands in the seventeenth century. ''Cakalele'' 6: 13-35.
*The author [[Giles Milton]]'s book ''[[Nathaniel's Nutmeg]]: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History'' (Sceptre books, Hodder and Stoughton, London) gives a vivid account of the struggle for possession of the Banda Islands.
*Villiers, John. 1981. Trade and society in the Banda Islands in the sixteenth century. ''Modern Asian Studies'' 15(4):723-750.
*Winn, Phillip. 1998. Banda is the Blessed Land: sacred practice and identity in the Banda Islands, Maluku. ''Antropologi Indonesia'' 57:71-80.
*Winn, Phillip. 2001. Graves, groves and gardens: place and identity in central Maluku, Indonesia. ''The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology'' 2 (1):24-44.
*Winn, Phillip. 2002. Everyone searches, everyone finds: moral discourse and resource use in an Indonesian Muslim community. ''Oceania'' 72(4):275-292.
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[da:Bandaøerne]]
[[de:Banda-Inseln]]
[[id:Kepulauan Banda]]
[[nl:Banda-eilanden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B.F. Skinner</title>
<id>5022</id>
<revision>
<id>25899331</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-19T06:57:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>F. Cosoleto</username>
<id>399494</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle.net</title>
<id>5024</id>
<revision>
<id>42029414</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:50:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schuminweb</username>
<id>231595</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Diablo II */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:battlenet_logo.png|right|thumb|Battle.net logo]]
'''Battle.net''' is an online gaming service provided by [[Blizzard Entertainment]]. It was launched in January of 1997 with the release of Blizzard's action-[[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]''. Battle.net was the first online gaming service incorporated directly into the games that make use of it, in contrast to the external interfaces used by the other online services at the time. This feature, along with ease of account creations and the absence of member fees, caused Battle.net to become popular among gamers and became a major selling point for ''Diablo'' and subsequent Blizzard games.
Since the successful launch of Battle.net many companies have published online game services mimicking Blizzard's service package and the [[user interface]].
==History==
[[Image:battlenet_diablo.jpg|thumb|left|Battle.net interface for [[Diablo]].]]
===Diablo===
When the service initially launched with ''Diablo'', Battle.net offered only a few basic services like chatting and game listings. Players could connect to the service, talk with other gamers and join multiplayer games of ''Diablo''. Besides user account data, no game data was stored on the Battle.net servers. When a player connected to a game, they would be connecting directly to the other players in the game. No data was sent through the Battle.net servers. While this made the service quick and easy to use, it quickly led to rampant [[Cheating in online games|cheating]] since players using cheats could modify their game data locally. However, since there was an option to create private games, many players ended up playing with people who they knew to avoid cheaters.
[[Image:battlenet_starcraft.jpg|thumb|right|Battle.net interface for [[StarCraft]].]]
===StarCraft===
With the release of their next game ''[[StarCraft]]'' in [[1998]], usage of the Battle.net service increased significantly. With this game, features such as ladder ranking and game filters were added to the service. Battle.net grew even larger after the release of the expansion pack ''[[StarCraft: Brood War]]''. Concurrent player counts and games played reached the tens of thousands. This was especially evident in [[South Korea]] where ''StarCraft'' become a runaway hit and concurrent player counts on Battle.net would often be many times what they were in the [[United States]]. ''StarCraft'' also brought with it a new [[copyright]] protection scheme using [[CD key]]s. Under ''Diablo'', Battle.net would allow anyone who had a copy of the game to connect to the service. This allowed people who [[Copyright infringement|pirated]] the game to play on Battle.net. With ''StarCraft'', only those players who had a valid CD key were allowed onto the service. In addition, only one person could be connected to Battle.net using a specific CD key at a time. Every Blizzard game since ''StarCraft'' has required a unique, valid cd key to connect to Battle.net.
[[Image:battlenet_war2bne.jpg|thumb|left|Battle.net interface for [[Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition]].]]
===Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition===
The next year, seeing the popularity of ''StarCraft'' on Battle.net, Blizzard decided to re-release their previous [[Real-time strategy|RTS]] game ''[[Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness]]'' packaged with its expansion pack ''[[Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal]]'' in a version that could be played over Battle.net. This version was titled ''[[Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition]]''. Previously, ''Warcraft II'' could only be played over the Internet using the IPX network emulator [[Kali (game browser)|Kali]] or the now defunct online service Engage. The new version also included support for ladders and a host of other non-Battle.net related features.
[[Image:battlenet_diablo2.jpg|thumb|right|Battle.net interface for [[Diablo II]].]]
===Diablo II===
{{main|Diablo II on Battle.net}}
The new millennium brought a new game and a new era for Battle.net. ''[[Diablo II]]'' was released in 2000 to much fan-fare. The main highlight of ''Diablo II'' as it relates to Battle.net was that the game was completely [[client-server]] based. The game was no longer simulated on each player's computer, but instead was run on Blizzard's server. This also meant that all of the character data for the game was stored on the Battle.net servers. This effectively put an end to cheating as it had been known during the period of the original ''Diablo''. The game also had an open character feature on Battle.net which stored the player's character on the client. This allowed players to play characters locally or on a [[Local area network|LAN]], and then use those same characters on Battle.net. However, any open games played on Battle.net were not protected from cheating by other players |
on a CD player, whilst data or perhaps video can be viewed on a computer. These are called [[Enhanced CD]]s.
==Manufacture==
CD-ROMs are always mass-produced by a process called "stamping", whereas CD-Rs and CD-RWs are recorded. There exist devices to 'burn', or record, multiple discs at once from a single source. The contents of a CD-R may be in logical CD-ROM format ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]]) but the disc itself is physically a CD-R ([[Orange Book (CD standard)|Orange Book]]).{{ref|Parker}}
==Capacity==
The standard CD-ROM holds 650 or 700[[megabyte|MB]] of data. The CD-ROM is popular for distribution of [[software]], especially [[multimedia]] applications, and large [[database]]s. A CD weighs under an ounce. To put the CD-ROM's storage capacity into context, the average [[novel]] contains 60,000 words. Assume that average word length is 10 letters - in fact it's considerably less than 10 - and that each letter occupies one [[byte]]. A novel therefore might occupy 600,000 bytes. One CD can therefore contain over 1,000 novels. If each novel occupies half an inch of bookshelf space, then one CD can contain the equivalent of about 14 [[yard]]s (~13 [[meter]]) of bookshelf. However textual data can be compressed by more than a factor of ten, using computer [[data compression|compression algorithms]] (often known as 'zipping'), so a CD-ROM can accommodate at least 100 yards of bookshelf space. In comparison a [[DVD]] typically contains 4.7 GB of data or more, depending upon its type. Dual layer DVD+R discs, for example, contain 8.5GB of data for a normal sized (12 cm) disc.
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; color: black; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|-----
!Type
!Time
!Sectors
!CD-DA max size, bytes
!CD-DA max size, [[binary_prefix|MiB]]
!Data max size, bytes
!Data max size, [[binary_prefix|MiB]]
|-----align="center"
|
|21 minutes
|94,500
|222,264,000
|212.0 MiB
|193,536,000
|184.6 MiB
|-----align="center"
|
|63 minutes
|283,500
|666,792,000
|635.9 MiB
|580,608,000
|553.7 MiB
|-----align="center"
|650MB
|74 minutes
|333,000
|783,216,000
|746.9 MiB
|681,984,000
|650.3 MiB
|-----align="center"
|700MB
|80 minutes
|360,000
|846,720,000
|807.4 MiB
|737,280,000
|703.1 MiB
|-----align="center"
|
|90 minutes
|405,000
|952,560,000
|908.4 MiB
|829,440,000
|791.0 MiB
|-----align="center"
|
|99 minutes
|445,500
|1,047,816,000
|999.3 MiB
|912,384,000
|870.1 MiB
|}
CD capacities are always given in binary units. A "700 MB" CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 [[MiB]]. But [[DVD]] capacities are given in decimal units. A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 [[GiB]].
==CD-ROM drives==
[[Image:CD-ROM drive.jpg|thumb|CD-RW drive]]
CD-ROMs are read using CD-ROM drives and written with [[CD recorder]]s (often referred to as "burners"). CD-ROM drives&mdash;now almost-universal on personal computers&mdash;may be connected to the computer via an IDE ([[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]]) interface, a [[SCSI]] interface or a proprietary interface, such as the [[Panasonic CD interface]]. Most CD-ROM drives can also play [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|audio CDs]] and [[Video CD]]s with the right software.
CD-ROMs are written and read using hills and valleys on the disc that are [[microscopic]]. Each hill represents a '''1''' and each valley represents a '''0''' in binary. The CD-ROM reads the hills and valleys by using laser reflecting off of the CD-ROM into a detector that can sense the difference in reflection.
CD-ROM drives are rated with a speed factor relative to music CDs: 1x or 1-speed which gives a data transfer rate of 150 kilobytes per second in the most common data format. For example, an 8x CD-ROM data transfer rate would be 1.2 megabytes per second. Above 12x speed, there are problems with vibration and heat. [[Constant angular velocity]] (CAV) drives give speeds up to 20x but due to the nature of CAV the actual throughput increase over 12x is less than 20/12. 20x was thought to be the maximum speed due to mechanical constraints until [[Samsung]] Electronics introduced the SCR-3230, a 32x CD-ROM drive which uses a ball [[bearing (mechanical)|bearing]] system to balance the spinning disc in the drive to reduce vibration and noise. [[As of 2004]], the fastest transfer rate commonly available is about 52x or 7.62 megabytes per second, though this is only when reading information from the outer parts of a disc. Future speed increases based simply upon spinning the disc faster are particularly limited by the strength of polycarbonate plastic used in CD manufacturing, though improvements can still be obtained by the use of multiple laser pickups as demonstrated by the [[Kenwood Electronics|Kenwood]] [[TrueX]] 72x which uses seven laser beams and a rotation speed of approximately 10x.
CD-Recordable drives are often sold with three different speed ratings, one speed for write-once operations, one for re-write operations, and one for read-only operations. The speeds are typically listed in that order; ie a 12x/10x/32x CD drive can, CPU and media-permitting, write to CD-R disks at 12x speed (1.76 megabytes/s), write to CD-RW discs at 10x speed (1.46 megabytes/s), and read from CD discs at 32x speed (4.69 megabytes/s).
The 1x speed rating for CDs (150 kilobytes/s) is not to be confused with the 1x speed rating for [[DVD]]s (1.32 megabytes/s).
Some of the initial versions of CD Drives had a mechanism different from the tray or slot loaders of modern day drives. They could read CDs only when they were inserted in special [[cartridge]]s. The "CD Caddy" resembled the [[Floppy_drive#The_3.C2.BD-inch_micro_floppy_diskette|floppy disk]] because of its protective casing. It never became popular, however, possibly because it would be cheaper for manufacturers to produce CDs without cartridges (CD caddies, although resembling ordinary jewel cases, were probably more expensive to produce because of their additional metal components and, unlike jewel cases, they could not hold a printed booklet or inlay cards). Furthermore, distributors using the cartridge format would still have to offer loose CDs for owners of non-caddy drives in order not to lose part of the market, whereas caddy owners could still play loose CDs by loading them into an openable cartridge which was then inserted into the drive (this of course defeated their entire purpose and was more fiddly than loading a disc into an ordinary drive).
Some might argue that caddies would be a good idea given the somewhat fragile nature of some cheaply produced modern CDs - whereas some early CDs had the recording medium sandwiched between two layers of plastic, offering good protection from scratches, some modern discs have a single layer of plastic with the medium stuck to one side, offering comparatively little protection from scratches to the top side of the disc, other than via the printed label paint - some particularly cheap recordable discs have even been known to have their recording layer peel away from the plastic substrate entirely, and of course become useless.
To use a CD-ROM disk in the drive, press the button (should be the only one visible) on the front of the drive to eject the tray, insert the disk so it lines up with the indent in the tray, and either push the tray back in or press the button again. Each of these closing methods are effective and, contrary to a common misconception, giving the tray a push to begin the retracting process does no damage to the drive. Over time retracting does affect the performace of a disc drive, but only on certain models that are not dependable.
==Copyright Issues==
There has been a move by the [[Record industry|recording industry]] to make audio CDs (CDDAs, [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]] CDs) unplayable on computer CD-ROM drives, to prevent copying of the music. This is done by intentionally introducing errors onto the disc that the analogue circuits on most stand-alone audio players can automatically compensate for, but confuse CD-ROM drives. Consumer rights advocates are as of October 2001 pushing to require warning labels on compact discs that do not conform to the official Compact Disc Digital Audio standard (often called the [[Red Book]]) to inform consumers of which discs do not permit full [[fair use]] of their content.
Manufacturers of CD writers ([[CD-R]] or [[CD-RW]]) are encouraged by the music industry to ensure that every drive they produce has a unique identifier, which will be encoded by the drive on every disc that it records: the RID or Recorder Identification Code. This is a counterpart to the [[Source identification code|SID]] - the Source Identification Code, an eight character code beginning with "[[IFPI]]" that is usually stamped on discs produced by CD recording plants.
==Data Formats==
There are several formats used for CD-ROM data: the [[Rainbow Books]], which include the [[Green Book (CD-i standard)|Green Book]], [[White Book (Video CD standards)|White Book]] and [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book CD-ROM]]. [[ISO 9660]] defines the standard file system of a CD-ROM, although it is due to be replaced by [[ISO 13490]]. [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]] format is used on user-writable [[CD-R]] and [[CD-RW]] discs that are intended to be extended or overwritten. The bootable CD specification, to make a CD emulate a hard disk or floppy, is called [[El Torito (CD-ROM standard)|El Torito]] (apparently named after the [[El Torito|restaurant chain]]).
Informative CD-ROMs may contain links to webpages with additional information. To keep them up to date these are sometimes indirect: they link to webpages maintained by the producer of the CD-ROM which contain the links to external webpages.
= |
amental particles but are composed of [[fermion]]s, called [[quark]]s and antiquarks, and of [[boson]]s, called [[gluon]]s. The gluons mediate the [[quantum chromodynamics|color force]] that binds the quarks together.
Like all [[subatomic particle]]s, hadrons have [[quantum numbers]] corresponding to the [[representation]]s of the [[Poincare group]]: <b>J<sup>PC</sup>(m)</b>, where <b>J</b> is the [[spin (physics)|spin]], <b>P</b>, the [[parity]], <b>C</b>, the [[C parity]], and <b>m</b>, the mass. In addition they may carry [[flavour (particle physics)|flavour]] quantum numbers such as [[isospin]] (or [[G parity]]), [[strangeness]] etc. Hadrons can be further divided into two classes:
* '''[[Baryon]]s''' are [[fermion]]s. They always carry an additive conserved quantum number called [[baryon number]] (<b>B</b>). <b>B=1</b> for [[nucleon]]s (the [[proton]] and the [[neutron]]), which are part of the [[atomic nucleus]]).
* '''[[Meson]]s''' are [[boson]]s with <b>B=0</b>.
Most hadrons can be classified by the [[quark model]] which posits that all the quantum numbers of baryons are derived from those of the ''valence quarks''. For a baryon these are three [[quark]]s and for a meson these are a quark-antiquark pair.
Each quark is thus a fermion with <b>B=1/3</b>. Excited baryon or meson states are known as [[resonance (quantum field theory)|resonance]]s. Each ground state hadron may have many excited states, and hundreds have been observed in particle experiments. Resonances decay extremely quickly (within about 10<sup>&minus;24</sup> s) via strong interactions.
Mesons which lie outside the quark model classification are called [[exotic meson]]s. These include '''glueballs''', '''hybrid mesons''' and '''tetraquarks'''. The only baryons which lie outside the quark model at present are the '''[[pentaquark]]s''', but the evidence for their existence is unclear as of [[2005]].
All hadrons are single particle excitations of the basic theory of [[strong interactions]], called [[quantum chromodynamics]]. Due to a property called [[confinement]] that this theory enjoys, these excitations are not [[quark]]s and [[gluon]]s, which are the basic fields, but the hadrons which are composite, and carry no [[color charge]]. In other phases of [[QCD matter]] the hadrons may disappear.
==See also==
* [[Subatomic particle]]s: [[list of particles]], [[lepton]]s
* [[Quantum chromodynamics]], [[quark model]], [[confinement]]
* [[QCD matter]]
==References and external links==
*[http://pdg.lbl.gov/ The particle data group] maintains listings of properties of all known particles
{{composite}}
[[Category:Hadrons| ]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[da:Hadron]]
[[de:Hadron]]
[[es:Hadrón]]
[[fr:Hadron]]
[[he:האדרון]]
[[hu:Hadron]]
[[it:Adrone]]
[[ja:ハドロン]]
[[nl:Hadron]]
[[pl:Hadron]]
[[pt:Hádron]]
[[ru:Адрон]]
[[sl:Hadron]]
[[sv:Hadron]]
[[uk:Адрон]]
[[vi:Hadron]]
[[zh:强子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heisuke Hironaka</title>
<id>13822</id>
<revision>
<id>38226123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T00:29:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heisuke Hironaka''' (&#24195;&#20013; &#24179;&#31056; ''Hironaka Heisuke''; [[April 9]], [[1931]]–) is a [[Japan]]ese [[mathematician]]. He received his Ph. D. from Harvard, under the directioni of [[Oscar Zariski]]. He won the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1970]].
He is celebrated for proving in [[1964]] that [[singular point of an algebraic variety|singularities of algebraic varieties]] admit [[resolution of singularities|resolutions]] in characteristic zero. This means that any [[projective variety]] can be replaced by a similar one (i.e. [[birational equivalence|birationally equivalent]]) which has no singularities.
Hironaka was for many years a professor of mathematics at [[Harvard]] but currently lives in [[Japan]], where he is greatly respected and influential. He has been active in raising funds for causes such as mathematical education.
==Trivia==
He once wrote a paper under a pseudonym dervied from [[Kobayashi Issa]], a famous Japanese haiku poet. The result is known as Issa's theorem in complex function theory.
==External links:==
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hironaka.html Hironaka biography]
* [http://www.ams.org/notices/200509/fea-hironaka.pdf Inteview with Heisuke Hironaka (AMS Notices)]
{{Fields medalists}}
{{mathbio-stub}}
[[Category:1931 births|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[Category:Living people|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[Category:Japanese mathematicians|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[de:Heisuke Hironaka]]
[[ja:&#24195;&#20013;&#24179;&#31056;]]
[[zh:廣中平祐]]
[[ko:히로나카 헤이스케]]
[[fr:Heisuke Hironaka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Habsburg</title>
<id>13824</id>
<revision>
<id>41783624</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:50:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mksmith</username>
<id>21209</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Started a selected "Further Reading" section -- not references, since I didn't contribute any text to this page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|thumb|right|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the ''[[Ausgleich]]'' of [[1867]].]]
[[Image:Wappen röm.kaiser.JPG|thumb|Coats of arms of an Habsburg Emperor showing the variety of his territories. The motto was ''Austriae est imperare orbi universo'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] "Austria will rule the whole world")]]
'''Habsburg''' (sometimes spelled ''Hapsburg'', but never so in official use) was one of the major [[Royal House|ruling houses]] of [[Europe]].
Their principal roles were as:
* Kings of [[Germany]], (several centuries to [[1806]]), mostly also crowned as
* [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperors]], and
* [[Rulers of Austria]] (as [[duke]]s [[1282]]&ndash;[[1453]], [[archduke]]s [[1453]]&ndash;[[1804]], and [[emperor]]s [[1804]]&ndash;[[1918]]),
* Kings of [[Croatia]] ([[1437]]&ndash;[[1439]], [[1445]]&ndash;[[1457]], [[1526]]&ndash;[[1918]]),
* Kings of [[Hungary]] ([[1437]]&ndash;[[1439]], [[1445]]&ndash;[[1457]], [[1526]]&ndash;[[1918]]),
* Kings of [[Spain]] ([[1516]]&ndash;[[1700]]),
* Kings of [[Portugal]] ([[1580]]&ndash;[[1640]]),
* Kings of [[Bohemia]] ([[1526]]&ndash;[[1618]] and [[1621]]&ndash;[[1918]]) and
* Grand Princes of [[Transylvania]] ([[1690]]&ndash;[[1867]]).
Other crowns held briefly by the House included:
* Emperor of [[Mexico]] ([[1864]]-[[1867]])
* Grand Duke of [[Tuscany]] ([[1790]]-[[1859]])
* Duke of [[Parma]] ([[1814]]-[[1847]])
* Duke of [[Modena]] ([[1814]]-[[1859]])
Numerous other titles were attached to the crowns listed above.
==A brief history of the House of Habsburg==
===From Counts of Habsburg to Holy Roman Emperors===
[[Image:Armoiries Habsbourg.png|200px|right|thumb|Coats of arms of early counts of Habsbourg]]
The name is derived from the Swiss ''Habichtsburg'' (Hawk Castle), the family seat in the [[11th century|11th]], [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]] at [[Habsburg, Switzerland|Habsburg]] in the former duchy of [[Swabia]] in present-day Switzerland (Switzerland did not then exist in its present form, and the Swiss lands were part of the mainly Germanic [[Holy Roman Empire]]). From Southwest-Germany the family extended its influence and holdings to the south-eastern reaches of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], roughly today's [[Austria]] ([[1278]] - [[1382]]). Within only two or three generations, the Habsburgs had managed to secure an initially intermittent grasp on the imperial throne that would last for centuries ([[1273]] - [[1291]], [[1298]] - [[1308]], [[1438]] - [[1740]], and [[1745]] - [[1806]]).
After the marriage of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] with [[Mary of Burgundy|Mary]], heiress of [[Burgundy]] (the Low Countries) and the marriage of his son [[Philip I of Castile|Philipp the Handsome]] with [[Joanna of Castile|Juana]], heiress of [[Spain]] and its newly-founded empire, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] inherited an empire where "the sun does not set".
Under [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], the Habsburgs first acquired the land upon which would later be erected the ''[[Schönbrunn Palace]]'': the Habsburgs' summer palace in [[Vienna]] and one of the most enduring symbols of the dynasty.
===Division of the House: Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs===
[[Image:Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg|thumb|right|450px|A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the [[Battle of Mühlberg]] (1547) as depicted in ''The Cambridge Modern History Atlas'' (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green. Not shaded are the lands of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] over which the Habsburgs presided, nor are the vast Spanish holdings of the [[New World]] shown.]]
After the [[April 21]], [[1521]] assignment of the Austrian lands to [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] from his brother Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (also King Charles I of Spain) ([[1516]] - [[1556]]), the family split into the [[Austrian Habsburgs]] and the [[Spanish Habsburgs]]. The Austrian Habsburgs held (after 1556) the title of [[Holy Roman Emperor]], as well as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands and the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, while the Spanish Habsburgs ruled over the Spanish kingdoms, the Netherlands, the Habsburgs' Italian possessions, and, for a time, Portugal. [[Hungary]], nominally under Habsburg kingship fro |
| journal=J. Emerg. Med. | year=1994 | pages=375-384 | volume=12 | issue=3
| id={{PMID |8040596}}
}}</ref><ref name=Guss2>{{
cite journal
| author=Guss, D. A.
| title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 2
| journal=J. Emerg. Med. | year=1994 | pages=491-497 | volume=12 | issue=4
| id={{PMID |7963396}}
}}</ref>. After the diagnosis of AIDS is made, the current average survival time with antiretroviral therapy is estimated to be between 4 to 5 years <ref name=Schneider>{{
cite journal
| author=Schneider, M. F., Gange, S. J., Williams, C. M., Anastos, K., Greenblatt, R. M., Kingsley, L., Detels, R., and Munoz, A.
| title=Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
| journal=AIDS | year=2005 | pages=2009-2018 | volume=19 | issue=17
| id={{PMID|16260908}}
}}</ref>, but because new treatments continue to be developed and because HIV continues to evolve resistance to treatments, estimates of survival time are likely to continue to change. Without antiretroviral therapy, progression to death normally occurs within a year <ref name=Morgan2>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
| journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4
| id={{PMID |11873003}}
}}</ref>. Most patients die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system <ref name=Lawn>{{
cite journal
| author=Lawn, S. D.
| title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
| journal=J. Infect. Dis. | year=2004 | pages=1-12 | volume=48 | issue=1
| id={{PMID |14667787}}
}}</ref>.
The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by many factors such as host susceptibility <ref name=Clerici>{{
cite journal
| author=Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M.
| title=Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection.
| journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=1996 | pages=1053-1061 | volume=12 | issue=11
| id={{PMID |8827221}}
}}</ref><ref name=Morgan>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
| journal=BMJ | year=2002 | pages=193-196 | volume=324 | issue=7331
| id={{PMID |11809639}}
}}</ref><ref name=Tang>{{
cite journal
| author=Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A.
| title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
| journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=S51-S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4
| id={{PMID |15080180}}
}}</ref>, health care and co-infections <ref name=Morgan2>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
| journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4
| id={{PMID |11873003}}
}}</ref><ref name=Lawn>{{
cite journal
| author=Lawn, S. D.
| title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
| journal=J. Infect. Dis. | year=2004 | pages=1-12 | volume=48 | issue=1
| id={{PMID |14667787}}
}}</ref>, and peculiarities of the [[viral strain]] <ref name=Campbell>{{
cite journal
| author=Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P.
| title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
| journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 | pages=48197-48204 | volume=279 | issue=46
| id={{PMID |15331610}}
}}</ref><ref name=Campbell2>{{
cite journal
| author=Campbell, G. R., Watkins, J. D., Esquieu, D., Pasquier, E., Loret, E. P. and Spector, S. A.
| title=The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells
| journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2005 | pages=38376-39382 | volume=280 | issue=46
| id={{PMID |16155003}}
}}</ref><ref name=Senkaali>{{
cite journal
| author=Senkaali, D., Muwonge, R., Morgan, D., Yirrell, D., Whitworth, J. and Kaleebu, P.
| title=The relationship between HIV type 1 disease progression and V3 serotype in a rural Ugandan cohort
| journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=2005 | pages=932-937 | volume=20 | issue=9
| id={{PMID |15585080}}
}}</ref>. Also, the specific opportunistic infections that AIDS patients develop depends in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives.
===The major pulmonary illnesses===
*'''''Pneumocystis jiroveci'' pneumonia''': [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia|''Pneumocystis jiroveci'' pneumonia]] (originally known as ''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia, often abbreviated PCP) is relatively rare in normal, [[immunocompetent]] people but common among HIV-infected individuals. Before the advent of effective treatment and diagnosis in Western countries it was a common immediate cause of death. In developing countries, it is still one of the first indications of AIDS in untested individuals, although it does not generally occur unless the CD4 count is less than 200 per µl <ref name=Feldman>{{
cite journal
| author=Feldman, C.
| title=Pneumonia associated with HIV infection
| journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=165-170 | volume=18 | issue=2
| id={{PMID|15735422}}
}}</ref>.
*'''Tuberculosis''': Among infections associated with HIV, [[tuberculosis]] (TB) is unique in that it may be transmitted to immunocompetent persons via the respiratory route, is easily treatable once identified, may occur in early-stage HIV disease, and is preventable with drug therapy. However, multi-drug resistance is a potentially serious problem. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count &gt;300 cells per µl), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB may present atypically and extrapulmonary TB is common infecting [[bone marrow]], [[bone]], urinary and [[gastrointestinal tract]]s, liver, regional lymph nodes, and the central nervous system <ref name=Decker>{{
cite journal
| author=Decker, C. F. and Lazarus, A.
| title=Tuberculosis and HIV infection. How to safely treat both disorders concurrently
| journal=Postgrad Med. | year=2000 | pages=57-60, 65-68 | volume=108 | issue=2
| id={{PMID|10951746}}
}}</ref>.
===The major gastro-intestinal illnesses===
* '''Esophagitis''': [[Esophagitis]] is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the [[esophagus]] (gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach). In HIV infected individuals, this could be due to fungus ([[candidiasis]]), virus ([[Herpes simplex virus|herpes simplex-1]] or [[cytomegalovirus]]). In rare cases, it could be due to [[mycobacteria]] <ref name=Zaidi>{{
cite journal
| author=Zaidi, S. A. and Cervia, J. S.
| title=Diagnosis and management of infectious esophagitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection
| journal=J. Int. Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) | year=2002 | pages=53-62 | volume=1 | issue=2
| id={{PMID|12942677}}
}}</ref>.
* '''Unexplained chronic diarrhea''': In HIV infection, there are many possible causes of [[diarrhea]], including common bacterial (''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Shigella]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', or ''[[Escherichia coli]]'') and parasitic infections, and uncommon opportunistic infections such as [[cryptosporidiosis]], [[microsporidiosis]], ''[[Mycobacterium avium]]'' complex (MAC) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis. Diarrhea may follow a course of antibiotics (common for ''[[Clostridium difficile]]''). It may also be a side effect of several drugs used to treat HIV, or it may simply accompany HIV infection, particularly during primary HIV infection. In the later stages of HIV infection, diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the intestinal tract absorbs nutrients, and may be an important component of HIV-related wasting <ref name=Guerrant>{{
cite journal
| author=Guerrant, R. L., Hughes, J. M., Lima, N. L., Crane, J.
| title=Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies
| journal=Rev. Infect. Dis. | year=1990 | pages=S41-S50 | volume=12 | issue=Suppl 1
| id={{PMID|2406855}}
}}</ref>.
===The major neurological illnesses===
* '''Toxoplasmosis''': [[Toxoplasmosis]] is a disease caused by the single-celled parasite called ''Toxoplasma gondii''. ''T. gondii'' usually infects the brain causing toxoplasma encephalitis. It can also infect and cause disease in the eyes and lungs <ref name=Luft>{{
cite journal
| author=Luft, B. J. and Chua, A.
| title=Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy
| journal=Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. | year=2000 | pages=358-362 | volume=2 | issue=4
| |
rice and cotton.
Lack of work causes a high rate of emigration: for example, three million people from Burkina Faso live in [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. According to the Central Bank of Western African States (La Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest), these migrants send tens of billions of CFA francs back to Burkina Faso each year. Since the 1967 expulsions from [[Ghana]], this situation has provoked tensions in the destination countries. The most recent crisis occurred owing to the events of 2003 in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], which led to the return of 300&nbsp;000 migrants.
A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid.
There is mineral exploitation of [[copper]], [[iron]], [[manganese]] and, above all, [[gold]].
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Ouagadougou place nations unies.JPG|thumb|United Nations Square in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso]]
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Sala Well.jpg|thumb|Sala Well]]
{{main|Demographics of Burkina Faso}}
Burkina Faso has an estimated life expectancy at birth of slightly under 50 years of age. The median age of its inhabitants is under 17.
Population growth rate: 2.71% (2000 est.)
Population estimates take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.): the 11,946,065 ''Burkinabe'' belong to two major West African cultural groups--the [[Voltaic]] and the [[Mande]]. The Voltaic are far more numerous and include the [[Mossi]], who make up about one-half of the population. Additionally, about 5,000 [[Europe]]ans live in Burkina Faso.
The population is concentrated in the south and center of the country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi.]]). This high population density, causes annual migrations of hundreds of thousands, for seasonal employment.
Besides traditional African religions, [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]] are also practised.
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Burkina Faso}}
''See also'':
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Burkina Faso|List of writers from Burkina Faso]]
*[[Music of Burkina Faso]]
*[[Cinema of Burkina Faso]].
== Education ==
{{main|Education in Burkina Faso}}
Education in Burkina Faso is structured primary, secondary, and higher education. Education is technically free and officially mandatory until the age of 16, however few Burkinabe have had formal education. Though schooling is free, it is not compulsory, and only about 35% of Burkina's primary school-age children receive a basic education. Institutions of higher education include the [[University of Ouagadougou]], and The Polytechnical University in [[Bobo-Dioulasso]].
At 26.6%, Burkina Faso is the most illiterate country in Africa.([[CIA World Factbook]], November 2005)
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Ambassadors to Burkina Faso]]
* [[Communications in Burkina Faso]]
* [[Foreign relations of Burkina Faso]]
* [[Holidays in Burkina Faso]]
* [[List of cities in Burkina Faso]]
* [[Military of Burkina Faso]]
* [[Music of Burkina Faso]]
* [[Transportation in Burkina Faso]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Burkina Faso}}
=== Research ===
*[http://www.afrikaforschung.de/englisch/burkina_e.htm Centre for Interdisciplinary Research on Africa (ZIAF), Frankfurt, Germany]
*[http://www.biota-africa.de/1024/biota_west_english/structure_west.htm BIOTA-West]
===Culture===
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/Art%20of%20Burkina%20Faso.html "The Art of Burkina Faso" By Christopher D. Roy]
*[http://www.helge.at/photos/burkina2003/ Photos from Burkina Faso]
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/photos.html Photographs of daily life in Burkina Faso (1970-2004)]
*[http://artqtserver.art.uiowa.edu:8080/Yero%20Fantogo56K_Aud_Str001.mov Listen to "Fulbe" (Fulani) music]
===Government and organizations===
*[http://www.primature.gov.bf/ Premier Ministère] official government portal (in French)
*[http://www.burkinaembassy-usa.org/ Embassy of Burkina Faso in Washington, DC] government information and links
*[http://hilfedirekt.at/webs/start_english.html Aid organization, photos and videos from Burkina Faso]
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/burkinafaso/ allAfrica - ''Burkina Faso''] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032616.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Burkina Faso'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uv.html CIA World Factbook - ''Burkina Faso'']
===Directories and portals===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559905 LookSmart - ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Burkina_Faso/ Open Directory Project - ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/burkina.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Burkina.html University of Pennsylvania - African Country Studies: ''Burkina Faso'']
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Burkina_Faso/ Yahoo! - ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
* [http://www.ouaganet.com/ OuagaNet.com: A portal site about Burkina Faso English/French]
*[http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/bf.htm Burkina Faso map and information page by World Atlas]
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[af:Burkina Faso]]
[[am:ቡርኪና ፋሶ]]
[[ar:بوركينا فاسو]]
[[an:Burkina Faso]]
[[bg:Буркина Фасо]]
[[zh-min-nan:Burkina Faso]]
[[bn:বুর্কিনা ফাসো]]
[[bs:Burkina Faso]]
[[ca:Burkina Faso]]
[[cs:Burkina Faso]]
[[da:Burkina Faso]]
[[de:Burkina Faso]]
[[et:Burkina Faso]]
[[el:Μπουρκίνα Φάσο]]
[[es:Burkina Faso]]
[[eo:Burkino]]
[[eu:Burkina Faso]]
[[fa:بورکینافاسو]]
[[fr:Burkina Faso]]
[[gd:Burkina Faso]]
[[gl:Burquina Faso - Burkina Faso]]
[[ko:부르키나파소]]
[[ht:Boukinafaso]]
[[hr:Burkina Faso]]
[[io:Burkina Faso]]
[[id:Burkina Faso]]
[[is:Búrkína Fasó]]
[[it:Burkina Faso]]
[[he:בורקינה פאסו]]
[[ks:बुर्कीना-फासो]]
[[lv:Burkinafaso]]
[[lt:Burkina Fasas]]
[[li:Burkina Faso]]
[[hu:Burkina Faso]]
[[ms:Burkina Faso]]
[[na:Burkina Faso]]
[[nl:Burkina Faso]]
[[nds:Burkina Faso]]
[[ja:ブルキナファソ]]
[[no:Burkina Faso]]
[[nn:Burkina Faso]]
[[pl:Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Burkina Faso]]
[[ro:Burkina Faso]]
[[ru:Буркина-Фасо]]
[[sa:बुर्कीना-फासो]]
[[sq:Burkina Faso]]
[[scn:Burchina Fasu]]
[[sk:Burkina]]
[[sl:Burkina Faso]]
[[sr:Буркина Фасо]]
[[fi:Burkina Faso]]
[[sv:Burkina Faso]]
[[tl:Burkina Faso]]
[[tr:Burkina Faso]]
[[uk:Буркіна Фасо]]
[[zh:布吉納法索]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burma</title>
<id>3471</id>
<revision>
<id>37305437</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T03:26:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>146.7.40.23</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>page redirected from burma to myanmar (burma) to myanmar, corrected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Myanmar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burundi</title>
<id>3472</id>
<revision>
<id>42073410</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:14:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.86.1.17|24.86.1.17]] to last version by Zsinj</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country | <!-- Please update [[Template:Country infobox data Burundi]] when editing infobox -->
native_name = Republika y'u Burundi<br>République du Burundi<br>Republic of Burundi |
common_name = Burundi |
image_flag = Flag of Burundi.svg |
image_coat = Coa burundi large.jpg |
national_motto = Unité, Travail, Progrès ([[French language|French]]: Unity, Work, Progress) |
image_map = LocationBurundi.png |
national_anthem = [[Burundi bwacu]] |
official_languages = [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]] and [[French language|French]]. [[Swahili]] is widely spoken.|
capital = [[Bujumbura]] |
latd=3|latm=30|latNS=S|longd=30|longm=00|longEW=E|
government_type = [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Burundi|President]] |
leader_names = [[Pierre Nkurunziza]] |
largest_city = [[Bujumbura]] |
area = 27,830 |
areami² = 10,745 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
area_rank = 142nd |
area_magnitude = 1 E10 |
percent_water = 7.8% |
population_estimate = 6,054,714 |
population_estimate_year = 2003 |
population_estimate_rank = 99th |
population_census = 3,589,434 |
population_census_year = 1978 |
population_density = 206.1 |
population_densitymi² = 533.8 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = 52 |
GDP_PPP_year = 2003 |
GDP_PPP = 4,517<sup>1</sup> |
GDP_PPP_rank = 142 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = 627 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 163 |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.378 |
HDI_rank = 169th |
HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Date |
established_dates = From [[Belgium]] <br> [[July 1]], [[1962]] |
currency = [[Burundi franc]] (FBu) |
currency_code = BIF |
time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
utc_offset = +2 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = +2 |
cctld |
r for accepting https connections the administrator must create a [[public key certificate]] for the web-server. These certificates can be created for [[Linux]] based servers with tools such as [http://www.openssl.org/contrib/ OpenSSL]'s <tt>ssl-ca</tt> or [[SuSE]]'s <tt>gensslcert</tt>. This certificate must be signed by a [[certificate authority]] of one form or another, who certifies that the certificate holder is who they say they are. Web browsers are generally distributed with the signing certificates of major certificate authorities such as [http://www.verisign.com/ VeriSign], so that they can verify certificates signed by them.
Organizations may also run their own certificate authority, particularly if they are responsible for setting up browsers to access their own sites (for example, sites on a company intranet), as they can trivially add their own signing certificate to the defaults shipped with the browser.
Finally, for a single site, [[self-signed certificate]]s can be the ideal solution. It is important to understand though, that unless the certificate can be verified in some way (for example, phoning the certificate owner to verify its checksum), there is a risk of a [[man in the middle]] attack.
The system can also be used for client [[authentication]], in order to restrict access to a web-server to only authorized users. For this, typically the site administrator creates certificates for each user, which are loaded into their browser, although certificates signed by any certificate authority the server trusts, should work. These normally contain the name and e-mail of the authorized user, and are automatically checked by the server on each reconnect to verify the user's identity, potentially without ever entering a password.'''
==Caveats==
The level of protection depends on the correctness of the [[implementation]] by the [[web browser]] and the server software and the actual [[cipher|cryptographic algorithm]]s supported.
A common misconception among credit card users on the Web is that ''https:'' "fully" protects their transaction when submitting a card purchase, when in reality card information is only encrypted between their browser and the receiving Web server. Merchant sites are supposed to immediately forward incoming transactions to a financial gateway and retain only a transaction number, but receiving web servers often save card numbers in a database. It is that server and database that is usually attacked and compromised by unauthorized users. (In a sense, ''https:'' is similar to handing your card to a waiter at a restaurant while covering your card number with your thumb: it prevents anyone else from seeing your number while giving the card to the waiter, but once the card has been handed over the waiter can do anything with the information.)
== See also ==
*[[computer security]]
*[[AAA protocol]]
*[[Secure hypertext transfer protocol]], an alternative to https that is not widely supported (defined in RFC 2660)
== External links ==
*RFC 2818 ''HTTP over TLS''
*[http://httpd.apache.org/docs-2.0/ssl/ssl_intro.html SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction from the Apache HTTP Server Version 2.0 Documentation]
*[http://serversniff.net/sslcheck.php serversniff.net enumerates a https-server's certificate, supported protocols and ciphers]
[[Category:HTTP]]
[[Category:Cryptographic protocols]]
[[Category:URI scheme]]
[[cs:HTTPS]]
[[da:HTTPS]]
[[de:Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure]]
[[es:HTTPS]]
[[ko:HTTPS]]
[[id:HTTPS]]
[[it:HTTPS]]
[[nl:HTTPS]]
[[ja:HTTPS]]
[[no:HTTPS]]
[[pl:HTTPS]]
[[pt:HTTPS]]
[[ru:HTTPS]]
[[sk:HTTPS]]
[[fi:HTTPS]]
[[sv:HTTPS]]
[[tr:HTTPS]]
[[zh:HTTPS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Egypt</title>
<id>13588</id>
<revision>
<id>41881573</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:24:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Carr</username>
<id>22444</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Egypt}}
[[Image:Egypt.Hathor.02.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Hathor]]]]
The '''history of Egypt''' is the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world. The [[Nile]] valley forms a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the east and west by deserts, to the north by the sea and to the south by the [[Cataracts of the Nile]]. The need to have a single authority to manage the waters of the Nile led to the creation of the world's first [[state]] in [[Egypt]] in about [[3000 BC]]. Egypt's peculiar geography made it a difficult country to attack, which is why Pharaonic Egypt was for so long an independent and self-contained state.
Once Egypt did succumb to foreign rule, however, it proved unable to escape from it, and for 2,300 years Egypt was governed by foreigners: [[Assyria|Assyrians]], [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Arabs]], [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]], [[French Colonial Empire|French]], and [[United Kingdom|British]]. When [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] ([[President of Egypt]] 1954&ndash;1970) remarked that he was the first native Egyptian to exercise sovereign power in the country since [[Pharaoh]] [[Nectanebo II]], deposed by the Persians in [[343 BC]], he was only exaggerating slightly.
In this encyclopedia Egyptian history has been divided into seven periods:
*[[History of ancient Egypt]]: [[3000 BC]] to [[525 BC]]
*[[History of Egypt Under Achaemenid Persian Domination]]: [[525 BC]] to [[332 BC]]
*[[History of Greek and Roman Egypt]]: [[332 BC]] to AD [[639]]
*[[History of early Arab Egypt]]: [[639]] to [[1517]]
*[[History of Ottoman Egypt]]: [[1517]] to [[1805]]
*[[Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors]]: [[1805]] to [[1882]]
*[[History of Modern Egypt]]: since [[1882]]
==See also==
*[[Aegyptus]]
*[[Ancient Egypt]]
*[[Egyptian mythology]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[Pharaoh]]
==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Egypt.country.year.index.html Modern Egypt Chronology World History Database]
*[http://st-takla.org/Egypt-1.html Egypt.. the past and the present]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/chronological/ancient_egypt.html WWW-VL: History: Ancient Egypt]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:History of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East|Egypt, history of]]
[[ar:تاريخ مصر]]
[[da:Ægyptens historie]]
[[es:Historia de Egipto]]
[[fi:Muinainen Egypti]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Égypte]]
[[gl:Historia do Exipto]]
[[he:היסטוריה של מצרים]]
[[it:Storia dell'Egitto]]
[[la:Historia Aegypta]]
[[lt:Egipto istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Egypte]]
[[oc:Istòria de l'Egipte]]
[[pl:Historia Egiptu]]
[[pt:História do Egipto]]
[[ru:История Египта]]
[[sv:Egyptens historia]]
[[zh:埃及历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haskell</title>
<id>13589</id>
<revision>
<id>41782490</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:41:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.107.62.88</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Haskell''' may refer to:
*The [[Haskell Indian Nations University]]
*The [[Haskell programming language]]
*[[Haskell Curry]], the logician after whom the Haskell programming language is named
*[[Colleen Haskell]], former reality show contestant and actress
*[[Susan Haskell]], actress from ''One Life to Live'' and ''JAG''
[[Image:Uptown street.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tree-lined Haskell Ave]]
*[[Haskell, Texas]], United States
*Haskell Avenue,tree-lined boulevard in [[Uptown Dallas]],[[Texas]], United States
{{disambig}}
[[de:Haskell]]
[[fa:هسکل]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>House</title>
<id>13590</id>
<revision>
<id>42131070</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:50:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Invincible Ninja|Invincible Ninja]] ([[User talk:Invincible Ninja|talk]]) to last version by Stephenb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:20031012-002-houses-st-albans.jpg|right|190px|thumb|Houses in Fishpool Street, [[St Albans]], England]]
:''For other meanings of the word "house", see [[House (disambiguation)]]''.
A '''house''' in its most general sense is a [[human]]-built dwelling with enclosing [[wall]]s, a [[floor]], and a [[roof]]. It provides shelter against [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], [[wind]], [[heat]], [[cold]] and intruding [[human]]s and [[animal]]s. When occupied as a routine dwelling for humans, a house is called a [[home]] (though animals may often live in the house as well, both domestic pets and "unauthorised" animals such as mice living in the walls). People may be away from home most of the day for [[employment|work]] and [[recreation]], but typically are home at least for [[sleep|sleeping]].
A house generally has at least one entrance, usually in the form of a [[door]] or a [[portal]]. Many houses have back doors that open into the back yard and may have any number of [[window]]s or none at all.
==Types of house==
:''See also [[list of house types]]''.
There are three basic house types:
* houses standing on their own ([[detached]] houses)
* houses attached to one other house ([[semi-detached]] houses)
* houses attached to two other houses, possibly in a row ([[terrace (architecture)|terraced]] (GB) or rowhouse (USA) houses).
In [[Britain]] terraced or semi-detached houses are the most common type of accommodation, with 27% of all British people living in a terraced house and 32% in semi-detached houses ([[2002]]). In the [[USA]] in [[2000]], 61.4% of people lived in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, the rest living in rowhouses or [[apartment]]s, except 7% living in [[mobile home] |
[1938]] and [[September 16]], [[1945]].
After the communist take-over, urban renewal projects in the city improved the lives of many residents. New housing on the shores of the Pearl River provided homes for the poor [[boat people]]. Reforms by [[Deng Xiaoping]], who came to power in the late 1970s, led to rapid economic growth due to the city's close proximity to [[Hong Kong]] and access to the Pearl River.
As labor costs increased in Hong Kong, [[manufacturer]]s opened new plants in the cities of [[Guangdong]] including Guangzhou. As the largest city in one of China's wealthiest provinces, Guangzhou attracts farmers from the countryside looking for factory work. Cantonese links to overseas Chinese and beneficial tax reforms of the 1990s have aided the city's rapid growth.
In 2000, [[Huadu]] and [[Panyu]] were merged into Guangzhou as districts, and [[Conghua]] and [[Zengcheng]] became county-level cities of Guangzhou.
===Astronomical phenomena===
The previous total [[solar eclipse]] as seen from Guangzhou (downtown) was [[Solar eclipse of 1814-Jul-17]] ([[July 17]], [[1814]]).
==Modern Guangzhou==
===Economy===
Guangzhou is the economic centre of the [[Pearl River Delta]], placing it in the heart of one of [[mainland China]]'s leading commercial and manufacturing regions.
In 2003, the GDP per capita was ¥38,568 (about US $4,660), ranking the city eighth among 659 Chinese cities.
The [[Canton Fair|Chinese Export Commodities Fair]], also called "Canton Fair", is held each [[Spring (season)|spring]] and [[autumn]]. Inaugurated in the spring of 1957, the Fair is a major event for the city.
===Transportation===
The [[Guangzhou Metro]] opened in 1999.
Guangzhou's main [[airport]] is the [[Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport|New Baiyun International Airport]] in [[Huadu]] District, that opened on [[5 August]] [[2004]] replacing old [[Baiyun International Airport]] close to the city centre.
Guangzhou is connected to [[Hong Kong]] by train, bus and ferry services. Express trains arrive in Hong Kong at the [[Hung Hom (KCRC)|Hung Hom KCR station]]. They cover the 182 km route in approximately two hours. Daily ferry sailings include an overnight steamer, which takes eight hours, and high-speed catamarans and hydrofoils which take three hours to reach the [[China Ferry Terminal]] or [[Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Pier, Hong Kong|Macau Ferry Pier]] in Hong Kong.
===Tourist attractions===
[[Image:Sacré-Cœur de Shizhi.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Shishi Holy Heart Cathedral]]
* [[Shamian Island]]
* [[Guangdong Provincial Museum]]
* [[Museum of the Tomb of the King of Southern Yue in Western Han Dynasty]]
* [[Temple of the Six Banyan Trees]]
* [[Shishi Holy Heart Cathedral]]
* [[Huaisheng Mosque]]
===Significant buildings===
* [[Guangdong Olympic Stadium]]
* [[CITIC Plaza]]
* [[Sky Central Plaza]]
* [[Guangdong TV Tower]]
* [[Guangzhou TV Tower]]
* [[China Hotel]]
Plans are also underway to build what will become the world's tallest free-standing TV tower.
===Culture===
* [[Cantonese (linguistics)]]
* [[Cantonese cuisine]]
* [[Cantonese opera]]
===Major educational institutions===
'''National'''
*[[Jinan University]] (暨南大学) (founded 1906)
*[[Sun Yat-sen University]] (中山大学) (founded 1924)
*[[South China University of Technology]] (华南理工大学)
'''Public'''
*[[Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]] (广东外语外贸大学)
*[[South China Agricultural University]] (华南农业大学) (founded 1909)
*[[Zhongkai Agrotechnical College]] (仲恺农业技术学院) (founded 1927)
*[[South China Normal University]] (华南师范大学)
*[[Guangzhou Medical College]] (广州医学院)
*[[Guangzhou University of TCM]] (广州中医药大学)
*[[Guangdong College of Pharmacy]] (广东药学院)
*[[Guangdong University of Technology]] (广东工业大学)
*[[Guangzhou University]] (广州大学)
*[[Guangdong Business College]] (广东商学院)
*[[Xinghai Conservatory of Music]] (星海音乐学院)
*[[GuangDong Polytechnic Normal University]] (广东技术师范学院)
*[[Guangzhou Physical Education Institute]] (广州体育学院)
Note: Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.
== Sister cities ==
Guangzhou maintains [[town twinning|sister city]] relationships with the following cities:
* {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Japan]] (May, 1979)
* {{flagicon|USA}} [[Los Angeles]], [[USA]] ([[March 2]], [[1982]])
* {{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] (November, 1982)
* {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] (March, 1985)
* {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] (May, 1986)
* {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bari]], [[Italy]] (November, 1986)
* {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Germany]] ([[April 11]], [[1988]])
* {{flagicon|France}} [[Lyon]], [[France]] (November, 1988)
* {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], (February, 1989)
* {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Kwangju]], [[South Korea]] (October, 1996)
* {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Linköping]], [[Sweden]] (November, 1997)
* {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Durban]], [[South Africa]] (July, 2000)
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bristol]], [[United Kingdom]] (May, 2001)
* {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Yekaterinburg]], [[Russia]] ([[July 10]], [[2002]])
* {{flagicon|Peru}} [[Arequipa]], [[Peru]] ([[October 27]], [[2004]])
==See also==
* [[Whampoa Military Academy]]
* [[Guangzhou Uprising]] (1927)
* [[Canton porcelain]]
* [[Lingnan University (Guangzhou)]]
==Footnotes==
:¹ [[Frank Welsh]], ''A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong'', [[Maya Rao]] (editor), p. 13, ISBN 1568361343
:² [[Joseph Needham]], ''Science & Civilisation in China'', '''1''', pp.179 - [[Cambridge University Press]] 1954
:³ [[Sima Guang]], ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', ch. 220.
==External links==
* [http://www.guangzhou.gov.cn/ Official Guangzhou Website] (in simplified and traditional Chinese)
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Guangzhou,+China&spn=0.164057,0.231571&t=k&hl=en Satellite photo of the city]
* [http://www.marimari.com/content/hong_kong/transport/getting_there/main.html Marimari.com] Rail, ferry and bus connections to Hong Kong in English
*[http://www.globalphotos.org/guangzhou.htm Guangzhou Photo Gallery]
{{Guangdong}}
[[category:Guangzhou| ]]
[[Category:Subprovincial cities]]
[[ar:قوانغتشو]]
[[bs:Kanton]]
[[ca:Canton]]
[[da:Guangzhou]]
[[de:Guangzhou]]
[[es:Guangzhou]]
[[eo:Kantono (Ĉinio)]]
[[fa:گوانگژو]]
[[fr:Canton (Chine)]]
[[ko:광저우]]
[[id:Guangzhou]]
[[it:Canton]]
[[lb:Guangzhou]]
[[nl:Kanton (stad)]]
[[ja:広州]]
[[no:Guangzhou]]
[[pl:Guangzhou]]
[[pt:Cantão]]
[[ru:Гуанчжоу]]
[[fi:Guangzhou]]
[[sv:Guangzhou]]
[[tt:Kanton]]
[[vi:Quảng Châu]]
[[za:Gvangjcouh]]
[[zh:广州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goldbachs conjecture</title>
<id>12538</id>
<revision>
<id>15910220</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-18T00:06:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Goldbach's conjecture]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Goldbach's conjecture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genitive case</title>
<id>12539</id>
<revision>
<id>41133246</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:35:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Benwing</username>
<id>27302</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Uses of the marker in English */ rewrite this section and remove some of the pov</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Cases}}
The '''genitive case''' is a [[grammatical case]] that indicates a relationship, primarily one of [[possession (linguistics)|possession]], between the [[noun]] in the genitive case and another noun. In a more general sense, this genitive relationship may be thought of as one thing belonging to, being created from, or otherwise deriving from some other thing. (The relationship is usually expressed by the preposition ''of'' in English.) The term ''[[possessive case]]'' refers to a case that is similar, though usually more restricted in usage, to the genitive.
Specific varieties of genitive relationships include:
* origin ("men ''of Rome''")
* relationship ("''Janet's'' husband")
* subjectivity ("''my'' leaving")
* objectivity ("the ''archduke's'' murder")
* description ("man ''of honor''", "day ''of reckoning''")
* composition ("wheel ''of cheese''") &mdash; [[partitive]]
* number of distinct items ([[Old English language|Old English]] "féower ''manna''"; literally, "four ''of men''") &mdash; partitive
* part of a mass ("a pound ''of beef''") &mdash; partitive
* inalienable possession ("''my'' height", "''his'' existence", "''her'' long fingers")
* alienable possession ("''his'' jacket", "''my'' drink")
The last two relationships are the most commonly expressed by the genitive. A distinct [[partitive case]] is used in the languages supporting it. The partitive applies to number of distinct items, composition and part of mass, as in Finnish ''kilo juustoa'' "a kilogram ''of cheese''".
In some languages, nouns in the genitive case also agree in case with the nouns they modify (that is, the head noun is marked for two cases). This phenomenon is called [[suffixaufnahme]].
One form in which genitive cases may be found is [[inclusio]].
Many languages have a genitive case, including [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Arabic_language|Arabic]], [[Latin]], [[Irish_language|Irish]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Greek_language|Greek]], [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Polish_language|Polish]], [[Slovenian_language|Slovenian]], [[Russian_language|Russian]], [[Finnish_language|Finnish]] and [[Sanskrit]]. English does not have a proper genitive case, but a possessive ending, ''-'s'' (see below).
==The English ''-'s'' ending==
===The possessive marker===
Some argue that it is a common misconception that [[English_language|English]] nouns have a genitive ca |
olved from those designed in-house within an industry, or by a particular country, whilst others have been built from scratch by groups of experts who sit on various Technical Committees.
In addition to these organizations, there exist literally thousands of [[standards organizations]] that set standards within some more limited context, such as [[IETF]], [[W3C]] or [[IEEE]].
==See also==
*[[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) and [[List of ISO standards]]
*[[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC) and [[List of IEC standards]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) and [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
*[[British Standards]] (formerly British Standards Institute, BSI)
*[[ASTM International]]
*[[Open standard]]
*[[Standardisation]]
*[[Standards Organizations]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iso.ch/ The ISO Web Site]
*[http://www.iec.ch/ The IEC Web Site]
*[http://www.itu.ch/ The ITU Web Site]
*[http://www.astm.org/ The ASTM Web Site]
*[http://www.bsi-global.com/ The BSI Web Site]
*[http://www.beuth.de/ The DIN Web Site]
*[http://www.bis.org.in/ The BIS Web Site]
*[http://www.ipc.org/ The IPC Web Site]
*[http://www.sae.org/ The SAE Web Site]
*[http://www.aiag.org/ The AIAG Web Site]
*[http://www.ieee.org/ The IEEE Web Site]
[[Category:Standards]]
[[fi:Standardi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISO 4217</title>
<id>15403</id>
<revision>
<id>41612306</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:37:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Octothorn</username>
<id>3884</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reducing strong language</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ISO 4217''' is the [[international standard]] describing three letter codes (also known as the '''currency code''') to define the names of [[currency|currencies]] established by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO). The ISO 4217 code list is the established norm in [[banking]] and [[business]] all over the world for defining different currencies, and in many countries the codes for the more common currencies are so well known publicly, that [[exchange rate]]s published in newspapers or posted in [[bank]]s use only these to define the different currencies, instead of translated currency names or ambiguous [[currency symbol]]s.
The first two letters of the code are the two letters of [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country codes]] (which are similar to those used for [[Country code top-level domain|national top-level domains]] on the [[Internet]]) and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself. So [[Japan]]'s currency code becomes '''JPY'''&mdash;JP for Japan and Y for [[yen]]. This eliminates the problem caused by the names [[Dollar|dollar]], [[Franc|franc]] and [[Pound (currency)|pound]] being used in dozens of different countries, each having significantly differing values. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency code's last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. In some cases, the third letter is the initial for "new" in that country's language, to distinguish it from an older currency that was revalued; the code often long outlasts the usage of the term "new" itself. Examples of this include the [[Mexican peso]] ('''MXN''') and the [[Turkish lira]] ('''TRY'''). Other changes can be seen, however; the Russian [[ruble]], for example, changed from '''RUR''' to '''RUB''', where the B comes from the third letter in the word "ruble".
There is also a three-digit code number assigned to each currency, in the same manner as there is also a three-digit code number assigned to each country as part of [[ISO 3166]].
The standard also defines the relationship between the major currency unit and any minor currency unit. Often, the minor currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but 1/10 or 1/1000 are also common. Some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all. In others, the major currency unit has so little value that the minor unit is no longer generally used (e.g. the Japanese ''sen'', 1/100th of a yen). [[Mauritania]] does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 [[Mauritanian ouguiya|ouguiya]] (UM) = 5 [[khoums]], and [[Madagascar]] has 1 [[ariary]] = 5 [[iraimbilanja]].
ISO 4217 includes codes for not only currencies, but also codes for precious metals ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[palladium]] and [[platinum]]; by definition expressed per one [[troy ounce]], as compared to "1 USD") and certain other entities used in international finance, e.g. [[Special Drawing Rights]]. There are also special codes allocated for testing purposes ('''XTS'''), and to indicate no currency transactions (XXX). These codes all begin with the letter "X". The precious metals use "X" plus the metal's [[chemical symbol]]; silver, for example, is '''XAG'''. ISO 3166 never assigns country codes beginning with "X", so ISO 4217 can use "X" codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes.
Supranational currencies, such as the [[East Caribbean dollar]], the [[CFP franc]], the [[CFAF|CFA franc]] BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO are normally also represented by codes beginning with an "X". However, the [[Euro]] is represented by the code '''EUR'''; although EU is not an [[ISO 3166-1]] country code, it was used anyway, and in order to do so EU was added to the [[ISO 3166-1]] reserved codes list to represent the [[European Union]]. The predecessor to the Euro, the [[European Currency Unit]], had the code XEU.
== History ==
In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978) of the related [[UN]]/[[United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Europe|ECE]] Group of Experts agreed that the three letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, "Codes for the representation of currencies and funds", would be suitable for use in international trade.
Over time, new currencies are created and old currencies are discontinued. Frequently, these changes are due to new governments (through war or a new constitution), treaties between countries standardizing on a currency, or revaluation of the currency due to excessive inflation. As a result, the list of codes must be updated from time to time. The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), the [[British Standards Institution]], is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.
== Active codes (sorted by code) ==
These are listed in the form: <nowiki><code> <official ISO 4217 currency name> (<location>)</nowiki>
# AED [[UAE Dirham]] ([[United Arab Emirates]])
# AFN [[Afghani]] ([[Afghanistan]])
# ALL [[Lek]] ([[Albania]])
# AMD [[Armenian Dram]] ([[Armenia]])
# ANG [[Netherlands Antillian Guilder]] ([[Netherlands Antilles]]) <!--(assuming Guikder is a typo) (it surely is)-->
# AOA [[Kwanza]] ([[Angola]])
# ARS [[Argentine Peso]] ([[Argentina]])
# AUD [[Australian Dollar]] ([[Australia]])
# AWG [[Aruban Guilder]] ([[Aruba]])
# AZN [[Azerbaijanian Manat]] ([[Azerbaijan]])
# BAM [[Convertible Marks]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
# BBD [[Barbados Dollar]] ([[Barbados]])
# BDT [[Taka]] ([[Bangladesh]])
# BGN [[Bulgarian Lev]] ([[Bulgaria]])
# BHD [[Bahraini Dinar]] ([[Bahrain]])
# BIF [[Burundian Franc]] ([[Burundi]])
# BMD [[Bermudian Dollar]] (customarily known as [[Bermuda Dollar]]) ([[Bermuda]])
# BND [[Brunei Dollar]] ([[Brunei]])
# BOB [[Boliviano]] ([[Bolivia]])
# BOV Bolivian Mvdol (Funds code) ([[Bolivia]])
# BRL [[Brazilian Real]] ([[Brazil]])
# BSD [[Bahamian Dollar]] ([[Bahamas]])
# BTN [[Ngultrum]] ([[Bhutan]])
# BWP [[Pula]] ([[Botswana]])
# BYR [[Belarussian Ruble]] ([[Belarus]])
# BZD [[Belize Dollar]] ([[Belize]])
# CAD [[Canadian Dollar]] ([[Canada]])
# CDF [[Franc Congolais]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]])
# CHF [[Swiss Franc]] ([[Switzerland]])
# CLF [[Unidades de formento]] (Funds code) ([[Chile]])
# CLP [[Chilean Peso]] ([[Chile]])
# CNY [[Yuan Renminbi]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
# COP [[Colombian Peso]] ([[Colombia]])
# COU [[Unidad de Valor Real]] ([[Colombia]])
# CRC [[Costa Rican Colon]] ([[Costa Rica]])
# CSD [[Serbian Dinar]] ([[Serbia]])
# CUP [[Cuban Peso]] ([[Cuba]])
# CVE [[Cape Verde Escudo]] ([[Cape Verde]])
# CYP [[Cyprus Pound]] ([[Cyprus]])
# CZK [[Czech Koruna]] ([[Czech Republic]])
# DJF [[Djibouti Franc]] ([[Djibouti]])
# DKK [[Danish Krone]] ([[Denmark]], [[Faroe Islands]])
# DOP [[Dominican Peso]] ([[Dominican Republic]])
# DZD [[Algerian Dinar]] ([[Algeria]])
# EEK [[Kroon]] ([[Estonia]])
# EGP [[Egyptian Pound]] ([[Egypt]])
# ERN [[Nakfa]] ([[Eritrea]])
# ETB [[Ethiopian Birr]] ([[Ethiopia]])
# EUR [[Euro]] ([[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[French Guiana]], [[French Southern Territories]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Martinique]], [[Mayotte]], [[Monaco]], [[Montenegro]], [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Reunion]], [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], [[San Marino]], [[Spain]], [[Vatican City]])
# FJD [[Fiji Dollar]] ([[Fiji]])
# FKP [[Falkland Islands Pound]] ([[Falkland Islands]])
# GBP [[Pound Sterling]] ([[United Kingdom]])
# GEL [[Lari]] ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
# GHC [[Cedi]] ([[Ghana]])
# GIP [[Gibraltar Pound]] ([[Gibraltar]])
# GMD [[Dalasi]] ([[Gambia]])
# GNF [[Guinea Franc]] ([[Guinea]])
# GTQ [[Guatemalan quetzal|Quetzal]] ([[Guatemala]]
# GYD [[Guyana Dollar]] ([[Guyana]])
# HKD [[Hong Kong Dollar]] ([[Hong Kong]])
# HNL [[Lempira]] ([[Honduras]])
# HRK [[Croatian Kuna]] ([[Croatia]])
# HTG [[Haiti Gourde]] ([[Haiti]])
# HUF [[Forint]] ([[Hungary]])
# IDR [[Rupiah]] ([[Indonesia]])
# ILS [[New Israeli Shekel]] ([[Israel]])
# INR [[Indian Rupee]] ([[Bhutan]], [ |
May to November and [[hurricane]]s and [[flood]]s are frequent natural hazards.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Belize]]''
[[Image:Belize farming gm.jpg|thumb|right|The majority of the Belizean economy is comprised of the tourism industry. Agriculture is also key part of the economy.]]
The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on [[agriculture]], agro-based industry, and merchandising, with [[tourism]] (especially scuba diving) and construction assuming greater importance. [[Sugar]], the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the [[banana]] industry is the country's largest employer. [[Citrus production]] has become a major industry along the [[Hummingbird Highway]].
The government's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated in September 1998, led to [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth of 6.4% in 1999 and 10.5% in 2000. Growth decelerated in 2001 to 3% due to the global slowdown and severe [[hurricane]] damage to agriculture, [[fishing]] and tourism. Major concerns continue to be the rapidly expanding [[trade deficit]] and foreign debt. A key short-term objective remains the reduction of [[poverty]] with the help of international donors.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Belize]]''
Though Belize's population is 283,000 (July 2005 est.), emigration is relatively high. Approximately 105,000 Belizeans currently live abroad (mostly in the United States). Most Belizeans are of multiracial and multiethnic descent. However, for census purposes as well as Belizean custom, people are usually recognized by their father's ethnicity. About 49% are of mixed Maya and European descent (Mestizo). The first mestizos to settle in [[Belize]] were Mexicans fleeing from the [[Caste War of Yucatán|Caste War]] of the [[Yucatan]] Peninsula in 1847-48. They founded the town of [[Corozal]] (1849) near the ancient ruins of Santa Rita and their descendants can be found living today. A second and larger mestizo migration took place during the 1980’s with the arrival of thousands of refugees from [[Guatemala]], and [[El Salvador]]. Until the early 1980’s, Belizean Creole constituted 70% of the population, but today they are about 25% of the population. This was due to refugees coming in from neighboring countries as well as emigration of thousands of Creoles. Creoles are descendants of African slaves brought primarily from Jamaica and Nicaragua’s Miskito Coast to cut down mahogany trees. Because of a lack of [[Europe]]an women, their [[Irish people|Irish]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] slave owners would take female slaves as child bearers and this union created The Creole people and culture. Though no longer the majority, Creole culture is still dominant in Belize (especially [[Belize City]]). The indigenous Mayas make up about 10% of the population. The [[Garifuna]] or (Garinagu) are descendants of Africans as well as Carib and Arawakan Amerindians and make up 6%. In the early 1600’s at least two thousand escaped their Spanish captives on the Island of San Vicente (what is now [[Saint Vincent]]) . They are said to have never been slaves and they have retained many of their cultures and customs that support this. When the British took control of the island, the “Red” Caribs were mostly killed off, and the “Black” Caribs were deported to Roatan Bay in Honduras. Many settled in [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Belize]]. The rest of the population are Chinese, East Indian, and North American peoples.
The official language of Belize is [[English language|English]] and sole language of instruction in its school systems. Around 80% of the population is literate in English and as much as 90% of the population is able to speak some English. The most common language however is [[Belizean Kriol language|Kriol]] (Belizean Creole). Kriol is the [[lingua franca]] in much of the country and is spoken by nearly everyone in Belize as either a first- or second-language (95% of all people in Belize City speak Kriol and English solely).
Overall Kriol is spoken by 70% of the entire population as a first language (with around 20% speaking Kriol solely and no Standard English). The next most widely spoken language is [[Spanish Language|Spanish]], which is spoken by approximately 35% of the population as a first, but mostly second-language according to the 2000 census, although in Orange Walk and Corozal Districts, Spanish is the majority language (60%). Some communities in southern Belize mostly speak [[Garifuna]] and the Kekchi, Mopan, and Yucatan [[Maya languages]].
Despite the many languages (around eight different languages in all), the 2000 census also estimated that around 70% of all Belizeans were bilingual or even trilingual.
About 50% of the population is [[Roman Catholic]]; the [[Anglican Church]] and other [[Protestant]] Christian groups account for most of the remainder. About 5% belong to the [[German language|German]]-/[[Plattdüütsch]]-speaking [[Mennonite]] community. There are also some [[Jew]]s and [[Muslim]]s.
== Culture ==
[[Image:Belize.BzeCity.MemorialPark.01.jpg|thumb|Memorial Park, Belize City]]
[[Image:Belize.BzeCity.SwingBridge.01.jpg|thumb|The Swing Bridge, on Haulover Creek. Belize City]]
''Main article: [[Culture of Belize]]''
National Holidays include ''[[Baron Bliss]] Day'' on [[9 March]]; ''[[Commonwealth Day]]'' on the second Monday in March; ''[[Labour Day]]'' on [[1 May]]; ''The Battle of [[St. George's Caye]]'' on [[10 September]]; ''[[Independence Day]]'' on [[21 September]], ''[[Pan American]] Day'' on [[13 October]]; ''[[Garifuna]] Settlement Day'' on [[19 November]]; And ''[[Christmas]]'' on [[25 December]].
*[[List of Belizeans]]
*[[Music of Belize]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:Belize mayan ruins3.jpg|thumb|left|Mayan ruins in Belize]]
[[Image:Belize.AltunHa.Panorama.01.jpg|thumb|left|Altun Ha archaeological site, Belize.]]
*[[Communications in Belize]]
*[[Foreign relations of Belize]]
*[[Languages of Belize]]
*[[Maya ruins of Belize]]
*[[Military of Belize]]
*[[Plants and animals of Belize]]
*[[Ports of Belize]]
*[[Transport in Belize]]
''Material in some of these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
== Further reading ==
* ''Belize'' Carlos Ledson Miller ''(novel)''
* ''Belize: A Concise History'' P. A. B. Thomson
* ''Belize : Land of the Free By The Carib Sea'' Thor Janson
* ''Confederate Settlements in British Honduras'' Donald C., Jr. Simmons
* ''Fodor's Guide: Belize and Guatemala''
* ''Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of a New Nation of Belize'' William David Stetzekorn
* ''Insight Guide: Belize'' Huw Hennessy
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Belize'' Carolyn Miller Caelstrom and Debra Miller
* ''The Making of Belize'' Anne Sutherland
* ''Moon Handbooks: Belize'' Chicki Mallan and Joshua Berman
* ''Our Man in Belize: A Memoir'' Richard Timothy Conroy
* ''The Guatemalan Claim to Belize A Handbook on the Negotiations'' James S. Murphy
* ''The Rough Guide: Belize'' Peter Eltringham
* ''Time Among the Maya: Travels in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico'' Ronald Wright
* ''Thirteen Chapters of A History of Belize'' Assad Shoman
* ''Traveller's Wildlife Guide: Belize and Northern Guatemala'' Les Beletsky
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Belize}}
*[http://www.belizeweb.com/ Belize Web] - Official website of national communications company BTL, features news site links and many online radio stations
*[http://www.belize.gov.bz Government of Belize] - Official governmental site
*[http://www.travelbelize.org Belize Tourism Board] - Official Tourism site
*[http://www.belizenet.com Belize by Naturalight] - Belize Portal
*[http://www.belizeanjourneys.com Belizean Journeys] - Belize Online Magazine
*[http://www.belizeforum.com Belize Forums] - Community Forums on Belize
*[http://www.belize.net/ Belize.Net] - Belize Specific Search Engine
*[http://nature.org/wherewework/centralamerica/belize/ Conservation in Belize] - Nature Conservacy on Belize coral reef
*[http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1106472001&men=gmap&lng=en&gln=xx&dat=32&geo=-44&srt=npan&col=aohdq Map]
*[http://belize-guide.info/ Belize Travel Guide] - Extensive articles on Belize
*[http://www.guatemalabelize.com Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange news, project information, official country links, photos ]
See also the following districts of Belize:
*[[Belize District]]
*[[Cayo District]]
*[[Corozal District]]
*[[Orange Walk District]]
*[[Stann Creek District]]
*[[Toledo District]]
{{North_America}}
{{Central America}}
{{Caricom}}
[[Category:Belize| ]]
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Central American countries]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[an:Belize]]
[[ar:بليز]]
[[ast:Belice]]
[[bg:Белиз]]
[[bn:বেলিজ]]
[[bs:Beliz]]
[[ca:Belize]]
[[cs:Belize]]
[[da:Belize]]
[[de:Belize]]
[[eo:Belizo]]
[[es:Belice]]
[[et:Belize]]
[[eu:Belize]]
[[fi:Belize]]
[[fr:Belize]]
[[gl:Belice - Belize]]
[[he:בליז]]
[[hr:Belize]]
[[ht:Beliz]]
[[hu:Belize]]
[[id:Belize]]
[[io:Belize]]
[[is:Belís]]
[[it:Belize]]
[[ja:ベリーズ]]
[[ko:벨리즈]]
[[ks:बेलीज]]
[[lt:Belizas]]
[[lv:Beliza]]
[[ms:Belize]]
[[na:Belize]]
[[nds:Belize]]
[[nl:Belize (land)]]
[[nn:Belize]]
[[no:Belize]]
[[pl:Belize]]
[[pt:Belize]]
[[ro:Belize]]
[[ru:Белиз]]
[[sa:बेलीज]]
[[scn:Belizi]]
[[simple:Belize]]
[[sk:Belize]]
[[sl:Belize]]
[[sq:Beliza]]
[[sr:Белизе]]
[[sv:Belize]]
[[th:ประเทศเบลีซ]]
[[tl:Belize]]
[[tr:Belize]]
[[uk:Беліз]]
[[zh:伯利兹]]
[[zh-min-nan:Belize]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benin</title>
<id>3459</id>
<revision>
<id>41484399</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:52:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rory096</username>
<id>750223</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.57.104.6|204. |
shower", is used to describe the sudden occurrence of a rare event.
Some durian are sold "thornless". These fruits have the thorns sheared off when young rather than being naturally thornless. Some durians really do have almost no spines, i.e. less than 5mm high.
The 5 September 2005 [[Mandala Airlines Flight 091]] crash in Indonesia has been blamed on illegal overloading of cargo, reportedly caused by two tonnes of durian fruit brought aboard by the Sumatran governor and former governor. The fruits were intended as gifts to bring to Jakarta.<ref>http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0509/11/nas02.htm (Accessed Feb 25 2006)</ref>
== In popular culture ==
[[Image:The Esplanade 4, Singapore, Dec 05.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Singapore's [[Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay|Esplanade]] building: nicknamed "The Durian".]]
*The durian is known as the "king of the fruits". This label can be attributed to its formidable look and its overpowering odour. The mangosteen, called as the "queen of fruits", is petite and mild in comparison. The mangosteen season coincides with that of the durian and is seen as a complement, which is probably how it got its label.
*Wallace cited an enthusiastic long list of durian recipes in his book, which provoked a limerick sarcasm in ''Horticulture'', printed in 1973:
:''The durian — neither Wallace or Darwin agreed on it.</br>
:''Darwin said 'may your worst enemies be forced to feed on it.'</br>
:''Wallace cried 'it's delicious.'</br>
:''Darwin replied 'I'm suspicious,</br>
:''For the flavour is scented</br>
:''Like papaya fermented</br>
:''After a fruit-eating bat has pee'd on it.'''</br>
*The [[Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay|Esplanade]] building in Singapore is often called "The Durian", which it resembles in shape and texture.
*In a scene in the martial arts film ''The Canton Godfather'', starring [[Jackie Chan]], the [[protagonist]] defends himself using durians.
*The "beauty is in the eye of the beholder" aspect of durians is an important theme in [[Hong Kong]] director [[Fruit Chan]]'s 2000 film ''Durian Durian'' (榴槤飄飄, Liulian piao piao).
*In the film ''In the Mood for Love'' a character tells a quote that says "if a mainland Chinese in Singapore tries durians and likes them, he will never return to China."
*The Durian is one of seven kinds of fruit featuring in the gameplay of ''[[Super Mario Sunshine]]''.<ref>[http://guides.ign.com/guides/16713/page_3.html IGN Guides]. Retrieved 25 February 2006.</ref>
*One of the featured stunts in ''[[Fear Factor]]'' included eating durians.
*The manga and anime ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' features [[List_of_Frieza_Related_Characters_in_Dragon_Ball#Dodoria|Dodoria]], the villain whose name and spiky appearance are derived from the durian fruit.
*''[[Mawas]]'', the Malaysian version of Bigfoot, has been claimed to feast on durian, among other fruits.<ref>[http://www.hamiltonspectator.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=hamilton/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1140824435846&call_pageid=1020420665036&col=1112188062620 Stalking Bigfoot] [http://www.hamiltonspectator.com/pdfs/20060225/D18.pdf pdf version](Accessed 4 March 2006)</ref>
==Notes==
<references/>
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Brown, Michael J. | title=Durio &mdash; A Bibliographic Review | publisher=International Plant Genetic Resources Institute | year=1997 | id=92-9043-318-3}} [http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=654 Information] [http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/regions/apo/publications/durio/durio.htm All chapters] (PDF format)
*{{cite book | author=Davidson, Alan | title=The Oxford Companion to Food | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0192115790}}
*{{cite book | author=Huxley, A., ed. | title=New RHS Dictionary of Gardening | publisher=Macmillan | year=1992 | id=ISBN 1561590010}}
*{{cite book | author=Marinelli, Janet, ed. | title=Brooklyn Botanic Garden Gardener's Desk Reference | publisher=Henry Holt and Co. | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0805050957}}
*{{cite book | author=Morton, J. F. | title=Fruits of Warm Climates | publisher=Florida Flair Books | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0961018410}} [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html Full text] [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/durian_ars.html Durian chapter]
*Soepadmo, E. and Eow, B.K. (1977). ''The reproductive biology of Durian zibethinus''. Gdns'Bull. Singapore 29: 25-34. (12.1.68)
*{{cite book | author=Whitten, Tony | title=The Ecology of Sumatra | publisher=Periplus | year=2001 | id=ISBN 9625930744}}
==External links==
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?4046 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Durio'']
*[http://www.bbg.org/gar2/topics/kitchen/2002fa_durian.html Brooklyn Botanic Garden: Durian—The real Forbidden Fruit]
*[http://www.montosogardens.com/durio_zibethinus.htm Durio zibethinus (Bombacaceae)]
[[Category:Malvaceae]]
[[Category:Fruit]]
[[da:Durian]]
[[de:Durian]]
[[fr:Durion]]
[[id:Durian]]
[[ms:Durian]]
[[ja:ドリアン]]
[[nl:Doerian]]
[[pt:Durião]]
[[vi:Sầu riêng]]
[[fi:Durian]]
[[zh:榴槤]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DNA ligase</title>
<id>8697</id>
<revision>
<id>40203488</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:03:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smurrayinchester</username>
<id>390688</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Applications in molecular biology research */ - Change superscript O to °c</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Protbox header |Name=DNA ligase }}
{{Protbox codes
|Symbol=LIG1
|AltSymbols=
|Chromosome=19
|Locus=
|AApre=919
|AApro=---
|HGNCid=6598
|Codes={{EntrezGene|3978}}, {{RefSeq|NM_000234}}, {{UniProt|P18858}}, {{OMIM|126391}}
}}
{{Protbox codes
|Symbol=LIG3
|AltSymbols=
|Chromosome=17
|Locus=q11.2-q12
|AApre=922
|AApro=---
|HGNCid=6600
|Codes={{EntrezGene|3980}}, {{RefSeq|NM_002311}}, {{UniProt|P49916}}, {{OMIM|600940}}
}}
{{Protbox codes
|Symbol=LIG4
|AltSymbols=
|Chromosome=13
|Locus=q33-q34
|AApre=844
|AApro=---
|HGNCid=
|Codes={{EntrezGene|3981}}, {{RefSeq|NM_002312}}, {{UniProt|P49917}}, {{OMIM|601837}}
}}
{{Protbox finish}}
In [[molecular biology]], '''DNA ligase''' is a particular type of [[ligase]] ({{EC number|6.5.1.1}}) that can link together DNA strands that have double-strand breaks (a break in both complementary strands of DNA). The alternative, a single-strand break, is easily fixed by [[DNA polymerase]] using the [[Complementary_DNA|complementary strand]] as a [[template]] but still requires DNA ligase to create the final [[phosphodiester bond]] to fully repair the DNA.
DNA ligase has applications in both [[DNA repair]] and [[DNA replication]] (see [[DNA ligase#Mammalian ligases|''Mammalian ligases'']]). In addition, DNA ligase has extensive use in molecular biology laboratories for [[recombination]] experiments (see [[DNA ligase#Applications in molecular biology research|''Applications in molecular biology research'']]).
==Ligase mechanism==
The mechanism of DNA ligase in connecting broken DNA strands is to form [[covalent]] [[phosphodiester bonds]] between [[3' end|3' hydroxyl ends]] of one [[nucleotide]] with the [[5' end|5' phosphate end]] of another.
A pictorial example of how a ligase works (with [[sticky end]]s):
[[image:DNA before ligase.PNG]]
becomes
[[image:DNA after ligase.PNG]]
Ligase will also work with [[blunt end]]s, although higher enzyme concentrations and different reaction conditions are required.
==Mammalian ligases==
In mammals, there are four specific types of ligase.
*DNA ligase I: ligates Okazaki fragments during [[lagging strand]] [[DNA replication]] and some [[recombinant]] fragments.
*DNA ligase II: alternatively [[splice|spliced]] form of DNA ligase III found in non-dividing cells.
*DNA ligase III: [[protein complex|complexes]] with [[DNA repair]] [[protein]] [[XRCC1]] to aid in sealing [[DNA_repair|base excision]] [[mutations]] and recombinant fragments.
*DNA ligase IV: complexes with DNA protein [[XRCC4]] and has similar function to DNA ligase III. It is more important in [[developmental biology|development]].
==Applications in molecular biology research==
DNA ligases have become an indispensable tool in modern molecular biology research for generating [[recombinant]] DNA sequences. For example, it is possible mix [[restriction enzyme|cut]] [[plasmid]]s (with sticky ends), free-floating [[genes]] (with complementary sticky ends), and [[ligase]] to insert the gene into the plasmid.
One vital, and often tricky, aspect to performing successful recombination experiments involving ligase is controlling the optimal temperature. Most experiments use T4 DNA Ligase (isolated from T4 [[bacteriophage]]) which is most active at 25°c. However in order to perform successful ligations, the optimal enzyme temperature needs to be balanced with the [[melting temperature]] T<sub>m</sub> (also the [[annealing temperature]]) of the DNA fragments being ligated. If the ambient temperature exceeds T<sub>m</sub>, [[Homologous_chromosome|homologous pairing]] of the sticky ends will not occur because the high temperature disrupts [[hydrogen bonding]]. The shorter the DNA fragments, the lower the T<sub>m</sub>. Thus for extremely short fragments on the order of tens of [[base pairs]], ligation experiments are performed at very low temperatures (~4°c) for a long period of time (often overnight).
The common commercially available DNA ligases were originally discovered in bacteriophage T4, ''[[E. coli]]'' or other [[bacteria]].
==External links==
*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb55_1.html DNA Ligase: PDB molecule of the month]
*[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/Molbio/MolStudents/spring2003/ |
.255.105.150</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The first [[statistics|statistician]] to consider a methodology for the '''design of experiments''' was [[Ronald Fisher|Sir Ronald A. Fisher]]. He described how to test the [[hypothesis]] that a certain lady could distinguish by flavor alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. While this sounds like a frivolous application, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design:
* [[Randomization]]
* [[Replication]]
* [[Blocking (statistics)|Blocking]]
* [[Orthogonality]]
* use of [[factorial experiment]]s instead of the [[one-factor-at-a-time method]]
Analysis of the design of [[experiment]]s was built on the foundation of the [[analysis of variance]], a collection of models in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated and/or tested.
In 1950, [[Gertrude Mary Cox]] and [[William Cochran]] published the book ''Experimental Design'' which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards.
Developments of the theory of [[linear model]]s have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in [[abstract algebra]] and [[combinatorics]].
As with all other branches of statistics, there is both classical and [[Bayesian experimental design]].
==See also==
* [[planning statistical research]]
* [[survey sampling]]
* [[independent variable]]
* [[dependent variable]]
* [[randomized controlled trial]]
* [[statistics]]
* [[statistical theory]]
==External links==
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Fisher.html Biography of R. A. Fisher]
*[http://www.umetrics.com/default.asp/pagename/methods_DOE_intro/c/1 Description of how to design experiments]
*A [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pri/section1/pri1.htm chapter] from a [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/ handbook on engineering statistics] at [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]
[[Category:Experimental design]]
[[category:Social sciences methodology]]
[[de:Statistische_Versuchsplanung]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU Emacs</title>
<id>9542</id>
<revision>
<id>41100765</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T01:21:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Where</username>
<id>722151</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software2
|logo = [[Image:Emacs_logo.png|24px|Emacs logo]]
|name = GNU Emacs
|screenshot =[[Image:emacs.png|200px|]]
|caption = The GNU Emacs interface, running in a graphical environment.
|developer = [[GNU Project]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Text editor]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/ www.gnu.org/software/emacs/]
}}
'''GNU Emacs''' is one of the two most popular versions of [[Emacs]] (see also [[XEmacs]]). The GNU Emacs manual describes it as "the extensible, customizable, self-documenting, real-time display editor."
Since so much of the user interface of GNU Emacs and XEmacs is the same, a combined introduction is available in [[Emacs]].
==Distribution==
GNU Emacs is [[free software]], distributed under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License|GNU GPL]].
The source code and binaries are available via [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] from the GNU project website (see below). They are also widely available from other sites on the [[Internet]]. Vendors of [[Unix]] systems, both free and proprietary, frequently provide Emacs bundled with the [[operating system]].
GNU Emacs runs on a large number of platforms, including [[Linux|GNU/Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], most other variants of [[Unix]], [[Mac OS 8]]/[[Mac OS 9|OS 9]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Microsoft Windows]].
==Development==
GNU Emacs is part of the [[GNU|GNU project]], and is under active development. Several, but not all, of the developers are affiliated with the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF).
[[As of 2004]], the latest release of GNU Emacs is version 21.4. Development takes place in a single CVS trunk, which is at version 22.0.50. The current maintainer is [[Richard Stallman]].
Until [[1999]], GNU Emacs development was relatively closed, to the point where it was used as an example of the "Cathedral" development style in ''[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]''. The project has since adopted a public development mailing list and anonymous [[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] access. As with all GNU projects, it remains policy to accept significant code contributions only if the [[copyright]] holder assigns the code's copyright to the FSF, although one exception was made to this policy for the MULE (MULtilingual Extension) code [http://mail.gnu.org/archive/html/bug-gnu-emacs/2000-09/msg00065.html] since the copyright holder is the Japanese government and copyright assignment was not possible. This does not apply to extremely minor code contributions or bug fixes. There is no strict definition of minor, but as a guideline less than 10 lines of code is considered minor. This policy is intended to facilitate [[copyleft]] enforcement, so that the FSF can defend the software in a court case if one arises. This requirement by the GNU Emacs maintainers is assumed to affect contributions. Some people claim that it even affects performance, e g the inability of GNU Emacs to handle large files in an efficient manner could be blamed on the mentioned requirement repelling any serious developer. However, according to Stallman, it is more important for the program to be "free" than good in any other aspect. Enforcement provides legal confidence in the GNU Emacs [[free software license]]—the [[GNU General Public License]]—and in the free software itself—an intellectual work with many copyrights and contributors.
==References==
*Stallman, Richard M. (2002). ''GNU Emacs Manual''. 15th edition Boston, Massachusetts: Free Software Foundation. ISBN 1-882114-85-X.
*Cameron, Debra; Elliott, James; Loy, Marc. (December 2004). ''Learning GNU Emacs'', 3rd edition. O'Reilly & Associates. ISBN 0596006489.
*Glickstein, Bob. (April 1997). ''Writing GNU Emacs Extensions''. O'Reilly & Associates. ISBN 1-56592-261-1.
==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs.html The GNU Emacs homepage] including
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/ ''GNU Emacs Manual''. 15th ed. (Emacs 21.3). GNU Press, 2002] &ndash; Online version ([[HTML]] from [[texinfo]]), published under the [[GNU Free Documentation Licence|GFDL]]
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-lisp-intro/ ''An Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp'']. 2nd ed. By R. Chassell
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-faq.text GNU Emacs FAQ]
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/windows/ntemacs.html GNU Emacs FAQ For Windows 95/98/ME/NT/XP and 2000]
*[http://www.emacswiki.org/ EmacsWiki] &ndash; community site dedicated to documenting and discussing Emacs and XEmacs
[[Category:Linux text editors]]
[[Category:Mac OS text editors]]
[[Category:OpenVMS text editors]]
[[Category:Windows text editors]]
[[Category:File comparison tools]]
[[Category:Free text editors]]
[[Category:GNU project software|Emacs]]
[[Category:Emacs]]
[[Category:Integrated development environments]]
[[cs:Emacs]]
[[de:Emacs]]
[[es:Emacs]]
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[[fr:GNU Emacs]]
[[he:Emacs]]
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[[ko:Emacs]]
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[[pl:Emacs]]
[[pt:Emacs]]
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[[sv:GNU Emacs]]
[[zh:Emacs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expectation operator</title>
<id>9543</id>
<revision>
<id>15907421</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-10T08:10:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expected value]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Estimating parameters</title>
<id>9544</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-01-09T00:58:15Z</timestamp>
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<username>MarkSweep</username>
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<comment>rdr to [[estimation theory]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[estimation theory]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Empirical research</title>
<id>9545</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-13T09:36:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.92.214.230|84.92.214.230]] ([[User talk:84.92.214.230|talk]]) to last version by Karol Langner</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Empirical research''' is any activity that uses direct or indirect [[observation]] as its test of [[reality]]. If atheoretical, it is a form of [[inductive reasoning]]. It may also be conducted according to [[Hypothetico deductive model|hypothetico-deductive]] procedures, such as those developed from the work of [[Ronald Fisher|R. A. Fisher]].
The ''empirical researcher'' attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument (which may be as simple as the human eye) and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects.
In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned [[research design]]s for the collection of empirical data. Several [[typography|typographies]] for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley (1963). They are responsible |
ped that the importance of the cotton trade to Europe (the idea of [[cotton diplomacy]]) and shortages caused by the war, along with early military victories, would enable them to gather increasing European support and force a turn away from neutrality.
President Lincoln's decision to announce a [[Union blockade|blockade of the Confederacy]], a clear act of war, enabled Britain, followed by other European powers, to announce their neutrality in the dispute. This enabled the Confederacy to begin to attempt to gain support and funds in Europe. President Jefferson Davis had picked [[Robert Toombs]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] as his first Secretary of State. Toombs, having little knowledge in foreign affairs, was replaced several months later by [[Robert M. T. Hunter]] of [[Virginia]], another choice with little suitability. Ultimately, on [[March 17]], [[1862]], Davis selected [[Judah P. Benjamin]] of [[Louisiana]] as Secretary of State, who although having more international knowledge and legal experience with international slavery disputes still failed in the end to create a dynamic foreign policy for the Confederacy.
The first attempts to achieve European recognition of the Confederacy were dispatched on [[February 25]], [[1861]] and led by [[William Lowndes Yancey]], [[Pierre A. Rost]], and [[Ambrose Dudley Mann]]. The British foreign minister [[Lord John Russell]] met with them, and the French foreign minister [[Edouard Thouvenel]] received the group unofficially. However, at this point, the two countries had agreed to coordinate and cooperate and would not make any rash moves.
[[Charles Francis Adams]] proved particularly adept as ambassador to Britain for the Union, and Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the Union's blockade. The Confederacy also attempted to initiate propaganda in Europe through journalists [[Henry Hotze]] and [[Edwin De Leon]] in [[Paris]] and [[London]]. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain. A significant challenge in Anglo-Union relations was also created by the [[Trent Affair]], involving the Union boarding of a British mail steamer to seize [[James M. Mason]] and [[John Slidell]], Confederate diplomats sent to Europe. However, the Union was able to smooth over the problem to some degree.
As the war continued, in late 1862, the British considered initiating an attempt to mediate the conflict. However, the Union victory in the [[Battle of Antietam]] caused them to delay this decision. Additionally, the issuing of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] further reinforced the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. As the war continued, the Confederacy's chances with Britain grew more hopeless, and they focused increasingly on France. [[Napoléon III]] proposed to offer mediation in January 1863, but this was dismissed by Seward. Despite some sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own [[French intervention in Mexico|concerns in Mexico]] ultimately deterred them from substantially antagonizing the Union. As the Confederacy's situation grew more and more tenuous and their pleas increasingly ignored, President Davis sent [[Duncan F. Kenner]] to Europe, in November 1864, to test whether a promised Confederate emancipation of its slaves could lead to possible recognition. The proposal was strictly rejected by both Britain and France.
==Aftermath==
{{main|Reconstruction}}
[[Image:Peace_Monument_Chattanooga.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Peace Monument'' at [[Lookout Mountain]], [[Tennessee]] depicts a Union and Confederate soldier shaking hands.]]
Northern leaders agreed that the war would be over when Confederate nationalism was dead, and slavery was dead. They disagreed sharply on how to identify these goals. They also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South.
The fighting ended with the surrender of all the Confederate forces. There was no significant guerrilla warfare. Many senior Confederate leaders escaped to Europe, but Davis was captured and imprisoned, but never brought to trial. The question became how much the Union could trust the ex-Confederates to be truly loyal to the United States. The second main question in Reconstruction dealt with the destruction of slavery. The XIII Amendment (1865) officially abolished it legally, but the issue was whether [[black codes]] indicated a sort of semi-slavery, and whether Freedmen should have the vote to protect those rights.
In 1867 Radicals in Congress pushed aside President Johnson and imposed new rules. Freedmen gained the right to vote and formed Republican political coalitions that took control of each state for varying periods. One by one the white conservatives or "[[Redeemers]]" gained back control of their states, often through lethal force. The final three were redeemed by the [[Compromise of 1877]]. After that the hatreds between North and South rapidly diminished until by 1900 the nation was no longer divided by the war, though it did remain divided by race.
Ghosts of the conflict still persist in America. For decades after the war, Northern politicians "waved the bloody shirt," bringing up memories of the Civil War as an electoral tactic, while the "solid South" as a block in national politics was built on memories of the war and a determination to maintain segregation. The [[Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1960s had its [[neoabolitionist]] roots in the failure of Reconstruction. A few debates surrounding the legacy of the war continue, especially regarding memorials and celebrations of Confederate heroes and [[Flags of the Confederate States of America#Controversy|battle flags]]. The question is a deep and troubling one: Americans with Confederate ancestors cherish the memory of their bravery and determination, yet their cause remains one ultimately tied to the shameful history of African American slavery.
==Further reading==
===Overviews===
* Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1986) analysis of factors
* [[Bruce Catton|Catton, Bruce]], ''The Civil War'', American Heritage, 1960, ISBN 0-8281-0305-4, illustrated narrative
* Donald, David ed. ''Why the North Won the Civil War'' (1977) (ISBN: 0020316607), short interpretive essays
* Donald, David et al. ''The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (latest edition 2001); 700 page survey
* Eicher, David J., ''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War'', Simon & Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84944-5.
* Fellman, Michael et al. ''This Terible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath'' (2003), 400 page survey
* Esposito, Vincent J. [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20civil%20war/american%20civil%20war%20index.htm ''West Point Atlas of American Wars'' (1959)], these maps are online
* [[Shelby Foote | Foote, Shelby]]. ''[[The Civil War: A Narrative]]'' (3 volumes), Random House, 1974, ISBN 0-394-74913-8. Highly detailed narrative covering all fronts
* [[James M. McPherson | McPherson, James M.]] ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988), survey; Pulitzer prize
* Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" ''Civil War History'', Vol. 50, 2004 pp 434+ in JSTOR
* [[Allan Nevins | Nevins, Allan]]. ''[[Ordeal of the Union]]'', an 8-volume set (1947-1971). the most detailed narrative
** 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847-1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852-1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857-1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859-1861; 5. The Improvised War, 1861-1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862-1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863-1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864-1865
* Rhodes, James Ford. [http://www.bartleby.com/252/ ''History of the Civil War, 1861-1865 (1918)], Pulitzer Prize; a short version of his 5-volume history
* Ward, Geoffrey C. ''The Civil War'' (Alfred Knopf, 1990), based on PBS series by [[Ken Burns]]; visual emphasis
* Weigley, Russell Frank. ''A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861-1865'' (2004); primarily military
===Reference books and bibliographies===
* Blair, Jayne E. ''The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies And Commanders'' (2006)
* Carter, Alice E. and Richard Jensen. ''The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites-'' 2nd ed. (2003)
* Current, Richard N., et al eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Confederacy'' (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version) (ISBN: 0132759918)
* Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) ''Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War'' (1986) (ISBN: 0061812617) 2000 short entries
* Eicher, David J., ''The Civil War in Books: An Analytical Bibliography'', University of Illinois, 1997, ISBN 0-252-02273-4
* Heidler, David Stephen. ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions
* Wagner, Margaret E. Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds. ''The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference'' (2002)
* Woodworth, Steven E. ed. ''American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research'' (1996) (ISBN: 0313290199), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography
===Biographies===
* Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
* [[Douglas S. Freeman|Freeman, Douglas S.]], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html ''R. E. Lee, A Biography''] (4 volumes), Scribners, 1934
* Freeman, Douglas S., ''Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command'' (3 volumes), Scribners, 1946, ISBN 0-684-85979-3
* [[Jean Edward Smith | Smith, Jean Edward]], ''Grant'', Simon and Shuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84927-5
* Warner, Ezra J., ''Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders'', Louisiana State University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8071-0882-7
* Warner, Ezra J., ''Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate C |
ividually; rather, Parliament must either accept or reject the whole Commission ''en bloc''.
The European Parliament exerts a function of democratic supervision over all of the EU's activities, particularly those of the Commission. In the event that Parliament adopts a motion of censure, the entire Commission must resign (formally, Commissioners cannot be censored individually). However, a motion of censure must be approved by at least a two-thirds majority in order to have effect.
Parliament also appoints the [[European Ombudsman]].
Under the proposed new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|Constitution for Europe]], Parliament's powers would be enhanced, with almost all policy areas coming under co-decision, greater powers of democratic scrutiny for Parliament, and control over the whole EU budget.
==Location==
[[Image:European_Parliament_Strasbourg.jpg|thumb|right|225px|The European Parliament tower in Strasbourg]]
Although Brussels is generally treated as the 'capital' of the European Union, and the two institutions of the EU's executive, the [[European Commission]] and the [[Council of Ministers]], both have their seats there, a protocol attached to the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]] requires that the European Parliament have monthly sessions in [[Strasbourg]]. Thus the European Parliament is sometimes informally referred to as the 'Strasbourg Parliament' and Strasbourg as the democratic (opposed to bureaucratic) capital of Europe. For practical reasons, however, preparatory legislative work and committee meetings take place in Brussels. Moreover, the European Parliament´s [[Secretariat of the European Parliament|secretariat]] (administration), which employs the majority of its staff, is located in [[Luxembourg]], which itself used to host plenary sessions of the parliament.
Parliament only spends four days of each month in Strasbourg in order to take its final, plenary votes. Additional plenary meetings are held in Brussels. On several occasions, the European Parliament has expressed a wish to be granted the right to choose for itself the location of its seat, and eliminate the two-seat system, but in the successive treaties, European governments have continued to reserve this right for themselves. While they did abandon the third seat of Parliament, Luxembourg, two decades ago, the rival demands of Belgium and France to base parliament in their state (Brussels is in the former, Strasbourg in the latter) has prevented a final agreement as to which city would become the sole seat of parliament.
== Organisation ==
The European Parliament has a number of governing bodies and committees, and a number of delegations from external bodies.
The main offices and governing bodies are:
*[[President of the European Parliament|President]] - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-019+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y duties]
*Vice-Presidents - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-020+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y duties]
*Bureau - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-022+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y duties]
*Conference of Presidents - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-024+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y duties]
*[[Quaestor (European Parliament)|Quaestors]] - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-025+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y duties]
*Conference of Committee Chairmen - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-026+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y description]
*Conference of Delegation Chairmen - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-027+DOC+XML+V0//EN&HNAV=Y description]
===List of committees ===
'''Internal affairs'''
* BUDG - [[Committee on Budgets]]
* CONT - [[Committee on Budgetary Control]]
* ECON - [[Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]]
* EMPL - [[Committee on Employment and Social Affairs]]
* ENVI - [[Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety]]
* ITRE - [[Committee on Industry, Research and Energy]]
* IMCO - [[Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection]]
* TRAN - [[Committee on Transport and Tourism]]
* REGI - [[Committee on Regional Development]]
* AGRI - [[Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development]]
* PECH - [[Committee on Fisheries]]
* CULT - [[Committee on Culture and Education]]
* JURI - [[Committee on Legal Affairs]]
* LIBE - [[Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs]]
* AFCO - [[Committee on Constitutional Affairs]]
* FEMM - [[Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality]]
* PETI - [[Committee on Petitions]]
'''External affairs'''
* AFET - [[Committee on Foreign Affairs]]
** DROI - [[Subcommittee on Human Rights]]
** SEDE - [[Subcommittee on Security and Defence]]
* DEVE - [[Committee on Development]]
* INTA - [[Committee on International Trade]]
==Political groups and parties==
{{main|European Parliament party group}}
[[Image:European_Parliament_6th_term.png|frame|right|The EP groups as of October 8, 2005]]
The political parties in the European Parliament are organised into a number of political groupings as well as a number of registered European political parties. However most continue to be members of separate national political parties and discipline within European parties and groupings is not rigid. The makeup of the parliament's groups is fluid, and both national delegations and individual MEPs are free to switch allegiances as they see fit.
European Parliament party groups are distinct from the corresponding [[European political party|European political parties]], although they are intimately linked. Usually, the European parties also have member parties from European countries which are not members of the European Union. At the start of Parliament's sixth term in 2004 there were seven groups, as well as a number of non-aligned members, known as ''[[non-inscrits]]''. As of [[October 8]], [[2005]] the composition of the European Parliament was:
{{European Parliament standings}}
[[Image:Ep1979-2004.GIF|thumb|left|European Parliament seats by political groups, from 1979 to 2004]]
There has been controversy over the proposed [[European Political Parties Directive]], which seeks to provide state funding for Europe-wide political parties. This has been seen by some as an attempt to put Eurosceptic parties (which would not meet the funding criteria) at a huge financial disadvantage [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#whycourt]. 25 [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]] petitioned the [[European Court of Justice]], arguing that this directive contravened the EU's stated values of pluralism and democracy. However, the case was rejected after eighteen months [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#pan-european].
== History ==
[[Image:EuropeanParliamentEntrance Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Entrance to the European Parliament in Brussels]]
The [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC) established a 'Common Assembly' in September, [[1952]], its 78 members drawn from the six national Parliaments of the ECSC's constituent nations. This was expanded in March [[1958]] to also cover the [[European Economic Community]] and [[Euratom]], and the name ''European Parliamentary Assembly'' was adopted. The body was renamed to the ''European Parliament'' in [[1962]]. In [[1979]] the parliament's membership was expanded again and its members began to be directly elected for the first time. Thereafter the membership of the European Parliament has simply expanded whenever new nations have joined; the membership was adjusted upwards in [[1994]] after [[German reunification]]. Recent treaties, including the [[Treaty of Nice]] and the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], set a cap on membership at 750.
:''See also: [[Growth in membership of the European Parliament]]''
==Footnotes==
#These requirements were imposed by Council Decision 2002/772/EC, which is binding on all member states.
==See also==
*[[Members of the European Parliament 2004-2009]]
*[[Apportionment in the European Parliament]]
*[[Growth in membership of the European Parliament]]
*[[Eurocracy]] board game
*[[MECP|Model European Parliament]]
*[[Mundialization]]
*[[World citizen]]
*[[Sakharov Prize]]
==External links==
*[http://www.europarl.eu.int/news/public/default_en.htm Official web site]
*[http://www.corbett-euro.demon.co.uk/job_parl.htm Detailed description of the Parliament's role, written by an MEP specialising in constitutional affairs]
*[http://www.europarl.ie/ European Parliament Office in Ireland]
*[http://www.europarl.org.uk UK Office of the European Parliament]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/europe/04/eu_parliament_guide/html/introduction.stm BBC News: European Parliament guide]
* [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T1.htm DEsite]: [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T13.htm Info page of the European Parliament]
*[http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?SAME_LEVEL=1&LEVEL=2&NAV=X&DETAIL=&PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+TOC+DOC+XML+V0//EN Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament]
*[http://www.euabc.com A glossary of European Union terms]
{{EU_politics}}
{{EuroparlCommittees}}
[[Category:European Parliament|*]]
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[[ca:Parlament Europeu]]
[[cs:Evropský parlament]]
[[cy:Y Senedd Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Europa-Parlamentet]]
[[de:Europäisches Parlament]]
[[et:Euroopa Parlament]]
[[es:Parlamento Europeo]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Parlamento]]
[[fr:Parlement européen]]
[[ko:유럽 의회]]
[[ia:Parlamento Europee]]
[[is:Evrópuþingið]]
[[it:Parlamento europeo]]
[[he:הפרלמנט האירופי]]
[[ka:ევროპის პარლამენტი]]
[[kw:Eurosenedh]]
[[lt:Europos Parlamentas]]
[[lb:Europäescht Parlament]]
[[hu:Európai Parlament]]
[[nl:Europees Parlement]]
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[[no:Eur |
who fled without weapons or armour.
Charles had watched the Iberian situation since Toulouse, convinced the Muslims would return, and while he was securing his own realms, he was also preparing for war against the [[Umayyad]]s. It is vital to note that Charles had used an extremely &mdash; for the time &mdash; controversial method of maintaining a standing army, one he could train as a core of veterans to add to the usual conscripts the Franks called up in time of war. During the [[Dark Ages]], troops were only available after the crops had been planted, and before harvesting time. Charles believed he needed a standing army, one he could train, to counter the Muslim heavy cavalry, of which, at the time, he had none. To train the kind of infantry which could withstand heavy cavalry, Charles needed them yearround, and he needed to pay them, so their families could buy the food they would have otherwise grown. To obtain this money, he seized church lands and property, and used the funds to pay his soldiers. The same Charles who had secured the support of the ''ecclesia'' by donating land, seized some of it back between 724 and 732. The Church was enraged, and, for a time, it looked as though Charles might even be excommunicated for his actions. But then came a significant invasions . . .
===Eve of Tours===
It has been noted that Charles Martel could have pursued the wars against the Saxons - but he was determined to prepare for what he thought was a greater danger. Instead of concentrating on conquest to his east, he prepared for the storm gathering in the west. Well aware of the danger posed by the [[Muslim]]s after the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)|Battle of Toulouse]], in [[721]], it has been explained that he used the intervening years to consolidate his power, and gather and train a veteran army that would stand ready to defend [[Christianity]] itself (at [[Tours]]). Moreever, after his victory at [[Tours]], Martel continued on in campaigns in [[736]]-[[737]] to drive other Muslim armies from bases in [[Gaul]] after they again attempted to get a foothold in [[Europe]] beyond [[al-Andalus]]. [[Edward Gibbon]] calles Martel "the paramount prince of his age".
It is also vital to note that the Muslims were not aware, at that time, of the true strength of the Franks. They considered the Germanic tribes, of which the Franks were part, simply barbarians, and were not particularly concerned about them. (the Arab Chronicles, the history of that age, show that awareness of the Franks as a growing military power only came after the Battle of Tours when the Caliph expressed shock at his army's disastrous defeat) Thus, when they launched their great invasion of 732, they were not prepared to confront Charles Martel and his Frankish army. This, in retrospect, was a disastrous mistake. Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi was a good general and should have done two things he utterly failed to do. He assumed that the Franks would not come to the aid of their Aquitanian cousins, and thus failed to assess their strength in advance of invasion. He also failed to scout the movements of the Frankish army. Having done either, he would have curtailed his lighthorse ravaging throughout lower Gaul, and marched at once with his full power against the Franks. This would not have allowed Charles Martel to pick the time and place the two powers would collide, which all historians agree was pivotal to his victory.
==Battle of Tours==
:''Main article [[Battle of Tours]]''.
===Leadup and importance===
The [[Cordoba]]n [[emirate]] had previously invaded [[Gaul]] and had been stopped in its northward sweep at the Battle of Toulouse, in 721. The hero of that less celebrated event had been Odo the Great, Duke of Aquitane, who was not the progenitor of a race of kings and patron of chroniclers. It has previously been explained how Odo defeated the invading Muslims, but when they returned, things were far different. In the interim, the arrival of a new [[emir of Cordoba]], [[Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi]], who brought with him a huge force of Arabs and [[Berber]] horsemen, triggered a far greater invasion. This time the Muslim horsemen were ready for battle, and the results were horrific for the Aquintanians. Odo, hero of Toulouse, was badly defeated in the Muslim invasion of [[732]] at the [[Battle of the River Garonne]]&mdash;where the western chroniclers state, "God alone knows the number of the slain"&mdash;and fled to Charles, seeking help. Thus, Odo faded into history, and Charles marched into it.
The [[Battle of Tours]] earned Charles the [[cognomen]] "Martel", for the merciless way he hammered his enemies. Many historians, including the great military historian [[Edward Shepherd Creasy|Sir Edward Creasy]], believe that had he failed at Tours, [[Islam]] would probably have overrun [[Gaul]], and perhaps the remainder of Christian [[Europe]]. Other reputable historians that echo Creasy's belief that this battle was central to the halt of Islamic expansion into Europe include William Watson, and Edward Gibbon believed the fate of [[Christianity]] hinged on this battle. This opinion was very popular for most of modern historiography, but it fell somewhat out of style in the [[twentieth century]]. Some historians, such as Bernard Lewis, claimed that Arabs had little intention of occupying northern France. This opinion has once more fallen out of style and the Battle of Tours is usually considered by historian's today as a very significant event in the history of Europe and Christianity.
In the modern era, Norwich, the foremost authority on the [[Byzantine Empire]], says the Franks halting Muslim Expansion at Tours literally preserved Christianity as we know it. A more realistic viewpoint may be found in ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels'' by Antonio Santosuosso, Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario, and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute in this article. It was published in 2004, and has quite an interesting modern expert opinion on Charles Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's successor in 736-737. Santosuosso makes a compelling case that these defeats of invading Muslim Armies, were at least as important as Tours in their defense of western Christianity, and the preservation of those Christian monasteries and centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of the dark ages. He also makes a compelling case that while Tours was unquestionably of macrohistorical importance, the later battles were at least equally so. Both invading forces defeated in those campaigns had come to set up permanent outposts for expansion, and there can be no doubt that these three defeats combined broke the back of European expansion by Islam while the Caliphate was still united. While some modern assessments of the battle's impact have backed away from the extreme of Gibbon's position, Gibbons's conjecture is supported by other historians such as Edward Shepard Creasy and William E. Watson. Most modern historians such as Norwich and Santosuosso generally support the concept of Tours as a macrohistorical event favoring western civilization and Christianity . Military writers such as Robert W. Martin, "''The Battle of Tours is still felt today"'', also argue that Tours was such a turning point in favor of western civilization and Christianity that its aftereffect remains to this day. This is the majority view of the battle as it is viewed today.
===Battle===
The Battle of Tours probably took place somewhere between Tours and [[Poitiers]] (hence its other name: Battle of Poitiers). The Frankish army, under Charles Martel, consisted mostly of veteran [[infantry]], somewhere between 15,000 and 75,000 men. Responding to the Muslim invasion, the Franks had avoided the old Roman roads, hoping to take the invaders by surprise. Martel believed it was absolutely essential that he not only take the Muslims by surprise, but that he be allowed to select the ground on which the battle would be fought, ideally a high, wooded, plain where the Islamic horsemen, already tired from carrying armour, would be further exhausted charging uphill. Further, the woods would aid the Franks in their defensive square by partially impeding the ability of the Muslim horesmen from making a clear charge.
From the Muslim accounts of the battle, they were indeed taken by surprise to find a large force opposing their expected sack of Tours, and they waited for six days, scouting the enemy. They did not like charging uphill, against an unknown number of foe, who seemed well disciplined and well disposed for battle. But the weather was also a factor. The Germanic Franks, in their wolf and bear pelts, were more used the cold, better dressed for it, and despite not having tents, which the Muslims did, were prepared to wait as long as needed, the fall only growing colder.
On the seventh day, the Muslim army, consisting of between 60,000 and 400,000 horsemen and led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, attacked. During the battle, the Franks defeated the Islamic army and the emir was killed. While Western accounts are sketchy, Arab accounts are fairly detailed in describing how the Franks formed a large square and fought a brilliant defensive battle. Rahman had doubts before the battle that his men were ready for such a struggle, and should have had them abandon the loot which hindered them, but instead decided to trust his horsemen, who had never failed him. Indeed, it was thought impossible for infantry of that age to withstand armoured mounted warriors. Martel managed to inspire his men to stand firm against a force which must have seemed invincible to them, huge mailed horsemen, who in addition probably badly outnumbered the Franks. In one of the rare instances where medieval infantry stood up against cavalry charges, the disciplined Fran |
Russian and East German components.
The machine differed from a CPC visually with a different style of case, external power supply and (optional and even more scarce than the main device) external 5.25" 'Robotron' disc drive. Unlike the Amstrad models it could be used with a television screen out of the box. It ran BASIC 1.1 and a CP/M 2.6 clone, the German speaking MicroDOS. It had 64K RAM built in and an additional 64K RAM was provided with the external disc/tape drive adapter.
The Z80 processor was replaced with a U 880 (which is 100% bug-compatible), and some proprietary Amstrad I/O chips replaced with clones based on the Z8536. This clone machine was around 95% compatible with the original.
===The CPC 5512===
The "CPC 5512" was a non-functional [[hoax|fake]] concocted by a French magazine; the specifications included 512K RAM, a 5.25" floppy disk drive, and GEM on a CPC 6128 clone.
===PLUS models===
In 1990 Amstrad introduced the "Plus" series which tweaked the hardware in many ways and added a [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]] slot to all models. Most improvements were to the video display which saw an increase in palette to 4096 colours and gained a capacity for [[Sprite (computer graphics)|hardware sprites]]. Splitting the display into two separate windows and [[pixel]] scrolling both became full supported hardware features although both were possible on the non-"Plus" hardware using clever programming of the existing [[Motorola 6845]].
An automatic DMA transfer system for feeding the sound chip was also added but the sound chip itself remained unchanged. Additionally, the BASIC command set for disc access was improved.
A cut down CPC+ without the keyboard nor support for non-cartridge media was released simultaneously as the [[Amstrad_GX4000|'''GX4000''']] [[video game console]].
These models did not do very well in the marketplace, failing to attract any substantial third party support. The 8-bit technology behind the CPC was starting to look a little out of date by 1990 and users resented the substantial price hike for cartridge games compared to their tape and disc counterparts.
==Hardware description==
All CPC models were based on a [[Zilog Z80]] processor clocked at 4 MHz. Because a common pool of RAM is shared with the video circuits, the Z80 may only make a memory accesses every four cycles - which has the effect of rounding all instruction cycle lengths up to the next multiple of four.
The system came with 64 KB or 128 KB of RAM depending on the model (capable of being expanded to 512k). The machines also featured a standard 9-pin [[Atari]]-style [[joystick]] socket which was able to take two joysticks via a splitter.
===Video (graphics): modes, outputs===
Underlying the CPCs video output was the [[Motorola 6845]] address generator. This chip was connected to a pixel generator that supported 4 bpp, 2 bpp and 1 bpp output (bpp = [[color depth|bits per pixel]]). The address generator was clocked at a constant rate so the 4 bpp display generated half as many pixels as the 2 bpp and a quarter as many as the 1 bpp.
The [[Read-only memory|ROM]] featured three built-in display resolutions but many others could be achieved by reprogramming the 6845.
The standard video modes were:
*'''Mode 0''': '''160×200''' pixels with 16 colors (4 [[color depth|bpp]])
*'''Mode 1''': '''320×200''' pixels with 4 colors (2 bpp)
*'''Mode 2''': '''640×200''' pixels with 2 colors (1 bpp)
A colour [[palette]] of 27 colors was supported, derived from [[RGB]] colour space with each component assigned as either off, half on or on. The later '''Plus''' models extended this to 4096 colours and added support for hardware sprites.
This hardware compares well with the other 8-bit computers. In particular the CPC lacks the colour clash of the ZX Spectrum and clever programming of the 6845 could produce [[overscan]], different resolutions (although with the same pixel density) and smooth pixel scrolling.
The machine lacked either an [[RF modulator|RF TV]] or [[composite video]] output and instead shipped with a proprietary 5-pin [[DIN connector]] intended for use solely with the supplied Amstrad monitor. An external adapter for RF TV was available to be bought separately.
The five-pin DIN connector is capable of driving a [[SCART]] television with a correctly wired lead.
===Audio (sound)===
The CPC used the [[General Instruments AY-3-8912]] [[sound chip]], providing three channels, each configurable to generate square waves, white noise or both. A small array of hardware volume envelopes are available.
Output was provided in mono by a small (4 [[Metre#SI_multiples|cm]]) built-in loudspeaker with volume control, driven by an unusually powerful [[amplifier]]. [[Stereophonic sound|Stereo]] output was provided through a 3.5mm [[headphones]] jack, not present on some early CPC464 models. In those models, what looked like a standard 3.5" headphone jack was actually used for connecting an external tape recorder, although later models used a five-pin DIN connector for the same purpose.
Playback of [[digital sampling|digital sound sample]]s at a resolution of a little better than 5-bit, as heard on the title screen of the game ''[[RoboCop (videogame)|RoboCop]]'', was possible through clever programming of the sound chip. This trick was very processor intensive and hard to combine with any other processing.
===The 3" floppy disk drives===
[[Image:Compact Floppy.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px| The CF has a harder casing than a 3&frac12;" floppy; the metal door is opened by a sliding plastic tab on the right side.]]
Amstrad's idiosyncratic choice of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi's]] 3" floppy disk drive, when the rest of the PC industry was moving to [[Sony]]'s 3.5" format, is often claimed to be due to Amstrad bulk-buying a large consignment of 3" drive units in [[Asia]]. The cheapest drive (built-in in later models) was a single-sided 40-track unit that required the user to physically remove and flip the disk to access both sides. Each side had its own independent write-protect switch. The sides were termed "A" and "B", with each one holding 180KB (178KB in [[AMSDOS]] format) for a total of 360KB per disc.
The interface with the drives was a NEC 765 [[Floppy disk controller|FDC]], used for the same purpose in the IBM [[PC/XT]], [[PC/AT]] and [[PS/2]] machines. Many of its features were unused in order to cut costs, namely [[DMA]] transfers and support for [[single density]] disks; they were formatted as [[double density]] using [[Modified frequency modulation]].
Disks were shipped in a paper sleeve or a hard plastic case resembling a [[compact disc]] "jewel" case. The casing is thicker and more rigid than that of 3.5" diskettes and sliding metal cover to protect the media surface is internal to the casing and latched, unlike the simple external sliding cover of Sony's version (some reviews at the time reported driving over them with no problems). Because of this they were significantly more expensive than both 5.25" and 3.5" alternatives. This, combined with their low nominal capacities and their essentially proprietary nature, lead to the format being discontinued when the CPC itself was discontinued.
Apart from Amstrad's other 3" machines (the [[Amstrad PCW|PCW]] and ZX Spectrum +3), the only other computer systems to use them were mostly obscure and exotic CP/M systems such as the [[Tatung Einstein]] and [[Osborne 1|Osborne]] machines.
The data formatting of 3" disks was very similar to that of 5&frac14;" disks, and the Amstrad CPC machines were able to use 5&frac14;" drives through their "external drive" port - either one specially designed for use by the CPC or an adapted IBM-PC drive.
A more popular alternative was to attach an adapted IBM-PC 3&frac12;" drive for operation in either single-sided 180 KB or double-sided 360 KB mode, although with the later availability of the PARADOS Disc Operating System, 720k per disc became available.
===Serial port adaptor===
An official [[RS-232|RS-232-C]] [[D-subminiature|D25]] serial port adaptor was produced that attached to the expansion connector at the rear of the machine, and had a through-connector for the CPC464 disk drive or other peripherals. The adaptor came with a "''Book of Spells''" for facilitating data transfer between other systems using a proprietary [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] in the device's own ROM, as well as [[computer terminal|terminal]] software to connect to British Telecom's [[Prestel]] service. A separate version of the ROM was created for the U.S. market due to the use of the commands "SUCK" and "BLOW", which were considered unacceptable there.
===Similarities to the BBC Micro===
The CPC has been termed an "improved Z80 implementation of the (earlier) [[BBC Micro]]" due to similarities in [[firmware]] and hardware. Both use the Motorola 6845 video address generator and the two have very similar sound output chips - the General Instrument AY-3-8912 in the CPC provides three tone channels each optionally with added noise and the [[Texas Instruments SN76489]] in the BBC offers three tone channels and one exclusive noise channel.
The BBC Micro uses an [[Intel]] 8271 floppy disc controller. The CPC uses the Intel 8272, which is similar to the 8271 but contains the addition of a double density ([[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]]) mode.
The "two cursor" BASIC editing system seen on the Amstrad CPC (whereby holding Shift and using the cursor keys moves a shadow text [[Cursor_(computers)|cursor]] allowing text to be copied from another area of the screen to the normal cursor) is a lift from [[BBC BASIC]], albeit substantially improved by allowing free movement of the normal cursor.
Both systems provide similar systems of full hard |
<id>12173</id>
<revision>
<id>15909877</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:26:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Guernsey</title>
<id>12174</id>
<revision>
<id>15909878</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-15T06:06:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>there is no military!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guinea</title>
<id>12176</id>
<revision>
<id>41948065</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:44:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Master Jay</username>
<id>526659</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.86.1.17|24.86.1.17]] to last version by MFH</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{guinea infobox}}
{{wiktionarypar|Guinea}}
{{otheruses}}
The '''Republic of Guinea''' ([[French Language|French]]: '''République de Guinée''') is a nation in [[West Africa]]. It borders [[Guinea-Bissau]] and [[Senegal]] on the north, [[Mali]] on the north and north-east, the [[Côte d'Ivoire]] on the south-east, [[Liberia]] on the south, and [[Sierra Leone]] on the west. Its territory encompasses the water source for the [[Niger River|Niger]], [[Senegal river|Senegal]], and [[Gambia River|Gambia]] rivers, with a [[coastal|coastline]] facing the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The name [[Guinea (region)|Guinea]] (geographically assigned to most of Africa's west coast, south of the [[Sahara desert]] and north of the [[Gulf of Guinea]]) originates from [[Berber languages|Berber]] and roughly translates into 'land of the blacks.'
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Guinea]]''
The area covered by the modern state of Guinea has seen itself incorporated into a succession of empires across the centuries. The earliest of these was the [[Ghana Empire]] which came into being c. 900. This was followed by the [[Sosso]] kingdom in the 12th and 13th centuries. The [[Mali Empire]] came to power in the area following the [[Battle of Kirina]] in [[1235]]. The Mali Empire prospered until internal problems weakened it, allowing its states to seize power in the 15th century. Chief among these was the Songhai state which became the [[Songhai Empire]]. This empire exceeded its predecessors in territory and wealth, but it too fell prey to internal wrangling and [[civil war]] and was eventually toppled at the [[Battle of Tondibi]] in 1591. After this the area fragmented until an Islamic state was founded in the 18th century, bringing some stability to the region.
Europeans first came to the area as part of the [[slave trade]], beginning in the 16th century. Present-day Guinea was created as a colony by [[France]] in [[1890]] with Noël Balley being the first governor. The capital [[Conakry]] was founded on Tombo Island in 1890. In 1895 the country was incorporated into [[French West Africa]].
Guinea gained her independence from France in 1958 and was governed by a dictatorship headed by [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]]. Touré pursued broadly [[socialist]] economic policies and suppressed opposition and free expression with little regard for human rights. After his death in 1984 [[Lansana Conté]] took power and immediately turned away from his predecessor's economic policies but continued to keep a close grip on power. Elections were held for the first time in 1993 but their results and the results of subsequent elections were disputed. Conté faces regular criticism for the condition of the country's economy and for his heavy handed approach to political opponents. [[As of 2005]] Guinea still faces very real problems and according to the [[International Crisis Group]] is in danger of becoming a [[failed state]].
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Guinea]]''
* [[List of Presidents of Guinea]]
==Prefectures==
[[Guinea]] is divided into 8 [[Regions of Guinea|administrative regions]] which are further subdivided into 33 [[prefectures]]. Additionally, the national capital [[Conakry]] ranks as a special zone. These are listed below, with their parent administrative region in parenthesis.
[[Image:Guinea_Prefectures.png|right|325px]]
#[[Beyla Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Boffa Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Boké Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Conakry Special Zone]] ([[Conakry Region]])
#[[Coyah Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Dabola Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Dalaba Prefecture]] ([[Mamou Region]])
#[[Dinguiraye Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Dubréka Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Faranah Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Forécariah Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Fria Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Gaoual Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Guéckédou Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Kankan Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Kérouané Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Kindia Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Kissidougou Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Koubia Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Koundara Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Kouroussa Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Labé Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Lélouma Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Lola Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Macenta Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Mali Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Mamou Prefecture]] ([[Mamou Region]])
#[[Mandiana Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Nzérékoré Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Pita Prefecture]] ([[Mamou Region]])
#[[Siguiri Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Télimélé Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Tougué Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Yomou Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Guinea]]''
The highest point in Guinea is [[Mont Nimba]].
[[image:GuineaMap.png|right|Map of Guinea]]
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guinea]]''
Guinea possesses major [[mineral]], [[hydropower]], and [[agricultural]] resources, yet remains an [[developing country|underdeveloped nation]]. The country possesses over 30% of the world's [[bauxite]] reserves and is the second-largest bauxite producer. The [[mining]] sector accounted for about 75% of exports in 1999. Long-run improvements in government fiscal arrangements, literacy, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. Fighting along the [[Sierra Leone]]an and [[Liberia]]n borders, as well as refugee movements, have caused major economic disruptions, aggravating a loss in investor confidence. Foreign mining companies have reduced [[expatriate]] staff. [[Panic buying]] has created food shortages and inflation and caused riots in local markets. Guinea is not receiving multilateral aid. The [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] cut off most assistance in 2003. Growth rose slightly in 2004, primarily due to increases in global demand and commodity prices on world markets.
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Guinea]]''
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Guinea]]''
* Like other West African countries, Guinea has a rich musical tradition. The group Bembeya Jazz became popular in the 1960s after Guinean independence. The [[Vancouver]]-based guitarist [[Alpha Yaya Diallo]] hails from Guinea and incorporates its traditional rhythms and melodies into his original compositions, for which he has won two [[Juno Awards]].
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Guinea|List of writers from Guinea]]
==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Guinea]]
* [[Transportation in Guinea]]
* [[Military of Guinea]]
* [[Foreign relations of Guinea]]
* [[National Park of Upper Niger]]
== Language ==
* [[Taki language]]
* [[French language]]
* [[Arabic language]]
* [[Fula language]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Guinea}}
===Government===
*[http://www.un.int/guinea/ Permanent UN Mission of the Republic of Guinea''] official government site
===Overviews===
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gv.html CIA World Factbook - Guinea]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032311.stm BBC News Country Profile - Guinea]
===Music===
* [http://www.coraconnection.com/ Cora Connection] West African music resources
===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559924/ LookSmart - ''Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Guinea/ Open Directory Project - ''Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/guinea.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Guinea/ The Index on Africa - ''Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Guinea.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Guinea/ Yahoo! - ''Guinea''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
[[Category:Guinea|*]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[af:Guinee]]
[[ar:غينيا]]
[[bg:Гвинея]]
[[bs:Gvineja]]
[[ca:República de Guinea]]
[[cs:Guinea]]
[[da:Guinea]]
[[de:Guinea]]
[[et:Guinea]]
[[es:Guinea]]
[[eo:Gvineo]]
[[ff:Gine]]
[[fr:Guinée]]
[[gd:Guinea]]
[[gl:Guinea - Guinée]]
[[ko:기니]]
[[io:Guinea]]
[[id:Guinea]]
[[is:Gínea]]
[[it:Guinea]]
[[he:גינאה]]
[[lv:Gvineja]]
[[lt:Gvinėja]]
[[ms:Guinea]]
[[na:Guinea]]
[[nl:Guinee]]
[[nds:Guinea]]
[[ja:ギニア]]
[[no:Guinea]]
[[nn:Guinea]]
[[oc:Guinèa]]
[[pl:Gwinea (państwo)]]
[[pt:Guiné]]
[[ro:Guineea]]
[[ru:Гвинея]]
[[sa:गिनी]]
[[sq:Guineja]]
[[sk:Guinea]]
[[sl:Gvineja]]
[[fi:Guinea]]
[[sr:Гвинеја |
t"), 1992
*''Olgunluk Cagi Uclemesi'' ("The Age of Maturity Trilogy"), 2001
*''Kant Kulubu'', 2004
'''Collection of Short Stories'''
*''Noktanin Kesisimleri Antolojisi'' ("The Anthology of the Intersections of the Dot"), 1990
*''Gizli Hava Muzesi'' ("Secret Air Museum"), 1995
*''r'', 2002
'''Collection of Essays'''
*''Ise'' ("If It Is"), 1999
*''Ise, Ki Degil!'' ("If It Is, But It's Not"), 2001
*''Zibaldone 2'', 2005
'''Prose Poetry'''
*''Belkienisbatur'' ("Perhaps Enis Batur"), 1993
==External links==
* [http://www.cemakas.com Cem Akas] Official website
* [http://www.gyayingrubu.com g yayin grubu] Official g yayin grubu website
[[Category:1968 births|Akas, Cem]]
[[Category:Living people|Akas, Cem]]
[[Category:Turkish people|Akas, Cem]]
[[Category:Turkish writers|Akas, Cem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Congressional-Executive Agreement</title>
<id>7563</id>
<revision>
<id>15905625</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[congressional-executive agreement]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Congressional-executive agreement</title>
<id>7564</id>
<revision>
<id>37146631</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T00:47:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tetraminoe</username>
<id>182015</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unreferenced: please [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|cite sources]] for this article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Unreferenced}}
A '''congressional-executive agreement''' is an agreement with a foreign power that has been approved by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] and the [[United States]]. Unlike a [[treaty]], in the US constitutional sense of that term, it cannot cover matters normally outside the competence of the Federal government and does not require a two-thirds vote by the Senate, but rather is enacted as an ordinary law which requires majority votes by both the House and Senate followed by approval from the President. In contrast, a sole [[executive agreement]] is ratified by the [[President of the United States|President]] alone.
CEAs are often used to implement trade agreements such as the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] and United States accession to the [[World Trade Organization]]. It is used for this purpose because the requirement for two-thirds support in the Senate would make it difficult to ratify and implement these agreements, and it avoids the necessity for going to Congress twice for approval for foreign issues.
Some constitutional scholars, such as [[Laurence Tribe]], have argued that CEA's are unconstitutional as they circumvent the treaty ratification scheme outlined in the [[United States Constitution]]. The United States courts have rejected this argument, ruling that such agreements are not treaties.
==See also==
* [[Executive agreement]]
* [[Treaty]]
[[Category:United States law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christmas customs in Poland</title>
<id>7565</id>
<revision>
<id>39694496</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:04:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Improv</username>
<id>125204</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.139.114.1|165.139.114.1]] ([[User talk:165.139.114.1|talk]]) to last version by Jengod</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Christmas is the most widely celebrated and the most important holiday season in [[Poland]], full of rituals and merriment.
Unlike other [[Christian]] countries, a greater emphasis is placed on [[Wigilia]] ([[Christmas Eve]]) than Christmas Day.
Preparations for Christmas start with the [[Advent]]. This is an especially important time for religious [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. The week before Christmas is very hectic, full of bustle and preparation for the impending celebrations. Every house or apartment needs extra cleaning and sometimes redecoration.
One must buy Christmas presents, food for the Christmas meals
and a [[Christmas tree]] (usually a fir tree) that is lavishly decorated and placed in a prominent part of the living room.
The Polish Christmas season is an occasion for family reunions;
everyone endeavours to spend the evening with their family.
Traditionally, the Christmas Eve feast begins with the appearance of the first star in the sky. Everybody gathers together and wishes one another breaking with everyone a special wafer. After the wishes the feast starts.
Tradition states that a Christmas dinner should comprise twelve meals. This might seem excessive but because it is a fasting day all are rather hungry.
Meat is avoided; rather, fish, pasta, sauerkraut, mushrooms and beans are consumed.
Usually after the meals are finished it is time for Christmas gifts.
At midnight many people go to a special [[mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in Roman Catholic churches called [[Pasterka]] (Shepherd's Mass).
The first day of Christmas is just celebrating in the family circle.
The second day of Christmas is for visiting friends and relatives.
==See also==
*[[Wigilia]] the Christmas Eve vigil supper
*[[Christmas around the world]]
[[Category:Christmas traditions]]
[[Category:Polish traditions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carousel (musical)</title>
<id>7566</id>
<revision>
<id>41796425</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:34:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.17.30.3</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Carousel''''' is a [[1945]] stage [[musical theater|musical]] by [[Richard Rodgers]] (music) and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]] (book and lyrics) that was adapted from [[Ferenc Molnar]]'s play ''Liliom''. The original production, which was directed by [[Rouben Mamoulian]], opened at [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]'s [[Majestic Theatre]] on [[April 19]] [[1945]] and closed on [[May 24]] [[1947]] after playing 890 performances. The original cast included [[John Raitt]], [[Jan Clayton]], [[Jean Darling]], [[Eric Mattson]], [[Christine Johnson]], [[Murvyn Vye]], [[Bambi Linn]], and [[Russell Collins]].
{{spoiler}}
==Plot Synopsis==
===Act I===
Two young millworkers in freshly industrialized 1870s New England visit the town's carousel after work. One of them &mdash; demure Julie Jordan &mdash; shares a lingering glance and suggestive touch with the carousel's barker, Billy Bigelow. (song: "Carousel Waltz")
Julie's friend Carrie Pipperidge presses her for information, but Julie is reticent about the encounter. (song: "You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan") Eventually satisfied, Carrie confides that she has a beau of her own: local fisherman Enoch Snow (song: "When I Marry Mister Snow").
A policeman appears and warns the women that Billy has taken money from other women. Carrie goes off, but Julie stays. She and Billy, now alone, can talk freely, but neither can quite confess the growing attraction they feel for each other. (song: "If I Loved You")
Despite the incommunicative start, Julie and Billy are married shortly thereafter. When we next see them, Julie is confiding to Carrie that Billy, now unemployed, is unstable and occasionally violent. Carrie has news, too &mdash; she and Mr. Snow are officially engaged (song: "Mister Snow reprise") and looking forward to their idealized notion of married life (song: "When The Children Are Asleep") As they and the town's other young folk prepare to attend a clambake, spitfire Carrie pokes fun at the local boys, cheered on by the local girls (song: "Give It To 'Em Good, Carrie"). Julie's cousin Nettie Fowler leads them all in a celebration of spring accompanied by an elaborate dance(song: "June Is Bustin' Out All Over") before they leave for the clambake.
Meanwhile, Billy has fallen in with the unsavory sailor Jigger (song: "Blow High, Blow Low"), who tries to recruit him to help with a robbery. Billy is initially uninterested &mdash; but then Julie tells him of her pregnancy. Overwhelmed by the news, and determined to provide for his future child, he decides to be Jigger's accomplice after all (song: "Soliloquy").
===Act II===
After the clambake (song: "A Real Nice Clambake"), the townsfolk head back to town. Carrie's fiancé walks in on some innocent flirting between Carrie and Jigger, and declares, as Jigger jeers, that he is finished with her (song: "Geraniums In The Window/Stonecutters Cut It On Stone"). Julie, meanwhile, places her self-doubt aside and resolves to accept and love Billy as he is (song: "What's The Use Of Wondrin'?").
Jigger and Billy play at cards, with the stakes being shares of the forecasted robbery spoils. Soon Billy has lost his entire stake in the robbery; the robbery is aborted; and Jigger escapes while Billy is caught. Billy falls on his knife and dies; Julie arrives too late to save him.
Nettie and the townsfolk comfort Julie (song: "[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]"), and we follow Billy to heaven. There, a pair of blunt-spoken angels explain that he must attempt to solve the problems he left behind (song: "The Highest Judge Of All"). They send him back down to earth, fifteen years after his suicide.
whas up
His and Julie's daughter, Louise, is now an angry and rebellious teen (song: "Ballet: Pas de Deux"). He manages to give her a small gift, and finally confess his love to Julie (song: "If I Loved You reprise"). Having thus made amends, he is there for her high-school graduation (song: "You'll Never Walk Alone reprise") and w |
duals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.21 and the average family size is 2.86.
In the city the population is spread out with 21.8% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 89.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $33,276, and the median income for a family is $43,882. Males have a median income of $30,355 versus $20,092 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $17,923. 10.5% of the population and 7.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 10.6% of those under the age of 18 and 10.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
{{1911}}
==Education==
Aberdeen is home to several high schools, including: Aberdeen Central High School (Public), Aberdeen Christian High School, and Roncalli High school (Catholic).
[[Image:CHS.JPG|left|180px|The new Aberdeen Central High School.]]
Aberdeen Central High School has an enrollment of 1,200 students, grades 9-12. The school was founded in 1911 near downtown Aberdeen, and served as the home of the Golden Eagles for nearly 90 years. In the fall of 2004, Aberdeen Central students were welcomed into a new $28 million facility in South East Aberdeen. The school has numerous improvements over the previous school featuring air conditioning, handicap accessibility, and a state of the art [http://www.daktronics.com/photo_detail.cfm?cc=CC04886/ gymnasium.]including a large [[Daktronics]] replay board.
The Aberdeen Central High School Complex is also home to the Clark Swisher Athletic Complex. This athletic complex features a [[FieldTurf]] football/soccer field, an eight lane all-weather track, and an on-site locker room.
Roncalli High School is part of the Aberdeen Catholic School System and has an enrollment of about 200 students. The school features excellent sports programs that are evident in the Roncalli Cavaliers' 2005 State "11B" football championship.
==Other==
*[[Music of South Dakota]]
*[[ABR]] Aberdeen Regional Airport
==Popular Attractions==
*[http://www.aberdeen.sd.us/parks/wylie.html Wylie Park] With over 200 acres of grassland, the park features a zoo with a spectacular variety of wildlife. Picnic and reacreation areas, pavilion, concession stands, campground, and swimming area also available.
[[Image:Wyliepark.JPG|100px|right|Storybook Land's Castle]]
*[http://www.aberdeencvb.com/storybook.html Storybook Land] Just over the rainbow is where you'll find Aberdeen's magical theme park - Storybook Land! Dorothy, Toto, The Scarecrow, Tin Man and Cowardly Lion will all greet you as you begin your journey down the Yellow Brick Road. Enter a land of enchantment that includes over 60 larger than life exhibits. Climb aboard Captain Hook's ship, visit the animals at Old McDonald's Farm, but whatever you do, don't get lost in the maze! A ride around the park on the Storybook Land Express is always a hit.
*[http://www.brown.sd.us Brown County Fair] Every year in August, vendors from around the country travel to Aberdeen to participate in a county fair that includes big name grandstand entertainment, car races, demolition derby, rodeo, carnival midway, 4-H exhibits, and other assorted live entertainment and displays.
*[[Kuhnert Arboretum]]
*[http://www.dacotahprairiemuseum.com Dacotah Prairie Museum] Dedicated to telling the story of this land and of the people who have lived on it, this museum contains a large section of historical items including Indian artifacts, centennial quilts, period settings, toys for all ages and much more.
*[http://www.feelthethunder.com/aberdeen.htm Thunder Road]
==Notable Residents==
*[[L. Frank Baum]], famous for his book [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]], made Aberdeen his home. He started a local newspaper called ''The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer'', which eventually failed.
*[[Fakir Musafar]], key figure in the [[modern primitive]] movement, was born here.
*[[David C. Jones]], U.S. Air Force general, was born here.
*[[Joseph Hansen (writer)]], American mystery writer, was born here.
*[[Tom Daschle]], former US Senator, was born here.
== External links ==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdeen (city)}}
* [http://www.aberdeen-chamber.com/ Aberdeen Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.aberdeen.sd.us/ Aberdeen government website]
* [http://www.aberdeennews.com/mld/aberdeennews/ Aberdeen News - local newspaper]
* [http://www.aberdeen.k12.sd.us/centralhs/ Aberdeen Central High School website]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|45.463708|-98.481291}}
{{SouthDakota}}
[[Category:Cities in South Dakota]]
[[Category:Brown County, South Dakota]]
[[et:Aberdeen (Lõuna-Dakota)]]
[[gl:Aberdeen, Dacota do Sur]]
[[pl:Aberdeen (Dakota Południowa)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Au</title>
<id>2710</id>
<revision>
<id>39281155</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T01:48:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mzajac</username>
<id>61482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Places */ logical order</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{tocright}}
'''Au''' may refer to:
* [[Alternative universe (fan fiction)]], a fan fiction term
* [[Annals of Ulster]], in Irish historical writings
* Au is a 'cartwheel' in the Brazilian martial art of [[Capoeira]]
* Au (區 or 歐) is a [[List of common Chinese surnames|family name]] in Hong Kong
== In science ==
* [[Astronomical unit]] of distance
* [[Atomic units]] of time, length, mass, etc
* [[Gold]] (chemical symbol Au)
== In computing ==
* [[.au]] Internet country code top-level domain for Australia
* [[au file format]], Sun Microsystems' audio format
* [[Audio Units]] plug-in programming interface from Apple Computer
== Organisations ==
* [[African Union]]
* [[Allahabad University]]
* [[American University]]
* [[Americans United for Separation of Church and State]]
* [[Athabasca University]]
* [[Au (mobile phone operator)]], of Japan
* [[Auburn University]]
* [[Austral Lineas Aereas]] (IATA airline code AU)
== Places ==
* [[Australia]] (ISO country code); see [[ISO 3166-2:AU]] for subdivisions
* [[Austria]] (obsolete NATO country code)
''Au'' is an old Germanic word for rivulet, cognate of [[Aa River|several rivers ''Aa'']] and with [[Å#Nordic languages|Å]] in Swedish. It is also the name of several towns and places:
Germany:
* [[Au in der Hallertau]]
* [[Au (Schwarzwald)|Au-Breisgau]]
Switzerland:
* [[Au, Schaffhausen]]
* [[Au, Thurgau]]
* [[Au, Switzerland|Au, Zürich]]
Austria:
* [[Au, Austria]]
* [[Au am Anzbach]]
* [[Au am Kraking]]
* [[Au am Leithaberge]]
* [[Au an der Donau]]
* [[Au an der Traun]]
* [[Au bei Brandstatt]]
* [[Au bei der Traun]]
* [[Au bei Ed]]
* [[Au bei Hischmannsberg]]
* [[Au bei hohen Steg]]
* [[Au bei Natternbach]]
* [[Au bei Sirfling]]
* [[Au bei Turnau]]
{{disambig}}
[[af:Au]]
[[als:Au]]
[[cs:AU]]
[[da:AU]]
[[de:AU]]
[[et:Au (täpsustus)]]
[[el:Au]]
[[es:AU]]
[[fr:AU]]
[[ko:AU]]
[[it:Au]]
[[nl:Au]]
[[ja:AU]]
[[pl:Au]]
[[sk:Au]]
[[fi:AU]]
[[sv:AU]]
[[zh:Au]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberdeenshire/Aberdeenshire1911</title>
<id>2711</id>
<revision>
<id>32288169</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-21T22:23:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Aberdeenshire (traditional)" +"Aberdeenshire (historic)"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aberdeenshire (historic)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberdour</title>
<id>2712</id>
<revision>
<id>41551328</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:33:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>219.88.182.146</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aberdour''', a village in [[Fife]], [[Scotland]], lies on the shore of the [[Firth of Forth]], 17.5 miles north-west of [[Edinburgh]] by rail or road. It features excellent beaches and good examples of Fife architecture.
Aberdour Castle stands next to St.Fillan's church (12th century) which contains some fine [[Norman architecture | Norman]] work. About 3 miles south-west of Aberdour stands [[Donibristle House]], the seat of the [[Earl of Moray]], and the scene of the murder ([[7 February]] [[1592]]) of one earl, remembered in the ballad ''[[The Bonny Earl of Murray]]''.
== Silver and Black Sands ==
Aberdour is home to two beaches, the most popular being the Silver Sands. The Silver Sands is one of Scotland's seven "[[Blue Flag]]" Awarded beaches - which denotes an exemplary standard of cleanliness. As the name suggests, the beach has soft, light coloured sand. The Black Sands, on the other side of the village, has a more rocky and dark surface - but is also popular with visitors exploring the rock caves and interesting sea life. The Silver Sands is very popular in summer time and adequate parking space is available in the large fields surrounding the beach.
== Inchcolm ==
The island of [[Inchcolm]], or Island of [[Columba]], a quarter of a mile from the shore, forms part of the parish of Aberdour. As its name implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The primitive stone-roofed [[chapel | oratory]] presumably served as a [[hermit]]'s cell.
King [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]] founded the [[Augustinian]] [[monastery]] in [[1123]]. It has well-preserved buildings, consisting of a low square tower, church, [[cloister]]s, refectory and small [[chapter-house]].
[[England|English]] and other rovers occasionally plundered the island of Columba, but in the [[16th century]] it became the property of Sir [[James Stewart]], whose grandson became |
ssette, a 1986 Jack Kirby nomination for Best Single Issue for ''Superman Annual'' #9 with Dave Gibbons, a 1986 Jack Kirby nomination for Best Single Issue for ''Swamp Thing'' #43 with [[Stan Woch]], a 1986 Jack Kirby nomination for Best Writer/Artist (single or team) for ''Swamp Thing'' with Bissette, 1987 Jack Kirby Award nominations for Best Single Issue for both ''Watchmen'' #1 and #2 with Dave Gibbons, and the [[Comics' Buyer's Guide]] Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999.
==Major works==
===Marvelman/Miracleman===
{{main|Miracleman}}
[[Image:Miracle3.png|thumb|left|140px|Cover art for ''[[Miracleman]]''#3 by [[Howard Chaykin]].]]
Starting in 1982 within the pages of ''Warrior'', Alan Moore resurrected ''Marvelman'', a popular British comic from the 1950s which was a thinly disguised ripoff of the American superhero [[Captain Marvel]]. The strip, which ran from 1954 to 1963, followed the adventures of Micky Moran, a young boy who was given the power to become a full grown superhero by a recluse astro-scientist who discovered the secret "key harmonic" of the universe. The strip, which maintained a childish innocence and purity, has the distinction of being the first British superhero comic. The new version would [[retcon]] and revise utterly the earlier children's comic. After ''Warrior'' closed, ''Marvelman'' was reprinted and continued at [[Eclipse Comics]], renamed "Miracleman" due to a trademark dispute with Marvel Comics.
''Miracleman'' is an early example of [[post-modernism]] in superhero comics, and has a strong theme of loss of innocence. Another key idea is that the existence of a superhero would change the world radically, something Moore would return to in ''Watchmen''.
===V for Vendetta===
{{main|V for Vendetta}}
Moore's original strip for the British Warrior comic was designed as an homage to the spirit of the British Boys Adventure comics of the 1950s and 60s as well as referencing literary sources such as [[George Orwell]] and the libertarianism of [[William Blake]]. The title character "V" appears at first to be a modern [[Robin Hood]] figure righting wrongs in a corrupt [[fascist]] Britain of the future, but as the story develops becomes more complex, a trickster version of a [[Bakunin]]esque revolutionary. It becomes clear that V differs from standard comic heroes in that his purpose is to empower "ordinary" people rather than do things for them. In bringing down the government, his intention is not to replace it with another of his choosing but to clear the stage for people to rule themselves. Moore's writing in 'V' continually challenges the legitimacy of those who would wield power over others: the party members are shown to be morally and politically corrupt.
Though set in the year 1997, the strip captures the feel of life in Britain in the early 1980s, with [[Thatcherism|economic decline and a perpetual drift to the right]] in national politics. It was among the first comics to use the literary device of [[intertextuality]], with V's speech often made up of extended quotes and references that are not cited. 'Vendetta' marks Moore's first use of the technique that has become his motif: using secondary characters to carry forward plot development or elicit background details. 'V' remains a shadowy figure who never removes his [[Guy Fawkes]] mask.
::"Dave [Gibbons] was giving me his ideas as to how he actually wanted to approach the strip in terms of layout and execution. These included the absolute banning of sound effects, and as an afterthought, the utter eradication of thought balloons into the bargain." -- Moore, "Behind the Painted Smile", <i>Warrior Magazine</i> #17, 1983.
===Swamp Thing===
{{main|Swamp Thing}}
[[Image:Swampthingmoore21.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cover of ''[[Swamp Thing]]''#21, "The Anatomy Lesson"; art by [[Tom Yeates]].]]
Moore's first American work was ''Swamp Thing'', a title starring a man turned into a vegetable monster by an experimental plant growth formula, which at the time was one of DC's poorest selling titles. The editor, Len Wein, had been a huge fan of Moore's work in ''Warrior'' and had decided to hire Moore to take over the book from [[Martin Pasko]]. Moore's first issue wrapped up Pasko's storyline and set up what would be his own unique take on a former fan-favourite character.
In Moore's second issue, "The Anatomy Lesson", the title character is shot and dissected by scientist Jason Woodrue. Woodrue, who was also the villain [[Floronic Man]], soon concludes that Swamp Thing is a superficial imitation of a man, his lungs cannot pump air, his brain does not contain neurons. He concludes that the swamp creature is a plant which had absorbed the memories and imitated the life of a dead man; Swamp Thing was never human. The initial shock to his sense of identity led the character to embrace his identity as a plant, discovering new abilities and becoming less a "muck-encrusted mockery of a man" than a virtual vegetation [[deity]].
Many of Moore's stories dealt with social ills as seen through horror metaphors. Sexual discrimination, racism, violence, fear of nuclear energy, and pollution are all themes addressed in his work. The series was formally ambitious, using unusual story structures and experimenting with different ways to combine text and image for narrative effect. The slow, languorous pace of Steve Bissette's layouts, the intricate textures of John Totleben's inks, and [[Tatjana Wood]]'s imaginative and atmospheric use of colour were all put to good use.
The series also revitalised DC's neglected magical and supernatural characters, featuring the [[Spectre (comics)|Spectre]], the [[The Demon (comics)|Demon]], the [[Phantom Stranger]], [[Deadman]] and others in supporting roles. At the prompting of Bissette and Totleben, who were fans of [[The Police]] and wanted to draw a character who looked like [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] (specifically his character from the film [[Brimstone and Treacle]]), Moore created his own magical character, [[Hellblazer|John Constantine]], who would go on to headline a title of his own, ''Hellblazer'', that is the longest continuously published comic of DC's [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]] imprint.
Moore's ''Swamp Thing'' was enormously influential in showing a larger audience that genre comics could address serious issues and take on literary pretensions. DC followed ''Swamp Thing'''s success by recruiting British writers like [[Grant Morrison]], [[Jamie Delano]], [[Peter Milligan]] and [[Neil Gaiman]] to write comics in a similar vein, often involving radical revamps of obscure characters, and thus laid the foundation of what became the Vertigo line.
Gaiman in particular was strongly influenced by Moore's ''Swamp Thing'' work: his ''[[Black Orchid]]'', ''[[Books of Magic]]'' and many early ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' stories are largely derived from Moore's innovations.
===Watchmen===
{{main|Watchmen}}
[[Image:Watchmencharacters.jpg|left|150px|thumb|The cast of ''[[Watchmen]]'', clockwise from top: Dr. Manhattan, the Comedian, Ozymandias, Nite Owl, Rorschach, Captain Metropolis, the Silk Spectre. Art by [[Dave Gibbons]].]]
Moore's most popular comic work, ''Watchmen'' , is about superheroes who have been affected by real world politics. [[McCarthyism]], the [[Vietnam War]], and the [[Cold War]] have unhinged the current superhero generation.
''Watchmen'' deconstructed the superhero, looking at the moral, psychological, and sexual implications of their activities. His most far reaching work to date, ''Watchmen'' addressed such issues as free will, the nature of time, human psychology, global politics, and moral relativism.
''Watchmen'' incorporated cinema style transitions and voice overs. It avoided the then typically-used comic book thought bubble.
''Watchmen'' is the only comic to be granted an honorary [[Hugo award]]. Moore said it was his final statement on superheroes, and, upon completing his commitment of ''Miracleman'', retired from mainstream comics.
The copyright of ''Watchmen'' would revert to Moore and artist Dave Gibbons if it is ever taken out of print; it has been constantly successful&ndash;it remains in print (and under the control of DC) to this day.
===Supreme===
{{main|Supreme (comics)}}
Moore was asked by publisher Rob Liefeld to write further adventures of ''Supreme'', Liefeld's violent, inconsistently-written Superman knockoff. Moore agreed on the condition that he could throw out everything previously done with the character, as he felt the comic was not very good, and turned the series into a post-modern homage to the innocence and imagination of [[Mort Weisinger]]'s Superman.
Beginning with issue #41, Moore began developing a new approach to comic storytelling and the Superhero. ''Supreme'' is a complex comic, containing layers upon layers of metafiction, each issue containing further comment on the nature of comics history, storytelling, and the Superman mythos.
Supreme's secret identity is Ethan Crane, a mild-mannered artist for Dazzle Comics. When not saving the world as the archetypical superhero, he illustrates the adventures of Omniman, an ultra-violent Supreme-like character going under a relaunch with a change of writers. In the first issue, Supreme discovers he is living in the most recent "revision," as reality is an ever-changing story and there have been many versions of himself who came before. Retired Supremes live in the "Supremacy", an afterlife for characters whose stories have come to an end.
Supreme learns that his memories are "backstory" gradually being filled in until his real memories are indistinguishable from the filled-in, never-happened ones of the past. Flashback Supreme sequences are told in the comic style of the era, reflecting different periods of co |
attend professional, semi-professional, community, and educational theatre opportunities year-round in the Cincinnati [[tri-state area]]. Many theatres within the region are members of the [[League of Cincinnati Theatres]].
'''Professional (equity) theatre'''
* [[Cincinnati Playhouse in the Park]]
* [[Ensemble Theatre of Cincinnati]]
'''Professional (non-equity) theatre'''
* [[Know Theatre Tribe]]
* [[Clear Stage Cincinnati]]
* [[Cincinnati Shakespeare Festival]]
* [[Cincinnati Public Theatre]]
* [[Stage First Cincinnati]]
* [[New Edgecliff Theater]]
* [[The Performance Gallery]]
* [[The Children's Theatre]]
'''Community (non-professional) theatre'''
* [[Mariemont Players]]
* [[Falcon Productions]]
* [[Ovation Theatre Company]]
* [[Cincinnati Music Theatre]]
* [[If Theatre Collective]]
* [[Showbiz Players]]
'''Educational theatre'''
In addition to theatre experiences offered through most high schools, which are critiqued by local students through the annual Cappie Awards, Cincinnati offers a number of college-level theatre/performing arts training and performing opportunities including:
* [[University of Cincinnati]]
* [[Xavier University]]
* [[Northern Kentucky University]]
===Food culture===
* [[Cincinnati chili]]
** [[Skyline Chili]]
** [http://www.campwashingtonchili.com Camp Washington Chili]
** [[Gold Star Chili]] [http://www.goldstarchili.com/]
** [[Price Hill Chili]]
* [[Goetta]]
* [[Montgomery Inn]] [http://www.montgomeryinn.com/]
* [[Graeter's Ice Cream]]
* [[LaRosa's Pizza]]
* [http://www.izzys.com Izzy's]
* [[Findlay Market]]
* [[United Dairy Farmers]]
* [http://www.aglamesis.com Aglamesis Bros. Ice Cream Parlor]
* [http://www.jeffruby.com Jeff Ruby Steakhouses]
==Sports==
[[Image:Great-american-ball-park.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Great American Ball Park]].]]
===Venues===
* [[Paul Brown Stadium]] &ndash; Football, soccer (capacity 65,535)
* [[Great American Ball Park]] &ndash; Baseball (42,059)
* [[Nippert Stadium]] &ndash; [[University of Cincinnati]] football (35,000)
* [[U.S. Bank Arena]] &ndash; Hockey, basketball, football, soccer (17,000)
* [[Fifth Third Arena]] &ndash; University of Cincinnati athletics (13,176)
* [[Cincinnati Gardens]] &ndash; Hockey, basketball, boxing (11,498)
* [[Cintas Center]] &ndash; [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier University]] athletics (10,250)
===Major league teams===
* [[Cincinnati Reds]], [[Major League Baseball]]
* [[Cincinnati Bengals]], [[National Football League]]
===Minor league teams===
* [[Cincinnati Kings]], [[USL Second Division]]
* [[Cincinnati Mighty Ducks]], [[American Hockey League]]&nbsp;&ndash; voluntarily suspended for 2005-2006 due to lack of an [[National Hockey League|NHL]] affiliate. Team hopes to return in 2006-2007 as the [[Cincinnati RailRaiders]] and as the [[Columbus Blue Jackets]]' affiliate.
* [[Cincinnati Dockers]], [[United States Australian Football League|USAFL]]
===Major colleges===
* [[University of Cincinnati]], [[University of Cincinnati|Cincinnati Bearcats]]; [[Big East]]
* [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier University]], [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier Musketeers]]; [[Atlantic Ten Conference|Atlantic 10]]
* [[Miami University]], [[Miami University|Miami RedHawks]]; [[Mid-American Conference]]
* The Union Institute
* Mount St. Joseph
* [[Northern Kentucky University]]
* [[Indiana Wesleyan University]]
The suburb of [[Mason, Ohio|Mason]] hosts the [[Cincinnati Masters|Western & Southern Financial Group Masters]], one of the nine (men's) [[tennis]] events in the [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]] [[Tennis Masters Series]]. Nearby [[Sparta, Kentucky]] is home to [[Kentucky Speedway]].
In March, [[2005]] and [[2006]], the [[U.S. Bank Arena]] will host the [[Atlantic 10 Conference]] men's basketball tournament.
Every May since [[2000]], Cincinnati has hosted the annual [[Flying Pig Marathon]] which winds through downtown and northern [[Kentucky]].
==Company headquarters in Cincinnati==
These companies have [[headquarters]] in Cincinnati:
*[[Procter & Gamble]]&nbsp;&ndash; the world's largest consumer products company; recently acquired Gillette
*[[Kroger]]&nbsp;&ndash; The largest supermarket chain company in the United States; 17th largest corporation in the U.S.
*[[Fifth Third Bank]]&nbsp;&ndash; One of the top 20 largest banks in the United States.
*[[Cinergy Corporation]]&nbsp;&ndash; Soon to merge with [[Duke Energy]]; the resulting company's headquarters will be in [[North Carolina]].
*[[Cincinnati Bell]]
*[[Cincinnati Financial Corporation]]
*[[Comair|Comair Airlines]] - [[Delta Air Lines|Delta]] Connection (in [[Erlanger, Kentucky]])
*[[Chiquita Brands International]]
*Durobag Manufacturing Company (in [[Ludlow, Kentucky]])
*[[Federated Department Stores]]&nbsp;&ndash; The largest department store chain owner in the U.S. after the acquisition of May Department Stores. Federated Store brands (Lazarus, Rich's, Burdines, etc) have all been rebranded either as Macy's or Bloomingdale's.
*[[GE Aircraft Engines]]- one of the world's largest aircraft engine manufacturers; a division of the GE conglomerate based in Evendale, Ohio (suburb of Cincinnati)
*[[US Playing Card Company]]&nbsp;&ndash; World's largest and most renowned playing card company
*The Andrew Jergens Company, a subsidiary of Kao, Inc.
*[[Luxottica|Luxottica Retail]] (in [[Mason, Ohio]])-division of Luxottica sPA of Milan, Italy; manages the Lenscrafters, Pearle Vision, Sunglass Hut, and Watch Station retail brands.
*Omnicare (in [[Covington, Kentucky]])
*[[Roto-Rooter]]
*[[Toyota Motor Manufacturing North America]] (in [[Erlanger, Kentucky]])
*[[Fujitec]] America (in [[Lebanon, Ohio]])
*Western & Southern Financial Group
*[[E.W. Scripps Company]]&nbsp;&ndash; A media company that owns many newspapers, cable channels and news stations. Also hosts the [[National Spelling Bee]].
*[[Convergys]]
*Portion PAC (in [[Mason, Ohio]])
*Formica Corporation
*[[Cintas]] (in [[Mason, Ohio]])
*[[Mitsubishi]] Automotive Electric America (in [[Mason, Ohio]])
*[[Skyline Chili]]
*Paycor, Inc.
==Sister cities==
Cincinnati has eight [[town twinning|sister cities]]{{mn|Sisters|3}}:
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Gifu]] ([[Japan]])
* {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} - [[Harare]] ([[Zimbabwe]])
* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} - [[Kharkiv]] ([[Ukraine]])
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Liuzhou]] ([[China]])
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Munich]] ([[Germany]])
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Nancy]] ([[France]])
* {{flagicon|Taiwan}} - [[Taipei]] ([[Taiwan]])
* {{flagicon|Taiwan}} - [[Taipei-Tsien]] ([[Taiwan]])
|}
Cincinnati also has one un-official sister city of [[Netanya]] ([[Israel]]).
==See also==
{{Commonscat|Cincinnati, Ohio}}
*[[Cincinnati Flower Show]]
*[[List of famous people from Cincinnati]]
*[[List of Mayors of Cincinnati, Ohio]]
*[[List of cities and towns along the Ohio River]]
*[[History of Cincinnati, Ohio]]
==References==
<!--This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnote4]] please add references using that system and adjust the other references as necessary-->
*{{mnb|NOAA|1}} Climate information from [http://www.noaa.gov/ NOAA].
*{{mnb|MaxMinTemps|2}} Maximum and minimum temperatures from [http://weather.yahoo.com/forecast/USOH0188.html Yahoo! Weather]
*{{mnb|Sisters|3}} Sister cities designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI)]
==External links==
*[http://www.cincinnati-oh.gov/ Cincinnati official website]
*[http://www.cincinnatiusa.org/ Cincinnati USA]
*[http://www.cincyimages.com Cincinnati Skyline, Images and Photographs]
*[http://www.vrcincinnati.com Virtual Reality Scenes of Cincinnati]
*[http://www.filmcincinnati.com Cincinnati Film Commission]
*[http://www.cincinnati.com/local/atoz/government.html City government in the reform period]
*[http://www.tysto.com/articles05/q2/20050407twilight.shtml Cincinnati by twilight] pictorial at Tysto.
*[http://www.robbucher.com/cincytheatre Cincinnati Theater Web]
*[http://www.huc.edu Skirball Museum,Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion]
*[http://wineevents.awscincy.com/ Cincinnati Wine Events]
*[http://www.fundayevents.com/ Fun Day Events]
*[http://urbanohio.com/Cincinnati.htm Pictures of Cincinnati on UrbanOhio.com]
*[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=681] Some information about the historical race riots
*[http://www.ccrkba.org/journalfpp/Cotroll%20Journal%207.html] Detail of the 1841 riots
*[http://www.heritagepursuit.com/Hamilton/HamiltonChapXXIV.htm] Pro-slavery riots took place for days and other details of the 1884.
*[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rhernand/race_riots1.htm] Thousands of Blacks leave for Canada as a result of the riots
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.13616|-84.503088}}
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[[zh:辛辛那堤]]</text>
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<username>Syp</usernam |
's as their surname; for example, a son of ''Juan de la Cruz'' and his wife ''Maria Agbayani'' may be ''David Agbayani de la Cruz''. Women take the surnames of their husband upon marriage; so upon her marriage to ''David de la Cruz'', the full name of ''Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg'' would become ''Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg de la Cruz''.
==Iceland==
{{details|Icelandic name|Naming conventions of Iceland}}
In [[Iceland]], most people have no family name; a person's last name is a [[patronymic]], i.e. a modified form of the father's first name or, sometimes, the mother's. For example, when a man called ''Karl'' has a daughter called ''Anna'' and a son called ''Magnús'', their names will be ''Anna Karlsdóttir'' ("daughter of Karl") and ''Magnús Karlsson'' ("son of Karl").
== Finland ==
Most [[Finnish|Finns]] have surnames ending with ''-nen'', for example ''Räikkönen'', ''Häkkinen'', ''Lipponen'', etc. However, there is a considerable minority of surnames with suffixes like ''-mäki'' ("-hill"), ''-järvi'' ("-lake"), ''-joki'' ("-river"), that describes the place where an ancestor lived.
==Scandinavia==
In [[Scandinavia]] family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic. In [[Sweden]], the patronymic ending is -''sson'', e.g. ''Karlsson'' ("Karl's son"). In [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]], the corresponding ending is -''sen'', as in ''Karlsen''. Names ending with ''dotter/datter'' (daughter), such as ''Olofsdotter'', are rare but occurring, and only apply to females. Today, the patronymic names are passed on similarly to family names in other Western countries, and a person's father doesn't have to be called Karl if he or she has the surname Karlsson.
Before the 19th century there was the same system in Scandinavia as in Iceland today. Noble families, however, as a rule adopted a family name, which could refer to a presumed or real forefather (e.g. Earl [[Birger Magnusson]] ''[[Folkung]]e'') or to the family's [[coat of arms]] (e.g. King [[Gustav Vasa|Gustav Eriksson]] ''[[House of Vasa|Vasa]]''). In many surviving family noble names, such as ''Cederqvist'' ("cedar-twig") or ''Stiernhielm'' ("star-helmet"), the spelling is obsolete, but since it applies to a name, remains unchanged.
Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and town dwellers, adopted names in a similar fashion to that of the nobility. Family names such as the Swedish ''Bergman'', ''Holmberg'', ''Lindgren'', ''Sandström'' and ''Åkerlund'' were quite frequent and remain common today. The same is true for similar Norwegian and Danish names.
These names often indicated the place of residence of the family. For this reason, Denmark and Norway have a very high incidence of names derived from those of farms, many signified by the suffix -''gaard'' -- the modern spelling is ''gård'' in Danish and has changed to ''gard'' in Norwegian, but as in Sweden, archaic spelling persists in surnames. The most well-known example of this kind of surname is probably ''[[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]]'' (original meaning: ''the farm located by the Church'' or also ''churchyard'' and ''cemetary'' [although this is unlikely in the context] which, with ''kierke'', actually includes two archaic spellings), but many others could be cited. It should also be noted that, since the names in question are derived from the original owners' domiciles, the possession of this kind of name is no longer an indicator of affinity with others who bear it.
In many cases, names were taken from the nature around them. A family name such as "Dahlgren" is dervied from "dahl" meaning valley and "gren" meaning branch.
==The Netherlands==
Many [[Netherlands|Dutch]] names start with a prefix like ''van'' ("of/from"), ''de''/''het''/''<nowiki>'</nowiki>t'' ("the"), ''der'' ("of the"), ''van de'' ("of the/from the"), and ''in het'' ("in the"). Examples are ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>t Hooft'' ("the head"), ''de Groot'' ("the great"), ''van Rijn'' ("from Rhine"). These prefixes are not spelled with a capital when used in combination with the first name, e.g. ''Piet de Groot''. When written without first name, a capital is used, e.g., ''Mr. Van Rijn''. In name directories, the prefixes are always ignored for sorting. Many Dutch surnames originated from different personal qualities, geographical locations, and occupations. Surnames were not required until 1811 when Napoleon invaded the Netherlands. Before 1811, many Dutch people used their first name plus their father's name.
==Belgium==
Since [[Belgium]] has three official languages &mdash; Dutch, French and German &mdash; Belgian names are similar to those in the neighbouring countries: the Netherlands, France and Germany. Some differences exist: for example, Belgian Dutch names (Flemish names) commonly have prefixes as mentioned [[#The Netherlands|above]], except that the prefixes usually always start with a capital letter, and are often written connected to the main word. Thus, ''de Bakker'' or ''van der Steen'' is probably Dutch while ''De Bakker'' and ''Vandersteen'' are Belgian, although names, which have older spellings like ''De Backer'', are more common. The most common Flemish surnames are ''Peeters'', ''Janssens'', ''Maes'', ''Jacobs'', ''Willems'', ''Mertens'', ''Claes'', ''Wouters'', ''Goossens'', and ''De Smet''. Flemish family names often resemble first names, e.g. the following first names relate to above surnames: e.g. ''Peter'', ''Jan'', ''Jacob'', ''Willem'', ''Maarten'', ''Klaas'', and ''Wouter''. The trailing ''s'' reportedly once meant "son of", so ''Willems'' would be "Willem's son". Furthermore ancient spelling remains visible in many names, e.g. usage of ''c'' instead of ''k'' and ''ae'' instead of ''aa'' (compare ''Claes'' with ''Klaas''). The most common [[Walloons|Walloonian]] (French Belgian) names are ''Dubois'', ''Lambert'', ''Martin'', ''Dupont'', ''Dumont'', ''Leclercq'', ''Simon'', ''Laurent'', ''Lejeune'', and ''Renard''.
==Russia==
A full [[Russians|Russian]] name consists of personal (given) name, patronymic, and family name (surname).
Most Russian family names originated from patronymics, that is, father's name in the genitive case (usually formed by adding the genetive suffix ''-ov(a)'' or ''-ev(a)''). Contemporaty patronymics, however, have additional suffixes ''-ich'' or ''-na'' for masculine or feminine, respectively.
For example, the proverbial triad of most common Russian surnames follows:
*''Ivan'''ov''''' ("son of ''Ivan''"),
*''Petr'''ov''''' ("son of ''Petr''"),
*''Sidor'''ov''''' ("son of ''Sidor''").
Feminine forms of these surnames have the ending ''-a'':
*''Ivanov'''a''''' ("''Ivan's'' daughter"),
*''Petrov'''a''''' ("''Petr's'' daughter"),
*''Sidorov'''a''''' ("''Sidor's'' daughter").
Such a pattern of name formation is not unique to Russia or even to the Eastern and Southern Slavs in general; quite common are also names derived from professions, places of origin, and personal characteristics, with various suffixes (e.g. ''-in(a)'' and ''-sky (-skaia)'').
Professions:
* ''kuznets'' ("[[Smith (metalwork)|smith]]") → ''Kuznetsov''—''Kuznetsova''
* ''portnoi'' ("[[tailor]]") → ''Portnov''—''Portnova''
* ''pastukh'' ("[[shepherd]]") → ''Pastukhov''—''Pastukhova''
Places of origin:
* ''Moskva'' ("[[Moscow]]") → ''Moskvin''—''Moskvina'',
* ''Smolensk'' → ''Smolensky''—''Smolenskaia'',
* ''Riazan'' → ''Riazanov''—''Riazanova'',
Personal characteristics:
* ''tolsty'' ("fat") → ''Tolstov''—''Tolstova'', ''Tolstoy''—''Tolstaya'',
* ''nose'' ("big"), ''nos'' → ''Nosov''—''Nosova'',
* ''sedoi'' ("grey") → ''Sedov''—''Sedova''.
A considerable number of “artificial” names exists, for example, those given to seminary graduates; such names were based on major Orthodox holy days or Christian virtues.
Major Orthodox holy days:
* ''rozhdestvo'' ("Christmas") → ''Rozhdestvensky''—''Rozhdestvenskaia'',
* ''voskresenie'' ("Resurrection") → ''Voskresensky''—''Voskresenskaia'',
* ''uspenie'' ("Assumption") → ''Uspensky''—''Uspenskaia'',
Christian virtues:
* ''philagathos'' ("one who loves goodness") → ''Dobrolubov''—''Dobrolubova'', ''Dobrolubsky''—''Dobrolubskaia'',
* ''philosophos'' ("one who loves wisdom") → ''Lubomudrov''—''Lubomudrova'',
* ''theophilos'' ("one who loves God") → ''Bogolubov''—''Bogolubova''.
Many freed serfs were given surnames after those of their former owners. For example, a serf of the [[Demidov]] family might be named ''Demidovsky'', which translates roughly as "belonging to Demidov" or "one of Demidov's bunch".
Grammatically, Russian family names follow the same rules as other nouns, with exceptions: some names do not change in different cases and have the same form in both genders (for example, ''Sedykh'').
==Poland==
{{details|Polish surnames}}
In [[Poland]] and most of the former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] the surnames first appeared in late Middle Ages. They initially denoted the differences between various people living in the same town or village and bearing the same name. The conventions were similar to those of English surnames, using denoting occupations, patronymic descent, geographic origins, or personal characteristics. Thus, early surnames indicating occupation include ''Karczmarz'' ("innkeeper"), ''Kowal'' ("blacksmith"), and ''Bednarczyk'' ("young cooper"), while those indicating patronymic descent include ''Szczepaniak'' ("Son of ''Szczepan''), ''Józefski'' ("Son of ''Józef''), and ''Ka&#378;mirkiewicz'' ("Son o |
n to affect penile cancer risk.'' (2005, [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_Can_penile_cancer_be_prevented_35.asp])
===[[Phimosis]] and [[paraphimosis]]===
Pathological [[phimosis]] is a condition of a very tight foreskin that makes retraction over the glans painful or impossible. Rickwood suggested that the term 'phimosis' should be restricted to cases in which the prepuce loses suppleness and becomes scarred.[http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood/] [[Paraphimosis]] is an acute condition where the tight foreskin is stuck behind the glans and cannot be moved back, curbs the blood flow to the glans, and in children, is sometimes caused by a caregiver trying to [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forcibly retract the infant foreskin]].[http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/]
The AAP state that the true frequency of such problems is unknown.[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] Fergusson et al found phimosis in 16% of non-circumcised boys,[http://www.circs.org/library/fergusson/index.html] while Herzog and Alvarez found it in 2.6%.[http://www.circs.org/library/herzog/index.html] Rickwood and Walker raised concern that phimosis is frequently misdiagnosed by physicians confusing it with the developmentally non-retractible foreskin.[http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood2/]
Several studies have identified phimosis as a risk factor for penile cancer, leading Willcourt to state that it would be irresponsible to expose a patient to risk for longer than necessary.[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#110919]
===[[Urinary tract infections]]===
Several studies and statistics have indicated that neonatal circumcision reduces the occurrence rate of ''UTI'' in male infants by a factor of about 10.[http://www.circs.org/library/singhgrewal/index.html] Some of these studies have been criticised in not taking other factors (especially for non-circumcision) into account.[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] A Swedish study found that the cumulative incidence of UTIs in boys under 2 years of age was 2.2%.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/104/2/222]
The [[Canadian Pediatric Society]] poses the question of whether increased [[UTI]] and [[balanitis]] rates in non-circumcised male infants may be caused by [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forced premature retraction]]. [http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/FN/fn96-01.htm]
==[[Sex|Sexual]]==
{{main|Sexual effects of circumcision}}
The sexual effects of circumcision are controversial. Only a few studies have been made about the sexual function of the foreskin and the [[ridged band]]. Surveys however indicate that the majority of circumcised males are satisfied with their state.
===[[Intercourse]]===
There are few studies on partner preference for circumcised or non-circumcised penises, with inconclusive results; they are discussed more fully in the full article.
The American Academy of Pediatrics states "a survey of adult males using self-report suggests more varied sexual practice and less sexual dysfunction in circumcised adult men. There are anecdotal reports that penile sensation and sexual satisfaction are decreased for circumcised males."[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] The American Academy of Family Physicians states "no valid evidence to date, however, supports the notion that being circumcised affects sexual sensation or satisfaction."[http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml]
==History of circumcision==
{{main|History of male circumcision}}
It has been variously proposed that circumcision began as a religious [[sacrifice]], as a [[rite of passage]] marking a boy's entrance into adulthood, as a form of [[magical thinking|sympathetic magic]] to ensure virility, as a means of suppressing (or enhancing) sexual pleasure, as an aid to [[hygiene]] where regular [[bathing]] was impractical, as a means of marking those of lower (or higher) social status, as a means of differentiating a circumcising group from their non-circumcising neighbors, as a means of discouraging [[masturbation]] or other socially proscribed sexual behaviors, to remove "excess" pleasure, to increase a man's attractiveness to women, as a symbolic [[castration]], as a demonstration of one's ability to endure pain, or as a male counterpart to [[menstruation]] or the breaking of the [[hymen]]. It is possible that circumcision arose independently in different cultures for different reasons.
[[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''[[Kocek|Köçeks]] at a fair'''<br>Köçek troupe dancing at Sultan [[Ahmed III]]'s 14-day celebration of his sons' circumcision in 1720. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]]
===Circumcision in the ancient world===
The oldest documentary evidence for circumcision comes from [[ancient Egypt]]. Tomb artwork from the [[Sixth Dynasty]] (2345-2181 BCE) shows men with circumcised penises, and one [[relief]] from this period shows the rite being performed on a standing adult male. The [[Egyptian hieroglyph]] for "penis" depicts either a circumcised or an erect organ. The examination of Egyptian mummies has found some with foreskins and others who were circumcised.
Circumcision was common, although not universal, among ancient [[Semitic]] peoples. The [[Book of Jeremiah]], written in the sixth century BCE, lists the Egyptians, Jews, [[Edomites]], [[Ammonites]], and [[Moabites]] as circumcising cultures. [[Herodotus]], writing in the fifth century BCE, would add the [[Colchis|Colchians]], [[Ethiopia]]ns, [[Phoenicians]], and [[Syria]]ns to that list.
In the aftermath of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], Greek dislike of circumcision led to a decline in its incidence among many peoples that had previously practiced it. The writer of the [[1 Maccabees]] wrote that under the [[Seleucid]]s, many Jewish men attempted to hide or reverse their circumcision so they could exercise in Greek [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasia]], where nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of [[brit milah]] (Jewish circumcision), and punished those who performed it&ndash;as well as the infants who underwent it&ndash;with death.
===Medical circumcision in the 19th century and early 20th century===
Several hypotheses have been raised in explaining the American public's acceptance of infant circumcision as preventive medicine. The success of the [[germ theory of disease]] had not only enabled physicians to combat many of the postoperative complications of surgery, but had made the wider public deeply suspicious of dirt and bodily secretions. Accordingly, the [[smegma]] that collects under the foreskin was viewed as unhealthy, and circumcision readily accepted as good penile hygiene.[http://www.cirp.org/library/history/gollaher/] Secondly, moral sentiment of the day regarded [[masturbation]] as not only [[sin]]ful, but also physically and mentally unhealthy, stimulating the foreskin to produce the host of maladies of which it was suspected. In this climate, circumcision could be employed as a means of discouraging masturbation.[http://www.noharmm.org/paige.htm] ''All About the Baby'', a popular parenting book of the 1890s, recommended infant circumcision for precisely this purpose. Interestingly, a 1410-man survey in the United States in 1992, [http://www.circs.org/library/laumann/index.html Laumann] found that circumcised men were ''more'' likely to report masturbating at least once a month.
With the proliferation of [[hospital]]s in urban areas, [[childbirth]], at least among the upper and middle classes, was increasingly undertaken in the care of a physician in a hospital rather than that of a [[midwife]] in the home. It has been suggested that once a critical mass of infants were being circumcised in the hospital, circumcision became a class marker of those wealthy enough to afford a hospital birth.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/USA/waldeck1/]
By the 1920s, advances in the understanding of disease had undermined much of the original medical basis for preventive circumcision. Doctors continued to promote it, however, as good penile hygiene and as a preventive for a handful of conditions local to the penis: balanitis, phimosis, and penile cancer.
Routine infant circumcision was taken up in the English-speaking parts of [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], and to a lesser extent in [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate[http://www.boystoo.com/history/statistics.htm] of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, and 72% in 1950.
===Circumcision since 1950===
In [[1949]], a lack of consensus in the medical community as to whether circumcision carried with it any notable health benefit motivated the United Kingdom's newly-formed [[National Health Service]] to remove routine infant circumcision from its list of covered services. One factor in this rejection of circumcision may have been Douglas Gardiner's famous paper, ''The fate of the foreskin'', which revealed, that for the years 1942&ndash;1947, about 16 children per year had died because of circumcision in England and Wales, a rate of about 1 per 6'000 performed circumcisions. [http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/] Since then, circumcision has been an out-of-pocket cost to parents, and the proportion of newborns circumcised in England and Wales has fallen to less than one percent.
In Canada, individual provincial health services began delisting circumcision in the 1980s. At present, only [[Manitoba]] pays for the procedure. The infant circumcision rate in Canada |
riting the long short story ''The Steppe'' (''Step''), which was eventually published in a serious literary journal ''Severny vestnik'' ("Northern Herald"). This short story marked a new height for the writer, having the prestige to be published in a leading periodical of the time and showing the maturity that distinguished his later fiction.
[[Image:1900 yalta-gorky and chekhov.jpg|left|thumb|300px|With [[Maxim Gorky]] at [[Yalta]] in 1900.]]
The first production of "The Seagull," which premiered October 17, 1896, in St. Petersburg, was disastrous for Chekhov. The opening night audience was expecting a comedy and the company had had only nine days to rehearse. Jeers and boos greeted Nina's monologue at the end of Act I. So distraught was Chekhov that he wrote "I shall never forget last evening...I shall not have that play produced in Moscow, ever. NEVER again shall I write play or have them staged." (As luck would have it, audiences from the 2nd and 3rd nights were more appreciative; however, Chekhov ignored them.)
After the second production of ''The Seagull'' (and first successful one) by the [[Moscow Art Theatre]], in 1898, he wrote three more plays for the same company: ''Uncle Vanya'', ''The Three Sisters'' and ''The Cherry Orchard''. In [[1901]] he married [[Olga Leonardovna Knipper]] ([[1870]]-[[1959]]), an actress who performed in his plays.
The movement toward [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalism]] in theatre that was sweeping Europe reached its highest artistic peak in Russia in 1898 with the formation of the Moscow Art Theatre (later, until recently, called МХАТ, the [[Moscow Academy Art Theatre]]). Its name became synonymous with that of Chekhov, whose plays about the day-to-day life of the [[landed gentry]] achieved a delicate poetic realism that was years ahead of its time. [[Konstantin Stanislavsky]], its director, became the [[20th century]]'s most influential theorist on acting.
Accompanied by Suvorin, Chekhov visited western [[Europe]]. Their long and close friendship negatively reflected on Chekhov's popularity, as Suvorin's ''Novoye vremya'' was considered politically reactionary in the increasingly liberal times. Eventually, Chekhov broke with Suvorin over the attitude taken by the paper toward the notorious [[Dreyfus Affair]] in [[France]], with Chekhov championing the cause of [[Alfred Dreyfus]].
His illness forced Chekhov to spend long periods of time in [[Nice]], [[France]] and later in [[Yalta]] in the [[Crimea]]. Chekhov died of complications of tuberculosis in [[Badenweiler]], [[Germany]] where he had been visiting a special clinic for treatment. He was buried in [[Novodevichy Cemetery]].
== Assessment ==
It can be safely said that Chekhov revolutionized the [[literary genre|genre]] of short story; his subject matter and technique influenced many future short-story writers. It is often said that little action occurs in Chekhov's stories and plays, but he compensates for lack of outward excitement by his original techniques for developing internal drama. The point of a typical Chekhov story is most often what happens within a given character, and that is conveyed indirectly, by suggestion or by significant detail. Chekhov eschews the traditional build-up of chronological detail, instead emphasizing moments of epiphanies and illumination over a significantly shorter period of time. As such, his best stories have a psychological realism and concision seldom matched by other writers. [[Tolstoy]] likened Chekhov's technique to that of the French [[Impressionists]], who daubed canvases with paint apparently without reason, but achieved an overall effect of vivid, unchallengeable artistry.
[[Image:Grave of Anton Chekhov.jpg|thumb|Gravestone in Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.]]
One critic <!-- name?? --> says of Chekhov that he is no moralist &mdash; he simply says "you live badly, ladies and gentlemen," but his smile has the indulgence of a very wise man.
As samples of the Russian epistolary art, Chekhov's letters have been rated second only to [[Aleksandr Pushkin]]'s by the literary historian [[D.S. Mirsky]]. Although Chekhov is still chiefly known for his plays, critical opinion shows signs of establishing the stories, particularly those that were written after [[1888]], as an even more significant and creative literary achievement.
Equally innovative in his dramatic works, Chekhov sought to convey the texture of everyday life and move away from traditional ideas of plot and conventions of dramatic speech. Dialogue in his plays is not smooth or continuous: characters interrupt each other, several different conversations take place at the same time, and lengthy pauses occur when no one speaks at all. A recurring theme is the pointlessness of radical, human or mechanical change, versus the powerful inertia of slow organic cycles.
<!-- consider moving this para into Quotes, after finding the name of...
One of the actors once told Chekhov that Stanislavsky intended to have frogs croaking, the sound of dragonflies, and dogs barking on the stage. "Why?" Chekhov asked with a note of dissatisfaction in his voice. "It is realistic," the actor replied. "Realistic," Chekhov repeated with a laugh, and after a slight pause he said: "The stage is art. There is a canvas of Kranskoi (a famous Russian painter) in which he wonderfully depicts human faces and substituted a real one. The nose will be realistic but the picture will be spoiled." -->
Perhaps one of his best known contributions is ''[[Chekhov's dictum]]'' (also known as ''Chekhov's Gun''): ''If you say in the first chapter that there is a rifle hanging on the wall, in the second or third chapter it absolutely must go off. If it's not going to be fired, it shouldn't be hanging there.''
==Influence==
[[Image:Anton Tschechow Denkmal.JPG|thumb|150px|left|A bust of Chekov in Badenweiler, Germany, where he died.]]
Although contemporary [[Russia]]n literary critics celebrated Chekhov, international fame came only after [[World War I]] with [[Constance Garnett]]'s [[English language|English]] translations.
Chekhov's plays were immensely popular in [[England]] in the [[1920s]] and have become classics of the [[United Kingdom|British]] stage. In the [[United States]] his fame came somewhat later, through the influence of Stanislavsky's technique for achieving realistic acting. American [[playwright]]s such as [[Tennessee Williams]], [[Arthur Miller]], and [[Clifford Odets]] have used Chekhovian techniques, and few important writers of plays in the 20th century can have escaped Chekhov's influence entirely: for example, the work by British playwright [[Michael Frayn]] is often compared to that of Chekhov for its focus on humorous family situations and its insights into society.
Many writers of prose, particularly of short stories, have also been influenced by Chekhov, such as [[Katherine Mansfield]]. [[John Cheever]] has been called "the Chekhov of the suburbs" for his ability to capture the drama and sadness of the lives of his characters by revealing the undercurrents of apparently insignificant events. American writer [[Raymond Carver]] was also frequently compared to Chekhov, because of his minimalistic prose style, and tendency to meditate upon the humor and tragedy in the everyday lives of working class people.
Master of the short story, the British author [[Victor Sawdon Pritchett]]'s short stories are prized for their craftsmanship and comic irony similar to that of Chekhov.
The continuously growing list of films and theater productions based on Chekhov's stories and plays includes [[Emil Loteanu]]'s ''My Tender and Affectionate Beast'' (1978, see {{imdb title|id=0172812|title=Мой ласковый и нежный зверь}}), [[Nikita Mikhalkov]] and [[Marcello Mastroianni]]'s ''Dark Eyes'' (1987), [[Louis Malle]]'s ''Vanya on 42nd Street'' (1994), [[Anthony Hopkins]]'s ''August'' (1996), [[Lanford Wilson]]'s ''The Three Sisters'' (1997), among many others.
== Works ==
=== Plays ===
*''That Worthless Fellow Platonov'' (c.[[1881]]) - one act
*''On the Harmful Effects of Tobacco'' ([[1886]], [[1902]])
*''Ivanov'' ([[1887]]) - four acts
*''The Bear'' ([[1888]]) - one act comedy
*''The Proposal'' or [[A Marriage Proposal]] (c.[[1888]]-[[1889]]) - one act
*''The Wedding'' ([[1889]]) - one act
*''The Wood Demon'' ([[1889]]) - four-act comedy
*''[[The Seagull]]'' ([[1896]])
*''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' ([[1899]]-[[1900]]) - based on ''The Wood Demon''
*''[[The Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'' ([[1901]])
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' ([[1904]])
=== Nonfiction ===
*''A Journey to Sakhalin'' ([[1895]]), including:
**''Saghalien [or Sakhalin] Island'' ([[1891]]-[[1895]])
**''Across Siberia''
*Letters
=== Short stories ===
Many of the earlier stories were written under the pseudonym "Antosha Chekhonte".
*"Intrigues" ([[1879]]-[[1884]]) - nine stories
*"Late-Blooming Flowers" ([[1882]])
*"The Death of a Government Clerk" ([[1883]])
*"The Swedish Match" ([[1883]])
*"Lights" ([[1883]]-[[1888]])
*"Oysters" ([[1884]])
*"Perpetuum Mobile" ([[1884]])
*''A Living Chronology'' ([[1885]])
*"Motley Stories" ("Pëstrye Rasskazy") ([[1886]])
*"Excellent People" ([[1886]])
*"Misery" ([[1886]])
*"The Princess" ([[1886]])
*"The Scholmaster" ([[1886]])
*"A Work of Art" ([[1886]])
*"Hydrophobia" ([[1886]]-[[1901]])
*"At Home" ([[1887]])
*"The Beggar" ([[1887]])
*"The Doctor" ([[1887]])
*"Enemies" ([[1887]])
*"The Examining Magistrate" ([[1887]])
*"Happiness" ([[1887]])
*"The Kiss" ([[1887]])
*"On Easter Eve" ([[1887]])
*"Typhus" ([[1887]])
*"Volodya" ([[1887]])
*"The Steppe" ([[1888]]) - won the Pushk |
id>15901983</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-02T14:39:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bulgaria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Bulgaria</title>
<id>3668</id>
<revision>
<id>40139285</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T12:22:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TodorBozhinov</username>
<id>277419</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm some irrelevant sentence in the intro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bu-map.png|right|Map of Bulgaria]]
'''[[Bulgaria]]''' is a country situated in south-eastern [[Europe]], bordering [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Greece]], [[Turkey]] and the [[Black Sea]]. Its northern border with Romania follows the [[Danube]] river until [[Silistra]]. The land area of Bulgaria is 110,550 square kilometers, slightly larger than that of [[Iceland]] or the [[U.S.]] state of [[Tennessee]]. The country is situated on the west coast of the Black Sea, with Romania to the north, Greece and Turkey to the south, and Yugoslavia to the west. Considering its small size, Bulgaria has a great variety of topographical features. Even within small parts of the country, the land may be divided into plains, plateaus, hills, mountains, basins, gorges, and deep river valleys.
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|43|N|25|E|}}
==Boundaries==
Although external historical events often changed Bulgaria's national boundaries in its first century of existence, natural terrain features defined most boundaries after 1944, and no significant group of people suffered serious economic hardship because of border delineation. Postwar Bulgaria contained a large percentage of the ethnic [[Bulgarian people]], although numerous migrations into and out of Bulgaria occurred at various times. None of the country's borders was officially disputed in 1991, although nationalist Bulgarians continue to claim that Bulgaria's share of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]—which it shares with both [[Republic of Macedonia]] and Greece—is less than just because of the ethnic connection between Macedonians and Bulgarians.
Bulgaria has a total border of about 2,264 km. Rivers account for about 680 km and the [[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast|Black Sea coast]] for 400 km; the southern and western borders are mainly defined by [[ridge]]s in high terrain. The western and northern boundaries are shared with [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and Romania, respectively, and the Black Sea coastline constitutes the entire eastern border. The Romanian border follows the Danube for 464 km from the northwestern corner of the country to the city of [[Silistra]] and then cuts to the east-southeast for 136 km. The Danube, with steep bluffs on the Bulgarian side and a wide area of swamps and marshes on the Romanian side, is one of the most effective river boundaries in Europe. The line through [[Dobruja]] is arbitrary and was redrawn several times according to international treaties. In that process, most inhabitants with strong national preferences resettled in the country of their choice. Borders to the south are with Greece and Turkey, the border with Greece being 491 kilometres long, and the Turkish border having a length of 240 kilometres.
==Topography==
[[Image:Bulgaria 1994 CIA map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Bulgaria]]
The main characteristic of Bulgaria's topography is alternating bands of high and low terrain that extend east to west across the country. From north to south, those bands are the [[Danubian Plateau]], [[Stara Planina]] (the Balkan Mountains), the central [[Thracian Plain]], and the [[Rhodope Mountains]]. The easternmost sections near the Black Sea are hilly, but they gradually gain height to the west until the westernmost part of the country is entirely high ground.
More than two-thirds of the country is plains, plateaus, or hilly land at an altitude less than 600 m. Plains (below 200 m) make up 31 % of the land, plateaus and hills (200 to 600 m) 41 %, low mountains (600 to 1,000 m) 10 %, medium-sized mountains (1,000 to 1,500 m) 10 %, and high mountains (over 1,500 m) 3 %. The average altitude in Bulgaria is 470 m.
The Danubian Plateau extends from the western borders to the Black Sea. It encompasses the area between the Danube River, which forms most of the country's northern border, and Stara Planina to the south. The plateau slopes gently from cliffs along the river, then it abuts mountains of 750 to 950 m. The plateau, a fertile area with undulating hills, is the granary of the country.
The southern edge of the Danubian Plateau blends into the foothills of Stara Planina, sometiems thought of as the Bulgarian part of the [[Carpathian Mountains]]. The Carpathians resemble a reversed S as they run eastward from the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]] across the northern portion of Romania, swinging southward to the middle of Romania and then running westward, where they are known as the [[Transylvanian Alps]]. The mountains turn eastward again at the [[Iron Gate]], a gorge of the Danube River at the Romanian-Serbian border. At that point, they become Stara Planina of Bulgaria.
Stara Planina originates at the [[Timok Valley]] in [[Serbia]] and run southward towards the [[Sofia Basin]] in west central Bulgaria. From there they run east to the Black Sea. The Balkans are about 600 km long and 30 to 50 km wide. They retain their height well into central Bulgaria, where [[Botev Peak]], the highest point in the Balkan Mountains, rises to about 2,376 m. The range then continues at lower altitude to the cliffs of the Black Sea. Through most of Bulgaria, the Balkans form the watershed from which rivers drain north to the Danube River or south to the [[Aegean Sea]]. Some smaller rivers in the east drain directly to the Black Sea. The [[Sredna Gora]] is a narrow ridge about 160 km long and 1,600 m high, running east to west parallel to the Balkans. Just to the south is the [[Rose Valley]], famous for rose oil used in perfume and liqueurs.
The southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains and the Sredna Gora give way to the [[Thracian Plain]]. Roughly triangular in shape, the plain originates at a point east of the mountains near [[Sofia]] and broadens eastward to the Black Sea. It includes the [[Maritsa]] valley and the lowlands that extend from the river to the Black Sea. Like the Danubian Plateau, much of the Thracian Plain is somewhat hilly and not a true plain. Most of its terrain is moderate enough to cultivate.
Relatively high mountains occupy the area between the Thracian Plain and the Greek border to the south. The western parts consist of two ranges: the [[Rila|Rila Mountains]] south of [[Sofia]] and the [[Pirin Mountains]] in the southwestern corner of the country. They are the most outstanding topographic feature of Bulgaria and of the entire Balkan Peninsula. The Rila range includes [[Mount Musala]], whose 2,975-metre peak is the highest in any Balkan country. About a dozen other peaks in Rila are over 2,600 meters. The highest peaks are characterized by sparse bare rocks and remote lakes above the tree line. The lower peaks, however, are covered with alpine meadows that give the range an overall impression of green beauty. The Pirin range is characterized by rocky peaks and stony slopes. Its highest peak is [[Mount Vihren]], at 2,915 meters the second-highest peak in Bulgaria.
The largest basin in Bulgaria is the [[Sofia Basin]]. About 24 km wide and 96 km long, the basin contains the capital city and the area immediately surrounding it. The route through basins and valleys from [[Belgrade]] to [[Istanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]]) via Sofia has been historically important since [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]], determining the strategic significance of the [[Balkan Peninsula]]. Bulgaria's largest cities were founded on this route. Paradoxically, although the mountains made many Bulgarian villages and towns relatively inaccessible, Bulgaria has always been susceptible to invasion because no natural obstacle blocked the route through Sofia.
A significant part of Bulgaria's land is prone to earthquakes. Two especially sensitive areas are the borders of the [[North Bulgarian Swell]] (rounded elevation), the center of which is in the [[Gorna Oryahovitsa]] area in north-central Bulgaria, and the [[West Rhodopes Vault]], a wide area extending through the Rila and northern Pirin regions to [[Plovdiv]] in south-central Bulgaria. Especially strong tremors also occur along diagonal lines running between [[Skopje]] in the Republic of Macedonia and [[Razgrad]] in northeast Bulgaria, and from [[Albania]] eastward across the southern third of Bulgaria through Plovdiv. Sixteen major earthquakes struck Bulgaria between 1900 and 1986, the last two in [[Strazhitsa]] on the Skopje-Razgrad fault line. Together the two quakes damaged over 16,000 buildings, half of them severely. One village was almost completely leveled, others badly damaged. Many inhabitants were still living in temporary housing four years later.
==Drainage==
[[Image:Popovo ezero ot Jano.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Lake in Pirin mountain in Bulgaria]]
The [[Balkan Mountains]] divide Bulgaria into two nearly equal [[drainage system]]s. The larger system drains northward to the [[Black Sea]], mainly by way of the [[Danube River]]. This system includes the entire [[Danubian Plateau]] and a stretch of land running forty-eight to eighty kilometers inland from the coastline. The second system drains the [[Thracian Plain]] and most of the higher lands of the south and southwest to the [[Aegean Sea]]. Although only the Danube is navigable, many of the other rivers and streams in Bulgaria have a high potential for the production of hydroelectric power and are sources of irrigation water.
Of the Danube's Bu |
pleted [[Washington Monument]] is dedicated.
* [[1893]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives two [[U.S.]] [[patent]]s for a "[[Cut Out for Incandescent Electric Lamps]]" and for a "[[Stop Device]]"
* [[1916]] - [[World War I]]: In [[France]] the [[Battle of Verdun]] begins.
* [[1925]] - ''[[The New Yorker]]'' publishes its first issue.
* [[1937]] - Initial flight of the first successful [[flying car]], [[Waldo Waterman|Waldo Waterman's]] [[Waterman Arrowbile|Arrowbile]].
* 1937 - The [[League of Nations]] bans foreign national "[[Unlawful combatant|volunteers]]" in the [[Spanish Civil War]].
* [[1947]] - In [[New York City]] [[Edwin Land]] demonstrates the first "[[instant camera]]", the [[Polaroid Land Camera]], to a meeting of the [[Optical Society of America]].
* [[1948]] - [[NASCAR]] is incorporated.
* [[1952]] - [[Language Martyrs' Day]], marking language-revolution in the then [[East Pakistan]] (currently, the independent state of [[People's Republic]] of [[Bangladesh]]).
* 1952 - The [[government]] of [[Winston Churchill]] abolishes [[Identity Cards]] in the [[UK]] to "set the people free".
* 1952 - In [[East Pakistan]] (Present [[Bangladesh]]) Police opened fire on a procession of students, who demended to establish [[Bangla]] as the [[State Language]], killing four people and starting a country-wide protest which led to the independence of [[Bangladesh]] in [[1971]]. 21st February was later declared as "[[International Mother Language Day]]" by [[UNESCO]].
* [[1953]] - [[Francis Crick]] and [[James D. Watson]] discover the structure of the [[DNA]] molecule.
* [[1960]] - [[Cuba]]n leader [[Fidel Castro]] nationalizes all businesses in [[Cuba]].
* [[1965]] - [[Malcolm X]] is assassinated at the [[Audubon Ballroom]] in [[New York City]] by members of the [[Nation of Islam]].
* [[1970]] - [[Swissair Flight 330]]: A mid-air bomb explosion and subsequent crash kills 38 passengers and nine crew members near [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]].
* [[1971]] - The [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]] is signed at [[Vienna]].
* [[1972]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Richard Nixon]] visits the [[People's Republic of China]] to normalize [[Sino-American relations]].
* 1972 - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] unmanned [[spaceship]] [[Luna 20]] lands on the [[Moon]].
* [[1973]] - Over the [[Sinai Desert]], [[Israel]]i [[fighter aircraft]] shoot down a [[Libyan Airlines]] jet killing 108.
* [[1974]] - The long-running [[Japan]]ese [[comic strip]] "[[Sazae-san]]" publishes its final installment in the ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]''.
* 1974 - The last [[Israel]]i soldiers leave the west bank of the [[Suez Canal]] in carrying out a truce with [[Egypt]].
* [[1975]] - [[Watergate scandal]]: Former [[United States Attorney General]] [[John N. Mitchell]] and former [[White House]] aides [[H. R. Haldeman]] and [[John Ehrlichman]] are sentenced to prison.
* [[1981]] - [[Charles Rocket]], portraying the gunshot victim in a [[Saturday Night Live]] parody of the "[[Who Shot J.R.]]" plot on the program [[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]], said, "I'd like to know who the fuck did it," during the live feed of the "goodnights" segment. Afterward, everyone except [[Eddie Murphy]] and [[Joe Piscopo]] was fired.
* [[1986]] - [[Nintendo]] released [[The Legend of Zelda]] for the [[Famicom]] in [[Japan]].
* [[1986]] - [[Metallica]] released their 3rd album [[Master of Puppets]].
* [[1988]] - [[Jimmy Swaggart]], on his own [[televangelism]] program being taped in [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]], confesses that he is guilty of an unspecified sin and will be temporarily leaving the pulpit.
* [[1995]] - [[Serkadji prison mutiny]] in [[Algeria]]; 4 guards and 96 prisoners killed in a day and a half.
* 1995 - [[Steve Fossett]] lands in [[Leader, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]] becoming the first person to make a solo flight across the [[Pacific Ocean]] in a [[balloon]].
* [[2000]] - [[David Letterman]] returns to [[The Late Show with David Letterman|The Late Show]] over a month after having an emergency quintuple [[heart bypass]] surgery.
* [[2003]] - Over 100 concert goers in Rhode Island [[The Station nightclub fire|die in a fire]] during a performance of the rock band [[Great White (band)|Great White]].
* [[2004]] - The first [[European]] [[political party]] organization, the [[European Greens]], is established in [[Rome]].
==Births==
*[[1484]] - Elector [[Joachim I of Brandenburg]] (d. [[1535]])
*[[1556]] - [[Sethus Calvisius]], German calendar reformer (d. [[1615]])
*[[1621]] - [[Rebecca Nurse]], American accused witch (d. [[1692]])
*[[1675]] - [[Franz Xaver Josef von Unertl]], Bavarian politician (d. [[1750]])
*[[1688]] - Queen [[Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden]] (d. [[1741]])
*[[1705]] - [[Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke]], British naval officer (d. [[1781]])
*[[1721]] - [[John McKinly]], American physician and President of Delaware (d. [[1796]])
*[[1723]] - [[Louis-Pierre Anquetil]], French historian (d. [[1808]])
*[[1728]] - Tsar [[Peter III of Russia]], husband of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]] (d. [[1762]])
*[[1791]] - [[Carl Czerny]], Austrian composer (d. [[1857]])
*[[1801]] - [[John Henry Newman]], English Catholic cardinal (d. [[1890]])
*[[1821]] - [[Charles Scribner]], American publisher (d. [[1871]])
*[[1836]] - [[Léo Delibes]], French composer (d. [[1891]])
*[[1844]] - [[Charles-Marie Widor]], French organist and composer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1865]] - [[John Haden Badley]], English author and school founder (d. [[1967]])
*[[1867]] - [[Otto Hermann Kahn]], German millionaire and benefactor (d. [[1934]])
*[[1875]] - [[Jeanne Calment]], supercentenarian (d. [[1997]])
*[[1880]] - [[Waldemar Bonsels]], German writer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1885]] - [[Sacha Guitry]], Russian dramatist, writer, director, and actor (d. [[1957]])
*[[1893]] - [[Celia Lovsky]], Russian-born actress (d. [[1979]])
*1893 - [[Andrés Segovia]], Spanish guitarist (d. [[1987]])
*[[1895]] - [[Carl Peter Henrik Dam]] Danish biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Fairfax M. Cone]], American advertising executive (d. [[1977]])
*1903 - [[Anaïs Nin]], French writer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1907]] - [[W. H. Auden]], English poet (d. [[1973]])
*[[1910]] - [[Douglas Bader]], British pilot (d. [[1982]])
*1910 - [[Carmine Galante]], Italian-born gangster (d. [[1979]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ann Sheridan]], American actress (d. [[1967]])
*[[1917]] - [[Lucille Bremer]], American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1924]] - [[Robert Mugabe]] first [[President of Zimbabwe]]
*[[1925]] - [[Sam Peckinpah]], American director (d. [[1984]])
*[[1927]] - [[Erma Bombeck]], American humorist (d. [[1996]])
*1927 - [[Hubert de Givenchy]], French fashion designer
*[[1929]] - [[Chespirito|Roberto "Chespirito" Carlos Bolanõs]], Mexican actor, writer, comedian, and songwriter
*[[1933]] - [[Nina Simone]], American singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1934]] - [[Rue McClanahan]], American actress
*[[1936]] - [[Barbara Jordan]], American politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1937]] - King [[Harald V of Norway]]
*1937 - [[Gary Lockwood]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Wong Jim|James Wong]], Hong Kong composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1942]] - [[Margarethe von Trotta]], German actor, film director, and writer
*[[1943]] - [[David Geffen]], American record producer
*[[1946]] - [[Tyne Daly]], American actress
*1946 - [[Anthony Daniels]], British actor
*1946 - [[Alan Rickman]], English actor
*[[1947]] - [[Olympia Snowe]], American politician
*[[1949]] - [[Jerry Harrison]], American musician
*[[1953]] - [[Christine Ebersole]], American actress
*1953 - [[William Petersen]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Sir]] [[Steven Fayburgh]] [[KCMG]], British diplomat
*1955 - [[Kelsey Grammer]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Jake Burns]], Northern Ireland singer ([[Stiff Little Fingers]]}
*1958 - [[Mary Chapin Carpenter]], American singer
*1958 - [[Alan Trammell]], baseball player and manager
*[[1961]] - [[Davey Allison]], American race car driver (d. [[1993]])
*1961 - [[Christopher Atkins]], American actor
*1961 - [[Martha Hackett]], American actress
*1961 - [[Chuck Palahniuk]], American writer
*[[1962]] - [[David Foster Wallace]], American writer
*[[1963]] - [[William Baldwin]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Leroy Burrell]], American sprinter
*[[1969]] - [[Eric Wilson]], American musician ([[Sublime (band)|Sublime]])
*[[1970]] - [[Michael Slater]], Australian cricketer
*[[1972]] - [[Seo Taiji]], Korean musician
*[[1974]] - [[Ivan Campo]], Spanish footballer
*1974 - [[Roberto Heras]], Spanish cyclist
*[[1975]] - [[Affirmed]], American race horse (d. [[2001]])
*[[1977]] - [[Steve Francis]], [[NBA]] Basketball player
*1977 - [[Kevin Rose]], American television host
*[[1979]] - [[Pascal Chimbonda]], French footballer
*1979 - [[Lonnie Ford]], Arena Football League fullback/linebacker
*1979 - [[Jennifer Love Hewitt]], American actress and singer
*[[1983]] - [[Braylon Edwards]], American football player
*[[1986]] - [[Charlotte Church]], Welsh singer
*[[1987]] - [[Anthony Walker]], British student (d. [[2005]])
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1437]] - King [[James I of Scotland]] (b. [[1394]])
*[[1471]] - [[John of Rokycan]], Czech Catholic archbishop
*[[1513]] - [[Pope Julius II]] (b. [[1443]])
*[[1543]] - [[Ahmed Gragn]], Sultan of Adal
*[[1554]] - [[Hieronymus Bock]], German botanist
*[[1595]] - [[Robert Southwell]], English poet
*[[1668]] - [[John Thurloe]], English Puritan spy (b. [[1616]])
*[[1677]] - [[Baruch Spinoza]], Dutch philosopher (b. [[1632]])
*[[1715]] - [[Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore]], Governor of the Province of Maryland (b. [[1637]])
*[[1788]] - [[Johann Georg Palitzsch]], German astronomer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1824]] - [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], son of [[Josep |
]
* ''[[The Thin Blue Line (documentary)|The Thin Blue Line]]'' [[1988]]
* ''[[The Dark Wind]]'' [[1991]]
* ''[[A Brief History of Time (movie)|A Brief History of Time]]'' [[1991]]
* ''[[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]]'' [[1997]]
* ''[[Mr. Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr.]]'' [[1999]]
* ''[[The Fog of War]]'' [[2003]]
==Films about Errol Morris==
* ''[[Werner Herzog Eats His Shoe]]''
* ''[[A Brief History of Errol Morris]]''
==Awards==
* [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]] ''[[The Fog of War]]'' (2004)
* Best Documentary of the Year awards for ''[[The Fog of War]]'' (2003): the National Board of Review, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, the Chicago Film Critics, and the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics.
* 2002 International Documentary Association [http://pnnonline.org/article.php?sid=4108 list] of the 20 all-time best documentaries: ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (#2), ''[[Fast, Cheap & Out of Control]]'' (#14)
* [[Emmy]] for Best Commercial for [[PBS]] commercial "[http://www.errolmorris.com/commercials/pbs/pbs_photobooth.html Photobooth]" (2001)
* In December [[2001]], the United States' [[National Film Preservation Foundation]] announced that Morris's ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' would be one of the 25 films selected that year for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]] at the [[Library of Congress]], bringing the total at the time to 325.
* [[MacArthur Fellowship]] (1989)
* Washington Post Best Film of the Year for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* [[New York Film Critics Circle]] and the [[National Society of Film Critics]] Best Documentary for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* Golden Horse for Best Foreign Film at the Taiwan International Film Festival for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* Edgar for Best Motion Picture from Mystery Writers of America for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Gates of Heaven]]'' (1978) has long been on [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19971109/REVIEWS08/401010320/1023 Roger Ebert]'s list of the ten greatest films ever made.
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references />
</div>
==External links==
* [http://www.errolmorris.com/ Errol Morris's website]
:*Official online [http://www.errolmorris.com/store.html store].
* {{imdb name|id=0001554|name=Errol Morris}}
* [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/p/errol_morris/ Errol Morris at Rotten Tomatoes]
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:1948 births|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:Living people|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:American documentary filmmakers|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Morris, Errol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethan Allen</title>
<id>9333</id>
<revision>
<id>42080632</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:15:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chronomantiques</username>
<id>1024455</id>
</contributor>
<comment>r64.252.98.87</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Ticondsurrender.jpg|thumb|400px|An engraving depicting Ethan Allen demanding the surrender of Fort Ticonderoga]]
'''Ethan Allen''' ([[January 21]], [[1738]] &ndash; [[February 12]], [[1789]]) was an early American revolutionary and [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] leader during the era of the [[Vermont Republic]] and the [[New Hampshire Grants]]. He fought against the settlement of [[Vermont]] by the [[Province of New York]].
Allen was born in [[Litchfield, Connecticut|Litchfield]], [[Connecticut]], the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen. Ethan was the oldest of the eight children. He was the only one to be born in Litchfield, since the family moved to Cornwall shortly after his birth. His brother, [[Ira Allen|Ira]], figured prominently in the early history of Vermont. Joseph Allen was the leader of a rebellious group of land owners and speculators who held New Hampshire title to land grants in the New Hampshire Grants. New York, which held substantial claim to the area, refused to honor the New Hampshire titles and sold competing titles to different people, who generally did not live in Vermont. This led to open rebellion among the population in much of Vermont. In April of 1755, Joseph Allen died, leaving Ethan to take care of the family farm and title claims.
Allen was well over six feet tall, in a time when most men were a foot shorter. He was outspoken and apparently quite articulate. As a young man, he served in the colonial militia in the [[French and Indian War]]. He was married and had five children. In the early 1770s, he emerged as the military leader of Anti-New York dissidents, known as the [[Green Mountain Boys]], who were fighting New York over the New Hampshire grants. He was apparently reasonably effective in that role. A warrant was issued for his arrest by the government of New York, for the substantial reward of 100 pounds.
Now arrived the American Revolutionary War. In the spring of 1775, Allen and [[Benedict Arnold]] led a raid against [[Fort Ticonderoga]]. The relative roles of Allen and Arnold are not entirely clear. Nor is it clear to what extent the campaign was formulated by the strongly anti-British faction in Connecticut, to what extent it was the idea of the [[Green Mountain Boys]] headquartered at the Catamount Tavern in [[Bennington (town), Vermont|Bennington]], nor how much of the enthusiasm was fueled by alcohol rather than by patriotism. What is clear is that the rebels moved north, managed to get a few dozen men across [[Lake Champlain]] (they had considerable trouble finding a boat and the one they found was quite small). In a dawn attack, Ticonderoga was taken from the 22 British troops that held it and who were not aware that a war was in progress. Allen/Arnold's rebels also quickly captured forts at [[Crown Point, New York|Crown Point]], Fort Ann on [[Isle La Motte]] near the present Canadian border, and (temporarily) the town of St John (now [[Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec]]). The comic opera aspects of this campaign notwithstanding, the huge stores of cannon and powder seized at Ticonderoga allowed the American rebels to put in place an effective siege of Boston which caused the British to evacuate in October of 1775.
[[Image:ethan_allen_stamp.JPG|right]]
The [[Green Mountain Boys]] elected Allen's cousin, [[Seth Warner]], as leader; however, Allen commanded a small military force in the American rebels' campaign in Quebec in 1775. As a result of miscommunication or misjudgment, he attacked Montreal with a handful of men and was captured by the British. He was shipped to England where he was imprisoned in Pendennis Castle, Cornwall, and suffered considerable mistreatment. Allen was later transferred to New York, where he was eventually paroled in a prisoner exchange.
Allen then moved back to Vermont, which had become a hotbed of anti-everyone sentiment, harboring little affection for either England or for the nascent United States. Vermont was also harboring a significant number of deserters from the armies of both. Allen settled a homestead in the delta of the [[Winooski River]] near the modern city of [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]]. Allen remained active in Vermont politics and was appointed general in the Army of Vermont. In 1778, Allen appeared before the Continental Congress on behalf of a claim by Vermont for recognition as an independent state. Allen then negotiated with the governor of Canada between 1780 and 1783, in order to establish Vermont as a British province. Because of this, the US charged him with treason; however, because the negotiations were demonstrably intended to force action on the Vermont case by the Continental Congress, the charge was never substantiated.
Allen's first wife died in 1783 and he remarried in that year. Allen died in 1789, of a stroke, at the age of 51.
Two ships of the [[United States Navy]] have been named [[USS Ethan Allen|''Ethan Allen'']] in his honor, as well as [[Fort Ethan Allen]], a cavalry outpost, in Colchester and Essex, Vermont.
==Publications==
He wrote a ''Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity'' (1779); a ''Vindication of the Opposition of Vermont to the Government of New York'' (1779); and ''Reason the Only Oracle of Man, or A Compendious System of Natural Religion (1784).
==Literature==
* Henry Hall, ''Ethan Allen'' (New York, 1892)
* Sparks, ''Ethan Allen'' (Boston, 1834)
==External links==
*[http://libertyonline.hypermall.com/allen-reason.html Essay on natural religion by Allen: ''Reason: The Only Oracle of Man'', published 1784]
[[Category:1738 births|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:1789 deaths|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:American Revolution people|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:History of Vermont|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:Rebels]]
[[de:Ethan Allen]]
[[pl:Ethan Allen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecuador</title>
<id>9334</id>
<revision>
<id>42115134</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:44:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.112.146.168|68.112.146.168]] ([[User talk:68.112.146.168|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''República del Ecuador<br>Republic of Ecuador'''</big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
| align="center" width |
(slicht = skill)
Trenching your gushing entrails bricht,
Like ony ditch;
And then, O what a glorious sicht,
Warm-reekin, rich! (reeking = steaming)
Then, horn for horn, they stretch an' strive:
Deil tak the hindmaist! on they drive, (deil = devil)
Till a' their weel-swall'd kytes belyve, (kytes = bellies, belyve = soon)
Are bent like drums;
Then auld Guidman, maist like to rive, (rive = burp)
"Bethankit" hums.
Is there that o're his French ragout
Or olio that wad staw a sow,
Or fricassee wad mak her spew
Wi' perfect scunner,
Looks down wi' sneering, scornfu' view
On sic a dinner?
Poor devil! see him ower his trash,
As feckless as a wither'd rash,
His spindle shank, a guid whip-lash,
His nieve a nit; (nieve = fist, nit = louse's egg, ie. tiny)
Thro' bloody flood or field to dash,
O how unfit!
But mark the Rustic, haggis fed,
The trembling earth resounds his tread.
Clap in his wallie nieve a blade, (wallie = mighty, nieve = fist)
He'll mak it whistle;
An' legs an' arms, an' heads will sned, (sned = cut off)
Like taps o' thristle.
Ye Pow'rs wha mak mankind your care,
And dish them out their bill o' fare,
Auld Scotland wants nae skinking ware
That jaups in luggies; (jaups = slops about, luggies = two-handled
But, if ye wish her gratefu' prayer, continental bowls)
Gie her a haggis!
If the poem is being recited with any sense of drama or humour at all, then at the line ''His knife see rustic Labour dicht'' the speaker will normally raise a knife, sharpening it menacingly, and at the line ''An' cut you up wi' ready slicht'', plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end. When done properly this "ceremony" is a highlight of the evening.
=== Supper ===
At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis. Then the company will sit and enjoy the meal. The main course is, of course, haggis, and is traditionally served with mashed potatoes and mashed [[rutabaga|neeps]] (known in southern England as swede or in North America as rutabaga or turnip). A dessert course, cheese courses, coffee, etc. may also be part of the meal. The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes. For instance dessert may be [[cranachan]] or Tipsy Laird (sherry trifle) followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with liberal tots of the "water of life" – Scotch whisky.
When the meal reaches the coffee stage various speeches and toasts are given. In order the core speeches and toasts are as follows.
=== Loyal toast ===
The host proposes a toast to the health of the monarch (or to the leader of the country if it is not a [[monarchy]]).
=== Immortal memory ===
One of the guests gives a short speech, remembering some aspect of Burns' life or poetry. This may be light-hearted or intensely serious. The speaker should always prepare a speech with his audience in mind, since above all, the Burns' supper should be entertaining.
Everyone drinks a toast to Robert Burns.
=== Appreciation ===
The host will normally say a few words thanking the previous speaker for his speech and perhaps commenting on some of the points raised.
=== Toast to the lassies ===
This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to those women who had prepared the meal. However nowadays it is much more wide ranging, and generally covers the male speaker's view on women. It is normally amusing but should never be offensive, particularly bearing in mind that it will be followed by a reply from the "Lassies" concerned.
The men drink a toast to the women's health.
=== Reply to the toast to the lassies ===
This is occasionally (and humorously) called the 'Toast to the Laddies', and like the previous toast it is generally quite wide ranging nowadays. In it a female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker. Like the previous speech this should be amusing but not offensive. Quite often the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other.
The women drink a toast to the men's health.
=== Other toasts and speeches ===
These may follow if desired. It is not unusual to toast the locality or nation in which the supper is being held. It is also quite common to propose a toast to Scotland but there is no fixed list of subjects, so this is very dependent on circumstances.
=== Works by Burns ===
After the speeches, there may be singing of songs by Burns -- ''Ae Fond Kiss'', ''Parcel O' Rogues'', ''A Man's a Man'', etc -- and more poetry -- ''[[To a Mouse]]'', ''[[To a Louse]]'', ''Tam O' Shanter'', ''The Twa Dugs'', ''Holy Willie's Prayer'', etc. This may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts. It goes on for as long as the guests wish and may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots. The only rule is to give the audience what they want.
=== Dancing ===
There may occasionally be Scottish country dancing, if the venue allows, but this is not a normal part of a Burns supper.
=== Closing ===
Finally the host will wind things up, calling on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks, after which everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing '' [[Auld Lang Syne]] '' which brings the evening to an end.
[[Category:Robert Burns]]
[[Category:Scottish culture]]
[[de:Burns Supper]]
[[fi:Burnsin päivällinen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Bryson</title>
<id>5050</id>
<revision>
<id>42049464</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:16:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dudesleeper</username>
<id>787522</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>His title is stated earlier in the paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bill_bryson.JPG|thumb|260px|Bill Bryson in front of Durham Cathedral]]
'''William 'Bill' McGuire Bryson''' (born [[December 8]],[[1951]]) is a best-selling [[United States|American]] [[author]] of humorous books on [[travel]], as well as books on the [[English language]] and on [[science|scientific]] subjects. Born in [[Des Moines, Iowa]], he was educated at [[Drake University]] but dropped out in 1972 after deciding to backpack around Europe for four months. He returned to Europe the following year with his high-school friend, Stephen Katz (which, it transpires, is not his real name). Some of his experiences from this trip are re-lived as flashbacks in ''[[Neither Here Nor There]]'', which documents a similar journey Bryson made twenty years later.
In the mid-1970s, Bryson began working in a [[psychiatric hospital]] in [[Virginia Water]], [[Surrey]]. There he met and soon married his English wife, Cynthia, a hospital nurse. Together they returned to the USA in order for Bryson to complete his college degree, after which they settled in England in [[1977]], remaining there until 1995. Living in North [[Yorkshire]] and mainly working as a [[journalist]], he eventually became chief [[copy editor]] of the business section of ''[[The Times]]'', and then deputy national news editor of the business section of ''[[The Independent]]''. He left [[journalism]] in 1987, three years after the birth of his third child.
In 1995, Bryson returned to live in the [[United States]] (more specifically [[Hanover, New Hampshire]]) for some years. In [[2003]], however, Bryson and his family returned to [[England]], and are now living in [[Wymondham]], [[Norfolk]].
Also in [[2003]], in conjunction with [[World Book Day]], voters in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] chose Bryson's book ''[[Notes from a Small Island]]'' as the book that best sums up British identity and the state of the nation. In the same year, he was appointed a Commissioner for [[English Heritage]].
In [[2004]], Bryson won the prestigious [[The Aventis Prizes for Science Books|Aventis Prize]] for best general-science book with ''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]''. This concise and engaging piece of literature explores not only the histories and current status' of the sciences, but also reveals their humble and often humorous beginnings. One "top scientist" is alleged to have jokingly described the book as "annoyingly free of mistakes". [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/profile/story/0,11109,1642405,00.html]
Bryson has also written two works on the history of the English language - ''[[The Mother Tongue (book)|Mother Tongue]]'' and ''[[Made in America]]'' - and, more recently, an update of his guide to usage, ''[[Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words]]'' (published in its first edition as ''The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words'' in [[1983]]). These books were popularly acclaimed and well-reviewed, though they received criticism from academics in the field, who claimed they contained factual errors, urban myths, and [[folk etymologies]]. Though Bryson has no formal linguistics qualifications, he is a popular and generally well-regarded writer on the subject of languages.
In [[2005]], Bryson was appointed [[Chancellor]] of [[Durham University]], a city he had praised as "a perfect little city" in ''[[Notes from a Small Island]]''. He has also been awarded honorary degrees by numerous universities. He succeeded the late [[Sir Peter Ustinov]].
His next book project is a [[memoir]] about growing up in [[United_States_in_the_1950s|America in the 1950s]] called ''[[The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid]]''.
== Bibliography ==
=== Books on travel ===
*''[[The Palace Under the Alps and Over 200 Other Unusual, Unspoiled, and Infrequently Visited Spots in 16 European Countries]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[The Lost Continent: Travels i |
t;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = n/a|
GDP_PPP_year = 2004 |
GDP_PPP = 1,391,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = n/a|
GDP_PPP_per_capita = 32,300 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = n/a|
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = NA |
HDI_rank = unranked |
HDI_category = <font color=gray>NA</font> |
sovereignty_type = Creation |
established_dates = [[1963]] |
established_events = (split from [[Jamaica]])|
currency = [[Cayman dollar]] |
currency_code = KYD |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = -5 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = -5 |
cctld = [[.ky]] |
calling_code = [[Area code 345|1-345]] |
footnotes = |
}}
The '''Cayman Islands''' are an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in the western [[Caribbean Sea]] comprising the islands of [[Grand Cayman]], [[Cayman Brac]], and [[Little Cayman]].
== History ==
{{main|History of the Cayman Islands}}
The Cayman Islands - often referred to as The Caymans, or (more correctly) just Cayman - were first visited by [[Christopher Columbus]] on [[May 10]], [[1503]] during his fourth and final voyage to the [[New World]]. The first recorded English visitor to the islands was [[Sir Francis Drake]], who landed there in 1586 and named them the Cayman Islands after the [[Neo-Taíno nations]] term (caiman) for crocodile (Zayas, 1914). The islands, along with nearby [[Jamaica]], were ceded to [[Kingdom of England|England]] in [[1670]] under the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)|Treaty of Madrid]]. They were governed as a single colony with Jamaica until [[1962]] when they became a separate British overseas [[territory]] and Jamaica became an independent [[commonwealth realm]].
The island of Grand Cayman was severely damaged by the [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category Five]] [[Hurricane Ivan]] in September [[2004]], which destroyed many buildings and damaged most of them. Power, water and communications were all disrupted. Ivan was the worst hurricane to hit the islands in 86 years. The island has made rapid recovery since Ivan, with most of the infrastructure now restored.
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Cayman Islands}}
The Cayman Islands are located in the western [[Caribbean sea]]. The three islands are situated about 480 [[mile]]s (770&nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]) south of [[Miami]], 150 miles (240&nbsp;km) south of [[Cuba]], and 180 miles (290&nbsp;km) northwest of [[Jamaica]]. [[Grand Cayman]] is by far the largest, with an area of 76 [[square mile]]s (197&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]). The two "[[Sister Islands]]" of [[Cayman Brac]] and [[Little Cayman]] are located about 90 miles (145&nbsp;km) east of Grand Cayman and have areas of 14 square miles (36&nbsp;km²) and 10 square miles (25.9&nbsp;km²) respectively. [[Image:BracBluff.jpg|thumb|right|225px|The Bluff on Cayman Brac]]
All three islands were formed by large coral heads covering submerged ice age peaks of western extensions of the Cuban Sierra Maestra range [http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/United_Kingdom/Other/photo296490.htm]) and are mostly flat. One notable exception to this is [[The Bluff]] on Cayman Brac, which rises to 140&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (42.6&nbsp;[[metre|m]]) above sea level, the highest point on the island.
Cayman avian fauna [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_2_112/ai_98254956] includes two endemic subspecies of Amazona parrots (''Amazona leucocephala hesterna'') and (''Amazona leucocephala caymanensis'') [http://birding.about.com/od/placescaymanis/] [http://www.nationaltrust.org.ky/info/parrots.html].
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of the Cayman Islands}}
The population of the Cayman Islands is 34,763 as of July 2000. Out of that number, about half are of Caymanian descent. About 60% of the population is of mixed race. Of the remaining 40%, about half are [[whites|Caucasian]] and half are of [[African]] descent. The islands are almost exclusively Christian, with large number of Presbyterians and [[Anglican Church|Anglicans]]. Caymanians enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the West Indies. The vast majority of the population resides on Grand Cayman. Cayman Brac is the second most populated with about 2,000 residents, followed by Little Cayman with around 200 permanent residents. Approximately one quarter of the Islands' population left following Hurricane Ivan, due to the myriad of problems, financial and otherwise, caused by the hurricane.
The capital and major city of the Cayman Islands is [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]], which is located on the west coast of Grand Cayman.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of the Cayman Islands}}
The economy of the Cayman Islands used to be built around [[turtling]]. However, this industry began to disappear in the 20th century and tourism and financial services began to become predominant due to the advent of modern transportation. The [[United States of America]] is the Cayman Islands' largest trading partner.
With an average income of around $35,000, Caymanians enjoy the highest standard of living in the Caribbean. The islands print their own currency, the [[Cayman Islands Dollar]] (KYD), which is pegged to the US dollar at a fixed rate of 1 KYD = 1.227 USD. Thus, the C.I. Dollar's rate of exchange with all other world countries is directly tied to the U.S. Dollar's rate of exchange with those same countries.
The government's primary source of income is [[indirect tax|indirect taxation]]. An import duty of 20% is levied against goods imported into the islands. Few goods are exempt; notable examples include books, cameras & baby formula. Duty on automobiles is charged on a sliding scale with the duty reaching 40% for expensive models. The government charges a flat licensing fee to financial institutions that operate in the islands. A small fee is also charged to each tourist that arrives on the islands.
===Tourism===
Tourism accounts for 70-75% of the annual GDP of the Cayman Islands and is hence a major part of the economy. Of the millions of tourists that visit the islands annually, 99% of the them stay on Grand Cayman. George Town also serves as a major [[cruise ship]] port, which brings in 2000-3000 tourists a day, 5 days a week.
Grand Cayman's major tourist attraction is the world-famous [[Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman|Seven Mile Beach]] on which most of the island's hotels and resorts are located. SMB was recently named the "Caribbean's Best Beach" by [[Caribbean Travel and Life Magazine]] and is regarded by many as one of the best beaches in the world.
The Cayman Islands are also world famous as a [[Scuba Diving]] destination because of their proximity to the [[Cayman Wall]] and the [[Cayman Trench]], which extend deep into the coral reefs of the Caribbean. [[Cayman Brac]] and [[Little Cayman]] are also considered to be elite dive destinations. There are several snorkeling locations where tourists can swim with [[Stingray|stingrays]].
''See also: [[Scuba Diving on the Cayman Islands]]''
===Financial services industry===
Because the Cayman Islands are not subject to [[Direct tax|direct taxation]] by the British government, nor is there a local income tax, they serve as an international [[offshore bank]]ing hub and [[tax haven]] for millions of people and corporations. As of July 2000, almost 40,000 companies were incorporated on the Cayman Islands including 600 banking and trust companies with assets in excess of $500 billion. Approximately 5,000 out of the world's 8,000 [[hedge fund]]s are also domiciled in the Cayman Islands. This contributes to the Cayman Islands being a major [[Financial export| financial service exporter]].
== Government and politics==
{{main|Politics of the Cayman Islands}}
Although it is a British dependency, the Cayman Islands are largely self-governing concerning local affairs. A 15-seat [[Legislative Assembly]] is elected by the people every 4 years to handle domestic affairs. Of the elected Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLA's, 5 are chosen to serve as government ministers. The head of government is the [[Leader of Government Business]], which is currently [[Kurt Tibbetts|The Honourable Kurt Tibbetts]].
A [[Governor of the Cayman Islands|Governor]] is appointed by the British government to represent the monarch. In modern times, the governor's powers are limited to handling defence, foreign affairs and the police force. Most of these affairs are actually handled by the [[Chief Secretary]], who is the Acting Governor when the Governor is not able to discharge his usual duties for one reason or another, but on a day to day basis oversees the Civil Service including the portfolio of Internal & External Affairs. The current governor of the Cayman Islands is [[Stuart Jack]] and the current Chief Secretary is [[George McCarthy|Hon. George McCarthy, OBE, JP]]
The islands have been governed by a written [[constitution]] since becoming a British Crown Colony in 1962. Currently, the Governor has called for the Constitution to be modernised, an issue being debated by the Legislative Assembly, with Britain having made it known that such an action should originate within the people of the Cayman Islands and follow the referendum route.
==Taxation==
Caymanians and Caymanian companies are not subject to any form of direct taxation as well as residents of the Islands. However, an import tax of between 5-20% is levied on almost all imported goods.
== Educat |
But its most significant use was also its last. This was when the procedure was used to pass the [[Australia Act 1986|Australia Act]] 1986. The Australia Act effectively terminated the ability of the British Parliament or Government to make laws for Australia or its States, even at their request; and provided that any law which was previously required to be passed by the British Parliament on behalf of Australia could now be passed by Australia and its States by themselves. It also removed the right of the monarch personally (that is, not through the local Governor) to exercise his or her powers in the states, except when personally present in them. And it severed the last judicial link with the United Kingdom, by abolishing the right of appeal to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]].
==An evolving independence==
Thus the independence of Australia from the United Kingdom, rather than occurring as a single event, has, in legal terms, been a continuing process. Some of the significant milestones discussed above have been the following:
* mid-1800s: acquisition of substantial internal self-government by the colonies
* 1901: establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia
* 1927: development of the "shared" monarchy
* 1931: passing of the Statute of Westminster
* 1986: passing of the Australia Act
Since the Australia Act, the only remaining constitutional link with the United Kingdom (if it is one) is in the person of the monarch (see [[Queen of Australia]]). But even that connection may not be automatic. In an important constitutional case (''Sue v Hill'' (1999) 163 ALR 648), three justices of the [[High Court of Australia]] (the ultimate court of appeal) expressed the view that if the British Parliament were to alter the law of succession to the throne, such a change could ''not'' have any effect on the monarchy in Australia, because of the Australia Act: succession to the throne would continue in Australia according to the existing rule, unless and until that was altered ''in Australia''. None of the other four justices in that case disagreed with this reasoning. (Because it was not strictly necessary to decide the case at hand, this is not strictly a binding judicial determination; but it is almost certainly correct given the [[precedent]] of the [[Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII|Abdication Crisis of 1936]].)
The same case decided (and on this point the decision ''is'' binding) that the United Kingdom is a "foreign power" within the meaning of the Constitution, and therefore that holders of British citizenship are ineligible for election to the Federal Parliament (though a special "grandfathering" arrangement merely phases out the right of British citizens to vote).
==Crisis in 1975==
The elections of the [[Australian Labor Party]] in [[1972]] and [[1974]] under its leader [[Gough Whitlam]] led to several constitutional issues being tested. For two weeks in 1972, the Government had only two ministers, Whitlam and [[Lance Barnard]]. Although it had a majority in the lower House, the ALP faced a hostile Senate, and the defeat of Government bills led to a double dissolution and a consequent [[Joint Sitting, Australian parliament, 1974|joint sitting]] and the passing of the bills into law as allowed under section 57. The political situation however was not improved much by the 1974 election, and the Senate later failed to provide "supply" (i.e. to pass tax and expenditure acts). The resulting [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]] raised a series of issues:
* Must a State Governor appoint a party's nomination as a replacement in the Senate?
* Can the Senate refuse supply or refuse to discuss supply?
* Should the Prime Minister resign in such a situation?
* If he does not, should the Governor-General dismiss him?
* How can the Governor-General and Prime Minister have a sensible discussion when each is able to have the other dismissed immediately provided that the other has not already acted?
Of these, only the first has been partly resolved; an amendment in 1977 changed the procedure for casual appointment. while the State Parliaments can still require a state Governor to appoint somebody who is not the party's nominee, by stripping that nominee of their party membership the party can deny them appointment to the Senate. The State parliament can still refuse to appoint the party's nominee; in this case, a standoff can develop where the vacancy goes unfilled. This occurred in 1987, when the Tasmanian state parliament refused to appoint the Labor Party's nominee for a casual vacancy ([http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rp/2001-02/02rp18.pdf], reference 99).
==Towards an Australian republic?==
As already seen, the only remaining constitutional connection with the United Kingdom is through the monarch, who is the monarch not only of the UK, but also of Australia and of each of its States. The main function of the monarch is to appoint and dismiss the Governor-General and the State Governors, and this function is exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or the relevant State Premier. (The monarch is also sometimes asked to perform some function, such as giving the Royal Assent to an Act of Parliament, for ceremonial purposes during a Royal visit.)
On recent moves to replace the current constitution with a republic, and the defeat of the referendum for this purpose in 1999, see [[Australian republicanism]].
==See also==
*[[Australian constitutional law]]
*[[Constitutional law]]
*[[Constitutional convention (political meeting)|Constitutional convention]]
==External links==
*[http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/chron/1999-2000/2000chr01.htm Australian Parliamentary Library -- Australia's Constitutional Milestones]
*[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/places/cth/cth1.htm Documentation on Australian Constitutional History]
[[Category:Australian constitutional law]]
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:History of Australia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Russel Wallace</title>
<id>1494</id>
<revision>
<id>40547681</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T09:45:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kcordina</username>
<id>643099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.135.1.57|212.135.1.57]] to last version by 137.99.183.222</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alfred Russel Wallace.jpg|thumb|200px|Alfred Russel Wallace]]
:''for the [[Cornwall|Cornish]] painter see [[Alfred Wallis]]''
'''Alfred Russel Wallace,''' [[Order of Merit|OM]] , [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[January 8]] [[1823]] &ndash; [[November 7]] [[1913]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[geographer]], [[anthropologist]] and [[biologist]]. Wallace's independent proposal of a theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] prompted [[Charles Darwin]] to reveal his own more developed and researched, but unpublished, theory sooner than he had intended. He is sometimes called the "[[List of people known as father or mother of something#W|father of biogeography]]".
==Early life==
Wallace was born at [[Usk]], [[Monmouthshire]]. He was the eighth of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. He attended grammar school in [[Hertford]], but left when his family lost their remaining property. He worked for his older brother William in his surveying business, and between [[1840]] and [[1843]] spent his time surveying in the west of [[England]] and [[Wales]]. In [[1844]] he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in [[Leicester]]. In [[1845]] his brother William died and Wallace returned to run the [[surveying]] business.
[[Image:Alfred Russel Wallace 1862 - Project Gutenberg eText 15997.png|thumbnail|right|200px|A. R. Wallace in [[Singapore]] in [[1862]]]]
==Exploration and study of the natural world==
In [[1848]], Wallace, together with another naturalist, [[Henry Walter Bates]] (whom he had met in [[Leicester]]), left for [[Brazil]] to collect specimens in the [[Amazon Rainforest]], with the express intention of gathering facts in order to solve the riddle of the origin of species. Unfortunately, a large part of his collection was destroyed when his ship caught fire and sank while returning to Britain in [[1852]].
From [[1854]] to [[1862]], he travelled through the [[Malay Archipelago]] or [[East Indies]] (now [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]), to collect specimens and study nature. His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow zone in the archipelago led to his hypothesis of the zoogeographical boundary now known as the [[Wallace line]]. One of his better known species descriptions during this trip is the gliding tree [[frog]] ''Rhacophorus nigropalmatus'', Wallace's flying frogs. His studies there were eventually published in [[1869]] as ''The Malay Archipelago''.
==Theory of evolution==
: See also [[Publication of Darwin's theory]].
In [[1855]], Wallace published a paper, [http://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithch/wallace/S020.htm "On the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of Species" (1855)], in which he gathers and enumerates general observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of species ([[biogeography]]), and concludes that "Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species." The paper was a foreshadowing of the momentous paper he would write three years hence.
Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of Darwin's numerous correspondents from around the world, whose observations Darwin used to support his theories. Wallace knew that Darwin was interested in the question of how species originate, and trusted his opinion on the matter. Thus, he sent him his essay, [http://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithc |
ions, and by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As compared with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and is marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however, difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being a distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with those of true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case in the so-called "musical comedy," which became popular in [[Great Britain]] and [[United States|America]] in the later [[19th century]], where true comedy is frequently subservient to broad farce and spectacular effects.
In the [[20th century]], the lines between tragedy and comedy have become somewhat blurred. The classical formula of tragedies ending with funerals, and comedies with weddings no longer holds true. The blackly comic works of many modern [[playwright]]s, including [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Harold Pinter]], and [[Martin McDonagh]] can be simultaneously comic and tragic. This dichotomy is summarised in [[Woody Allen]]'s account of a fictional playwright, Jorgen Lovborg: "First came the series of plays dealing with anguish, despair, dread, fear, and loneliness (the comedies)". <!-- From "Lovborg's Women Considered", in ''Without Feathers''-->
==Derivation==
The word "comedy" is derived from the Greek κωμοιδια, which is a compound either of κωμος (revel) and ωιδος (singer), or of κωμη (village) and ωιδος: it is possible that κωμος itself is derived from κωμη, and originally meant a village revel.
In ancient Greece, comedy seems to have originated in bawdy and ribald songs or recitations apropos of fertility festivals or gatherings, or also in poking fun at other people or stereotypes.{{ref|Cornford1}}
Aristotle, in his Poetics, tells us the same: that comedy originated in Phallic songs and the light treatment of the otherwise base and ugly. He also adds that the origins of comedy are obscure because it was not treated seriously.{{ref|Aristotle1}}
P.W. Buckham writes that "the lighter sort of Iambic became became Comic poets, the graver became Tragic instead of Heroic".{{ref|Buckham1}}
The word comes into modern usage through the Latin ''comoedia ''and Italian ''commedia''. It has passed through various shades of meaning. In the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]] it meant simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of [[Chaucer]]'s Tales are called comedies, and in this sense [[Dante]] used the term in the title of his poem, La Commedia (cf. his Epistola X., in which he speaks of the comic style as "loquutio vulgaris, in qua et mulierculae communicant"; again "comoedia vero remisse et humiliter"; "differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio est admirabilis et quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horribilis"). Subsequently the term is applied to [[mystery play]]s with a happy ending. The modern usage combines this sense with that in which [[Renaissance]] scholars applied it to the ancient comedies.
The adjective "comic" (Greek κομικος), which strictly means that which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally confined to the sense of "laughter-provoking": it is distinguished from "humorous" or "witty" inasmuch as it is applied to an incident or remark which provokes spontaneous laughter without a special mental effort. The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic, have been carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with other phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally agreed that the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential, if not the essential, factor: thus [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] speaks of laughter as a "sudden glory." Physiological explanations have been given by [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Herbert Spencer|Spencer]] and [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]. Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, the development of the "play instinct" and its emotional expression.
==Notes==
#{{note|Cornford1}} Francis MacDonald Cornford, The Origin of Attic Comedy, 1934.
#{{note|Aristotle1}} Aristotle, Poetics, lines beginning at 1449a. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.+1449a]
#{{note|Buckham1}} P.W. Buckham, p. 243
==References==
*Aristotle, Poetics.
*Buckham, Philip Wentworth, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.
*Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
**''Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy '', 1927.
**''The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens'', 1946.
**''The Dramatic Festivals of Athens'', 1953.
*Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, ''Tragedy and Athenian Religion'', Oxford University Press, 2003.
*Wiles, David, ''The Masked Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance'', 1991.
==See also==
===Forms===
* [[Stand-up comedy]]
**[[Alternative comedy]] - a largely British term relating to comedians in the ascendant throughout the [[1980s]] and beyond.
**[[Improvisational comedy]] - though not confined to stand-up, it is commonly held in high regard on the stand-up circuit.
**[[Impressionist (entertainment)|Impressionists]]
* [[Sketch comedy]] - short comedy scenes as in contrast to [[Situation comedy|sitcom]].
* [[Television comedy]] and [[Radio comedy]]
** [[Situation comedy]]
* [[Comedy film]]
**[[gross-out film]]
**[[Parody film]]
**[[Horror film]]
**[[romantic comedy film]]
**[[screwball comedy film]]
**[[slapstick film]]
**[[splatstick film]] (sic)
**[[anarchic comedy film]]
* [[Comic novel]]
*[[List of musical comedians|Musical comedy]]
* [[Tragicomedy]]
* [[Dramedy]] (AKA Comedy-drama)
===Styles===
* [[Black comedy]]
* [[Satire]]
* [[Parody]]
* [[Adage]]
* [[Irony]]
===Historical or theatre===
* [[Greek_comedy]]
* [[Clown]]
* [[Commedia dell'arte]] - historically, a form of improvisational theatre, chiefly from the 16th to 18th centuries.
* [[Farce]] - most often thought of as theatrical, but has been adapted for other media.
* [[Jester]]s - clowns associated with the middle ages.
* [[Vaudeville]] - comedy performed in theatres that declined as television ownership increased.
===Definitions===
* [[Comedian]]
* [[Comedy club]]
===Comedy events and awards===
* [[British Comedy Awards]]
* [[Just for laughs]] festival
* [[Melbourne International Comedy Festival]]
* HBO Comedy Arts Festival
===Lists of comedy performers===
* [[List of comedians]]
* [[List of entertainer pairs|List of entertainer pairs or double acts]]
* [[List of Dr Demento's radio show comedians]]
====by nationality====
* [[Australian comedy]]
* [[British comedian|List of British Comedians]]
* [[List of Italian comedians]]
* [[List of Finnish comedians]]
* [[List of Puerto Rican comedians]]
* [[List of Mexican comedians]]
===Lists of comedy programmes===
* [[British comedy]] - article on British comedy and a list of British comedy programmes.
* [[Britcom]] - list of British sitcoms.
* [[List of British TV shows remade for the American market]]
===Other lists===
* [[List of comedies]] - theatre/radio/television and from France/Russia/Canada/Australia/UK/US
==See also==
* [[Humour]]
* [[Joke]]
* [[Laughter]]
* [[Rule of three (writing)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.emerson.edu/comedy Comedy Archives] Site of the American Comedy Archives, dedicated to preserving primary source material from the legends of the comic arts.
*[http://www.comedyclassics.org ComedyClassics.org] Forum for discussion about classic comedy from movies (silent & talkie), radio, and TV.
*[http://comedy.wikicities.com Wikicomedy]
*[http://www.wikihumor.com WikiHumor.com] A wiki dedicated to humor..
*[http://www.howtobefunny.net Creating Comedy] Learning to create comedy on your own.
*[http://www.splangy.com/radio/ The Sound of Young America] A public radio program featuring interviews with comics.
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/bates001.html Article on the origin of comedy]
*[http://www.6toe.com Site that strives on comedy as a media outlet.]
[[Category:Comedy| ]]
[[cs:Komedie]]
[[da:Komedie]]
[[de:Komödie]]
[[et:Komöödia]]
[[el:Κωμωδία]]
[[es:Comedia]]
[[eo:Komedio]]
[[fr:Comédie]]
[[ko:희극]]
[[id:Melawak]]
[[it:Commedia]]
[[he:קומדיה]]
[[la:Comoedia]]
[[nl:Komedie]]
[[ja:喜劇]]
[[no:Komedie]]
[[os:Комеди]]
[[pl:Komedia]]
[[pt:Comédia]]
[[ru:Комедия]]
[[simple:Comedy]]
[[sk:Komédia]]
[[sl:Komedija]]
[[sr:Комедија]]
[[fi:Komedia]]
[[sv:Komedi]]
[[uk:Комедія]]
[[zh:喜劇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canidae</title>
<id>6736</id>
<revision>
<id>41434515</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:47:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zetawoof</username>
<id>110325</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>encyclopedic tone</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Canidae
| image = Coyote portrait.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Coyote]] (''Canis latrans'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[carnivora|Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Canidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
* ''[[Alopex]]''
* ''[[Atelocynus]]''
* ''[[Canis]]''
* ''[[Cerdocyon]]''
* ''[[Chrysocyon]]''
* ''[[Dhole|Cuon]]''
* ''[[Dusicyon]]''
* ''[[Fennecus]]''
* ''[[Lycalopex]]''
* ''[[Lycaon pictus|Lycaon]]''
* ''[[Nyctereutes]]''
* ''[[Otocyon]]''
* ''[[Pseudalopex]]''
* ''[[Speothos]]''
* ''[[Urocyon]]''
* ''[[Vulpes]]''
}}
'''Canidae''' is the family of [[carnivorous]] and [[omnivorous]] [[mammal]]s commonly known as canines. It includes [[dog]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]]es, [[coyote]]s, and [[jackal]]s. These animals are all [[digitigrade]]s, meaning they walk on their |
ore, must share observing time. The HIC weighs 8 kilograms and uses an average of 2.8 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/hic.html] HIC Team site:[http://www.srl.caltech.edu/galileo/galHIC.html]
=====Magnetometer (MAG)=====
The [[magnetometer]] (MAG) uses two sets of three sensors. The three sensors allow the three orthogonal components of the [[magnetic field]] section to be measured. One set is located at the end of the magnetometer boom and, in this position, is about 11 m from the spin axis of the spacecraft. The second set, designed to detect stronger fields, is 6.7 m from the spin axis. The boom is used to remove the MAG from the immediate vicinity of the spacecraft to minimize magnetic effects from the spacecraft. However, not all these effects can be eliminated by distancing the instrument. The rotation of the spacecraft is used to separate natural magnetic fields from engineering induced fields. Another source of potential error in measurement comes from bending and twisting of the long magnetometer boom. To account for these motions, a calibration coil is mounted rigidly on the spacecraft and puts out a reference magnetic field during calibrations. The magnetic field at the surface of the Earth has a strength of about 50,000 [[nanotesla|nT]]. At Jupiter, the outboard (11 m) set of sensors can measure magnetic field strengths in the range from &plusmn;32 to &plusmn;512 nT while the inboard (6.7 m) set is active in the range from &plusmn;512 to &plusmn;16,384 nT. The MAG experiment weighs 7 kilograms and uses 3.9 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/mag.html] MAG Team site:[http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/galileo/]
=====Plasma Subsystem (PLS)=====
The PLS uses seven fields of view to collect [[Particle radiation|charged particle]]s for energy and mass analysis. These fields of view cover most angles from 0 to 180 degrees, fanning out from the spin axis. The rotation of the spacecraft carries each field of view through a full circle. The PLS will measure particles in the energy range from 0.9 eV to 52 keV (0.1 aJ to 8.3 fJ). The PLS weighs 13.2 kilograms and uses an average of 10.7 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/pls.html] PLS Team site:[http://www-pi.physics.uiowa.edu/www/pls/]
=====Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS)=====
An electric [[dipole antenna]] is used to study the electric fields of [[Plasma physics|plasma]]s, while two search coil magnetic antennas studied the magnetic fields. The electric dipole antenna is mounted at the tip of the magnetometer boom. The search coil magnetic antennas are mounted on the high-gain antenna feed. Nearly simultaneous measurements of the electric and magnetic field spectrum allowed electrostatic waves to be distinguished from electromagnetic waves. The PWS weighs 7.1 kilograms and uses an average of 9.8 watts.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/pws.html] PWS Team site:[http://www-pw.physics.uiowa.edu/plasma-wave/galileo/home.html]
[[Image:Galileo_atmospheric_probe.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Timeline of Galileo atmospheric entry probe. (The Probe transmitted data to the Orbiter continuously for 57.6 minutes reaching a depth of 23 bars (2.3 MPa) but the relay link to the Orbiter began at four minutes after entry, so transmission ended 61.4 minutes after entry.)]]
==Galileo's atmospheric entry probe==
The 339 kilogram atmospheric probe measured about 1.3 meters across. Inside the [[heat shield]], the scientific instruments were protected from ferocious heat during entry. The probe had to withstand extreme heat and pressure on its high speed journey at 47.8 km/s. The probe was released from the main spacecraft in July 1995, five months before reaching Jupiter, and entered Jupiter's atmosphere with no braking beforehand. It was slowed from the probe's arrival speed of about 47 kilometers per second to subsonic speed in less than 2 minutes.[[Image:Galileo_atmospheric_entry_probe_diagram.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Diagram of Galileo atmospheric entry probe instruments and subsystems.]]It then deployed its 2.5-meter (8-foot) [[parachute]], and dropped its [[heat shield]]. As the probe descended through 150 kilometers of the top layers of the atmosphere, it collected 58 minutes of data on the local [[weather]]. The data was sent to the spacecraft overhead, then transmitted back to Earth. Each of 2 L-band transmitters operated at 128 bits per second and sent nearly identical streams of scientific data to the orbiter. All the probe's electronics were powered by [[lithium]] sulfur dioxide (LiSO<sub>2</sub>) batteries which provided a nominal power output of about 580 watts with an estimated capacity of about 21 ampere-hours on arrival at Jupiter. The probe included six instruments for taking data on its plunge into Jupiter. The instruments were: an atmospheric structure instrument group measuring temperature, pressure and deceleration; a neutral mass spectrometer and a helium-abundance interferometer supporting atmospheric composition studies; a nephelometer for cloud location and cloud-particle observations; a net-flux radiometer measuring the difference in flux upward versus downward in radiant energy flux at each altitude and a lightning/radio-emission instrument with an energetic-particle detector which measured light and radio emissions associated with lightning and energetic particles in Jupiter's radiation belts. Total data returned from the probe was about 3.5 megabits. The probe stopped transmitting before the line of sight link with the orbiter was cut. The likely proximal cause of the final probe failure was overheating, which sensors indicated before signal loss. The atmosphere as the probe descended was somewhat more turbulent and hotter than expected. The probe would have been melted and vaporized after a few hours of falling, completely dissolving into Jupiter's hot, dense lower atmosphere.
==Science performed by the Galileo Orbiter at Jupiter==
After arriving on [[December 7]], [[1995]] and completing 35 orbits around Jupiter throughout a nearly eight year mission, the Galileo Orbiter was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on [[September 21]], [[2003]]. During that intervening time, Galileo forever changed the way scientists saw Jupiter and provided a wealth of information on the moons orbiting the planet which will be studied for years to come. Culled from NASA's press kit, the top orbiter science results were:
1. Galileo made the first observation of [[ammonia]] clouds in another planet's atmosphere. The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths.
2. The moon [[Io (moon)|Io]] has extensive volcanic activity that is 100 times greater than that found on Earth's. The heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth.
3. Io's complex plasma interactions in Io's atmosphere creates immense currents which couple to Jupiter's atmosphere.
4. Several lines of evidence from Galileo support the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa's icy surface.
5. Ganymede possesses its own magnetic field - the first satellite known to have one.
6. Galileo magnetic data provide evidence that Europa, Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid-saltwater layer under the visible surface.
7. Evidence exists that [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], and [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] all have a thin atmospheric layer known as a 'surface-bound [[exosphere]]'.
8. Jupiter's [[ring system]] is formed by dust kicked up as interplanetary [[meteoroid]]s smash into the planet's [[Inner satellites of Jupiter|four small inner moons]]. The outermost ring is actually two rings, one embedded with the other. There is probably a separate ring along [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]]'s orbit, as well.
9. The Galileo spacecraft identified the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet's [[magnetosphere]].
==Other science done with Galileo==
===The Galileo Star Scanner===
The star scanner was a small optical telescope used to provide the spacecraft with an absolute attitude reference. It was also able to serendipitously make scientific discoveries [http://www.mindspring.com/~feez/]. In the prime mission, it was found that the star scanner was able to detect high energy particles as a noise signal. These data were eventually calibrated to show the particles were predominantly > 2 MeV electrons that were trapped in the Jovian magnetic belts.
A second discovery occurred in 2000. The star scanner was observing a set of stars which included the second magnitude star Delta Velorum. At one point, this star dimmed for 8 hours below the star scanner's detection threshold. Subsequent analysis of Galileo data and work by amateur and professional astronomers [http://www.konkoly.hu/cgi-bin/IBVS?4999]showed that Delta Velorum is the brightest known [[eclipsing binary]], brighter at maximum than even [[Algol]]. It has a primary period of 45 days and the dimming is just visible with the naked eye.
A final discovery occurred during the last two orbits of the mission. When the spacecraft passed the orbit of Jupiter's moon [[Amalthea]], the star scanner detected unexpected flashes of light that were reflections from moonlets. None of the individual moonlets were sighted twice, hence no orbits were determined and the moonlets did not meet the International Astronomical Union requirements to receive designations [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iauc/08100/08107.html]. It is believed that these moonlets most likely are debris ejected from Amalthea and form a tenuous, and perhaps temporary, ring.
[[image:GOPEX(galileo optical experiment).jpg|right|thumb|200px|Image taken by ''Galileo'' of earth during GOPEX test clearly showing bright laser pulses coming from a transmitting telescope on the night side. Galileo's imager was panned downward during the exposure to separate the pulses, thus blurring earth's image on the right.]]
===Remote d |
n cuisine]].
There is a [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] saying: "Any animal whose back faces the sky can be eaten" (背脊向天，都可以食 or 背脊向天皆可食). Cantonese cuisine includes almost all edible food in addition to the staples of pork, beef and chicken &mdash; snakes, snails, insects, worms, chicken feet, duck tongues, and entrails. One subject of controversy amongst some Westerners is the raising of [[dogs]] as food in some places in [[China]]; however, [[Gaegogi|dog]] is not a common restaurant food, and is illegal in [[Hong Kong]] (and may soon be in [[Taiwan]]).
Despite the countless Cantonese cooking methods, steaming, stir frying and deep frying are the most popular cooking methods in restaurants due to the short cooking time, and philosophy of bringing out the flavor of the freshest ingredients.
== Elements of cooking ==
=== Spices ===
Cantonese cuisine can be characterized by the use of very mild and simple spices in combination. Ginger, spring onion, sugar, salt, soy (soya) sauce, rice wine, corn starch and oil are sufficient for most Cantonese cooking. Garlic is used heavily in dishes especially with internal organs that have unpleasant odors, such as entrails. [[Five-spice powder]], white pepper powder and many other spices are used in Cantonese dishes, but usually very lightly. Cantonese cuisine is sometimes considered bland by those used to thicker, richer and darker sauces of other Chinese cuisines.
=== Freshness ===
Spicy hot dishes are extremely rare in Cantonese cuisine.
Spicy hot food is more common in very hot climates, such as those of [[Sichuan]], [[Thailand]], etc. where food spoils easily, and in the cold climates of the north.
[[Guangzhou]] has the richest food resources in China in terms of [[agriculture]] and [[aquaculture]]. Natural flavors are a highlight of Cantonese cuisine, thanks to the copious amounts of available fresh produce, and the mild weather of the region.
As an example of the high standard for freshness in Cantonese meals, cows and pigs used for meat are usually killed earlier the same day. [[Chicken]]s are often killed just hours beforehand, and fish are displayed in tanks for customers to choose for immediate preparation. It is not unusual for a waiter at a Cantonese restaurant to bring the live flipping fish or the crawling [[lobster]] to the table to show the patron as proof of freshness before cooking.
=== Seafood ===
Due to [[Guangdong]]'s proximity to the southern coast of [[China]], fresh live seafood is a specialty in Cantonese cuisine. Many authentic restaurants maintain live seafood tanks.
In the Cantonese viewpoint, strong spices are added only to stale seafood to cover the rotting odor. The freshest seafood is odorless, and is best cooked by steaming. For instance, only a small amount of soy sauce, ginger, and spring onion is added to a steamed [[fish]]. The light seasoning is used only to bring out the natural sweetness of the seafood. However, most restaurants gladly get rid of their stale seafood inventory by offering dishes loaded with garlic and spices. As a rule of thumb in Cantonese dining, the spiciness of a dish is usually inversely proportional to the freshness of the ingredients.
=== Soup ===
Another unique Cantonese specialty is slow-cooked soup.
This is almost unheard of in any other Chinese cuisines.
The soup is usually a clear [[broth]] prepared by simmering meat and other ingredients for several hours.
Sometimes, Chinese herbal medicines are added to the pot.
The ingredients of a rather expensive Cantonese slow cooked soup are: fresh whole chicken, dried air bladder of cod fish, dried [[sea cucumber]], dried scallop, and dried [[abalone]] (&#33457;&#33184;&#28023;&#21443;&#39825;&#39770;&#38622;&#28271;).
Another more affordable example includes pork bones, watercress with two types of apricot kernels (&#21335;&#21271;&#26447;&#35199;&#27915;&#33756;&#35948;&#39592;&#28271;), etc. The combinations are varied and numerous.
The main attraction is the liquid in the pot, the solids are usually thrown away unless they are expensive ingredients like abalones or shark fins. A whole chicken may simmer in a broth for six hours or longer. The solids are usually unpalatable but the essences are all in the liquid. Traditional Cantonese families have this type of soup at least once a week. Though in this day and age, many families with both working parents cannot afford this tradition due to the long preparation time required. However, wealthy families with servants and cook still enjoy the luxury every day. For the same reason, not many restaurants serve this type of soup either. Even if they do, it can only be served as ''soupe du jour''.
=== Hong Kong style ===
Sometimes in the US, the term "Hong Kong Style" is used to distinguish this style of cooking from the more Americanized version most Americans are familiar with.
=== Preserved food ===
Though Cantonese cooks pay much attention to the freshness of their cooking ingredients, Cantonese cooking also uses a long list of preserved food items. This may be an influence from [[Hakka cuisine]]. Some items gain very intense flavors during the drying/aging/preservation/oxidation process, similar to Italian style sun-dried tomatoes' intensified flavor from drying. Some chefs combine both dried and fresh variety of the same items in a dish to create a contrast in the taste and texture. Dried items are usually soaked in water to rehydrate them before cooking, such as mushrooms.
Or they are cooked with water over long hours until they are tender and juicy. For example, dried abalone and dried scallop have much stronger flavors than the fresh one without the undesirable strong fishy odor. Not only do preserved foods have a longer shelf life,
sometimes the dried foods are preferred over the fresh ones because of their uniquely intense flavor or texture.
Some favorite dried/preserved food products include:
* Dried [[Shiitake mushroom|black mushroom]] (&#20908;&#33735;)
* Dried [[abalone]] (&#39825;&#39770;)
* Dried [[scallop]] (&#29796;&#26609;)
* Dried [[sea cucumber]] (&#28023;&#21443;)
* Dried [[gas bladder|air bladder]] from various fishes (&#33457;&#33184;)
* Dried [[shrimp]] (&#34662;&#20094; or &#34662;&#31859;)
* Dried [[Shark fin soup|shark fin]] (&#39770;&#32709;)
* Dried [[Swiftlet#Nest_as_delicacy|bird nest]] (&#29141;&#31401;) - bird saliva
* Dried [[Chinese cabbage|Bok Choy]] (&#33756;&#20094;) - a kind of Chinese green vegetable
* Pickled [[Chinese cabbage|Bok Choy]] (&#40569;&#37240;&#33756; or &#26757;&#33756; or &#38665;&#33756;)
* Pickled [[radish]] (&#33756;&#33071;)
* Fu Yu (&#33104;&#20083;) - Salted and fermented [[tofu]]
* Salted preserved fish (&#40569;&#39770;)
* [[Chinese sausage|Salted preserved sausage]] (臘腸)
* Salted preserved duck (&#33240;&#40232;)
* Salted preserved pork (&#33240;&#32905;)
* Salted egg (&#40569;&#34507;) - preserved in brine until the egg white turns solid white and the yolk a solid yellow/orange
* [[Century egg|Thousand year old egg]] (&#30382;&#34507;&#65289;- duck egg preserved in lime until the egg white turns gelatinous and dark brown, the yolk dark green
* various dried fruits, herbs and flowers, etc.
== Sample dishes ==
Some notable Cantonese dishes include:
* [[Dim Sum]] - (literally ''touch of heart''), small dishes served with tea usually at brunch, e.g. char siu bao, steamed shrimp dumplings (cantonese &#34662;&#39171; ha gow), [[watercress]] dumplings (西菜饺) etc.
* Shrimp [[wonton]] noodle soup (&#39854;&#34662;&#38642;&#21534;&#40629;)
* Stir-fried vegetables (炒青菜) - Green leafy vegetables stir-fried in oil and sometimes garlic or ginger, topped with soy or [[oyster sauce]].
* [[Char siu]] (&#21449;&#29138;) - also called BBQ pork; usually with a red outer coloring
* Siew Yok (烧肉) or crispy roast pork- Slices of roast pork skin, fat, and meat cut from a pig that is usually roasted whole
* Roast(cripy)young pigeon/squabs (紅燒乳鴿/烤乳鴿 [[Hanyu Pinyin]] :hóngshāo rúgē/kǎo rúgē: Note: 紅燒=烤 in Cantonese)
* [[Shahe fen]] (河粉) - Thin and flat rice noodles
* [[Dry-fried beef with hefen]] (乾炒牛河) - Ho fun with fried beef, a staple fried noodle dish
* Thick [[Rice congee]] with various toppings and [[Youtiao|deep-fried breadsticks]] (&#30333;&#31909;,&#27833;&#26781; or &#27833;&#28856;&#39740;)
* Pork rind [[curry]] (&#21654;&#21737;&#35948;&#30382;)
* Dace [[fish ball]]s (&#39914;&#39770;&#29699;)
* Steamed fish (&#28165;&#33976;&#39770;)
* Steamed/stir fried fish intestines (&#33976;&#39770;&#33144;,炒鱼&#33144;)
* Salted preserved fish (&#33976;&#40569;&#39770;)
* Steeped chicken (&#30333;&#20999;&#38622;) or steamed chicken (&#33976;&#38622;) served cold with ginger and spring onion oil dipping (&#34193;&#34085;&#27833;)
* Salt-baked chicken
* Soy Sauce Duck (滷水鸭)
* Slow cooked soups (&#32769;&#28779;&#28271;)
* [[Shark fin soup]] (&#39770;&#32709;&#32697;)
* Braised dried abalone (&#29148;&#39825;&#39770;)
* [[Guilinggao]] (&#40860;&#33491;&#33167;) - Jelly made out of herbal grass
* Various steamed/boiled/double-boiled desserts and sweet soups (&#31957;&#40670;,&#31958;&#27700;)
* Sticky Rice - Glutinous rice cooked with soy sauce as well as other ingredients such as sausage, scrambled egg pieces, peas, carrot bits
* [[Lo mai gai]] or glutinous rice chicken , a type of [[Zongzi]] (粽子), - Glutinous rice wrapped in banana leaf with pork, chicken, salted egg, beans, chestnuts and winter mushroom inside
* Stir-fried watermelon skin (炒西瓜皮）- Home-style s |
ly finished first in his age group in the [[Essex]] cross-country championships, but he had inherited his parents' love of Manchester United and his main passion was football. At the age of eleven, he attended one of [[Bobby Charlton]]'s soccer schools in [[Manchester]] and won the chance to take part in a training session at [[FC Barcelona]] in a talent competition. He was Manchester United's mascot for a match against [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] in [[1986]]. The young Beckham had trials with [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]] and attended [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur's]] school of excellence, but once Manchester United offered him a place there was no doubting which club he would go to.
He signed schoolboy forms at United on his fourteenth birthday in [[1989]], then signed a [[Youth Training Scheme]] contract on [[8 July]] [[1991]]. He was part of an exceptionally talented group of young players at the club, including the future internationals [[Paul Scholes]], [[Nicky Butt]], [[Ryan Giggs]] [[Phil Neville]] and [[Gary Neville]]. These players later helped the club to win the [[FA Youth Cup]] in May [[1992]], with Beckham scoring in the second leg of the final against [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]]. He had his first appearance for United's first team that year, as a substitute in a [[League Cup]] match against [[Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.|Brighton & Hove Albion]], and signed his first professional contract shortly afterwards. United reached the final of the Youth Cup again the following year, with Beckham playing in their defeat by [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]], and he won another medal in [[1994]] when the club's reserve team won their league. He went to [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] on loan in the 1994-95 season to get some first team experience, then made his first [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] appearance for Manchester United on [[2 April]] [[1995]], in a goalless draw against [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds]].
==Manchester United==
===Becoming a first team player (1995-98)===
United manager [[Alex Ferguson]] had large confidence in the club's young players and when three of his first-team players left the club at the end of the 1994-95 season, he made the decision to let the youth team players replace them instead of buying players from other clubs. The criticism of Ferguson increased when United started the season with a 3&ndash;1 defeat at [[Aston Villa F.C.]]{{ref|villadefeat}}, with Beckham scoring United's only goal of the game, but many of the doubters were won over when the team won their next five matches. Beckham became a regular player in the team and helped them to win the Premiership and [[FA Cup]] double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against [[Chelsea F.C|Chelsea]] and also supplying the corner kick cross that [[Eric Cantona]] scored with a volley from in the [[FA Cup]] Final.
In August [[1996]], Beckham became something of a household name when he scored a spectacular goal in a match against [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]]. With United 2&ndash;0 ahead, Beckham noticed that Wimbledon's goalkeeper [[Neil Sullivan]] was standing a long way out of his goal, and hit a shot from the halfway line that floated over the goalkeeper and into the net. [[Sky Sports]]' commentator [[Martin Tyler]]'s words "You'll see that over and over again" proved prophetic as the goal was voted [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] 'Goal of the Decade' in [[2003]]. Beckham's name was frequently mentioned in the press, and he made his first appearance for the [[England national football team]] on [[1 September]], [[1996]] in a [[Football World Cup|world cup]] qualifying a match against [[Moldova national football team|Moldova]]. He became an automatic first-choice player at United that season, scoring a series of blistering goals and sublime free kicks, thus helping them to retain their league championship. He was voted [[PFA Young Player of the Year]] by his peers.
In 1998, Beckham started dating the [[Spice Girl]] [[Victoria Beckham|Victoria Adams]] and was pictured wearing a [[sarong]] while they were on holiday together. Their relationship attracted a great deal of media interest. United started the season well, but their results deteriorated when several players became injured and they finished the season in second place.
===World Cup 1998===
Beckham had played in all of England's qualifying matches for the {{wc|1998}} and travelled with the England squad to the finals in [[France]], but the team's manager [[Glenn Hoddle]] publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament,{{ref|notconcentrating}} and he didn't start in either of England's first two matches. He was picked for their third match against [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], which England needed to win to ensure their progress in the tournament, and played well, scoring one of his trademark free kicks in a 2&ndash;0 victory.
In the second round of that competition, he received a [[red card]] in England's match against [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], for kicking out at [[Diego Simeone]] following a foul challenge by the Argentine. As Beckham lay on the pitch he held out his right leg as Simeone backed into it and fell over. Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, waving imaginary red cards at the referee, urging him to send Beckham off.{{ref|simeoneconfession}} The match finished in a draw and England were eliminated in a [[penalty shootout]]. Many supporters and journalists blamed Beckham for England's elimination and he became the target of severe criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an [[effigy]] outside a London [[public house|pub]], and the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' newspaper printing a [[darts|dartboard]] with a picture of him in the middle.{{ref|dartboard}}
===The treble season (1998-99)===
In the 1998–99 season, he was part of the United team that won the "treble" — Premier League, FA Cup and [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]], a unique feat in English football. There had been speculation that the criticism that he had received after being sent off in the World Cup would lead to him leaving England, but he decided to stay at Manchester United. Throughout the season, Beckham was jeered by opposition supporters whenever he touched the ball, but he consistently played well and his crossing provided a significant number of goals for United's forwards [[Dwight Yorke]] and [[Andy Cole]]. United's supporters had mostly forgiven him for the problems he'd had with England, and were frequently heard to chant "Argentina" in response to the other supporters' taunts. On a more positive note for Beckham, Victoria gave birth to their first child Brooklyn on [[4 March]] [[1999]].
United needed to win their final league match of the season at home to [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] to ensure they would win the league championship, but Tottenham took an early lead in the match. Beckham scored their equaliser and United went on to win the match and the league. Beckham played in United's FA Cup final win over Newcastle and played in centre-midfield for the UEFA Champions League final as United's first choice centre-midfielders were suspended for the match.
United were losing the Champions League final 1&ndash;0 at the end of normal time, but won the trophy by scoring two goals in stoppage time. Both of the goals came from corners taken by Beckham, and this, combined with his performances over the rest of the season, led to him finishing runner up for 1999's [[European Footballer of the Year]] award.
===Wedding===
He married Victoria, "Posh Spice" from the Spice Girls, at [[Luttrellstown Castle]], [[Ireland]] on [[4 July]] [[1999]]. The wedding attracted enormous media coverage. Beckham's teammate [[Gary Neville]] was the best man, and Brooklyn was the ring bearer. The media were kept away from the ceremony as the Beckhams had a deal with [[OK!|OK! Magazine]] giving them exclusive rights for photographs. They were later accused of bad taste after photographs showed that they had sat on [[throne]]s for the ceremony. 437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost UK£500,000.{{ref|wedding}}
===1999-2000 season===
Despite Beckham's achievements in the 1998-99 season, he was still unpopular among opposition fans and many journalists, and he was heavily criticised after being sent off for a deliberate foul in Manchester United's [[FIFA World Club Championship|World Club Championship]] match against [[Necaxa]]. It was suggested in the press that his wife was a bad influence on him, and that it might be in United's interests to sell him,{{ref|necaxa}} but his manager publicly backed him and he stayed at the club.
The relationship between Ferguson and Beckham began to deteriorate, possibly as a result of Beckham's fame and commitments away from football. In 2000, the club gave Beckham permission to miss training to look after his son Brooklyn, who had [[gastroenteritis]], but Ferguson was furious when Victoria Beckham was photographed at a London Fashion Week event on the same night, and he realised that Beckham would have been able to train if Victoria had looked after Brooklyn that day. He responded by fining Beckham the maximum amount that was permitted (two weeks' wages &ndash; then £50,000) and dropping him for a crucial match against United's rivals [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]]. He later criticised Beckham in an updated edition of his 1999 autobiography, claiming he hadn't been "fair to his team mates".{{ref|missedtraining}} Beckham had a good season for his club, though, and helped United to win the Premier League by a record margin.
===Winning over the England fans===
The abuse that Beckham |
the FA Cup final where they were to play none other than Moore's old club West Ham. It was, however, no fairytale farewell ending for Moore as Fulham lost 2-0.
Moore played for two teams in the [[North American Soccer League]], [[San Antonio Thunder]] in 1976 and [[Seattle Sounders]] in 1978. Seatle was the last team he played professional football for.
[[Image:Sonny1.jpg|thumb|Bobby playing for [[San Antonio Thunder]].]]
Moore retired from playing in [[1977]] and had a short, relatively unsuccessful, spell in football management. His life after football was eventful and difficult, with business deals going wrong and his marriage ending. Many have since said that [[the Football Association]] could have given a role to Moore, as the only Englishman to captain a World Cup winning team. Moore himself kept a dignified silence.
On [[15 February]] [[1993]] Moore announced he was suffering from [[bowel cancer]]. He succumbed to the illness just seven days after commentating on an England match at his spiritual home, Wembley, when England beat San Marino 6-0.
Moore was made an Inaugural Inductee of the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in 2002 in recognition of his impact on the English game as player
The stand replacing the south bank at West Ham's ground, the [[Boleyn Ground]] in [[Upton Park]] has since been named the Bobby Moore Stand.
He was married twice, firstly to Christina Dean on [[30 June]] [[1962]] and secondly to Stephanie Parlane-Moore on [[4 December]] [[1991]].
==External links==
*[http://www.whufc.com/player.asp?plid=16843&clid=0 Bobby Moore, West Ham Football Club]
*[http://www.bobbymooreonline.co.uk/ Bobby Moore Online]
*[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/bobbymoore.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Stanley Matthews]] |after=[[Bobby Collins]]|years=1964}}
{{succession box|title=[[UEFA Jubilee Awards]]|before=- |after=-|years=England}}
{{succession box |title=[[Football World Cup]]<br>winning [[captain (football)|captain]]|before=[[Mauro]]<br>[[Brazil national football team|(Brazil)]]|after=[[Carlos Alberto Torres]]<br/>[[Brazil national football team|(Brazil)]] |years='''[[Football World Cup 1966|1966]]'''
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1941 births|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:English football managers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:English footballers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:England footballers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) central defenders|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Fulham F.C. players|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:NASL players|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Southend United F.C. managers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. players|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. captains|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. defenders|Moore, Bobby]]
[[de:Bobby Moore]]
[[et:Bobby Moore]]
[[fr:Bobby Moore]]
[[nl:Bobby Moore]]
[[no:Bobby Moore]]
[[sv:Bobby Moore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bobby Charlton</title>
<id>4224</id>
<revision>
<id>42043843</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:10:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football player infobox2 |
playername = Bobby Charlton |
image = [[Image:bobbilly.jpg|200px]]<br /> |
fullname = Robert Charlton |
nickname = Bobby |
dateofbirth = [[October 11]], [[1937]] |
cityofbirth = [[Ashington]] |
countryofbirth = [[England]] |
currentclub = retired |
position = [[midfielder]] |
youthyears = |
youthclubs = East Northumberland schools|
years = 1954-1973<br/>1973-1975<br/> |
clubs = [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]<br/>[[Preston North End F.C.]] |
caps(goals) = 606 (198)<br/>38 (8) |
nationalyears = 1958-1970 |
nationalteam = [[England national football team|England]] |
nationalcaps(goals) = 106 (49) |
ntupdate = 2005 |
pcupdate = 2005 |
}}
'''Sir Robert "Bobby" Charlton''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[11 October]] [[1937]]) [[Ashington]], [[Northumberland]] is a former [[England|English]] [[professional]] [[Football (soccer) |football]] player who won a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] medal and the [[European Footballer of the Year]] award in 1966. He played almost all of his club football at [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], where he became renowned for his attacking instincts from [[midfield]] and his ferocious long-range shot.
He began to play for United's first team in 1957, and gained a regular place in the team after surviving the [[Munich air disaster]] the following year. After helping United to win the [[football league]] in 1965, he won a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] medal with [[England national football team|England]] in 1966 and another football league title with United the following year. In 1968, he captained the Manchester United team that won the [[European Cup]], scoring two goals in the final. He left Manchester United in 1973, becoming player-manager of [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]]{{ref|EncyclopædiaBritannica}}, but decided management was not for him and left after one season. He had scored more goals for England and made more appearances for Manchester United than any other player, records which were still standing at the beginning of 2006
After assuming the post of the director at [[Wigan Athletic F.C.]] for some time, he became a member of Manchester United's board of directors in 1984{{ref|fifaworldcup}} and remains one as of January 2006.
==Early life==
One of his uncles, the [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] centre forward [[Jackie Milburn]], was a professional footballer, but it was Charlton's mother Cissie who coached him at first. His elder brother, [[Jack Charlton|Jack]], went to work as a miner and applied to join the [[police]] before also becoming a footballer.
On [[9 February]] [[1953]], Charlton was spotted playing for East Northumberland schools by [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] chief scout [[Joe Armstrong]]. Charlton went on to play for England schoolboys, and despite offers that followed from several other clubs, the 16-year old signed with United. Initially his mother was reluctant to let him commit to an insecure football career, so he began an [[apprentice]]ship as an engineer; however he went on to turn professional in October 1954.
Charlton became one of the famed [[Busby Babes]], the collection of precociously talented footballers who emerged through the system at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s as Busby set about a long-term plan of rebuilding the club after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. He worked his way through the pecking order of teams, scoring regularly for the youth and reserve sides before he was handed his first team debut against [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] in October 1956. At the same time, he was doing his [[National Service]] in [[Shrewsbury]], where Busby had advised him to apply as it meant he could still play for United at the weekend. Also doing his [[army]] service in Shrewsbury at the same time was his United team-mate [[Duncan Edwards]].
==Joining the first team==
Charlton played 14 times for United in that first season. They won [[The Football League]] but were denied the 20th century's first "double" when they controversially lost the 1957 [[FA Cup]] final to [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]. Charlton, still only 19, was selected for the game which saw United goalkeeper [[Ray Wood]] carried off with a broken [[cheek]]bone after a clash with Villa centre forward [[Peter McParland]]. Though Charlton was a candidate to go in goal to replace Wood (in the days before [[substitute (soccer)|substitute]]s, and certainly before goalkeeping substitutes), it was team-mate [[Jackie Blanchflower]] who ended up between the posts.
Charlton was an established player by the time the next season was fully underway, which saw United, as current League champions, become the first English team to fully embrace the [[European Cup]], reaching the semi finals where they lost to [[Real Madrid]]. Previously, [[the Football Association]] had scorned the competition but United's progress in the competition earned a great deal of [[Europe|continental]] respect. Their reputation was further enhanced the next season as they reached the quarter finals to play [[Red Star Belgrade]]. In the first leg at home, United won 2-1. The return in [[Yugoslavia]] saw Charlton score twice as United stormed 3-0 ahead although the hosts came back to earn a 3-3 draw. However, United maintained their [[aggregate]] lead to reach the last four and were in jubilant mood as they left to catch their flight home, thinking of an important League game against [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolves]] at the weekend.
==The Munich air disaster==
{{seealso|Munich air disaster}}
The aeroplane which took the United players and staff home from [[Zemun|Zemun Airport]] needed to stop in [[Munich]] to refuel. This was carried out in worsening weather, and by the time the refuelling was complete and the call was made for the passengers to re-board the aircraft, the wintry showers had taken hold and snow had settled heavily on the runway and around the airport. There were two aborted take-offs which led to concern on board, and the passengers were advised by a [[stewardess]] to dismount again while a minor technical error was fixed.
Back in the airport [[terminal]] for barely ten minutes, the call to reconvene on the plane came and a number of passengers began to feel nervous. Charlton and |
olded in [[1674]], and a new, reorganised company was formed. Piracy was abandoned, and it concentrated primarily on the African [[slave trade]] and remaining possessions in Suriname and the Antilles.
After the English took control of Suriname for several years in the [[1780s]], the WIC appeared unable to recover from this, and in [[1791]], the stocks of the company were bought by the Dutch government, and the territories were placed under its control.
==WIC ships==
*[[Halve Maen]]
*To be completed
==See also==
*[[Dutch East India Company]]
*[[British East India Company]]
*[[French East India Company]]
*[[List of director generals of New Netherland]]
==External links==
*[http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History]Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
*[http://geneaknowhow.net/in/schepen/overig-schepen/halve-maan-replica.html WIC ship halve maan] The WIC ship the Halve Maan.
[[Category:Chartered companies]]
[[Category:Companies of the Netherlands|West India Company, Dutch]]
[[Category:Dutch colonies|West India Company, Dutch]]
[[Category:Dutch multinationals]]
[[Category:Fur trade]]
[[Category:History of the Netherlands|West India Company, Dutch]]
[[Category:New Netherland]]
[[Category:Exploration ships of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:History of Guyana]]
[[de:Niederländische Westindien-Kompanie]]
[[eo:Nederlanda Okcidenthinda Kompanio]]
[[fr:Compagnie néerlandaise des Indes occidentales]]
[[nl:West-Indische Compagnie]]
[[nb:Det nederlandske Vestindiske kompani]]
[[pl:Holenderska Kompania Zachodnioindyjska]]
[[pt:Companhia Holandesa das Índias Ocidentais]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>D Nice</title>
<id>8770</id>
<revision>
<id>35583845</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T20:40:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mwelch</username>
<id>725837</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[D-Nice]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dioula language</title>
<id>8771</id>
<revision>
<id>15906721</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-14T18:18:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guaka</username>
<id>12980</id>
</contributor>
<comment>it seems better to make this a redirect to Bambara, until there's enough material to make it an article of its own</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bambara language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domination and submission</title>
<id>8772</id>
<revision>
<id>34395832</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T19:40:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mdwh</username>
<id>556535</id>
</contributor>
<comment>most/all references to this article are in the context of BDSM, not biology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Domination and submission (BDSM)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daniel C. Dennett</title>
<id>8773</id>
<revision>
<id>15906723</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Daniel Dennett]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desi Arnaz</title>
<id>8774</id>
<revision>
<id>40232034</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T03:08:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>169.237.136.86</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Desiarnaz.jpg|thumb|Desi Arnaz]]'''Desi Arnaz''' ([[March 2]], [[1917]] &ndash; [[December 2]], [[1986]]) was a [[Cuba]]n-[[United States|American]] [[musician]], [[actor]], [[comedian]] and [[television producer]].
He was born '''Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha, III''' in [[Santiago de Cuba]], [[Cuba|Cuba's]] second largest city, to a wealthy family. His ancestors had been among the recipients of the original [[Spanish people|Spanish]] land grants in the eighteenth century, and his father served in the Cuban House of Representatives and became the youngest mayor that Santiago had ever had. After the [[1933]] revolution that overthrew the American-backed President [[Gerardo Machado]], Arnaz and his parents fled to [[Miami, Florida]]. At that time, Miami had virtually no Cubans, and to support the family Arnaz worked at different odd jobs.
He began his [[career]] as a professional musician in [[1936]], playing [[guitar]] and [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] for a [[Latin American music|Latin orchestra]]. He then took a pay cut to work in [[New York City]] for [[Xavier Cugat]], his mentor, whom he later described as world-class cheapskate but an excellent teacher. Arnaz returned to Miami six months later to lead his own combo. It was there he introduced American audiences to the [[Conga Line]], which soon became a national rage. He formed his own orchestra and returned to New York.
Arnaz was also a successful recording artist, beginning in [[1937]], and had a hit with the [[Santeria|Santeria-flavored]] "[[Babalu (song)|Babalu]]" ([[1946 in music|1946]]), his signature song, which was recorded at RCA Victor.
In [[1939]], he starred on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in the successful musical ''Too Many Girls''. He then went to [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]] to appear in the [[1940 in film|1940]] [[film|movie]] version at [[RKO]], which starred actress and comedienne, [[Lucille Ball]]. They married in [[1940]] and initated divorce proceedings in 1944, but reconciled before the interlocutory decree became final.
He and Ball were the parents of actress [[Lucie Arnaz]] (born [[1951]]) and actor [[Desi Arnaz, Jr.]] (born [[1953]]).
Arnaz appeared in several movies in the [[1940s]], most notably ''[[Bataan (movie)|Bataan]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]). Shortly after he received his draft notice, but before he was actually inducted, he injured his knee. Although he made it through boot camp, he was eventually classified for limited service, and ended up directing [[U.S.O.]] programs at a military hospital in the [[San Fernando Valley]]. In his memoirs, he recalled discovering that the first thing soldiers requested was almost invariably a glass of cold milk, so he arranged for beautiful starlets to greet the wounded soldiers as they disembarked and pour milk for them. After leaving the Army, he formed another orchestra, which was successful in live appearances and recordings. After he became engaged in television, he kept the orchestra on his payroll. Throughout the period he remained an active producer.
He produced and starred in ''[[I Love Lucy]],'' in which he played a fictitious version of himself, Cuban orchestra leader Ricky Ricardo, and starring his real-life wife Lucille Ball as Ricky's wife Lucy. In the original pilot, Ricky and Lucy were successful showbusiness figures (he a band leader, she an actress) whose glamorous careers interfered with their efforts to maintain a normal marriage. Market research indicated, however, that this scenario would not be popular, so Arnaz changed it to make Ricky a struggling young orchestra leader and Lucy a plain housewife with showbiz fantasies but no talent at all. Initially, the idea of having Ball and the distinctly Latino Arnaz portray a married couple encountered resistance, for he was told that his Cuban accent and Latin style would not be agreeable to American viewers; but Arnaz overcame these objections by auditioning the proposed television show before live audiences with great success.
With Ball, he founded [[Desilu]] Productions. At this time, most television productions were broadcast live, and since the largest markets were in New York, the rest of the country received only [[kinescope]] images&mdash;the result of placing [[35mm]] or [[16mm]] film cameras in front of a television monitor and shipping the prints to other time zones for broadcast at a later date&mdash;resulting in extremely poor quality. Arnaz developed the [[multicamera setup]] production style using adjacent sets that became the standard for all subsequent [[situation comedy|situation comedies]]. The use of film enabled every station around the country to broadcast high-quality images of the show. Initially, Arnaz was told that it would be impossible to allow an audience onto a sound stage, but he worked with the famous cameraman [[Karl Freund]] to design a set that would accommodate an audience, allow filming and also adhere to fire and safety codes.
Arnaz also pushed the network to allow them to show Lucille Ball while she was pregnant. According to Arnaz, the [[CBS]] network told him, "You cannot show a pregnant woman on television." Arnaz consulted a priest, a rabbi and a minister, all of whom told him that there would be nothing wrong with showing a pregnant Lucy or with using the word "pregnant." The network finally relented and let Arnaz and Ball weave the pregnancy into the story line, but remained adamant about eschewing use of "pregnant," so Arnaz substituted "expecting," pronouncing it "'spectin'" in his Cuban accent.
Also worth noting is the firm stance Arnaz and Ball took as to "basic good taste," avoiding racial or ethnic jokes, poking fun at the handicapped, and the like. Arnaz recalled that the only exception consisted of making fun of Ricky Ricardo's accent&mdash;and noted that even these jokes worked only when Lucy, as his wife, did the mimicking. "When [[William Frawley|Fred]] and [[Vivian Vance|Ethel]] made fun of Ricky's accent, they didn't get a laugh. Interesting, isn't it?" Arnaz said.
Arnaz was adamantly patriotic--in his memoirs, the first object of thanks was the United States itself: "I know of no ot |
penetrate these barriers, encounter constitutively-expressed anti-microbial molecules (eg. [[lysozyme]]) that restrict the infection.
In addition to the usual defense, the stomach secretes [[gastric acid]] which, apart from aiding digestive enzymes in the stomach to work on food, prevents bacterial colonization by most pathogens.
====Second-line defense: Phagocytic cells====
The second-line defense includes [[Phagocyte|phagocytic cells]] ([[macrophage]]s and [[neutrophil granulocyte]]s) that can engulf ([[phagocytosis|phagocytose]]) foreign substances. Macrophages are thought to mature continuously from circulating [[monocyte]]s.
Phagocytosis involves [[chemotaxis]], where phagocytic cells are attracted to microorganisms by means of chemotactic chemicals such as microbial products, complement, damaged cells and [[white blood cell]] fragments. Chemotaxis is followed by [[cell adhesion|adhesion]], where the phagocyte sticks to the microorganism. Adhesion is enhanced by [[opsonization]], where proteins like [[opsonin]]s are coated on the surface of the bacterium. This is followed by ingestion, in which the phagocyte extends projections, forming [[pseudopod]]s that engulf the foreign organism. Finally, the bacterium is digested by the enzymes in the [[lysosome]], involving [[reactive oxygen species]] and [[protease]]s.
====Anti-microbial proteins====
In addition, anti-microbial proteins may be activated if a pathogen passes through the barrier offered by skin. There are several classes of antimicrobial proteins, such as [[acute phase protein]]s ([[C-reactive protein]], for example, enhances phagocytosis and activates complement when it binds itself to the [[C-protein]] of ''[[Streptococcus_pneumoniae|S. pneumoniae]]'' ), [[lysozyme]], and the [[complement system]].
The [[complement system]] is a very complex group of [[serum protein]]s, which is activated in a [[cascade]] fashion. Three different pathways are involved in complement activation:
* [[classical complement pathway|classical]] pathway: recognizes antigen-antibody complexes
* [[alternative complement pathway|alternative]] pathway: spontaneously activates on contact with pathogenic cell surfaces
* [[mannose-binding lectin pathway|mannose-binding lectin]] pathway: recognizes [[mannose]] sugars, which tend to appear only on pathogenic cell surfaces.
A cascade of protein activity follows complement activation; this cascade can result in a variety of effects, including [[opsonization]] of the pathogen, destruction of the pathogen by the formation and activation of the [[membrane attack complex]], and [[inflammation]].
Interferons are also anti-microbial proteins. These molecules are proteins that are secreted by virus-infected cells. These proteins then diffuse rapidly to neighboring cells, inducing the cells to inhibit the spread of the viral infection. Essentially, these anti-microbial proteins act to prevent the cell-to-cell proliferation of viruses.
===Adaptive immune system===
The adaptive immune system, also called the "acquired immune system", ensures that most mammals that survive an initial infection by a pathogen are generally immune to further illness, caused by that same pathogen. The adaptive immune system is based on dedicated immune cells termed [[leukocyte]]s (white blood cells) that are produced by [[stem cell]]s in the [[bone marrow]], and mature in the [[thymus]] and/or [[lymph node]]s. In many species, including [[mammals]], the adaptive immune system can be divided into two major sections:
* [[humoral immunity|Humoral immune system]]: It acts against bacteria and viruses in the body liquids (eg. [[blood]]) by means of proteins, called [[immunoglobulin]]s (also known as [[antibody|antibodies]]), which are produced by [[B cell]]s.
* [[cell-mediated immunity|Cellular immune system]]: It destroys virus-infected cells (among other duties) with [[T cell]]s (also called "T lymphocytes"; "T" means they develop in the [[thymus]]). There are two major types of T cells:
** [[Cytotoxic T cell]]s (T<sub><small>C</small></sub> cells): These cells recognize infected cells by using [[T cell receptor]]s to probe cell surfaces. If they recognize an infected cell, they release [[granzyme]]s to trigger that cell to become [[apoptosis|apoptotic]] ("commit suicide"), thus killing that cell and any viruses that it is in the process of creating.
** [[Helper T cell]]s (T<sub><small>H</small></sub> cells): These cells activate [[macrophage]]s (cells that ingest dangerous material), and also produce [[cytokine]]s ([[interleukin]]s) that induce the [[Cell growth|proliferation]] of B and T cells.
In addition, there are [[Regulatory T cell|regulatory T cell]]s (T<sub><small>reg</small></sub> cells) which are important in regulating cell-mediated immunity.
===Intersections between systems===
Splitting the innate and adaptive immunity has served to simplify discussions of immunology. However, the systems are quite intertwined in a number of important respects.
One of the most important examples are the mechanisms of 'antigen presentation'. After they leave the thymus, T cells require activation to proliferate and differentiate into cytotoxic ("killer") T cells (CTLs). Activation is provided by [[antigen-presenting cell]]s (APCs), a major category of which are the [[dendritic cells]]. These cells are part of the innate immune system.
Activation occurs when a dendritic cell simultaneously binds itself to a T "helper" cell's antigen receptor ''and'' to its CD28 receptor, which provides the "second signal" needed for DC activation. This signal is a means by which the dendritic cell conveys that the antigen is indeed dangerous, and that the next encountered T "killer" cells need to be activated. This mechanism is based on antigen-danger evaluation by the T cells that belong to the adaptive immune system. But the [[dendritic cells]] are often directly activated by engaging their [[toll-like receptor]]s, getting their "second signal" directly from the antigen. In this way, they actually recognize in "first person" the danger, and direct the T killer attack. In this respect, the innate immune system therefore plays a critical role in the activation of the adaptive immune system.
[[Adjuvant]]s, or chemicals that stimulate an immune response, provide artificially this "second signal" in procedures when an antigen, that would not normally raise an immune response, is artificially introduced into a host. With the adjuvant, the response is much more robust. Historically, a commonly-used formula is [[Freund's Complete Adjuvant]], an emulsion of oil and [[mycobacterium]]. It was later discovered that toll-like receptors, expressed on innate immune cells, are critical in the activation of adaptive immunity.
==Disorders of the human immune system==
The most important function of the human immune system occurs at the cellular level of the blood and tissues. The [[lymphatic system|lymphatic]] and [[blood circulation]] systems are highways for specialized [[white blood cell]]s to travel around the body. White blood cells include [[B cells]], [[T cells]], [[natural killer cells]], and [[macrophages]]. Each has a different responsibility, but all function together with the primary objective of recognizing, attacking and destroying [[bacteria]], [[viruses]], [[cancer cells]], and all substances seen as foreign. Without this coordinated effort, a person would not be able to survive more than a few days, before succumbing to overwhelming infection.
Infections set off an alarm that alerts the immune system to bring out its defensive weapons. Natural killer cells and macrophages rush to the scene to gobble up and digest infected cells. If the first line of defense fails to control the threat, [[antibodies]], produced by the B cells, upon the order of T helper cells, are custom-designed to hone in on the invader.
Many disorders of the human immune system fall into two broad categories that are characterized by:
* Attenuated immune response: There are 'congenital' (inborn) and 'acquired' forms of [[immunodeficiency]], characterized by an attenuated response. [[Chronic granulomatous disease]], in which [[phagocytes]] have trouble destroying pathogens, is an example of the former, while [[AIDS]] ("Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome"), an [[infectious disease]] caused by the [[HIV]] virus that destroys CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells, is an example of the latter. Immunosuppressive medication intentionally induces an immunodeficiency in order to prevent [[transplant rejection|rejection]] of [[organ transplantation|transplanted organs]].
* Overzealous immune response: On the other end of the scale, an overactive immune system figures in a number of other disorders, particularly [[autoimmune disorder]]s such as [[lupus erythematosus]], type I [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] (sometimes called "juvenile onset diabetes"), [[multiple sclerosis]], [[psoriasis]], and [[rheumatoid arthritis]]. In these, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks a part of the patient's own body. Other examples of overzealous immune responses in disease include [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], such as [[allergies]] and [[asthma]].
==Other factors that affect immune response==
{{sect-stub}}
Many factors can also contribute to the general weakening of the immune system:
* [[Malnutrition]] (unbalanced diet / poor eating habits that cause a lack of [[vitamin]]s and minerals)
* [[Alcohol abuse]]
* Drug use either Intravenous or other. (Appears related to associated factors ie. poor diet, use of infected/dirty needles, poor excersice, stress/depression)
* Medications (particularly the use of anti-cancer drugs, [[corticosteroid]]s, and [[antibiotic]]s);
* [ |
dhubala]], Indian actress (d. [[1969]])
*[[1934]] - [[Michel Corboz]], Swiss conductor
*1934 - [[Florence Henderson]], American actress
*[[1936]] - [[Fanne Foxe]], Argentine dancer
*1936 - [[Andrew Prine]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Donna Shalala]], American politician, educator
*1941 - [[Paul Tsongas]], U.S. Senator (d. [[1997]])
*[[1942]] - [[Michael Bloomberg]], Mayor of New York City
*1942 - [[Andrew Robinson]], actor
*[[1943]] - [[Maceo Parker]], American musician ([[P-Funk]])
*[[1944]] - [[Carl Bernstein]], American journalist
*1944 - [[Alan Parker]], British film director and writer
*[[1945]] - [[Frank Welker]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Bernard Dowiyogo]], [[President of Nauru]] (d. [[2003]])
*1946 - [[Gregory Hines]], American dancer and actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1948]] - [[Pat O'Brien (television)|Pat O'Brien]], American sportscaster and television host
*1948 - [[Teller (magician)|Teller]], American magician ([[Penn and Teller]])
*[[1951]] - [[Kevin Keegan]], Liverpool Footballer
*[[1959]] - [[Renee Fleming]], Canadian soprano
*[[1960]] - [[Jim Kelly]], American football player
*1960 - [[Meg Tilly]], Canadian actress
*[[1962]] - [[Kevyn Aucoin]], American cosmetologist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1963]] - [[Enrico Colantoni]], Canadian actor
*1963 - [[Zach Galligan]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Manuela Maleeva]], Bulgarian tennis player
*[[1968]] - [[Jules Asner]], American model and television personality
*[[1970]] - [[Simon Pegg]], British comedian, writer, and actor
*[[1971]] - [[Noriko Sakai]], Japanese singer
*[[1972]] - [[Drew Bledsoe]], American football player
*1972 - [[Hiroshi (Owarai)|Hiroshi]], Japanese comedian
*1972 - [[Rob Thomas (musician)|Rob Thomas]], American musician ([[matchbox twenty]])
*[[1973]] - [[Steve McNair]], American football player
*[[1978]] - [[Richard Hamilton (basketball)|Richard Hamilton]], American basketball player
*[[1979]] - [[Antonio Chatman]], American football player
*[[1980]] - [[Fatima Leyva]], Mexican footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Philippe Senderos]], Swiss footballer
*[[1992]] - [[Freddie Highmore]], British actor
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1317]] - [[Marguerite of France (born 1282)|Marguerite of France]], queen of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1282]])
*[[1400]] - King [[Richard II of England]] (murdered) (b. [[1367]])
*[[1405]] - [[Timur]], Mongol conqueror (b. [[1336]])
*[[1523]] - [[Pope Adrian VI]]
*[[1676]] - [[Abraham Bosse]], French engraver and artist
*[[1737]] - [[Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot of Hensol]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of Great Britain]] (b. [[1685]])
*[[1744]] - [[John Hadley]], inventor (b. [[1682]])
*[[1779]] - [[James Cook]], British naval captain and explorer (b. [[1728]])
*[[1780]] - [[William Blackstone]], English jurist (b. [[1723]])
*[[1808]] - [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], American lawyer and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (b. [[1732]])
*[[1831]] - [[Vicente Guerrero]], Mexican revolutionary hero (b. [[1782]])
*1831 - [[Henry Maudslay]], English inventor (b. [[1771]])
*[[1885]] - [[Jules Vallès]], French writer (b. [[1832]])
*[[1891]] - [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], Civil War General (b. [[1820]])
*[[1894]] - [[Eugène Charles Catalan]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1814]])
*[[1929]] - [[Tom Burke]], American runner (b. [[1875]])
*[[1943]] - [[Dora Gerson]], German actress, cabaret singer, and Holocaust victim (b. [[1899]])
*[[1943]] - [[David Hilbert]], German mathematician (b. [[1862]])
*[[1949]] - [[Yusuf Salman Yusuf]], Iraqi communist leader
*[[1958]] - [[Abdul Rab Nishtar]], veteran leader of [[Pakistan Movement]], (b. [[1899]])
*[[1959]] - [[Baby Dodds]], American jazz drummer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1969]] - [[Vito Genovese]], American gangster (b. [[1897]])
*[[1970]] - [[Herbert Strudwick]], English cricketer (b. [[1880]]).
*[[1974]] - [[Stewie Dempster]], New Zealand cricketer (b. [[1903]])
*[[1975]] - [[Julian Huxley]], British biologist (b. [[1887]])
*1975 - [[P. G. Wodehouse]], English writer (b. [[1881]])
*[[1979]] - [[Adolph Dubs]], American diplomat (b. [[1920]])
*[[1983]] - [[Lina Radke]], German athlete (b. [[1903]])
*[[1987]] - [[Dmitri Borisovich Kabalevsky]], Russian composer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1988]] - [[Frederick Loewe]], Austrian-American composer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1989]] - [[James Bond (ornithologist)|James Bond]], American ornithologist (b. [[1900]])
*[[1994]] - [[Andrei Chikatilo]], Russian serial killer (executed) (b. [[1936]])
*1994 - [[Michael Gazzo]], American actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[1995]] - [[U Nu]], Burmese politician (b. [[1907]])
*[[1999]] - [[John Ehrlichman]], American presidential advisor (b. [[1925]])
*[[2002]] - [[Nándor Hidegkuti]], Hungarian footballer (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Dolly the sheep]], first cloned mammal (b. [[1996]])
*2003 - [[Johnny Longden]], English jockey (b. [[1907]])
*[[2004]] - [[Marco Pantani]], Italian cyclist (b. [[1970]])
*[[2005]] - [[Najai Turpin]], American boxer
*2005 - [[Rafik Hariri]], Lebanese politician and billionaire businessman (b. [[1944]])
*[[2006]] - [[Shoshana Damari]], the "Queen of [[Israeli]] song" (b. [[1923]])
*2006 - [[Lynden David Hall]], British singer (b.[[1974]])
*2006 - [[Jackie Pallo]], Famous [[British]] wrestler
*2006 - [[Darry Cowl]], French musician and actor (b. [[1925]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Denmark]] - [[Fastelavn]]. Children exchange cards knowns as ''[[gækkebrev]]''.
*[[Mexico]] - [[Day of National Mourning]] ([[1831]]).
*[[Arizona]] - [[Admission Day]] ([[1912]]).
*[[Oregon]] - [[Admission Day]] (1859).
*[[Western World]] - [[Valentine's Day]].
*[[Europe]]/[[Catholicism]] - Feast day of Saints [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]], patron saints of [[Europe]].
*[[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[Saint Valentine]].
*[[Iraq]] - 'Communist Martyrs Day' celebrated by [[Iraqi Communist Party]].
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=14 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060214.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/14 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 13]] - [[February 15]] - [[January 14]] - [[March 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries]]
{{months}}
[[af:14 Februarie]]
[[ar:14 فبراير]]
[[an:14 de frebero]]
[[ast:14 de febreru]]
[[bg:14 февруари]]
[[be:14 лютага]]
[[bs:14. februar]]
[[ca:14 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 14]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 14]]
[[co:14 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:14. únor]]
[[cy:14 Chwefror]]
[[da:14. februar]]
[[de:14. Februar]]
[[et:14. veebruar]]
[[el:14 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:14 de febrero]]
[[eo:14-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 14]]
[[fo:14. februar]]
[[fr:14 février]]
[[fy:14 febrewaris]]
[[ga:14 Feabhra]]
[[gl:14 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 14일]]
[[hr:14. veljače]]
[[io:14 di februaro]]
[[id:14 Februari]]
[[ia:14 de februario]]
[[ie:14 februar]]
[[is:14. febrúar]]
[[it:14 febbraio]]
[[he:14 בפברואר]]
[[jv:14 Februari]]
[[kn:ಫೆಬ್ರವರಿ ೧೪]]
[[ka:14 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:14 gromicznika]]
[[ku:14'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 14]]
[[lb:14. Februar]]
[[li:14 februari]]
[[hu:Február 14]]
[[mk:14 февруари]]
[[ms:14 Februari]]
[[nap:14 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:14 februari]]
[[ja:2月14日]]
[[no:14. februar]]
[[nn:14. februar]]
[[oc:14 de febrièr]]
[[pl:14 lutego]]
[[pt:14 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:14 februarie]]
[[ru:14 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 14.]]
[[sco:14 Februar]]
[[sq:14 Shkurt]]
[[scn:14 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 14]]
[[sk:14. február]]
[[sl:14. februar]]
[[sr:14. фебруар]]
[[fi:14. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:14 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 14]]
[[tt:14. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 14]]
[[th:14 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:14 tháng 2]]
[[tr:14 Şubat]]
[[uk:14 лютого]]
[[wa:14 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 14]]
[[zh:2月14日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 14]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free trade area</title>
<id>10883</id>
<revision>
<id>42058346</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:46:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John wesley</username>
<id>689662</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{trading blocs}}
A '''free trade area''' is a designated group of countries that have agreed to eliminate [[tariff]]s, [[quota]]s and preferences on most [[Good (economics)|goods]] between them.
It is the second stage of [[economic integration]].
Countries choose this kind of economic intergration form, if their economical structures are complementary. If they are competitive, they will choose [[customs union]].
Unlike a [[customs union]], members of a free trade area do not have the [[Common External Tariff|same policies with respect to non-members]], meaning different [[quota]]s and [[Customs (tax)|customs]]. To avoid evasion (trough [[re-exportation]]) the countries use the system of certification of origin most commonly called [[Rules of Origin]], where there is a requierment for the minimum extent of local [[material]] inputs and local transformations adding [[Value (economics)|value]] to the goods. Goods that don't cover these minimum requierments are not entitled for the special treatment envisioned in the [[free trade area]] provisions.
[[Cumulation]] is the relationship between different FTAs regarding the [[Rules of Origin]] - sometimes different FTAs suplement each other, in other cases there is no cross-cumulation between the FTAs.
The '''Free Trade Area''' is a result of a '''Free Trade Agreement''' (a form of [[trade pact]]) between two or more countries. Free Trade Areas/Agreements (FTA) are cascadable to some degree - if some countries sign agreement to form free trade area and choose to negotiate together (eighter as a [[trade bloc]] or as a forum of individual members of their FTA) another free trade agreement with some external country (or countries |
s NOT affect the dive number. A letter (A for straight, B for pike, C for tuck, or D for free) is appended to the end of the dive number to indicate the position in which it is to be performed. In competition, all the dives an athlete competes must have different dive numbers.
===Degree of Difficulty===
Each dive performed has an inherent "Degree of Difficulty," or "DD." This is a numerical value in the range of 1.0 to 4.0 that is calculated based on a formula developed by [[FINA]], [[NCAA]], [[USA Diving]] or independent groups ([http://www.usadiver.com/dd_table.htm see sample DD's]). The calculation of each dive's DD is based on the number of somersaults and twists the dive entails, the direction, the position, and the board or platform it is performed from. Currently the highest DD is 3.8 for several dives: a reverse three-and-a-half somersault in pike position from three metre springboard, a back two-and-a-half somersault with two-and-a-half twists in pike from ten metre platform, an armstand forward double somersault with two twists in pike from five metre platform, and an armstand forward triple somersault with one twist in tuck from ten metre platform (in twisting dives designated as tuck or pike position, the diver performs the actual twisting portion of the dive in a straight position, and is required to perform the solely somersaulting, non-twisting portion in the stated tuck or pike).
The total score for an individual dive is determined by adding the judges' scores once the highest and lowest have each been cut and multiplying this sum by the degree of difficulty. The score for each dive is added to give a final score, and the diver with the highest final total is the winner of the event.
===Scoring the Dive===
Ultimately, the judges' scores given on each dive are subjective. However, there are specific rules governing how a dive is supposed to be scored. Usually a score factors three elements of the dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry. The primary factors affecting the scoring are: (1) the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score, (2) the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within 2 feet of the board/platform), (3) the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including pointed toes and feet touching at all times, (4) the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the water, and (5) angle of entry (a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle). Many judges award divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a higher score.
To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled. In the case where five judges are assembled, the highest and lowest scores are tossed and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD. In the case where seven judges are assembled, the highest and lowest scores are tossed and the middle five are summed and multiplied by the DD. Accordingly, it is extremely difficult for one judge panel to manipulate scores.
There is a general misconception about scoring and judging. In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless. It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets. Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives. Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order. However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers. Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.
===Competitive Strategy===
To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet. To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers. Usually simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets. The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can consistently achieve scores of at least 5. If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DD's and lower scores.
In competition, divers must submit their lists before hand, and past a certain deadline (usually when the event is announced shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives under any circumstances. If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced, even if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero. Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform).
There are some American meets which will allow changes even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally.
Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced. This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced. If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a balk and the change of dive will not be permitted.
==Diving and Other Sports==
In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school’s swim team. Diving is a separate sport in [[Olympic]] and Club Diving. The [[NCAA]] will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed.
Divers do not consider themselves swimmers. Sometimes in High School meets, a diver must swim, but often they don't practice swimming. While each sport shares a pool, and may compete side by side when doing so for their schools, the two sports are very different. Swimming is about times, diving is about art; swimming is a full body exercise with emphasis on upper body strength and speed, diving is a full body exercise with emphasis on grace and execution; swimmers most frequently suffer overuse injuries, divers most frequently suffer impact injuries or strains. And, of course, swimming takes place in the water, and diving takes place in the air.
The sister sport of diving is in fact gymnastics. Many divers begin their training as [[gymnasts]], and switch sports for one reason or another. Two of the most common are that they simply prefer diving, or that they develop a chronic injury that makes continuing gymnastics impossible. [[Gymnastics]] provides young divers with unique skills that help them perform complex and risky dives.
==Diving Venues==
Divers can compete in several venues; the categories listed below refer only to diving in the United States. Each may have age and experience limiations.
===Summer Diving===
In the United States summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools. Some pools organize to form intra-pool competitions. These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children. One of the largest and oldest competitions in the United States is found in the [[Washington, DC]] area where 40 to 50 pools compete against each other every summer (with over 380 divers in [[NVSL]]'s so-called called "Cracker Jack" meet).
===High School Diving===
In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving. Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score.
In each state there are usually two high school venues. The first is the public school competitions. The second is the independent school venue. In the United States public schools rarely compete with independent schools (see [[ISL]]) and almost never compete at the state championship level.
===Club Diving===
Pre-college divers interested in three meter or tower diving must join a club that is usually sanctioned by [[USA Diving]] or [[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU Diving]]. Top club divers are usually called "junior olympic," or JO divers and compete nationally for "[[All-American]]" status.
[[USA Diving]] sanctions one East-West one and three meter event in the winter time with a Eastern champion and Western champion determined. In the summer [[USA Diving]] sanctions a national event with tower competitions offered. Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver.
[[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU Diving]] sanctions one national event per year in the summer. [[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU]] competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the [[All-American]] team. Divers who will become 19 years of age in the calendar year cannot compete in these events.
===College Diving===
In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving. Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score. College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the [[NCAA]] separate from swim team events. NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school.
A number of colleges and universities will offer scholarships to men and women who developed competitive diving skills. These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club experience.
The [[NCAA]] limits |
e, Jewish and a naturalized citizen (born in the [[United States]].)
The PNC, which won just under 40% of the vote, disputed the results of the [[1997]] elections, alleging electoral fraud. Public demonstrations and some violence followed, until a CARICOM team came to Georgetown to broker an accord between the two parties, calling for an international audit of the election results, a redrafting of the constitution, and elections under the constitution within 3 years. Elections took place on [[19 March]], [[2001]]. Over 150 international observers representing six international missions witnessed the polling. The observers pronounced the elections fair and open although marred by some administrative problems.
{{CIA}}
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Co-operative Republic of Guyana
<br>''conventional short form:''
Guyana
<br>''former:'' British Guiana
'''Data code:''' GY
'''Government type:''' republic within the Commonwealth
'''Capital:''' [[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 regions; Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-Mazaruni, Demerara-Mahaica, East Berbice-Corentyne, Essequibo Islands-West Demerara, Mahaica-Berbice, Pomeroon-Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper Demerara-Berbice, Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo
'''Independence:''' [[26 May]] [[1966]] (from UK)
'''National holiday:''' [[Republic Day]], [[23 February]] ([[1970]])
'''Constitution:''' [[6 October]] [[1980]]
'''Legal system:'''
based on English common law with certain admixtures of Roman-Dutch law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
'''Suffrage:''' 18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President Bharrat Jagdeo (since NA August 1999); note - assumed presidency after resignation of President Jagan
<br>''head of government:''
Prime Minister Samuel Hinds (since NA December 1997)
<br>''cabinet:''
Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president, responsible to the legislature
<br>''elections:''
president elected by the majority party in the National Assembly following legislative elections, which must be held at least every five years; elections last held [[15 December]] [[1997]] (next to be held by January 2001); prime minister appointed by the president
'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral National Assembly (65 seats, 53 popularly elected; members serve five-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
last held [[15 December]] [[1997]] (next to be held by January 2001; this date was part of a negotiated settlement between the two main political parties following a dispute over the December elections)
<br>''election results:''
percent of vote by party - PPP 54%, PNC 41%, AFG 1%, TUF 1%; seats by party - PPP 29, PNC 22, AFG 1, TUF 1
'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court of Judicature; Judicial Court of Appeal; High Court
'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Alliance for Guyana or AFG [Rupert Roopnarine]; Democratic Labor Movement or DLM [Paul Tennassee]; For a Good and Green Guyana or GGG [Hamilton Green]; Guyana Democratic Party or GDP [Asgar Ally]; Guyana Labor Party or GLP [leader NA]; Guyanese Organization for Liberty and Democracy Party or GOLD [Anthony Mekdeci]; National Democratic Front or NDF [Joseph Bacchus]; National Republican Party or NRP [Robert Gangadeen]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Llewellyn John]; People's National Congress or PNC [Hugh Desmond Hoyte]; People's Progressive Party or PPP [leader NA]; The United Force or TUF [Manzoor Nadir]; Working People's Alliance or WPA [leader NA]
'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
Civil Liberties Action Committee or CLAC; Guyana Council of Indian Organizations or GCIO; Trades Union Congress or TUC
<br>''note:'' the GCIO and the CLAC are small and active but not well organized
'''International organization participation:'''
ACP, C, [[Caricom]], CCC, [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), [[Interpol]], IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
'''Flag description:'''
green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green.
{{South America in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Guyana| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guyana/Economy</title>
<id>12200</id>
<revision>
<id>15909902</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-13T22:16:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Danny</username>
<id>584</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Guyana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Guyana</title>
<id>12201</id>
<revision>
<id>41614480</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:59:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lucia12</username>
<id>579106</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
102,700 (2004 - source: ITU)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
219,000 (Sep 2005 - source: Informa Telecoms)
'''Telephone system:'''
fair system for long-distance calling
<br>''domestic:''
microwave radio relay network for trunk lines
<br>''international:''
tropospheric scatter to [[Trinidad]]; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); Americas II submarine cable
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 3, [[FM]] 3, [[shortwave]] 1 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
420,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
over 10 (one public station; several private stations which relay US satellite services and some local programs)(2005)
'''Televisions:'''
46,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Services]]:'''
*Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (2005) - [http://www.networksgy.com Inter.Net.Works], [http://www.solutions2000.net Solutions2000] and [http://www.guyana.net.gy GuyanaNet]
*Broadband and Wireless ISPs (WISPs): 4 (2005) - [http://www.gtt.co.gy GT&T], [http://www.inetguyana.net I-Net], [http://www.bbgy.com Broadband Inc.] and [http://www.ewirelessgy.com/ E-Networks]
*Internet Presence Providers (IPP) (hosting and development): [http://www.redspider.biz RedSpider]
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GY. Domain Name Registrar (.org.gy, .edu.gy & .gov.gy): [http://www.devnet.org.gy DevNet]
:''See also :'' [[Guyana]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications by country|Guyana]]
[[Category:Communications in Guyana| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Guyana</title>
<id>12202</id>
<revision>
<id>40449342</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:09:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Railway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
187 km (all dedicated to ore transport)
<br>''standard gauge:''
139 km 1.435-m gauge
<br>''narrow gauge:''
48 km 0.914-m gauge
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
7,970 km
<br>''paved:''
590 km
<br>''unpaved:''
7,380 km (1996 est.)
It is now possible to travel overland to Suriname by taking the ferry on the Guyana side at Molson Creek and crossing the Corentyne River over to Suriname. While travel to Brazil is via the old cattle trail has been upgraded into a fair weather track which passes through the bauxite town of Linden and ending at Lethem. Currently a bridge over the Rupunini River is being built by the Brazilians to enable a smooth passge between the two countries.
'''Waterways:'''
5,900 km total of navigable waterways; [[Berbice]], [[Demerara]], and [[Essequibo]] Rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km, respectively
'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Bartica]], [[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]], [[Linden, Guyana|Linden]], [[New Amsterdam]], [[Parika]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
<br>''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,023 GRT/1,972 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
cargo 1 (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
51 (1999 est.)
'''International Airport: [http://www.cjairport-gy.com Cheddi Jagan International Airport]'''
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
5
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
46
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
<br>''under 914 m:''
37 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Guyana]]
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Guyana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Guyana</title>
<id>12203</id>
<revision>
<id>15909905</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-06T04:38:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Poccil</username>
<id>79805</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Guyana]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Guyana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Guyana</title>
<id>12204</id>
<revision>
<id>40448615</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">After independence in [[1966]], Guyana sought an influential role in international affairs, particularly among Third World and nonaligned nations. It served twice on the UN |
and characteristic of [[Germanic languages]]. Gothic is unusual among Germanic languages in having a {{IPA|[z]}} phoneme which has not become {{IPA|[r]}} through [[R-colored vowel|rhotacization]]. Furthermore, the doubling of written consonants between vowels suggests that Gothic made distinctions between long and short, or [[Gemination|geminated]] consonants: ''atta'' {{IPA|[atːa]}} "dad", ''kunnan'' {{IPA|[kunːan]}} "to know" (German ''können'' "to be able", Swedish: ''kunna'').
====Stops====
* The voiceless stops {{IPA|[p]}}, {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} are regularly noted by ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'' respectively: ''paska'' {{IPA|[paska]}} ("Easter", from the Greek {{Polytonic|πάσχα}}), ''tuggo'' {{IPA|[tuŋgoː]}} ("tongue"), ''kalbo'' {{IPA|[kalboː]}} ("calf"). The stops probably had (non-phonemic) aspiration like in most modern Germanic languages: {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]}}. Thus, the [[High German consonant shift]] seems to presuppose aspiration.
* The letter ''q'' is probably a voiceless [[labiovelar]] stop, {{IPA|[kʷ]}} ({{IPA|[kʷʰ]}}), comparable to the Latin ''qu'': ''qiman'' {{IPA|[kʷiman]}} "to come". In the later Germanic languages this phoneme has become either a voiceless [[velar stop]] + a [[labio-velar approximant]] (English ''qu'') or a simple voiceless [[velar stop]] (English ''c, k'')
* The voiced stops {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}} and {{IPA|[g]}} are noted by the letters ''b'', ''d'' and ''g''. To judge from the other Germanic languages, they were probably restricted to a word-initial position and the position after a the nasal; in other positions they had affricative allophones. In the end of a word and before a voiceless consonant, they were most likely also devoiced: ''blinds'' {{IPA|[blints]}} "blind", ''lamb'' {{IPA|[lamp]}} "lamb".
* There was probably also a voiced [[labiovelar]] stop, {{IPA|[gʷ]}}, which was written with the digraph ''gw''. It occurred after a nasal, e.g. ''saggws'' {{IPA|[saŋgʷs]}} "song", or long as a regular outcome of Germanic *''ww'', e.g. ''triggws'' {{IPA|[trigʷːs]}} "faithful" (English ''true'', German ''treu'', Swedish ''trygg'').
* Similarly the letters ''ddj'', which is the regular outcome of Germanic *''jj'', may represent a voiced palatal stop, {{IPA|[ɟː]}}: ''waddjus'' {{IPA|[twaɟːe]}} "wall" (Swedish ''vägg''), ''twaddje'' {{IPA|[waɟːe:]}} " two (genitive)".
====Fricatives====
* {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} are usually written ''s'' and ''z''. The latter corresponds to Germanic *''z'' (which has become ''r'' or silent in the other Germanic langauges); at the end of a word, it is regularly devoiced to ''s''. E.g. ''saíhs'' {{IPA|[sɛhs]}} "six", ''máiza'' {{IPA|[mɛːza]}} "greater" (English ''more'', German ''mehr'') ~ ''máis'' {{IPA|[mɛːs]}} "more, rather".
* {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and {{IPA|[θ]}}, written ''f'' and ''þ'', are voiceless bilabial and voiceless dental fricatives respectively. It is likely that the relatively unstable sound {{IPA|[ɸ]}} became {{IPA|[f]}}. ''f'' and ''þ'' are also derived from ''b'' and ''d'' at the ends of words, when they are devoices and become approximants: ''gif'' {{IPA|[giɸ]}} "give (imperative)" (infinitive ''giban'': German ''geben''), ''miþ'' {{IPA|[miθ]}} "with" ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''mid'', German ''mit'').
* {{IPA|[h]}} is written as ''h'': ''haban'' "to have" (German "haben"). It was probably pronounced {{IPA|[h]}} in word-final position as well (not {{IPA|[x]}}, since {{IPA|/g/}} > {{IPA|[h]}} is written ''g'', not ''h''): ''jah'' {{IPA|[jah]}} "and" (German, Scandinavian ''ja'' "yes"). Before another consonant, it may have had the allophon {{IPA|[x]}}, given that all modern Germanic languages have {{IPA|[k]}} before {{IPA|/s/}} and German has {{IPA|[x]}} before {{IPA|[t]}} (the Scandinavian languages, on the other hand, have ''ht'' > ''tt''): ''saíhs'' {{IPA|[sɛhs] / [sɛxs]}} "six" (German ''sechs'' {{IPA|[zɛks]}}, Swedish ''sex'' {{IPA|[sɛks]}}), ''ahtau'' {{IPA|[ahtɔː] / [axtɔː]}} "eight" (German ''acht'' {{IPA|[axt]}}, Swedish ''åtta'' {{IPA|[ɔtʰa]}}).
* {{IPA|[x]}} is an allophon of {{IPA|/g/}} at the end of a word or before an voiceless consonant; it is always written ''g'': ''dags'' {{IPA|[daxs]}} "day" (German ''Tag''). In some borrowed Greek words, we find the special letter ''x'', which represents the Greek letter χ (''ch''): ''Xristus'' {{IPA|[xristus]}} "Christ" (Gk. {{Polytonic|Χριστός}}). It may also have signified a {{IPA|[k]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[γ]}} are voiced fricatives only found between vowels. They are [[allophones]] of {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}} and {{IPA|[g]}} and are not distinguished from them in writing. {{IPA|[β]}} may have become {{IPA|[v]}}, a more stable labiodental form (a case of [[articulatory strengthening]]). In the study of Germanic languages, these phonemes are usually transcribed as ''{{Unicode|ƀ}}'', ''{{Unicode|đ}}'' and ''{{Unicode|ǥ}}'' respectively: ''haban'' {{IPA|[haβan]}} "to have", ''þiuda'' {{IPA|[θiu̯ða]}} "people" (Old Norse ''þióð'', German ''Deutsch'' > English ''Dutch''), ''áugo'' {{IPA|[auγoː]}} "eye" (English ''eye'', German ''Auge'').
* ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' (also transcribed ''hw'') is a [[Labiovelar consonant|labiovelar variant]] of {{IPA|[x]}} (derived from the proto-Indo-European {{PIE|kʷ}}). It probably was pronounced as {{IPA|[ʍ]}} (a voiceless {{IPA|[w]}}) as it is in many dialects of English, where it is always written as ''wh'': ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}an'' {{IPA|[ʍan]}} "when", ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}ar'' {{IPA|[ʍar]}} "where", ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}eits'' {{IPA|[ʍiːts]}} "white".
====Nasals and approximants and other phonemes ====
Gothic has three nasal consonants, of which one is an allophone of the others, found only in [[complementary distribution]] with them. Nasals in Gothic, like most languages, are pronounced at the same [[point of articulation]] as either the consonant that follows them ( [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]). Therefore, clusters like {{IPA|[md]}} and {{IPA|[nb]}} are not possible.
* {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[m]}} are freely distributed - they can be found in any position in a syllable and form [[minimal pair]]s except in certain contexts where they are neutralized: {{IPA|[n]}} before a [[bilabial consonant]] becomes {{IPA|[m]}}, while and {{IPA|[m]}} preceding a [[Dental consonant|dental stop]] becomes an {{IPA|[n]}}, as per the principle of assimilation described in the previous paragraph. In front of a [[Velar consonant|velar stop]], they both become {{IPA|[ŋ]}}. {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[m]}} are transcribed as ''n'' and ''m'', and in writing neutralisation is marked: ''sniumundo'' {{IPA|[sniu̯mundoː]}} ("quickly").
* {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is not a phoneme and cannot appear freely in Gothic. It is present where a nasal consonant is neutralised before a [[Velar consonant|velar stop]] and is in a complementary distribution with {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[m]}}. Following Greek conventions, it is normally written as ''g'' (sometimes ''n''): ''þagkjan'' {{IPA|[θaŋkjan]}} "to think", ''sigqan'' {{IPA|[siŋkʷan]}} "to sink" ~ ''þankeiþ'' {{IPA|[θaŋkiːθ]}} "thinks''. The cluster ''ggw'' denotes now {{IPA|[ŋgʷ]}}, now {{IPA|[gʷː]}} (see above).
* {{IPA|[w]}} is transliterated as ''w'' before a vowel: ''weis'' {{IPA|[wiːs]}} ("we"), ''twái'' {{IPA|[twɛː]}} "two" (German ''zwei'').
* {{IPA|[j]}} is written as ''j'': ''jer'' {{IPA|[jeːr]}} "year", ''sakjo'' {{IPA|[sakjoː]}} "strife".
* {{IPA|[l]}} is used much as in English and other European languages: ''laggs'' {{IPA|[laŋks]}} "long", ''mel'' {{IPA|[meːl]}} "hour" (English ''meal'', German ''Mahl'').
* {{IPA|[r]}} is a [[Trill consonant|trilled]] {{IPA|[r]}} (eventually a [[Flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}): ''raíhts'' {{IPA|[rɛxts]}} "right", ''afar'' {{IPA|[afar]}} "after".
* The [[sonorant]]s {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[r]}} act as the nucleus of a [[syllable]] ("vowels") after the final consonant of a word or between two consonants. This is also the case in modern English: for example, "bottle" is pronounced {{IPA|[bɒtl̩]}} in many dialects. Some Gothic examples: ''tagl'' {{IPA|[taγl̩]}} "hair" (English ''tail'', Swedish ''tagel''), ''máiþms'' {{IPA|[mɛːθm̩s]}} "gift", ''táikns'' {{IPA|[tɛːkn̩s]}} "sign" (English ''token'', German ''Zeichen'', Swedish ''tecken'') and ''tagr'' {{IPA|[taγr̩]}} "tear (as in crying)".
===Accentuation and Intonation===
Accentuation in Gothic can be reconstructed through phonetic comparison, [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]]. Gothic used a [[stress accent]] rather than the [[pitch accent]] of [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]]. It is indicated by the fact that long vowels {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} were shortened and the short vowels {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} were lost in unstressed syllables.
Just like other [[Germanic languages]], the free moving Indo-European accent was fixed on the first syllable of simple words. (For example, in modern English, nearly all words that do not have accents on the first syllable are borrowed from other languages.) Accents do not shift when words are [[inflexion|inflected]]. In most compound words, the location of the stress depends on its placement in the second part:
* In compounds where the second word is a ''noun'', the accent is on the first syllable of the first word of the compound.
* In compounds where the second word is a ''verb'', the accent falls on the first syllable of the verbal component. Elements prefixed to verbs are otherwise unstressed, except in the context of separable wor |
rom the [[Sun]], raising expectations that the comet could become very bright when it passed close to the Sun. Although comet brightnesses are very difficult to [[predict]] with any degree of accuracy, Hale-Bopp met or exceeded most predictions for its brightness when it passed [[perihelion]] on [[April 1]] [[1997]]. The comet was dubbed '''the [[Great comet|Great Comet]] of 1997'''.
The passage of Hale-Bopp was notable also for inciting a degree of [[panic]] about comets not seen for decades. Rumours that the comet was being followed by an [[extraterrestrial life|alien]] [[spacecraft]] gained remarkable currency, and inspired a mass [[suicide]] among followers of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] [[cult]].
==Discovery==
The comet was discovered by two independent observers, [[Alan Hale (astronomer)|Alan Hale]] and [[Thomas Bopp]], both in the [[United States]]. Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without finding one, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in [[New Mexico]] when he chanced upon Hale-Bopp, shining at 11th&nbsp;[[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] near a [[globular cluster]], [[Globular Cluster M70|M70]], in the constellation of [[Sagittarius]] just after midnight. Hale first established that there was no other [[deep-sky object]] near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that no known objects were in this area of sky. Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he [[email]]ed the [[Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams]], the clearing house for astronomical discoveries.
Bopp did not own a [[telescope]]. He was out with friends near [[Stanfield, Arizona]] observing star clusters and [[galaxy|galaxies]] when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend's telescope. He realised he might have spotted something new when he checked his star atlases to find out what other deep-sky objects were near M70, and found that there were none. He actually contacted the Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams using a ''[[telegram]]''. The following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was named Comet Hale-Bopp, with the designation C/1995&nbsp;O1. The discovery was announced in [[International Astronomical Union]] circular 6187.
==Early progress==
[[Image:Hale-Bopp-large.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Comet Hale-Bopp, showing a white dust tail and blue gas tail. [[ESO]], February 1997.]]
It was soon apparent that Hale-Bopp was no ordinary comet. For a start, when its [[planetary orbit|orbit]] was calculated, it turned out to be 7.2&nbsp;[[Astronomical Units]] (AU) from the Sun, placing it between [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered. Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernable activity, but Hale-Bopp already had an observable [[coma (cometary)|coma]]. An image taken at the [[Anglo-Australian Telescope]] in 1993 was found to show the then-undiscovered comet some 13 AU from the sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable ([[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]] was 50,000 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun). Analysis indicated that its nucleus was about 50&nbsp;[[kilometre]]s in diameter, nearly three times the size of Halley.
Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that Comet Hale-Bopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997. However, comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later. [[Comet Kohoutek]] in 1973 had been touted as a 'comet of the century' and turned out to be very unspectacular.
==Hale-Bopp becomes a Great Comet==
Hale-Bopp became visible to the [[naked eye]] in the summer of 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half on 1996, scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright. It was too close to the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with [[light pollution|light-polluted]] skies.
[[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997_hires_adj.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The comet became a spectacular sight in early 1997.]]
The [[Internet]] was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular. The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in Hale-Bopp.
As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at 2nd&nbsp;magnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit. On [[March 9]], a [[solar eclipse]] in [[Mongolia]] and eastern [[Siberia]] allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime. Hale-Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on [[March 22]], [[1997]].
As it passed perihelion on [[April 1]] [[1997]], the comet had developed into a spectacular sight. It shone brighter than any star in the sky except [[Sirius]], and its two tails stretched 30-40 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s across the sky. The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, Comet Hale-Bopp was visible all night to [[northern hemisphere]] observers.
As impressive as the comet was, it could have been much more impressive. Had it passed as close to Earth as [[Comet Hyakutake]] (C/1996 B2) did in 1996, then the comet's tail would have spanned the entire sky and it would have been brighter than the full [[moon]]. However, even though its closest approach to Earth was at a distance of 1.315&nbsp;AU, a distance which would have rendered many lesser comets totally invisible, Hale-Bopp still spanned half the sky with its two tails, although the longest reaches of the tails were too faint to be visible to the naked eye.
==The comet recedes==
After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere, and its show was over as far as most of the public were concerned. The comet was much less impressive to [[Southern Hemisphere]] observers than it had been in the Northern Hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the [[summer]] and [[autumn]] of 1997. The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about 18 and a half months. The previous record had been set by the [[Great Comet of 1811]], which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.
As the comet receded it continued to fade, but it is still being tracked by astronomers. As of [[As of 2005|January 2005]], the comet is further from the Sun than [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], at a distance from Earth of about 21&nbsp;AU, but is still observable with large telescopes. Recent observations have found that it still displays a distinct tail.
Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020, by which time it will be nearing 30th&nbsp;[[apparent magnitude|magnitude]]. By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness. It will return around the year 4380.
==Orbital changes==
The comet probably made its last perihelion 4,200&nbsp;years ago. Its orbit is almost [[perpendicular]] to the plane of the [[ecliptic]], which means that very close approaches to planets are rare. However, in March 1997 the comet passed within 0.77&nbsp;AU of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], close enough for its orbit to be affected by Jupiter's [[gravity]]. The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of 2,380&nbsp;years, and it will next return to the inner solar system around the year 4380. Its greatest distance from the sun ([[aphelion]]) will be about 360&nbsp;AU, reduced from about 525.
==Scientific results==
Comet Hale-Bopp was observed intensively by [[astronomy|astronomers]] during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations.
===Sodium tail===
[[Image:Hale-Bopp sodium tail.gif|thumb|left|200px|Comet Hale-Bopp's neutral sodium tail (the straight tail extending up to the left from the nucleus)]]
One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail. In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, Hale-Bopp also exhibited a faint [[sodium]] tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters. Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail. Hale-Bopp's sodium tail consisted of [[neutral|neutral atoms]], and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length.
The source of the sodium appeared to be in the inner coma, although not necessarily on the nucleus. There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and 'sputtering' of sodium from dust grains by [[ultraviolet]] light. It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale-Bopp's sodium tail.
While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two. This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by [[radiation pressure]].
===Deuterium abundance===
The abundance of [[deuterium]] in Comet Hale-Bopp in the form of [[heavy water]] |
ñcopa&#347;ama&#7717; &#347;iva&#7717;
<br />na kva cit kasyacit ka&#347;cid dharmo buddhena de&#347;ita&#7717;|
<br />
<br />When all dharmas are empty, what is endless? What has an end?
<br />What is endless and with an end? What is not endless and not with an end?
<br />What is ''it''? What is ''other''? What is permanent? What is impermanent?
<br />What is impermanent and permanent? What is neither?
<br />
<br />Auspicious is the pacification of phenomenal metastasis, the pacification of all apprehending;
<br />There is no dharma whatsoever taught by the Buddha to whomever, whenever, wherever.
--M&#363;lamadhyamakak&#257;rik&#257;, nirv&#7751;&#257;napar&#299;k&#7779;&#257;, 25:22-24
</blockquote>
===Dharma as righteousness===
According to S. N. Goenka, teacher of Vipassana Meditation, the original meaning of dhamma is “dhareti ti dhamma’, or “that which is contained”. Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including “phenomenon”, and "nature" or "characteristic". Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta, which means heart/mind. The pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experienced through the mind), in major sutras such as the Mahasatipatthana sutra. Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the words of one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which was re-discovered by this man and shared with the world. A person who lives their life with an understanding of this natural law, is a “dhammic” person, which is often translated as “righteous”.
==In Jainism==
Dharma is natural. [[Jain]] [[Acharya]] [[Samantabhadra]] writes: "Vatthu sahavo dhammo" the dharma is the nature of an object. It is the nature of the soul to be free, thus for the soul, the dharma ia paralaukika, beyond worldly. However the nature of the body is to seek self-preservation and be engaged in pleasures.
Thus there are two dharmas.
===The two Dharmas===
Acharya [[Haribhadra]] (approx. 6-7th cent.) discusses dharma in Dharma-Bindu.
he writes (Translation by Y. Malaiya):
soayam-anushhThaatRi-bhedat dvi-vidho <br>
gRihastha-dharmo yati-dharmash-cha |
Because of the difference in practice, Dharma is of two kinds,
for the householders and for the monks.
tatra gRihastha-dharmoapi dvi-vidhaH<br>
saamanyato visheshhatash-cha |
Of the householder's dharma, there are two kind,"ordinary" and "special"
tatra saamnayato gRihastha-dharmaH kula-krama-agatam-anindyaM<br>
vibhavady-apekshayaa nyaato.anushhThaanaM |
The ordinary gRihastha-dharma should be carried out according to tradition, such that it is not objectionable, according to ones abilities such as wealth, in accordance with nyaya (everyone treated fairly and according to laws).
[[Somadeva]] suri (10th c.) termss the "ordinary" and "special"
dharmas laukika and the paralukika dharmas respectively:
dvau hi dharamau gRiahasthANam, laukikaH, paarlaukikaH |<br>
lokaashrayo bhavedaadyah, parah syaad-aagama-AshrayaH ||
A householder follows both laukika and the paralukika dharmas at the
same time.
==Ayyavazhi dharma==
{{Religion of Ayyavazhi}}
The [[Akilattirattu Ammanai]] the scripture of [[Ayyavazhi]] teaches Dharma on two different perspective. One in [[sociology]] as charity and another under [[spirituality]] to attain the stage of Oneness, unified into [[Vaikundar]]. The sociological way is asked to be followed by every one to attain the spiritual state of Dharma.
===Sociological conception===
The sociological definition to Dharma is generated as a concrete activity of [[charity]] or almsgiving. The principle of dharma was considered as the mission of "protecting or salvaging the lowly, the oppressed". The disparity among the people is to be reduced and eradicated by this act of charity. A quote in [[Vinchai to Vaikundar|Vinchai]] reads, ''"To uplift the lowely is dharmam"''. In this way, people were specially exhorted to undertake charity on material goods, and do it without discriminating among the beneficiaries. It is interesting to note that the great Indian saint, Swami [[Vivekananda]] applied this principle of Ayyavazhi dharma concept in practice and this may lead support to some followers of Ayyavazhi who claim that he was influenced by the religion.
===Spiritual conception===
Transposed to the spiritual plane, the concept of Dharma is propounded as 'principle of righteousness'. Ayyavazhi asserts that the prime motive of the [[avatar]] of [[Vaikundar]] was to establish Dharma in this world by destroying the evil force of [[Kaliyan]]. The definition of [[Kaliyan|Kali]] in Ayyavazhi is focused as the materialized life. So spiritual understanding of Dharma in Ayyavazhi is the life in ultimate hormony with nature or unbounded by space and time. The narration of the concept '[[Ekam]]' , 'the ultimate oneness' in [[Akilam]] right from the beginning points out it clearly. And after ending the [[Kali Yukam]], [[Dharma Yukam]], the 'world of righteousness', is said to be ruled over by Vaikundar as an ever lasting King. But on the way, it detached the caste identities by stating that it was not suited for the present [[Kali Yukam]]. A quote in Akilam reads,
:::::" ''Cast away the head-shaking devils and the eighteen castes
:::::in to the sea, mountain and fire''."
==See also==
*[[Hindu philosophy]]
*[[Yuga Dharma]]
*[[Buddhist philosophy]]
*[[Karma]]
*[[Dhammapada]]
*[[Dharmic religion]]
*[[Dharma transmission]]
*[[Wheel of Dharma]]
==References==
#Radhakrishnan, S. ([[1923]]): "''Indian Philosophy Vol.1''" (''2nd Edition''). New Delhi: Oxford India Paperbacks (Oxford University Press).
#Hume, R.E.: ([[1921]]): "''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads''" (''2nd Edition, Revised''). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
#Easwaran, E. ([[1987]]): "''The Upanishads''" (Seventh Printing). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.d2u.net/ Dharma - The Liberty of Knowledge] The principle that all knowledge are the manifestation of Dharma by Dr. Edmund Chan
*[http://www.forestdhammabooks.com/ Forest Dhamma Books] Free English translations of the teachings from the Buddhist Masters of the Thai forest tradition.
*[http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dharma.htm Dharma-Karma-Samsara]
*[http://www.dharmaweb.org DharmaWeb] Buddhist Wiki and portal
*[http://buddhactivity.com Margaret & Malcolm™ 4.0 '''Dharmic Communities'''] International Dharma Centres Database
*[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
*[http://www.keoshi.co.uk Buddhism & Buddhist Studies Portal]
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Daniel Dennet.jpg|thumb|right|Daniel Dennett]]
'''Daniel Clement Dennett''' (born [[March 28]] [[1942]]) is a prominent [[United States|American]] [[philosophy|philosopher]]. Dennett's research centers on [[philosophy of mind]] and [[philosophy of science]], particularly as those fields relate to [[evolutionary biology]] and [[cognitive science]].
== Biography ==
Daniel Dennett received his B.A. in philosophy from [[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, MA]]) in 1963. In 1965, he received his D.Phil. in philosophy from [[University of Oxford]] ([[Oxford, England]]), where he studied under the famed philosopher [[Gilbert Ryle]]. Dennett is currently (August 2005) employed as Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, University Professor, and Co-Director of the Center for Cognitive Studies (with [[Ray Jackendoff]]) at [[Tufts University]] ([[Medford, MA]]). He gave the [[John Locke]] Lectures at the [[University of Oxford]] in 1983, the Gavin David Young Lectures at Adelaide, Australia, in 1985, and the Tanner Lecture at Michigan in 1986, among many others. In 2001 he was awarded the [[Jean Nicod Prize]] and gave the [[Jean Nicod]] Lectures in Paris. He has received two [[Guggenheim]] Fellowships, a [[Fulbright Fellowship]], and a Fellowship at the Center for Advanced Studies in Behavioral Science. He was elected to the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1987. He was the co-founder (1985) and co-director of the Curricular Software Studio at [[Tufts University]], and has helped to design museum exhibits on compu |
s human nature is just as crucial to understanding His mission and earthly ministry as understanding His divine nature.
- “Many deceivers, who do not acknowledge Jesus Christ as coming in the flesh, have gone out into the world. Any such person is the deceiver and the antichrist” (2 John 7).
==Christological views reflected in names and titles of Jesus==
(see [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament]] for the views of critical scholars)
===Christ the King===
In Roman Catholic theology, one title given to Jesus is "[[Christ King|Christ the King]]", and there is a feast day associated with this title. This title is meant to say that Christ should rule over all aspects of life, including political life. Thus, this title is opposed to [[secularism]].
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Lists of names|Jesus]]
===King of Kings and Lord of Lords===
[[Handel]] referred to Jesus as "[[King of Kings]]" and "Lord of Lords" in his [[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]] [[oratorio]], a reference to [[1st Timothy]] 6:15.
===King of Heaven===
There is a long tradition of using this title for both Christ and God the Father, especially in medieval Catholicism. For instance, St. Joan of Arc used phrases such as "King Jesus, King of Heaven and of all the world, my rightful and sovereign Lord" (in a [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_july_17_1429.html letter she dictated on [[17 July]] [[1429]]]).
[[Image:Ushakov Nerukotvorniy.jpg|thumb|150px|Icon of the "[[Image of Edessa|Made Without Hands]]" type, with «{{polytonic|ὁ Ὤν}}» inscribed in the cross in the halo. The "IC XC" abbreviation appears in the upper corners.]]
===HO ON===
In [[Exodus]] 3 when God appeared in the [[burning bush]], [[Moses]] asked by what name he should be called. In the [[Septuagint]] translation God replied «{{polytonic|ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ Ὤν}}». «{{polytonic|Ὁ Ὤν}}» (HO ON) translates the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] «אהיה», but a rendering in English has been seen as problematic. It is variously given as "I AM", "The Existing One", "He Who Is", "THE BEING", or similar senses. In [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[icon]]s Jesus is usually portrayed with a cross inscribed in his [[halo]], and by way of identifying him with the God who revealed himself to Moses the letters {{polytonic|ὁ, Ὤ, and ν}} are often written in its branches.
===Abbreviations===
[[Image:JHS-IHS-Christogram.png|right|thumb|150px|IHS or JHS [[Christogram]] of western Christianity]]
Starting in the third century the nomina sacra, or names of Jesus, were sometimes shortened by contraction in Christian inscriptions, resulting in sequences of Greek letters such as IH (iota-eta), IC (iota-sigma), or IHC (iota-eta-sigma) for Jesus (Greek Iēsous), and XC (chi-sigma), XP (chi-ro) and XPC (chi-rho-sigma) for Christ (Greek Christos). Here "C" represents the medieval "lunate" form of Greek sigma; sigma could also be transcribed into the Latin alphabet by sound, giving IHS and XPS. Some of these Greek monograms continued to be used in Latin during the Middle Ages. Eventually the correct meaning was mostly forgotten, and erroneous interpretation of IHS led to the faulty orthography "Jhesus". Towards the close of the Middle Ages IHS became a symbol with the "H" appearing as a cross and underneath it three nails, while the whole figure is surrounded by rays. IHS became the accepted iconographical characteristic of St. Vincent Ferrer and of St. Bernardine of Siena. Bernardine, at the end of his sermons would exhibit this monogram devoutly to his audience for which he was criticized and even brought before [[Pope Martin V]]. The [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuits) founder, [[Ignatius of Loyola]] adopted the monogram in his seal and it became the emblem of his institute. IHS was sometimes wrongly understood as "Jesus Hominum (or Hierosolymae) Salvator", i.e. Jesus, the Saviour of men (or of Jerusalem=Hierosolyma).
==Print resources==
*Brown, Raymond E. ''An Introduction to New Testament Christology.'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0809135167
*[[Martin Chemnitz|Chemnitz, Martin]]. ''The Two Natures in Christ.'' [[J. A. O. Preus]], trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1970. ISBN 0570032105
*Karkkainen, Veli-Matti. ''Christology: A Global Introduction.'' Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003. ISBN 0801026210
*Matera, Frank J. ''New Testament Christology.'' Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999. ISBN 0664256945
* Norris, Richard A. and William G. Rusch. ''The Christological Controversy.'' Sources of Early Christian Thought Series. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1980. ISBN 0800614119
*O'Collins, Gerald. ''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus Christ.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0198755023
*[[Albert Outler|Outler, Albert C.]] ''Christology''. Bristol House, 1996. ISBN 1885224087
*Ratzinger, Cardinal Joseph. ''Introduction to Christianity.'' San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1969. ISBN I-58617-029-5
*Scaer, David P.. ''Christology Confessional Lutheran Dogmatics Vol. VI'' Northville, SD: The Luther Academy, 1989. ISBN 0-9622791-6-1
*Marchesi S.J., Giovanni. ''Gesu di Nazaret:Chi Sei? Lineamenti di cristologia.'' San Paolo Edizioni. 2004. ISBN: 8821552187
==External links==
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/christ.htm Christology: Beliefs about the Nature of Christ] - ReligionFacts.com
* [http://www.cogwriter.com Binitarian View: One God, Two Beings from Before the Beginning] Historical and biblical arguments favoring binitarianism.
* [http://www.gotquestions.org/Christology.html What is Christology?]
*[http://www.christiantruthanditsdefense.org/ Christian Truth and its Defense] Exposition and defense on the teachings of Christ and proofs of His historicity as told in the gospels.
*[http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen211.htm Rosicrucians: Jesus and Christ Jesus] (esoteric Christian view)
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In general use, a '''complaint''' is an expression of displeasure, such as poor service at a [[store]], or from a [[local government]], for example.
In the [[common law]], a '''complaint''' is a formal legal document that sets out the basic facts and legal reasons (see: [[cause of action]]) that the [[filing]] party (the [[plaintiff]]s) believes are sufficient to support a claim against another person, persons, entity or entities (the [[defendant]]s) that entitles the plaintiff(s) to a [[remedy]] (either [[money damages]] or [[injunctive relief]]). See also [[petition]] and [[pleading]].
In criminal cases, it is a '''criminal complaint''' ('''felony complaint''') and the plaintiff is the State (also sometimes called the People) or Crown (in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]) as the source of the [[prosecutor]]'s authority emanates from the [[police power]] of the state with the defendant being the accused who faces criminal [[sanction]]s.
==See also==
* [[Petition]]
* [[Pleading]]
* [[Service of process]]
{{law-stub}}
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<title>Kazimierz III the Great</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CasimirtheGreat.jpg|266px|right|thumb|Kazimierz III the Great by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
'''Kazimierz III the Great''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Kazimierz Wielki'''''; [[1310]] – [[1370]]), [[List of Polish rulers|King of Poland]], was the son of King [[Władysław I the Elbow-high]] and [[Jadwiga of Gniezno]] and Great Poland.
== Biography ==
Kazimierz the Great married firstly Anna, or [[Aldona Ona]], the daughter of the prince of [[Lithuania]], [[Gediminas]]. Their daughters were Cunigunda (d 1357), who was married to [[Louis VI the Roman]], the son of [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], and Elisabeth, who was married to Duke Bogislaus V of Pomerania. Kazimierz then married [[Adelheid of Hessen|Adelheid]] of [[Hessen]], and this was the start of his b |
that?" After conversing with Pete and his wife, Alex has an epiphany, renouncing violence on one hand, but on the other concluding that his behaviour was an unavoidable part of youth, and that if he had a son, he would not be able to stop him from doing what he did.
Although the book is divided into three parts, each containing seven chapters, twenty-one being a symbolic number as it was the age that which a child earns his rights at the time, the 21st chapter was omitted from the versions published in the US. The [[Film|film]] adaptation which was directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]] follows the American version of the book, ending prior the events of the 21st chapter. Kubrick claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay, but that he certainly never gave any serious consideration to using it.
==Analysis==
The book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang dialect which Burgess invented for the book, called [[nadsat]]. It is a mix of modified [[Russian_language|Russian]] words, [[English_language|English]] slang and words invented by Burgess himself. It serves two functions, firstly Burgess, while wanting to provide his young characters with their own register did not want to use contemporary slang, fearing that this would "date" the book too much. Secondly, the novel graphically describes horrific scenes of violence, which would be shocking even by today's standards, so nadsat is used as a "linguistic veil" to distance the reader from the action on the page.
==Influence==
{{main|List of cultural references to A Clockwork Orange}}
Both the story and individual elements have had a strong influence on [[popular culture]] in general and [[popular music]] in particular.
==Trivia==
* Alex's age at the end of the novel is the same age that the Burgesses' miscarried child would have been at the date of publication, had the child survived the attack on Lynne, been born and grown up.
* The allegedly Cockney phrase ''A Clockwork Orange'' is totally unknown to history: the first recorded use of it is Burgess's title. Quoted in a ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' article, Burgess claimed to have first heard the expression "from a very old Cockney in 1945."
*Burgess claimed that he had typed the title ''A Clockwork Orange'' and then sat down to think of a story to go with it. One early idea apparently involved a strike or riot among apprentices under Elizabeth I.
*As with many writers and their most popular books, this was one of Burgess's least favourite of the books he wrote, and he thought it was overrated.
*Since, in ''A Clockwork Orange,'' the author F. Alexander wrote a book entitled ''A Clockwork Orange'' and it is his wife who is attacked by the droogs, it seems likely Burgess directly inserted some of his own feelings and characteristics into the novel in the form of this character.
== See also ==
* [[A Clockwork Orange (film)]]
* [[Aestheticization of violence]]
* [[Nadsat]], a fictional slang used in the book
* [[Dystopia]]
==References==
# ''A Clockwork Orange: A play with music''. Century Hutchinson Ltd. (1987). &mdash; An extract is quoted on several web sites: [http://pers-www.wlv.ac.uk/~fa1871/burgess.html], [http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_anthonyburgessonaclockworkorange_page2.html], [http://kubricks0.tripod.com/burgesam.htm].
# Burgess, Anthony (1978). Clockwork Oranges. In ''1985''. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0091360803 ([http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_beingtheadventures_page1.html extracts quoted here])
# [[Gore Vidal|Vidal, Gore]]. "Why I am eight years younger than Anthony Burgess," in ''At home : essays, 1982-1988'', p. 411. New York: Random House, 1988. ISBN 0394570200.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{isfdb title | id=12305 | title=A Clockwork Orange}}
* {{isfdb title | id=25722 | title=A Clockwork Orange (1977)}}
* A Prophetic Masterpiece: http://www.city-journal.org/html/16_1_oh_to_be.html
[[Category:1962 books|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Dystopian novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:English novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Twentieth century British novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Anthony Burgess books|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
<div class="townBox" style="border:1px solid #dddddd;margin-left:0.5em; width: 200px;">
<center>'''Amsterdam'''</center>
[[Image:Canals_of_Amsterdam.jpg|200px|Canals of the Jordaan neighbourhood]]
;Location
[[Image:LocationAmsterdam.png|200px|Location of Amsterdam]]
;Flag
[[Image:Flag of Amsterdam.svg|200px|Flag of Amsterdam]]
;Country
:[[Netherlands]]
;Province
:[[North Holland]]
;Population
:742,951([[1 January]] [[2005]])
;Coordinates
:{{coor dm|52|22|N|4|54|E|}}
;Website
:[http://www.amsterdam.nl www.amsterdam.nl]
;[[Mayor of Amsterdam|Mayor]]
:[[Job Cohen]]
</div>
'''Amsterdam''', ({{Pronunciation|Nl-Amsterdam.ogg}}) the [[capital]] of the [[Netherlands]], lies on the banks of two bodies of water, the [[IJ (bay)|IJ bay]] and the [[Amstel]] river. Founded in the late [[12th century]] as a small fishing village on the banks of the [[Amstel]], it is now the largest city in the country and its financial and cultural centre. As of 2005, the population of the city proper is 742,951{{ref|population}}; the population of the greater Amsterdam area is approximately one and a half million.
Amsterdam has one of the largest historic city centres in Europe, dating largely from the 17th century, the Golden Age of the Netherlands, of which it was the focal point. At this time, a series of concentric, semi-circular canals were built around the older city centre, which still defines its layout and appearance today. Many fine houses and mansions are situated along the canals; most are lived in, others are now offices, and some are public buildings. Some of the narrow brick houses are gradually sinking because they are built on [[pile|piles]] to cope with the marshy subsoil.
The city is noted for many outstanding museums, including the [[Rijksmuseum]], the [[Van Gogh Museum]], the [[Stedelijk Museum]], [[Rembrandt House Museum]], the [[Anne Frank House]], and its world-class symphony orchestra, the [[Concertgebouworkest]], whose home base is the [[Concertgebouw]]. Notable are also its [[red-light district]], ''[[de Wallen]]'', and its numerous "[[coffee shop]]s" selling [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].
Although Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands, it is neither the capital of the province in which it is located, [[North Holland]] (which is [[Haarlem]]), nor the seat of government (which is [[The Hague]]).
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Amsterdam]]''
[[Image:Amsterdam airphoto.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Historical centre]]
Amsterdam was founded as a fishing village in the [[13th century]]. According to legend Amsterdam was founded by two [[Frisian]] fishermen, who landed on the shores of the Amstel in a small boat with their dog. The damming of the river [[Amstel]] gave it its name. It was given [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]] in [[1300]] or [[1301]]. From the [[14th century]] on, Amsterdam flourished, largely on the basis of trade with the cities of the [[Hanseatic League]].
The [[16th century]] brought a rebellion by the Dutch against [[Philip II of Spain]] and his successors, escalating into the [[Eighty Years' War]] which ultimately led to Dutch independence. The Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance and [[Jew]]s from [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], prosperous merchants from [[Antwerp]] (economic and religious refugees from the part of the Low Countries still controlled by Spain), [[Huguenots]] from [[France]] (persecuted for their religion) sought safety in Amsterdam. It was the rich, refined migrants from Flanders who set the tone (their Brabant dialects became the basis of standard written Dutch) and made Holland a [[Mercantilism|mercantile]] power.
[[Image:AmsterdamDamsquar.jpg|thumb|left|Dam Square in the late 17th century: painting by Jan Adriaensz. Berckheyde (Gemäldegalerie, Dresden)]]
The [[17th century]] is considered Amsterdam's "Golden Age". In the early 17th century Amsterdam was the richest city in Europe. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to [[North America]], [[Africa]] and present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Brazil]] and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the biggest share in the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] and [[Dutch West India Company|WIC]]. These companies acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was the most important point for the trans-shipment of goods in Europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world. Amsterdam's stock exchange was the first to trade continuously.
The population grew from slightly over 10,000 around 1500 to 30,000 around 1570, 60,000 around 1600, 105,000 in 1622 and almost 200,000 around 1700 |
l (contractually agreed) acceptance criteria are met, the sponsors will then sign off on the system as satisfying the contract (previously agreed between sponsor and manufacturer), and deliver final payment.
[[Category:Systems testing]] [[Category:software testing]]
[[de:Akzeptanztest]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Archbishop of Riga</title>
<id>3234</id>
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<username>Docu</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Archbishops of Riga''' (1202) 1255-1561 were the secular rulers of [[Riga]], the capital of [[Livonia]] (now known as [[Latvia]]). It was abolished in 1561 due to the conversion of the territory of the Livonian Order from Catholicism to [[Lutheranism]]. The see was restored as a bishopric of the Catholic Church in 1918 and raised into an archbishopric in 1923.
==Bishops and Archbishops of Riga==
===The Bishopric of Riga, 1186-1255===
*Meinhard, 1186 - 1196
*Berthold, 1196 - 1198
*[[Albert of Buxhoeveden]], 1199-1229
*Nikolaus von Nauen 1229 - 1253
===The Archbishopric of Riga, 1255-1561===
*[[Albert Suerbeer]] 1245 - 1273
*Johannes I von Lune, 1273 - 1284
*Johannes II von Vechten, 1285 - 1294
*Johannes III von Schwerin, 1294 -1300
*Isarnus Takkon, 1300 - 1302,
*Friedrich von Pernstein, 1304 - 1341
*Engelbert von Dolen, 1341 - 1347
*Bromhold von Vyffhusen, 1348 - 1369
*Siegfried Blomberg 1370 - 1374
*Johannes IV von Sinten, 1374 - 1393. 24.IX)
*Johannes V von Wallenrodt, 1393 - 1418
*Johannes VI Ambundi, 1418-1424
*Henning Scharpenberg, 1424-1448
*Silvester Stodewescher, 1448-1479
*Sede Vacante (empty seat), 1479-1484
*Michael Hildebrand, 1484-1509
*Jasper Linde, 1509-1524 (due to [[deflation (economics)|deflation]], no coins were minted during the reign of Jasper Linde; biographical data exists in alternate formats)
*Johannes VII Blankenfeld, 1524-1527 (due to deflation, no coins were minted during the reign of Johannes VII Blankenfeld; biographical data exists in alternate formats)
*Thomas Schoning, 1528-1539
*[[William of Brandenburg|Wilhelm of Brandenburg]], 1539-1563
''See secularized 1563, restored 1918.''
===Restored Bishopric of Riga, 1918-1923===
*Eduard Graf O'Rourke, 1918-1920
===Archbishopric of Riga, 1923-present===
*Antonijs Spingovics, 1920-1958
''vacant''
*[[Janis Cardinal Pujats|Jānis Pujāts]], 1991-present
== The coinage ==
The '''Archbishops of Riga''' were innovators in the field of minting currency, reviving techniques abandoned since the collapse of [[Rome]]. The names of individual archbishops after 1418, as well as the years of their respective reigns, are stamped on Livonian [[penny|pennies]] excavated at archaeological sites; in many cases, this is the only biographical data available. No Livonian pennies before 1418 have been found.
More information about the role of the Archbishopric of Riga in the history of coinage is available at http://department.monm.edu/history/urban/articles/COINS.htm
[[Category:Prince-Bishops|Riga]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops by diocese|Riga]]
[[Category:History of Latvia]]
[[de:Liste der Erzbischöfe von Riga]]
[[lv:Rīgas arhibīskapija]]
[[pl:Archidiecezja ryska]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert Frederick</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert Frederick''' ([[1553]]-[[1618]]) was duke of [[Prussia]] from [[1568]] until his death. He was the second and last Prussian duke of the [[Ansbach]] branch of the [[Hohenzollern]] family. At his death the dukedom passed to the Hohenzollern rulers of [[Brandenburg]], combining the two territories under a single dynasty.
[[Category:1553 births|Frederick, Albert]]
[[Category:1618 deaths|Frederick, Albert]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[de:Albrecht Friedrich von Preußen]]
[[pl:Albrecht Fryderyk Hohenzollern]]
[[sv:Albrekt Fredrik av Preussen]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ansbach</title>
<id>3236</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:55:52Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
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<comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|See [[Ansbach, Austria]] for the Austrian town of the same name.}}
{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Ansbach|
name_local = |
image_coa = WappenAnsbach.jpg|
image_map = Ansbach in Germany.png|
state = [[Bavaria]] |
regbzk = [[Mittelfranken]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 40,723|
population_as_of = 2004|
pop_dens = 407|
area = 99.92 |
elevation = 409|
lat_deg = 49|
lat_min = 18|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 10|
lon_min = 35|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 91522|
area_code = 0981|
licence = AN|
mayor = Ralf Felber ([[SPD]])|
website = [http://www.ansbach.de/ ansbach.de]|
}}
'''Ansbach''', or '''Anspach''', originally '''Onolzbach''', is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It is the capital of the [[Regierungsbezirk|administrative region]] of [[Mittelfranken|Middle Franconia]]. Ansbach is situated 25 miles southwest of [[Nuremberg]] and 90 miles north of [[Munich]], on the [[Fränkische Rezat]], a tributary of the [[Main]] river. Population: 40.723 (2004).
The city has five schools. It is connected by motorway [[Bundesautobahn 6|A6]] and routes [[German route 13|13]] and [[German route 14|14]].
==History==
A Benedictine monastery at the place was founded around [[748]] by a [[Franconia]]n noble, [[Gumbertus]], who was later canonized. In the following centuries the monastery and the adjoining village (''Onoldsbach'') grew to become the town of Ansbach (called a town in [[1221]] for the first time).
The counts of [[Oettingen]] ruled over Ansbach until the [[Hohenzollern]] burgraves of Nuremberg took over in [[1331]]. The Hohenzollerns made Ansbach the seat of their dynasty until their acquisition of the [[Prince-elector|electorate]] of [[Brandenburg]] in [[1415]]. However, after the death of [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg]] in [[1440]] the Franconian cadet branch of the family was not politically united with the main Brandenburg line, remaining independent as "Brandenburg-Ansbach."
Margrave [[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George the Pious]] introduced the [[Protestant Reformation]] to Ansbach in [[1528]], leading to the secularization of St. Gumbertus Abbey in [[1563]].
In [[1792]] Ansbach was annexed by the Hohenzollerns of [[Prussia]]. In 1796 the Duke of Zweibrücken, [[Maximilian I of Bavaria|Maximilian Joseph]], the posterior Bavarian king Max I. Joseph was exiled to Asnbach after Zweibrücken had been taken by the French. In Ansbach [[Maximilian von Montgelas]] wrote an elaborate concept for the future political organisation of Bavaria, which is known as the "[http://www.hdbg.de/montgelas/pages/hmv33.htm Ansbacher Mémoire]". In [[1806]] [[Prussia]] ceded Ansbach and the principality of Ansbach to Bavaria in exchange for the Bavarian [[Berg (German region)|duchy of Berg]].
At the end of the [[17th century]], the margraves' palace at Ansbach was rebuilt in [[Baroque]] style.
Since [[1970]], Ansbach has enlarged its municipal area by incorporating adjacent communities.
Ansbach was a small town largely by-passed by the [[Industrial Revolution]], an administrative and cultural center. Although all bridges were destroyed, the historical center of Ansbach was spared during [[World War II]] and it has kept its baroque character.
Ansbach hosts several units of the U.S. armed forces, associated with German units under [[NATO]]. There are three separate U.S. installations: Shipton Kaserne, home to 6th Bn., 52nd Air Defense Artillery; Katterbach Kaserne, where the 1st Division's 4th Combat Aviation Brigade resides, associated with Bismarck Kaserne, where the post exchange, etc. are located, and Barton Barracks, home to the 235th BSB.
==Boroughs==
*[[Eyb]], part of Ansbach since [[October 1]] [[1970]]
*[[Bernhardswinden]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Brodswinden]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Claffheim]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Elpersdorf bei Ansbach]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Hennenbach]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Neuses bei Ansbach]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
**[[Strüth (Ansbach)|Strüth]]
**[[Wasserzell (Ansbach)|Wasserzell]]
*[[Schalkhausen]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
**[[Geisengrund]]
**[[Dornberg (Ansbach)|Dornberg]]
**[[Neudorf (Ansbach)|Neudorf]]
**[[Steinersdorf]]
==Twinnings==
*[[Anglet]], [[France]]
*[[Bay City, Michigan]]
==Famous people==
[[Albert of Prussia]], Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and the first duke of [[Ducal Prussia]].
In the late [[16th century]], the physician to margrave Georg Friedrich was the famous botanist, [[Leonhart Fuchs]].
Ansbach was home of the astronomer [[Simon Marius]], who observed [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter's]] moons from the castle's tower. Later he claimed to be the discoverer of the moons, which led to a dispute with the true discoverer, [[Galileo Galilei]].
Ansbach was the birthplace of the early chemist, [[Georg Ernst Stahl]].
[[Caroline of Ansbach|Queen Caroline]] of Great Britain was born in Ansbach in [[1683]].
Two poets, [[Johann Peter Uz]] (1720-1796) and [[August Graf von Platen]] (1790-1835), were also born there.
[[Kaspar Hauser]] lived in Ansbach from [[1830]] to [[1833]]. He was murdered in the palace gardens.
== Sights ==
* Castle of the margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach
* Margrave museum
|
is is the strongest type of self-similarity; the fractal appears identical at different scales. Fractals defined by iterated function systems often display exact self-similarity.
:*Quasi-self-similarity &mdash; This is a loose form of self-similarity; the fractal appears approximately (but not exactly) identical at different scales. Quasi-self-similar fractals contain small copies of the entire fractal in distorted and degenerate forms. Fractals defined by [[recurrence relation]]s are usually quasi-self-similar but not exactly self-similar.
:*Statistical self-similarity &mdash; This is the weakest type of self-similarity; the fractal has numerical or statistical measures which are preserved across scales. Most reasonable definitions of "fractal" trivially imply some form of statistical self-similarity. (Fractal dimension itself is a numerical measure which is preserved across scales.) Random fractals are examples of fractals which are statistically self-similar, but neither exactly nor quasi-self-similar.
It should be noted that not all self-similar objects are fractals &mdash; e.g., the [[real line]] (a straight Euclidean line) is exactly self-similar, but the argument that Euclidean objects are fractals is a distinct minority position. Mandelbrot argued that a definition of "fractal" should include not only "true" fractals, but also traditional Euclidean objects, because [[irrational number]]s on the number line represent complex, non-repeating properties.
Because a fractal possesses infinite [[granularity]], no natural object can be a fractal. However, natural objects can display fractal-like properties across a limited range of scales.
==Examples==
[[Image:Julia set (indigo).png|thumb|A [[Julia set]], a fractal related to the Mandelbrot set]]
Some common examples of fractals include the [[Mandelbrot set]], [[Lyapunov fractal]], [[Cantor set]], [[Sierpinski gasket]] and [[Sierpinski carpet|carpet]], [[Menger sponge]], [[dragon curve]], [[Peano curve]], limit sets of [[Kleinian group]]s, and the [[Koch curve]]. Fractals can be [[deterministic]] or [[stochastic]] (i.e. non-deterministic). [[Chaos theory|Chaotic dynamical systems]] are often (if not always) associated with fractals. The Mandelbrot set contains whole discs, so has dimension 2. This is not surprising. What is truly surprising is that the ''[[boundary]]'' of the Mandelbrot set also has a Hausdorff dimension of 2.
A relatively simple class of examples is the [[Cantor set]]s, in which short and then shorter (open) intervals are struck out of the [[unit interval]] [0, 1], leaving a set that might (or might not) actually be self-similar under enlargement, and might (or might not) have dimension ''d'' that has 0 &lt; ''d'' &lt; 1. A simple recipe, such as excluding the [[numerical digit|digit]] ''7'' from [[decimal expansion]]s, is self-similar under 10-fold [[enlargement]], and also has dimension log 9/log 10 (this value is the same, no matter what [[logarithm]]ic base is chosen), showing the connection of the two concepts.
==Fractals in nature==
Approximate fractals are easily found in nature. These objects display complex structure over an extended, but finite, scale range. These naturally occurring fractals (like [[clouds]], [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ snowflakes], [[mountains]], [[river]] networks, and systems of [[blood vessels]]) have both lower and upper cut-offs, but they are separated by several [[orders of magnitude]]. Despite being ubiquitous, fractals were not much studied until well into the [[twentieth century]], and general definitions came later.
Trees and ferns are fractal in nature and can be modeled on a computer using a [[recursion|recursive]] [[algorithm]]. This recursive nature is clear in these examples &mdash; a branch from a tree or a [[frond]] from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole: not identical, but similar in nature.
<gallery>
Image:Glue1_800x600.jpg|A fractal is formed when pulling apart two glue-covered acrylic sheets.
Image:Square1.jpg|High voltage breakdown within a 4&Prime; block of acrylic creates a fractal [[Lichtenberg figure]].
Image:Microwaved-DVD.jpg|Fractal branching occurs on a microwave-irradiated [[DVD]]
Image:Fractal Broccoli.jpg|Romanesco broccoli showing very fine natural fractals
</gallery>
==Applications==
[[Image:Julia set (highres 01).jpg|thumb|]]
Random fractals have the greatest practical use because they can be used to describe many highly irregular real-world objects. Examples include clouds, mountains, [[turbulence]], coastlines, and trees. Fractal techniques have also been employed in [[Fractal Compression|fractal image compression]], as well as a variety of scientific disciplines.
There are various applications [http://library.thinkquest.org/26242/full/ap/ap.html] of fractals in the fields of:
* [[Classification]] of [[histopathology]] slides in [[medicine]]
* Generation of new [[music]]
* Generation of various [[art]] forms
* [[Signal (information theory)|Signal]] and [[image]] [[Data compression|compression]]
* [[Seismology]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[game design|Computer and video game design]], especially [[computer graphics]] for [[life|organic]] environments
* Fractography and [[fracture mechanics]]
==Fractal generation==
Fractals are usually rendered with computers. Various software exists for rendering fractals, and even generating new ones.
* [[Fractint]] (multiplatform)
* [[Sterling Fractal]] — Advanced fractal-generating program for [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems by Stephen Ferguson
* [[XaoS]] — A fast interactive real-time fractal zoomer and morpher ([http://xaos.sourceforge.net/ homepage]).
==See also==
* [[Bifurcation theory]]
* [[Butterfly effect]]
* [[Chaos theory]]
* [[Complexity]]
* [[Constructal theory]]
* [[Diamond-square algorithm]]
* [[Fractal art]]
* [[Fractal landscape]]
* [[Fractal metaphysics]]
* [[Fractal compression]]
* [[Graftal]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Fractal geometry|Publications in fractal geometry]]
* [[Non-linear dynamics]]
* [[Recursion]]
* [[Turbulence]]
* [[Feigenbaum Function]]
==References==
* Barnsley, Michael F., and Hawley Rising. ''Fractals Everywhere''. Boston: Academic Press Professional, 1993. ISBN 0120790610
* Falconer, Kenneth. ''Fractal Geometry: Mathematical Foundations and Applications''. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2003. ISBN 0470848618
* Jürgens, Hartmut, Heins-Otto Peitgen, and Dietmar Saupe. ''Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science''. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992. ISBN 038797903
* Mandelbrot, Benoît B. ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1982. ISBN 0716711869
* Peitgen, Heinz-Otto, and Dietmar Saupe, eds. ''The Science of Fractal Images''. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988. ISBN 0387966080
* [[Clifford A. Pickover]], ed. ''Chaos and Fractals: A Computer Graphical Journey - A 10 Year Compilation of Advanced Research''. Elsevier, 1998. ISBN 0-444-50002-2
* [[Jesse Jones]], ''Fractals for the Macintosh'', Waite Group Press, Corte Madera, CA, 1993. ISBN 1-878739-46-8. Probably the earliest good computer-generator for the masses; the book came with a floppy (unknown if it will still run on later Macintoshs). Good introduction geared toward students at junior-high and high school level. With brief history including Peano and Koch leading to Hausdorff dimension. Examples of imaginary-number math, how to generate a fractal. With formulas and brief explanations for the 69 generator functions supported by the floppy. References a 1985 Scientific American article in [[A.K. Dewdney]]'s "Computer Recreations" that "...inspired countless programmers to write their own Mandelbrot programs" including, apparently, the author.
* [[Hans Lauwerier]], ''Fractals: Endlessly Repeated Geometrical Figures'', Translated by Sophia Gill-Hoffstadt, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1991. ISBN 0-691-08551-X, cloth. ISBN 0-691-02445-6 paperback. "This book has been written for a wide audience..." Includes sample BASIC programs in an appendix.
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Fractal.ogg|2005-06-16}}
{{Commons|Fractal}}
*[http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals.
*[http://www.fractalus.com/info/layman.htm Fractals, in Layman's Terms]
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/index.shtml#f Fractals, fractal dimension, chaos, plane filling curves] at [[cut-the-knot]]
*[http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/fractals/self.html Fractal properties]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/fractal-faq/ Information on fractals from FAQS.org]
*[http://www.jracademy.com/~jtucek/math/dimen.html Fractal dimensions]
*[http://math.berkeley.edu/~harrison/research/publications/ Fractal calculus]
*[http://www.math.vt.edu/people/hoggard/FracGeomReport/node1.html Fractal Dimension]
*[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/fractals/grandcanyon/ Natural fractals in Grand Canyon]
*[http://www.geom.uiuc.edu/~math5337/ds/ One Dimensional Dynamical Systems]. From UIUC a brief introduction
; Multiplatform generator programs
*[http://xaos.sourceforge.net/ Xaos] — Realtime generator — Windows, Mac, Linux, etc
*[http://flam3.com/ FLAM3] — Advanced iterated function system designer and renderer for all platforms.
*[http://fract.ygingras.net Fract] — A Web-based fractal zoomer
; Linux generator programs
*[http://gnofract4d.sourceforge.net/ Gnofract4d] — Interactive editor which can use many fractint formulas
*[http://freshmeat.net/articles/view/827/ Review of fractal software packages which run under X11 on Linux]
; Windows generator programs
*[http://www.fractovia.org/art/fractal_generators/gen01.shtml Fractovia's listing of fractal generators] is a fairly complete listing of free fractal generators.
*[http://www.wackerart.de/fractal.html Online Fractal Generator] Java-Plugin required.
*[http://www.ultrafractal.com/ Ultra Fr |
most endearing personal episodes to survive from the classical period. In his own words (note that some of the beauty is lost in translation):
:''If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of pruriance, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son.''
::'''[[Satire]]s 1.6.65-92'''
After the assassination of [[Julius Caesar]], Horace joined the army, serving under the generalship of [[Brutus]]. He was in the [[Battle of Philippi]], and saved himself by fleeing. When an [[amnesty]] was declared for those who had fought against the victorious [[Augustus]], he returned to Italy, only to find his father dead, and his estate confiscated. Horace was reduced to poverty. He was, however, able to purchase a clerkship in the [[quaestor]]'s office, which allowed him to get by and practice his poetic art.
Horace was a member of a literary circle that included [[Virgil]] and [[Lucius Varius Rufus]]; they introduced him to [[Maecenas]], friend and confidant of [[Augustus]]. Maecenas became his patron and close friend, and presented Horace with an estate near [[Tibur]], contemporary [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]].
Perhaps the finest translator of Horace was [[John Dryden]], who successfully adapted most of the ''Odes'' into English verse for readers of his own age. These translations are favored by many scholars despite some textual variations. Others favor unrhymed translations.
Horace's surviving work includes:
* Four books of ''[[Ode]]s'' (or [[Carmina]]), longer poems, usually on mythological subjects;
* A book of ''[[Epode]]s'', containing shorter poems;
* Two books of ''[[Satire]]s'', and
* Two books of ''[[Letter]]s'' or ''[[Epistle]]s'', and
* The ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]''.
One of the ''Epistles'' is often referred to as a separate work in itself, the ''[[Ars Poetica]]''. In this work, Horace forwards a theory of poetry. His most important tenets are that poetry must be carefully and skillfully worked out on the semantic and formal, and that poetry should be wholesome as well as pleasant. This latter issue is often referred to as the ''dulce et utile,'' which is Latin for the sweet and useful. (This work was first translated into English by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]).
Horace is generally considered by [[classicist]]s to be, along with [[Virgil]], the greatest of the Latin poets. He wrote many [[List of Latin phrases|Latin phrases]] that remain in use, in Latin or in translation, including [[carpe diem]], "seize the day," and ''aurea mediocritas'', the "golden mean." His works are written exclusively in Greek [[meter (poetry)|metre]]s, from the [[hexameter]], which was relatively easy to adapt to Latin, to the more complex measures used in the ''Odes'', like [[alcaic]]s and [[Sapphic stanza|sapphic]]s, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and [[syntax]]. No Latin writer handles these metres with such grace, precision and lightness of touch, although [[Catullus]] comes close. The ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' are his most personal works, and perhaps the most accessible to contemporary readers unable to appreciate the verbal magic of the ''Odes''.
== Works ==
* ([[35 BC]]) ''[[Sermonum liber primus]]'' or ''Satirae I'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/serm1.shtml]
* ([[30 BC]]) ''[[Epodes]]'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/ep.shtml]
* (30 BC) ''[[Sermonum liber secundus]]'' or ''Satirae II'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/serm2.shtml]
* ([[23 BC]]) ''[[Carminum liber primus]]'' or ''Odes I'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm1.shtml]
* (23 BC) ''[[Carminum liber secundus]]'' or ''Odes II'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm2.shtml]
* (23 BC) ''[[Carminum liber tertius]]'' or ''Odes III'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm1.shtml]
* ([[20 BC]]) ''[[Epistularum liber primus]]'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/epist1.shtml]
* ([[18 BC]]) ''[[Ars Poetica]]'', or ''The Epistle to the Pisones'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/arspoet.shtml]
* ([[17 BC]]) ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]'' or ''Song of the Ages'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carmsaec.shtml]
* ([[14 BC]]) ''[[Epistularum liber secundus]]'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/epist2.shtml]
* ([[13 BC]]) ''[[Carminum liber quartus]]'' or ''Odes IV'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm4.shtml]
== See also ==
* ''[[Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]]''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|la|Quintus Horatius Flaccus|Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Horace_(-65--8)|name=Horace}}
*[http://quintus.horatius.free.fr/ Espace Horace]
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hor.html The works of Horace] at [[The Latin Library]]
*[http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/horace/ Selected Poems of Horace]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html ''The Perseus Project'' -- Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace]
*[http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/horawillbio.shtml Biography and chronology]
*[http://www.biblion.com/litweb/biogs/horace.html Litweb]
[[Category:65 BC births]]
[[Category:8 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Roman era poets]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]]
[[ca:Horaci]]
[[cs:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
[[da:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
[[de:Horaz]]
[[et:Horatius]]
[[es:Horacio]]
[[eu:Horacio (Kinto Horazio Flako)]]
[[fr:Horace]]
[[ko:호라티우스]]
[[it:Quinto Orazio Flacco]]
[[he:הורציוס]]
[[la:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
[[lt:Horacijus]]
[[hu:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
[[nl:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
[[ja:ホラティウス]]
[[no:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
[[nn:Horats]]
[[pl:Horacy (poeta)]]
[[pt:Horácio]]
[[ro:Horaţiu]]
[[ru:Гораций]]
[[sk:Horatius]]
[[sl:Horacij]]
[[sr:Хорације]]
[[fi:Horatius]]
[[sv:Horatius]]
[[uk:Горацій]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Microsoft Windows</title>
<id>13694</id>
<revision>
<id>41828143</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:29:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.184.31.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Late 2006: Windows Vista */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Microsoft Windows.png|thumb|right|Windows logo]]
In [[1983]] [[Microsoft]] announced its development of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) for its own [[operating system]] ([[MS-DOS]]) that had shipped for [[IBM PC]] and compatible computers since [[1981]]. Microsoft modeled the GUI, which was first known as Interface Manager, after that of [[Apple Computer|Apple]]'s [[Mac OS]]. [[Bill Gates]] had been shown a [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] prototype by [[Steve Jobs]] early in its development, around [[1981]], and Microsoft was partnered by Apple to create some of the important early Mac software, such as [[Microsoft Word|Word]] and [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]].
==Early history ==
The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released in [[1985]], lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity. It was originally going to be called '''Interface Manager''', but [[Rowland Hanson]], the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name '''Windows''' would be a more appealing name to consumers. [[Windows 1.0]] did not provide a complete operating system, but rather extended [[MS-DOS]] and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems. Moreover, the programs that shipped with the early version comprised "toy" applications with little or limited appeal to [[business]] users.
Furthermore, legal challenges by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] limited its functionality. For example, windows could only appear 'tiled' on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one another. Also, there was no trash can (place to store files prior to deletion), since Apple believed they owned the rights to that paradigm. Microsoft later removed both of these limitations by means of signing a licensing agreement.
Microsoft Windows version 2 came out in [[1987]], and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor. Much of the popularity for [[Windows 2.0]] came by way of its inclusion as a "run-time version" with Microsoft's new graphical applications, [[Microsoft Excel | Excel]] and [[Microsoft Word | Word for Windows]]. They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit (rumor has it that Windows was intended as a platform to run [[Microsoft Office]] applications first, and only later as a general-use GUI system).
Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when [[Aldus]] Pagemaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on [[Apple Macintosh | Macintosh]]. Some computer historians date this, the first appearance of a significant ''and'' non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the beginning of the success of Windows.
Versions 2.0x still used the [[real mode | real-mode]] [[computer storage|memory]] model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 [[megabyte]] of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker like [[DESQview]], which used the [[Intel 80286|286]] [[protected mode | Protected Mode]]. Later two new versions were released, named Windows/286 2.1 and Windows/386 2.1. Windows/286 was just adding a few additions to Windows 2.0 and still ran in real mode, but was the first version to support using the HMA, while Windows/386 had a protected mode |
area between a hash mark and a sideline
;[[single wing]] : a formation, now out of fashion, most popular about 1920-50, with an overload and wingback on one side and two backs about 5 yards deep to receive the snap.
;slobber-knocker : a particularly gruesome tackle or hit.
;slot :The area between a split end and the offensive line. A pass receiver lined up in the slot at the snap of the ball may be called a slotback or slot receiver.
;[[snap (football)|snap]] :the handoff or pass from the center that begins a play from scrimmage.
;[[Quarterback sneak|sneak]] :an offensive play in which the quarterback, immediately on receiving the snap dives forward with the ball. The play is used when a team needs a very short gain to reach either the goal line or the line to gain.
;[[special team]]s :the units that handle kickoffs, punts, free kicks and field goal attempts.
;spike :a play in which the quarterback throws the ball at the ground immediately after the snap. Technically an incomplete pass, it stops the clock. Note that a spike is not considered '''intentional grounding'''.
;splits :the distance between the feet of adjacent offensive linemen. Said to be wide, if there is a large gap between players, or narrow, if the gap is small.
;split end :a player position on offence. A receiver who lines up on the line of scrimmage, several yards outside the offensive linemen. The term is no longer used in American Football, having been long since replaced by the wide receiver or wideout, with no distinction between whether the receiver is on the line or not.
;[[squib kick]] :a type of '''kickoff''' in which the ball is intentionally kicked low to the ground, typically bouncing on the ground a few times before being picked up. This is done in the hopes of preventing a long return, as the ball is often picked up by one of the '''upmen''' as opposed to the designated kickoff returner.
;sticks : the pole attached to the end of the 10-yard chain that is used by the [[chain crew]] to measure for a new series of downs -- i.e. the line to gain a new "first down".
;stiff-arm or straight-arm :a ballcarrier warding off a would-be tackler by pushing them away with a straight arm.
;strong i :a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback, and the fullback is lined up offset to the strong side of the formation.
;strong safety (SS):a kind of safety on [[defensive team|defense]], as opposed to a free safety. This is a central defensive back; originally, the term indicated that he lined up on the strong side of the field and covered the tight end. However, the modern usage of the term now indicates a central defensive back with responsibility for run and pass support, slightly favoring run support.
;strong side :simplistically speaking, the side of the field (left or right) that has the most players, but it depends on the formations of the teams. When a team uses one tight end, the strong side is the side of the field where the tight end lines up. If the offensive package uses no tight end, or more than one tight end, the strong side is the side of the field with the most offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage.
;[[stunt (football)|stunt]]:a tactic used by defensive linemen in which they switch roles in an attempt to get past the blockers. Both defenders will start with power rushes, with the stunting defender getting more of a push. The other lineman will then go around him, ideally using him as a pick to get free from his blocker.
;[[Sweep (American football)|sweep]] :a running play in which several blockers lead a running back on a designed play to the outside. Depending on the number of blockers and the design of the play this is sometimes referred to as a "power sweep" or "student-body-right" (or left).
==T==
;[[T formation]] :a classic offensive formation with the quarterback directly behind the center and three running backs behind the quarterback, forming a 'T'. Numerous variations have been developed including the split-T, wing-T, and wishbone-T.
;[[tackle (football)|tackle]]
*the act of forcing a ball carrier to the ground
*a player position on the line, either an [[offensive tackle]] or a [[defensive tackle]]-- see '''linemen'''.
;tackle box: the area between where the two [[offensive tackle]]s line up prior to the snap.
;[[tailback]] :player position on [[offensive team| offense]] farthest ("deepest") back, except in kicking formations. Also often referred to as the '''running back''', particularly in a '''one-back offense'''.
;[[three-and-out]]: when an offensive team fails to gain a first down on the first three plays of a drive, and thus is forced to punt on fourth down.
;three-point stance: a down lineman's stance with three points on the ground, in another words, his two feet and one of his hands
;[[tight end]] :a player position on [[offensive team| offense]], an eligible receiver ligned up on the line of scrimmage, next to the offensive tackle. Tight ends are used as blockers during running plays, and either run a route or stay in to block during passing plays.
;[[touchback]] :the act of downing the ball behind one's own goal line after the ball had been propelled over the goal by the opposing team. After a touchback, the team that downed it gets the ball at their own 20-yard line.
;touchdown :a play worth six points, accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent's end zone. It also allows the team a chance for one extra point by kicking the ball or a two point conversion; see "try" below.
;trap :a basic blocking pattern in which a defensive lineman is allowed past the line of scrimmage, only to be blocked at an angle by a "pulling" lineman. Designed to gain a preferred blocking angle and larger hole in the line.
;trips :a formation in which 3 wide receivers are lined up close to one another on the same side of the field. Also refers to those receivers. Used to create potential for confusion or collision between defenders as these receivers split up.
;[[two-point conversion]] :a play worth two points accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent's end zone after a touchdown has been made; see "try" below
;try :a scrimmage play, from close to their opponent's goal line, awarded to a team which has scored a touchdown, allowing them (and in some codes, their opponents) to score an additional 1 or 2 points; also called "try-for-point", "conversion", "convert" (Canadian), "extra point(s)", "point(s) after (touchdown)" or PAT
==U==
;unbalanced line :usually refers to an offensive formation which does not have an equal number of '''linemen''' on each side of the ball. Done to gain a blocking advantage on one side of the formation; typically one '''tackle''' or '''guard''' lines up on the other side of the ball. For example a common alignment would be E-G-C-G-T-T-E.
;upman :during a kickoff, every player on the return team is called an "upman" with the exception of the one or two designated kickoff returners, who stand furthest away from the starting point of the kicking team.
==V==
;Veer :a type of '''option''' offense using 2 backs in the backfield, one behind each guard or tackle (referred to as split backs), allowing a triple option play (give to either back or quarterback keep).
==W==
;weak i :a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback, and the fullback is lined up offset to the weak side of the formation.
;weak side :when one tight end is used, the side of the field opposite the tight end. In other offensive packages, the side of the field with the fewest offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage.
;[[West Coast offense]] :an [[Offensive philosophy (American football)|offensive philosophy]] that uses short, high-percentage passes as the core of a ball-control offense. Widely used but originally made popular by [[San Francisco 49ers]] coach [[Bill Walsh (football coach)|Bill Walsh]]. A main component of the west coast offense is use of all the eligible receivers in the short passing game.
;[[wide receiver]] :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]]. He is split wide (usually about 10 yards) from the formation and plays on the line of scrimmage as a '''split end''' or one yard off as a '''flanker'''.
;will :the ''w''eak side linebacker
;wing back :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] in some [[offensive team| offensive]] formations. Lines up just outside the '''tight end''' and one yard off the '''line of scrimmage'''. May be a receiver but is more typically used as a blocking back.
;'''[[wishbone formation|wishbone]]''': a formation involving three running backs lined up behind the quarterback in the shape of a Y, similar to the shape of a [[wishbone]].
==X==
;X-receiver :Term used in play calling that usually refers to the '''split end''', or the [[wide receiver]] that lines up on the line of scrimmage. For example, "Split Right Jet 529 X Post" tells the X-receiver to run a post route.
==Y==
;Y-receiver :Term usually used in offensive play calling to refer to the '''tight end'''. For example, "Buffalo Right 534 Boot Y Corner" tells the Y-receiver to run a corner route.
==Z==
;Z-receiver :a term used in offensive play calling that usually refers to the '''flanker''', or the [[wide receiver]] that lines up off the line of scrimmage. For example, "Panther Gun 85 Slant Z Go" tells the Z-receiver to run a '''go''' (also called a '''fly''' or '''streak''') route.
;zone defense :a defense in which players who are in pass coverage cover zones of the field, instead of individual players. Pure zone packages are seldom used; most defenses employ some combination of zone and man coverage.
;[[zone blitz]] : |
bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| that yonder
| '''aquél''' (masculine)<br>'''aquella''' (feminine)
| {{IPA|/aˈkel/}}<br>{{IPA|/aˈkeʎa/}}<br>{{IPA|/aˈkeʝa/}}
|
|
|- valign=top
| how much?
| '''¿cuánto?'''
| {{IPA|/ˈkwanto/}}
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| English
| '''inglés'''
| {{IPA|[iŋˈgles]}}
|
|
|- valign=top
| yes
| '''sí'''
| {{IPA|/ˈsi/}}
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| no
| '''no'''
| {{IPA|/ˈno/}}
|
|
|- valign=top
| I don’t understand
| '''no comprendo'''<br>'''no entiendo'''
| {{IPA|/nokomˈprendo/}}<br>{{IPA|/noenˈtjendo/}}
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don’t know
| '''no sé'''
| {{IPA|/noˈse/}}
|
|
|- valign=top
| where’s the bathroom?(shower)
| '''¿Dónde está el baño?'''
| {{IPA|/dondesˈtaelˈβ̞aɲo/}}
|
|- valign=top
| where are the restrooms? (toilet,lavatories,plural)
| '''¿Dónde están los sanitarios? (Latin America) ¿Dónde está el aseo? (Spain)'''
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| generic toast
| '''salud'''
| {{IPA|/saˈluð̞/}}
|
| lit. ''health''
|- valign=top
| Do you speak English? (direct polite)
| '''¿Habla inglés?'''
| {{IPA|/ˈaβ̞laiŋˈgles/}}
| ([[Media:Spanish_habla_inglés.ogg|listen]])
| polite question
|-valign=top
| I hope (to wish,to hope)
|'''Ojalá'''
|{{IPA| /oxaˈla/}}
|}
== [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ([[Bantu]]) ==
Usage Note: Greetings in Swahili are a crucial aspect of Swahili culture; it is not uncommon for a conversation to last five minutes before it actually moves beyond saying "Hello". There is no generic word for "Hello" in the language, rather there are numerous options depending on the relative ages and/or race of the people involved, as well as singular and plural forms. A non-comprehensive list would include "hujambo" (reply "sijambo") for two people of similar age and race, "jambo" (reply "jambo") for between white and black people, "Shikamoo" (reply "Marahaba") for a young person to an elderly person, "Hodi" (reply "Karibu") when in the doorway of a house. There are additionally numerous informal greetings such as "Mambo", "Safi", and many more. Farewells are abrupt or even non-existent.
*Swahili: ''Kiswahili'' /ki swa hi li/ (kee-swa-HEE-lee)
*hello: Jambo (ja m boh) or (ya m boh)
*good-bye: ''kwa heri'' /kwa he ri/ (kwa HAY-ree)
*please: ''tafadhali'' /ta fa ða li/ (tah-fah-tha-lee)
*thank you: ''asante'' /a san te/ (ah-SAHN-tey)
*that one: ''yule'' /ju le/ (YOO-lay)
*how much?: ''ngapi'' /ŋa pi/ (ng-AH-pee)
*where?: ''wapi'' /wa pi/ (WA-pee)
*English: ''Kiingereza'' /ki iŋe re za/ (kee-ing-reza)
*yes: ''ndiyo'' /n di jo/ (nn-DEE-yoh)
*no: ''hapana'' /ha pa na/
*generic toast: //
*no worries: ''hakuna matata'' /ha ku na ma ta ta/ (ha-KOO-na ma-TA-ta)
== [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
*Swedish: ''svenska'' /{{IPA|'svɛnska}}/
*hello: ''hej'' /{{IPA|hɛj}}/ (hey)
*good-bye: ''hej då'' /{{IPA|hɛj doː}}/ (HEY-doh)
*please: ''tack'' /tak/ (tahck) as in "yes, please" or ''snälla'' /{{IPA|'snɛla}}/ (snella) as in "please, show me to the station" or "var så god" /{{IPA|vaʂɔ'guːd}}/ (vahr saw goh) as in "please come in and make yourself at home"
*excuse me: ''ursäkta mig'' /{{IPA|'ʉːʂɛkta mɛj}}/ or /{{IPA|ʉ'ʂɛkta mɛj}}/ (uor-SECKTAH may)
*thank you: ''tack'' /{{IPA|tak}}/ (tahck)
*that one: ''den där'' /{{IPA|dɛn dæːɾ}}/ (den dehr)
*how much?: ''hur mycket?'' /{{IPA|hʉːɾ 'mʏkːɛ}}/ (huwr MICK-eh)
*English: ''engelska'' /{{IPA|'ɛŋːɛlska}}/ (ENG-el-skah)
*yes: ''ja'' /{{IPA|jɑː}}/ or /{{IPA|ja}}/ (yah)
*no: ''nej'' /{{IPA|nɛj}}/ (neigh)
*generic toast: ''skål'' /{{IPA|skoːl}}/ (skal ''or'' skol)
*banana: ''banan'' /{{IPA|ba'nɑːn}}/ (buh-NAAN)
*what time is it?: ''vad är klockan?'' /{{IPA|vɑː æ 'klɔkːan}}/ (vaad air KLAWCK-an)
*Where's the bathroom?: ''var är toaletten?'' /{{IPA|vɑːɾ æ tʊa'lɛtːɛn}}/ (vahr eyr twah-LET-en)
*I don't understand: ''jag förstår inte'' /{{IPA|ja fœ'ʂtoːɾ 'ɪntɛ}}/ (yah fur-SHTOHR in-teh)
*Do you speak English?: ''Talar du engelska?'' /{{IPA|'tɑːlaɾ dʉ 'ɛŋːɛlska}}/ (TAH-lahr doo ENG-elska) [with NG as in 'siNGer', not as in 'fiNGer']
== [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]/[[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
'''Note:''' The polite forms of some phrases - those which make use of the word ''pô'' - should generally be used when speaking to persons of authority and seniority, or to show reverence to the person to whom spoken. With friends and in casual situations, ''pô'' is not used. Also, in modern written Filipino/Tagalog, diacritical marks are omitted.
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
| Tagalog || ''Tagalog'' || {{IPA|/tɐ"galog/}} || ''(ta-GA-log)''
|-
| Filipino || ''Pilipino'' || {{IPA|/%pili"pino/}} || ''(pi-li-PI-no)''
|-
| Hello/How are you? || ''Kumustá''/''Kumustá ka?'' || {{IPA|/kumus"ta (ka)/}} || ''(ku-mus-TAH (KA?))''
|-
| I'm fine, and you? || ''Mabuti namán, ikáw?'' || {{IPA|/mɐ"butɛ nɐ"man, ʔi"kaʊ̯/}} || ''(ma-BU-ti na-MAN, iKAW?)''
|-
| Good-bye || ''Paalam (pô)'' || {{IPA|/pɐ"ʔalam (poʔ)/}} || ''(pa-AH-lam (PO))''
|-
| Please || ''pakí-''(verb) ''(pô)'' || {{IPA|/pɐ"ki (poʔ)/}} || ''(pah-KI (PO))''
|-
| Thank you || ''Salamat (pô)'' || {{IPA|/sɐ"lamat (poʔ)/}} || ''(sa-LAH-mat (PO))''
|-
| You're welcome || ''Waláng anumán (pô)'' (literally, "No problem") || {{IPA|/ʊɐ"laŋ ʔɐnu"man (poʔ)/}} || ''(wa-LANG a-nu-MAN (PO))''
|-
| That one (object far from person spoken to) || ''Iyon (pô)'' [demonstrative] ''Ayun (pô)'' [reflective]|| {{IPA|/ʔi"jon (poʔ)/}} || ''(i-YON (PO))''
|-
| That one (object near to/held by person spoken to) || ''Iyan (pô)'' [demonstrative] ''Ayan (pô)" [reflective] {{IPA|/ʔi"jan (poʔ)/}} || ''(i-YAN (PO))''
|-
| How much? || ''Magkano (pô)?'' || {{IPA|/mɐg"kano (poʔ)/}} || ''(mag-KAH-no (PO)?)''
|-
| English || ''Ingglés'' || {{IPA|/ʔɪŋ"glɛs/}} || ''(ing-GLES)''
|-
| Yes || ''Oo'' / ''Opò'' (polite form) || {{IPA|/"oʔo/, /"opoʔ/}} || ''(O-o) / (O-po)'' (all o's pronounced neutral)
|-
| No || ''Hindî '' || {{IPA|/hɪn"diʔ/, /hɪn"dɛʔ/}} || ''(hin-DI)'' or ''(hin-DE)''
|-
| No (polite form) || ''Hindí pô'' || {{IPA|/hɪn"di (poʔ)/}} || ''(hin-DI PO)''
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || ''Nasaán ang banyo?'' || {{IPA|/%nasɐʔan ʔaŋ "banjo/}} || ''(NA-sa-AN ang BAN-yoh?)''
|-
| What is your name? (casual) || ''Anó ang pangalan mo?'' || {{IPA|/ʔɐ"no ʔaŋ pɐ"ŋalan mo/}} || ''(ah-NOH ang pa-NGA-lan MOH?)''
|-
| What is your name? (formal) || ''Anó pô ang inyóng pangalan?'' || {{IPA|/ʔɐ"no poʔ ʔaŋ ʔɪn"joŋ pɐ"ŋalan/}} || ''(ah-NOH PO ang in-YONG pah-NGA-lan?)''
|-
| Sorry || ''Paumanhín (pô)'' || {{IPA|/pɐʔuman"hin (poʔ)/}} || ''(pa-u-man-HIN (PO))''
|-
| I don't know || ''Hindí ko (pô) alám'' || {{IPA|/hɪn"di ko (po) ʔa"lam/}} || ''(hin-DI ko (PO) a-LAM)''
|-
| I don't understand || ''Hindí ko (pô) naíintindihan'' || {{IPA|/hɪn"di ko (po) na"iɪntindihan/}} || ''(hin-DI ko (PO) na-I-in-tin-di-han)''
|-
| I don't remember || ''Hindí ko (pô) natátandaan'' || {{IPA|/hɪn"di ko (po) na"tatandɐʔan/}} || ''(hin-DI ko (PO) na-TA-tan-da-an)''
|-
| Welcome/Generic toast || ''Mabuhay!'' (literally, "Long live!") || {{IPA|/mɐ"buhaɪ/}} || ''(ma-BU-hai)''
|-
| I am sick || ''Masamâ (po) ang pakiramdám ko'' (literally, "I'm not feeling well") || {{IPA|/masɐ"maʔ (po) ʔaŋ pɐkiɾɐm"dam ko/}} || ''(ma-sa-MAH po ang pa-ki-ram-DAM ko)''
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''Marunong ka bang magsalitâ ng Ingglés?'' || {{IPA|/mɐ"runɔŋ ka baŋ mɐgsali"ta naŋ ʔɪŋ"glɛs/}} || ''(ma-ROO-nong ka BANG mag-sa-li-TA nang ing-GLES?)''
|}
== [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ([[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]) ==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode"
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|phrase
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|
|-
|Tamil
|தமிழ்
|t̪ɐmɨɹ
|
|-
|hello
|வணக்கம் ''Vanakkam''
|{{IPA|vanakːam}}
|
|-
|good-bye
|சென்று வருகிறேன் ''sentru varukireen''
|{{IPA|sentu varukireen}}
|
|-
|please
|தயவு செய்து ''dayavu seithu''
|{{IPA|tajavu seiθu}}
|
|-
|thank you
|நன்றி ''nandri''
|{{IPA|nantʕi}}
|
|-
|sorry
|மன்னிக்கவும் ''mannikkavum''
|
|
|-
|that one
|அது ''adhu''
|{{IPA|a tʰu}}
|
|-
|how much?
|எவ்வளவு ''evvalavu''
|{{IPA|evːalavu}}
|
|-
|yes
|ஆம் ''aam''
|{{IPA|aːm}}
|
|-
|no
|இல்லை ''illai''
|{{IPA|ilːaj}}
|
|-
|I don't understand
|எனக்குப் புரியவில்லை
|
|
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|குளியலறை எங்கே உள்ளது?
|
|
|-
|generic toast (not used in formal occassions and to elders): (Hey)
|டேய்! ''dei''
|{{IPA|de:i}}
|
|-
|English
|ஆங்கிலம் ''aangilam''
|{{IPA|aːŋilam}}
|
|-
|Do you speak English?
|நீங்கள் ஆங்கிலம் பேசுவீர்களா?
|
|
|}
==[[Tatar language|Tatar]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]])==
*äye - yes
*yuq - no
*isänme(sez)/sawmı(sız) - hello
*sälâm - hi
*saw bul(ığız)/xuş(ığız) - goodbye
*zínhar öçen - please
*min - I
*sin - you
*ul - he / she / it
*bez - we
*sez - you
*alar - they
*millät - nation
*İngliz(çä) - English
== [[Telugu language|Telugu]] ([[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]) ==
*Telugu: ''Andhra Bhasha'' {{IPA|/andʰra bʰaʃa/}}
*hello: ''namaskaaram'' {{IPA|/namaskaːram/}}
*good-bye: ''Selavu'' {{IPA|/selavu/}}
*please: ''Daya chesi'' {{IPA|/daja ʧesi/}}
*thank you: ''Dhanyavadamulu'' {{IPA|/dʰanjavadamulu/}}
*that one: ''adi'' {{IPA|/adi/}}
*how much?: ''Enta'' {{IPA|/enta/}}
*English: ''Aanglam'' {{IPA|/aːŋlam/}}
*yes: ''Avunu'' {{IPA|/avunu/}}
*no: ''Kaadu'' {{IPA|/kaːdu/}}
*I dont understand: ''Naaku artham kaledhu''
*Where is the bathroom ?: ''Shauchalayam ekkada ?''
*How a |
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Czechoslovakia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">491,638</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">362,438</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">219,214</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">156,891</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">118,106</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85,361</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40,289</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Estonia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,550</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">44</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hungary</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">274,450</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">397,283</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">495,609</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">145,714</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62,435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,526</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,737</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">45</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Latvia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20,673</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">46</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lithuania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">193,606</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">135,068</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">47</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Poland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,268,583</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,139,979</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">937,884</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">383,407</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">147,440</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48,557</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,436</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,298</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">48</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Romania</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">146,393</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">102,823</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65,923</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,032</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Soviet Union</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,153,628</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,400,495</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,184,412</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">423,726</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">182,644</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">35,722</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,644</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,160</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,414</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">50</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkey in Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,257</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,284</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,230</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,910</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,839</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,205</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">302</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">128</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">106</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">52</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Yugoslavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">211,416</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">169,439</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD&g |
70-90 CE), it is not surprising that, historically, there have been hesitations among Christians, especially in the early centuries, about which [[Old Testament]] books to consider canonical. The inability of Christians to use in controversy with Jews books that the latter did not accept as divinely inspired was one reason why some attributed lesser authority to these books. St Jerome explicitly denied the canonical character of any Old Testament book not included in the Hebrew Bible; but later, in his Preface to the Book of Tobit (PL 29, 24-25), stated that he translated the deuterocanonical books into Latin as a concession to the authority of the bishops; and in [[402]] CE declared he had not really denied the inspiration of these books, but had only given the opinion of the Jews (''Apol. contra Ruf.'' 11, 33. PL 23, 476).
In view of that controversy, a list of canonical books (with the deuterocanonical books included) was drawn up at councils in Africa and approved (though not in ''ex cathedra'' form, which would have been anachronistic, in any event) by the Pope of the time. This was generally accepted in the West, while in the East, particularly in Syria, general agreement was reached only in the seventh century. Within the Roman Catholic Church, individual leaders and scholars, even at a later date, sometimes expressed contrary views, but the matter was definitively settled in [[1546]], when the [[Council of Trent]], reacting to the views of the Protestant Reformers, declared that it accepted all the books of the Old and New Testaments with equal feelings of piety and reverence, and named them in accordance with the list of the fifth-century African councils. The [[First Vatican Council]] reaffirmed this declaration.
=== Protestant views ===
[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] rejected the books that do not appear in the Jewish Tanakh, partly because of the stress the Reformers laid on translating from the original text, and partly because some passages contradicted his views, especially where [[2 Maccabees]] speaks, by implication, of [[purgatory]]: "It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins." (12:46).
Protestants called the deuterocanonical books apocrypha. Luther and the Anglican Church regarded them as useful for edification, but not to be relied upon for doctrine, while Calvin and in general his followers attached no value to them beyond that of any other human writing, and objected to any use of them in church.
In [[1615]], the Archbishop of Canterbury imposed a year’s imprisonment for publishing Bibles without the "Apocrypha"; but in later printings of the Bible in English these books were omitted more and more. In the early nineteenth century, the Edinburgh Bible Society denounced them as superstitious and absurd, and soon all the Bible Societies decided not to publish them. More recently, in spite of the expense involved, Protestant Bibles in English have again sometimes included them, placing them in a separate section either between the Old Testament and the New or at the end.
What most Christians consider to be integral parts of Esther and Daniel are in some instances counted by Protestants as additional books. In the book of Esther, it is difficult to separate these from the rest, since they are tightly integrated into the Greek text, and even the common parts of the book contain small variations from the Hebrew text. Protestant Bibles therefore sometimes give the entire book of Esther in two versions, one, based on the Hebrew text, as part of the Protestant Old Testament, and one, translated from the Greek, in the "Apocrypha" section.
Not all Protestants have omitted the deuterocanonical books. For example, all Luther Bibles in the Lutheran areas of [[Germany]] included them until [[World War II]]. Only after the war, when American [[Bible Society|Bible Societies]] offered funding on condition that the Apocrypha were omitted, they began to be dropped from most editions. Additionally, the original edition of the KJV (1611) included them between the Old and New Testaments.
''See also: '' [[Books of the Bible]], a side-by-side comparison of the Jewish, Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox canons.
===Latter Day Saint views===
Adherents of [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations believe that [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], as a prophet, received a revelation from [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] in answer to a question about the validity of the (Protestant) Apocrypha at [[Kirtland, Ohio]] on [[March 9]], [[1833]], which is now [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/91 Section 91] of the [[Doctrine and Covenants]]. The section reads in part:
:There are many things contained therein that are true, and it is mostly translated correctly; there are many things contained therein that are not true, which are interpolations by the hands of men&mdash;Therefore, whoso readeth it, let him understand, for the Spirit manifesteth truth; And whoso is enlightened by the Spirit shall obtain benefit therefrom.
This echoes the sentiment of most American Protestants of his day.
Although the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS), the largest Latter Day Saint denomination, typically uses editions of the [[King James Version]] (KJV) of the Bible that do not currently include the Apocrypha, these have been used by members and leaders in the past, especially when such editions were more readily available. In non-English-speaking lands, Latter Day Saints use Bibles other than the KJV, some of which include the Apocrypha. The LDS Church plays a part in distributing such Bibles.
Latter Day Saints generally believe that "The Apocrypha" are of questionable authenticity, but have some value. However, they place more emphasis on other hidden records which have been revealed and are believed to be reliable, such as the [[Book of Mormon]], the [[Joseph Smith Translation]], [[Book of Abraham]], a translation of writings of John (see [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 93:6-18 [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/93/6-18#6] and other ancient records or "hidden books" which will come forth in time and be revealed as mankind are ready to accept new knowledge.
==References==
* {{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Extensive research into NT Apocrypha] Good research resource and timeline
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha Complete NT Apocrypha] The largest claimed collection of NT apocrypha online
*[http://www.pseudepigrapha.com Major collection of pseudepigrapha] Large number of NT and OT apocrypha and general pseudepigrapha
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/nt-apokrypha.html German Apocrypha research] Scholarly research site on individual manuscripts.
*[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__0-index.html Deuterocanonical books] - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available the full text in Arabic)
*[http://www.atmajyoti.org/ul_unknown_lives_forward.asp The Unknown Lives of Jesus and Mary] from the Apocrypha and other little known sources.
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/bda/apcryph LDS Bible Dictionary > Apocrypha] Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions.
*[http://www.riseisrael.com/apocrypha.htm Read the Apocrypha]
* [http://discordia.loveshade.org/apocrypha/apocrypha2.pdf ''Apocrypha Discordia, De Seconde Edityon''] (1.1M [[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/noncanon/index.htm Noncanonical Literature]
[[Category:Apocrypha|Apocrypha]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[ca:Llibres apòcrifs]]
[[cs:Apokryf]]
[[da:Apokryfe skrifter]]
[[de:Apokryphen]]
[[el:Απόκρυφα]]
[[es:Textos apócrifos]]
[[et:Apokrüüfid]]
[[fr:Apocryphe]]
[[hu:Apokrif]]
[[it:Apocrifo]]
[[ja:外典]]
[[ko:경외성서]]
[[la:Apocrypha]]
[[nl:Apocrief]]
[[no:Apokryfer]]
[[pl:Apokryf]]
[[pt:Livros apócrifos]]
[[ru:Апокрифы]]
[[simple:Apocrypha]]
[[sv:Apokryferna]]
[[uk:Апокрифи]]
[[zh:偽經]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Augustus (honorific)</title>
<id>1289</id>
<revision>
<id>36006465</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T21:31:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.234.119.136</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Emperor, see [[Augustus]]. For his (last) wife, see [[Julia Augusta]]''
{{Roman government}}
'''''Augustus''''' (plural '''''augusti''''') is [[Latin]] for "majestic" or "venerable". The feminine form is '''''Augusta'''''.
The Greek equivalent is [[sebastos]], or a mere grecization (by changing of the ending) ''augustos''.
==Origin and nature==
Although the use of the ''[[Roman naming convention|cognomen]]'' "Augustus" as part of one's name is generally understood to identify the [[Caesar Augustus|Emperor Augustus]], this is somewhat misleading; "Augustus" was the most significant name associated with the Emperor, but it did not actually represent any sort of constitutional office. The Imperial dignity was not an ordinary office, but rather an extraordinary concentration of ordinary powers in the hands of one man; "Augustus" was the name that unambiguously identified that man.
*The first "Augustus" (and first man counted as a [[Roman Emperor]]) was [[Caesar Augustus|Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus]], who was given that name by the [[Roman Senate]] on [[January 16]], [[27 BC]]; over the next forty years, Caesar Augustus (as he is now known) literally set the standard by which subsequent Emperors could be recognised, by accumulating various offices and powers and making his own name ("Augustus") identifiable with the consolidation of powers. Although the name signified nothing in constitutional theory, it was recognised as representing all the powers that Caesar Augustus had accumulated.
As ''[[princeps se |
ive or flexible therapy involves supplying a continual supply of insulin to serve as the ''basal insulin'', supplying meal insulin in doses proportional to the size of the meals, and supplying extra insulin when needed to correct high glucose levels. These three components of the insulin regimen are commonly referred to as basal insulin, meal insulin, and high correction.
====Two common intensive/flexible regimens: pens and pumps====
One method of '''intensive insulinotherapy''' is based on multiple daily injections (sometimes referred to in medical literature as ''MDI''). Meal insulin is supplied by injection of rapid acting insulin before each meal in an amount proportional to the size of the meal. Basal insulin is provided as a once or twice daily injection of dose of a long acting insulin.
In an MDI regimen, [[insulin glargine]] (brandname: ''Lantus'', made by [[Aventis]]) is the long-acting insulin currently preferred for basal insulin. An older insulin used for this purpose is ultralente. ''Levemir'', made by [[Novo]], is another long-acting insulin in trials. Rapid-acting insulin analogs such as [[lispro]] (brandname: ''Humalog'', made by [[Eli Lilly and Company]]) and [[aspart]] (brandname: ''Novolog'', made by Novo) are preferred over older regular insulin for meal coverage and high correction. Most people using MDI regimens carry [[insulin pen]]s to inject their rapid acting insulins instead of traditional [[syringe]]s.
The other method of intensive/flexible insulin therapy is an [[insulin pump]]. It is a small mechanical device about the size of a deck of cards. It contains a syringe-like reservoir of about 3 days' insulin supply. This is connected by thin, disposable, plastic tubing to a needle-like "infusion device" inserted into the patient's skin and held in place by an adhesive patch. The infusion tubing and needle must be removed and replaced every few days.
An insulin pump can be programmed to infuse a steady amount of rapid-acting insulin under the skin. This steady infusion is termed the basal rate and is designed to supply the basal insulin needs. Each time the patient eats, he or she must press a button on the pump to instruct the pump to give a specified number of units of insulin to cover that meal. Extra insulin is also given the same way to correct a high glucose reading. Current pumps do not include a glucose sensor and cannot automatically respond to meals or to rising or falling glucose levels.
Both MDI and pumping can achieve similarly excellent glycemic control. Some people prefer pens because they are less expensive than pumps and do not require the wearing of a continually attached device. A primary advantage of pumps is the freedom from syringes and injections.
Intensive/flexible insulin therapy requires frequent blood glucose checking
To achieve the best balance of blood sugar with either intensive/flexible method a patient must check his or her glucose level with a meter [[blood glucose monitoring|monitoring of blood glucose]] several times a day. This allows optimization of the basal insulin and meal coverage as well as correction of the occasional high glucose.
===Advantages and disadvantages of intensive/flexible insulin therapy===
For most people with diabetes, the two primary advantages of intensive/flexible therapy over more traditional 2 or 3 injection regimens are greater flexibility of timing and amounts of meals, and better glycemic control. Major disadvantages of intensive/flexible therapy are that it requires greater amounts of education and effort to achieve the goals, and it substantially increases the daily cost of diabetes care.
It is a common misconception that more frequent hypoglycemia is a disadvantage of intensive/flexible regimens. The frequency of hypoglycemia increases with increasing effort to achieve normal blood glucoses with any insulin regimen. When traditional regimens are used aggressively enough to achieve near-normal hemoglobin A1c levels, hypoglycemia is at least as frequent as with flexible regimens. When used correctly, flexible regimens offer greater ability to achieve good glycemic control with easier accommodation to variations of eating and physical activity.
===Semantics of changing care: why "flexible" is replacing "intensive" therapy===
Over the last two decades, the evidence that better glycemic control (i.e., keeping blood glucose and HbA1c levels as close to normal as possible) reduces the rates of many complications of diabetes has become overwhelming. As a result, diabetes specialists have expended increasing effort to help most people with diabetes achieve blood glucose levels as close to normal as achievable. It takes about the same amount of effort to achieve good glycemic control with a traditional 2 or 3 injection regimen as it does with flexible therapy: frequent glucose monitoring, attention to timing and amounts of meals. Many diabetes specialists no longer think of flexible insulin therapy as "intensive" or "special" treatment for a select group of patients but simply as standard care for most patients with [[diabetes mellitus type 1|type 1 diabetes]].
See also: [[conventional insulinotherapy]], [[diabetes mellitus]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ice Age (film)</title>
<id>14905</id>
<revision>
<id>41975831</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:09:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Static3d</username>
<id>186744</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism by [[user:Jim745]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Ice Age|
image = IceAge.png |
director = [[Chris Wedge]]<br>[[Carlos Saldanha]] |
producer = [[John C. Donkin]]<br>[[Lori Forte]]<br>[[Christopher Meledandri]] |
writer = [[Michael J. Wilson]]<br>[[Michael Berg]] |
starring = [[Ray Romano]]<br>[[John Leguizamo]]<br>[[Dennis Leary]] |
distributor = [[20th Century Fox]] |
released = [[March 12]], [[2002]] ([[United States|U.S.]])<br>[[DVD]]: [[November 26]], [[2002]]|
runtime = 81 min |
language = English |
imdb_id = 0268380|
music = [[David Newman]] |
awards = |
budget = $60,000,000 (est)|
}}
:''This article is about a film. For information on continental glaciation, see [[Ice age]].''
'''''Ice Age''''' is a feature-length [[computer animation|computer-animated]] [[film]] created by [[Blue Sky Studios]] and released by [[20th Century Fox]] in [[2002 in film|2002]]. It was directed by [[Carlos Saldanha]] and [[Chris Wedge]] from a story by [[Michael J. Wilson]]. A [[sequel]] is currently in production called ''[[Ice Age 2: The Meltdown]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]).
==Characters==
The characters are all [[prehistory|prehistoric]] animals with the exception of some non-speaking early humans (who bear some Neanderthal-like facial features, but are technologically much more sophisticated). The animals can talk to and understand each other and are voiced by a variety of famous [[actor]]s.
*Manfred ([[mammoth]]) - [[Ray Romano]]
*Sid ([[Giant sloth]]) - [[John Leguizamo]]
*Diego ([[smilodon]]) - [[Denis Leary]]
*Soto (smilodon) - [[Goran Visnjic]]
*Zeke (smilodon) - [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]]
*Scrat ([[squirrel]]-[[rat]]) - [[Chris Wedge]]
*Smilodon - [[Diedrich Bader]]
*Carl - [[Cedric the Entertainer]]
* Frank- [[Stephen Root]]
*Female sloth - [[Jane Krakowski]]
*Female sloth - [[Lorri Bagley]]
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
After an attack by a pack of [[saber-toothed cat]]s (Soto, the leader, with Diego, Zeke and two others) a camp of hunter-gatherer humans try to protect their women and children. Jumping into a raging river with her baby, one woman is dragged downstream. She manages to place the infant on an embankment but is too drained to climb out of the water herself. Soto orders Diego to find the baby and bring it to him alive.
Meanwhile the animals are all trying to avoid the coming ice age by retreating to warmer climates. Left by his family, Sid, a clumsy [[Sloth]], is rescued from two rhinoceroses by Manfred, one of the last remaining mammoths. Not wanting to be alone Sid follows Manfred, much to the mammoth's annoyance.
Sid and Manfred spot the baby on the side of the river and decide to return it to its tribe, but when they get there the humans have already left. Diego, still trying to pinch the baby, convinces the pair that he knows where the humans are going and begins leading Sid and Manfred to find them.
The trio take the baby across an assortment of different terrains and into several comedic situations. These include an army of [[dodo]]s trying to escape extinction by eating [[watermelons]]; the trio venturing into a series of ice caves where they discover all sorts of odd things including a frozen [[Tyrannosaurus Rex]] and even a [[UFO]]. In the end, Diego learns that it is wrong to harm a child and helps Manny and Sid help the baby back to his father. We also learn that Manny does not trust humans as they killed his wife and child.
At the end of the film, Diego, Manny and Sid battle Diego's pack and manage to return the baby to his father, before heading off to escape the Ice Age.
There is also a subplot where an animal named Scrat (compare a [http://www.asifa-hollywood.org/hello/603205/400/scrat-2005.03.12-16.43.03.jpg picture of Scrat] and [http://www.ryanphotographic.com/images/JPEGS/Tree%20shrew.jpg one of a tree shrew]), makes many comical attempts to bury his beloved [[acorn]]. His misfortunes include getting chased by an enormous [[glacier]], being struck by [[lightning]], and later getting cryogenically frozen in an ice cube along with a nut. 20,000 years into the future, the ice cube washes up on the shore of an island. The sun slowly melts the cube, thawing Scrat and the ice surrounding his acorn, which |
abscissa (horizontal axis) is the [[right ascension]] of the Sun and the ordinate (vertical axis) its [[declination]]. The celestial reference frame across which the Sun moves is defined by a background of fixed stars, of which some bright ones are shown.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:solar_year.gif|The annual motion of the Sun along the ecliptic]] -->
If the [[Moon]] crosses the ecliptic (such points of crossing are [[lunar node|node]]s) during [[new moon]] or [[full moon]], an [[eclipse]] will occur.
== External links ==
* [http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Secliptc.htm NASA: "The Path of the Sun, the Ecliptic"]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/eclip.html Orbits and the Ecliptic Plane]
<!-- [[Category:Astronomy]] too general -->
[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]
[[Category:Astrodynamics]]
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[[Category:Solar System]]
[[bg:Еклиптика]]
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[[he:מישור המילקה]]
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[[ro:Ecliptică]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extint countries</title>
<id>9265</id>
<revision>
<id>15907168</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-06T15:23:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extinct countries</title>
<id>9266</id>
<revision>
<id>15907169</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-06T15:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extinct political countries, empires, etc.</title>
<id>9267</id>
<revision>
<id>15907170</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-06T15:23:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of extinct states</title>
<id>9269</id>
<revision>
<id>41542879</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:23:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fishhead64</username>
<id>604902</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Former colonies, possessions, protectorates and territories */ fixed links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|List of former countries}}
{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
This page attempts to list the many '''extinct [[state]]s''', [[country|countries]], [[nation]]s, lands, or [[territory|territories]], grouped into a number of categories.
{{TOCright}}
==Ancient and medieval states==
States and realms that disappeared in [[ancient history]].
===Ancient Europe, North Africa and the Near East===
*[[Adiabene]]
*[[Akkad]]
*[[Aksu]]
*[[Assyria]]
*[[Axumite Kingdom]]
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Carthage]]
*[[Chaldea]]
*[[Dacia]]
*[[Etruria]]
*[[History of Egypt|Egyptian Empire]]
*[[Hellenic civilization|Hellenic]] city-states ([[Athens]], [[Sparta]], [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], etc) and their allied cities/colonies/territories.
*[[Hellenistic]] Empires ([[Ptolemaic]], [[Seleucid]], [[Antigonid]],etc.)
*[[Hittites]]
*[[Hurrians]]
*[[Ancient Illyria|Illyria]]
*[[Kingdom of Fez]]
*[[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]]
*[[Judaea]]
*[[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]
*[[Kommagene]]
*[[Kush]]
*[[Lydia]] (Mæonia)
*[[Macedon]]
*[[Medes|Media]]
*[[Nubia]]
*[[Odrysian]] kingdom of [[Thrace]]
*[[Paionia]]
*[[Parthia]]
*[[Persian Empire]] (which is not extinct but is reshaped in the form of [[Iran|Persia]]/[[Iran]])
*[[Pontus]]
*[[Ancient Rome|Rome]]
*[[Republic of two Rivieres]]
*[[Scythia]]
*[[Sumer]]
*[[Tartessos]]
*[[Urartu]]
*[[Yamkhad]]
===South Asia===
*[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilisation]] ([[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo Daro]] in present [[Pakistan]]) [[South Asia]]
*[[Bactria]]
*[[Kushan Empire]]
*[[Tu'i Tonga]]
===China and South East Asia===
A number of small states existed in what is now [[China]] in the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] and [[Warring States Period]]. These states were subsumed by either the [[Qin (state)|Qin]] or those states that were defeated by Qin. The culmination of the Qin conquests was the creation of the first unified Chinese state in [[221 BC]]. These extinct states were:
*[[Chu (state)|Chu]]
*[[Cai (state)|Cai]]
*[[Cao (state)|Cao]]
*[[Chen (state)|Chen]]
*[[Lu (state)|Lu]]
*[[Song (state)|Song]]
*[[Yue (state)|Yue]]
*[[Wu (state)|Wu]]
*[[Jin (state)|Jin]]
*[[Han (state)|Han]]
*[[Zheng (state)|Zheng]]
*[[Wei (state)|Wei]]
*[[Zhao (state)|Zhao]]
*[[Qi (state)|Qi]]
*[[Yan (state)|Yan]]
China was to remain unified until the period of the [[Three Kingdoms]], which came about after the fall of the [[Han Dynasty]] in [[190]]. These states were eventually reunified by the [[Jin Dynasty]] in [[280]]. These were the [[Kingdom of Shu]], the [[Kingdom of Wei]] and the [[Kingdom of Wu]]. China did not remain unified for long under the Jin dynasty and the period known as the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] ([[304]]-[[439]]) saw a number of short-lived states emerge in northern China, after the retreat of the [[Jin Dynasty]] to southern China. These states were:
*[[Cheng Han]]
*[[Former Liang]]
*[[Former Qin]]
*[[Former Yan]]
*[[Han Zhao]]
*[[Later Liang]]
*[[Later Qin]]
*[[Later Yan]]
*[[Later Zhao]]
*[[Northern Liang]]
*[[Northern Yan]]
*[[Southern Liang]]
*[[Southern Yan]]
*[[Western Liang]]
*[[Western Qin]]
*[[Xia]]
The early Chinese states had an influence on the surrounding region. A number of now-extinct states formed under Chinese influence along the [[Silk Road]] including:
*[[Karasahr]]
*[[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]]
*[[Kucha]]
*[[Yarkand]]
====Korea====
The early history of Korea was as complex as that of neighbouring China. A number of Korean states existed on the peninsula and reached up into [[Manchuria]] before the formation of the modern state of Korea. These included:
*[[Baekje]]
*[[Fuyu]]
*[[Gojoseon]]
*[[Goryeo]]
*[[Jin]]
*[[Silla]]
===Pre-Columbian Americas===
[[The Americas]] have historically been home to a number of indigenous states, civilizations and societies of great complexity. Of those indigenous states which were still in existence by the time of the first permanent [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonizations]] from the late [[fifteenth century]] onwards were soon substantively destroyed and/or absorbed. The below list includes both those which had ceased to exist before this European arrival, and those which ceased to independently function as a result of this impact. Note also that the definition of "state" or "civilization" in this context can be problematic or contested.
*[[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]]
*[[Aztec|Aztec Empire]]
*[[Cahokia]]
*[[Carib]]
*[[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoya]]
*[[Chimu]]
*[[Ciboney]]
*[[Huari]] (Wari)
*[[Maya civilization]]
*[[Moche]] (Mochita)
*[[Nazca culture|Nazca]] (Ica-Nazca)
*[[Olmec]]
*[[Selk’nam]]
*[[Taino]]
*[[Timucuan]]
*[[Teotihuacan Empire]]
*[[Tlaxcala]]
*[[Toltec]]s
*[[Tahuantinsuyu]] (the Inca Empire)
In addition, there were a wide variety of [[Pre-Inca cultures|pre-Inca cultures]], few of which developed into organised states.
===Medieval Europe, North Africa and the Near East===
====British Isles====
Following the collapse of the Roman Empire there followed a period where the Romano-British political entity fragmented caused mainly by the Celtic system of dividing a realm between the sons of a king on his death. This situation was made worse after c.449 when [[Jutish]] and later [[Anglo-Saxon]] began colonising the eastern and southern seaboards and driving inland. Eventually the Romano-Britons (now known to the Anglo-Saxons as "[[Welsh]]") were assimilated or driven into the highlands of [[Cambria]] (Wales) or [[Caledonia]] (Scotland). Wales and Scotland will be considered seperately to what once existed in England.
'''Romano-British and Welsh kingdoms in England'''
*[[Britannia Maxima Caesariensis]], an entity with very limited powers that may have existed in the south between c.410-425AD and centred on Lundinium.
*[[Britannia Secunda]], an entity in the north of Great Britain governed from York and divided after the death of [[Coel Hen]] in c.420.
*[[Britannia Prima]], an entity in the west which would have quickly splintered following the Roman withdrawal.
*[[Valentia]], an entity between [[Hadrians Wall]] and the [[Antonine Wall]] during the same period, probably connected to the warlord [[Cunedda]].
<br>
*[[Dumnonia]], a realm named after the [[Dumnonii]] in the south west. It later became known as ''Cerniw'' or [[Cornwall]].
*[[Bryneich]], a kingdom in the modern day north east of England.
*[[Ebrauc]], a small kingdom centred on York.
*[[Defwr]], a small kingdom in modern east Yorkshire.
*[[Astolat]], a possible kingdom in the south.
*[[Ceint]], a kingdom named after the [[Cantiaci]] in what became [[Kent]].
*Caer Llundein, a kingdom based around [[London]].
*Caer Celemion, a kingdom centred on [[Calleva Atrebatorum]].
*Caer Guintguic, a kingdom centred around [[Winchester]].
*Durotrig a possible kingdom in what is now modern [[Dorset]].
*Caer Gloui, a kingdom centred around the city of [[Gloucester]].
*[[Calchwynedd]], a kingdom in the [[Chiltern Hills]]
*[[Avalon]], a possible realm in modern [[Somerset]] near [[Glastonbury]].
*Caer Camulod, a probable kingdom around the city of [[Colchester]], possibly called [[ |
dcenter.com/articles/assisting_children_in_coping_with_violence_and_disasters.php Assisting Children and Adolescents in Coping with Disasters]
[[Category:Disaster|*]]
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[[fr:Catastrophe]]
[[ja:&#28797;&#23475;]]
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[[no:Katastrofe]]
[[pl:Katastrofa]]
[[zh:&#28798;&#38590;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dino Zoff</title>
<id>8138</id>
<revision>
<id>41878775</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:42:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Attilios</username>
<id>428795</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dino Zoff''' (born [[February 28]], [[1942]] in [[Mariano del Friuli]], [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]) is an Italian former [[football (soccer)|football]] [[goalkeeper]] and the oldest ever winner of the [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] as a captain of the [[Italy national football team|Italian national team]] in [[Spain]] in the {{Wc|1982}}. With 112 caps, Zoff is second only to [[Paolo Maldini]] in number of appearances for the ''Azzurri''. He also worked as coach for several Italian teams, but is currently unemployed.
==Playing career==
Zoff's career got off to an inauspicious start, when at the age of fourteen he had trials with [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]] and [[Juventus]], but was rejected due to a lack of height. Five years later, having grown by 33 centimetres, he made his [[Serie A]] debut with [[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]], though Zoff made only four appearances for Udinese before moving to [[A.C. Mantova|Mantova]] in [[1963]].
In [[1968]], Zoff was transferred to [[SSC Napoli|Napoli]]. In the same year he made his debut for Italy, playing against [[Bulgaria national football team|Bulgaria]] in the quarter final of the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]]. Italy proceeded to win the tournament, Zoff taking home a winners' medal after only his fourth international appearance.
Left out of the Italian starting eleven in the {{Wc|1970}}, Zoff resumed his success after signing for [[Juventus]] in 1972. In eleven years with Juventus, Zoff won the Serie A championship six times, the [[Coppa Italia]] twice and the [[UEFA Cup]] once. However, Zoff's greatest feat came in the {{Wc|1982}}, where he captained Italy to victory in the tournament at the age of 41, making him the oldest ever winner of the World Cup.
Zoff holds the record for the longest stretch (1142 minutes) without allowing any goals in international football, set between 1972 and 1974. He also held the record for the oldest Serie A player for more than 20 years, until the season 2005/2006 when the record was broken by Lazio goalkeeper [[Marco Ballotta]].
==Coaching career==
After his retirement as a player, Zoff went into coaching, joining the technical staff at Juventus, where he was head coach from 1988 to 1990. In 1990 he was sacked, despite winning the UEFA Cup. He then joined [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]], where he became president in 1994.
In 1998 Zoff was appointed coach of the Italian national team. Using a more open and attacking style than usually used by Italian sides, he coached Italy to a second-place finish in {{Ec2|2000}}, suffering a cruel extra-time defeat at the hands of [[France national football team|France]] in the final. A few days later Zoff resigned, following strong criticism from [[A.C. Milan]] president and politician [[Silvio Berlusconi]].
Zoff returned to Lazio, but resigned following a poor start to the 2001/02 season. In 2005, he was named the coach of [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]. But after saving the team from [[relegation]] on the last day of the season, Zoff was let go.
==Career overview==
===Clubs===
* [[1961]] - [[1963]] [[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]]
* [[1963]] - [[1967]] [[A.C. Mantova|Mantova]]
* [[1967]] - [[1972]] [[SSC Napoli|Napoli]]
* [[1972]] - [[1983]] [[Juventus]]
===Club honors===
* [[1973]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1975]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1977]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1977]] [[UEFA Cup]]
* [[1978]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1979]] [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]
* [[1981]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1982]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1983]] [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]
===International appearances===
* [[1968]] to [[1982]] for [[Italy national football team|Italy]] (112 appearances in all, 59 as captain)
* 3 [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] Finals
===International honors===
* [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championship]]
* {{Wc|1982}}
===Teams coached===
* [[1988]] - [[1990]] [[Juventus]]
* [[1990]] - [[1994]] [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]]
* [[1997]] [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]]
* [[1998]] - [[2000]] [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
* [[2001]] [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]]
* [[2005]] [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]
===Coaching honors===
* [[1990]] [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]
* [[1990]] [[UEFA Cup]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title=[[Football World Cup]]<br>winning [[captain (football)|captain]] |
before=[[Daniel Passarella]]<br>[[Argentina national football team|(Argentina)]] |
after=[[Diego Maradona]]<br>[[Argentina national football team|(Argentina)]]|
years='''[[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]'''
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1942 births|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Living people|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Natives of Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Italian footballers|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Italian football managers|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) goalkeepers|Zoff, Dino]]
[[bg:Дино Дзоф]]
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[[ja:ディノ・ゾフ]]
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[[sv:Dino Zoff]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Double Precision</title>
<id>8139</id>
<revision>
<id>15906159</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-27T11:23:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PierreAbbat</username>
<id>1123</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[double precision]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deconstructionism</title>
<id>8140</id>
<revision>
<id>15906160</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-23T22:22:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrb</username>
<id>16553</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[deconstruction]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dipsacales</title>
<id>8141</id>
<revision>
<id>37263332</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T21:48:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Dipsacales
| image = Dipsacus pilosus0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Dipsacus pilosus''
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Dipsacales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|Dumortier]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Adoxaceae]] (moschatel family)<br/>
[[Caprifoliaceae]] (honeysuckle family)<br/>
[[Diervillaceae]]<br/>
[[Dipsacaceae]] (teasel family)<br/>
[[Linnaeaceae]] (twinflower family)<br/>
[[Morinaceae]]<br/>
[[Valerianaceae]] (valerian family)
}}
The '''Dipsacales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, included within the [[asterid]] group of [[dicotyledon]]s.
Under the [[Cronquist system]], the order included [[Adoxaceae]], [[Caprifoliaceae]], [[Dipsacaceae]], and [[Valerianaceae]]. Under the more recent [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG II) system, the circumscription of the order is much the same but the families are circumscribed differently. APG includes Adoxaceae and a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae, the latter including the alternatively acceptable families [[Diervillaceae]], Dipsacaceae, [[Linnaeaceae]], [[Morinaceae]], and Valerianaceae.
A few other families may also belong near this order. These include the [[Desfontainia]]ceae, [[Polyosmotaceae]], [[Paracryphia]]ceae, and [[Sphenostemon]]aceae.
===External links===
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Dipsacales Dipsacales] at Tree of Life
*[http://www.springerlink.com/(lmk1zcqhf3qoezridttpvqvk)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,5,7;journal,87,1500;linkingpublicationresults,1:104878,1 Phylogeny of the Asteridae s. str. based on rbcL sequences, with particular reference to the Dipsacales] (link to abstract)
[[Category:Dipsacales]]
[[Category:Magnoliopsida]]
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[[sv:Dipsacales]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Democrat</title>
<id>8142</id>
<revision>
<id>25437541</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-13T15:26:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merging into [[Democratic Party]]. There's no reason to have a disambig page with only two links on it; having each link to the other at the top of its page is much more efficient.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democratic Party]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December</title>
<id>8143</id>
<revision>
<id>42001796</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:43:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthonyken0109</username>
<id>906087</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DecemberCalendar}}
{{wiktionarypar|December}}
{{unsourced}}
'''December''' is the [[twelfth]] and |
er eccentric, putting up a fight rather than just giving into OZ demands when the colonies are threatened unless he surrenders. ''Voice'': [[Dave Ward|Dave "Squatch" Ward]] (English), Jesús Barrero (Latin America)
*'''Professor G''': The man who took in Duo Maxwell and made him the pilot of Deathscythe which he had developed. His hair is cut to vaguely resemble the head of a mushroom. He has a very bushy mustache and an improbably long nose. Sardonic and, like Doctor J, rather eccentric, he tends to describe Deathscythe as "the ultimate work of art".
*'''Doctor S''': The engineer who created the Gundam Heavyarms, Trowa's Gundam. His assistant shot the real Trowa Barton when Trowa revealed that he fully intended to execute Operation Meteor as originally planned. His short, grey hair stands almost straight up, and he has a peculiar prosthetic nose.
*'''Instructor H''': A friend of the Winner family that developed the Gundam Sandrock, Quatre's Gundam. He hid the plans for Wing Zero in the Winner family's database. He is rather fat, with a receding hairline and a thin, dark mustache that stands straight out at each end. He appears to be the most reluctant of the engineers to reveal information on the Gundams.
*'''Master O''': The man who developed Gundam Shenlong, Wufei's Gundam, he found refuge amongst the members of the Long clan (of which Wufei was to marry into). Of imposing stature and bald as a cue ball, the powerful and athletic Master O is an expert in many forms of martial arts.
===OZ (Organization of the Zodiac) ===
*'''[[Treize Khushrenada]]''': Of [[Aryan]] origin, Trieze was originally appointed the leader of OZ in After Colony 193 after the death of its previous leader General Catalonia, and is also a member of the Romefeller Foundation. He is a charismatic leader, with a strong sense of ideals and an understanding of human nature that give him a devoted following among the men who serve him. Later on he is stripped of his position when he refuses to support the mobile dolls, a type of mobile suit that not require a pilot to operate successfully. He does so because Treize is a firm believer in tradition and feels that because mobile dolls will make humans unnecessary in battle, making warfare meaningless. This caused a similarly-minded part of OZ to split into what is known as Treize Faction. Later on, after his former friend Milliardo becomes the leader of the White Fang, Treize steps out of hiding and takes over Relena's position as the World Nations leader. He meets his end in battle against Chang Wufei, apparently of his own volition.
''Voices'': [[Ryoutarou Okiayu]] (Japanese), [[David Kaye]] (English), Ayas Abu-Ghazala (Arabic), Luis Tenorio (Latin America)
*Notes:
**"Treize" is French for "thirteen".
*'''[[Zechs Merquise]]''' (real name: Milliardo Peacecraft): Of [[Northern Europe]]an origin, Zechs pilots the Tallgeese for OZ. Later in the series, he pilots a mobile suit called [[OZ-13MS Gundam Epyon|Epyon]] which has the same program as [[Wing Zero]]. Zechs was once Milliardo Peacecraft, crown prince to the fallen pacifist nation, the Sanc Kingdom, and the older brother of future princess Relena Peacecraft. Under his real name he becomes the leader of the White Fang, a group made up of rebel colonists and former Treize Faction members. In [[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]], Milliardo/Zechs allies himself with the Gundam pilots and joins the Preventers, a group of former soldiers dedicated to preserving peace.
''Voices'': [[Takehito Koyasu]] (Japanese), [[Brian Drummond]] (English), Marwan Farhat (Arabic), Víctor Covarrubias (Latin America)
*Notes:
**"Zechs" is German for "six".
**"Milliardo" is a play on the Italian word "milliard", which means one billion.
*'''[[Lucrezia Noin]]''': Of Mediterranean origin, Noin apparently comes from a well-to-do Italian family. At the beginning of the series Noin was an instructor at OZ's Lake Victoria Academy. It was mentioned in the series that she got the second highest grade in the history of Lake Victoria Academy (Zechs got the highest, although he claims that it was only because Noin let him.) Later, she joins Zechs in the war. Upon Zechs's request she becomes Relena's guardian and acts as the head of security for the reincarnated Sanc Kingdom. She also supports the Gundam pilots whenever she can. She pilots a white Taurus suit as part of the Sanc Kingdom's defense.
''Voices'': [[Chisa Yokoyama]] (Japanese), [[Saffron Henderson]] (English), Hanan Shaqeer (Arabic), Marianna Gómez (Latin America).
*Notes:
**"Noin" means "nine" in German.
*'''Lady Une''': Of [[Germany|German]] origin, Une is Treize's second in command; she is completely devoted to him. Initially in the series, Une suffers from [[multiple personality disorder]], having one personality that is a complete pacifist and another that is a battle-hardened soldier. This personality is assumed by some sources to have been caused by Treize. He claims that the original, soldier Colonel Une needs to be more 'cultured'. Shortly after, she introduces her 'Lady Une' personality. Later in the series, Une somehow reconciles the two personalities into a single personality that is committed to bringing peace, but realistic in that she understands that force is needed to bring it about.
''Voices'': [[Sayuri Yamauchi|Sayuri]] (Japanese), [[Enuka Okuma]] (English), Angy Yusif (Arabic)
*Notes:
**"Une" is French for "one".
===The Romefeller Foundation===
*'''Dorothy Catalonia''': A teenage girl who greatly supports the war and believes that people only truly live when they fight. She believes that fighting is a part of human nature and that war is inevitable. Her beliefs put her at odds with the pacifistic ideals of Relena, as well as those of Gundam pilot Quatre (she, however, admires Relena's determination while hating Quatre's). It is revealed in a duel with Quatre that her father, General Catalonia, died in battle, and that she wishes for a glorious death as well. She is the granddaughter of the leader of Romefeller, Duke Dermail, and as such is a cousin of Treize Khushrenada.
''Voices'': [[Naoko Matsui]] (Japanese), [[Cathy Weseluck]] (English), Amena Umar (Arabic)
===The Sanc Kingdom===
*'''Relena Darlian''' (real name: [[Relena Peacecraft]]): At the beginning of Gundam Wing, Relena is a naïve girl who becomes interested in (almost obsessed with) Heero Yuy. She lives the life of a socialite, which she seems to find boring and mundane (hence her attraction to the mysterious soldier). She is the daughter of Vice Foreign Minister Darlian, who, on his deathbed, tells her that she is really Relena Peacecraft, the princess of the fallen Sanc Kingdom, a nation dedicated to pacifism. She later reinstates the Sanc Kingdom as its rightful heir, but the country is shattered by the Romefeller Foundation, which feels that the nation's pacifist views are a threat to the Foundation's goals. The Foundation offers her the position of their Chief Representative in hopes of using her considerable influence on the people to achieve their own ends. Relena accepts, but it proves to be a troublesome appointment for the Romefeller Foundation, as she refused to simply be their tool and attempted to change the views and methods of the organization. Though she meets with some success, she is ousted when Treize returns to that position after her brother Milliardo becomes the leader of the White Fang and declares war against the Earth.
:In ''Endless Waltz'', she becomes the new Vice Foreign Minister of the Earth Sphere Unified Nation and has gone back to the Darlian name. During the time she was held captive by the Mariemaia Army, Relena realized for the first time that total pacifism doesn't lead to true peace and she was running from the truth. So in the end, having decided that she will no longer consider herself a Peacecraft, Relena is able direct the civilians to stand up to the Mariemaia Army in a non-violent protest. Afterwards she returns to her duties.
''Voices'': [[Akiko Yajima]] (Japanese), [[Lisa Ann Beley]] (English), Amal Emran (Arabic), Mireya Mendoza (Latin America)
===The White Fang===
*'''Quinze''': The founder of White Fang, who offers Milliardo Peacecraft leadership of the organization. He follows orders to the bitter end, even when Treize is dead yet Milliardo has decided to drop the remnants of the fortress Libra to earth. It is through him that the audience learns the Gundam pilots and engineers failed to execute the true objectives of Operation Meteor and that what the pilots did was not part of the original plan. In Endless Waltz, Zechs reveals that the true mastermind behind Operation Meteor was Dekim Barton, an associate of Quinze's.
*Notes:
**"Quinze" means "fifteen" in French.
===Civilians===
*'''Howard''': Howard did not develop any of the five Gundams, but he was one of the original Gundam engineers that developed the Tallgeese, the prototype for all mobile suits. In the series, he serves as a safe haven for rest and repair to both the gundam pilots and Zechs. In the end, his ship, ''Peacemillion'', serves as a base of operations for the pilots in space for the final battle. His Hawaiian shirts and wraparound shades make him the most colorfully dressed character in the series.
*'''[[Hilde Schbeiker]]''': Of [[Germany|German]] origin, Hilde was a volunteer soldier to the OZ Space Army. When she meets Duo, she begins to feel doubts about OZ, and finally decides leave OZ and help Duo. She sneaks onto the battleship ''Libra'' and acquires data within about the ship, but when fleeing, she is attacked by the mobile dolls Mercurius and Vayeate, and dodges disaster by a hair's breadth when rescued by Duo. She later reunites with him.
''Voices'': [[Kae Araki]] (Japanese), [[Marcy Goldberg]] (English), Usaima Yusif (Arabic), Mireya Mendoza (Lat |
structure of the employed labour force (including salaried and self-employed) in the USA in 2002, in broad categories, as follows:
*Managers and executives 15,800,000
*Supervisors 9,100,000
*Teaching staff, all kinds 6,600,000
*Machine operating and assembly workers 6,400,000
*Food & beverage preparing and service workers 6,100,000
*Administrative support clerks n.e.c. 5,800,000
*Construction trade workers 5,300,000
*Aides, ushers, guides, orderlies, and attendants 4,800,000
*Mechanics and repairs workers 4,500,000
*Technicians 4,300,000
*Cleaners, janitors, private cooks, maids & housekeepers 3,700,000
*Retail sales workers 3,400,000
*Truck drivers 3,200,000
*Secretaries, stenographers, and typists 3,000,000
*Scientists 3,000,000
*Sales representatives in finance and business services 2,900,000
*Cashiers 2,900,000
*Accountants, auditors, underwriters, and other financial officers 2,600,000
*Engineers, architects, and surveyors 2,600,000
*Freight & stock handlers, baggers & packers, machine feeders 2,400,000
*Labourers & helpers 2,400,000
*Registered nurses 2,300,000
*Financial records processing clerks 2,200,000
*Management analysts, specialists & consultants in human resources, PR and labour relations 2,100,000
*Materials recording, scheduling, and distributing clerks 1,900,000
*Sales representatives in mining, manufacturing, and wholesale 1,500,000
*Childcare workers and childcare assistants 1,400,000
*Lawyers, judges and legal assistants 1,300,000
*Barbers, hairdressers, cosmeticians, pharmacists, dietitians 1,300,000
*Therapists, counselors, social workers and welfare service aides 1,200,000
*Artists, entertainers & designers 1,200,000
*Police, detective, and law enforcement officers 1,200,000
*Military personnel 1,100,000
*Medical doctors, dentists, vetinarians, optometrists, and podiatrists 1,100,000
*Receptionists 1,000,000
*Security guards 1,000,000
*Working children under 16 1,000,000
*Prostitutes 1,000,000
*Farmers 968,000
*Non-financial records processing clerks, 995,000
*Inspectors (construction, production and compliance) 955,000
*Groundskeepers and gardeners (non-farm) 940,000
*Earthmoving equipment, crane, industrial truck, forklift, lorry and tractor operators 898,000
*Metal workers 826,000
*Farm workers 726,000
*Computer programmers 605,000
*Bus drivers 605,000
*Bank tellers 477,000
*Postal delivery workers, messengers & couriers 468,000
*Editors, writers, reporters and proofreaders 417,000
*Religious clergy, and employees of religious institutions 393,000
*Personal services n.e.c. 348,000
*Taxi drivers and chauffeurs 340,000
*Street and door-to-door sales workers 334,000
*Corrective institution & prison officers 328,000
*Doctor's and dental assistants 318,000
*Firefighting and fire prevention workers 262,000
*Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers 237,000
*Librarians, archivists, and curators 231,000
*Butchers and meat cutters 229,000
*Dressmakers, tailors and shoe repairers 189,000
*Professional photographers 178,000
*Animal caretakers (non-farm) 170,000
*Interviewers 169,000
*Airplane pilots, airplane staff, air traffic controllers 152,000
*Bakers and baking workers 148,000
*Recreational services workers 129,000
*Telephone operators 119,000
*Oil & mining extraction workers 115,000
*Railway workers 111,000
*Cabinet makers, furniture & wood finishers, and other woodworkers 104,000
*Newspaper vendors 103,000
*Ship captains, sailors, mates & deckhands, fishermen 98,000
*Professional athletes 95,000
*Social welfare eligibility clerks 86,000
*Sales demonstrators, promoters, and models 77,000
*Water and sewage treatment plant operators 77,000
*Forestry & logging workers 77,000
*Optical goods workers 72,000
*Other precision production workers n.e.c 72,000
*Pest control workers 63,000
*Food batchmakers 54,000
*Other plant & system operators 45,000
*Electric power plant operators 35,000
*Bookbinding workers 35,000
*Nursery workers 33,000
*Hand molders & shapers 21,000
*Patternmakers, layout workers, & cutters 12,000
*Bridge, lock, & lighthouse tenders 3,000
*Hunters & trappers 2,000
These 2002 figures are just intended to provide a modest indication or illustration; of course, the way the division of labour is viewed depends greatly on the identification, classification and aggregation principles applied. A portion of migrant labour typically fails to be captured in the data.
It should be emphasized that the ways in which the division of labour may be viewed are potentially ''infinite''. This give rise to a never-ending stream of [[management]] literature.
Normally, statisticians focus on the main occupational activity or employment status of members of the population; but of course individuals may also divide their time between different activities which are still not adequately captured in survey data.
Consequently, it is always important in making generalisations about the division of labour to be very clear about the assumptions being made about ''how people differ'' and ''what they have in common''.
==The global division of labour==
There exist as yet few comprehensive studies of the global division of labour (an intellectual challenge for researchers), although the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] and national statistical offices can provide plenty data on request for those game to try.
In one study, Deon Filmer estimated that 2,474 million people participated in the global non-domestic labour force in the mid-1990s. Of these around a fifth, 379 million people, worked in industry, 800 million in services, and 1,074 million in agriculture. The majority of workers in industry and services were wage & salary earners - 58 percent of the industrial workforce and 65 percent of the services workforce. But a big portion were self-employed or involved in family labour. Filmer suggests the total of employees worldwide in the 1990s was about 880 million, compared with around a billion working on own account on the land (mainly peasants), and some 480 million working on own account in industry and services.
==Some useful sociological references==
Stephanie Coontz & Peta Henderson, ''Women's Work, Men's Property: The Origins of Gender and Class''. hg
Ali Rattansi, ''Marx and the Division of Labour''.
Emile Durkheim, ''The Division of Labour in Society''.
Harry Braverman, ''Labor and Monopoly Capital; The Degradation of Labor in the 20th Century''
[[André Gorz]], ''The Division of Labour: The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism''.
[[Bertell Ollman]], ''Sexual and social revolution''.
Herbert Gintis, Samuel Bowles, Robert T. Boyd and Ernst Fehr, ''Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life''.
F. Froebel, F., J. Heinrichs and O. Krey, ''The New International Division of Labour''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
James Heartfield, "The Economy of Time" http://www.heartfield.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/economy.pdf
Richard Florida, ''The rise of the creative class''.
Richard Florida, ''The flight of the creative class''.
US Bureau of Labor Statistics http://www.bls.gov/
Deon Filmer, Estimating the World at Work, a background report for World Bank's World Development Report 1995 (Washington DC, 1995).
==See also==
*[[Taylorism]]
*[[organisation]]
*[[surplus product]]
*[[hierarchy]]
*[[time use survey]]
*[[productive and unproductive labour]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/adamsmith-summary.html Summary of Smith's example of pin-making]
[[Category:Labor]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
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[[de:Arbeitsteilung]]
[[fr:Division du travail]]
[[fi:Työnjako]]
[[pl:Podział pracy]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Diacylglycerole</title>
<id>8825</id>
<revision>
<id>15906769</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-06T19:23:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marj Tiefert</username>
<id>27</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving to diacylglycerol</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[diacylglycerol]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Davy lamp</title>
<id>8826</id>
<revision>
<id>41637769</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:30:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TimPope</username>
<id>203786</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Category:English inventions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Davy_lamp.png|thumb|Davy lamp]]
The '''Davy lamp''' is a candle containing safety [[lamp]] devised in [[1815]] by [[Humphry Davy]]. It was created for use in [[coal mine]]s, allowing deep seams to be mined despite the presence of [[methane]] and other flammable [[gas]]es, called [[firedamp]] or minedamp.
Davy had discovered that, to [[explosion|explode]], the gas must be heated to its [[ignition]] temperature and that if such heating is prevented, combustion cannot occur. If the flame in a lamp is surrounded by metal [[gauze]] to distribute the heat over a large area, the maximum temperature of the screen is below the ignition temperature of the gas. The first trial of a Davy lamp with a wire sieve was at [[Hebburn Colliery]] on [[9 January]] [[1816]].
The lamp also provided a crude test for the presence of gases. If inflammable gas mixtures were present, the flame of the Davy lamp burned higher with a blue tinge. Miners could also place a safety lamp close to the ground to detect gases, such as [[carbon dioxide]], that are denser than air and so could collect in depressions in the mine, if the mine air was oxygen-poor, the lamp flame would be extinguished (chokedamp).
There was some controversy, since [[George Stephenson]] also produced a similar safety lamp, called the [[Geordie lamp]] in [[1815]].
How far the difference was appreciated at the time is hard to say; supporters |
xy clusters. Dark matter has only been detected through its gravitational signature; no particles that might make it up have yet been observed in laboratories. However, there are many [[particle physics]] candidates for dark matter, and several projects to detect them are underway.
===Dark energy===
{{main|dark energy}}
In the 1990s, detailed measurements of the [[density|mass density]] of the universe revealed a value that was 30% that of the [[critical density]]. Since the universe is very nearly spatially flat, as is indicated by measurements of the [[cosmic microwave background]], about 70% of the energy density of the universe was left unaccounted for. This mystery now appears to be connected to another one: Independent measurements of [[Type I supernova|Type Ia supernovae]] have revealed that the expansion of the universe is undergoing a non-linear [[accelerating universe|acceleration]] rather than following strictly [[Hubble Law|Hubble's law]]. To explain this acceleration, [[general relativity]] requires that much of the universe consist of an energy component with large [[equation of state (cosmology)|negative pressure]]. This '''[[dark energy]]''' is now thought to make up the missing 70%. Its nature remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a scalar [[cosmological constant]] and [[quintessence (physics)|quintessence]]. Observations to help understand this are ongoing.
==The future according to the Big Bang theory==
Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass [[density]] of the universe is above the [[critical density]], then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started&mdash;a [[Big Crunch]]. Alternatively, if the density in the universe is equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down, but never stop. Star formation would cease as the universe grows less dense. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach [[absolute zero]]. [[Black holes]] would evaporate. The [[entropy]] of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as [[heat death]]. Moreover, if [[proton decay]] exists, then hydrogen, the predominant form of baryonic matter in the universe today, would disappear, leaving only radiation.
Modern observations of [[accelerating universe|accelerated expansion]] imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our [[event horizon]] and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The [[Lambda-CDM model|ΛCDM model]] of the universe contains [[dark energy]] in the form of a [[cosmological constant]]. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, would remain together, and they too would be subject to [[heat death]], as the universe cools and expands. Other explanations of dark energy — so-called [[phantom energy]] theories — suggest that ultimately [[galaxy groups and clusters|galaxy clusters]] and eventually [[galaxies]] themselves will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called [[Big Rip]].
''See also [[Ultimate fate of the universe|Ultimate fate of the universe]].''
==Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang==
While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest universe, when [[cosmic inflation|inflation]] is hypothesized to have occurred. There may also be parts of the universe well beyond what can be observed in principle. In the case of inflation this is required: exponential expansion has pushed large regions of space beyond our observable horizon. It may be possible to deduce what happened when we better understand physics at very high energy scales. Speculations about this often involve theories of [[quantum gravity|quantum gravitation]].
Some proposals are:
* [[cosmic inflation|chaotic inflation]]
* [[brane cosmology]] models, including the [[ekpyrotic]] model in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes
* an [[oscillatory universe|oscillatory universe]] in which the early universe's hot, dense state resulted from the Big Crunch of a universe similar to ours. The universe could have gone through an infinite number of big bangs and big crunches. The [[cyclic model|cyclic]] extension of the ekpyrotic model is a modern version of such a scenario. (The chief outstanding problem is that [[entropy]] would apparently be carried over to each new cycle, resulting in a condition of [[heat death]] in the remote past).
* models including the [[Hartle-Hawking state|Hartle-Hawking boundary condition]] in which the whole of space-time is finite.
Some of these scenarios are qualitatively compatible with one another. Each entails untested hypotheses.
==Philosophical and religious interpretations==
There are a number of interpretations of the Big Bang theory that are extra-scientific. Some of these ideas purport to explain the cause of the Big Bang itself ([[first cause]]), although science cannot possibly show a first cause, so they have been criticized by some [[philosophical naturalism|naturalist]] philosophers as being modern [[creation myth]]s. Some people believe that the Big Bang theory lends support to traditional views of creation as given in [[Genesis]], for example, while others believe that the Big Bang theory is inconsistent with such views.
The Big Bang, as a scientific theory, is not based on any [[religion]]. While some religious interpretations conflict with the Big Bang story of the universe, there are many other interpretations that do not.
The following is a list of various religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory:
* A number of [[Christianity|Christian]] churches, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in particular, have accepted the Big Bang as a possible description of the origin of the universe, interpreting it to allow for a philosophical first cause. [[Pope Pius XII]] was an enthusiastic proponent of the Big Bang even before the theory was scientifically well established.
* Some students of [[Kabbalah]], [[deism]] and other non-anthropomorphic faiths concord with the Big Bang theory, for example connecting it with the theory of "divine retraction" ([[tzimtzum]]) as explained by the Jewish scholar [[Maimonides|Moses Maimonides]].
* Some modern [[Islam]]ic scholars believe that the [[Qur'an]] parallels the Big Bang in its account of creation, described as follows: "Do not the unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together as one unit of creation, before We clove them asunder?" (Ch:21,Ver:30). The claim has also been made that the Qur'an describes an expanding universe: "The heaven, We have built it with power. And verily, We are expanding it." (Ch:51,Ver:47). Parallels with the [[Big Crunch]] and an [[oscillating universe|oscillating universe]] have also been suggested: "On the day when We will roll up the heavens like the rolling up of the scroll for writings, as We originated the first creation, (so) We shall reproduce it; a promise (binding on Us); surely We will bring it about." (Ch:21,Ver:104).
* Certain [[theism|theistic]] branches of [[Hinduism]], such as in [[Vaishnavism]], conceive of a theory of creation with similarities to the theory of the Big Bang. The Hindu mythos, narrated for example in the third book of the [[Bhagavata Purana]] (primarily, chapters 10 and 26), describes a primordial state which bursts forth as the Great [[Vishnu]] glances over it, transforming into the active state of the sum-total of matter ("[[prakriti]]"). Other forms of Hinduism assert a universe without beginning or end.
*[[Buddhism]] has a concept of a universe that has no creation event. The Big Bang, however, is not seen to be in conflict with this since there are ways to conceive an eternal universe within the paradigm. A number of popular [[Zen]] philosophers were intrigued, in particular, by the concept of the [[oscillating universe|oscillating universe]].
==Notes==
#{{note|ABGtheory}} R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow, "The Origin of Chemical Elements,"''Physical Review'' '''73''' (1948), 803.
#{{note|GammowCMB}} G. Gamow, ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 680.
#{{note|Slipher}} V. Slipher, paper presented to the [[American Astronomical Society]], (1915).
#{{note|Lemaitre}} G. Lemaître, ''Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels'' '''47A''' (1927).
#{{note|Christianson}} E. Christianson ''Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae''.
#{{note|steadystate}} F. Hoyle '"A New Model for the Expanding universe", ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''108''' (1948), 372.
#{{note|finestructure}} A. V. Ivanchik, et al. "The fine-structure constant: a new observational limit on its cosmological variation and some theoretical consequences", ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'' '''343''' (1999) 439.
#{{note|homogeneity}} J. Goodman ''Physics Review D'', '''52''' (1995) 1821.
#{{note|SZ}} Caltech Submillimeter Observatory has a program underway for measuring detail observations of the CMB to look for Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect correlations. [http://www.submm.caltech.edu/cso/]
#{{note|WMAPH}} D. N. Spergel, et al. "First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: Determination of cosmological parameters", ''Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series'', '''148''' (2003) 175.
#{{note|COBE}} N.W. Boggess, et al. "The COBE Mission: Its Design and Performance Two Years after the launch," ''Astrophysical Journal'', '''397''' (1992), 420.
#{{note|clusterage}} A. A. Navabi and N. Riazi, "Is the Age Problem Resolved?" ''Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy'' '''24''' (2003), 3.
= |
et another example of a "silent" change from metric to imperial units; this product was advertised and became popularly known as the 3½-inch disk, emphasizing the fact that it was smaller than the existing 5¼-inch.) By 1989 the 3½-inch was outselling the 5¼-inch.
The 3½-inch disks had, by way of their rigid case's slide-in-place metal cover, the significant advantage of being much better protected against unintended physical contact with the disk surface when the disk was handled outside the disk drive. When the disk was inserted, a part inside the drive moved the metal cover aside, giving the drive's read/write heads the necessary access to the magnetic recording surfaces. Adding the slide mechanism resulted in a slight departure from the previous square outline. The irregular, rectangular shape had the additional merit that it made it impossible to insert the disk sideways by mistake as had indeed been possible with earlier formats.
The shutter mechanism was not without its problems, however. On old or roughly treated disks the shutter could bend away from the disk. This made it vulnerable to being ripped off completely (which does not damage the disk itself but does leave it much more vulnerable to dust) or worse catching inside a drive and possibly damaging it. If you see a disk with the cover bending away the best option is to rip the cover off (to make sure it does not catch in the drive) then immediately copy the data off it. Most modern floppies have a springy plastic cover that does not tend to bend away from the disk.
Like the 5¼-inch, the 3½-inch disk underwent an evolution of its own. They were originally offered in a 360 KB single-sided and 720 KB double-sided double-density format (the same as then-current 5¼-inch disks). A newer "high-density" format, displayed as "HD" on the disks themselves and storing 1440 KB of data, was introduced in the mid-80s (note: these capacities are using the relatively conservative standard PC formats). IBM used it on their [[PS/2]] series introduced in 1987. Apple started using "HD" in 1988, on the [[Macintosh IIx]]. It soon became nearly-universal on all PC's. Another advance in the oxide coatings allowed for a new "extended-density" ("ED") format at 2880 KB introduced on the second generation [[NeXT Computer]]s in 1991, and on IBM PS/2 model 57 also in 1991, but by the time it was available it was already too small in capacity to be a useful advance over the HD format and never became widely used. The 3½-inch drives sold more than a decade later still used the same format that was standardized in 1989, in [[ISO 9529]]-1,2.
====Trivia====
*The formatted capacity of 3½-inch high-density floppies was originally 1440 [[kibibyte]]s, or 1,474,560 bytes. This is equivalent to 1.41 [[mebibyte|MiB]] (1.47 MB decimal). However, their capacity is usually reported as 1.44 MB by diskette manufacturers. The typical data transfer rate can be as much as 24 KB/s, depending on the drive unit. Likewise the ED format is typically referred to as 2.88 MB.
*In some places, especially [[South Africa]], 3½-inch floppy disks have commonly been called ''stiffies'' or ''stiffy disks'', because of their "stiff" (rigid) cases, which are contrasted with the flexible "floppy" cases of 5¼-inch floppies. In Finnish, the term is ''korppu'' (rusk, crumpet, biscuit) due to its rigidity compared to 5¼-inch ''lerppu'' (floppy).
*Even if such a format was hardly officially supported on any system, it is possible to "force" a 3½-inch floppy disk drive to be recognized by the system as a 5¼-inch 360 KB or 1200 KB one (on [[IBM PC|PC]]s and [[PC compatible|compatible]]s, this can be done by simply changing the [[CMOS]] [[BIOS]] settings) and thus format and read non-standard disk formats, such as a double sided 360 KB 3½-inch disk. Possible applications include data exchange with obsolete CP/M systems, for example with an [[Amstrad CPC]].
==Floppy killers==
Through the early 1990s a number of attempts were made by various companies to introduce newer floppy-like formats based on the now-universal 3½-inch physical format. Most of these systems provided the ability to read and write standard DD and HD disks, while at the same time introducing a much higher-capacity format as well. There were a number of times where it was felt that the existing floppy was just about to be replaced by one of these newer devices, but a variety of problems ensured this never took place. None of these ever reached the point where it could be assumed that every current PC would have one, and they have now largely been replaced by [[CD-R|CD burners]] and [[USB flash drive]]s.
The main technological change was the addition of tracking information on the disk surface to allow the read/write heads to be positioned more accurately. Normal disks have no such information, so the drives use the tracks themselves with a [[feedback loop]] in order to center themselves. The newer systems generally used marks burned onto the surface of the disk to find the tracks, allowing the track width to be greatly reduced.
====Flextra====
As early as 1988, Brier Technology introduced the Flextra BR 3020, which boasted 21.4 MB (marketing, true size was 21,040 KiB<!--- 2 sides * 526 cyl * 40 tracks * 512 bytes --->, 25 MiB unformatted). Later the same year it introduced the BR3225, which doubled the capacity. This model could also read standard 3½-inch disks.
Apparently it used 3½-inch standard disks which had servo information embedded on them for use with the Twin Tier Tracking technology.
====Floptical====
In 1991, Insite Peripherals introduced the "[[Floptical]]", which used an [[infra-red]] [[LED]] to position the heads over marks in the disk surface. The original drive stored 21MiB, while also reading and writing standard DD and HD floppies. In order to improve data transfer speeds and make the high-capacity drive usefully quick as well, the drives were attached to the system using a [[SCSI]] connector instead of the normal floppy controller. This made them appear to the [[operating system]] as a hard drive instead of a floppy, meaning that most PC's were unable to boot from them. This again adversely affected adoption rates.
Insite licenced their technology to a number of companies, who introduced compatible devices as well as even larger-capacity formats. Most popular of these, by far, was the LS-120, mentioned below.
====Zip drive====
In 1994, [[Iomega]] introduced the [[Zip drive]]. Not true to the 3½-inch form factor, hence not compatible with the standard 1.44 MB floppies, it became the most popular of the "super floppies" and is included here for completeness. It boasted 100 MB, later 250 MB, and then 750 MB of storage and came to market at just the right time. Zip drives gained in popularity for several years, but never reached the stage of widespread use.
====LS-120====
Announced in 1995, the "[[SuperDisk]]" drive, often seen with the brand names [[Matsushita]] (Panasonic) and [[Imation]], had an initial capacity of 120 MB (120.375 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- 6848 cylinders * 36 blocks/cylinder * 512 bytes [http://linuxcommand.org/man_pages/floppy8.html] -->) using even higher density "LS-120" disks. It was subsequently upgraded ("LS-240") to 240 MB (240.75 MiB). Not only could the drive read and write 1440 KB disks, but the last versions of the drives could write 32 MB <!-- true capacity is what? --> onto a normal 1440 KB disk ([[#Ultimate capacity, speed|see note below]]). Unfortunately, popular opinion held the Super Disk disks to be quite unreliable, though no more so than the [[Zip drive|Zip drives]] and [[SyQuest Technology]] offerings of the same period. This again, true or otherwise, crippled adoption.
====Sony HiFD====
Sony introduced their own floptical-like system in 1997 as the 150 MiB [[Sony HiFD]]. Although by this time the LS-120 had already garnered some market penetration, industry observers nevertheless confidently predicted the HiFD would be the real floppy-killer and finally replace floppies in all machines. However, after only a short time on the market the product was pulled, as it was discovered there were a number of truly terrible performance and reliability problems that made the system essentially unusable. Sony then re-engineered the device for a quick re-release, but then extended the delay well into 1998 instead and increased the capacity to 200 MiB while they were at it. By this point the market was already saturated by the Zip disk, and it never really had much of a market.
====Caleb Technology’s UHD144====
Little is known about this device except that it surfaced early in 1998 as the '''it drive''', and provided 144 MB of storage while also being compatible with the standard 1.44 MB floppies. It was slower than the competitors, but cheaper, media running about $8 at introduction and $5 soon after.
== Structure ==
[[Image:5.25 in. floppy disk drive top.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|A user inserts the floppy disk, medium opening first, into a 5¼-inch floppy disk drive (pictured, an internal model) and moves the lever down (by twisting on this model) to close the drive and engage the motor and heads with the disk.]]
The 5¼-inch disk had a large circular hole in the center for the spindle of the drive and a small oval aperture in both sides of the plastic to allow the heads of the drive to read and write the data. The magnetic medium could be spun by rotating it from the middle hole. A small notch on the right hand side of the disk would identify whether the disk was read-only or writable, detected by a mechanical switch or [[photo transistor]] above it. Another LED/phototransistor pair located near the center of the disk could detect a small hole once per rotation, called the index hole, in the magnetic disk. It was used to detect the start of |
tic trance observations.
== Books ==
For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of psychology, e.g. those of
*J. Sully
*W. James
*G. T. Fechner
*O. Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, ''La Paura'' (Milan, [[1884]], 1900 Eng. trans. E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. [[1896]])
*E. B. Titchener, ''Experimental Psychology'' ([[1905]]); art. "[[Psychology]]" and works there quoted.
==See also==
* [[Affectional orientation]]
* [[Affective filter]]
* [[Love]]
==References==
* {{1911}}
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Phrenology]]
[[de:Zuneigung]]
[[fr:Affection]]
[[id:Afeksi]]
[[it:Affetto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affiliation</title>
<id>2662</id>
<revision>
<id>40436864</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T15:15:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Bastard]] to [[Bastard (Law of England and Wales)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], '''affiliation ''' (from [[Latin]] ''ad-filiare'', to adopt as a son) is the procedure by which the [[paternity]] of an [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]] child is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its support enforced. More modernly, it has also become a term to describe a partnership between two or more parties.
== Affiliation procedures in England ==
In [[England]] a number of [[statute]]s on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy [[Act of Parliament|Act]] of [[1845]], and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of [[1872]] and [[1873]].
The mother of a [[Bastard (Law of England and Wales)|bastard]] may summon the putative father to petty sessions within twelve months of the [[Childbirth|birth]] (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the [[putative father]] of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the [[funeral]] expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings.
An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is sixteen years of age.
An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the [[King's Bench]] by rule ''[[nisi or certiorari]]''. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the [[parish]], the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer.
When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.
Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in [[England]].
An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over fourteen years of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.
The Summary [[Jurisdiction]] Act ([[1879]]) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of [[soldier]]s an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the [[Army]] Act ([[1881]]), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to [[sailor]]s in the [[Royal Navy]].
== Affiliation procedures in other countries ==
In the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonies, and in the states of the [[United States]] (with the exception of [[California]], [[Idaho]], [[Missouri]], [[Oregon]], [[Texas]] and [[Utah]]), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father.
The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished ([[1905]]; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372). On the continent of [[Europe]], however, the [[legislation]] of the various countries differs rather widely. [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Russia]], [[Servia]] and the [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]] of [[Geneva]] provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]] and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father.
Affiliation, in [[France]], is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.
==See also==
* [[Adoption]]
* [[Illegitimacy]]
* [[Poor Laws]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[da:affiliation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affinity</title>
<id>2663</id>
<revision>
<id>38104613</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T05:11:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|affinity}}
'''Affinity''' may refer to:
* [[Affinity (law)]], kinship by marriage
* [[Affinity (canon law)]], a relationship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman
* [[Chemical affinity]]
* [[Electron affinity]]
* [[Affinity laws]], in hydraulics, used to express the relationship between variables involved in pump performance
* [[Affinity (Christian organisation)]], formerly known as the British Evangelical Council
==See also==
*[[Affine]]
[[de:Affinität]]
[[fr:Affinité]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affirmation</title>
<id>2664</id>
<revision>
<id>40638440</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T00:07:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pmadrid</username>
<id>80772</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[affirmation (disambiguation)]].''
An '''affirmation''' (from [[Latin]] ''affirmare'', to assert) is the declaration that something is true.
In [[logic]], an '''affirmation''' is a positive judgment, the union of the subject and predicate of a proposition.
In [[law]], an '''affirmation''' is a solemn promise or assertion made under the penalties of [[perjury]] that has exactly the same legal effect as an [[oath]]. To [[affirm]] is to make an affirmation. This option is allowed to those who conscientiously object to taking an oath, usually to avoid the religious implications of an oath. The [[Constitution of the United States]] makes four references to an "oath or affirmation": In Article I, [[United States Senate|Senators]] must take a special oath or affirmation for the purpose of sitting as the tribunal for [[impeachment]]; in Article II, the president is required to take a specified oath or affirmation before entering office (see [[oath of office]]); in Article VI, all state and federal officials must take an oath or affirmation to support the U.S. Constitution; and in Amendment IV, all [[arrest warrant]]s and [[search warrant]]s must be supported by [[evidence (law)|evidence]] given under oath or affirmation.
In [[spirituality]] and [[personal development]], an '''affirmation''' is a form of [[autosuggestion]] in which a statement of a desirable intention or condition of the world or the mind is deliberately meditated on or repeated in order to implant it in the mind. Affirmation could be viewed positively as a mobilization of one's inner resources, or negatively as a kind of self-induced brainwashing, depending on the psychological depth and wisdom of the affirmation. For example, "I am making more room in my life for success every day" is a much wiser affirmation than "I will win the lottery today!" Affirmations can be a very powerful means of reprogramming the [[unconscious mind]]. They appear to be most effective when repeated in a quiet and restful state of mind and body.
Perhaps the most often used and well-known affirmation is the word "[[Amen]]," which can be translated simply, "so be it," affirming the truth of whatever was written or said immediately prior. While often used to conclude [[prayer]], the word itself is neutral as to its context and exemplifies a logical affirmation more than a spiritual one.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Oaths]]
'''External Links'''
{{wiktionarypar|affirmation}}
* [http://www.self-help-and-self-development.com/affirmations.html Affirmations]
* [http://www.guidetosuccess.ws/affirmation.php Free Affirmations in your Inbox every day!]
* [http://www.bmindful.com bmindful - helping you bpositive.]
* [http://www.daily-affirmations.com/ Daily Affirmations]
[[de:Affirmation]]
[[lt:Afirmacija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Affray</title>
<id>2665</id>
<revision>
<id>23951875</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-25T00:25:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>172.198.197.172</ip>
</contributor>
< |
mes an independent company
*[[1943]] - In [[Denmark]], a [[general strike]] against the [[Nazi]] occupation is started.
*[[1944]] - [[Marseille]] and [[Toulon]] are liberated.
*[[1953]] - [[Nippon Television]] broadcasts [[Japan]]'s first television show, including its first TV advertisement.
*[[1955]] - Black [[Mississippi]]an [[Emmett Till]] is murdered, allegedly for whistling to a white woman and calling her ''baby''.
*[[1963]] - During a 200,000-person [[civil rights]] rally in at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] gives his famous ''[[I have a dream]]'' speech.
*[[1964]] - The [[Philadelphia 1964 race riot|Philadelphia race riot]] began.
*[[1968]] - Riots in [[Chicago, Illinois]], during the Democratic National Convention
*[[1971]] - The [[dollar]] is allowed to float against the [[yen]] for the first time.
*[[1972]] - During the [[Olympic Games]] in [[Munich]], [[Mark Spitz]] gets his first of seven gold medals in [[swimming]] events.
*[[1975]] - Missionary Armand Doll is imprisoned in [[Mozambique]] by Marxist extremists.
*[[1979]] - An [[provisional IRA|IRA]] bomb explodes on the Great Market in [[Brussels]].
*[[1981]] - The [[National Centers for Disease Control]] announce a high incidence of [[Pneumocystis]] and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] in gay men. Soon, these will be recognized as symptoms of an [[immune system|immune]] disorder, which will be called [[AIDS]].
*[[1986]] - Stage of siege declared in [[Bolivia]].
*1986 - US Navy officer [[Jerry A. Whitworth]] is sentenced to 365 years [[imprisonment]] for [[espionage]] for the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1988]] - At an air show in [[Ramstein]], [[West Germany]], three stunt fighters collide; 69 people die.
*[[1990]] - [[Iraq]] declares [[Kuwait]] to be its newest [[Provinces of Iraq|province]].
*1990 - [[The Plainfield Tornado]]: An F5 tornado hits in [[Plainfield, Illinois]], and [[Joliet, Illinois]], killing 28 people.
*[[1991]] - A drunk motorman speeds into the [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] station on the No. 4 line in [[New York City]]. The train derails on the curve, killing six passengers and injuring dozens.
*[[1993]] - A dam breaks in [[Qinghai]], [[China]]. 223 die.
*1993 - 76 die in an airplane crash in [[Tajikistan]].
*1993 - [[Ong Teng Cheong]] elected president of [[Singapore]]
*[[1994]] - First [[Japan]]ese [[Gay pride|gay pride march]].
*[[1995]] - A mortar shell kills 38 people in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]].
*[[1996]] - Britain's [[Charles, Prince of Wales]], and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], are divorced.
*[[1998]] - Pakistan's [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]] passes a [[Constitution of Pakistan|constitutional]] [[Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|amendment]] to make the "[[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]]" the "supreme law" but the bill is defeated in the [[Senate of Pakistan|Senate]].
*[[2001]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] prime minister [[Wim Kok]] announces that he will not be available for another term as PvdA party leader or prime minister after the 2002 elections.
*[[2005]] - A [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|mandatory evacuation]] is ordered by [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] mayor [[Ray Nagin]] and Louisiana governor [[Kathleen Blanco]] as [[Hurricane Katrina]] moved nearer to Louisiana.
==Births==
*[[1025]] - [[Emperor Go-Reizei]] of Japan (d. [[1068]])
*[[1582]] (O.S.) - [[Taichang Emperor]], of the Ming dynasty of China (d. [[1620]])
*[[1592]] - [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (d. [[1628]])
*[[1612]] - [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]], Dutch scholar (d. [[1653]])
*[[1714]] - [[Anthony Ulrich II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (d. [[1774]])
*[[1749]] - [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], German writer and scientist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1774]] - [[Elizabeth Ann Seton]], first American-born Catholic saint (d. [[1821]])
*[[1814]] - [[Sheridan le Fanu]], Irish writer (d. [[1873]])
*[[1828]] (O.S.) - [[Leo Tolstoy]], Russian writer (d. [[1910]])
*[[1849]] - [[Benjamin Godard]], French composer (d. [[1895]])
*[[1853]] - [[Vladimir Shukhov]], Russian engineer and inventor (d. [[1939]])
*[[1867]] - [[Umberto Giordano]], Italian composer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1878]] - [[George Whipple]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]])
*[[1894]] - [[Karl Böhm]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1897]] - [[Charles Boyer]], French actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1903]] - [[Bruno Bettelheim]], American psychologist (d. [[1990]])
*[[1904]] - [[Secondo Campini]], Italian jet engine pioneer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1906]] - [[John Betjeman]], English poet (d. [[1984]])
*[[1908]] - [[Roger Tory Peterson]], American ornithologist and illustrator (d. [[1996]])
*[[1910]] - [[Tjalling Koopmans]], Dutch economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1985]])
*[[1911]] - [[Joseph Luns]], Dutch politician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1913]] - [[Robertson Davies]], Canadian writer (d. [[1995]])
*1913 - [[Richard Tucker]], American tenor (d. [[1975]])
*[[1916]] - [[Jack Vance]], American author
*[[1917]] - [[Jack Kirby]], American comic book artist (d. [[1994]])
*[[1919]] - [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1919]] - [[Gyula Várady]], Hungarian footballer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1924]] - [[Janet Frame]], New Zealand author
*1924 - [[Peggy Ryan]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1925]] - [[Donald O'Connor]], American singer, dancer, and actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1929]] - [[Istvan Kertesz]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1930]] - [[Ben Gazzara]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[John Shirley-Quirk]], English bass-baritone
*[[1932]] - [[Andy Bathgate]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Martin]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]]
*1938 - [[Maurizio Costanzo]], Italian television journalist
*[[1941]] - [[Sybille de Selys Longchamps|Baroness Sybille de Selys Longchamps]], Belgian aristocrat
*[[1942]] - [[Sterling Morrison]], American guitarist ([[The Velvet Underground]]) (d. [[1995]])
*[[1943]] - [[David Soul]], American actor
*1943 - [[Lou Piniella]], baseball manager
*[[1944]] - [[Marianne Heemskerk]], Dutch swimmer
*[[1947]] - [[Liza Wang]], Hong Kong actress
*[[1957]] - [[Daniel Stern (actor)|Daniel Stern]], American actor
*1957 - [[Rick Rossovich]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Scott Hamilton]], American figure skater
*[[1960]] - [[Emma Samms]], English actress
*[[1961]] - [[Kim Appleby]], British singer
*[[1965]] - [[Amanda Tapping]], Canadian actress
*[[1965]] - [[Shania Twain]], Canadian singer
*[[1966]] - [[René Higuita]], Colombian football goalkeeper
*[[1968]] - [[Billy Boyd]], Scottish actor
*[[1969]] - [[Jason Priestley]], Canadian actor
*1969 - [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]], American actor and musician
*[[1971]] - [[Janet Evans]], American swimmer
*[[1978]] - [[Jess Margera]], American drummer
*[[1979]] - [[Robert Hoyzer]], German football referee
*[[1981]] - [[Martin Erat]], Czech hockey player
*[[1982]] - [[LeAnn Rimes]], American singer
==Deaths==
*[[388]] - [[Magnus Maximus]], [[Roman usurper]] against [[Valentinian III]]
*[[430]] - [[Augustine of Hippo]], North African saint and theologian (b. [[354]])
*[[1341]] - King [[Leo V of Armenia]] (murdered) (b. [[1309]])
*[[1481]] - King [[Afonso V of Portugal]] (b. [[1432]])
*[[1645]] - [[Hugo Grotius]], Dutch philosopher and writer (b. [[1583]])
*[[1654]] - [[Axel Oxenstierna]], Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (b. [[1583]])
*[[1678]] - [[John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton]], English soldier (b. [[1602]])
*[[1757]] - [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]], English philosopher (b. [[1705]])
*[[1784]] - [[Junípero Serra]], Spanish Franciscan missionary (b. [[1713]])
*[[1785]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Pigalle]], French sculptor (b. [[1714]])
*[[1793]] - [[Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine]], French general (executed) (b. [[1740]])
*[[1805]] - [[Alexander Carlyle]], Scottish church leader (b. [[1722]])
*[[1818]] - [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], founder of Chicago
*[[1839]] - [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]], English geologist (b. [[1769]])
*[[1900]] - [[Henry Sidgwick]], English philosopher (b. [[1838]])
*[[1903]] - [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], American landscape architect (b. [[1822]])
*[[1919]] - [[Louis Botha]], Boer leader (b. [[1862]])
*[[1943]] - King [[Boris III of Bulgaria]] (b. [[1894]])
*[[1959]] - [[Bohuslav Martinů]], Romanian composer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1965]] - [[Giulio Racah]], Israeli physicist (b. [[1909]])
*[[1975]] - [[Fritz Wotruba]], Austrian sculptor (b. [[1907]])
*[[1981]] - [[Béla Guttman]], Hungarian footballer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1985]] - [[Ruth Gordon]], American actress (b. [[1896]])
*[[1987]] - [[John Huston]], American movie director (b. [[1906]])
*[[1990]] - [[Willy Vandersteen]], Belgian cartoonist (b. [[1913]])
*[[1993]] - [[William Stafford]], American writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1995]] - [[Michael Ende]], German writer (b. [[1929]])
*[[2005]] - [[Esther Szekeres]], Hungarian mathematician (b. [[1910]])
*2005 - [[George Szekeres]], Hungarian mathematican (b. [[1911]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Hong Kong]]: Liberation Day ([[1945]])
*Many Christian churches: feast day of Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/28 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 27]] - [[August 29]] - [[July 28]] - [[September 28]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:28 Augustus]]
[[ar:28 أغسطس]]
[[an:28 d'agosto]]
[[ast:28 d'agostu]]
[[bg:28 август]]
[[be:28 жніўня]]
[[bs:28. august]]
[[ca:28 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 28]]
[[cv:Çурла, 28]]
[[co:28 d'aostu]]
[[cs:28. srpen]]
[[cy:28 Awst]]
[[da:28. august]]
[[de:28. August]]
[[et:28. august]]
[[el:28 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:28 de agosto]]
[[eo:28-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 28]]
[[f |
t of political parties]] to browse parties by country
* [[List of political parties by ideology]] to browse parties by name
* [[List of political parties by ideology#Trans-national world groupings and parties|Membership of internationals]] to browse parties by membership of internationals
==External links==
*[http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/m/micronesia/ Adam Carr's Election Archive]
{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Elections in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Lists of political parties|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Political parties in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[pt:Política dos Estados Federados da Micronésia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11496</id>
<revision>
<id>35533480</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T12:44:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Darwinek</username>
<id>107928</id>
</contributor>
<comment>.added map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CIA-FSM.jpg|350px|right]]
The [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (FSM) consists of 607 islands extending 1,800 miles (2,900 km) across the archipelago of the [[Caroline Islands]] east of the Philippines. The four constituent island groups are [[Yap]], [[Chuuk]] (called Truk until January 1990), [[Pohnpei]] (called Ponape until November 1984), and [[Kosrae]]. The federal capital is [[Palikir]], on Pohnpei. Separated from the four main island groups are the islands of [[Nukuoro]] and [[Kapingamarangi]], which are geologically and geographically, are part of [[Micronesia]], but linguistically and culturally are part of [[Polynesia]]: the languages spoken on these two islands are of the [[Samoic languages|Samoic]] family of [[Polynesian languages]].
FSM enjoys a tropical climate, with quite even, warm temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall is generally plentiful, and Pohnpei reputedly is one of the wettest places on earth, with up to 330 inches (8.4 m) of rain per year. Nevertheless, drought conditions do occur periodically throughout FSM, especially when the [[El Niño]] condition moves into the Western Pacific, when groundwater supplies can dwindle to emergency proportions. Tropical typhoons are an annual threat, particularly to the low-lying atolls.
'''Location:'''
[[Oceania]], island group in the northern [[Pacific Ocean]], about three-quarters of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[Indonesia]]
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|6|55|N|158|15|E|type:country}}
'''Map references:'''
Oceania
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
702 sq km
<br>''land:''
702 sq km
<br>''water:''
0 sq km
<br>''note:''
includes Pohnpei (Ponape), Truk (Chuuk) Islands, Yap Islands, and Kosrae
'''Area - comparative:'''
four times the size of Washington, DC
'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km
'''Coastline:'''
6,112 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm (370 km)
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nm
'''Climate:'''
tropical; heavy year-round rainfall, especially in the eastern islands; located on southern edge of the [[typhoon]] belt with occasionally severe damage
'''Terrain:'''
islands vary geologically from high mountainous islands to low, coral atolls; volcanic outcroppings on Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Truk
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Pacific Ocean]] 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Totolom]] 791 m
'''Natural resources:'''
forests, marine products, deep-seabed minerals
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
NA%
<br>''permanent crops:''
NA%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
NA%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
NA%
<br>''other:''
NA%
'''Irrigated land:'''
NA sq km
'''Natural hazards:'''
typhoons (June to December)
'''Environment - current issues:'''
overfishing
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements
'''Geography - note:'''
four major island groups totaling 607 islands
==See also==
*[[Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Micronesia]]
[[ca:Geografia dels Estats Federats de Micronèsia]]
[[es:Geografía de los Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
[[pt:Geografia dos Estados Federados da Micronésia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11497</id>
<revision>
<id>37379771</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T17:18:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hdstubbs</username>
<id>496487</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Expanded introduction somewhat.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia''' refers to the population characteristics of people who inhabit the [[Federated States of Micronesia]]. The indigenous population of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups. English has become the common language. Population growth remains high at more than 3%, but is ameliorated somewhat by net emigration.
The island of [[Pohnpei]] is genetically notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of [[color blindness]] known as [[maskun]].
[[Image:Micronesia demography.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''Population:'''
133,144 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
NA
<br>''15-64 years:''
NA
<br>''65 years and over:''
NA
'''Population growth rate:'''
3.28% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
27.09 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
5.95 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
11.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
33.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
68.63 years
<br>''male:''
66.67 years
<br>''female:''
70.62 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.83 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Micronesian(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Micronesian; Kosrae(s), Pohnpeian(s), Trukese, Yapese
'''Ethnic groups:'''
nine ethnic Micronesian and Polynesian groups
'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 47%, other and none 3%
'''Languages:'''
English (official and common language), [[Trukese language|Trukese]], [[Pohnpeian language|Pohnpeian]], [[Yapese language|Yapese]], [[Kosrean language|Kosrean]]
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
89%
<br>''male:''
91%
<br>''female:''
88% (1980 est.)
[[Category:Demographics by country|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11498</id>
<revision>
<id>28775367</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-19T20:50:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bunchofgrapes</username>
<id>198074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link black pepper</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
Economic activity of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] consists primarily of [[subsistence farming]] and [[fishing]]. The islands have few [[mineral]] deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.
Under the terms of the [[Compact of Free Association]], the [[United States]] provided FSM with around $2 billion in grants and services from 1986 to 2001. The Compact's financial terms are being renegotiated for an extension period. In 2001 the U.S. provided more than $84 million in Compact grants--an amount equivalent to over one-third of FSM's [[gross domestic product|GDP]]--plus more than $20 million through other federal programs. Total official development assistance from all sources was more than $100 million in 2001, with nearly 90% of that total coming from the U.S.
The FSM public sector plays a central role in the economy as the administrator of the Compact money. The national and state-level governments employ over one-half of the country's workers and provide services accounting for more than 40%of GDP. Faced with the potential decrease or cessation of some of the assistance programs upon the Compact's financial provisions'expiry in 2001, the Government of the FSM in 1996 began to implement a program of economic reforms designed to reduce the role of the public sector in the economy.
The fishing industry is highly important. Foreign commercial fishing fleets pay over $20 million annually for the right to operate in FSM territorial waters. These licensing fees account for nearly 30% of domestic budgetary revenue. Additionally, exports of marine products, mainly reexports of fish to Japan, account for nearly 85% of export revenue.
The tourist industry is present but has been hampered by a lack of infrastructure. Visitor attractions include scubadiving in each state, World War II battle sites, and the ancient ruined city of [[Nan Madol]] on Pohnpei. Some 15,000 tourists visit the islands each year. The Asian Development Bank has identified tourism as one of FSM's highest p |
#[[Tel Aviv University]]
#[[Telemark College]]
#[[Temasek Polytechnic]]
#[[Temple University]]
#[[Temple University Japan]]
#[[Tennessee State University]]
#[[Tennessee Technological University]]
#[[Texas A&M International University]] ([[Laredo, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&M University]] ([[College Station, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&M University at Galveston]] ([[Galveston, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&M University - Corpus Christi]] ([[Corpus Christi, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&M University - Kingsville]] ([[Kingsville, Texas]])
#[[Texas Christian University]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas]])
#[[Texas Southern University]] ([[Houston, Texas]])
#[[Texas State Technical College]] (several locations in [[Texas]])
#[[Texas State University-San Marcos]]
#[[Texas Tech University]] ([[Lubbock, Texas]])
#[[Texas Woman's University]] ([[Denton, Texas]])
#[[Thadomal Shahani Engineering College (TSEC)]]
#[[Thammasat University]]
#[[Thompson Rivers University]]
#[[The American College]]
#[[The King's University College]]
#[[The Queen's College, Oxford]]
#[[The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada]]
#[[Thomas Aquinas College]]
#[[Thomas College]]
#[[Thomas Edison State College]]
#[[Thomas Jefferson University]]
#[[Thomas More College]]
#[[Tianjin University]]
#[[Tidewater Community College]]
#[[Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover (High School of animal medicine at Hanover]]
#[[Tilburg University]]
#[[Toccoa Falls College]]
#[[Tohoku University]]
#[[Tokai University]]
#[[Tokyo Gakugei University]]
#[[Tokyo Institute of Technology]]
#[[Tokyo International University]]
#[[Tokyo Kaseigakuin Tsukuba Junior College]]
#[[Tokyo Kogei Tanki University]]
#[[Tokyo Medical and Dental University]]
#[[Tokyo Metropolitan College of Aeronautical Engineering]]
#[[Tokyo University]]
#[[Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology]]
#[[Tokyo University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Tokyo University of Science]]
#[[Tokyo Woman's Christian University]]
#[[Tokyo Women's Medial College]]
#[[Tomball College]]
#[[Tompkins Cortland Community College]]
#[[Tomsk State University]]
#[[Tongji University]]
#[[Tongji Medical University]]
#[[Tongji Medical College]] of [[Huazhong University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Toronto School of Theology]]
#[[Towson State University]]
#[[Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University]]
#[[Toyama University]]
#[[Tralee Regional Technical College]]
#[[Transylvania University]]
#[[Trent University]]
#[[Trenton State College]]
#[[Trevecca Nazarene University]]
#[[Trevelyan College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Tri-State University]]
#[[Trinidad State Junior College]]
#[[Trinity College Dublin]]
#[[Trinity College (Carmarthen)]]
#[[Trinity College (Connecticut)]]
#[[Trinity College (Washington, DC)]]
#[[Trinity College (Florida)]]
#[[Trinity College (Vermont)]]
#[[Trinity College and Seminary]]
#[[University of Trinity College]]
#[[Trinity University]]
#[[Trinity Western University]]
#[[Triton College]]
#[[Truckee Meadows Community College]]
#[[Truman State University]]
#[[Tsinghua University]]
#[[Tucson University]]
#[[Tufts University]]
#[[Tulane University]]
#[[Tung Nan Junior College of Technology]]
#[[Tunghai University]]
#[[Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Arastirma Kurumu]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|T]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with U</title>
<id>6494</id>
<revision>
<id>42153247</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:14:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Loukinho</username>
<id>461336</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* S */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List of colleges and universities starting with A|A]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with B|B]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with C|C]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with D|D]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with E|E]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with F|F]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with G|G]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with H|H]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with I|I]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with J|J]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with K|K]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with L|L]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with M|M]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with N|N]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with O|O]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with P|P]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with Q|Q]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with R|R]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with S|S]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with T|T]] -- '''U''' -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with V|V]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with W|W]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with X|X]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with Y|Y]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with Z|Z]]
== Main section ==
'''Universities beginning with U, excluding the words ''' ''University, Universidad, Université, etc. {{ref|exceptions}}''
#[[UNIK - Center for Technology at Kjeller, University of Oslo]]
#[[UNITEC Institute of Technology]]
#[[Ube College]]
#[[Ulsan University]]
#[[Uludag]]
#[[Umeå Institute of Technology]]
#[[Umeå Institute of Design]]
#[[Umeå School of Business]]
#[[Umeå University]]
#[[Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences]]
#[[Union College]]
#[[Union Institute & University]] (formerly Union Institute, The Union Institute, Union of Experimenting Colleges and Universities)
#[[Union Theological Seminary]]
#[[Union University]]
#[[United Arab Emirates University]]
#[[United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St Thomas's Hospitals]]
#[[United Nations University]] ([[Tokyo, Japan]])
#[[United States Air Force Academy]]
#[[United States Coast Guard Academy]]
#[[United States International University]]
#[[United States Merchant Marine Academy]]
#[[United States Military Academy]]
#[[United States Naval Academy]]
#[[United States Sports Academy]]
#[[Unity College]]
#[[University College London]]{{ref_label|exceptions|1|a}}
#[[Upper Iowa University]]
#[[Uppsala Institute of Technology]]
#[[Uppsala University]]
#[[Ural State University]]
#[[Ursinus College]]
#[[Ursuline College]]
#[[Ushaw College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Ustinov College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Utah State University]]
#[[Utah Valley State College]]
#[[Utrecht University]] ([[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Utsunomiya University]]
===Footnotes===
#{{note|exceptions}} As an exception to the conventional dropping of ''university'' when categorizing universities, [[University College London]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is always categorized under 'U', to avoid confusion with other colleges of the [[University of London]].
== Ordered by main word ==
'''Universities ordered by main word, including''' ''University, Universidad, Université, '' etc.
=== A ===
#[[University of Aarhus]]
#[[University of Aberdeen]]
#[[University of Abertay Dundee]]
#[[Universidade dos Açores]]
#[[University of Adelaide]]
#[[University of the Aegean]]
#[[University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bangalore]]
#[[University of Agriculture, Nitra]]
#[[University of Akron]]
#[[University of Akureyri]]
#[[Universite d'Aix-Marseille III]]
#[[University of Aizu]]
#[[Universite d'Angers]]
#[[University of Alabama]]
#[[University of Alabama, Birmingham]]
#[[University of Alabama, Huntsville]]
#[[University of Alaska System]]
#[[University of Alaska Anchorage]]
#[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
#[[University of Alaska Southeast]]
#[[University of Alberta]]
#[[Universidade do Algarve]]
#[[Universidad de Alicante]]
#[[Universidad de Almeria]]
#[[Universidad Americana]]
#[[University of the Americas]]
#[[Universiteit van Amsterdam]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Universidad Anáhuac]]
#[[Universidad Anáhuac del Sur]]
#[[University of Ancona]]
#[[Universidad de Antioquia]]
#[[Universidad Antonio Narino]]
#[[University of Antwerp]]
#[[University of the Arctic]]
#[[University of Arizona]]
#[[University of Arkansas, Fayetteville]]
#[[University of Arkansas, Little Rock]]
#[[University of Arkansas, Monticello]]
#[[University of Art and Design Helsinki]]
#[[University of Art and Industrial Design]]
#[[University of the Arts]]
#[[University of Asia and the Pacific]]
#[[Universidad de Atacama]]
#[[University of Athens]]
#[[University of Auckland]]
#[[Universitat Augsburg]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Baja California]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara]]
#[[Autonomous University of Madrid|Universidad Autónoma de Madrid]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Baja California]]
#[[Autonomous University of Barcelona|Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa]]
#[[Universidade de Aveiro]]
=== B ===
#[[University of Bahrain]]
#[[University of Ballarat]]
#[[University of Baltimore]]
#[[Universitat Bamberg]]
#[[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology|Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology - BUET]]
#[[Universitat de Barcelona]]
#[[Universitat Basel]]
#[[University of the Basque Country]]
#[[University of Bath]]
#[[Universitat Bayreuth]]
#[[Universidade da Beira Interior]]
#[[Univerzitet u Beogradu]]
#[[University of Bergen]] ([[Bergen, Norway]])
#[[University of Berkley]]
#[[University of Berne]]
#[[Universitat Bielefeld]]
#[[Universidad del Bío-Bío]]
#[[University of Birmingham]]
#[[Universitat fur Bodenkultur]]
#[[University of Bonn]]
#[[University of Boras]]
#[[Universite de Bordeaux]]
#[[University of Bradford] |
nstruction may be used to critique deconstruction itself; and since such a reading must utilize deconstruction to be persuasive, its critique of deconstructive techniques would actually be a vindication of them. Such self-negating logic is amusing as wordplay, but it is anathema to non-deconstructive thinkers. Moreover, the apparent inability of deconstructionists to recognize an incoherent and unintelligible parody for what it is does not speak well for their own critical abilities.
Partly as a result of these incidents, critics of deconstruction now see reason to doubt whether is much difference between "real" deconstruction and parodies of it, and whether deconstruction is so unintelligible that it could be done by a machine. In other words, is deconstruction itself a hoax or parody?
Some academics suspected that it was. Ironically, though, some postmodernists insist that the Sokal affair and the Postmodern Generator prove one of the ideas they have been saying all along: that there is no strict binary opposition between a parody and a "serious" academic work, that all academic work is its own parody and all parodies may have serious points to make, and that the reader is not enslaved to the views of the author, even if the author is a machine or does not himself agree with his work. Similar observations have been familiar to academics at least since the publication of Jonathan Swift's satirical essay, "A Modest Proposal" in the Eighteenth Century and are neither controversial nor especially "deconstructive"; but surely it is remarkable (and troubling to many) to find academically tenured deconstructionists proclaiming that their own, ostensibly serious, works presented for peer review are mere "parodies of themselves."
===Lack of seriousness and transparency===
As part of the tradition of [[modern philosophy|modernism]] and [[the Enlightenment]], matters of Western philosophy and literary criticism have generally been framed within a particular standard of formality, transparency, earnestness, rationality, and high-mindedness. As a critique of modernism, however, deconstruction is usually rational at least to an extent; but deconstruction is also critical of Western rationality. Deconstruction tends also to be comparatively opaque, eccentric, playful, imitative, and often crass. As a result, deconstruction takes place on the margins of modernist discourse, which invites criticism by modernists. There is a particular expectation of seriousness in Western philosophy. Therefore, many critics find it silly and uninstructive to analyze Western metaphysics deconstructively through the use of puns, wordplay, poetry, book reviews, fiction, or the analysis of [[pop culture]]. Yet the deconstructionist claim that rationality and coherence are deceptive and manipulative would seem to lead inexorably to such productions in the place of traditional, intelligible argumentation.
In addition, deconstruction sprang in part as a critique of such philosophers as [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Martin Heidegger]]. While the style of Husserl and Heidegger was dense and opaque, Derrida's criticism of their writings was for some readers even more difficult to understand. Similarly, most deconstructive writings are relatively opaque and dense, and are full of not only the terminology of the text being critiqued, but additional neologisms that many find hard to follow. This opaqueness in texts of the broader movements of [[postmodernism]] and [[post-structuralism]] has led to criticism of those movements, and implicitly of deconstruction, by many modernists such as [[Noam Chomsky]], himself a noted linguist, who stated:
:I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of--those condemned here as "science," "rationality," "logic," and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed.
[http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/articles/95-science.html Noam Chomsky on Rationality/Science - From Z Papers Special Issue]
===Anti-essentialist criticism===
Anti-essentialist philosophers, such as [[Richard Rorty]], have criticized Derrida's assertion that essentialism is not a method, but something that is "already, all the time" occurring in texts. Anti-essentialists allege that Derrida's position is close to positing something which is intrinsic to the text, and thus close to positing an "essential" privileged reading of a text. Anti-essentialists still accept the validity of deconstructive readings, but view them as the result of subjective interaction with a text that is one of many possible readings, rather than an excavation of something "within" the text, and should not be privileged as reading the "truth" of the text. However, one might counter that this "reading" of deconstruction is itself a deconstruction, putting the anti-essentialist in the tricky situation of having to admit that his "reading" of deconstruction is not privileged.
===Political criticisms===
Deconstruction has also been criticized for its perceived political stance, in that it is perceived as advocating particular movements or points of view. An argument can be made that deconstruction is apolitical. Indeed, [[Jacques Derrida]] consistently denied any simple political aspect to deconstruction, and his later texts were concerned with complicating the relationship between deconstruction and politics. Despite these denials Derrida made numerous statements supporting the spirit of Marxism, for instance:
"Now these problems of the foreign debt - and everything that is metonymized by this concept - will not be treated without at least the spirit of the Marxist critique, the critique of the market, of the multiple logics of capital, and of that which links the State and international law to this market". Spectres of Marx, 1994.
So différance can also be understood as part of the revolutionary dialectic that destroys the established order to permit the adoption of some new world order. In general the deconstructive writers are much more closely associated with the political left and various elements of academia than with the political right but their work may benefit either faction.
Thus, some critics view deconstruction as means of academic empire-building; they see deconstruction as elevating the practice of reading and deconstructing a text to the same status as the original act of writing the text. For example, critics have taken issue with deconstructive writings which seem to elevate the ''[[criticism]]'' of Western science, metaphysics, and philosophy, such as quantum mechanics and the writings of [[Aristotle]], to the same political status as the original scientific and philosophical writings. This seems to give deconstructive writings a privileged position with respect to other writings. This, critics suggest, is arrogant.
While there are numerous left-leaning political forces at work within [[postmodernism]] as a whole, deconstructive writers such as Derrida argued that deconstruction is not simply political. For example, while deconstruction criticizes the binary opposition between presence and absence, and the tendency to favor presence, deconstruction does not go a step further and advocate absence, or argue that the Western favoritism of presence is simply a bad thing. This further step, deconstructive writers argue, would not be deconstruction at all, but construction or reconstruction. Nor, deconstructive writers argue, does deconstruction necessarily imply an advocacy of one type of text over another. They agree, however, that critics of deconstruction ascribe that stance of advocacy to the deconstructive writer, because (they argue) of the critics' own [[logocentrism]].
Undoubtedly, however, everything that deconstructive writers do is not deconstructive, and deconstructive writers hold political views and take the role of advocating aspects of Western metaphysics. Deconstructive writers do not view this as inconsistent with deconstruction. They do not see a paradox in advocating a point of Western metaphysics with self-conscious irony. Derrida stated, "Deconstruction is not an enclosure in nothingness, but an openness to the other" (Derrida 1984, at 124).
===Criticisms classifying deconstruction as nihilism or relativism===
Critics of deconstruction commonly argue that it denies that authors can have a coherent intention, or that a text can have a particular meaning. They suggest, therefore, that deconstructive analysis is little more than a form of nihilism or extreme relativism.
Deconstructive writers generally disagree that deconstruction is a denial of the existence of meaning and [[authorial intentionality]]. Rather, they say, meaning and authorial intent exist, but Western philosophy has failed to locate them outside the rea |
of leisure creates communities, bringing people of all ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from [[MMORPG]] to [[First-person shooter|first-person shooters]], from [[computer role-playing game|role-playing games]] to [[online gambling]]. This has revolutionized the way many people interact and spend their free time on the Internet.
Online gaming began with services such as [[GameSpy Arcade|GameSpy]] and [[MPlayer.com|MPlayer]], which players of games would typically subscribe to. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of gameplay or certain games. With the release of Diablo by [[Blizzard Entertainment]], gamers were treated to a built in online game service that was free of charge over [[Battle.net]]. With Blizzard's next game, StarCraft, the gaming world saw an explosion in the numbers of players using the Internet to play multi-player games. StarCraft may have been the first non-MMO game in which most players utilized the online gameplay as opposed to the single-player gameplay.
Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. As discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of these, using centralised servers and distributed, peer-to-peer technologies. Discretion is needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists' rights and over copyright laws than others.
Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book holidays and to find out more about their random ideas and casual interests.
People use [[Internet Relay Chat|chat]], [[Instant messaging|messaging]] and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had [[pen pal]]s. Social networking web sites like [[Friends Reunited]] and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their enjoyment.
[[Cyberslacking]] has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spends 57 minutes a day surfing the web at work, according to a study by [[Peninsula Business Services]][http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=914&id=1001802003].
==A complex system==
Many computer scientists see the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system" (Willinger, et al). The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits [[Emergence|"emergent phenomena"]] that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity.
{{section-stub}}
==Marketing==
{{merge|World Wide Web}}
The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost [[advertising]] and [[commerce]] through the Internet; also known as [[e-commerce]]. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast amount of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently revolutionized [[shopping]]—for example; a person can order a [[Compact disc|CD]] online and receive it in the [[mail]] within a couple of days, or [[download]] it directly in some cases. The Internet has also greatly facilitated [[personalized marketing]] which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group of people moreso than any other advertising medium.
{{section-stub}}
==Significant Internet events==
===Malfunctions and attacks===
*[[2003 North America blackout]] - [[August 14]], [[2003]]
*[[SQL slammer (computer worm)|SQL Slammer worm]] - [[January 24]], [[2003]]
*[[2002 DNS Backbone DDoS]] - [[October 22]], [[2002]]
*UUNet/Worldcom backbone difficulties - [[October 3]], [[2002]]
*[[Morris worm]]
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Internet}}
* [[List of Internet topics]]
* [[An internet of things]]
* [[Internet art|Art on the Internet]]
* [[Bogon filtering]]
* [[Catenet]]
* [[Central ad server]]
* [[Cybersex]]
* [[Cyberzine]]
* [[Dark internet]]
* [[Download]]
* [[Internet democracy|Democracy on the Internet]]
* [[Internet dynamics|Dynamics of the Internet]]
* [[E-mail]]
* [[Extranet]]
* [[File Sharing]]
* [[Flaming]]
* [[Internet friendship|Friendship on the Internet]]
* [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]]
* [[Hacktivism]] or [[Hacker culture]]
* [[History of the Internet]]
* [[Internet humor|Humor on the Internet]]
* [[ICANN]]
* [[Instant Messaging]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression eXchange]] - monitors Internet censorship around the world
* [[Internet 2]]
* [[Internet Archive]]
* [[Internet forum]]
* [[Internet pornography]]
* [[Internet Relay Chat]]
* [[Internet Service Provider]]
* [[Internet traffic engineering]]
* [[Internets (colloquialism)]]
* [[Interweb]]
* [[Intranet]]
* [[Modem]]
* [[NANOG]]
* [[Netiquette]]
* [[Network Mapping]]
* [[Online banking]]
* [[Open Directory Project]]
* [[Internet privacy|Privacy on the Internet]]
* [[Search engine]]
* [[Security breach|Security breaches]]
* [[Server]]
* [[TOTSE]]
* [[Internet slang|Slang on the Internet]]
* [[Internet troll|Trolls and trolling]]
* [[Upload]]
* [[Videotex]] - an early communications technology
* [[Web browser]]
* [[Web hosting]]
* [[Web portal]]
* [[WebQuest]]
* [[World Wide Web]]
* [[Web Design]]
==References==
*[http://www.livinginternet.com Living Internet] -- Internet history and related information, including information from many creators of the Internet.
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/ First Monday] peer-reviewed journal on the internet
*Janet Abbate, ''Inventing the Internet'' (Inside Technology (Paperback)), MIT Press 2000, ISBN 0262511150
* Walter Willinger, Ramesh Govindan, Sugih Jamin, Vern Paxson, and Scott Shenker. (2002). Scaling phenomena in the Internet. In ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99'', suppl. 1, 2573 – 2580.
==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.isoc.org/ The Internet Society (ISOC)]
*[http://www.techterms.org/internet.php Internet Dictionary] - Definitions of Internet-related terms
*[http://www.experienced-people.co.uk/1099-webmaster-glossary/ The Alternate Internet Glossary] (Humor)
*[http://www.noslang.com/ Internet Slang Dictionary]
*[http://www.clickz.com/stats/sectors/geographics/article.php/5911_151151 Internet access stats]
*[http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/ Glossary of Computer and Internet Terms]
*[http://scoreboard.keynote.com/scoreboard/Main.aspx?Login=Y&Username=public&Password=public Internet Health Report] from Keynote
*[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats]
*[http://www.itsawonderfulinternet.com/ The Pros and Cons of the Internet] (Humor)
===Articles===
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/29/business/net.php "EU and U.S. clash over control of the Net" - International Herald Tribune article by Tom Wright]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/intro.html "10 Years that changed the world" - WiReD looks back at the evolution of the Internet over last 10 years]
*[http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/net-explained-1.php Internet Explained] Seven part article explaining the origins to the present and a summary for future of the Internet.
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/digital-imprimatur/ John Walker: The Digital Imprimatur]
*[http://www.addressingtheworld.info addressingtheworld.info] - website accompanying a book (ISBN 0742528103) on the history of DNS
*[http://www.illusivecreations.com Canada Web Design] company that offers over 300 [http://www.illusivecreations.com/web-design-articles/ articles].
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm How Stuff Works explanation of the Infrastructure of the Internet]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,64596,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_7 "It's Just the 'internet' Now" - Wired.com article by Tony Long]
===History===
*[http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml The Internet Society History Page]
*[http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt How the Internet Came to Be]
*[http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ Hobbes' Internet Timeline v7.0]
*[http://www.ciolek.com/PAPERS/e-scholarship2000.html Futures and Non-futures for Scholarly Internet. ]
*[http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_history.html History of the Internet links]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc801.txt RFC 801, planning the TCP/IP switchover]
*[http://www.archive.org/ Internet Archive] - A searchable database of old cached versions of websites dating back to 1996
* A list of lectures, some of which relate to the Internet, from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] is available [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Comparative-Media-Studies/CMS-930Media--Education--and-the-MarketplaceFall2001/VideoLectures/index.htm here]. Of particular interest is lecture #3 ''The Next Big Thing: Video Internet'' which is delivered in [[Real Player]] format. The lecture gives a brief history of networking; discusses convergence between the internet/telephone/television networks; the expansion of broadband access; makes predictions about the future of delivery of video over the internet.
[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Digital media]]
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Networks]]
[[af:Internet]]
[[am:ድኅረ ገጽ መረብ]]
[[ar:إنترنت]]
[[ast:Internet]]
[[az:İnternet]]
[[bg:Интернет]]
[[be:Інтэрнэт]]
[[bn:ইন্টারনেট]]
[[bs:Internet]]
[[br:Internet]]
[[ca:Internet]]
[[cs:Internet]]
[[da:Internet]]
[[de:Internet]]
[[et:Internet]]
[[el:Διαδίκτυο]]
[[es:Internet]]
[[eo:Interreto]]
[[eu:Internet]]
[[fa:اینترنت]]
[[fr:Internet]]
[[fy:Ynternet]]
[[fur:Internet]]
[[ga:Idirlíon]]
[[gl:Internet]]
[[ko:인터넷]]
[[hi:इंटरनेट]]
[[hr:Internet]]
[[ilo:Internet]]
[[id:Internet]]
[[ia:Internet]]
[[iu:ᖃᕆᓴᐅᔭᒃᑯᑦ ᑎᑎᕋᖅᓯᒪᔪᑦ]]
[[is:Internetið]]
[[it:Internet]]
[[he:אינטרנט]]
[[kn:ಅಂತರ ಜಾಲ]]
[[csb:Internet]]
[[ku:Î |
was set on [[January 19]], [[1994]].{{ref|temperature}} On average, July is the warmest month with a mean temperature of 71.9 °F (22.2 °C), and January, with a mean temperature of 25.7 °F (&minus;3.5 °C), is the coldest. Normal yearly [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] based on the 30-year average from 1961 to 1990 is 36.6&nbsp;[[inch]]es (930&nbsp;[[1 E-3 m|mm]]).{{ref|rainfall}}
==Demographics==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan="3" bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations{{ref|census2}}
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population !! align="right"| Rank
|-
| colspan="3"|<hr />
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1820|1820]]
| align="right"| 606
|
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1830|1830]]
| align="right"| 1,075
|
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1840|1840]]
| align="right"| 6,071
| align="right"| 67
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1850|1850]]
| align="right"| 17,034
| align="right"| 41
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1860|1860]]
| align="right"| 43,417
| align="right"| 21
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1870|1870]]
| align="right"| 92,829
| align="right"| 15
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1880|1880]]
| align="right"| 160,146
| align="right"| 11
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1890|1890]]
| align="right"| 261,353
| align="right"| 10
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1900|1900]]
| align="right"| 381,768
| align="right"| 7
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1910|1910]]
| align="right"| 560,663
| align="right"| 9
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1920|1920]]
| align="right"| 796,841
| align="right"| 5
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1930|1930]]
| align="right"| 900,429
| align="right"| 6
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1940|1940]]
| align="right"| 878,336
| align="right"| 6
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1950|1950]]
| align="right"| 914,808
| align="right"| 7
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1960|1960]]
| align="right"| 876,050
| align="right"| 8
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1970|1970]]
| align="right"| 750,903
| align="right"| 10
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1980|1980]]
| align="right"| 573,822
| align="right"| 18
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 1990|1990]]
| align="right"| 505,616
| align="right"| 23
|-
| align="center"| [[United States Census, 2000|2000]]
| align="right"| 478,403
| align="right"| 33
|}
As of the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 Census]]{{GR|2}} , there were 478,403 people, 190,638 [[household]]s, and 111,904 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 2,380.9/km&sup2; (6,166.5/mi&sup2;). There were 215,856 housing units at an average density of 1,074.3/km&sup2; (2,782.4/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city was 41.49% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 50.99% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.30% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.35% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.59% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.24% from two or more races. 7.26% of the population was [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. Ethnic groups include [[Germans|German]] (9.2%), [[Irish people|Irish]] (8.2%), [[Poles|Polish]] (4.8%), [[Italian people|Italian]] (4.6%), and [[English people|English]] (2.8%).
[[Image:DSCN4532 clevelandtrueholiness e2.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Built as the Second Church of Christ Scientists, this building on Cleveland's East Side now serves a primarily [[African American]] congregation. Cleveland's diverse cultural populations have left their mark on the city through architecture, especially with many of the older church structures which have new life serving succesor congregations.]]
There were 190,638 households out of which 29.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.5% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 24.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.3% were nonfamilies. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.1% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.19. The population was spread out with 28.5% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 90.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $25,928, and the median income for a family was $30,286. Males had a median income of $30,610 versus $24,214 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $14,291. 26.3% of the population and 22.9% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 37.6% of those under the age of 18 and 16.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
Cleveland was hit hard in the 1960s and early 1970s by [[white flight]] and [[suburbanization]], further exacerbated by the [[desegregation busing|busing-based]] [[desegregation]] of Cleveland schools required by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]. Although busing ended in the 1990s, Cleveland continued to slide into [[poverty]], reaching a nadir in 2004 when it was named the poorest large city in the [[United States]].{{ref|poorest}} The 2005 rankings announced the city had dropped from first in poverty to twelfth, with the rate dropping from 31.3% to 23.2%.{{ref|poorest2}}
==Government and politics==
Cleveland's position as a center of manufacturing established it as a hotbed of union activity early in its history. This contributed to a political [[Progressivism in the United States|progressivism]] that has influenced Cleveland politics to the present. While other parts of Ohio, particularly [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] and the southern portion of the state, have historically supported the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], Cleveland commonly breeds the strongest support in the state for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]; Cleveland's two representatives in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] are Democrats: [[Dennis Kucinich]] and [[Stephanie Tubbs Jones]]. During the [[U.S. Presidential election, 2004|2004 Presidential election]], although [[George W. Bush]] carried Ohio, [[John Kerry]] carried Cuyahoga County, which gave him the strongest support in the state.
The city of Cleveland operates on the [[Mayor-council government#Strong-Mayor Form|mayor-council (strong mayor)]] form of government. The mayor is the [[executive (government)|chief executive]] of the city, and the office is currently held by [[Frank G. Jackson]]. Previous mayors of Cleveland included progressive Democrat [[Tom L. Johnson]], Republican [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[George Voinovich|George V. Voinovich]], two-time Democratic Ohio governor and senator [[Frank J. Lausche]], and [[Carl B. Stokes]], the first [[African American]] mayor of a major city.
{{see also|List of Mayors of Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland City Council|Notable Cleveland politicians}}
==Economy==
[[Image:Cleveland Skyline.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of [[downtown Cleveland]] from [[Lake Erie]].]]
Cleveland's location on the [[Cuyahoga River]] and [[Lake Erie]] proved providential in the growth of the city and its industry. Cleveland experienced explosive growth after the opening of the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]], establishing the city as one of the manufacturing centers of America. [[Steel]] and many other manufactured goods were major industries.
The city was hit hard by the fall of manufacturing, but the city has diversified its economy to include service-based industries. Cleveland is the corporate [[headquarters]] of many large companies such as [[National City Corporation]], [[Eaton Corporation]], [[Forest City Enterprises]], [[Sherwin-Williams Company]], and [[Key Bank|KeyCorp]]. [[NASA]] maintains a facility in Cleveland, the [[Glenn Research Center]]. [[Jones Day]], one of the largest law firms in the world, traces its origins to Cleveland, and its Cleveland office remains the firm's largest.
Cleveland has also become a world leader in [[health care]] and [[health science]]s. The world-famous [[Cleveland Clinic]], the area's largest employer, is one of the highest-ranked hospitals in the United States as tabulated by ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]''.{{ref|ccusnews}} Cleveland's healthcare industry also includes [[University Hospitals of Cleveland]], a noted competitor of the Clinic's which is ranked #18 in cancer research{{ref|uhusnews}}, and [[MetroHealth]] medical center.
Cleveland is emerging as a leader in [[biotechnology]] and [[fuel cell]] research, led by [[Case Western Reserve University]], the Cleveland Clinic, and University Hospitals of Cleveland. Cleveland is now one of the top areas in receiving seed money f |
|| number
|--
| peren || perenn || gellygen || perenn || pear
|--
| scol || skol || ysgol || skol || school
|--
| megy || megi || mygu || mogediñ || (to) smoke
|--
| steren || sterenn || seren || steredenn || star
|--
| hedhyw || hedhyw || heddiw || hiziv || today
|--
| whybana || hwibana || chwibanu || c'hwibanat ||(to) whistle
|}
==Common phrases==
{|
!Cornish
!Pronouciation
!English
|--
|'''Myttin da''' || 'mitten dah' || "good morning"
|--
|'''Dydh da''' || 'dith dah' || "good day"
|--
|}
==See also==
*[[List of Brythonic languages]]
*[[Languages in the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=kw}}
*[http://www.cornish-language-news.org/ An Burow]Cornish Language News Website
*[http://www.cswf.org.uk/index.html Uniting the Cornish language]
*[http://www.cornish-language.org/ Cornish Language Fellowship]
*[http://www.agantavas.org.uk/ Agan Tavas]&mdash;The Society for the Promotion of the Cornish language
*[http://www1.fa.knaw.nl/mercator/regionale_dossiers/regional_dossier_cornish_in_uk.htm Cornish - The Cornish Language in education in the United Kingdom]
*[http://www.bibelkernewek.com/ Bibel Kernewek]Cornish Bible Translation Project
*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Kernewek The >>NEW<< Cornish edition of Wikisource]
*[http://www.evertype.com/celtcong/ International Celtic Congress]
*[http://www.evertype.com/gram/ecd.html English-Cornish Dictionary]
*[http://www.evertype.com/gram/tn.html Testament Noweth]&mdash;New Testament in Cornish
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Cornish-english/ Cornish-English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/cornwall/connected/stories/new_cornwall_language.shtml ''Blas Kernewek'' - A Taste of Cornish] - basic Cornish lessons hosted by [[BBC Cornwall]]
*[http://www.cornishbible.com/ Downloadable Machine Translation of the Entire Bible into Cornish with English Parallel Text]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/cornish.shtml Cornish today] by Kenneth MacKinnon - from the [[BBC]]
==References==
* [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish/GOSW/education.htm Cornish Language Study] - Cornwall County Council survey of Cornish teaching
* [http://www.cornish-language.org/english/faq.asp Cornish Language Fellowship FAQs]
[[Category:Brythonic languages]]
[[Category:Cornish language]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom|Cornish]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]
[[af:Kornies]]
[[als:Kornisch]]
[[ast:Córnicu]]
[[be:Корнская мова]]
[[br:Kerneveureg]]
[[ca:Còrnic]]
[[cs:Kornština]]
[[cy:Cernyweg]]
[[da:Kornisk]]
[[de:Kornisch]]
[[el:Pow Sows]]
[[es:Idioma córnico]]
[[eo:Kornvala lingvo]]
[[eu:Kornuallesera]]
[[fr:Cornique]]
[[ga:Coirnis]]
[[ko:콘월어]]
[[it:Lingua cornica]]
[[he:קורנית (שפה)]]
[[kw:Kernewek]]
[[la:Lingua Cornovica]]
[[li:Cornish]]
[[nl:Cornisch]]
[[ja:コーンウォール語]]
[[no:Kornisk språk]]
[[oc:Cornic]]
[[pl:Język kornijski]]
[[pt:Língua córnica]]
[[ro:Pow Sows]]
[[simple:Cornish language]]
[[fi:Kornin kieli]]
[[sv:Korniska]]
[[zh:康瓦爾語]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complexity theory</title>
<id>6132</id>
<revision>
<id>40508099</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T02:03:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.254.85.19</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Complexity theory''' can refer to more than one thing:
* '''[[Computational complexity theory]]''': a field in [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem.
* The theoretical treatment of '''[[Kolmogorov complexity]]''' of a [[string (computer science)|string]] is studied in [[algorithmic information theory]] by identifying the length of the shortest binary program which can output that string.
* '''[[Systems theory]]''' (or ''systemics'' or ''general systems theory''): an [[interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field including [[engineering]], [[biology]] and [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems.
* '''Complexity Theory''' is sometimes used as a broad term addressing the study of '''[[complex system]]s''', including subjects such as [[chaos theory]], [[artificial life]], and [[genetic algorithm]]s.
* '''Complexity Theory''' as a simplified concept alludes to systems' "sensitive dependence on initial conditions." [eg. the waving of a butterfly's wings today changes weather patterns tomorrow]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charybdis</title>
<id>6134</id>
<revision>
<id>42152838</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:10:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.209.49.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charybdis.PNG|right|Engraving of Charybdis]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Charybdis''', or '''Kharybdis''' ("sucker down", [[Greek language|Greek]] Χάρυβδις), is a [[sea monster]], daughter of [[Poseidon]] and [[Gaia (mythology)]], who swallows huge amounts of water three times a day and then spouts it back out again, forming an enormous whirlpool. She lay on one side of a narrow channel of water.
On the other side of the strait was [[Scylla]], another sea-monster. The two sides of the strait are within an arrow's range of each other, so close that sailors attempting to avoid Charybdis will pass too close to Scylla and vice versa. The phrase ''between Scylla and Charybdis'' has come to mean being in a state where one is between two dangers and moving away from one will cause you to be in danger from the other and may be the genesis of the phrase ''"between a rock and a hard place"'' speaking of the rock upon which Scylla dwelt and the hard place being the whirlpool of Charybdis.
The [[Argonauts]] were able to avoid both dangers because they were guided by [[Thetis]], one of the [[Nereids]]. [[Odysseus]] was not so fortunate; he chose to risk Scylla at the cost of some of his crew rather than lose the whole ship to Charybdis. ([[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', Book XII).
Traditionally, the location of Charybdis has been associated with the [[Strait of Messina]] off the coast of [[Sicily]], opposite the rock called [[Scylla]]. The whirlpool there is caused by the meeting of currents, but is seldom dangerous. Recently scholars have looked again at the location and suggested this association was a misidentification and that a more likely origin for the story could be found close by [[Cape Skilla]] in north west [[Greece]].
Charybdis was originally a sea-[[nymph]] who flooded land to enlarge her father's underwater kingdom, until [[Zeus]] turned her into a [[monster]].
[[category:Greek mythology]][[Category:Nymphs]][[Category:Whirlpools]]
[[bg:Харибда]]
[[de:Charybdis]]
[[el:Χάρυβδη]]
[[es:Caribdis]]
[[fr:Charybde]]
[[it:Cariddi]]
[[lt:Charibdė]]
[[lb:Charybdis]]
[[nl:Charybdis]]
[[sl:Karibda]]
[[fi:Skylla ja Kharybdis]]
[[sv:Karybdis]]
[[uk:Харібда]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carbon monoxide</title>
<id>6136</id>
<revision>
<id>42015856</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:58:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smokefoot</username>
<id>698909</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Chemistry */ reorg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Carbon monoxide
|-
| Other names
| Carbonic oxide<br/>Coal gas
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| CO
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 28.01 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colourless, odourless gas
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| <nowiki>[630-08-0]</nowiki>
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.789 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid<br/>1.250 g/L at 0° C, 1 atm.<br />1.145 g/L at 25° C, 1 atm.<br/>([[lighter than air]])
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| 0.0026 g/100 ml (20 °C)
|-
| in [[ethanol]]<br/>in [[methanol]]
| Soluble
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -205 °C (68 K) <!-- (mention any decomposition) -->
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| -192 °C (81 K)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]]
<!-- for simple covalent molecules (omit for most large molecules, ionics and complexes) -->
| Linear <!-- e.g. trigonal bipyramidal -->
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 0.112 [[Debye|D]] (3.74&times;10<sup>&minus;31</sup> C·m)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information -->
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Highly flammable ('''F+''')<br/>Repr. Cat. 1<br/>Toxic ('''T''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h4.png]][[Image:nfpa_f2.png]][[Image:nfpa_r2.png]]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R61}}, {{R12}}, {{R23}}, {{R48/23}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S53}}, {{S45}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| Flammable gas
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| FG3500000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure & properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&epsilon;<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#The |
>
<title>Culture</title>
<id>6418</id>
<revision>
<id>42085589</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:59:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.180.182.154</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cultures of contemporary countries and regions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[culture (disambiguation)]].}}
The word '''''culture''''', from the [[Latin]] ''colo, -ere'', with its root meaning "to cultivate", generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. Anthropologists most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity is taken as a defining feature of the genus ''[[homo (genus)|Homo]]'', though [[Jane Goodall]] (''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior'', 1986) identified aspects of culture among our closest relatives.
==Defining culture==
Different definitions of ''culture'' reflect different theories for understanding - or criteria for evaluating - human activity.
[[Edward Burnett Tylor |Sir Edward B. Tylor]] wrote in 1871 that "culture or [[civilization]], taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society", while a 2002 document from the United Nations agency [[UNESCO]] states that culture is the "set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, [[lifestyle]]s, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs". [http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml UNESCO, 2002] While these two definitions range widely, they do not exhaust the many uses of this concept - in 1952 [[Alfred L. Kroeber|Alfred Kroeber]] and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of more than 200 different definitions of ''culture'' in their book, ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions'' [Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952].
===Culture as values, norms, and artifacts===
A common way of understanding culture sees it as consisting of three elements:
# [[Value (personal and cultural)|''values'']]
# [[Norm (sociology)|''norms'']]
# [[Artifact (archaeology)|''artifacts'']].
(See ''Dictionary of Modern Sociology'', 1969, 93, cited at [http://www.info.gov.hk/coy/eng/report/doc/Youth_Statistical/2002/app/Chp6_Cultural_Capital.pdf])
Values comprise ideas about what in life seems important. They guide the rest of the culture. Norms consist of expectations of how people will behave in different situations. Each culture has different methods, called ''sanctions'', of enforcing its norms. Sanctions vary with the importance of the norm; norms that a society enforces formally have the status of ''[[law]]s''. Artifacts &mdash; things, or material culture &mdash; derive from the culture's values and norms.
[[Julian Huxley]] gives a slightly different division, into inter-related "mentifacts", "socifacts" and "artifacts", for ideological, sociological, and technological subsystems respectively. Socialization, in Huxley's view, depends on the belief subsystem. The sociological subsystem governs interaction between people. Material objects and their use make up the technological subsystem. [http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~aforsber/ccsf/culture_defined.html]
As a rule, [[archaeology|archeologists]] focus on material culture whereas [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on symbolic culture, although ultimately both groups maintain interests in the relationships between these two dimensions. Moreover, anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded.
===Culture as civilization===
Many people today use a conception of "culture" that developed in [[Europe]] during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This idea of culture then reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts the combined concept with "[[nature]]". According to this thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Thus some cultural theorists have actually tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists like [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis | the Leavises]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world&#8221; (Arnold, 1960: 6); Arnold contrasted culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world". [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html Arnold, 1882]
''Italic text''
In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite | élite]] goods and activities such as ''[[haute cuisine]]'', high fashion or ''[[haute couture]]'', [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. For example, someone who used 'culture' in the sense of 'cultivation' might argue that [[European classical music|classical music]] "is" more refined than music produced by working-class people such as [[punk rock]] or than the indigenous music traditions of aboriginal peoples of [[Australia]].
People who use "culture" in this way tend not to use it in the plural as "cultures". They do not believe that distinct cultures exist, each with their own internal [[logic]] and [[Value (personal and cultural)|value]]s; but rather that only a single standard of refinement suffices, against which one can measure all groups. Thus, according to this [[worldview]], people with different customs from those who regard themselves as cultured do not usually count as "having a different culture"; but class as "uncultured". People lacking "culture" often seemed more "natural", and observers often defended (or criticized) elements of [[high culture]] for repressing "[[human nature]]".
From the 18th century onwards, some social critics have accepted this contrast between cultured and uncultured, but have stressed the interpretation of refinement and of sophistication as corrupting and unnatural developments which obscure and distort people's essential nature. On this account, [[folk music]] (as produced by working-class people) honestly expresses a natural way of life, and classical music seems superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrays non-[[Western culture|Western]] people as '[[noble savage]]s' living [[authenticity (philosophy)|authentic]] unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly-stratified [[capitalism | capitalist]] systems of [[western culture | the West]].
Today most social scientists reject the [[monadic]] conception of culture, and the opposition of culture to [[nature (innate) | nature]]. They recognize non-[[élite]]s as just as cultured as élites (and non-Westerners as just as civilized) - simply regarding them as just cultured in a different way. Thus social observers contrast the '''"high" culture''' of élites to [[Popular culture|'''"popular" or pop culture''']], meaning goods and activities produced for, and consumed by, non-élite people or the [[proletariat|masses]]. (Note that some classifications relegate both [[high culture|high]] and [[low culture|low cultures]] to the status of [[subculture]]s.)
===Culture as worldview===
During the [[Romantic era]], scholars in [[Germany]], especially those concerned with [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements - such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] - developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "[[worldview]]". In this mode of thought, a distinct and incommensurable world view characterizes each ethnic group. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures.
By the late 19th century, [[anthropology|anthropologists]] had adopted and adapted the term ''culture'' to a broader definition that they could apply to a wider variety of societies. Attentive to the theory of [[evolution]], they assumed that all human beings evolved equally, and that the fact that all humans have cultures must in some way result from human evolution. They also showed some reluctance to use biological evolution to explain differences between specific cultures - an approach that either exemplified a form of, or legitimized forms of, [[racism]]. They believed that biological evolution would produce a most inclusive notion of culture, a concept that anthropologists could apply equally to non-literate and to literate societies, or to nomadic and to sedentary societies. They argued t |
esses knowledge which normally can be gained only through prior experience with that employer; or possesses knowledge of a product or process which cannot be easily transferred or taught to another individual.
====TN Visa (TN-1) for Canadians/Mexicans to work in the United States====
'''General Information about TN Status'''
Since the effective date of January 1, 1994, (NAFTA) facilitates travel to and employment in the United States (U.S.) of certain Canadian and Mexican workers. NAFTA created TN classification for eligible Canadian and Mexican professional workers and affected terms of Canadians’ admissions to the U.S. under other classifications.
A TN position must require services of a NAFTA professional whose profession is noted in Appendix 1603.D.1 (see attached Appendix 1603.D.1); the TN employee must possess the credentials required as well as proof of qualifying citizenship. TN status allows unlimited multiple entries to the U.S. for the period of service required by the U.S. employer (includes foreign employers), up to a maximum of one year, extendible indefinitely as long as the temporary purpose of the employment continues.
There is no annual limit on Canadians granted TN status.
'''Self-Employment in the U.S. Not Permitted'''
TN: Members of Appendix 1603.D.1 professions who are self-employed outside the U.S. may pursue business relationships from outside the U.S. (e.g. contracts for services) with U.S.-based companies and obtain TN status to engage in these prearranged activities in the U.S. However, under TN classification an alien is not permitted to come to the United States to engage in self-employment in the United States, nor to render services to a corporation or other entity in which he/she is a controlling owner or shareholder.
Other NAFTA Admissions Categories
Nationals Canada and Mexico may also seek admission as B-1 (business visitor), E-1 (treaty trader), E-2 (treaty investor), or L-1 (intra-company transferee) nonimmigrants under NAFTA. This bulletin does not address those alternatives.
'''TN Processing and Admissions Procedure'''
Canadians may apply for TN-1 classification directly at a U.S. Class “A” port-of-entry, at a U.S. airport handling international traffic, or at a U.S. pre-flight/pre-clearance station in Canada1. Documentation must include:
*Proof of Canadian citizenship,
*$50 filing fee,
*Proof of required Appendix 1603.D credentials; and
*Letter from U.S. employer (or a sending employer in Canada) describing nature and duration of professional employment and salary/wages in the U.S2.
Canadian citizens are visa exempt and do not need consular visas to travel or apply for admission to the U.S. TN-1 applicants at land ports-of-entry must also pay a modest I-94 fee.
TN-2 non-immigrants from Mexico must be approved beneficiaries of I-129 petitions filed by prospective US employers and approved by the Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services’ Nebraska Service Center. Documentation must include:
*Proof of Mexican citizenship,
*Form ETA-90353 Labor Condition Attestation (LCA) certified by the US Labor Department,
*$130 filing fee,
*Proof of the purpose for entry, and proof of participation in a permitted NAFTA professional activity.
Mexicans applying for admission to the US under TN-2 classification must obtain visas at US consulates. Note that the above requirements will sunset on December 31, 2003. On and after January 1, 2004, Mexican TNs will file the necessary paperwork with a Department of State Consulate in Mexico in order to receive a TN visa. Visit the Department of State web site for more information on the procedures Mexican citizens must follow in order to obtain a TN visa.
'''Family Members'''
Spouses and unmarried children under 21 of Canadian and Mexican professionals obtain TD status. They can be included on the application of the TN principal (no separate filing fees) and admitted for the same duration of stay. TD nonimmigrants may study in the US under this classification, but are not authorized for employment. Canadian dependents’ eligibility may be adjudicated at a US port-of-entry. Although Mexican family members are automatically included in TN petitions filed at the Nebraska Service Center, they must file separate application for TD visas at US consulates.
Note: Dependents are not required to be Canadian or Mexican citizens.
====K Visas for immediate relatives====
Even though these visas are issued to people who have the intent to immigrate permanently to the United States, they are still technically classified as nonimmigrant visas (temporary). U.S. [[citizens]] may petition the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] for a K temporary visa for fiancé(e)s, spouses and unmarried dependent children of said fiancé(e)s and spouses. In the case of fiancé(e)s, the K-1 visa will allow them to stay in the U.S. for 90 days to marry the petitioning citizen and apply for adjustment of status to legal permanent resident. If the marriage is not concluded within that time, the fiancé(e) will be subjected to [[removal proceedings]]. In the case of spouses, the K-3 visa is valid for two years and may be extended indefinitely as long as the marriage on which it is based is not dissolved. The holders of K-3 and K-4 status are eligible for work authorization and may leave and re-enter the United States as long as their visas are still valid.
====V Visas and LIFE act for Spouses of Legal Permanent Residents (Green Card Holders)====
Unification of Legal Permanent Residents, (LPRs, a.k.a. Green Card Holders) with their spouses continues to stay under the Radar Screens of policy makers. The issue of Lawful Permanent Residents torn from their families for years is not a new problem. A mechanism to unite families of LPRs was created by the Legal Immigration Family Equity Act of 2000 (the LIFE Act) by the introduction of a 'V Visa,' signed into law by President Bush. Unfortunately, it effectively expired and is no longer available.
Legal Permanent Residents who have opted to get married to foreigners are unable to be united with their spouses and young families. The foreign spouse of a US Green Card holder must wait for approval of an 'immigrant visa' from the State Department before entering the US. Due to a backlog in processing, such visas can take a upwards of five years to be approved. In the interim, the spouse cannot enter the US on any other visas, or as visitors. LPRs are in a uniquely disadvantaged situation:
* Visitors and non-immigrants coming to the US on temporary visas for work, business or studies (including on H1, L1, B, and F1 visas) can sponsor their dependant spouses to travel along with them.
* American Citizens can sponsor their spouses to come to the US in non-immigrant status and then convert to an immigrant status under the Legal Immigration and Family Equity Act (the "LIFE Act")
===Adjustment of Status===
'''Adjustment of status''' is the final step of what is commonly called the [[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]] process, i.e. that of becoming a legal permanent resident. It requires that the foreign national in question file an I-485 Application for Adjustment of Status, most often based on a preexisting and approved or approvable I-140 Immigrant Petition for Alien Worker or I-130 Petition for Alien Relative. Due to comprehensive immigration reform in 2002, I-485 applications and I-130 or I-140 petitions may be filed concurrently given the immediate availability of an immigrant visa number. The application must be filed with an I-693 Medical Examination of Alien issued by a licensed Civil Surgeon and a G-325A Biographic Information form, which documents provide a complete medical and immunological history as well as a record of the foreign national's places of employment and residence for the last five years. The USCIS then sets a date for the foreign national to have their fingerprints, picture and signature recorded for their FBI background check and entry in the USCIS database. An interview with an USCIS officer is required in the vast majority of cases.
A pending adjustment of status application entitles the applicant to work and travel authorization in the forms of an Employment Authorization Document (EAD) card and Advance Parole documents that must be renewed on a yearly basis. The application may be considered abandoned if the applicant does not attend a biometrics appointment or interview. Applications may also be denied for any of the following reasons:
# The underlying immigrant petition is denied or withdrawn
# The applicant is found to have entered or resided in the United States illegally (although this is waived for one who originally entered with a valid visa and is an immediate relative of the US citizen-petitioner)
# The applicant is judged as undesirable on the grounds of prior criminal convictions, affiliation with unsuitable political parties or organizations (e.g. former members of the [[Communist Party]]), poor character or debilitating health problems, as well as other grounds.
If an adjustment application is approved, a permanent residency card ([[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]]) valid for ten years is issued to the applicant. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) are free to work and reside in the United States and may leave and re-enter without a visa although they are required to present the green card at the port-of-entry to an immigration officer. After five years LPRs are eligible to apply for [[naturalization]], except that an LPR who obtained the green card through marriage may apply for naturalization after three years if he or she is still living with the same spouse who originally filed the petition for the LPR.
===Political asylum===
In contrast to economic refugees, who generally do not gain legal admission, other classes of refugees can gain legal status through a process of seeking and receiving [[re |
ly as their 1809 treaty with [[Shuja Shah]]. It was the threat of the expanding [[Russian Empire]] beginning to push for an advantage in the Afghanistan region that placed pressure on British India, in what became known as the "Great Game". The Great Game set in motion the confrontation of the British and Russian empires &mdash; whose [[spheres of influence]] moved steadily closer to one another until they met in Afghanistan. It also involved Britain's repeated attempts to impose a puppet government in Kabul. The remainder of the nineteenth century saw greater European involvement in Afghanistan and her surrounding territories and heightened conflict among the ambitious local rulers as Afghanistan's fate played out globally.
The debacle of the Afghan civil war left a vacuum in the [[Hindu Kush]] area that concerned the British, who were well aware of the many times in history it had been employed as the invasion route to India. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, it became clear to the British that the major threat to their interests in India would not come from the fragmented Afghan empire, the [[Iran|Iranians]], or the [[France|French]], but from the [[Russian Empire|Russians]], who had already begun a steady advance southward from the [[Caucasus]].
At the same time, the Russians feared permanent British occupation in [[Central Asia]] as the British encroached northward, taking the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], and [[Kashmir]]. The British viewed Russia's absorption of the Caucasus, the [[Kirghiz]] and [[Turkmen]] lands, the [[Khanate of Khiva]], and the [[Emirate of Bukhara]] with equal suspicion as a threat to their interests in the Indian subcontinent.
In addition to this rivalry between Britain and Russia, there were two specific reasons for British concern over Russia's intentions. First was the Russian influence at the Iranian court, which prompted the Russians to support Iran in its attempt to take [[Herat]], historically the western gateway to Afghanistan and northern India. In 1837 Iran advanced on Herat with the support and advice of Russian officers. The second immediate reason was the presence in Kabul in 1837 of a Russian agent, Captain [[P. Vitkevich]], who was ostensibly there, as was the British agent Alexander Burnes, for commercial discussions.
The British demanded that Dost Mohammad sever all contact with the Iranians and Russians, remove Vitkevich from Kabul, surrender all claims to Peshawar, and respect Peshawar's independence as well as that of Kandahar, which was under the control of his brothers at the time. In return, the British government intimated that it would ask Ranjit Singh to reconcile with the Afghans. When Auckland refused to put the agreement in writing, Dost Mohammad turned his back on the British and began negotiations with Vitkevich.
In 1838 Auckland, Ranjit Singh, and Shuja signed an agreement stating that Shuja would regain control of Kabul and Kandahar with the help of the British and Sikhs; he would accept Sikh rule of the former Afghan provinces already controlled by [[Ranjit Singh]], and that Herat would remain independent. In practice, the plan replaced Dost Mohammad with a British figurehead whose autonomy would be as limited as that of other Indian princes.
It soon became apparent to the British that Sikh participation &mdash; advancing toward Kabul through the Khyber Pass while Shuja and the British advanced through Kandahar &mdash; would not be forthcoming. Auckland's plan in the spring of 1838 was for the Sikhs &mdash; with British support &mdash; to place Shuja on the Afghan throne. By summer's end, however, the plan had changed; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja.
== The First Anglo-Afghan War ==
''Main article: [[First Anglo-Afghan War]]''
To justify his plan, [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]] issued the [[Simla Manifesto]] in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for [[British Empire|British]] intervention in [[Afghanistan]]. The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of [[India]], the British must have a trustworthy ally on India's western frontier. The British pretense that their troops were merely supporting [[Shuja Shah|Shah Shuja's]] small army in retaking what was once his throne fooled no one. Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja's rule depended entirely on British arms to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs. The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were merely supporting its legitimate Shuja government "against foreign interference and factious opposition".
From the British point of view, the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838&ndash;42) (often called "Auckland's Folly") was an unmitigated disaster, despite the ease with which Dost Mohammad was deposed and Shuja enthroned. An army of British and Indian troops set out from the Punjab in December 1838 and reached [[Quetta]] by late March 1839. A month later, the British took [[Kandahar]] without a battle. In July, after a two-month delay in Kandahar, the British attacked the fortress of [[Ghazni]], overlooking a plain leading to India, and achieved a decisive victory over Dost Mohammad's troops led by one of his sons. Dost Mohammad fled with his loyal followers across the passes to [[Bamian]], and ultimately to [[Bukhara]]. In August 1839, after almost thirty years, Shuja was again enthroned in Kabul. Some British troops returned to India, but it soon became clear that Shuja's rule could only be maintained with the presence of British forces. After he unsuccessfully attacked the British and their Afghan protégé, Dost Mohammad surrendered to them and was exiled in India in late 1840.
By October 1841, however, disaffected Afghan tribes were flocking to support Dost Mohammad's son, [[Akbar Khan|Mohammad Akbar Khan]], in Bamian. In November 1841 a senior British officer, Sir [[Alexander Burnes|Alexander 'Sekundar' Burnes]], and his aides were killed by a mob in Kabul. The substantial remaining British forces in their cantonment just outside Kabul did nothing immediately. In the following weeks the British commanders [[Major-General William Elphinstone|General William Elphinstone]] and [[William Hay Macnaghten|McNaghten]] tried to negotiate with Mohammad Akbar, but at a meeting McNaghten was killed. On [[January 1]], [[1842]] following some unusual thinking by Elphinstone an agreement was reached that provided for the safe exodus of the British garrison and its dependents from Afghanistan. Five days later, the retreat began, and as they struggled through the snowbound passes, the British were attacked by [[Ghilzai]] warriors. The British column of more than 16,000-strong (consisting of about 4,500 military personnel, both British and Indian, along with as many as 12,000 camp followers) was massacred in the 30 miles of treacherous gorges and passes lying between Kabul and [[Gandomak]].
Lady Butler's famous painting of Dr [[William Brydon]], reportedly the sole survivor, gasping his way to the British outpost in [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]], helped make Afghanistan's reputation as a graveyard for foreign armies and became one of the great epics of Empire. His British protectors gone, Shuja remained in power only a few months before being assassinated in April 1842.
Contrary to Afghan myth, about three quarters of the 16,000 who died in the passes between Kabul and Gandomak were civilians, mainly unarmed women and children. There were only 700 British soldiers and another 3,800 Indian troops.
The complete destruction of the garrison prompted brutal retaliation by the British against the Afghans and touched off yet another power struggle for dominance of Afghanistan. In the fall of 1842, British forces from Kandahar and Peshawar entered Kabul just long enough to rescue the few British prisoners and burn the Great Bazaar. Although the foreign invasion provided the Afghan tribes with a temporary sense of unity they had previously lacked, the loss of life and property was followed by a bitter resentment of foreign influence.
The Russians advanced steadily southward toward Afghanistan in the three decades after the First Anglo-Afghan War. In 1842 the Russian border was on the other side of the [[Aral Sea]] from Afghanistan, but five years later the tsar's outposts had moved to the lower reaches of the [[Amu Darya]]. By 1865 [[Tashkent]] had been formally annexed, as was [[Samarkand]] three years later. A peace treaty in 1868 with Amir [[Muzaffar al-Din]], the ruler of Bukhara, virtually stripped him of his independence. Russian control now extended as far as the northern bank of the Amu Darya.
== The Second Anglo-Afghan War ==
[[Image:AfghanWarIllustration1878.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Kabul expeditionary force on the march: Quarter Guard of the 3rd Goorkhas. Nov. 30, 1878.]]
After months of chaos in [[Kabul]], [[Mohammad Akbar Khan]] secured local control and in April 1843 his father, Dost Mohammad, returned to the throne in Afghanistan. Mohammad Akbar died in 1845. During the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] (1848&ndash;49), his last effort to take [[Peshawar]] failed.
By 1854 the [[British Empire|British]] wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years. The 1855 [[Treaty of Peshawar]] reopened diplomatic relations, proclaimed respect for each side's territorial integrity, and pledged both sides as friends of each other's friends and enemies of each other's enemies.
In 1857 an addendum to the 1855 treaty permitted a British military mission to become a presence in [[Kandahar]] (but not to Kabul) during a conflict with the [[Iran|Iranians]], who had attacked [[Herat]] in 1856. In 1863 Dost Mohammad retook Herat with British acquiescence. A |
her pupils, he did not embrace [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] but early in life became indifferent to the faith. Later he seemed to belong to the [[Greek Orthodox]] faith, to which most of the Cossacks and the [[Ruthenian]] [[peasants]] belonged. He had two sons - [[Yuriy Khmelnytsky|Yuriy]] and [[Tymofiy Khmelnytsky|Tymofiy]] (Tymish). He was deprived of his estate of [[Subotiv]] by [[Daniel Czapliński]], the [[bailiff]] of Chyhyryn. At this time he was still in the subordinate position of a "sotski" (an officer over a ''sotnia'', or hundred cavalrymen) of the [[Registered Cossacks]], subject to the Polish [[magnate]] [[Stanislaw Koniecpolski|Stanisław Koniecpolski]]. With Koniecpolski he took part in the disastrous [[Battle of Cecora]] in [[1620]]. Czapliński availed himself of Khmelnytsky's absence to raid the estate, during which Khmelnytsky's young son Yuriy received injuries from which he ultimately died, and Khmelnytsky's second wife was carried off.
=== Cossack leader ===
As one of Czyhrynian and Zaporozhian [[Cossacks]], he fought against Turks and Tatars in 1625-1630.
He also participated in the Cossack rebellions of 1632 and 1637.
In October 1645 he was invited to France by Cardinal Jules [[Mazarin]] with two regiments of Cossacks to participate in the war against Spain. Due to his military skills [[Dunkirk]] was taken by assault in two days.
=== The Uprising ===
''Main article: [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]''
[[Image:Bohdan Chmielnicki z Tuhaj Bejem pod Lwowem Matejko.JPG|280px|left|thumb|" Bohdan Chmielnicki with [[Tugay Bey]] (Tuhaj Bej) at [[Lwów]]", oil on canvas by [[Jan Matejko]], 1885, National Museum in [[Warsaw]]. [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] 1648-1654]]
For centuries after the creation of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], the [[Orthodox]] people of [[Ruthenia]] had felt oppressed by the Polish nobles, [[Catholic]] priests and [[Jew]]ish traders. Although [[Ruthenian]] [[nobility]] enjoyed full rights, they were quickly [[polonize]]d and therefore were alienated from the common people; the advent of the [[Counter-Reformation]] worsened the relationship between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. Unwilling to attend to the details of administration themselves, Polish [[magnate]]s made [[Jew]]ish traders their go-betweens in transactions with the [[peasants]] of [[Ukraine]]. The magnates sold and leased certain privileges to the [[Jew]]s for a lump sum and, while enjoying themselves at their courts, left it to the Jewish leaseholders and collectors to become objects of hatred to the oppressed and long-suffering peasants. Although Khmelnytsky's personal resentment influenced his ultimate decision to rid Ukraine of Polish domination, it seems that his ambition to secure the Nobles' privileges and the Cossacks' independence, was the main motive that led him to instigate an uprising of the [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian people]] against them, known after him as the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]].
Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews". With this as their battle-cry, the Cossacks killed a large number of Jews during the years 1648&ndash;1649. The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 50,000 to 200,000, which also includes deaths from diseases and Tatar imprisonment.
These events also initiated a series of campaigns (which began the period in Polish history known as [[The Deluge]]) that temporarily freed [[Ukraine]] from Polish domination but in time subjected it to Russian domination. Successes at [[Battle of Yellow Waters|Zhovti Vody]], [[Battle of Korsun]] and [[Battle of Pilavtsi]] (respectively, in Polish, Żółte Wody, Korsuń, and Piławce) against Hetman [[Mikolaj Potocki|Mikołaj Potocki]] led to the Polish king giving royal recognition for the contentious privileges under the [[Treaty of Zborov]]. Hostilities resumed when the Sejm refused to recognise the provisions of the treaty. After Khmelnytsky's forces were betrayed by their former allies, the [[Tatars]], they suffered a massive defeat in [[1651]] at the [[Battle of Beresteczko]], and were forced at [[Bila Tserkva]] to accept a loser's treaty. A year later, the Cossacks had their revenge at the [[Battle of Batoh]]. Ukraine was still perilously weak, and in [[1654]] Khmelnytsky persuaded the Cossacks to ally with the Russian tsar in the [[Treaty of Pereyaslav]], which eventually led to the incorporation of the [[Left-bank Ukraine]] into [[Russia]].
== Khmelnytsky in Fiction == [[Image:Kiev khmelnitsky.jpg|thumb|300px|Khmelnytsky Monument in downtown Kiev (19th-century photo)]]
[[Sholem Asch]] wrote about Kmelnytsky's cossack war in his book ''[[Al Kiddush Hashem: A Novel of 1648]]'' which describes the massacres of the Jews in horrific detail.
In Poland, Khmelnytsky's war was described in the [[19th century]] by [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] in his famous novel, ''[[With Fire and Sword]] (Ogniem i mieczem)''. This book was written with a clearly stated intent of raising the national spirit in [[partitions of Poland|partitioned Poland]], and shows the story of Khmelnytsky and the Cossacks from the point of view of the Polish nobles ([[szlachta]]), thus glorifying the Polish side while vilifying the rebels. After Poland was subsumed within the Russian empire, attempts were made to recast Khmelnytsky as an archetype of the freedom loving Pole. Similar efforts to claim Khmelnytsky's heritage were made under the Soviet Union, where Khmelnytsky was recast as a historical leader of proletarian revolution.
In 1999 a Polish movie was made based on ''[[With Fire and Sword]] (Ogniem i mieczem)'', which portrayed a more realistic image of Khmelnytsky, as a complex man and Ukrainian leader with a deep personality who sought justice for the wrongs committed against him. Thus the movie tried to overcome somewhat negative views presented in the original book. It was well received by both Polish and Ukrainian audience.
==See also==
*[[Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky]], a [[military decoration]] in [[Soviet Union]] and [[Ukraine]]
*[[Bogdan Khmelnitsky Bridge]] in [[Moscow]]
==External links==
* [http://sumy.net.ua/History/map/12!.php Cossack State after 1649 (map)]
[[Category:Jewish history|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:Cossacks|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:History of Ukraine|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:1657 deaths|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitic people|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[de:Bohdan Chmelnyzkyj]]
[[fr:Bohdan Chmielnicki]]
[[he:בוגדן חמלניצקי]]
[[hu:Bogdan Hmelnyickij]]
[[ja:ボフダン・フメリニツキー]]
[[pl:Bohdan Chmielnicki]]
[[ru:Хмельницкий, Богдан Михайлович]]
[[fi:Bohdan Hmelnytskyi]]
[[uk:Хмельницький Богдан]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Boris Yeltsin</title>
<id>4981</id>
<revision>
<id>41691163</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:15:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emre D.</username>
<id>665265</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41056374 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=Boris Yeltsin
| nationality=not-american
| image=Byeltsin.jpg
| order=1st [[President of Russia]]
| term_start=[[July 10]], [[1991]]
| term_end=[[December 31]], [[1999]]
| predecessor=None
| successor=[[Vladimir Putin]]
| birth_date=[[February 1]], [[1931]]
| birth_place=Butka, [[Sverdlovsk Oblast|Sverdlovsk]], <br>[[Soviet Union]]
| dead=alive
| death_date=
| death_place=
| spouse=[[Naina Yeltsina]]
| party=None
| vicepresident=
}}
{{Redirect|Yeltsin}}
'''Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Борис Николаевич Ельцин; {{Audio|ru-Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin.ogg|listen}}) (born [[February 1]], [[1931]]) was [[President of Russia]] from [[1991]] to [[1999]].
==Early life==
Boris Yeltsin was born to a peasant family in Butka village, Talitsa district, [[Sverdlovsk Oblast|Sverdlovsk region]]. His father, Nikolai Yeltsin, was convicted of anti-Soviet agitation in 1934 and served in a [[gulag]] for three years. After his release he remained unemployed for a while and then worked in construction. His mother, Klavdiya Vasilyevna Yeltsina, worked as a seamstress.
Yeltsin studied at [[Pushkin High School]] in Berezniki, [[Perm]] region. He studied well, and during the whole stay at school he was the class leader (староста). However, he had problems with discipline. He participated in street fights and he was constantly in conflict with someone: teachers at school, his father. In these conflicts he often came out a winner. Thus, when his 7-year education attestation was revoked, he demanded that a committee was formed to invistigate this case and eventually had the attestation given back to him and the teacher responsible for revokation fired. He passed the 10-year education exams without taking the full course.
He was fond of sports: [[skiing]], [[gymnastics]], [[volleyball]], [[track and field]], [[boxing]], [[wrestling]], despite losing two fingers in a childhood accident (said to have been the result of playing with a live grenade).
Yeltsin received higher education at the [[Ural Polytechnic Institute]] in [[Sverdlovsk]], majoring in [[construction]], and graduated in [[1955]]. The theme of his degree paper was "Television Tower."
In 1955-1957 he worked as a foreman at the building trust Uraltyazhtrubstroi. In 1957-1963 he worked in Sverdlovsk,and he was promoted from construction site superintendent to chief of the Construction Directorate with the Yuzhgorstroi Trust. In 1963 he became chief engineer, and in 1965, head of the Sverdlovsk House-Building Combine. He joined the ranks of [[CPSU]] [[nomenclatura]] in 1968 when he was appointed head of construction with the Sverdlovsk Regional Party Committee. In 1975, he became secretary of the regiona |
[[prison]]s. In the US in the [[1980s]], there was a return back to institutionalization and less strict commitment laws. However, Michael L. Perlin<sup>3</sup> has claimed that throughout this entire period psychiatrists have frequently and as a practice committed [[perjury]] during commitment hearings in order to make it more likely that a patient they believe would benefit from commitment will be committed. [[E. Fuller Torrey]], a prominent proponent of involuntary commitment, has stated:
:''It would probably be difficult to find any American Psychiatrist working with the mentally ill who has not, at a minimum, exaggerated the dangerousness of a mentally ill person's behavior to obtain a judicial order for commitment . . . Thus, ignoring the law, exaggerating symptoms, and outright lying by families to get care for those who need it are important reasons the mental illness system is not even worse than it is.''
Dr. Torrey also quotes Psychiatrist Paul Applebaum as saying when "confronted with psychotic persons who might well benefit from treatment, and who would certainly suffer without it, mental health professionals and judges alike were reluctant to comply with the law," noting that in "'the dominance of the commonsense model,' the laws are sometimes simply disregarded."<sup>4</sup>
The general trend worldwide remains one of closing large mental hospitals, increasing the integration of psychiatric treatment into general hospitals and of increasing community care at times using [[outpatient commitment|involuntary community treatment]] where in the past involuntary admission would have been used. Despite this trend, and given the limitations of current treatment regimes, some involuntary admissions will continue for more severe conditions.
==United Nations==
[[United Nations]] [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly]] resolution 46/119 of [[1991]], "Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care" is a non-binding resolution advocating certain broadly-drawn procedures for the carrying-out of involuntary commitment. These principles have been used in many countries where local laws have been revised or new ones implemented. The UN runs programs in some countries to assist in this process.
==United States==
Involuntary commitment is governed by state law and procedures vary from state to state, under laws often called [[mental hygiene]] laws. Involuntary commitment is typically used against people diagnosed with, or alleged to have, a [[mental illness]], particularly [[schizophrenia]]. It should be noted that, at least in some [[jurisdiction]]s, laws regarding the commitment of [[juvenile]]s may vary, with what is the ''de facto'' involuntary commitment of a juvenile perhaps ''de jure'' defined as "voluntary" if his [[parents]] agree (though he may still have a right to protest and attempt to get released).
An example of involuntary commitment procedures is the [[Baker Act]] used by the state of [[Florida]]. Under this law, a person may be committed only if he or she presents a danger to himself or others. A [[police]] officer may issue an emergency commitment order which lasts for up to 72 hours. Within this time, a person must appear before a judge who can extend the commitment. The Baker Act also requires that all commitment orders be reviewed every six months in addition to insuring certain rights to the committed including the right to contact outsiders. Also, a person under an involuntary commitment order has a right to counsel and a right to have the state provide a public defender if they cannot afford a private lawyer.
===Controversy===
(Of particular concern to some civil libertarians is the acknowledged role of the [[United States Secret Service]] in obtaining involuntary psychiatric hospitalizations of those it believes to be a danger to protectees, without any claim that these "dangerous" individuals are "mentally ill.") Though few would argue that under no circumstances should a psychiatric patient be held against his will, exceptions to this have included [[Lawrence Stevens]], an attorney who has argued that involuntary commitment is a violation of [[substantive due process]] under the United States Constitution (see link at end of article); and most believers in the theory of [[reality enforcement]]; the [[Libertarian Party]] also opposes the practice in its platform.[http://www.lp.org/issues/platform/platform_all.html] [[Surrealism]] has also categorically opposed involuntary commitment, and many Western [[Marxism|Marxists]] have also opposed the practice. Dr. [[Thomas Szasz]] has also been prominent in challenging involuntary commitment (see [[anti-psychiatry]]).
A small number of individuals in the United States have opposed involuntary commitment in those cases in which the diagnosis forming the justification for the involuntary commitment rests, or the individuals say it rests, on the [[speech]] or [[writing]]s of the person committed, saying that to deprive him of liberty based in whole or part on such speech and writings violates the [[First Amendment]]. Other individuals have opposed involuntary commitment on the bases that they claim (despite the amendment generally being held to apply only to criminal cases) it violates the [[Fifth Amendment]] in a number of ways, particularly its privilege against self-incrimination, as the psychiatrically-examined individual may not be free to remain silent, and such silence may actually be used as "proof" of his "mental illness".[http://www.szasz.com/undergraduate/wadzuk.pdf] (This criticism has motivated the creation, in some jurisdictions, of a similar statutory privilege in this context.) There have also been claims that conditions in, or "treatments" commonly performed in, mental hospitals to which individuals are involuntarily committed constitute [[torture]], or are prohibited by the [[Convention Against Torture]].[http://psychrights.org/index.htm] While the overwhelming majority of this opposition has been nonviolent or even self-consciously based on the principles of [[nonviolence]], there have been isolated examples of violence, including [[sabotage]] arguably directed against involuntary commitment.
The mainstream debate has for the most part, however, regarded only the procedures of involuntary commitment. Until the [[1960s]], legal safeguards against involuntary commitment were lax and this led to a number of horror stories of people with no mental illness being trapped in an institution.
===Use with criminals===
In the [[1990s]], a novel and extremely controversial use of involuntary commitment laws known as "Mentally Abnormal Sexually Violent Predator" laws were enacted in order to hold sex offenders after their terms have expired. (This is generally referred to as "civil commitment," not "involuntary commitment," although, perhaps confusingly, involuntary commitment in general is sometimes referred to as "civil commitment".) Supporters claim that this is a valid use of involuntary commitment laws, while opponents claim that this is a potentially extremely dangerous way of bypassing the safeguards in the criminal justice system. This matter has been the subject of a number of cases before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], most notably ''Kansas v. Hendricks'' and ''Kansas v. Crane''.
===Community based treatment===
Accompanying deinstitutionalization was the development of laws expanding the power of courts to order people to take psychiatric medication on an outpatient basis. Though the practice had occasionally occurred earlier, [[outpatient commitment]] was used for many people who would otherwise have been involuntarily committed. The court orders often specified that a person who violated the court order and refused to take the medication would be subject to involuntary commitment.
===Conservatorship===
Involuntary commitment is distinguished from [[conservatorship]], which was used by [[deprogramming|deprogrammers]] as a legal means to hold alleged [[cult]] victims against their will while talking them out of their faith. In hundreds of cases documented by attorney Jeremiah Gutman, deprogrammers were able to obtain conservatorship orders without having to bring the subject of the order before a judge.
===Advance psychiatric directives===
Advance psychiatric directives may have a bearing on involuntary commitment.[http://bipolar.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bazelon.org%2Fadvdir.html]
==Australia==
[[Australia]] is used as an example of a country where court hearings are not required for involuntary commitment. Mental health law is [[constitution]]ally under the state powers. Each state thus has different laws, many of which have been updated in recent years.
===Mechanisms===
The usual requirement is that a police officer or a doctor may determine that a person requires a psychiatric examination and may convey them, or have them conveyed to a [[psychiatric hospital]] for that purpose. Once at the hospital a doctor, usually a trainee psychiatrist, will either endorse this or order their release. If the person is detained in the hospital then they usually must be seen by an authorised psychiatist within a set period of time. In some states, after a further set period or at the request of the person or their representative, a tribunal hearing is held to determine whether the person should continue to be detained. In states where tribunals are not instituted, there is another form of appeal.
===Allowed reasons===
Some states require that the person is a danger to the society or themselves, other states only require that the person be suffering from a mental illness that requires treatment. The Victorian act specifies in part that:
:"(1) A |
cles and scenarios. The first issue was published in [[1994]].
==External links==
*[http://carnel.sdf-eu.org/carnel Homepage]
{{mag-stub}}
{{rpg-stub}}
[[Category:Fanzines]]
[[Category:Role-playing game magazines]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caesium</title>
<id>5879</id>
<revision>
<id>40686572</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T08:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
<id>119438</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notable characteristics */</comment>
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{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=944 | c=671 | f=1240 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 2.09 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 63.9 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 32.210 }}
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'''Caesium''' (also '''cesium''' in the [[United States]]) pronounced {{IPA|/ˈsiːziəm/}}; is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cs''' and [[atomic number]] 55. It is a soft silvery-gold [[alkali metal]] which is one of at least three [[metal]]s that are liquid at or near [[room temperature]]. This element is most notably used in [[atomic clock]]s.
The variant spelling ''cesium'' is sometimes used, especially in [[North American English]], but ''caesium'' is the spelling used by the [[IUPAC]], although since [[1993]] it has recognized ''cesium'' as a variant as well.
==Notable characteristics==
The [[electromagnetic spectrum]] of caesium has two bright lines in the [[blue]] part of the spectrum along with several other lines in the [[red]], [[yellow]], and [[green]]. This metal is silvery gold in [[color]] and is both soft and ductile. Caesium is also the most [[electropositive]] and most [[alkaline]] of the stable [[chemical element]]s and also has the least [[ionization potential]] of all the elements, except for [[francium]]. Caesium is the least abundant of the five non-radioactive alkali metals. (Technically, [[francium]] is the least common alkali metal, but since it is highly radioactive with less than 30 grams in the entire earth at one time, its abundance can be considered zero in practical terms.)
Along with [[gallium]], francium and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], caesium is among the only metals that are liquid at or near room [[temperature]]. Caesium reacts explosively in cold [[water]] and also reacts with ice at temperatures above &minus;116°C. Caesium [[hydroxide]] (CsOH) is a very strong [[base (chemistry)|base]] and will rapidly etch the surface of [[glass]].
There is an account that caesium, reacting with [[fluorine]], takes up more fluorine that it [[stoichometry|stoichometric]]ally should. It could be that, after the salt Cs<sup>+</sup>F<sup>&minus;</sup> has formed, the Cs<sup>+</sup> ion, which has the same electronic structure as [[xenon#Compounds|xenon]], acts like xenon and forms a covalent fluoride such as Cs<sup>+</sup>F<sub>2</sub>.
==Applications==
Caesium is most notably used in [[atomic clock]]s, which are accurate to seconds in many thousands of years. Since 1967, the [[SI|International System of Measurements]] bases its unit of [[time]], the [[second]], on the properties of caesium. SI defines the [[second]] as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] which corresponds to the transition between two [[energy level|energy levels]] of the [[ground state]] of the caesium-133 [[atom]].
*Cs-134 has been used in [[hydrology]] as a measure of caesium output by the [[nuclear power]] industry. This [[isotope]] is used because, while it is less prevalent than either Cs-133 or [[Cs-137]], Cs-134 can be produced solely by nuclear reactions. Cs-135 has also been used in this function.
*Like other group 1 elements, caesium has a great affinity for [[oxygen]] and is used as a "[[getter]]" in [[vacuum tube]]s.
*This metal is also used in [[photoelectric cell]]s.
*In addition, caesium is used as a [[catalyst]] in the [[hydrogenation]] of certain [[organic compound]]s.
*[[Radioactive decay|Radioactive]] isotopes of caesium are used in the medical field to treat certain types of [[cancer]].
*[[Caesium fluoride]] is widely used in [[organic chemistry]] as a [[base]] and as a source of [[anhydrous]] [[fluoride]] ion.
*Caesium vapor is used in many common [[magnetometers]].
*Because of their high density, [[Caesium chloride]] solutions are commonly used in molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation, primarily for the isolation of nucleic acids from biological samples.
*More recently this metal has been used in [[ion propulsion]] systems.
==History==
Caesium ([[Latin]] ''caesius'' meaning "sky blue") was [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]] discovered by [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] in [[1860]] in [[mineral water]] from Dürkheim, Germany. Its identification was based upon the bright blue
lines in its spectrum and it was the first element discovered by spectrum analysis. The first caesium metal was produced in [[1881]]. Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical applications.
==Occurrence==
[[Image:Pollucite(CesiumMineral)USGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Pollucite, a caesium mineral]]
An alkali metal, caesium occurs in [[lepidolite]], [[pollucite]] ([[hydrate]]d [[silicate]] of [[aluminium]] and caesium) and within other sources. One of the world's most significant and rich sources of this metal is located at [[Bernic Lake]] in [[Manitoba]]. The deposits there are estimated to contain 300,000 [[tonne|metric ton]]s of pollucite at an average of 20% caesium.
It can be isolated by [[electrolysis]] of fused [[cyanide]] and in a number of other ways.
Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium can be made by the thermal decomposition of caesium [[azide]].
The primary compounds of caesium are its [[chloride]] and its [[nitrate]]. The price of caesium in 1997 was about $US 30 per gram.
; see also [[:category:Caesium minerals]]
==Isotopes==
Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes which is more than any other element, except [[francium]]. The [[atomic mass]]es of these isotopes range from 112 to 151.
Even though this element has the largest number of isotopes, it has only one naturally occurring stable [[isotope]], Cs-133, the other isotopes (except for the isotopes noted on this page) have [[half-life|half-lives]] from a few days to fractions of a second. The [[radiogenic]] isotope Cs-137 has been used in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of H-3 ([[tritium]]). Cs-137 is produced from the detonation of [[nuclear weapon]]s and is produced in [[nuclear power plant]]s, and notably from the 1986 [[Chernobyl]] meltdown. Beginning in [[1954]] with the commencement of [[nuclear testing]], Cs-137 was released into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] where it is absorbed readily into solution. Once Cs-137 enters the ground water, it is deposited on soil surfaces and removed from the landscape primarily by [[particle transport]]. As a result, the input function of these isotopes can be estimated as a function of time.
==Precautions==
All |
ldn't [mess] 'em up at the sessions...and he had this look on his face like I was trying to put out a bootleg album or something...He started playing the [expletive-deleted] songs from ''Blood on the Tracks'' and I couldn't play, I couldn't follow them...There was this frozen guy there. It was very disconcerting...He took out his guitar, he tuned to [open E] tuning, and he started playing the songs nonstop! And he just played them all and I just sort of picked along with it...I was saying, 'No, man, don't sing the whole thing, just sing one chorus and if it's not gonna change, let me write it down so I can play with you.' And he didn't. He just kept on playing...They all began to sound the same to me, they were all in the same key, they were all long. It was one of the strangest experiences of my life."
Though his meeting with Bloomfield was not a success, Dylan continued to audition his songs to a select number of people, including [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] picker Pete Rowan and songwriter/poet [[Shel Silverstein]], who was introduced to Dylan by Bernstein. "He was very interested in people's reaction," recalls Bernstein. "When Bob and I went to New York to do ''Blood on the Tracks'' he wanted to go and visit this friend of his in some Hasidic neighborhood...we went out in the backyard and he played the songs for these friends of his..."
On August 2nd, Dylan also renewed his relationship with Columbia Records, Bernstein's employer and Dylan's original label. Dylan had a falling out with Columbia that led Dylan to record briefly with [[David Geffen]]'s Asylum Records, but Columbia mended its relationship with Dylan, going as far as reverting the rights to Dylan's previous album masters on the delivery of a new product. (Bernstein insists that she had no part in Dylan's decision to re-sign with Columbia.)
With a new contract secured, Dylan took his little red notebook to New York and began recording his next album. The sessions were held at A&R Studios on 799 Seventh Avenue in New York, formerly known as Columbia's Studio A, back when Dylan was recording six of his albums within its confines. The first session was to be held on September 16th, with Dylan himself producing and [[Phil Ramone]] engineering.
On the morning of the 16th, guitarist and banjo player Eric Weissberg was up at A&R Studios working on an advertising jingle when he ran into Phil Ramone in the hallway. A successful session musician who, according to Weissberg, "was just about the only guy who could play all the folk instruments - mandolin, fiddle, Dobro, etc. - ''and'' read music and follow a chart," he had recently scored a major hit with "Dueling Banjos," a banjo instrumental he had written and recorded for the 1973 film ''[[Deliverance]]''. The success of that single led him to form a group called Deliverance, consisting of drummer Richard Crooks, keyboardist Thomas McFaul, guitarist Charlie Brown III, and bassist Tony Brown. According to Weissberg, Ramone asked him if he had a band. Weissberg told him about Deliverance, and Ramone reportedly told him that he needed a band for Dylan's recording session, set to take place that evening.
About half an hour before the first session was to begin, Weissberg and Deliverance arrived at A&R Studios to unpack and tune their instruments. Weissberg brought his prized guitar, a 1939 Martin Herringbone D-28, while Charles Brown brought a Fender Telecaster.
When Dylan arrived, he began to play and sing his new songs, giving Deliverance little time to notate the music for themselves. Charles Brown recalls that Dylan "didn't use any charts. I finally wound up getting a yellow legal pad and scribbling down a couple of things, which were gone, instantly, right out the window. It wasn't worth bothering to write them down, he changed things so much...He would run something down once, and maybe halfway again, and that was it: Take it! Because he wanted the immediacy of the moment, he didn't care whether there were mistakes in there or not."
Weissberg echoed Charles Brown's sentiments, recalling that Dylan had made things difficult for Deliverance, just as he had done with Bloomfield. "It was weird. You couldn't really watch his fingers 'cause he was playing in a tuning arrangement I had never seen before. If it was anybody else I would have walked out. He put us at a real disadvantage." Weissberg also recalls Dylan drinking a lot of wine, and that he seemed uninterested in "correcting obvious mistakes." As some critics would later note, Dylan didn't even seem fazed when his jacket's buttons rattled against his guitar. "There were certain ones where you can hear the sound of his fingernails on the guitar," recalls Bernstein. "That didn't matter to him. None of that stuff was important to him. What was important was the overall weight of the song."
Sometime during this session, [[John Hammond]], Sr. dropped by to welcome Dylan back to Columbia. Dylan reportedly told Hammond that he wanted his next album to be "easy and natural" with little, if any, overdubbing. According to Ramone, he accommodated Dylan's wishes by recording him with two guitar microphones "for reasons of sound and to give him freedom of movement, because he's not prone to stand in one place without moving around...One was a Sony C37, a tube microphone; the other was a Neumann KM56. I think I tried something different on the vocals, because I went to a dynamic [microphone], a Sennheiser 421, rather than a condenser [microphone], mainly because I felt I could get around his movement better..." The natural reverb in A&R Studios also contributed to the sound. "The room was big, but downstairs we had some incredibly good chambers. There's just a touch of the room..."
Dylan recorded at least nine songs during that first session, and at least six of them were recorded with Deliverance. Master takes of "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts," "Meet Me in the Morning," and "Idiot Wind" were successfully recorded at this session and set aside for the album, but the rest of the recordings were deemed unsatisfactory. ("Call Letter Blues," an outtake recorded on the 16th, would eventually be released on ''[[The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961-1991]]''.
Another session was held the following day, but this time, at Dylan's request, only bassist Tony Brown would return as Dylan's sole accompaniment. "I got a call from someone in Dylan's office," Tony Brown recalls, "who said 'come on back.' I asked, was Eric going to be there, and the guys? The person said, 'No, just you.' That was a shock. I had no idea why that was. I was more nervous then." At this session, master takes of "You're a Big Girl Now," "Shelter from the Storm," and "You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go" were successfully recorded and set aside for the album. "I remember being struck by the songs," recalled Tony Brown. "It was obvious to me what they were about, how deeply personal they were. I had a whole day with him, and the next [session] Paul Griffin was there."
That next session came on the 19th. Dylan was once again accompanied by Tony Brown, but this time, he had also recruited organist Paul Griffin to join the sessions. (Griffin had also previously recorded with Dylan.) At this session, Dylan successfully recorded master takes of "Buckets of Rain," "If You See Her, Say Hello," "Simple Twist of Fate," "Up to Me," and "Tangled Up in Blue," which were set aside for the album. On this day, Dylan also overdubbed a new lyric for "Meet Me in the Morning" onto a "Call Letter Blues" backing track recorded with Deliverance on the 16th.
Tony Brown would later say that he "made a conscious decision to emulate" the bass playing style on Dylan's 1967 album, ''[[John Wesley Harding]]''. "I used a lot of eighth notes, just like Charlie McCoy played on ''[[John Wesley Harding]]''."
Recording was deemed complete, but during the preliminary mixing and sequencing of the album, Dylan realized he had to remove one, possibly two of his chosen songs as the final product would have been 58 minutes in length, too much for a single LP but too short to give a double LP release serious consideration. As a result, "Up to Me" was excised, eventually seeing release on 1985's boxed-set retrospective, ''[[Biograph]]''.
Dylan had completed his album in less than a week, and Columbia was now preparing to release it by Christmas. Test pressings were eventually made and Columbia was soon printing sleeve artwork as well. On his return to Malibu, Dylan played his own test pressing to a number of friends, including [[Robbie Robertson]]. However, when Dylan went to see his younger brother, David, in Minneapolis, David apparently convinced Dylan that the album would never "sell." Put off by the album's stark sound, David convinced Dylan to re-record half of the album in Minneapolis with local musicians that he would assemble at a studio he knew well. The decision would force Columbia to push back the release date for ''Blood on the Tracks''.
David first contacted an associate of his, guitarist Kevin Odegard, asking him for a 1937 0042 Martin, a compact, small-bodied acoustic guitar sometimes referred to as the "[[Joan Baez]]." (Baez was the first major performer of the folk scene to use it as her main instrument in performing live and in the studio.) Apparently, David was searching for the guitar on Dylan's behalf. Odegard was not able to find that exact model, as it was considered very rare, but he came close. He called his friend, guitarist and music store owner Chris Weber, asking about the guitar, and as it turned |
arly went bankrupt in 1989.
[[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]] almost joined this list in the wake of its failed introduction of [[New Coke]] [[1985|three years later]], but has since experienced a thirty-fold increase in share price.
== See also ==
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[List of films recut by studio]]
*[[Union Station (Los Angeles)]] – Used as police headquarters.
*[[Bradbury Building]] – The setting for J.F. Sebastian's apartment.
*[[Kabukicho]] – [[Tokyo]]'s [[red-light district]] was an inspiration for Blade Runner set design.
*[[Million Dollar Theater]] – Seen across from the Bradbury.
*[[Ennis House]] – The setting for Deckard's apartment.
[[Image:BladeRunner Voigt-Kampff machine.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Voight-Kampff empathy test.]]
*[[Spinner (Blade Runner)|Spinner (''Blade Runner'')]]
*[[Voight-Kampff machine]]
*[[Dystopia]]
*[[Postmodernism]] or [[Postmodernity]]
*[[Synthetic biology]]
*[[Kipple]]
== References ==
#{{note|bfi}} Bukatman, Scott. (1997) ''Blade Runner: BFI Modern Classics''. ISBN 0851706231
#{{note|telegraph}} Scott, Ridley. (2003) [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2003/09/20/bfscott20.xml&sSheet=/arts/2003/09/20/ixartright.html Daily Telegraph - Interview with Ridley Scott]
#{{note|brbible1}} Sammon, Paul. (1996) ''Future Noir: the Making of Blade Runner''. ISBN 0061053147
#{{note|moebius}} Giraud, Jean. (1988) ''The Long Tomorrow & Other SF Stories''. ISBN 0871352818
#{{note|ecofeminist}} Jenkins, Mary. (1997) [http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/content/v14.4/jenkins.html ''The Dystopian World of Blade Runner: An Ecofeminist Perspective'']
#{{note|retro}} Kerman, Judith. (1991) ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's "Blade Runner" and Philip K. Dick's "Do Android's Dream of Electric Sheep?"'' ISBN 0879725109
#{{note|ebert1}} Ebert, Roger. (1992) [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19920911/REVIEWS/209110301/1023 RogerEbert.com – Review of Blade Runner]
#{{note|brbible6}} Sammon, Paul. (1996) Pg. 284
#{{note|brbible3}} Sammon, Paul. (1996)
#{{note|brbible4}} Sammon, Paul. (1996)
#{{note|hicks}} Hicks, Chris. (1992) [http://deseretnews.com/movies/view/0,1257,200,00.html DeseretNews.com – Review of Blade Runner]
#{{note|flynn}} Flynn, John. (2003) [http://www.towson.edu/~flynn/br.htm Towson.edu – Blade Runner Retrospective]
#{{note|ebert}} Ebert, Roger. (1992)
#{{note|rutledge}} Rutledge, Sean M. (2000) [http://www.candidcritic.com/blade_runner.htm CandidCritic.com – Review of Blade Runner]
#{{note|starwars}} Brinkley, Aaron. Gunn, R. (2002) [http://www.bladezone.com/contents/film/tie-ins/star-wars/ The Blade Runner / Star Wars References]
#{{note|brfaq}} Mariman, Lukas. (2000) [http://www.brmovie.com/FAQs/BR_FAQ_BR_Influence.htm BR FAQ: Influence]
#{{note|panel}} Jha, Alok. Rogers, S. Rutherford, A. (2004) [http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/feature/story/0,13026,1290561,00.html Guardian.co.uk – Our expert panel votes for the top 10 sci-fi films]
#{{note|brviews}} Netrunner. (2005) [http://www.brmovie.com/BR_Views.htm BRmovie.com – Top 100s and Reviews]
#{{note|brsample}} Cigéhn, Peter. (2004) [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013041105/www.sloth.org/samples-bin/samples/source?summary Sloth.org – The Top 1118 Sample Sources]
#{{note|brbible5}} Sammon, Paul. (1996) Page 298
#{{note|imdb}} IMDB. (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083658/trivia Trivia for Blade Runner]
#{{note|25anniv}} Hunt, Bill. (2006) [http://www.thedigitalbits.com/mytwocentsa114.html My Two Cents, 1/31/06]
#{{note|snatcher}} KoKee. (2001) [http://www.snatcher.co.uk/ Blade Runner & Snatcher]
#{{note|crazy}} Kupperberg, Paul & Camp, Bob. (1982) [http://media.bladezone.com/contents/publications/magazines/crazy/ BladeZone.com – Crazy: Blade Runner Parody]
#{{note|curse}} [http://scribble.com/uwi/br/brfaq/faq-curse.html Curse] at the ''Blade Runner'' FAQ.
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0083658|title=Blade Runner}}
*{{filmsite|id=blad||title=Blade Runner}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=blade_runner|title=Blade Runner}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=blade_runner_the_directors_cut|title=Blade Runner: The Director's Cut}}
*[http://scribble.com/uwi/br/ 2019: Off-World] – One of the first ''Blade Runner'' fan sites
*[http://www.bladezone.com/ ''BladeZone''] – The Online Blade Runner Fan Club & Museum
*[http://www.brmovie.com/ ''BRMovie.com''] – [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.fan.blade-runner?lnk=li&hl=en alt.fan.blade-runner] site
**[http://www.brmovie.com/BR_Special_Edition.htm Special Edition News Page]
**[http://www.brmovie.com/Encyclopedia/index.html Encyclopedia Blade Runner]
*[http://www.tyrell-corporation.pp.se/ ''Los Angeles, 2019'']
*[http://www.br-insight.com/ BR-Insight] – Analysis of the film
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3600802.stm BBC: Blade Runner tops scientist poll]
*[http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/Blade-runner_early.html July 24, 1980 draft script]
*[http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/blade-runner_shooting.html February 23, 1981 shooting script]
*[http://www3.sympatico.ca/n.rieck/links/cool_sci_fi_br.html New Berlin]
*[http://www.movie-monsters.co.uk/bladerunner.html Movie-monsters.co.uk] – The best sci-fi film ever?
*[http://media.bladezone.com/contents/film/tie-ins/ Films that reference Blade Runner]
{{Bladerunner}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Link FA|he}}
[[Category:1982 films]]
[[Category:Cult science fiction films]]
[[Category:Cyberpunk]]
[[Category:Dystopian films]]
[[Category:Films based on science fiction books]]
[[Category:Neo-noir]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ridley Scott]]
[[Category:Vangelis]]
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[[et:Blade Runner]]
[[es:Blade Runner]]{{Link FA|es}}
[[fr:Blade Runner (film)]]
[[it:Blade Runner]]
[[he:בלייד ראנר]]
[[lt:Bėgantis skustuvo ašmenimis]]
[[nl:Blade Runner]]
[[ja:ブレードランナー]]
[[pl:Łowca androidów]]
[[pt:Blade Runner]]
[[ru:Бегущий по лезвию бритвы (фильм)]]
[[fi:Blade Runner]]
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[[tr:Bıçak Sırtı (film)]]
[[zh:银翼杀手]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Gates</title>
<id>3747</id>
<revision>
<id>42133802</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:15:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arniep</username>
<id>483481</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Popular culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Celebrity
| name = Bill Gates
| image = Bill Gates 2004 cr.jpg
| caption = Bill Gates in [[Copenhagen]], [[2004]]
| birth_date = [[October 28]], [[1955]]
| birth_place = [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Chairman]] and [[Software architecture|Chief Software Architect]], Microsoft Corporation
| salary = [[United States dollar|US$]]1 million<!--this is the correct style for money--><ref>Year 2005 compensation: salary $600,000, bonus $400,000. From Microsoft's [http://www.microsoft.com/msft/SEC/FY05/proxy2005.mspx Proxy Statement]</ref>
| networth = [[Image:Green up.png]] $51.0 billion USD (2005)<ref name=networth>Net worth: from [http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/54/BH69.html Forbes: 400 Richest Americans], dated September 22, 2005.</ref>
| spouse = [[Melinda Gates]]
| website = [http://www.microsoft.com/billgates/ microsoft.com/billgates]
| footnotes =
}}
'''William Henry''' "'''Bill'''" '''Gates III''' (born [[October 28]], [[1955]]) is the co-founder, [[chairman]], and [[software architecture|chief software architect]] of [[Microsoft|Microsoft Corporation]], the world's largest [[computer software]] company. According to ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine, Gates is the richest person in the world, with a [[net worth]] of approximately US $51 [[billion]], [[As of 2005|as of September 2005]]<ref name=networth/>.
Gates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the [[personal computer]] revolution and has become an iconic figure of late-20th century [[capitalism]]. While widely respected for his intelligence, foresight, and ambition, his company was found to have used illegal, anti-competitive means to maintain and extend a [[monopoly]].
Since amassing his fortune, Gates has pursued a number of [[philanthropy|philanthropic endeavours]], donating huge amounts of money (about 51% of his total fortune) to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]], founded in 2000. He, his wife [[Melinda Gates|Melinda]] and [[U2]]'s lead singer [[Bono]] were collectively named by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' as the 2005 [[Person of the Year|Persons of the Year]]. That same year he was given the honor of [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]].
==Early life==
[[Image:Bill gates-mugshot.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bill Gates' [[mug shot]] from 1977 when he was jailed for speeding.]]
Bill Gates was born in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]] to [[William H. Gates, Sr.]] and teacher Mary Maxwell Gates. His family was wealthy; his father was a prominent lawyer and his maternal grandfather, J. W. Maxwell, was a [[national bank]] vice president.
According to a widely repeated story, Maxwell set up a million (or multi-million) dollar trust fund for Gates the year he was born.[http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~an497637/project1.doc]
Gates commented on the story in a [[1994]] interview with ''[[Playboy]]'':
:PLAYBOY: Did you have a million-dollar trust fund while you were at Harvard?
:GATES: .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. My parents are very successful, and I went to the nicest private school in the Seattle area. I was lucky. But I never had any trust funds of any kind, though my dad did pay my tuition at Harva |
elief in the Invisible Pink Unicorn or other logical absurdities lack such a condition, are not properly basic and hence not rational. Critics respond to this line of reasoning with though we may indeed be "naturally inclined" toward faith (belief), it does not follow that faith is properly basic and hence rational.
Other people of faith have adopted the position that faith is implicitly irrational and have embraced the putative irrationality of faith as a demonstration of devotion to one's beliefs and deity. For example, [[Fideism]] specifically recommends that one not be rational.
==See also==
*[[William Alston]]
*[[Alvin Plantinga]]
*[[Epistemology]]
*[[Reformed epistemology]]
*[[Theory of justification]]
*[[Methods of obtaining knowledge]]
==External links==
===Apologetics and philosophical justifications of faith as rational===
*[http://www.faithquest.com/modules.php?name=Sections&op=listarticles&secid=15 Faithquest.com] published works of William Alston
*[http://www.faithandphilosophy.com Faithandphilosophy.com] founded by [[William Alston]], [[Alvin Plantinga]], [[Nicholas Wolterstorff]], and Richard Mouw
*[http://www.siu.edu/~scp/ Society of Christian Philosophers] founded again by [[William Alston]], [[Alvin Plantinga]], [[Nicholas Wolterstorff]], and Richard Mouw
*[http://www.credenda.org/issues/8-4disputatio.php Faith, Reason, and Rationality] a debate between Douglas Jones and Michael Shermer from Credenda Agenda, a publication of the Presbyterian Church
*[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/faithandreason.html Faith and reason] the philosophy of religion website
===Neutral critiques and analysis===
*[http://www.leaderu.com/offices/koons/docs/chrphlec17.html Lecture on The Rationality of Religious Belief] Contemporary Christian Philosophy, University of Texas
*[http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/basic.htm Are Christian Beliefs Properly Basic?] A critical examination of Alvin Plantinga's claim that Christian beliefs can be justified even without any evidence for them by Keith DeRose, Professor of Philosophy, Yale University
===Criticisms of faith as rational===
*[http://importanceofphilosophy.com/Irrational_Faith.html Irrational Faith] importanceofphilosophy.com
*[http://importanceofphilosophy.com/Irrational_Main.html Irrational Epistemology] importanceofphilosophy.com
===Historical overview of the relationship between faith and reason===
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/faith-re.htm Faith and Reason] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of film institutes</title>
<id>10839</id>
<revision>
<id>15908630</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-12T19:57:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam78</username>
<id>36204</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Some notable institutions celebrating [[film]], including both national film institutes and independent and non-profit organizations.
* The [[American Film Institute]]
* The [[American Indian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.aifisf.com/ here]
* The [[Australian Film Institute]]
* The [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] is online [http://www.bafta.org/ here]
* The [[British Film Institute]] is online [http://www.bfi.org.uk/ here]
* The [[Canadian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.cfi-icf.ca/ here]
* The [[Documentary Center]]
* The [[Danish Film Institute]] is online [http://www.dfi.dk/ here]
* The [[Film and Television Institute of India]], Pune is online [http://www.ftiindia.com here]
* The [[Film Institute of Ireland]] is online [http://www.fii.ie/ here]
* The [[Hong Kong Film Institute]] is online [http://www.hkfilm.com/ here]
* The [[Italian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.italianfilminstitute.org/ here]
* The [[Mexican Film Institute]] is online [http://www.imcine.gob.mx/ here]
* The [[Norwegian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.nfi.no/nfi/nfi.html here]
* The [[Sundance Institute]] is online [http://www.sundance.org/ here]
* The [[Swedish Film Institute]] is online [http://www.sfi.se/ here]
* The [[Asian academy Of Film & television]] is online [http://www.aaft.com here]
[[Category:Film organizations| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FORTH</title>
<id>10840</id>
<revision>
<id>30975051</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-11T22:31:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alx bio</username>
<id>352627</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Forth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Forth</title>
<id>10841</id>
<revision>
<id>39443705</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T04:08:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Benhoyt</username>
<id>423417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Made more in line with Wikipedia style, put Forth lang at top (largest topic)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Forth''' may refer to:
* [[Forth programming language]], a stack-oriented computer programming language
* [[Radio Forth]], a set of radio stations based in Edinburgh
* [[River Forth]], a major river in Scotland
* [[Forth, Lanarkshire]], a town in South Lanarkshire, Scotland
* [[Forth, Tasmania]], a town in Tasmania, Australia
'''FORTH''' may stand for:
* [[Foundation for Research &amp; Technology - Hellas]], a research center in Greece
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F wave</title>
<id>10842</id>
<revision>
<id>41834789</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:22:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chirality</username>
<id>1014638</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */ Category:Neurophysiology</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[neuroscience]], an '''F wave''' is the second of two [[voltage]] changes observed after electrical stimulation is applied to the skin surface above the [[distal]] region of a [[nerve]]. F waves are often used to measure [[nerve conduction velocity]], and are particularly useful for evaluating conduction problems in the [[proximal]] region of nerves (i.e., portions of nerves near the [[spinal cord]]).
== Overview ==
In a typical F wave study, a strong electrical stimulus is applied to the skin surface above the distal portion of a nerve so that the impulse travels both distally (towards the muscle fiber) and proximally (back to the [[motor neuron|motor neurons]] of the spinal cord). (These directions are also known as [[orthodromic]] and [[antidromic]], respectively.) When the ''orthodromic'' stimulus reaches the muscle fiber, it elicits a strong [[M wave]] indicative of [[muscle contraction]]. When the ''antidromic'' stimulus reaches the motor neuron [[cell body|cell bodies]], the impulse is reflected and travels back down the nerve towards the muscle. This reflected stimulus evokes the second, weaker ''F wave'' when it reaches the muscle.
== Properties ==
F wave properties include:
* ''amplitude'' ([[volt|&micro;V]]) - F wave height
* ''duration'' ([[millisecond|ms]]) - length of F wave
* ''latency'' (ms) - period between F wave and initial stimulation
==See also==
* [[H reflex]]
* [[Electromyograph]] (EMG)
== References ==
* Weber, G.A. Nerve conduction studies and their clinical applications. Clin. Podiatr. Med. Surg. 1990;7(1):151-178.
[[Category:Neurophysiology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fruit</title>
<id>10843</id>
<revision>
<id>41915227</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:16:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.88.1|85.12.88.1]] ([[User talk:85.12.88.1|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about botanic and culinary fruits. For the [[computer chess]] program, see [[Fruit (chess)|Fruit]].''
: ''For more links to types of fruits see [[list of fruits]].''
[[Image:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Fruit stall in [[Barcelona, Catalonia]].]]
In [[botany]], a ''' fruit''' is the [[ripen]]ed [[Ovary (plants)|ovary]]&mdash;together with [[seed]]s&mdash;of a [[flowering plant]]. In many species, the fruit incorporates the ripened ovary and surrounding tissues. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds. Evolution has led plants to adopt certain basic mechanisms, seemingly without close regard to the tissues involved. No one terminology really fits the enormous variety that is found among plant fruits. Botanical terminology for fruits is inexact and will remain so. In [[cuisine]], when discussing fruit as [[food]], the term usually refers to just those [[plant]] fruits that are sweet and fleshy, examples of which include [[plum]], [[apple]] and [[orange (fruit)|orange]]. However, a great many common [[vegetable]]s, as well as nuts and [[cereal|grain]]s, are the fruit of the plant species they come from.
The term '''false fruit''' (pseudocarp, [[accessory fruit]]) is sometimes applied to a fruit like the [[fig]] (a ''multiple-accessory fruit''; see below) or to a plant structure that resembles a fruit but is not derived from a flower or flowers. Some [[gymnosperm]]s, such as [[Taxaceae|yew]], have fleshy [[Aril|aril]]s that resemble fruits and some [[juniper]]s have ''berry-like'', fleshy cones.
With most fruits [[pollination]] is a vital part of fruit culture, and the lack of knowledge of [[pollinator]]s and [[pollenizer]]s can contribute to poor crops or poor quality crops. In a few species, the fruit may develop in the absence of pollination/fertilization, a process known as '''''[[parthenocarpy]]'''''. Such fruits are seedless. A p |
g of the section shown below.'''</td>
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If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of others, regardless of the effect this may have on oneself. Since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others, different altruists may have very different political views.
With regard to their political convictions, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice (and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated), and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced, if possible, by all human beings.
A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: "''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''"
The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people, but to teach those people to help each other as well. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic. Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of [[collectivism]] or [[communalism]].
On a somewhat related note, altruism is often held - even by non-altruists - to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power. Such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace. When they do not, they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own.
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Politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others. For example, [[George Bush]], speaking to the [[United Nations]] said: "We have a moral obligation to help others -- and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective."
If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), it can become a moral justification for forcing, or advocating forcing individuals to help others. In the realm of politics, the altruist may employ an agent in the form of [[government]] to enforce this supposed moral obligation. This is not to say that an ethical altruist will ''necessarily'' force this on anyone. An altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish. In other words, their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically.
With regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals. And, those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation, forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified.
A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: "''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''"
The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that individuals should be forced to help other people. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state-enforced [[collectivism]], [[communalism]], or communism. This is in line with August Comte's philosophy (who coined the term altruism), which argues against individual rights.
Finally, many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all, but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable. These oppose all government-enforced charity. [[Individualist anarchist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1847 warns of enforcing charity: "That is why charity, the prime virtue of the Christian, the legitimate hope of the socialist, the object of all the efforts of the economist, is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law; that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation" (''The Philosophy of Poverty'').
Comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others. Some argue that the ethical doctrine, if taken to its logical conclusion, leads to tyranny.
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==Altruism and religion==
{{sect-stub}}
All the major world [[religion]]s promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Christianity]] and [[Buddhism]] place particular emphasis on altruistic morality, as noted above, but [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] also promote altruistic behavior.
The [[Good Samaritan]] is a famous [[New Testament]] parable appearing only in the [[Gospel of Luke]] (10:25-37). The parable is told by [[Jesus]] illustrating altruism.
<!-- This section should continue by quoting altruism-related verses from the holy books of the aforementioned religions -->
==See also==
* [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Euphemism]]
* [[Will (law)]]
* [[Trust (law)]]
* [[Tit for tat]]
* [[Reciprocal altruism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.altruists.org/about/altruism What is Altruism? (Altruists International)]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ Biological Altruism ]
*[http://www.humboldt.edu/~altruism/home.html The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University]
*[http://www.iipbaar.org International Institute for Prosocial Behavior and Altruism Research]
==References==
*Batson, C.D. (1991). ''The altruism question''. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. ([[23 October]] [[2003]]). The nature of human altruism. In ''Nature, 425'', 785 &ndash; 791.
*[[August Comte]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
* Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004).
*[[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]''
*[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847)
*[[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law''
*[[Ayn Rand]], ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''
*[[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins Of Virtue]]''
*Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
* ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'', [[Robert Axelrod]], Basic Books, ISBN 0465021212
*''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]] (1990), second edition -- includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, ISBN 0192860925
*[[Robert Wright_(journalist)|Robert Wright]], ''The moral animal'', Vintage, 1995, ISBN 0679763996.
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<title>Ang Lee</title>
<id>337</id>
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<comment>/* Actor */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ang_lee.jpg|frame|Lee accepting the Best Foreign Film award for ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' at the 73rd Academy Awards]]
'''Ang Lee''' (Chinese: 李安; Pinyin: Lǐ Ān ) (born [[October 23]], [[1954]]) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[film director]] from [[Taiwan]].
==Early life==
Ang Lee was born and raised in [[Pingtung County|Pingtung, Taiwan]] and educated in the [[United States]], where he found success as a [[Hollyw |
students in Detroit in 2005, leading to a figure of about 54,000 Detroit students attending charter schools. When charter school and Detroit Public Schools enrollments are combined, the total number of children in public schools in Detroit has increased.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051219/SCHOOLS/512190339&SearchID=73230252551594]
If the current growth trends continue, more of Detroit's public school students will be attending charter schools than the Detroit Public Schools during the 2009-2010 school year (based on 22.5% growth rate in charter public schools and a constant loss of 10,000 students per year in the DPS enrollment). To meet the change in demand, the Detroit Public Schools has a goal of closing 95 schools by 2009.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051123/SCHOOLS/511230328]
=== Higher education ===
It was once the home of the [[University of Michigan]], which was founded in Detroit in 1817 but then later moved to [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]] in 1837. Detroit has several universities and colleges within its borders, including: [[College for Creative Studies]], [[Lewis College of Business]], [[Marygrove College]], [[Wayne State University]], [[University of Detroit Mercy]], and [[Wayne County Community College]]. The [[Detroit College of Law]], now affiliated with [[Michigan State University]], was founded in the city in 1891 and remained there until 1997, when it relocated to [[East Lansing, Michigan|East Lansing]].
== Culture ==
=== Music and performing arts ===
[[Image:Fisher Building, Detroit.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Fisher Building, located in the City's New Center area, home to the Fisher Theatre.]]
{{main|Music of Detroit}}
Music has been the dominant feature of Detroit's nightlife since the late [[1940s]]. The metropolitan area boasts two of the top live music venues in the U.S. [[DTE Energy Music Theatre]] (formerly Pine Knob) was the most attended summer venue in the U.S. in 2005 for the fifteenth consecutive year, while [[The Palace of Auburn Hills]] ranked twelfth, according to music industry source [[Pollstar]]. Detroit is considered by most industry analysts as the best concert market in the U.S. in per capita terms.
The city has the second-largest theater district in America, after New York City, with eighteen professional theaters. Outside New York City, Detroit has more theater seats than any other city east of the Mississippi River. Detroit is home to the [[Detroit Symphony Orchestra]] and the Detroit Opera House. Major theaters include the [[Fox Theatre (Detroit)|Fox Theatre]], [[Masonic Temple Theatre]], [[Fisher Theatre]], [[State Theatre]], [[Music Hall (Detroit)|Music Hall]], and the [[Detroit Repertory Theatre]]. Historically, Detroit's former [[Black Bottom]] neighborhood was a major [[jazz]] and [[blues]] mecca through the [[1950s]]; its influence would still be felt decades later. Major jazz stars of the era often came to Black Bottom to perform in its many venues.
[[Image:Motown.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The Logo for the [[Motown Records]] label, founded in Detroit.]]
One of the highlights of Detroit's musical history was the success of [[Motown Records]] during the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]]. The label was founded in Detroit by [[Berry Gordy, Jr.]] and housed at the "[[Hitsville U.S.A.]]" complex along West Grand Boulevard until 1972. Motown was home to some of the most popular recording acts in the world, including [[Marvin Gaye]], [[The Temptations]], [[Stevie Wonder]], [[Diana Ross]] & [[the Supremes]], [[Smokey Robinson]] & [[The Miracles]], [[The Four Tops]], and [[Martha Reeves]] & [[the Vandellas]]. One major Detroit R&B artist from this era that was not in Motown's stable was [[Aretha Franklin]].
Through the 1950's Detroit was one of America's most important jazz centers. Notable musicians from Detroit who achieved international recognition include: Elvin Jones, Hank Jones, Thad Jones, Tommy Flanagan, Lucky Thompson, Louis Hayes, Barry Harris, Paul Chambers, Marcus Belgrave, Milt Jackson, Kenny Burrell, Pepper Adams.
Metro Detroit also spawned in the late 1960s a unique, high-energy rock scene in antithesis to Motown and the more mellow scenes popular on the coasts. Area artists [[MC5]] and [[Iggy and the Stooges]] laid the groundwork for the punk rock movement in the mid-1960s. Rock acts from southeast Michigan that first enjoyed success in the area include 1970s icons [[Bob Seger]], [[Ted Nugent]] & The [[Amboy Dukes]], [[The Romantics]] and [[Grand Funk Railroad]] as well as recent acts [[The White Stripes]], and [[The Von Bondies]]. Detroit is also home to [[The Black Dahlia Murder]], a popular [[death metal]] band. The Detroit area is also generally accepted as the birthplace of the [[Techno music|Techno]] movement, which has grown from local radio and clubs to dance venues worldwide over the past 25 years. [[As of 2006]], fourteen groups or solo artists, four nonperformers, and two sidemen connected with the Detroit area have been enshrined in the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]].
Detroit is more recently home to many hip-hop artists such as: [[Aaliyah]], [[Eminem]], [[Royce Da 5'9"]], [[Slum Village]], [[Alley Life]], [[Rock Bottom Entertainment|Rock Bottom]], [[Juan (Street Lord'z)|Juan]], [[Trick Trick]] & The Goon Sqwad, [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], [[Teairra Mari]], [[Tone-Tone]], [[MC Breed]], [[Blade Icewood]], [[Big Herk]], the [[Street Lord'z]], [[Insane Clown Posse]] and [[Twiztid]] are among the musical acts who have kept the diverse musical pipeline flowing.
=== Events ===
[[Image:DetroitDownBrushSt.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A view looking south down Brush Street at the [[Renaissance Center]] (rear left) and the Wayne County Building (right). The giant decal on the Renaissance Center was installed for the [[2005]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|MLB All-Star Game]]. It is 4,612 ft (1,375 m) from the home plate in [[Comerica Park]] to the main tower of the Renaissance Center.]]
Detroit has two major events that are associated with the automobile industry: the [[North American International Auto Show]] (January) and the [[Woodward Dream Cruise]] (August). A number of annual music events occur in the city, which are the Downtown Hoedown [[country music]] festival (May), [[Detroit Electronic Music Festival|DEMF/Movement/Fuse-In]] electronic music festival (May), [[Ford Detroit International Jazz Festival]] (September), and the [[Concert of Colors]], a diverse summer music festival.
Other Detroit events include: the [[Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival]] (June&ndash;July), [[Comerica Tastefest]] (July), [[Detroit Thunder Fest]] hydroplane race (July), [[Detroit Fashion Week]] (August), [[Art on the Move]], and the [[America's Thanksgiving Parade]].
Due to the large Polish population, the day before [[Ash Wednesday]], or the festival of [[Mardi Gras]]/[[Fat Tuesday]] is more frequently known locally as Pączki Day (though traditionally celebrated by Poles five days earlier on [[Fat Thursday]]). Many Metro Detroiters join in the festivity by indulging in jelly-filled donuts called [[pączki|pączkis]].
===Fashions===
Detroit is a city known for style. One of the most known fashions of Detroit is suits with alligator shoes, and the city is often referred to as "Alligator City." Many inner-city young adults seem to take a liking in wearing fashionable streetwear or workwear such as [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] shoes, [[baseball cap]]s, [[Carhartt]] jackets, [[Guess?|Guess]] jeans, [[Dickies]], [[Iceberg History]], and more recently [[Marithé François Girbaud]] and [[Akademiks]] jeans. There are more expensive tastes in [[Cartier]] eyewear, [[Rolex]] wristwear, [[Stacy Adams]] dress shoes, [[Pelle Pelle]], and [[Al Wissam]] leather jackets.
===Food===
Founded in 1907 by two Russian immigrant brothers in Detroit, [[Faygo]] soda (universally referred to as "pop" in the Detroit area) remains a Detroit tradition. It was made famous by [[ICP]] and is sold internationally. Detroit was also the birthplace of [[Vernors]] [[ginger ale]], the oldest surviving soft drink in the United States. Detroit is also the home of the [[Better Made]] Chips Factory which makes [[potato chips]], Detroit is also considered the birthplace of the [[Coney Island hot dog]], a [[chili dog]] with onions and mustard.
=== Media ===
The major daily [[newspaper]]s serving Detroit are '' [[The Detroit Free Press]]'' and ''[[The Detroit News]]''. Other Detroit publications are ''[[The Metro Times]]'' and ''Crain's Detroit Business''[http://www.crainsdetroit.com ], both weeklies. Detroit is also home to the weekly ''[[Michigan Chronicle]]'', the state's largest African American owned newspaper, and the ''[[Michigan Citizen]]'', another publication that targets African American readers.
The Detroit television market is the eleventh largest in the United States.[http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html] Most [[television station]]s broadcasting from Detroit have their studios in [[Southfield, Michigan|Southfield]], which is also the site of transmission facilities of almost all Detroit-based stations. Stations broadcasting from Detroit include [[WJBK]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]), [[WDIV-TV]] ([[NBC]]), [[WXYZ]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), and [[WWJ-TV]] ([[CBS]]). Other Metro Detroit television stations include [[WDWB]] ([[WB Television Network|The WB]]), [[WKBD-TV]] ([[UPN]]), [[WPXD-TV]] ([[I (TV network)|Pax TV]]) and [[WADL-TV]] (primarily broadcasting [[infomercials]]). [[WTVS]] is the city's [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] member station. Detroiters also receive the broadcast signal from [[CBET]] channel 9, the [[CBC Television]] affiliate based in Windsor. Depending on the location, some viewers can also receive the [[TVOntario]], [[CTV television network|CTV]], [[Global Television Network|Global]], [[A-Channel]], [[Citytv]], and [ |
issolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks.
*''Talus caves'' are the openings between rocks that have fallen down into a pile, often at the bases of cliffs.
Cave formation in limestone occurs because limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and [[groundwater]] charged with CO<sub>2</sub> ([[carbonic acid]]) and naturally occurring [[organic acid]]s. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as [[karst]] and characterized by [[sinkhole]]s, [[sinking stream]]s, and underground drainage.
Limestone solution is an important process in cave formation and the origin of the great majority of all caves on Earth. The reasons for this abundance are the facts that limestone is so common and the slowness of the solution process. If it were faster, the lifespan of limestone caves would be much shorter and their number much lower.
[[Image:HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Speleothem]]s in Hall of the Mountain Kings, [[Ogof Craig a Ffynnon]], [[South Wales]].]]
Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation, including the most common and well-known [[stalactite]]s and [[stalagmite]]s. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called [[speleothem]]s. The world's most spectacularly decorated cave is generally regarded to be [[Lechuguilla Cave]] ([[New Mexico]], [[United States|USA]]).
Lechuguilla and nearby [[Carlsbad Caverns]] are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by acid rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes, rather than by acidic water percolating from the surface.
==Distribution==
Caves are sparse in [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[Antarctica]], but are found widely in [[Europe]], [[Asia]], and [[North America]].
The distribution of cave systems so far discovered is widely skewed toward countries where [[caving]] is popular (such as the [[United States]], [[France]], [[Italy]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]] etc.). It is likely that many more systems remain to be discovered, especially in [[China]], which, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone - more than 1,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> - has hardly been explored underground.
[[Image:Seneca_Caverns.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fracture blocks in Seneca Caverns, Ohio, USA]]
== Inhabitants ==
Cave inhabiting animals can be categorized as [[troglobite]]s (cave limited-species), [[troglophile]]s (species which can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), [[trogloxene]]s (species which utilize caves, but must leave the caves to complete their life cycle) and accidentals. Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (i.e., [[stygobite]]s, [[stygophile]]s, [[stygoxene]]s).
Of these animals, the troglobites are among the most extraordinary of organisms. Troglobitic species often show a suite of characters, termed troglomorphies, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. Among these characters are a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered [[Alabama cave shrimp]], live in bodies of water found in the caves and are fed by detritus washed into the caves, and by the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants.
[[Bat]]s, like the [[Gray bat]] and [[Mexican Free-tailed Bat]], are trogloxenes, and are commonly found in caves, but forage outside of the caves. Some species of [[Cave Cricket|cave cricket]]s are classified as trogloxenes, as they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.
Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosytem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of [[endangered species]], such as, for example the [[Tooth cave spider]], [[Liphistiidae]] Liphistius trapdoor spider and the [[Gray bat]].
Caves are visited by many surface-loving animals, including humans. These are usually relatively short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.
Some tropical caves of southeast Asia are rich in [http://www.cavesofmalaysia.com/photopage1.htm cave fauna] and some even have [http://www.cavesofmalaysia.com/photopage2.htm cave flora]
==Records==
Since new caves are continually being explored, the various records of cave dimensions need to be updated fairly frequently.
The system with the greatest (by some distance) total length of passage is [[Mammoth Cave]] ([[Kentucky]], [[United States|USA]]) at 579km in length. This record is unlikely to be surpassed in the near future as the next most extensive known cave is the [[Pechera Optymistychna|Optymistychna]] system in [[Ukraine]], at 214km.
[[As of 2005]], the deepest known cave (measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point) is [[Voronya Cave]] ([[Abkhazia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), with a depth of 2,140m. This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than 2km. (The first cave to be descended below 1km was the famous [[Gouffre Berger]] in [[France]]). The [[Gouffre Mirolda]] - [[Lucien Bouclier]] cave in [[France]] (1733m) and the [[Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht]] Weg Schacht in [[Austria]] (1632m) are the current second and third deepest caves. This particular record has changed several times in recent years.
The deepest individual [[pitch (vertical space)|pitch]] (vertical drop) within a cave is 603m in the [[Vrtoglavica]] cave in [[Slovenia]], followed by [[Velebit caves|Patkov Gu&#353;t]] (553m) in the [[Velebit]] mountain, [[Croatia]].
The largest individual cavern ever discovered is the [[Sarawak Chamber]], in the [http://www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my/forweb/np/np/mulu.htm Gunung Mulu National Park] ([[Sarawak]], [[Borneo]], [[Malaysia]]), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of approximately 600m by 400m and a height of 80m.
For a list of the world's notable caves, see [[list of caves]].
==Archaeological and social importance==
Throughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves for shelter, burial, or as religious sites. Since items placed in caves are protected from the climate and scavanging animals, this means caves are an archaeological treasure house for learning about these people. [[Cave painting]]s are of particular interest. One example is the Great Cave of Niah, which contains evidence of human habitation dating back 40,000 years.
Caves are also important for geological research because they can reveal details of past climactic conditions in speleothems and [[sediment]] layers.
Caves are frequently used today as sites for recreation. [[Caving]], for example, is the popular [[sport]] of cave exploration. For the less adventurous, a number of the world's prettier and more accessible caves have been converted into [[show cave]]s, where artificial lighting, floors, and other aids allow the casual visitor to experience the cave with minimal inconvenience. Caves have also been used for [[BASE jumping]] and [[cave diving]].
== See also ==
{{Commons|Cave|Cave}}
* [[Mining]]
* [[Cavus]]
* [[Cave Research Foundation]]
* [[Grotto]]
==External links==
* [http://www.thingsasian.com/goto_article/article.1462.html About Gua Niah]
* [http://www.british-caving.org.uk/ British Caving Association (BCA)], UK
* [http://www.cavebooks.com CAVE BOOKS] Publisher and seller of books about caves.
* [http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation/Conservation NSS Conservation Division] Preserving and protecting caves and karst for cavers, scientific research, and the general public is one of the most important goals of the NSS.
* [http://www.caves.org/section/ccms/ Cave Conservation and Management Section of the National Speleological Society] The Conservation and Management Section provides a central clearinghouse for information, expertise and research in the field of cave conservation and management.
* [http://www.geocities.com/cavingliz/MalaysianCaves.html Caves of Malaysia]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Speleology/Classification.html Classification of Caves] Very detailed list of cave types with links to further information
* [http://ogof.net/ Ogof Ffynnon Ddu] A virtual tour of [[Ogof Ffynnon Ddu]], the deepest cave in the UK
* [http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/ Journal of Cave and Karst Studies]
* [http://www.herbert-thiess.de/Kapsia/Index.html Kapsia Cave - Exploration of a Sinkhole in Arkadia (Southern Greece)]
* [http://www.caves.org/ National Speleological Society (NSS)], US
* [http://www.pipeline.com/~caverbob/ NSS Geo2 Committee on Long and Deep Caves] A website with numerous pages on cave world records, ''e.g.,'' the longest and deepest caves; compiled by Bob Gulden
* [http://www.uscaversforum.com U.S. CAVERS FORUM] Features multiple cave discussion boards (cavechat) pertaining to cave gear, cave trips, cave photography, cave information, cave news, cave conservation, the study of speleology and more!
* [http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave.html The Virtual Cave] A site with exceptional photography by Dave Bunnell, the editor of the NSS News. Make a virtual caving trip!
* [http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~heller/Diatoporama/Gallery/Lechuguilla/index.html 3D maps of Lechuguilla Cave]
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[refugees]] and [[displaced person]]s <ref>Center for Systemic Peace, (2006). [http://members.aol.com/CSPmgm/conflict.htm Global Conflict Trends - Measuring Systematic Peace]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].</ref>.
===Bureaucracy===
A persistent [[libertarianism|libertarian]] and [[monarchism|monarchist]] critique of democracy is the claim that it encourages the elected representatives to change the law without necessity, and in particular to pour forth a flood of new laws. This is seen as pernicious in several ways. New laws constrict the scope of what were previously private liberties. Rapidly changing laws make it difficult for a willing non-specialist to remain law-abiding. This may be an invitation for law-enforcement agencies to misuse power. The claimed continual complication of the law may be contrary to a claimed simple and eternal [[natural law]] - although there is no consensus on what this natural law is, even among advocates.
Democracies are also criticised for a claimed slowness and complexity of their decision-making.
===Short-term focus===
Modern liberal democracies, by definition, allow for regular changes of government. That has led to a common criticism of their short-term focus. In four or five years the government will face a new election, and it must think of how it will win that election. That would encourage a preference for policies that will bring short term benefits to the electorate (or to self-interested politicians) before the next election, rather than unpopular policy with longer term benefits. This criticism assumes that it is possible to make long term predictions for a society, something [[Karl Popper]] has criticized as [[historicism]].
Besides the regular review of governing entities, short-term focus in a democracy could also be the result of collective short-term thinking. For example, consider a campaign for policies aimed at reducing environmental damage while causing temporary increase in unemployment. However, this risk applies also to other political systems.
=== Public choice theory===
[[Public choice theory]] is a branch of [[economics]] that studies the decision-making behavior of voters, politicians and government officials from the perspective of economic theory. One studied problem is that each voter has little influence and may therefore have a [[rational ignorance]] regarding political issues. This may allow [[special interest]] groups to gain [[subsidy|subsidies]] and regulations beneficial to them but harmful to society.
===Plutocracy===
The cost of political campaigning in representative democracies may mean that the system favours the rich, a form of [[plutocracy]] who may be a very small minority of the voters. In Athenian democracy, some public offices were [[random]]ly allocated to citizens, in order to inhibit the effects of plutocracy. Modern democracy may also be regarded as a dishonest farce used to keep the masses from getting restless, or a [[conspiracy]] for making them restless for some political agenda. It may encourage candidates to make deals with wealthy supporters, offering favorable legislation if the candidate is elected - perpetuating [[conspiracy|conspiracies]] for [[monopoly|monopolization]] of key areas. However, United States economist [[Steven Levitt]] claims in his book [[Freakonomics]], that campaign spending is no guarantee of electoral success. He compared electoral success of the same pair of candidates running against one another repeatedly for the same job, as often happens in United States Congressional elections, where spending levels varied. He concludes:
:"A winning candidate can cut his spending in half and lose only 1 percent of the vote. Meanwhile, a losing candidate who doubles his spending can expect to shift the vote in his favor by only that same 1 percent."
Ownership of the media by the few may lead to more specific distortion of the electoral process, since the media are themselves a vital element of that process. Some critics argue that criticism of the [[status quo]] or a particular agenda tends to be suppressed by such media cartels, to protect their own self-interests. Proponents respond that constitutionally protected [[freedom of speech]] makes it possible for both for-profit and non-profit organizations to debate the issues. They argue that media coverage in democracies simply reflects public preferences, and does not entail censorship.
===Majoritarianism===
{{main|majoritarianism}}
[[Thomas Jefferson]] is quoted to have said: "A democracy is nothing more than [[mob rule]], where fifty-one percent of the people may take away the rights of the other forty-nine." Probably the most quoted criticism of democracy is the fear that it is "tyranny of the majority". The expression was coined by [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] in his book, [[Democracy in America]], written in 1831. However the phrase is more popularly attributed to [[John Stuart Mill]]'s [[On Liberty]], written in 1859 &mdash;not then referring to democratic government, but to social [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]]. However, the issue of majority dominance was not unknown to ancient Greek democracies. It is independent of [[universal suffrage]], but it implies a broad [[Suffrage|franchise]], otherwise there would be conflicting minorities. It can apply in both [[direct democracy]] or [[representative democracy]]. "Tyranny of the majority" implies that a government reflecting the majority view can take action that oppresses a particular minority. Typically, this majority is really only a relative majority of the voters and therefore only a minority. It may therefore be argued that one minority tyrannizes another minority in the name of the majority. This politically active and dominant group might decide that a certain minority, such as a religion, political belief, or those with minority views, should be criminalised, either directly or indirectly. This undermines the idea of democracy as an empowerment of the electorate as a whole.
Possible examples include:
*several European countries have introduced bans on personal religious symbols. This ban is perceived by some to be aimed at those considered symbolic of [[Islamism]] - the [[hijab]] or 'Islamic headscarf', the [[burqa]], the [[niqaab]]. In France, they are banned in public schools under the [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols]]. Opponents see this as a violation of rights to freedom of religion.
*prohibition of [[pornography]] is typically determined by what the majority is prepared to accept. In the [[United States]] distribution of pornography is declared illegal if the material violates "[[community standards]]" of decency.
*the law on [[abortion]] is typically determined by the religious attitudes of the majority. For "[[pro-life]]" (anti-abortion) activists, unborn children are an oppressed, helpless and disenfranchised minority, and a ban on abortion is a proper use of state power.
*[[recreational drug use]] is also typically legalised (or at least tolerated) to the degree that the majority finds acceptable. Users may see themselves as an oppressed minority, victims of unjustifiable [[War on Drugs|criminalisation]].
*society's treatment of [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] is also cited in this context. Homosexual acts were widely criminalised in democracies until several decades ago; in some democracies they still are, reflecting the religious or sexual mores of the majority.
*[[Slavery]] of a particular race or ethnicity can occur as a result of majority rule if the majority is of a unified race.
*in the United States, the [[conscription|draft]] early in the [[Vietnam War]] was criticised as oppression of a disenfranchised minority, 18 to 21 year olds. In response to this, the draft age was raised to 19 and the voting age was lowered nationwide (along with the drinking age in many states). While no longer disenfranchised, those subject to the draft remained significantly outnumbered.
*the majority often taxes the minority who are wealthy at [[progressive tax|progressively higher rates]], with the intention that the wealthy will incur a larger tax burden for social purposes. However, this is generally offset to some degree, by their better access to relevant expert advice (tax consultants and lawyers).
*in prosperous western democracies, the poor form a minority of the population, and may be disadvantaged by a majority who resent transfer taxation. Especially when they form a distinct [[underclass]], the majority may use the democratic process to, in effect, withdraw the protection of the [[state]].
*classical Athenian democracy executed [[Socrates]] for [[impiety]], i.e., for [[dissent]], although the relevance of this example to contemporary democracy is itself a matter of dispute.
*An often quoted example of the 'tyranny of the majority' is that [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power by legitimate democratic procedures. The [[Nazi]] party gained the largest share of votes in the democratic [[Weimar republic]] in [[1933]]. Some might consider this an example of "tyranny of a minority" since he never gained a majority vote, but it is common for a [[plurality]] to exercise power in democracies, so the rise of Hitler can not be considered irrelevant. However, his regime's large-scale human rights violations took place after the democratic system had been abolished. Also, the Weimar constitution in an "emergency" allowed dictatorial powers and suspension of the essentials of the constitution itself without any vote or election, something not possible in most liberal democracies.
Proponents of democracy make a number of defences concerning 'tyranny of the majority'. One is to argue that the presence of a [[constitution]] in many democratic countries acts as a safeguard. Generally, changes in these co |
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings of CERT, see [[CERT (disambiguation)]]}}
The '''CERT/CC''' (Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Center) was created by [[DARPA]] in [[November]] [[1988]] after the [[Morris worm]] struck. It is a major coordination center in dealing with [[internet security]] problems.
The CERT/CC is run by the federally funded [[Software Engineering Institute]] (SEI) at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. The SEI also created the Capability Maturity Model (CMM).
The CERT/CC is not to be confused with United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team ([[US-CERT]]) which is part of the [[National Cyber Security Division]] of the [[United States Government]]'s [[Department of Homeland Security]]. The two organisations work closely together and cross reference each other.
==External links==
* [http://www.cert.org/ Official homepage]
== See also ==
* [[US-CERT]]
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onservative [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]] from the federalist [[European People's Party]] Group. As MEPs must maintain a pan-European alliance to retain parliamentary privileges, Duncan Smith sought the merger of Conservative MEPs into the eurosceptic [[Union for a Europe of Nations|Union for a Europe of Nations (UEN)]] group. [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] MEPs vetoed this move because of the presence within the [[Union for a Europe of Nations|UEN]] of representatives of [[neo-fascist]] parties who do not share similar domestic politics. In 2004, Duncan Smith's successor, [[Michael Howard]], emphasised that Conservative MEPs would remain in the EPP Group so as to maintain influence in the [[European Parliament]]. However Michael Howard's successor, [[David Cameron]], has pledged to withdraw Conservative MEPs from the EPP Group as soon as possible.
The governing [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] is also split into eurosceptic and pro-European factions. Historically, the party tended towards euroscepticism, indeed the 1975 Labour Conference voted to leave the EEC ([[Tony Benn]] was the leading Labour anti-common market politician at the time and remains an important left-wing EU-critic). But today under Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] its policies are generally [[pro-European]]. However, a significant minority of Labour MPs have formed the [[Labour Against the Euro]] group, opposing British membership of the single currency. The group has support from minority parts of the [[Trade Union]] movement, while the majority of trade unions remain staunchly pro-European.
The UK's third-largest parliamentary party, the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], is strongly pro-European.
The [[United Kingdom Independence Party]], which advocates the UK's complete withdrawal from the European Union, received 16% of the vote and gained 12 MEPs in the [[European Parliament election, 2004|2004 European Election]]. The party was subsequently weakened by a leadership struggle and the defection of prominent member [[Robert Kilroy-Silk]]. In the following [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|General Election of 2005]] neither UKIP nor Kilroy-Silk's new [[Veritas (political party)|Veritas]] party succeeded in gaining a substantial percentage of the vote, or any seats in parliament.
The [[Scottish National Party]] has tended to be Europhile since the 1980s, however, for some the example of [[Norway]] has encouraged a Eurosceptic Scottish independence movement. This has found some separate expression in the [[Free Scotland Party]], founded by a formerly prominent member of the SNP, [[Brian Nugent]]. As the SNP's heartlands tend to be in fishing and farming areas of Scotland, they have been seen as a real threat to the Europhile SNP. However, this has not yet emerged. Polls show a significant amount of Euroscepticism in Scotland, but neither UKIP nor the Conservatives are very powerful there.
===Eurosceptic British press===
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], many newspapers, notably the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' and the [[Rupert Murdoch]] newspapers (''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', the ''[[News of the World]]'', ''[[The Times]]'' and ''[[The Sunday Times]]''), are eurosceptic along with the broadsheet ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' and ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'', and have published many stories highly critical of the European Union and its policies. The accuracy or otherwise of these stories is hotly disputed, and in some cases the actions of international bodies with no connection to the EU have been attributed to it. Examples include headlines such as "Ludicrous EU officials ready to ban yogurt", The Daily Telegraph, [[10 November]] [[2003]], where there were simply proposals on standard labelling and these proposals were initiated by the UK government, and reports in several UK papers in March 2000 that the EU planed to 'reduce' UK condoms to European sizes, when it was in fact the European Standardisation Committee (CEN) which proposed labelling changes, an organisation with no connection to the EU.
In response, the [[European Commission]] has created a website dedicated to explaining its point of view. [http://www.cec.org.uk/press/myths/index.htm]
Pro-Europeans allege that some coverage of the European Union by UK [[tabloid]]s is [[xenophobia|xenophobic]], particularly through what they sometimes regard as conscious attempts to influence British politics by denigrating foreign countries (Such as [[Daily Express]]'s article about renaming Waterloo Station in [[London]], as it could offend the French [http://www.cec.org.uk/press/myths/myth127.htm]}. Many eurosceptics reject this allegation as a slur. [[Tony Blair]], the British Prime Minister recently said to Jose Manuell Barosso "See what I have to put up with?" regarding the British Press' unfavourable cover of the EU Budget 2007-2013.
The daily newspaper of the hard-left, [[The Morning Star]] (connected to the [[Communist Party of Britain]]) takes a internationalist, democratic and Marxist eurosceptic position.
==Euroscepticism in Denmark==
Most of the Danish population is relatively enthusiastic about European initiatives of an economic nature, such as a free trade zone, but much less so about social policy. Enthusiasm for the project has declined slightly since the 1970s when Denmark first joined.
Worries in Denmark generally concentrate on the possible erosion of the Danish social safety net under EU guidance, and perhaps more importantly, the subversion of Danish identity in a large community of powerful nations. Danish nationalism, since the late 19th century has focused on the specialness of Denmark's "smallness" and the value of local customs and traditions. The notion of a powerful, centralised EU runs counter to this now entrenched and powerful sense of national identity.
Despite the influence of big business, which is generally europhile, Denmark has resisted inclusion in the euro.
== Euroscepticism in Central and Eastern Europe ==
[[Image:European Union sign 2003.jpeg|thumb|right|A vandalized EU sign in Poland, seen 2003.]]
One common argument raised by eurosceptics in the new EU member states from [[Central Europe]] is that the European Union's [[bureaucracy]] and perceived [[socialism|socialist]] tendencies may be sustainable for mature [[Western Europe]]an economies, but will bring the still fragile post-[[communist]] economies to a grinding halt. These viewpoints have often been encouraged when governments tried to excuse increases to the [[fiscal]] burden as harmonizing law with EU requirements, even when those laws had not been introduced for old EU member countries. Pro-Europeans argue the increased regulatory burden is feasible through post-accession increased economic growth, and that now inside the EU they will be able to help reform it.
Other issues include the need for new entrants to initiate EU-level border controls with non-accession neighbours. This has a big impact on the [[Poland|Poland's]] border with [[Ukraine]]. The introduction of the EU's visa regime has often greatly reduced cross-border trade with these neighbours, thus bankrupting many small family business in one of the poorest regions of Poland. Some consider Poland's joining the EU to be an act of disloyalty towards Ukraine, ultimately pushing it further into the [[Russia|Russian]] sphere of influence. Many economists believe that, on a country wide level, these disadvantages will eventually be offset by the freedom to travel and do business across the EU, though the benefits may be distributed unequally.
The [[Czech Republic|Czech]] president [[Václav Klaus]] is Central Europe's most outspoken eurosceptic or, more precisely, a self-described [[eurorealist]]. He believes that [[democracy]] cannot work at a supernational level. He has warned Europe of "dream world" woes:
<blockquote>The enemies of free societies today are those who want to burden us down again with layer upon layer of regulations. We had that in [[communist]] times. But now if you look at all the new rules and regulations of [[European Union|EU]] membership, layered bureaucracy is staging a comeback.</blockquote>
Other criticisms of the European Union are related to its inability to prevent the recent increase in ethnic nationalism across Eastern Europe; the example of [[Kosovo]] is often cited. The EU is sometimes accused of trying to impose models that worked in the Western European countries without any regard for the different reality of Eastern European life, and it is claimed that this approach produces more problems than it solves.
Some Romanians, Slovaks and Croatians claim that the [[irredentism]] of Hungary has found a new platform built by the European Union in Eastern Europe. Alleged irredentist Hungarian politicians (among them [[Viktor Orbán]], ex-prime-minister) are claimed to be helped by European regulations in involving themselves in the internal affairs of neighbouring countries. The main practice denounced is that Hungary is trying use the legitimate concept of ethnic minority rights in order to promote various forms (mostly subtle) of [[revanchism]] in the region. The claim is supported by Hungary's amending the status law trying to redefine the idea of nation and extending special economic, social and cultural benefits to ethnic Hungarians in neighbouring states (Romania, Slovakia, Croatia and Ukraine), who had objected to the law in 2001. The European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), a body of the [[Council of Europe]], was called in by Romania and criticised the Hungarian initiative. However, this did not stop Hungary from pursuing its intentions which, in the opinion of affected Eastern Europeans, is another proof of Europe's inability to handle the ethnic nationalism in Eastern Europe.
== Eurosceptics in the European Parliament ==
In [[2004]], 37 [[Member |
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cookbook}}
In cooking, '''espagnole sauce''' is one of the [[Sauce#Sauces in French cuisine|mother sauces]] that are the basis of sauce-making in classic [[French cuisine|French cooking]]. [[Auguste Escoffier]] codified the recipe in the late [[19th century]], which is still followed today.
Even though ''espagnole'' is the French word for ''Spanish'', the sauce has little connection with Spanish cuisine. According to Louis Diat, the creator of vichyssoise and the author of the classic ''Gourmet's Basic French Cookbook'': "There is a story that explains why the most important basic brown sauce in French cuisine is called ''sauce espagnole'', or Spanish sauce. According to the story, the Spanish cooks of [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]'s bride, Anne, helped to prepare their wedding feast, and insisted upon improving the rich brown sauce of France with Spanish [[tomato]]es. This new sauce was an instant success, and was gratefully named in honor of its creators."
The basic method of making espagnole is to prepare a very dark brown [[roux]], to which are added several gallons of [[veal]] [[stock (food)|stock]] or water, along with 20&ndash;30 lbs (9&ndash;14 kg) of browned bones, pieces of [[beef]], many pounds of [[vegetable]]s, and various [[seasoning]]s. This blend is allowed to slowly reduce while being frequently skimmed. The classical recipe calls for additional veal stock to be added as the liquid gradually reduces but today water is generally used instead. [[Tomato sauce]] is added towards the end of the process, and the sauce is further reduced.
Espagnole has a strong, even somewhat unpleasant taste and is not itself used directly on food. As a ''mother sauce'', however, it then serves as the starting point for many ''derivative sauces'', such as: Sauce Africaine, Sauce Bigarade, Sauce Bouguignonne, Sauce aux Champignons, Sauce Charcutiere, Sauce Chasseur, and Sauce Chevreuil, just to go as far as the "Cs". There are ''hundreds'' of other derivatives in the classic French repertoire.
A typical espagnole recipe takes many hours or even several days to make, and produces four to five quarts of sauce. In most derivative recipes, however, one cup of espagnole is more than enough, so that the basic recipe will yield enough sauce for 16 to 20 meals. Frozen in small quantities, espagnole will keep practically indefinitely.
Escoffier included a recipe for a [[Lent]]en espagnole sauce, using fish stock and mushrooms, in the [[Guide Culinaire]] but doubted its necessity.
==See also==
*[[brown sauce]]
==External links==
* {{cite book | last = Waters | first = Mrs. W.G. | year = 1920 | title = The Cook's Decameron: A Study In Taste | publisher = IndyPublish.com | id = ISBN 1404345809 }}
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=930 ''The Cook's Decameron'' from Project Gutenberg]
* [http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_10351,00.html Emeril Lagasse's recipe at foodtv.com]
[[Category:Brown sauces]]
[[Category:French cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic amplifier</title>
<id>9931</id>
<revision>
<id>41814086</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:45:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Welsh</username>
<id>310131</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
''The term '''amplifier''' as used in this article can mean either a circuit (or stage) using a single active device or a complete system such as a packaged audio hi-fi amplifier.''
An '''electronic amplifier''' is a device for increasing the current, voltage or [[Power (physics)|power]] of a [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]. It does this by taking power from a [[power supply]] and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude. An idealized amplifier can be said to be "a piece of [[wire]] with [[gain]]", as the output is an exact replica of the input, but larger.
==Classification of amplifier stages and systems==
Different designs of amplifiers are used for different types of applications and signals. We can broadly divide amplifiers into three categories&mdash;
*small signal amplifiers,
*low frequency power amplifiers and
*[[Radio frequency|RF]] power amplifiers.
Each of these calls for a slightly different design approach, mainly because of the physical limitations of the components used to implement the amplifier, and the efficiencies that can be realised.
There are many alternative classifications that address different aspects of amplifier designs, and they all have some effect on the design parameters and objectives of the circuit. Amplifier design is always a compromise of numerous factors, such as cost, amount of power consumed, devices that have real-world imperfections, and the need to match the amplifier to the input signal as well as the output load.
===Classification of amplifier stages by common terminal===
One set of these classifications include terms referring to “common terminal “ connections, where the design is described by the terminal of the active device that is tied closest to ground. Examples include terms such as '''[[common emitter]]''', '''common plate''', or '''common drain''', and these names also reflect the type of active device used to amplify the signal. For instance, common emitter refers to an amplifier with a bipolar transistor as the active device, while common plate would be for a vacuum tube amp, while a common drain amp would signify the use of MOSFET or JFET devices. Designs exist for almost any terminal of any active device to be held to ground in an amplifier, for different reasons that are reflected in each use. See also: [[common collector]], [[common base]].
===Inverting or non-inverting===
Another way to classify amps is the phase relationship of the input signal to the output signal. An '''inverting''' amplifier produces an output that is 180 degrees out of phase of the input signal, or a mirror image of it if viewed on an [[oscilloscope]]. A '''non-inverting''' amplifier maintains equal phase relationship between the input and output waveforms. An '''emitter follower''' is a type of this amplifier, indicating that the signal at the emitter of a transistor is following (matching phases) with the input signal.
This description can apply to a single stage or a complete system.
===Function===
Other amps may be classified by their function or output characteristics. These functional descriptions usually apply to complete amplifier systems or sub systems and rarely to individual stages.
*A '''servo amp''' indicates an integrated [[feedback loop]] to actively control the output at some desired level. A '''DC [[servo]]''' indicates use down to DC levels, where the normal fluctuations of an audio or RF signal do not occur. These are often used in mechanical actuators, or devices such as [[DC motor]]s that must maintain a constant speed or [[torque]]. An '''AC servo''' amp can do this for some ac motors.
*A '''linear''' amp denotes that it has a precise amplification factor over a wide range of frequencies, and is often used to boost signals for relay in communications systems. A '''non-linear''' amp is made to amplify only a specific narrow or tuned frequency, to the exclusion of all other frequencies.
*A '''RF''' amp refers to an amp designed for use in the [[radio frequency]] range of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], and is often specially made to feed [[antenna]] systems.
*An '''audio''' amp is specially designed and made for use in reproducing [[sound reproduction|audio]] frequencies, with special considerations made for driving [[loudspeaker|speaker]]s. These often have multiple amps grouped together as separate or bridgeable channels to accommodate different audio reproduction systems.
*A special type of low power amp with almost ideal characteristics is used in instruments and for signal processing, among many other varied uses. These are known as '''[[operational amplifier|operational]]''' amplifiers, or '''op-amps'''. This is because this type of amplifier is used in circuits that perform mathematical algorithmic functions, or "operations" on input signals to obtain specific types of output signals.
===Voltage current or power amplification===
Amplifiers can be designed to increase signal voltage ('''voltage''' amp), current ('''buffer''' amp), or both ('''power''' amp), of an electronic signal. Electronic amplifiers can operate off either single sided supplies (either + or – voltage “rail”, or “bus”, and ground), or double-sided or balanced supplies (+ and – supply rails, and ground).
The different methods of supplying power result in many different methods of [[bias]]. Bias is the method by which the active devices are set up to operate properly, or by which the DC component of the output signal is set to the midpoint between the maximum voltages available from the power supply. Most amplifiers use sets of devices that are matched in specifications except for polarity. These are called complementary pairs. Class A amplifiers generally use only one device, unless the power supplies are set to provide both positive and negative supplies, in which case a dual device symmetrical design may be used. Class C amps, by definition, use a single polarity supply.
Amplifiers are also often designed to have multiple stages hooked in |
height of all the bars is equal to 1, the decimal equivalent of 100%. This version is ideal for comparing proportions.
<br clear="all" />
== Mathematical Definition ==
In a more general mathematical sense, a histogram is simply a mapping that counts the number of observations that fall into various disjoint categories (known as ''bins''), whereas the graph of a histogram, which is often taught at high-school, is merely one way to represent a histogram. Thus, if we let ''N'' be the total number of observations and ''n'' be the total number of bins, the histogram <math>h_k</math> meets the following conditions:
<math>N = \sum_{k=1}^n{h_k}</math>
where ''k'' is an index over the bins.
=== Cumulative Histogram ===
A cumulative histogram is a mapping that counts the cumulative number of observations in all of the bins up to the specified bin. That is, the cumulative histogram <math>H_k</math> of a histogram <math>h_k</math> is defined as:
<math>H_k = \sum_{k\prime=1}^k{h_{k\prime}}</math>
== External links ==
* [http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/journey.html Journey To Work and Place Of Work] ''(location of census document cited in example)''
* [http://www.vias.org/tmdatanaleng/cc_histogram.html Teach/Me Data Analysis]
* [http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/understanding-series/understanding-histograms.shtml Understanding histograms in digital photography]
[[Category:Charts]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Diagrams]]
[[de:Histogramm]]
[[es:Histograma]]
[[eu:Histograma]]
[[fr:Histogramme]]
[[it:Istogramma]]
[[nl:Histogram]]
[[pl:Histogram]]
[[pt:Histograma]]
[[ru:Гистограмма]]
[[su:Histogram]]
[[fi:Histogrammi]]
[[sv:Histogram]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human anatomy</title>
<id>13268</id>
<revision>
<id>42152785</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:09:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.30.85.172|66.30.85.172]] ([[User talk:66.30.85.172|talk]]) to last version by Jeffrey O. Gustafson</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Human anatomy''' or '''anthropotomy''' is a special field within [[anatomy]]. It studies gross structures and systems of the '''[[homo sapiens|human]] body''', leaving the study of tissues to [[histology]] and cells to [[cytology]].
The human body, like the bodies of all animals, consists of systems, that consist of [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, that consist of [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s, that consist of [[Biological cell|cell]]s.
See [[History of anatomy]] for a history of anatomy, including human anatomy.
==Human [[organ (anatomy)|organ systems]]==
*[[Cardiovascular system]]: blood circulations with heart and blood vessels
*[[Digestive system]]: processing food with mouth, stomach and intestines
*[[Endocrine system]]: communicating within the body using hormones
*[[Immune system]]: defending against disease-causing agents
*[[Integumentary system]]: skin, hair and nails
*[[Lymphatic system]]: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the bloodstream
*[[Muscular system]]: moving the body
*[[Nervous system]]: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain and nerves
*[[Reproductive system]]: the sex organs
*[[Respiratory system]]: the organs used for breathing, the lungs
*[[Skeletal system]]: structural support and protection through bones
*[[Urinary system]]: the kidneys and associated structures involved in the production and excretion of urine
==External features==
[[Image:human body features.png|thumb|right|300px|External body features]]
Common names of well known parts of the human body, from top to bottom :
:[[Skin]]
:[[head (anatomy)|Head]] -- [[Forehead]] -- [[Eye]] -- [[Ear]] -- [[Nose]] -- [[Mouth]] -- [[Tongue]] -- [[tooth|Teeth]] -- [[Mandible|Jaw]] -- [[Face]] -- [[Cheek]] -- [[Chin]]
:[[Neck]] -- [[Throat]] -- [[Adam's apple]] -- [[Shoulder]]s
:[[Arm]] -- [[Elbow]] -- [[Wrist]] -- [[Hand]] -- [[Finger]]s -- [[Thumb]]
:[[Spine (anatomy)|Spine]] -- [[Chest]] -- [[Breast]] -- [[Ribcage]]
:[[Abdomen]] -- [[Umbilicus|Belly button]] -- [[Sex organ]]s ([[Penis]]/[[Scrotum]] or [[Clitoris]]/[[Vagina]]) -- [[Rectum]] -- [[Anus]]
:[[Hip (anatomy)|Hip]] -- [[Buttock]]s -- [[Human leg|Leg]] -- [[Thigh]] -- [[Knee]] -- [[calf muscle|Calf]] -- [[Heel]] -- [[Ankle]] -- [[Foot]] -- [[Toe]]s
==Internal organs==
Common names of internal organs (in alphabetical order) :
:[[Adrenal gland|Adrenals]] -- [[Vermiform appendix|Appendix]] -- [[Urinary bladder|Bladder]] -- [[Human brain|Brain]] -- [[Duodenum]] -- [[Eye]]s -- [[Gall bladder]] -- [[Heart]] -- [[Intestine]]s -- [[Kidney]] -- [[Liver]]-- [[Lung]]s -- [[Ovary|Ovaries]] -- [[Pancreas]] -- [[Parathyroid gland|Parathyroids]] -- [[Pituitary gland|Pituitary]] -- [[Prostate]] -- [[Skin]] -- [[Spleen]] -- [[Stomach]] -- [[Thymus]] -- [[Thyroid]] -- [[Testicle]]s -- [[Womb]]
==Anatomy of the [[brain]]==
:[[Amygdala]] -- [[Brainstem]] -- [[Cerebellum]] -- [[Cerebral cortex]] -- [[Hypothalamus]] -- [[Limbic system]] -- [[medulla oblongata|medulla]]-- [[midbrain]] -- [[Pituitary|Pituitary gland]] -- [[pons]]
:See also: [[Human brain]], [[List of regions in the human brain]]
==Studying human anatomy==
[[Image:Human skeleton diagram.png|thumb|150px|Human [[skeleton|skeletal]] structure]]
Certain professions, especially [[medicine]] and [[physiotherapy]], require the study of human anatomy in depth. Textbooks usually split the body into the following regional groups:
* [[Head]] and [[Neck]] - includes everything above the [[thoracic inlet]]
* [[Upper limb]] - includes everything from your [[hand]], [[forearm]], [[arm]], [[shoulder]], [[axilla]], [[pectoral]] region and [[scapula]]r region.
* Thorax - contains the region of the chest from the [[thoracic inlet]] to the [[thoracic diaphragm]].
* Abdomen - everything from the thoracic diaphragm to the [[pelvic brim]] or to the [[pelvic inlet]].
* The back - about the spine and its components, the [[intervertebral disk]]s and [[intervertebral body|bodies]]
* [[Pelvis]] and [[Perineum]] - the pelvis consists of everything from the [[pelvic inlet]] to the [[pelvic diaphragm]]. The perineum is everything below the [[pelvic diaphragm]].
* [[Lower limb]] - the lower limb is usually everything below the [[inguinal ligament]], including the [[thigh]], the [[hip joint]], the [[Human leg|leg]], and the [[foot]].
==See also==
* [[Anatomy]]
* [[Body orifice]]s
* [[Death]] - physical consequences of death
* [[Human]]
* [[Human biology]]
* [[Terms for anatomical location]]
* [[List of human anatomical features]]
* [[Human anatomical parts named after people|List of human anatomical parts named after people]]
* [[List of regions in the human brain]]
* [[List of bones of the human skeleton]]
* [[List of muscles of the human body]]
* [[List of distinct cell types in the adult human body]]
{{organ systems}}
[[Category:Human anatomy| ]]
[[an:Anatomía umana]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sin-khu]]
[[de:Anatomie des Menschen]]
[[et:Inimese anatoomia]]
[[es:Anatomía humana]]
[[eo:Homa anatomio]]
[[fa:کالبدشناسی انسان]]
[[fr:Anatomie humaine]]
[[is:Líffærafræði mannsins]]
[[it:Anatomia umana]]
[[he:גוף האדם]]
[[hu:Emberi test]]
[[nl:Menselijke anatomie]]
[[ja:人体解剖学]]
[[no:Menneskets anatomi]]
[[pl:Anatomia człowieka]]
[[pt:Corpo humano]]
[[simple:Human body]]
[[sk:Anatómia človeka]]
[[sl:Anatomija človeka]]
[[sv:Människokroppen]]
[[uk:Анатомія людини]]
[[zh:人体解剖学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hilter</title>
<id>13269</id>
<revision>
<id>31173855</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T09:58:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.122.138.6</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hilter''' is a municipality in the [[Osnabrück (district)|district Osnabrück]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]. It is located in the hills of the [[Teutoburg Forest]].
As of 2004 it has a population of 10,179, and covers an area of 52.61 [[square kilometre|km²]]. Highest elevation is the Hohnangel with 262 m above sea level.
The municipality was formed on [[July 1]] [[1972]] by merging the municipalities Borgloh, Hankenberge and Hilter. Already in 1970 the municipalities Allendorf, Borgloh-Wellendorf, Ebbendorf, Eppendorf and Uphöfen were merged into the ''Einheitsgemeinde'' Borgloh.
==External links==
*http://www.hilter.de Official website (German)
----
'''Mr. Hilter''' is the name [[Adolf Hitler]] (played by [[John Cleese]]) uses in a [[Monty Python]] sketch to run for the regional [[elections]] in [[Minehead]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawaii</title>
<id>13270</id>
<revision>
<id>42151405</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:56:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schzmo</username>
<id>175037</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision dated 13:29, 3 March 2006 by RexNL, oldid 42082116 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
Name = Hawaii |
Fullname = State of Hawaii<br />Moku{{okina}}āina o Hawai{{okina}}i |
Flag = Flag of Hawaii.svg |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Hawaii]] |
Seal = Hawaii state seal.png |
Map = Hi-locator.png |
Nickname = The Aloha State |
Capital = [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] |
LargestCity = [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] |
OfficialLang = [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[Hawaiian English|English]] |
Governor = [[Linda Lingle]] (R)|
Senators = [[Daniel Inouye]] (D)
[[Daniel Akaka]] (D) |
Representatives = [[Neil Abercrombie]] (D)| [[Ed Case]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = HI |
AreaRank = 43<sup>rd</sup> |
|ʘ}} is different than what many people associate with a kiss: the lips are pressed more-or-less flat together, as they are for a [p] or an [m], not rounded as they are for a [w].
The [[IPA]] came up with a set of Latin-based symbols for these sounds, but they were never much used, and were eventually given up for the Khoisanist symbols.
{|
!symbol!!bilabial!!dental!!alveolar!!palatal!!lateral
|- align=center
|align=left|'''Khoisanist'''||{{IPA|ʘ}}||{{IPA|ǀ}}||{{IPA|ǃ}}||{{IPA|ǂ}}||{{IPA|ǁ}}
|- align=center
|align=left|'''old IPA'''||{{IPA|q̢}}||{{IPA|ʇ}}||{{IPA|ʗ}}||{{IPA|°}}||{{IPA|ʖ}}
|- align=center
|align=left|'''Zulu'''|| ||c||q|| ||x
|}
There are a few less well attested releases, such as a noisy laminal denti-alveolar lateral release (Ⅲ [triple pipe] in an ''ad hoc'' transcription), which contrasts with an apical postalveolar lateral in Mangetti Dune !Kung; an abrupt sub-apical retroflex release <‼> in Angolan !Kung; and a "slapped" alveolar click {{IPA|[!¡]}} in Hadza and Sandawe, where the tongue slaps the bottom of the mouth after the release. (These distinctions may suffice for the Damin releases as well.) However, the Khoisan languages are poorly attested, and it is quite possible that, as they become better described, more click releases will be found.
Technically, when a full click consonant (that is, an accompaniment plus release) is transcribed, a tie bar should be used, because the accompaniment overlaps the release in time. (For example, in a nasal click such as {{IPA|[ŋ͡ǂ]}}, the nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is pronounced before, during, and after the release {{IPA|[ǂ]}}.) However, a tie bar is not often used in practice, and when the accompaniment is a simple [k], it will sometimes be omitted as well. That is, {{IPA|[ǂ]}} = {{IPA|[kǂ]}} = {{IPA|[ǂk]}} = {{IPA|[k͡ǂ]}} = {{IPA|[ǂ͡k]}}.
The accompaniment is generally written first: {{IPA|[ŋ͡ǂ]}} or {{IPA|[ŋǂ]}}. However, many Khoisanists prefer to write the accompaniment second: {{IPA|[ǂ͡ŋ]}} or {{IPA|[ǂŋ]}}. This is because the diacritics which follow the click symbols belong to the accompaniment rather than the release. A prime example of this are the ejective clicks, as {{IPA|[ǂ͡q’]}}. Here it is the uvular {{IPA|[q’]}} that is ejective, not the palatal click release {{IPA|[ǂ]}}, and the IPA convention of writing {{IPA|[q͡ǂ’]}} is misleading. Regardless, elements which do not overlap with the release are always written accordingly: The prenasalization is always written first in {{IPA|[ŋɡ͡ǂ]}} = {{IPA|[ŋǂ͡ɡ]}}, and the second ejective is always written afterwards in {{IPA|[k͡ǂ’q’]}} = {{IPA|[ǂ͡k’q’]}}.
While the [[SAMPA]] encoding for IPA into [[ASCII]] doesn't have symbols for transcribing clicks, the proposed [[X-SAMPA]] standard does: <tt> O\</tt>, <tt>|\</tt>, <tt>|\|\</tt>, <tt>=\</tt>, and <tt>!</tt>. Some instead suggest <tt>||\</tt>, <tt>#\</tt> or <tt>"\</tt> for the alveolar lateral click. The [[Kirshenbaum]] system uses a different method: clicks are denoted by digraphs, with the click symbol (always "!") added to the stop homorganic to the release, but with the manner of the accompaniment. For example, /t!/ is a voiceless dental click, and /m!/ is a nasal bilabial click. (This transcription is used in the literature on Damin.) However, the International Phonetic Association recommends using the IPA symbols in [[Unicode]], or using the number codes which they have assigned to each symbol.
==Accompaniments==
(Data is primarily from Ladefoged; see references at individual language articles.)
There is a great variety of click accompaniments, though it is a matter of debate how many of them are simple consonants and how many consonant clusters. With so few click languages, and so little study of them, it is also unclear to what extent clicks in different languages may be equivalent to each other.
Some Khoisan languages are [[Linguistic_typology|typologically]] unusual in allowing mixed [[phonation|voicing]] in non-click consonant clusters, such as {{IPA|dt͡s’k͡x’}}, so it's not unexpected that they would allow mixed voicing in clicks as well, and this can be taken as evidence that these clicks are also clusters.
There is ongoing discussion as to which other clicks are best analysed as consonant clusters, as in several cases this is not obvious. For example, some linguists feel that ejective clicks are not possible, and that those described as such are most likely clusters. Indeed, in many languages this appears to be the case. However, in others phonetic measurements have found that, while the ejective release follows the click release, it is the accomplaniment closure that is ejective, not a subsequent consonant. (In Ladefoged's analysis in the table below, if there is only a single segment, this is indicated by a single non-subscript letter for the accompaniment.)
Of the languages illustrated below, [[!Xóõ language|!Xóõ]] is Southern Khoisan, [[Nama language|Nama]], [[Korana language|Korana]], and [[G/wi language|Gǀui]] are Central Khoisan, [[Ju/’hoan language|Zhuǀ’hõasi]] is Northern Khoisan, and [[‡Hõã language|‡Hoan]] is unclassified. These languages are spoken primarily in [[Namibia]] and [[Botswana]]. (See [[List of Khoisan languages]] for classification.) [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] is a [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] language of [[South Africa]]; [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]] is a [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] language of [[Kenya]]; [[Hadza language|Hadza]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] are spoken in [[Tanzania]]; and [[Damin]] was an initiation jargon in northern [[Australia]].
The four Dahalo accompaniments occur only with a dental release. Damin has only a nasal accompaniment with its normal clicks, but in addition has a voiceless unaspirated release for its egressive "click".
For clarity, the full accompaniment is written after the release, and the tie bar is omitted.
{|
| '''IPA''' || '''Alveolar release, plus:''' || '''Languages found in'''
|-
|{{IPA|[!k]}} || ''Voiceless unaspirated velar plosive || Damin, Gǀui, Hadza, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Sandawe, Xhosa, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!q]}} || ''Voiceless unaspirated uvular plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!kʰ]}} || ''Aspirated velar plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Xhosa, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!qʰ]}} || ''Aspirated uvular plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan
|-
|{{IPA|[!k͡x]}} || ''Voiceless affricated velar plosive || !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!q͡χ]}} || ''Voiceless affricated uvular plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan
|-
|{{IPA|[!kˀ]}} || ''Voiceless unaspirated velar plosive and glottal stop || Korana, Nama, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!kˀ, ŋˀ!k]}} || ''Voiceless glottalized velar plosive (prenasalized between vowels) || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, Sandawe
|-
|{{IPA|[!q’]}} || ''Uvular ejective'' || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!g]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!g͡ɣ]}} || ''Voiced affricated velar plosive || Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!g, ŋ!g]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive (prenasalized between vowels) || Sandawe
|-
|{{IPA|[(ɴ)!ɢ]}} || ''Voiced uvular plosive (usually prenasalized) || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!g̈]}} || ''Breathy-voiced velar plosive || Xhosa
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ]}} || ''Voiced velar nasal || Dahalo, Damin, Gǀui, Hadza, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Sandawe, Xhosa, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋʷ]}} || ''Labialized voiced velar nasal || Dahalo
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̈]}} || ''Breathy-voiced velar nasal || Xhosa
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊]}} || ''Voiceless velar nasal || Dahalo, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊ʷ]}} || ''Labialized voiceless velar nasal || Dahalo
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊h]}} || ''Voiceless delayed-aspirated velar nasal || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊↓h]}} || ''Voiceless ingressive pulmonic nasal with delayed aspiration || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊ˀ]}} || ''Voiceless velar nasal and glottal stop || Hadza
|-
|{{IPA|[ʔ!ŋ]}} || ''Preglottalized velar nasal || ‡Hoan, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[ŋ!ŋ̊ʰ]}} || ''Voiced velar nasal followed by voiceless aspirated velar nasal || Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!gh]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive followed by aspiration || !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!ɢh]}} || ''Voiced uvular plosive, followed by aspiration || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!gk͡x]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive followed by voiceless velar fricative || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!k͡x’]}} || ''Affricated velar ejective || Korana, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!q͡χ’]}} || ''Affricated uvular ejective || Gǀui, ‡Hoan
|-
|{{IPA|[!gk͡x’]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive followed by voiceless affricated ejective || Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!k’q’]}} || ''Voiceless velar ejective, followed by uvular ejective || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!gq’]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive, followed by uvular ejective || !Xóõ
|}
==Releases==
===Inventories of click releases===
There are seven known click releases, not counting slapped or egressive clicks. These are ''bilabial affricated'' {{IPA|ʘ}}, or "bilabial"; ''laminal denti-alveolar affricated'' {{IPA|ǀ}}, or "dental"; ''apical (post)alveolar plosive'' {{IPA|ǃ}}, or "alveolar"; ''laminal postalveolar (palato-alveolar) plosive'' {{IPA|ǂ}}, or "palatal"; ''subapical postalveolar (retroflex)'' {{IPA|ǃ˞}} (rare); and two lateral clicks, which in the only language known to distinguish them are ''laminal denti-alveolar lateral'' {{IPA|ǁ̻}} and ''apical postalveolar lateral'' {{IPA|ǁ̺}}. No language is known to have more than five of these.
{| class=wikitable
| '''Click release<br>inventory''' || '''Languages'''
|-
| dental {{IPA|ǀ}} only || Dahalo
|-
| alveolar {{IPA|ǃ}} only || seSotho
|-
| 3 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || Sandawe, Hadza, Xhosa, Zulu || ''(in Hadza and sometimes Sandawe, ! is "slapped")''
|-
| 4 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || Korana, Nama, Yeyi, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
| 4 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ˞}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || !Kung (Angolan)
|-
| 5 releas |
pe classes.
==Implementations==
The following all comply fully, or very nearly, with the Haskell 98 standard, and are distributed under [[open source]] licences. There are currently no commercial Haskell implementations.
*'''[[Glasgow Haskell Compiler]]''' [http://www.haskell.org/ghc/]. The Glasgow Haskell Compiler compiles to native code on a number of different architectures, and can also compile to C. GHC is probably the most popular Haskell compiler, and there are quite a few useful libraries (e.g. bindings to [[OpenGL]]) that will only work with GHC.
*'''Gofer''' An educational version of Haskell, Gofer was developed by Mark Jones. It was supplanted by HUGS.
*'''HBC''' [http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~augustss/hbc/hbc.html] is another native-code Haskell compiler. It hasn't been actively developed for some time, but is still usable.
*'''Helium''' [http://www.cs.uu.nl/helium/] is a newer dialect of Haskell. The focus is on making it easy to learn by providing clearer error messages. It currently lacks typeclasses, making it incompatible with many Haskell programs.
*'''[[Hugs]]''' [http://www.haskell.org/hugs/] is a [[bytecode]] interpreter. It offers fast compilation of programs and reasonable execution speed. It also comes with a simple graphics library. Hugs is good for people learning the basics of Haskell, but is by no means a "toy" implementation. It is the most portable and lightweight of the Haskell implementations.
*'''Jhc''' [http://repetae.net/john/computer/jhc/] a haskell compiler written by John Meacham emphasising speed and efficiency of generated programs as well as exploration of new program transformations.
*'''nhc98''' [http://www.cs.york.ac.uk/fp/nhc98/] is another bytecode compiler, but the bytecode runs significantly faster than with Hugs. Nhc98 focuses on minimising memory usage, and is a particularly good choice for older, slower machines.
==Extensions==
*[[O'Haskell]] is an extension of Haskell adding [[object-oriented programming|object-orientation]] and [[concurrent programming]] support.
==References==
*Simon Peyton Jones. [http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/papers/haskell-retrospective ''Wearing the hair shirt: a retrospective on Haskell'']. Invited talk at [[POPL]] 2003.
*Jan-Willem Maessen. ''Eager Haskell: Resource-bounded execution yields efficient iteration''. Proceedings of the 2002 [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell.
*Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, Arjan van IJzendoorn. [http://www.cs.uu.nl/~bastiaan/heeren-helium.pdf ''Helium, for learning Haskell'']. Proceedings of the 2003 ACM SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell.
==External links==
*[http://haskell.org/ HaskellWiki] - The Haskell Home Page
*[http://haskell.org/hawiki/ Old HaWiki] - Old discussions on various Haskell topics
*[http://haskell.org/tutorial/ A Gentle Introduction to Haskell 98] ([http://www.haskell.org/tutorial/haskell-98-tutorial.pdf pdf] format)
*[http://haskell.org/papers/NSWC/jfp.ps Haskell vs. Ada vs. C++ vs. Awk vs. ... An Experiment in Software Prototyping Productivity]
*[http://www.willamette.edu/~fruehr/haskell/evolution.html The Evolution of a Haskell Programmer] - a slightly humorous overview of different programming styles available in Haskell
*[http://haskell.readscheme.org An Online Bibliography of Haskell Research]
*[http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Humor Haskell Humor]
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:Haskell dialects|*]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:Declarative programming languages]]
[[cs:Haskell]]
[[de:Haskell (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Haskell]]
[[eo:Haskell]]
[[fi:Haskell]]
[[fr:Haskell]]
[[it:Haskell]]
[[nl:Haskell]]
[[ja:Haskell]]
[[ko:하스켈 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[pl:Haskell]]
[[pt:Haskell (linguagem de programação)]]
[[ru:Haskell]]
[[sk:Haskell (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sv:Haskell]]
[[tr:Haskell]]
[[zh:Haskell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holy Orders</title>
<id>13631</id>
<revision>
<id>42153949</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:21:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.222.238.114</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Christianity */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
'''Holy Orders''' in the modern [[Roman Catholic Church]] and in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]], [[Old Catholic]], and [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]] Churches, includes three orders: [[bishop]], [[priest]], and [[deacon]]. These Churches regard ordination as a [[sacrament]]. Other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Christian denomination|denominations]] have varied conceptions of the church offices, but none of them considers ordination a sacrament, and some would not consider their [[Religious minister|ministries]] in terms of holy orders at all.
The [[World Council of Churches]] undertook a major consultation amongst its members and with the Roman Catholic Church on ''[http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry]'' (BEM) published in 1982. It attempted to express the convergences that had been found over the years and six volumes of responses compiled. As a result some churches have changed their liturgical practices, and some have entered into discussions which in turn led to further agreements and steps towards unity. There is also a major study on the church ([http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/nature1.html ecclesiology]) being on the question 'What it means to be a church, or the Church?' It focuses on [[ecclesiology]] and ethics looking at the churches/Church's 'prophetic witness and its service to those in need'. [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/eeintro.html].
Roman Catholic dogma counts Holy Orders among three [[Catholic sacraments|sacraments]] that make an indelible mark called a [[sacramental character]] on the recipient's soul (the other two are [[baptism]] and [[confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]]). Some non-Roman Catholics, perhaps especially Anglicans, also use the term ''episcopal character'' to refer to the status of a bishop.
The Eastern Orthodox Church has two minor orders, those of reader and [[subdeacon]]. Candidates for ordination receive the clerical [[tonsure]] prior to being ordained by the '''laying on of hands''' to these minor orders. There is a distinction between the laying on of hands for minor orders (chirothesis) and that for major orders (chirotony). Those in these lesser orders are not considered clergy in the same sense as those in major orders.
In former times, the Roman Catholic church also had four [[minor orders]] along with the [[major orders|major order]] of subdeacon, which were conferred on seminarians ''pro forma'' before they became deacons. The minor orders and the subdiaconate were not considered sacraments, and for simplicity were suppressed under [[Pope Paul VI]] after the [[Second Vatican Council]].
Such titles as ''[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]]'', ''[[Monsignor]]'', ''[[Archbishop]]'', etc., are ''not'' sacramental orders. These are simply [[office]]s; to receive one of those titles is ''not'' an instance of the sacrament of Holy Orders.
== Definitions ==
The word "holy" simply means "set apart for some purpose." The word ''ordo'' (order, in [[Latin]]) designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ''ordinatio'' meant legal incorporation into an ''ordo.'' In context, therefore, a Holy Order is simply a group with a hierarchy that is set apart for ministry in the Church.
== Episcopal concept of ordination ==
The [[episcopalian church governance|episcopal]] (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''episkopos'', meaning "overseer" and from which we get the word "bishop") form of church government is followed by the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Churches, and the Anglican Churches and centers around the hierarchy of bishops.
=== Meaning of priesthood ===
The word "priest" either derives ultimately from the Greek ''presbuteros'' meaning "elder" or the Latin ''praepositus'' meaning "superintendent." The [[Catholic church]] sees the [[priesthood]] as both a reflection of the ancient [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] priesthood of the [[Jew]]s and the person of [[Jesus]]. The [[liturgy]] of ordination recalls the [[Old Testament]] priesthood and the priesthood of Christ. In the words of [[Thomas Aquinas]], "Christ is the source of all priesthood: the priest of the old law was a prefiguration of Christ, and the priest of the new law acts in the person of Christ" ''[[Summa Theologiae]]'' [http://www.newadvent.org/Summa/402204.htm III, 22, 4c]. See [[Presbyterorum Ordinis]] for the [[Second Vatican Council]] decree on the nature of the Catholic priesthood.
=== Process and sequence ===
The arrangement given above, "bishops, priests, and deacons" is in the reverse order of ordination. For Roman Catholics, it is typically in the last year of [[seminary]] training that a man will be ordained to the diaconate, called by Roman Catholics in recent times the "[[transitional diaconate]]" to distinguish men bound for priesthood from those who have entered the "[[permanent diaconate]]" and do not intend to seek further ordination. Deacons, whether transitional or permanent, are licensed to preach sermons, (under certain circumstances a permanent deacon may not receive faculties to preach) to perform [[baptism]]s, and to witness [[marriage]]s, but to perform no other sacraments. They may assist at the [[Eucharist]] or the [[mass (liturgy)|Mass]], but are not the ministers of the Eucharist. Orthodox seminarians are typically tonsured as readers before entering seminary, and may later be made subdeacons or deacons; customs vary between seminaries and between Orthod |
The princess returns to [[London]] to find that the meeting she held was a distraction from Longshanks strategy to send his armies to Scotland and attack Wallace’s flank. Isabelle sends a courier to William with the news. He musters his troops and marches back to Scotland to engage the English army at [[Falkirk]]. During the battle William again proves to be the better tactician, using his archers to ignite a field laden with oil between his infantry and Longshanks’ with the English cavalry trapped in the middle. Additionally, during the battle, the [[Irish]] soldiers accompanying Longshanks’ army join Wallace’s army, doubling its size instantly. However, Longshanks was able to subversively recruit the Scots nobles and their cavalry. No longer a backup force for Wallace, they leave their “ally” for dead. William escapes the ensuing slaughter and rides after Longshanks. He is stopped short by Longshanks’ helmeted companion whom Wallace reveals to be Robert the Bruce. Robert helps William escape arrest and return to his army. At the Scots army encampment, Hamish watches his father die as William looks on. William realizes that his pride has caused their defeat.
Though his army is defeated, William is still able to rally more highlanders to his cause and rebuild his forces. He also takes brutal vengeance on several of the nobles, murdering [[Mornay]] in his bedroom (on horseback) and [[Lochlan]], whose body he drops through an open window onto Lord Craig's dinner table. Longshanks realizes Wallace is once again becoming invulnerable and plots to assassinate William, again using the princess as a ploy. The princess again warns William and the assassins are brutally killed by their quarry and Hamish. William secretly visits the princess to thank her and the two make love.
Several months pass and Longshanks works subversively to trap Wallace. Robert the Bruce is the decoy this time, calling Wallace to a meeting to negotiate a truce. William is captured at [[Edinburgh]] by English soldiers and the Scottish nobles who betray him a second time. He is sent to London for public execution.
Princess Isabelle pleads with William to beg the king for mercy. William refuses, preferring to die a free man. Isabelle later pleads with the king to spare Wallace’s life. The king is unable to speak due to a fatal, unknown illness (most likely [[tuberculosis]] as per the heavy cough that plagues him in the film's second half), but his will is unchanged. Whispering in the king’s ear, Isabelle reveals that she is pregnant with Wallace’s child and his offspring will be heir to the throne.
Wallace is brought into the public square for execution. He is offered [[clemency]] (which translates to a quick death by beheading) in exchange for declaring himself the king’s loyal subject. He refuses and is strung up, first by his neck, then by his wrists and ankles. He is then tied to a cross and disemboweled alive. Refusing the taunts of the executioner to accept subjectivity to the king he yells his last word, “Freedom!”. Realizing that Wallace will not be broken, even under extreme pain, the executioner orders his beheading. An instant before the axe falls Wallace sees Murron floating among those in the crowd. The small cloth that Wallace was given him by his wife as a wedding gift falls from his hand.
In Scotland, shortly after the execution, Robert the Bruce leads the remnants of Wallace’s army onto the field at Bannockburn to accept the title of [[King of Scotland]]. Holding the small cloth that fell from Wallace’s hand in his final moment of life, he rallies the army to do battle with the English, much to the consternation of the nobles, who'd hoped that the Bruce would accept his title without incident. A voiceover by Wallace/Mel Gibson informs us that the year is [[1314]], the Scots were victorious and that Scotland was free.
==Awards==
The film won numerous awards including the [[1995]] [[Academy Award]] for:
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]
*[[Academy Award for Directing|Direction]], Mel Gibson
*[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
*[[Academy Award for Makeup|Makeup]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Sound Editing, Sound Editing| Best Sound Editing]]
'''Nominated:'''
*[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]]
*[[Academy Award for Costume Design|Costume Design]]
==Box Office==
Braveheart is 270th in the largest amount grossed from a film (worldwide). In terms of actual figures, Braveheart's total lifetime gross is:
* US: $75,609,945
* Worldwide: $210,409,945
On opening weekend, Braveheart grossed:
* US: 9,938,276
==Political effects==
The film is credited with provoking a significant upsurge of Scottish nationalism, in particular with leading the majority of the Scottish people, for the first time ever to poll majorities in favour of Scottish independence.
==Historical Accuracy==
Braveheart is a work of [[fiction]], which draws inspiration from real historical events. However, due to the intense level of detail in costuming, makeup and special effects, audiences may incorrectly assume that the production is intended to be historically accurate. Some of the "inaccuracies" in Braveheart may be motivated by artistic reasons. The anachronistic kilts worn by the Scots make the rebels more visually distinctive, the incomplete armor and missing helmets allow viewers to recognize the actors, and changes to characters and names make the story easier to follow. Modifications to the sequence of events create dramatic juxtapositions, allowing different lines in the story to appear to occur simultaneously. Some noted critiques include:
# Braveheart's plot includes an affair between William Wallace and the Princess Isabelle, based upon [[Isabella of France]]. The film implies she is pregnant at the time of Wallace's execution, possibly carrying the future [[Edward III of England]]. Historically, the real Isabella was a child of nine still living in France at this time, she never met Wallace, and furthermore, was never a [[Princess of Wales]], as she was married to Edward II after he became king. Also [[Edward III of England]] was born in 1312, seven years after Wallace's death; thus it is impossible for Edward III to have been Wallace's son. (Note: this idea may have been derived from the play ''[[The Wallace]]'' by [[Sydney Goodsir Smith]].)
# Gibson was critiqued for his portrayal of Isabella's future husband, [[Edward II of England]]. Although most historians agree that Edward was [[homosexuality|homosexual]], many complained that the film presented demeaning [[stereotypes]] towards Edward. In the commentary, Mel Gibson explained he didn't intend to show hate towards anyone portrayed in the film (including the English). It also must be recalled that Mel Gibson did not write the screenplay.
# The [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]], the first skirmish in the film, was filmed without a bridge. The actual conflict was more of an ambush of the English as they attempted to cross a river. (It is rumoured that Gibson told a Scottish local the bridge was removed as it got in the way, and the local replied "that's what the English found" [http://www.fanaticus.org/DBA/battles/stirlingbraveheart.html].) The film also makes no mention of [[Andrew de Moray]], Wallace's companion-in-arms and a major contributor at this battle. Curiously, the fight shown in the film is more like the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] 17 years later, with English cavalry charging Scottish [[schiltrons]] and being repulsed.
# The film creates the impression that William Wallace invented the Scottish [[schiltrons]] and handed out pikes just before the battle. This is completely untrue.
# [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]'s second wife, Margaret, whom he married in [[1299]], is absent from the film, although the span of history covered in the production includes this year. This implies his first wife [[Eleanor of Castile]] was his only spouse.
# The film shows [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Conscription|conscripts]] switching sides and joining Wallace's forces at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1298)|Battle of Falkirk]]. The Irish forces were hired mercenaries who, from all accounts, fought well for Edward I. The Celtic soldiers who did display some rebellious tendencies were the [[Welsh people|Welsh]], who had been [[Conquest of Wales|conquered]] about a decade earlier. Edward I intended to use them as the first wave of attack and essentially as schiltron fodder. They did not take kindly to such intentions, even if they did not actually switch sides.
# The film implies that Wallace's rebellion took place against a background of a fairly lengthy English occupation of Scotland. Actually, they had only invaded Scotland the year before ([[1296]]) and the mass hanging of Scottish nobles which Wallace witnessed as a boy never happened.
# The sword carried by Gibson is a [[16th century]] Scottish [[claymore]]. While a sword which is claimed to have belonged to Wallace (although this is disputed) exists in Scotland, it is significantly simpler.
# There is some controversy about whether the ''jus prima noctis'' (also known as the ''[[droit de seigneur]]''), the supposed right of a Lord to deflower virgins in his territory, actually existed, but it certainly did not exist in either England or Scotland during this period.
# It is unclear whether Wallace had a wife or what her name was, but according to Scottish tradition her name was [[Marion Braidfute]], apparently her name was changed to Murron in the film so audiences would not confuse her with [[Maid Marian]] from the [[Robin Hood]] stories.
# Wallace's long-standing hatred for the English may not have been because of his wife's death. According to one legend, it arose from the fact that two English soldiers challenged Wallace over some fish he had caught. The argument escalated into a fight, resulting in Wallace killing the soldiers.
# The then-future King [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert |
eography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Comoros| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Comoros]]
[[es:Geografía de Comoras]]
[[pt:Geografia das Comores]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Comoros</title>
<id>6002</id>
<revision>
<id>42060122</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:03:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Comoros-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Comoros, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The [[Comoros|Comorians]] inhabiting [[Grande Comore]], [[Anjouan]], and [[Moheli]] (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. [[Islam]] (See [[Islam in Comoros]]) is the dominant religion, and [[Koran|Koranic]] schools for children reinforce its influence. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a substantial minority of the citizens of [[Mayotte]] (the Mahorais) are [[Roman Catholic]] and have been strongly influenced by French culture.
The most common language is [[Shikomor]], a [[Swahili]] dialect. French and Arabic also are spoken. About 57% of the population is literate.
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
===Population===
:671,247 (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 42.8% (male 144,075/female 143,175)
:15-64 years: 54.2% (male 179,541/female 184,488)
:65 years and over: 3% (male 9,407/female 10,561) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 18.61 years
:Male: 18.35 years
:Female: 18.87 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:2.91% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:37.52 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:8.4 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 74.93 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 83.48 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 66.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 61.96 years
:Male: 59.65 years
:Female: 64.33 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:5.09 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.12% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: NA
:Deaths: NA
===Nationality===
:Noun: Comorian(s)
:Adjective: Comorian
===Ethnic groups===
:Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, Sakalava
===Religions===
:Sunni Muslim 98%, Roman Catholic 2%
===Languages===
:Arabic (official), French (official), [[Comorian language|Shikomor]] (a blend of Swahili and Arabic)
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 56.5%
:Male: 63.6%
:Female: 49.3% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Comoros]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Comoros</title>
<id>6003</id>
<revision>
<id>39374516</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Comoros}}
The Union of the Comoros, known as the Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros until [[2003]], is ruled by Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]]. The political situation in [[Comoros]] has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in 1975, subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection. Colonel Azali seized power in a bloodless coup in April 1999, overthrowing Interim President [[Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde]], who himself had held the office since the death of democratically elected President [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]] in November, 1998.
In May 1999, Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, [[Bainrifi Tarmidi]], in December 1999; however, Azali retained the mantle of Head of State and army Commander. In December 2000, Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, [[Hamada Madi]], and formed a new civilian Cabinet. When Azali took power he also pledged to step down in April 2000 and relinquish control to a democratically elected president, a pledge which he has yet to fulfill.
In a separate nod to pressure to restore civilian rule, the government organized several committees to compose a new constitution, including the August 2000 National Congress and November 2000 Tripartite Commission. The opposition parties initially refused to participate in the Tripartite Commission, but on [[17 February]], representatives of the government, the Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a "Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros," brokered by the [[Organization for African Unity]] (OAU).
The accord called for the creation of a new [[Tripartite Commission for National Reconciliation]] to develop a "New Comorian Entity" with a new constitution. The new federal Constitution came into effect in [[2002]] and [[Comoros Presidential elections, 2002|presidential elections]] were held, at which Azali Assoumani was elected President. In April [[2004]] [[Comoros legislative election, 2004|legislative elections]] were held, completing the implementation of the new constitution.
The new Union of the Comoros consists of three islands, Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli. Each island has a president, who shares the presidency of the Union on a rotating basis. The president and his vice-presidents are elected for a term of four years. The constitution states that, "the islands enjoy financial autonomy, freely draw up and manage their budgets".
President Assoumani Azali of Grande Comore is the first Union president. President Mohamed Bacar of Anjouan formed his 13-member government at the end of April, 2003.
[[Comoros legislative election, 2004|Elections were held in 2004]] where federal president Azali suffered a major setback by only winning 6 of the 18 seats in the National assembly, the other going to the supporters of the presidents of the semi-autonomous islands.
''See also:-''
*[[List of Presidents of Comoros]]
*[[Heads of Government of the Comoros]]
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Union of the Comoros
<br>''conventional short form:''
Comoros
<br>''local long form:''
Union des Comores
<br>''local short form:''
Comores
'''Data code:'''
CN
'''Government type:'''
independent [[republic]]
'''[[Capital]]:'''
[[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
three islands; Grande Comore (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani), and Moheli (Mwali)
<br>''note 1:''
there are also four municipalities named Domoni, Fomboni, Moroni, and Moutsamoudou
<br>''note 2:'' The native name of Grande Comore is Ngazidja, but is widely quoted as Njazidja, an erroneous form perpetuated by the CIA Factbook.
'''[[Independence]]:'''
[[6 July]] [[1975]] (from France)
'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[6 July]] (1975)
'''[[Constitution]]:'''
[[20 October]] [[1996]]
'''[[Legal system]]:'''
French and Muslim law in a new consolidated code
'''[[Suffrage]]:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''[[Executive branch]]:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President AZALI Assoumani (since [[6 May]] [[1999]])
<br>''head of government:''
Prime Minister Bianrifi TARMIDI (since [[2 December]] [[1999]])
<br>''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by the president
<br>''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 6 and [[16 March]] [[1996]] (next to be held NA); prime minister appointed by the president
<br>''note:''
President AZALI claimed a one-year term at the time of the coup; elections, in theory, should be held in the spring of 2000 but are likely to be dependent on the island of Anjouan remaining part of the federation
<br>''election results:''
results of the last presidential election before the coup were: Mohamed TAKI Abdulkarim elected president; percent of vote - 64.3%
'''Legislative branch:'''
bicameral legislature consists of the Senate (15 seats: five from each island; members selected by regional councils for six-year terms) and a Federal Assembly or Assemblee Federale (43 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms); note - the Federal Assembly was dissolved following the coup of [[30 April]] [[1999]]
<br>''elections:''
Federal Assembly - last held 18 and [[25 april]] [[2004]] (next to be held NA)
<br>''election results:''
Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA;
'''[[Judicial branch]]:'''
Supreme Court or Cour Supremes, two members appointed by the president, two members elected by the Federal Assembly, one by the Council of each island, and former presidents of the republic
'''[[Political parties]] and leaders:'''
Forces pour l'Action Republicaine or FAR [Col. Abdourazak ABDULHAMID]; Forum pour la Redressement National or FRN (alliance of 12 parties); Front Democratique or FD [Moustoifa Said CHEIKH]; Front National pour la Justice or FNJ (Islamic party in opposition) [Ahmed RACHID]; Movement des Citoyens pour la Republique or MCR [Mahamoud MRADABI]; Mouvement Populaire Anjouanais or MPA (Anjouan separatist movement) [leader NA]; Mouvement pour la Democratie et le Progress or MDP-NGDC [Abbas DJOUSSOUF]; Movement pour le Socialisme et la Democratie or MSD (splinter group of FD) [Abdou SOEFOU]; Parti Comorien pour la De |
lleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
*[[ENPC Graduate School of International Business]]
==Ea-Eb==
*[[Earlham College]]
*[[East Carolina University]]
*[[East Central University, Ada OK]]
*[[East China Jiaotong University]]
*[[East China Normal University]]
*[[East China University of Politics and Law]]
*[[East China University of Science and Technology]]
*[[East Stroudsburg State University]]
*[[East Tennessee State University]]
*[[East Texas State University]]
*[[Eastern Arizona College]]
*[[Eastern College of Applied Arts, Technology and Continuing Education]]
*[[Eastern Illinois University]]
*[[Eastern Iowa Community College District]]
*[[Eastern Kentucky University]]
*[[Eastern Mediterranean University]]
*[[Eastern Mennonite University]]
*[[Eastern Michigan University]]
*[[Eastern Nazarene College]]
*[[Eastern New Mexico University]]
*[[Eastern Pentecostal Bible College]]
*[[Eastern Virginia Medical School]]
*[[Eastern Washington University]]
*[[Eastfield College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
*[[Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen]] ([[Tübingen]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]])
==Ec==
===Eck===
*[[Eckerd College]]
*[[Eckerd.College]]
===Eco===
====Ecol====
=====Ecole=====
======Ecole C-Ecole I======
*[[École Centrale de Lille]]
*[[École Centrale de Lyon]]
*[[École Centrale de Nantes]]
*[[École Centrale Paris]] (ECP)
*[[École d'Ingénieurs de l'État de Vaud]]
*[[École de Technologie Supérieure]]
*[[École des Hautes Études Commerciales]]
*[[École Internationale des Sciences du Traitement de l'Information]]
======Ecole N======
*[[École nationale d'admistration]]
*[[École Nationale d'Administration Publique]]
*[[École Nationale de l'Aviation Civile]] (ENAC)
*[[École Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Administration Économique]]
*[[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique et de Radioélectricité de Bordeaux]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique et de Radioélectricité de Grenoble]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique, d'Électrotechnique, d'Informatique et d'Hydraulique de Toulouse]] (ENSEEIHT)
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Ingénieurs en Construction Aéronautique]] (ENSICA)
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Informatique et de Mathématiques Appliquées de Grenoble]] (ENSIMAG)
*[[École Nationale Supérieure de Physique de Strasbourg]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Nancy]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de St-Étienne]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Bretagne]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Paris]] (ENST)
*[[École Normale Supérieure]]
*[[École Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines]]
*[[École Normale Supérieure de Cachan]]
*[[École Normale Supérieure de Lyon]]
======Ecole P-Ecole S======
*[[École Polytechnique]]
*[[École Polytechnique de Montréal]]
*[[École Polytechnique de l'Université de Nantes]], ([[Nantes]], [[France]])
*[[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne]], [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[École Pour l'Informatique et les Techniques Avancées]]
*[[École Supérieure d'Électricité]]
*[[École Supérieure d'Ingenieur en Électronique et Électrotechnique]]
*[[École Supérieure de Commerce de Marseille-Provence]]
*[[École Supérieure de Commerce de Paris]]
*[[École Supérieure en Sciences Informatiques]]
==Ed-En==
*[[Edgewood College]]
*[[Edinburgh University]]
*[[Edith Cowan University ]]
*[[Edmonds Community College]]
*[[Ege University]]
*[[Ehime University]]
*[[ETH Zürich|Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule in Zürich (ETHZ)]], [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[Eindhoven University of Technology]] ([[Eindhoven]], [[The Netherlands]])
*[[El Centro College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
*[[El Colegio de Mexico, A.C.]]
*[[El Colegio de Michoacan]]
*[[El Paso Community College]]
*[[Elizabethtown Community College]]
*[[Elmira College]]
*[[Elon College]]
*[[Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Arizona]]
*[[Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Florida]]
*[[Emerson College]]
*[[Emmanuel College, Boston|Emmanuel College]]
*[[Emmaus Bible College]]
*[[Emory and Henry College]]
*[[Emory University]]
*[[Empire State Baptist Seminary]]
*[[Emporia State University]]
*[[Endicott College]]
==Eo-Et==
*[[Eotvos Lorand University of Sciences]]
*[[Erasmus_Universiteit|Erasmus University Rotterdam]] ([[Rotterdam]], [[The Netherlands]])
*[[Erie Community College]]
*[[Erindale College]]
*[[Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald]], [[Greifswald]], [[Germany]]
*[[Erskine College]]
*[[Escola Federal de Engenharia de Itajubá]]
*[[Escola Superior de Educacao de Setubal]]
*[[Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing]]
*[[Escola Tecnica Federal de Goia]]
*[[Escola de Administracao de Empresas de Sao Paulo]] ([[Fundacao Getulio Vargas]])
*[[Escuela Nacional de Marina Mercante]]
*[[Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral]]
*[[Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Oviedo]]
*[[Escuela Universitaria de Estudios Empresariales]]
*[[Escuela de Administracion de Negocios para Graduados]]
*[[Escuela de Agricultura de la Region Tropical Humeda (EARTH)]]
*[[Escuela de Agricultura de la Región Tropical Húmeda (EARTH)]]
*[[Estrella Mountain Community College]]
*[[Etisalat College of Engineering]]
*[[ETH Zürich]], [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]
==Eu-Ex==
*[[Europa-Universitat Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder)]]
*[[European Business School Schlos Reichartshausen]]
*[[European Graduate School]] ([[EGS]]), [[Saas-Fee]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[European Institute of Business Administration]]
*[[European School of Economics]]
*[[European University Institute]]
*[[European University of Lefke]]
*[[Everett Community College]]
*[[Evergreen State College]]
*[[Evergreen Valley College]]
*[[Ewha Women's University]]
*[[University of Exeter]]
''See also:'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|E]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with G</title>
<id>6480</id>
<revision>
<id>39694027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:02:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.188.77.2|193.188.77.2]] ([[User talk:193.188.77.2|talk]]) to last version by Vizcarra</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- '''G''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Godollo University of Agricultural Sciences]]
#[[Goteborgs Universitet]]
#[[GMI Engineering and Management Institute]]
#[[GNA - Globewide Network Academy, Inc.]]
#[[Gainesville College]]
#[[Gajra Raja Medical College]]
#[[Gallaudet University]]
#[[Galveston College]]
#[[Gannon University]]
#[[GateWay Community College]]
#[[Gateshead College]]
#[[Gazi University]]
#[[Gdansk Medical Academy]]
#[[Gdansk Technical University]]
#[[Gdynia Maritime Academy]]
#[[Gembloux Faculte Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques]]
#[[Geneva College]]
#[[George Fox University]]
#[[George Mason University]]
#[[George Stephenson College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[George Washington University]]
#[[Georgetown College]]
#[[Georgetown University]]
#[[Georgia Institute of Technology]]
#[[Georgia Military College]]
#[[Georgia Southern University]]
#[[Georgia Southwestern College]]
#[[Georgia State University]]
#[[Georgian College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[German Sport University Cologne]]
#[[Gettysburg College]]
#[[Girne American University]]
#[[Gjovik College]]
#Glasgow Unive |
center" cellpadding="10"
|[[Image:IrelandNumbered.png|250px|Map of Ireland with numbered counties]]
| style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[Republic of Ireland]]'''
#[[County Dublin|Dublin]]
#[[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]
#[[County Wexford|Wexford]]
#[[County Carlow|Carlow]]
#[[County Kildare|Kildare]]
#[[County Meath|Meath]]
#[[County Louth|Louth]]
#[[County Monaghan|Monaghan]]
#[[County Cavan|Cavan]]
#[[County Longford|Longford]]
#[[County Westmeath|Westmeath]]
#[[County Offaly|Offaly]]
#[[County Laois|Laois]]
#[[County Kilkenny|Kilkenny]]
#[[County Waterford|Waterford]]
#[[County Cork|Cork]]
| style="font-size: 90%;" |
<ol start=17>
<li>[[County Kerry|Kerry]]
<li>[[County Limerick|Limerick]]
<li>[[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
<li>[[County Clare|Clare]]
<li>[[County Galway|Galway]]
<li>[[County Mayo|Mayo]]
<li>[[County Roscommon|Roscommon]]
<li>[[County Sligo|Sligo]]
<li>[[County Leitrim|Leitrim]]
<li>[[County Donegal|Donegal]]
</ol>
'''[[Northern Ireland]]'''
#[[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]]
#[[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]
#[[County Londonderry|Londonderry]]
#[[County Antrim|Antrim]]
#[[County Down|Down]]
#[[County Armagh|Armagh]]
|}
==Background==
The political [[geography of Ireland]] can be traced with some accuracy from the seventh century. At that time Ireland was divided into about 150 different units of government, each one called a ''[[tuath]]'' (pl. ''tuatha''). A ''tuath'' was a autonomous group of people of independent political jurisdiction under a chief called ''sub-rege'' (''Rí Tuaithe'', tribal king. often the Chief of a Clan).
In the sixth century, Ireland was divided into ''cúigí'' or fifths (sing. ''cúige''). The four current [[provinces of Ireland]] were named after four of these ''cúigí'', ''Uladh'' ([[Ulster]]), ''Laighean'' ([[Leinster]], ''Connachta'' ([[Connacht]]) and ''Mumha'' ([[Munster]]). The fifth ''cúige'', ''Mídh'' ([[Meath]]), corresponded to the present-day counties of [[Meath]], [[Westmeath]], [[County Longford|Longford]] and [[Offaly]] in present-day Leinster ([[Louth]] was considered to be part of Ulster). In [[bard|bardic lore]], the “fifths of Ireland” corresponded to the five provinces: learning was in the west, war in the north, wealth in the east, music or art in the south and kinship in the centre (Meath).
In the 12th century, the [[Kings of England]] began their first of many invasions (commonly referred to in Ireland as the ''Norman Invasion''). The English governed Ireland in a like structure as they did themselves, by dividing the country into shires or counties in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. To correspond with the subdivisions of the English shires into honors or [[barony|baronies]], Irish counties were granted out to the Angle-Norman noblemen in ''cantreds'', later known as [[barony (Ireland)|baronies]], which in turn were subdivided, as in England, into manors or [[townland|townlands]]. (However, in many cases, both baronies and townlands correspond to earlier, pre-Norman, divisions.) While there are 331 baronies in Ireland, divided first into [[civil parish|civil parishes]], there are around 60,000 townlands that range in size from one to several thousand [[acre|acres]]. Townlands were often traditionally divided into smaller units called ''quarters'', but these subdivisions are not legally defined.
==Local government==
:''Main articles: [[Districts of Northern Ireland]], [[Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]''
The original pattern of 32 counties evolved over many years from the original [[Normans|Norman]] conquest of Ireland.
The [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898]] was a significant milestone in the framing of the counties and their status. Some of the 32 counties are no longer the main basis for local government, planning and community development purposes, although unlike the [[Traditional counties of the British Isles|counties in Great Britain]], the Republic's traditional county boundaries are still respected for other purposes (counties on occasion being sub-divided).
In the Republic of Ireland, six of the original 26 counties have more than one local authority area, producing a total of 34 "county-level" authorities. [[County Tipperary]] has been split into [[North Tipperary]] and [[South Tipperary]] since [[1898]] and the formal adoption of the county system for local government. In 1994 [[County Dublin]] was split into [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], and [[South Dublin]]. By 2002 however, upon the establishment of County Development Boards, the definition of "local government" expanded to include the need for a proper identity in each of the new counties; the development of which is ongoing. Of the administrative structures established under the 1898 Local Government Act, the only type to have been completely abolished were the [[Rural District]]s, which were rendered void in the early years of the [[Irish Free State]] amidst widespread allegations of corruption. On the other hand, administrative structures such as Town Councils and Regional Authorities (created to comply with requirements of the EU) exist in parallel with the county system.
In Northern Ireland, a major re-organisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two [[county borough]]s ([[Belfast]] and [[Londonderry]]) by 26 "single-tier" [[Districts of Northern Ireland|districts]] for local government purposes, and these cross the traditional county boundaries. The six counties and two county-boroughs remain in use for purposes such as [[Lord-Lieutenant|Lieutenancy]], they are also used for the [[Royal Mail]] [[Postcode Address File]].
===Administration===
Generally administration follows the 34 "county-level" counties and cities of Ireland. The counties are referred to as "[[county council]]s" and 29 fall into this category. The cities of [[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]] and [[Waterford]] have "[[city council]]s", previously as "[[corporation]]s", and are administered separately from the counties bearing those names. The [[City of Kilkenny]] is the only city in the republic which does not have a "city council"; it is still a [[borough]] but not a [[county borough]] and is administered as part of [[County Kilkenny]]. The most recent local government legislation states that Kilkenny may retain the title of "city" for ornament only.
===Education===
The [[Vocational Education Committee]] system is based on the traditional counties of the Republic of Ireland except that [[County Tipperary]] is separated into [[North Tipperary]] and [[South Tipperary]]. Also each of the cities of [[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]] and [[Waterford]] have their own committee separate from the county. [[Dún Laoghaire]] is unique in that it is the only town with a committee.
The [[Regional Technical College|Institute of Technology]] system was organised on the committee areas or "functional areas", these still remain legal but are not as important as originally envisioned as the institutes are now more national in character and are only really applied today when selecting governing councils, similarly [[Dublin Institute of Technology]] was originally a group of several colleges of the [[City of Dublin]] committee.
===Elections===
[[Irish general elections|General election]] areas in the Republic of Ireland also mostly follow county boundaries - called "[[constituency|constituencies]]" in accordance with [[Law of the Republic of Ireland|Irish law]] - maintaining links to the county system is a mandatory consideration in the re-organisation of constituency boundaries. This system usually results in more populated counties having several constituencies - while others, such as Sligo and Leitrim, constitute a single constituency of two counties - Dublin city and county is subdivded into twelve constituencies. [[Local councillor]]s, elected to local government, are based on similar boundaries to the general election areas, however councillors generally run in a particular [[town council]] or [[borough council]] area which may often encompasses several smaller towns and villages.
==Alphabetical list==
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="font-size:90%"
|-
! align=left |County
! align=left |Former name
! align=left |Province
! align=left |State
! align=left |Additional local government
|-
|[[County Antrim|Antrim]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Armagh|Armagh]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Carlow|Carlow]]
|[[Caterlaugh]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Cavan|Cavan]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Clare|Clare]]
|[[County Thomond|Thomond]]
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Cork|Cork]]
|(see [[County Desmond|Desmond]])
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[Cork|City of Cork]]''
|-
|[[County Donegal|Donegal]]
|[[County Tyrconnel|Tyrconnel]]
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Down|Down]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Dublin|Dublin]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Dublin]],<br/>[[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]],<br/>[[Fingal]],<br/>[[South Dublin]]''
|-
|[[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Galway|Galway]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Galway]]''
|-
|[[County Kerry|Kerry]]
|(see [[County Desmond|Desmond]])
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Kildare|Kildare]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Kilkenny|Kilkenny]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Laois|Laois]]
|[[Queen's County, Ireland|Queen's County]], [[County Leix|Leix]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Leitr |
ther'': 19% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land''': 27,820 km² (1993 est.)
==Composition, Topography, and Drainage==
About 73 percent of Japan is [[mountain]]ous, with a [[mountain range]] running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is [[Mt. Fuji]], with an [[elevation]] of 3776m (12,388 feet). Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the top. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the [[Pacific ocean|Pacific]] deeps, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive [[earthquake]]s occur several times a century. [[Hot spring]]s are numerous and have been developed as resorts.
The mountainous islands of the Japanese Archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the [[Sea of Japan]], which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four principal islands: [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]; more than 3,000 adjacent islands and islets, including [[Oshima]] in the [[Nampo chain]]; and more than 200 other smaller islands, including those of the [[Amami]], [[Okinawa]], and [[Sakishima Islands|Sakishima]] chains of the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. The national territory also includes the small Bonin or [[Ogasawara Islands]], which include [[Iwo Jima]] and the [[Volcano Islands]] (Kazan Retto), stretching some 1,100 kilometers from the main islands. A territorial dispute with [[Russia]], dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the [[Kuril Islands]], Etorofu ([[Iturup]]) and [[Kunashir Island|Kunashiri]], and the smaller [[Shikotan]] and [[Habomai]] Islands northeast of [[Hokkaido]] remain a sensitive spot in [[Japanese-Russian relations]] as of 2005. Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea.
The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyushu.
The distance between Japan and the [[Korean Peninsula]], the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the [[Korea Strait]]. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward [[Siberia]], in the west through the [[Tsushima Island]]s to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast.
The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the [[continental shelf]]. About 75 percent of Japan's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 25 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the "face," fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the "back," toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges. Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains—the [[Hida Mountains|Hida]], [[Kiso Mountains|Kiso]], and [[Akaishi Mountains|Akaishi]] mountains—that form the [[Japanese Alps]] (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is [[Kitadake]] at 3,192 meters. The highest point in the country is [[Mount Fuji]] (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since [[1707]] that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in [[Shizuoka Prefecture]]. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.
None of the populated plains or mountain basins is extensive in area. The largest, the [[Kanto Plain]], where [[Tokyo]] is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the [[Nobi Plain]] surrounding [[Nagoya]], the [[Kinki Plain]] in the [[Osaka]]-[[Kyoto]] area, the [[Sendai Plain]] around the city of [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]] in northeastern Honshu, and the [[Ishikari Plain]] on Hokkaido. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history.
The small amount of habitable land prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building [[dike (construction)|dikes]] and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new [[Kansai International Airport]] in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing.
Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Most rivers are fewer than 300 kilometers in length, but their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] generation. Japan's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the [[Shinano River]], which winds through [[Nagano Prefecture]] to [[Niigata Prefecture]] and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is [[Lake Biwa]], northeast of Kyoto.
Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the [[Inland Sea]] (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaido, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.
==Climate==
Japan belongs to the temperate zone with distinct four seasons, but its climate varies from cool temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds that blow from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in summers.
Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, Japan has a variety of climates, with a range often compared to that of the east coast of [[North America]], from [[Nova Scotia]] to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. [[Tokyo]] is at about 36 north latitude, comparable to that of [[Tehran]], [[Athens]], or [[Los Angeles]]. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation celebrated in [[Japanese art|art]] and [[Japanese literature|literature]], as well as regional variations ranging from cool in Hokkaido to subtropical in Kyushu. Climate also varies with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan. Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan has hot, humid summers and short winters, and southwestern Japan has long, hot, humid summers and mild winters.
Two primary factors influence Japan's climate: a location near the [[Asia]]n continent and the existence of major [[Ocean current|oceanic currents]]. The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six [[Tropical cyclone|typhoon]]s pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early September, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual [[precipitation]], which averages between 100 and 200 centimeters, is concentrated in the period between June and September. In fact, 70 to 80 percent of the annual precipitation falls during this period. In winter, a high-pressure area develops over Siberia, and a low-pressure area develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air eastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.
Two major ocean currents affect this climatic pattern: the warm [[Kuroshio Current]] (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold [[Oyashio Current]] (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as far north as Tokyo; a small branch, the [[Tsushima Current]], flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in [[plankton]] beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The meeting point of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.
Late June and early July are a rainy season except Hokkaido as a seasonal rain front or baiu zensen (梅雨前線) stays above Japan. In summer and early autumn, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, attack Japan with furious rainstorms.
Its varied geographical features divide Japan into six principal climatic zones.
* Hokkaidō (北海道): Belonging to the cool temperate zone, Hokkaido has long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not great.
* Nihonkai (日本海) or Sea of Japan: The northwest seasonal wind in winter gives heavy snowfalls. In summer it is less hot than in the Pacific area but sometimes experiences extreme high temperatures due to the [[Föhn wind]] phenomenon.
* [[Chūō-kōchi]] (中央高地) or Central highland: A typical inland climate gives large temperature differences between summers and winters and between days and nights. Precipitation is |
tionPublisher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG6420 ''The Death of Actaeon''], by [[Titian]]
==References==
* ''The [[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', ''s.v.'' "Actaeon"
* [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', 3.138ff
* [[Euripedes]], ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'', 337–40
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] 4.81.4
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[ca:Acteó]]
[[de:Aktaion]]
[[et:Aktaion]]
[[es:Acteón]]
[[fr:Actéon]]
[[gl:Acteón]]
[[it:Atteone]]
[[lt:Aktaeonas]]
[[lb:Aktaion]]
[[nl:Actaeon]]
[[pl:Akteon (mitologia)]]
[[ru:Актеон]]
[[sv:Aktaion]]
[[uk:Актеон]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anglicanism</title>
<id>1214</id>
<revision>
<id>42155455</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:37:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paul foord</username>
<id>240061</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ wl fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
The term '''''Anglican''''' (from [[Anglia]], the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name for England) describes the people and churches that follow the religious traditions developed by the [[state religion|established]] [[Church of England]]. The [[Anglican Communion]] codifies the Anglican relationship to the Church of England as a theologically broad and often diverging community of churches, which holds the English church as its mother institution. Adherents of Anglicanism within the [[Anglican Communion]] (that is in communion with the [[See of Canterbury]]) worldwide number around 70 million but there are numerous denominations which consider themselves Anglican but which are out of the Communion.
The issue of [[Catholic]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] affiliation is often confusing. Whilst many Anglicans regard themselves as being within the Protestant tradition, many other Anglicans, especially [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], do not consider themselves as Protestants. The Church of England claims explicitly that the Church "upholds the catholic faith." (The Athanasian Creed states "And the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance." The phrase "catholic church" by definition means the universal Christian Church but also holds the sense of the "church in its fullness" ).
Ultimately, the Anglican Church considers itself as being both catholic (stressing its continuity with the ancient Church), and Reformed / Protestant (noting that the Church does not accept the universal infallible authority of the Pope). The conduct of eucharistically-centred worship services is in keeping with the catholic liturgical tradition and the Communion emphasises its status of [[full communion]] with the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholic Utrecht Union]] &mdash; a small community of churches which split from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1870]] over the doctrine of papal infallibility. On the other hand, the development of Anglicanism as a distinctive theological tradition is also deeply connected with the [[Protestant Reformation]].
As with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] churches (but unlike most Protestant churches), Anglicans claim authority within the church through [[apostolic succession]] from the first followers of [[Jesus]]. The Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation actually reached agreement on the doctrine of the ministry in their Elucidation of 1979 [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_elucid_min.html], but the [[Roman Catholic Church]] continues to hold that Anglican Orders are not "valid." In contrast, Anglican Orders are recognized as valid by the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] and [[Lutheran]]s, communions which also consider themselves "the Catholic Church." Anglicans traditionally date their church back at least to its first Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Augustine of Canterbury|Saint Augustine of Canterbury]], in the 6th century and even centuries earlier to the [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation]]. Many Anglicans point out that Christian missionaries existed in the British lands from the 1st century, with bishops established at Glastonbury by commission from the Apostle Philip. They consider [[Celtic Christianity]] a prefix of their faith, since many Celtic elements remained, even after the Synod of Whitby conformed to Roman customs (well after the establishment of the Canterbury See). They also point out that bishops from the British Isles participated in the early Ecumenical Councils - most significantly [[Pelagius]], the monk who was almost successful in stopping [[Original Sin]] from becoming an official Church doctrine.
== Origins ==
''See also: [[History of the Church of England]]''
While Anglicans acknowledge that the [[schisms|schism]] from papal authority under [[Henry VIII of England]] led to the Church of England existing as a separate entity, they also stress its continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. The organisational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672-673 AD when the English bishops were for the first time able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Since the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]] the [[Church of England]] has enjoyed a heritage that is both Catholic and Protestant with the British monarch as its [[Supreme Governor]]. Contrary to much popular belief, the British monarch is not the constitutional "Head" of the Church of England and it is incorrect to refer to the monarch as such. The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world although the prayer books of several countries maintain prayers for "Our Sovereign Lady Elizabeth," and the versicle at [[Morning Prayer]] "O Lord save the Queen," which in the United States prayer book, for example, is altered to "O Lord save the state."
{{Anglicanism}}
Nonetheless, the [[English Reformation]] was initially driven by the dynastic goals of [[Henry VIII of England]], who, in his quest for a queen to bear him a male heir, found it necessary and profitable to replace the [[Papacy]] with the English crown. Henry's need for a legitimate male heir was real. England's previous experience in the twelfth century of rule by a queen had been a disaster that no-one wished to see repeated. (see [[Empress Matilda]]) It was not Henry's intention to found a new church. He was well informed enough about history to know that the powers he was claiming were those which had been exercised by European monarchs over the church in their dominions since the time of Constantine and that what had changed since then had been the growth of papal power. The [[Act of Supremacy]] put Henry at the head of the church in [[1534]], while acts such as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] put huge amounts of church land and property into the hands of [[the Crown]] and ultimately into those of the English nobility. These created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Monarch. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Cranmer]] and continued by other thinkers such as [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]] and [[Lancelot Andrewes]]. Cranmer had studied in Europe and was influenced by the ideas of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] and had also married despite being a priest. Because Cranmer and other leaders of the Church of England had been ordained by bishops in the [[Apostolic Succession]], and passed on that ordination to their successors, Anglicans consider that they have retained the historic apostolic succession, but differ as to how significant this is.
During the short reign of [[Edward VI of England |Edward VI]], Henry's son, Cranmer was able to move the Church of England significantly towards a more Protestant [[Calvinist]] position. The first [[Book of Common Prayer]] dates from this period. This reform was reversed abruptly in the subsequent reign of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary]]. Only under [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] was the English church established as a reformed Catholic church that was accepting of Calvinistic and Evangelical theology.
In the 16th century religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with treason and foreign invasion possibly thrown in as well. Elizabeth's solution to the problem of minimising bloodshed over religion in her dominions was a [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement|religious settlement]] which prescribed a fixed, sparer form of worship, in the vernacular, in which everyone was expected to take part, i.e. ''common prayer'', but a belief system formulated in a way that would allow people with different understandings of what the Bible taught to give assent. The Protestant principle that all things must be proved by scripture was endorsed in article VI of the [[Thirty-nine Articles]], so that no one could be required to believe anything unless it could be clearly proved from the Scriptures. This did recognise that there were areas where the Bible did not give clear cut teaching, where differences of opinion among Christians were legitimate. The bulk of the population was willing to go along with Elizabeth's religious settlement, but extremists at both ends of the theological spectrum would have nothing to do with it, and cracks in the façade of religious unity in England were appearing.
For the next century there were significant swings back and forth between the [[Puri |
28T00:05:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khoikhoi</username>
<id>657950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fmt external links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{ethnic group|
|group=Frisians
|image=
|poptime=1,500,000 (est.){{fact}}
|popplace=[[Frisia]] (comprising parts of The [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]]) <!--But do any Frisians live in Denmark? --User:Khoikhoi-->
|rels=[[Protestantism]]
|langs=[[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]]
|related=[[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]], other [[Germanic peoples]]
}}
The '''Frisians''' are an ethnic group of northwestern [[Europe]], inhabiting an area known as [[Frisia]].
==Freedom of the Frisian People, Frisian Law==
In the 8th century Charlemagne freed the people of Friesland from swearing fealty to foreign overlords ''“That all Frisians would be fully free, the born and the unborn, so long as the wind blows from heaven and the child cries, grass grows green and flowers bloom, as far as the sun rises and the world stands.”''
This is from a 12th century law text[http://www.i-friesland.com/Frisian_law.htm] written in Old Frisian using the poetic saga-style of Scandinavian epics. There are a substantial number of existing Frisian law texts and some of these have yet to be studied. There is currently a Frisia Project at the University of Amsterdam that is studying the ancient history of Friesland, which will likely uncover a lot more fascinating facts.
But the tantalising tidbits of Frisian history that are already known reveal a people not much given to making their mark on history, except when provoked, and then fighting with a legendary fierceness to protect their freedom.
==History in Roman Times==
The ancestors of the Dutch were defeated by the Romans under Augustus, when they managed to defeat the Belgae and the Batavians. However the Frisians were able to form a treaty with the Romans at the River Rhine in 28 AD, avoiding conquest. But 16 years later when taxes became repressive, they hung the taxman and defeated the Romans under Tiberius at the famous Battle of Baduhennawood. The Frisii were known and respected by the Romans and written about by several sources. Tacitus wrote a particularly fascinating treatise about the Germanic peoples in 69 AD, describing the habits of the Germanic people, as well as listing numerous tribes by name.[http://www.i-friesland.com/Tacitus_traits.htm] Of the many tribes mentioned, the Frisians are the only ones that have preserved their ancient name.[http://www.i-friesland.com/Tacitus_tribes.htm]
Friesland had been early settled, with evidence of terp-building, the distinctive raised settlements, starting in 700 BC. The people began to be a distinctive tribe in around 200 BC. They were displaced from their homeland to Flanders and Kent, England due to heavy flooding in 250 AD. Habitation of the area remained impossible for the next 150 years. When some of the Frisians returned around 400 AD there were already Saxons and Jutes settled there, and the Frisian people merged with them, maintaining the identity and traditions of the Frisian tribe. The Frisians were closely related to the Saxons and the Frisian language remains the closest surviving language to English.
The Roman historian [[Tacitus]], in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', mentioned the Frisians among people he grouped together as the [[Ingvaeones]]. Two different types, or classes are mentioned by [[Tacitus]], the maiores Frisii and the minores Frisii. Divided by the soil of their farmlands, the maiores Frisii or Clay Frisians populated fertile clay soil increasing the size of their harvests, lifestock and even their posture. The small and relatively unhealthy minores Frisii (Sand Frisians) farmed on sand lands and subsequently their crops lacked size or number compared to those of the maiores Frisii. According to Tacitus even the armies of the maiores were larger and better equipped.
They were probably a people of seafarers, the [[North Sea]] spanning from [[Bretagne]] to Eastern [[Denmark]], was referred to as the ''Mare Frisia'' at that time. Small groups of Frisians settled the surrounding lands and their settlements have been traced to [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[France]] and obviously to [[The Netherlands]].
Their territory followed the coast of the North Sea from the mouth of the [[Rhine]] river up to that of the [[Ems]], their eastern border according to [[Ptolemy]]'s ''Geographica''. [[Pliny the Elder]] states in ''Belgica'' that they were conquered by the Roman general [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] in 12 BC, after that several uprisings have been mentioned by Tacitus. The most noted of these is their partake in the [[Batavii]] Rebellion. Thereafter the Frisians largely sank into historical obscurity, until coming into contact with the expanding [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] empires.
In the 5th Century, during this period of historical silence, many of them no doubt joined the migration of the Anglo-Saxons who went through [[Frisia|Frisian territory]] to invade [[Great Britain]], while those who stayed on the continent expanded into the newly-emptied lands previously occupied by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. By the end of the sixth century the Frisians occupied the coast all the way to the mouth of the Weser and spread farther still in the seventh century, southward down to [[Dorestad]] and even [[Bruges]]. This farthest extent of Frisian territory is known as Frisia Magna.
The empire that came in to being after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] was governed by a king or a duke. The earliest document referring to an independ state ruled by a king is dated 678. Early attempts of to Christianize Frisia were unable to convert the fierce pagan Frisians and various monks were murdered or banished, with the legendary example of the murder of [[Bonifatius]] in Dokkum. King [[Radbod]] was even ably to beat the mighty [[Charles Martel]] in 714 to preserve independence. Twenty years later [[Charles Martel]] got his revenge and effectively subjugated the entire Frisian empire. Christianity was also enforced by the Christian Franks and in Utrecht a Bishop was installed to see to Christian affairs in Frisia. Not until the early 800s did they fully reclaim their independence from the Frankish grip. Christianity had however taken root and had been adopted by most Frisians.
=== Dukes of Friesland ===
* [[Folcwald]] ???-???
* [[Finn (Frisian)|Finn]] ???-???
* [[Sibbelt]] ???-???
* [[Ritzard]] ???-???
* [[Aldegisel]] ???-680
* [[Radbod]] 680-719
* [[Poppo (Frisian)|Poppo]] 719-734
* [[Radbod]] ???-???
=== Friesland in the middle ages ===
{{sect-stub}}
=== Modern history ===
[[Image:German_Bight.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite view of the German Bight (the Frisian Coast).]]
The modern remnants of Frisia Magna are small and scattered. Most of it became dominated by its expanding neighbors: the [[Saxons]] (who were moving north and west) and the [[Franks]] (who were pushing north and east). Western and Middle Frisia are solidly within the modern state of the [[Netherlands]], which now includes the "heartland" of the Frisians from the North Sea coast from [[Alkmaar]] in the modern province of Noord-Holland, along the coasts of the modern provinces of [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], and up to the mouth of the Ems. Culturally, it has shrunk down to the province of Friesland alone. The [[Frisian language]] is now spoken only there and in parts of only the [[Wadden Sea]] islands of [[Terschelling]] and [[Schiermonnikoog]]. [[East Frisia|East]] and [[Nordfriesland|North Frisia]] have been absorbed into the northern states of [[Germany]], with only the marshes of [[Saterland]], well inland from the coast, still retaining any cultural identity. There are also descendants of Frisians living on the coast of the Jutland peninsula and nearby islands. It is unclear when they arrived there, or even whether they lived first on the islands and then spread to the mainland, or vice-versa. What remains of their language is under heavy pressure from [[Low German]], [[German language|standard German]], and [[Danish language|Danish]], and faces possible extinction.
==See also==
*[[Frisia]]
*[[Frisian language]]
*[[Frisian Islands]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Netherlands]]
[[da:Friserne]]
[[de:Friesen]]
[[fy:Friezen]]
[[nl:Friezen]]
[[pl:Fryzowie]]
[[pt:Frísios]]
[[ru:Фризы]]
==External Links==
*[http://www.i-friesland.com/index.html The Frisian Meeting Place]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faeroe Islands</title>
<id>11798</id>
<revision>
<id>15909520</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faroe Islands]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Falsify</title>
<id>11799</id>
<revision>
<id>15909521</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falsifiability]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Futurism</title>
<id>11800</id>
<revision>
<id>40691411</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T09:29:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thue</username>
<id>19556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Coinman|Coinman]] ([[User talk:Coinman|talk]]) to last version by 132.208.132.34</comment>
<text xml:space="preser |
or (d. [[1989]])
* [[1899]] - [[Jorge Luis Borges]], Argentine writer (d. [[1986]])
* [[1901]] - [[Preston Foster]], American actor (d. [[1970]])
* [[1904]] - [[Alice White]], American film actress (d. [[1983]])
* [[1915]] - [[James Tiptree, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1987]])
* [[1916]] - [[Hal Smith (actor)|Hal Smith]], American actor and voice actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1922]] - [[René Lévesque]], Premier of Quebec (d. [[1987]])
*[[1923]] - [[Arthur Jensen]], American psychologist
*[[1927]] - [[Harry Markowitz]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1929]] - [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestinian leader, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1934]] - [[Kenny Baker]], English actor
*[[1936]] - [[A. S. Byatt]], English novelist
*[[1938]] - [[Halldór Blöndal]], Icelandic politician
*1938 - [[David Freiberg]], American bassist ([[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] and [[Jefferson Starship]])
*[[1943]] - [[John Cipollina]], American guitarist ([[Quicksilver Messenger Service]]) (d. [[1989]])
*[[1944]] - [[Jim Capaldi]], British drummer, singer, and songwriter ([[Traffic]]) (d. [[2005]])
*[[1945]] - [[Ken Hensley]], English musician ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]])
*1945 - [[Vince McMahon]], American professional wrestling entrepreneur
*[[1947]] - [[Paulo Coelho]], Brazilian author
*[[1948]] - [[Jean-Michel Jarre]], French musician
*[[1951]] - [[Orson Scott Card]], American novelist
*[[1954]] - [[Libby Mooney]],British Science educator
*[[1956]] - [[John Culberson]], American politician
*[[1957]] - [[Stephen Fry]], English comedian, author, and actor
*[[1958]] - [[Steve Guttenberg]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Tracy Harris]], American artist
*[[1960]] - [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], baseball player
*[[1962]] - [[Craig Kilborn]], American talk show host
*1962 - [[David Koechner]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[John Bush]], American singer ([[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]])
*1963 - [[Hideo Kojima]], Japanese video game director
*[[1964]] - [[Salizhan Sharipov]], cosmonaut
*[[1965]] - [[Marlee Matlin]], American actress
*1965 - [[Reggie Miller]], American basketball player
*[[1968]] - [[Shoichi Funaki]], Japanese professional wrestler
*1968 - [[Andreas Kisser]], Brazilian guitarist ([[Sepultura]])
*[[1973]] - [[David Chappelle]], American actor and comedian
*1973 - [[Inge de Bruijn]], Dutch swimmer
*1973 - [[Carmine Giovinazzo]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Jennifer Lien]], American actress
*[[1978]] - [[Rafael Furcal]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1981]] - [[Chad Michael Murray]], American actor
*[[1983]] - [[Christopher Parker]], British actor
*[[1988]] - [[Rupert Grint]], English actor
==Deaths==
*[[79]] - [[Pliny the Elder]], Roman writer and naturalist (b. [[23]])
*[[1042]] - [[Michael V]], [[Byzantine Emperor]]) (b. [[1015]])
*[[1103]] - King [[Magnus III of Norway]] (b. [[1073]])
*[[1217]] - [[Eustace the Monk]], French mercenary and pirate
*[[1540]] - [[Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola]], Italian painter (b. [[1503]])
*[[1542]] - [[Gasparo Contarini]], Italian diplomat and cardinal (b. [[1483]])
*[[1572]] - Victims of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre:
** [[Gaspard de Coligny]], French Huguenot leader (b. [[1519]])
** [[Petrus Ramus|Pierre de la Ramée]], French humanist (b. [[1515]])
** [[Charles de Téligny]], French Huguenot soldier
*[[1595]] - [[Thomas Digges]], English astronomer (b. [[1546]])
*[[1647]] - [[Nicholas Stone]], English sculptor and architect (b. [[1586]])
*[[1664]] - [[Maria Cunitz]], Silesian astronomer
*[[1679]] - [[Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz]], French churchman and agitator (b. [[1614]])
*[[1680]] - [[Thomas Blood]], Irish-born thief of the British crown jewels (b. [[1618]])
*[[1683]] - [[John Owen (theologian)|John Owen]], English non-conformist theologian (b. [[1616]])
*[[1759]] - [[Ewald Christian von Kleist]], German poet (b. [[1715]])
*[[1779]] - [[Kosmas Aitolos]], Greek Orthodox martyr (b. [[1714]])
*[[1831]] - [[August von Gneisenau]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1760]])
*[[1832]] - [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], French mathematician (b. [[1796]])
*[[1888]] - [[Rudolf Clausius]], German physicist (b. [[1822]])
*[[1921]] - [[Nikolay Gumilyov]], Russian poet (b. [[1886]])
*[[1841]] - [[Theodore Edward Hook]], English author (b. [[1788]])
*[[1940]] - [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow]], German television pioneer (b. [[1860]])
*[[1946]] - [[James Clark McReynolds]], U.S. Supreme Court justice (b. [[1862]])
*[[1954]] - [[Getúlio Vargas]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1956]] - [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], Japanese film director (b. [[1898]])
*[[1958]] - [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1876]])
*[[1967]] - [[Henry J. Kaiser]], American industrialist (b. [[1882]])
*[[1975]] - [[Eamon de Valera]], [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1978]] - [[Louis Prima]], American band leader (b. [[1910]])
*[[1979]] - [[Hanna Reitsch]], German pilot (b. [[1912]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul Creston]], American composer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1990]] - [[Sergei Dovlatov]], Russian writer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1991]] - [[Bernard Castro]], Italian inventor (b. [[1904]])
*[[1995]] - [[Alfred Eisenstaedt]], German-born photographer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1998]] - [[E.G. Marshall]], American actor (b. [[1910]])
*[[2002]] - [[Hoyt Wilhelm]], baseball player (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - Sir [[Wilfred Thesiger]], British explorer (b. [[1910]])
*[[2004]] - [[Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]], Swiss-born psychiatrist (b. [[1926]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - first of the 3 days on which the ''mundus'' was openend
* [[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - Feast day of Saint [[Bartholomew]]
* [[Liberia]]: Flag Day
* [[Sierra Leone]]: President's Birthday
* [[Ukraine]]: National Holiday, independence from Russia (1991)
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/24 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 23]] - [[August 25]] - [[July 24]] - [[September 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:24 Augustus]]
[[ar:24 أغسطس]]
[[an:24 d'agosto]]
[[ast:24 d'agostu]]
[[bg:24 август]]
[[be:24 жніўня]]
[[bs:24. august]]
[[ca:24 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 24]]
[[cv:Çурла, 24]]
[[co:24 d'aostu]]
[[cs:24. srpen]]
[[cy:24 Awst]]
[[da:24. august]]
[[de:24. August]]
[[et:24. august]]
[[el:24 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:24 de agosto]]
[[eo:24-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 24]]
[[fo:24. august]]
[[fr:24 août]]
[[fy:24 augustus]]
[[ga:24 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:24 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 24일]]
[[hr:24. kolovoza]]
[[io:24 di agosto]]
[[id:24 Agustus]]
[[ia:24 de augusto]]
[[ie:24 august]]
[[is:24. ágúst]]
[[it:24 agosto]]
[[he:24 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:24 Agustus]]
[[ka:24 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:24 zélnika]]
[[ku:24'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 24]]
[[lb:24. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 24]]
[[mk:24 август]]
[[ms:24 Ogos]]
[[nap:24 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:24 augustus]]
[[ja:8月24日]]
[[no:24. august]]
[[nn:24. august]]
[[oc:24 d'agost]]
[[pl:24 sierpnia]]
[[pt:24 de Agosto]]
[[ro:24 august]]
[[ru:24 августа]]
[[sco:24 August]]
[[sq:24 Gusht]]
[[scn:24 di austu]]
[[simple:August 24]]
[[sk:24. august]]
[[sl:24. avgust]]
[[sr:24. август]]
[[fi:24. elokuuta]]
[[sv:24 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 24]]
[[tt:24. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 24]]
[[th:24 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:24 tháng 8]]
[[tr:24 Ağustos]]
[[uk:24 серпня]]
[[wa:24 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 24]]
[[zh:8月24日]]
[[pam:Agostu 24]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 26</title>
<id>1630</id>
<revision>
<id>41944558</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:17:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Durova</username>
<id>521374</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ Sorry, Joan of Arc never entered Paris. The battle she fought at the city wall was September 8.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=26}}
|}
'''[[August 26]]''' is the 238th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (239th in [[leap year]]s). There are 127 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[55 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]] invades [[British Iron Age|Britain]]
*[[1071]] - [[Battle of Manzikert]]: The [[Seljuk Turks]] defeat the [[Byzantine Empire]] at [[Manzikert]]
*[[1278]] - [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]] and [[Rudolph I of Germany]] defeat [[Premysl Ottokar II]] of [[Bohemia]] in the [[Battle of Marchfield]] near [[Dürnkrut]] in [[Moravia]].
*[[1346]] - [[Hundred Years' War]]: The military supremacy of the English [[longbow]] over the French combination of [[crossbow]] and armoured [[knight]]s is established at the [[Battle of Crécy]].
*[[1498]] - [[Michelangelo]] commissioned to carve the [[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]].
*[[1778]] - The first ascent of [[Triglav]], the highest mountain of [[Slovenia]].
*[[1789]] - [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] approved by [[Constituent Assembly]] at [[Palace of Versailles]]
*[[1839]] - The ship ''[[Amistad (ship)|Amistad]]'' is captured off [[Long Island]].
*[[1858]] - First news dispatch by [[Telegraphy|telegraph]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] begins.
*[[1883]] - Eruption of Mount [[Krakatoa]].
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|Germans]] defeat [[Russia]]ns in [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]].
*[[1914]] - World War I: The [[British Expeditionary Force]] briefly checks the German advance at [[Le Cateau-Cambrésis|Le Cateau]].
*[[1914]] - World War I: The German colony of [[Togoland]] is invaded by French and British forces, who take it after 5 days.
*[[1920]] - [[United States Constitution/Amendment Nineteen|19th amendment]] to U.S. Constitution gives women the right to vote.
*[[1939]] - The first [[Major League Baseball]] game is telecast, a double-header between the [[Cincinnati Reds]] and the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] at [[Ebbets Field]], in [[Brooklyn, New York]].
*[[1940]] - [[Chad]] is the firs |
city.
The [[cheeseburger]] was invented in Denver by Louis Ballast who operated the Humpty Dumpty Barrel drive-in. He applied for a patent on his now famous invention in 1935. It has been speculated that he wasn’t the first person to add cheese to a hamburger, but nobody has an earlier patent, and no evidence to debunk his claim has emerged.[http://www.magazineusa.com/us/info/show.aspx?unit=originals&doc=32]
It was an important place for the "[[beat generation]]." Beat icon [[Neal Cassady]] was raised on Larimer Street in Denver, and a portion of [[Jack Kerouac]]'s beat masterpiece [[On the Road]] takes place in the city, and is based on the beat's actual experiences in Denver during a road trip. Beat poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] lived for a time in the Denver suburb of [[Lakewood, Colorado]], and he helped found the [[Buddhist]] college, [[Naropa University]] or the "Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa" in nearby [[Boulder, Colorado]].
== Geography and climate ==
=== Geography ===
Denver is located at 39&deg;43'35" North, 104&deg;57'56" West (39.726287, -104.965486){{GR|1}} in the [[Colorado Front Range]] region. It has the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the west and the [[great plains]] to the east.
[[Image:Denver satellite 1999.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of the Denver Metropolitan area]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 401.3 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (154.9 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 397.2 km&sup2; (153.4 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 4.1 km&sup2; (1.6 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.03% water.
=== Climate ===
Denver has a semi-arid climate characterized by dry winters, wetter springs, low-humidity summers, and pleasant falls. While Denver is located on the [[Great Plains]], the weather of the city and surrounding area is heavily influenced by the proximity of the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the west. In the winter, the storms dump huge amounts of snow in the mountains on the western edge of the range and get blocked by the towering Front Range mountains. So, Denver tends to have dry winters that receive less snow than one may expect. In the late spring and early summer, the warm, moist air from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] influences the area and thunderstorms are prevalent, especially in the afternoon. Late summer thunderstorms are also common, fueled by tropical moisture from [[Mexico]] called the "monsoonal flow."
The climate, while considered mild compared to the mountains to the west and the plains further east, can often be very unpredictable. An often-repeated saying made famous by Denverites is "If you don't like the weather, wait five minutes." Measurable amounts of snow have fallen in Denver as late as [[Memorial Day]] and as early as [[Labor Day]], although trace amounts have been recorded in [[June]]. September snowstorms of two feet or more have occurred.
Denver averages 15.4 inches (391 mm) of precipitation per year. The average annual snowfall is around 60 inches. Although Denver's Convention and Visitor Bureau claims Denver receives over 300 sunny days a year [http://www.denver.org/StaticPage.aspx?PN=climate], the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] says Denver receives about 250 days of sunshine a year [http://ols.nndc.noaa.gov/plolstore/plsql/olstore.prodspecific?prodnum=C00095-PUB-A0001#TABLES]. January's average daily high is 43° F with a daily low of 15°F. July's average high is 88°F with a low of 59°F.
[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/bou//cli/climo.php]
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 align=center cellspacing=0 style="text-align:right; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;"
!<br>!!<br>!!Jan!!Feb!!Mar!!Apr!!May!!Jun!!Jul!!Aug!!Sep!!Oct!!Nov!!Dec
|-
!align=left|Extreme Daily Maximum
|align=center|°F
| 76||77||84||90||95||104||103||105||97||90||79||79
|-
!align=left|Average Daily Maximum
|align=center|°F
| 43||47||53||60||70||82||88||86||77||66||51||44
|-
!align=left|Average Daily Minimum
|align=center|°F
| 15||19||25||34||43||53||58||57||47||35||23||16
|-
!align=left|Extreme Daily Minimum
|align=center|°F
| -29||-25||-11||-2||19||30||42||40||17||-2||-18||-25
|-
|colspan=14 align=center bgcolor=#f0f0f0 style="font-size:75%"| Data is for Denver International Airport
|}
<br clear=all>
===Neighborhoods===
[[Image:Denveneighborhoods.gif|thumbnail|left|275px|Denver's 79 neighborhoods offer a variety of living experiences]]
Denver has 79 [[neighbourhood|neighborhoods]] that the City and community groups use for planning and administration. Although the City's delineation of the neighborhood boundaries is somewhat arbitrary, the City's definitions of its neighborhoods roughly correspond to those used by residents.
Denver also has a number of neighborhoods not reflected in the City's administrative neighborhoods. Sometimes these neighborhoods reflect the way people in an area identify themselves; sometimes they reflect how others, such as real estate developers, have defined those areas.
Among the neighborhoods commonly spoken of are historic and trendy [[LoDo]] (short for "Lower Downtown"), part of the City's Union Station neighborhood; [[Capitol Hill, Denver, Colorado|Capitol Hill]], [[Washington Park, Denver|Washington Park]]; Uptown, part of the North Capitol Hill neighborhood; Curtis Park, part of the Five Points neighborhood; [[Alamo Placita]], the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; and the [[Golden Triangle, Denver, Colorado|Golden Triangle]], roughly the Civic Center neighborhood.
See [[List of Neighborhoods in Denver]]
== Demographics ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Denver <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|1880 || 35,629
|-
|1890 || 106,713
|-
|1900 || 133,859
|-
|1910 || 213,381
|-
|1920 || 256,491
|-
|1930 || 287,861
|-
|1940 || 322,412
|-
|1950 || 415,786
|-
|1960 || 493,887
|-
|1970 || 514,678
|-
|1980 || 492,365
|-
|1990 || 467,610
|-
|2000 || 554,636
|-
|2005 || 579,744
|}
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2005]], there are an estimated 579,744 people, 250,906 households, and 119,378 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,396.5/km&sup2; (3,616.8/mi&sup2;). There are 268,617 housing units at an average density of 633.1/km&sup2; (1,639.6/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 51.9% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 11.1% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], about 2.2% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.81% [[Asian American]], 0.12% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 15.59% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.75% from two or more races. 31.68% of the population is [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race, giving Denver one of the highest populations of Hispanics or Latinos in the U.S.. The Denver Metropolitan Area also has one of the largest [[Jewish]] communities in the U.S., with a population of roughly 100,000. In the city of Denver, the largest populations of Jews are found in the West Colfax and Hilltop neighborhoods. [http://www.milechai.com/jewish_colorado]
There are 250,906 households out of which 23.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% are non-families. 39.3% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.27 and the average family size is 3.14.
In the city the population is spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 102.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $39,500, and the median income for a family is $48,195. Males have a median income of $34,232 versus $30,768 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $24,101. 14.3% of the population and 10.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 20.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Economy==
Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the major transportation systems of the country. Denver's history is a reflection of the boom and bust cycles of the old west. Because Denver is the largest city within 600 miles, it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the [[Mountain States]]. Denver is also approximately halfway between the large cities of the [[Midwest]] like [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[St. Louis]] and the cities of the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]], another benefit for distribution. Over the years, the city has been home to some large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country.
[[Image:17thstreetdenver.jpg|thumb|17th Street, dubbed the "Wall St. of the West," is home to many of Denver's banks, corporations, and financial agencies.]]
Geography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area. In fact, the [[Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Area]] has more federal workers than any other metropolitan area except for the [[Washington D.C.]] metropolitan area. Along with the plethora of federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects. [[Lockheed-Martin]] and [[Ball Aerospace]] are examples. Of course, being the [[capital]] of the state of [[Colorado]] also |
kname = Live Music Capital of the World, ATX
| image_skyline =
| image_flag = us-tx-au.gif
| image_seal = austinlogo.jpg
| image_map = TXMap-doton-Austin.PNG
| map_caption = Location in the state of [[Texas]]
| subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|County]]
| subdivision_name = [[Travis County, Texas|Travis County]]
| leader_title = [[Mayor]]
| leader_name = Will Wynn
| area_magnitude = 1 E9
| area_total = 669.3
| area_land = 651.4
| area_water = 17.9
| population_as_of = 2004
| population_metro = 1,412,271
| population_total = 681,804 ([[city limits|city proper]])
| population_density = 1,007.9 persons
| timezone = [[Central Standard Time|CST]]
| utc_offset = -6
| timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]]
| utc_offset_DST = -5
| latitude = 30°18'01" N
| longitude = 97°44'50" W
| website = [http://www.cityofaustin.org/ www.cityofaustin.org]
| footnotes =
}}
The City of '''Austin''' is the capital of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Texas]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Travis County, Texas|Travis County]]. According to the 2000 [[U.S. Census]], Austin has a population of 656,562 people, making it the fourth-largest city in Texas and the 16th largest in the [[United States]]. A 2004 U.S. Census estimate placed the population of the city at 681,804. Situated in the region of [[Central Texas]], the [[Texas metropolitan areas|Austin-Round&nbsp;Rock metropolitan area]] is one of the fastest-growing in the United States and is home to an estimated population of 1.4 million as of 2004.
The first documented settlement of current day Austin occurred in 1835 and the site was named [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] in 1837. Waterloo was purchased by [[The Republic of Texas]] in 1839 and [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] renamed the city in honor of [[Stephen F. Austin]]. Its original name is honored by local businesses such as Waterloo Ice House and [[Waterloo Records]]. Austin is situated on the [[Colorado River (Texas)|Colorado River]], and there are three man-made (artificial) lakes within the city limits: [[Town Lake]], [[Lake Austin]], and Lake Walter E. Long. Additionally, the foot of [[Lake Travis]] (including [[Mansfield Dam]]), is located within the city's limits. The city is also situated on the [[Balcones Fault]], which in much of Austin runs roughly the same route as the [[Texas State Highway Loop 1|MoPac expressway]].
Residents of Austin are called "Austinites" and include a heady mix of university [[professors]] and their students, [[politicians]] and [[lobbyists]]. Austin, home to several large sites for major technology corporations such as [[Apple Computer]], [[Dell Computer]], [[IBM]], [[Applied Materials]], [[AMD]], [[Samsung]], and [[Freescale]], is the center of a high-technology region known as '''Silicon Hills'''. It is also the self-proclaimed ''Live Music Capital of the World''.
==History==
===Early settlers===
For several hundred years before the arrival of [[European]] settlers, the area around present-day Austin was inhabited by a mixture of [[Tonkawa]], [[Comanche]], and [[Lipan Apache]] Indians, who fished and hunted along the creeks, including present-day [[Barton Springs]].
In the late 1700s the [[Spain|Spanish]] set up temporary missions in the area, later moving to [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]].
===Anglo American settlers===
[[Image:Stephen f austin.jpg|180px|thumb|left|[[Stephen F. Austin]]]]
The first Anglo-American settlers arrived in the area in the 1830s when Texas was still part of [[Mexico]]. They founded the village of Waterloo along the banks of the Colorado River. According to local folklore, [[Stephen F. Austin]], the "father of Texas", negotiated a peace treaty with the local Indians at the site of the present day [[Treaty Oak, Austin|Treaty Oak]] after several settlers were killed in raids. According to local legend, Austin also negotiated a boundary treaty with the Indians that laid out the fledgling town's limits.
===Republic of Texas===
In 1839, Waterloo was chosen to become the capital of the new [[Republic of Texas]], and the town was renamed Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin.
A [[grid plan]] for the new capital's streets was surveyed by [[Edwin Waller|Judge Edwin Waller]] (after whom [[Waller Creek]] was named). The grid survives nearly intact in present-day downtown Austin. The north-south streets of the grid were named for the rivers of Texas, following an east-west progression from [[Sabine River|Sabine]] Street to [[Rio Grande]] Street ([[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]] Street being "out of order" to the west of Sabine Street). The exception was the central thoroughfare [[Congress Avenue]], which leads from the far south side of town over the river to the foot of the hill where the new [[Texas State Capitol]] was to be constructed. The original north-south grid was bookended by West Avenue and East Avenue (now [[Interstate 35]]).
The east-west streets of the grid followed a progression uphill from the river and were named after trees native to the region, with [[Pecan|Pecan Street]] as the main east-west thoroughfare. The east-west streets were later renamed in a numbered progression, with Pecan Street becoming Sixth Street. The original tree-named streets survive in nostalgic names, including Pecan Street, which is the name of a locally-produced beer.
In October 1839, the entire government of the Republic of Texas arrived by oxcart from [[Houston, Texas|Houston]]. By the next January, the population of the town was 839.
Also in 1839, the Congress of the [[Republic of Texas]] set aside 40 acres (160,000 m²) of land near downtown Austin for a "university of the first class". This land became the central campus of [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]] in 1883.
In 1842, Austin almost lost its status as capital city during the [[Texas Archive War]]. President [[Sam Houston]] had tried to relocate the seat of government from Austin to Houston, and then to [[Washington-on-the-Brazos]]. In the dead of night on [[December 29]], [[1842]], a group of men was sent to take the archives of Texas from Austin to Washington-on-the-Brazos. [[Angelina Eberly]] fired a cannon at the men, who made their escape, only to be caught by another group of men who returned the archives back to Austin.
===1845 to 1899===
After [[Texas]] was admitted to the [[United States|Union]] in 1845, two unsuccessful statewide elections were held that attempted to move the capital elsewhere.
From 1861 to 1865, Texas was part of the Confederacy.
[[St. Edward's University]] (then St. Edward's Academy) was founded in 1878 by Rev. [[Edward Sorin]], Superior General of the Congregation of Holy Cross, on South Austin farm land.
In September 1881, the city schools admitted their first public school classes. That same year, Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute, the forerunner of [[Huston-Tillotson University]], opened to the public.
In 1882 construction began on [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]] campus with the placement of the cornerstone of the Main Building. The university formally opened in 1883.
[[Image:Texas state capitol_1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Texas State Capitol]]
The [[Texas State Capitol]] was completed in 1888 on the site specified in the 1839 plan. At the time it was billed as the "seventh largest building in the world."
In 1891, the neighborhood of [[Hyde Park, Austin|Hyde Park]] was developed north of the University of Texas as a [[streetcar suburb]].
In 1893, the [[Great Granite Dam]] on the Colorado River was constructed, stabilizing the river's flow and providing hydroelectric power.
===1900 to 1969===
In 1910, the concrete Congress Avenue Bridge across the Colorado River opened, fostering development along South Congress Avenue. The Littlefield Building at 6th and Congress downtown also opened this same year.
In 1911, a streetcar line was extended into South Austin, allowing for the development of [[Travis Heights]] in 1913.
In the 1930s, the Great Granite Dam was replaced by a series of seven dams built by the [[Lower Colorado River Authority]], which created the string of reservoirs that now define the river's course through Austin. [[Lyndon Baines Johnson]], then a member of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], was instrumental in getting the funding authorized for these dams.
On [[August 1]], [[1966]], Austin was terrorized by [[Charles Whitman]], who shot and killed 16 people with a high-powered rifle from the clocktower of the Main Building of the University of Texas. The event is considered the most traumatic in the city's history.
===1970 to 1989===
In the 1970s, Austin became a refuge for a group of [[Country music|Country and Western]] musicians and songwriters seeking to escape the music industry's corporate domination of [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. The best-known artist in this group was [[Willie Nelson]], who became an icon for what became the city's "alternate music industry." The [[Armadillo World Headquarters]] gained a national reputation during the 1970s as a venue for these anti-establishment musicians as well as mainstream acts. In the following years, Austin gained a reputation as a place where struggling musicians could launch their careers in informal live venues in front of receptive audiences. This ultimately led to the present-day moniker the city uses of "Live music capital of the world."
During the 1970s and 1980s, the city experienced a tremendous boom in development that temporarily halted with the [[Savings and Loan crisis]] in the late 1980s. The growth led to an ongoing series of fierce political battles that pitted preservationists against developers. In particular the preservation of Barton Springs, and by extension the [[Edwards Aquifer]], became an issue which defined the themes of the larger b |
on{{ref|philoponus}}. This view was strongly opposed by [[Averroës]] and the [[scholastic]] philosophers who supported Aristotle.
====Theory of impetus====
However, in the [[14th century]] [[Jean Buridan]] rejected the notion that this motion-generating property, which he named ''impetus'', dissipated spontaneously. Instead, Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and [[gravity]] which might oppose its impetus{{ref|buridan}}. Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of [[momentum]]. However, the two concepts differ in that Buridan proposed impetus as ''causing'' motion, whereas momentum is defined as being ''caused by'' motion. Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other [[peripatetic]] views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest. Buridan also maintained that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, causing objects (such as celestial bodies) to move in a circle.
===Classical inertia===
The Aristotelian philosophy of motion became increasingly problematic in the face of the conclusions of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] in the [[16th century]], who argued that the earth (and everything on it) was in fact never "at rest", but was actually in constant motion around the sun{{ref|revolutionibus}}. [[Galileo]], in his further development of the Copernican model, recognized these problems with the then-accepted nature of motion and, at least partially as a result, developed what is commonly considered the first description of what has ultimately come to be the modern idea of inertia:
<blockquote>A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed.</blockquote>
It is also worth noting that Galileo later went on to conclude that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against{{ref|galileo-worldsys}}. This observation ultimately came to be the basis for [[Einstein]] to develop the theory of [[Special Relativity]].
Galileo's concept of inertia would later come to be refined and codified by [[Isaac Newton]] as the first of his [[Newton's laws of motion|Laws of Motion]] (first published in Newton's work, ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', in 1687):
<blockquote>Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, an object will maintain a constant velocity.</blockquote>
Note that "velocity" in this context is defined as a [[vector]], thus Newton's "constant velocity" implies both constant speed and constant direction (and also includes the case of zero speed, or no motion). Since initial publication, Newton's Laws of Motion (and by extension this first law) have come to form the basis for the almost universally accepted branch of [[physics]] now termed [[classical mechanics]].
The actual term "inertia" was first introduced by [[Johannes Kepler]] in his ''Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae'' (published in three parts from 1618-1621); however, the meaning of Kepler's term (which he derived from the latin word for "idleness" or "laziness") was not quite the same as its modern interpretation. Kepler defined inertia only in terms of a resistance to movement, once again based on the presumption that rest was a natural state which did not need explanation. It was not until the later work of Galileo and Newton unified rest and motion in one principle that the term "inertia" could be applied to these concepts as it is today.
Nevertheless, despite defining the concept so elegantly in his laws of motion, even Newton did not actually use the term "inertia" to refer to his First Law. In fact, Newton originally viewed the phenomenon he described in his First Law of Motion as being caused by "innate forces" inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration. Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton actually attributed the term "inertia" to mean "the innate force posessed by an object which resists changes in motion"; thus Newton defined "inertia" to mean the ''cause'' of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself. However, Newton's original ideas of "innate resistive force" were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms. As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it's now generally accepted that there may not be one which we can know, the term "inertia" has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism. Thus, ultimately, "inertia" in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now basically equivalent.
===Relativity===
[[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[Special Relativity]], as proposed in his 1905 paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," built on the understanding of inertia and [[inertial reference frames]] developed by Galileo and Newton. While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[distance]], Einstein's concept of inertia remained unchanged from Newton's original meaning (in fact the entire theory was based on Newton's definition of inertia). However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in Special Relativity that it could only apply when reference frames were ''inertial'' in nature (meaning when no acceleration was present). In an attempt to address this limitation, Einstein proceeded to develop his theory of [[General Relativity]] ("The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity," 1916), which ultimately provided a unified theory for both ''inertial'' and ''noninertial'' (accelerated) reference frames. However, in order to accomplish this, in General Relativity Einstein found it necessary to redefine several fundamental aspects of the universe (such as gravity) in terms of a new concept of "curvature" of [[spacetime]], instead of the more traditional system of forces understood by Newton.
As a result of this redefinition, Einstein also redefined the concept of "inertia" in terms of [[geodesic deviation]] instead, with some subtle but significant additional implications. The result of this is that according to General Relativity, when dealing with very large scales, the traditional Newtonian idea of "inertia" does not actually apply, and cannot necessarily be relied upon. Luckily, for sufficiently small regions of spacetime, the Special Theory can still be used, in which inertia still means the same (and works the same) as in the classical model.
Another profound, perhaps the most well-known, conclusion of the theory of Special Relativity was that energy and mass are not separate things, but are, in fact, interchangeable. This new relationship, however, also carried with it new implications for the concept of inertia. The logical conclusion of Special Relativity was that if mass exhibits the principle of inertia, then inertia must also apply to energy as well. This theory, and subsequent experiments confirming some of its conclusions, have also served to radically expand the definition of inertia in some contexts to apply to a much wider context including energy as well as matter.
==Interpretations==
===According to Isaac Asimov===
According to [[Isaac Asimov]] in "Understanding Physics": "This tendency for motion (or for rest) to maintain itself steadily unless made to do otherwise by some interfering force can be viewed as a kind of "laziness," a kind of unwillingness to make a change. And indeed, [Newton's] first law of motion is referred to as the principle of inertia, from a Latin word meaning "idleness" or "laziness." With the footnote: "In Aristotle's time the earth was considered a motionless body fixed at the center of the universe; the notion of 'rest' therefore had a literal meaning. What we ordinarily consider 'rest' nowadays is a state of being motionless with respect to the surface of the earth. But we know (and Newton did, too) that the earth itself is in motion about the sun and about its own axis. A body resting on the surface of the earth is therefore not really in a state of rest at all."
As [[Isaac Asimov]] goes on to explain, "Newton's laws of motion represent assumptions and definitions and are not subject to proof. In particular, the notion of 'inertia' is as much an assumption as Aristotle's notion of 'natural place.'...To be sure, the new relativistic view of the universe advanced by Einstein makes it plain that in some respects Newton's laws of motion are only approximations...At ordinary velocities and distance, however, the approximations are extremely good."
=== Mass as a measure of inertia ===
[[Physics]] and [[mathematics]] appear to be less inclined to use the original concept of inertia as "a tendency to maintain momentum" and instead favor the mathematically useful definition of inertia as the measure of a body's resistance to changes in momentum or simply a body's inertial mass.
This was clear in the beginning of the [[20th century]], when the [[theory of relativity]] was not yet created. Mass, '''m''', denoted something like amount of substance or quantity of matter. And at the same time mass was the quantitative measure of inertia of a body.
Inertia of a body determines |
individual meets a sufficient number of the symptomatic criteria for the [[depression spectrum]] as suggested in the [[DSM-IV-TR]] or [[ICD-9]]/[[ICD-10|10]]. An individual is often seen to suffer from what is termed a "clinical depression" without fully meeting the various criteria advanced for a specific diagnosis on the depression spectrum. There is an ongoing debate regarding the relative importance of genetic or environmental factors, or gross brain problems versus psychosocial functioning.
Although a [[mood]] characterized by [[sadness]] is often colloquially referred to as [[depression (mood)|depression]], clinical depression is something more than just a temporary state of sadness. [[Symptom]]s lasting two weeks or longer, and of a severity that begins to interfere with typical social functioning and/or activities of daily living, are considered to constitute clinical depression.
Clinical depression was originally considered to be a "[[chemical imbalance theory|chemical imbalance]]" in transmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of [[reserpine]] and [[isoniazid]] in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms {{Ref|Schildkraut}}. Subsequent antidepressants have also been found to alter monoamine levels, particularly of serotonin and noradrenaline {{Ref|Hirschfeld}}. Despite a growing body of [http://www.dushkin.com/text-data/articles/24741/body.pdf evidence] suggesting otherwise, it is still a commonly held belief that depression is ''only'' a chemical imbalance. This idea is often promoted in pharmaceutical advertising, and perpetuated in everyday discussions. Despite this reliance on "common wisdom", recent research and commentary has begun to address depression as an issue broader than this.
Clinical depression affects about 16%{{ref|oldref_1}} of the population on at least one occasion in their lives. The [[mean]] [[age of onset]], from a number of studies, is in the late 20s. About twice as many females as males report or receive treatment for clinical depression, though this imbalance is shrinking over the course of recent history; this difference seems to completely disappear after the age of 50 - 55, when most females have passed the end of [[menopause]]. Clinical depression is currently the leading cause of [[disability]] in the US as well as other countries, and is expected to become the second leading cause of disability worldwide (after [[heart disease]]) by the year 2020, according to the [[World Health Organization]]{{ref|oldref_5}}.
On a historical note, the modern idea of depression appears similar to the much older concept of [[melancholia]]. The name ''melancholia'' derives from 'black bile', one of the '[[four humours]]' postulated by [[Galen]].
The [[Ebers papyrus]] (ca 1550 BC) contains a short description of clinical depression. Though full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, it also evinces a long tradition of empirical practice and observation.
== Signs and symptoms ==
According to the [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/mjrdepd.htm DSM-IV-TR criteria for diagnosing a major depressive disorder] (see also: [[DSM cautionary statement]]) one of the following two required elements need to be present:
* [[depression (depressed mood)|Depressed mood]], or
* Loss of interest or [[pleasure]].
It is sufficient to have either of these symptoms in conjunction with four of a list of other symptoms. These include:
* Feelings of overwhelming [[sadness]] or [[fear]], or the seeming inability to feel [[emotion]].
* A decrease in the amount of pleasure derived from what were previously pleasurable activities.
* Changing [[appetite]] and marked [[weight]] gain or weight loss.
* Disturbed [[sleep]] patterns, such as [[insomnia]], loss of REM sleep, or excessive sleep.
* Changes in activity levels, such as restlessness or a slowing of movement.
* [[Fatigue (physical)|Fatigue]], either/both mental and physical.
* Feelings of [[guilt]], helplessness, hopelessness, [[anxiety]], and/or [[fear]].
* A decrease in [[self-esteem]].
* Trouble concentrating or making decisions, or a generalized slowing and obtunding of cognition.
* Self-harm or ruminating on self-harm.
* Ruminating on [[death]] and/or [[suicide]].
* Reduced memory.
Depression in [[child]]ren is not as obvious as it is in adults. Here are some symptoms that children might display:
* Loss of appetite.
* Sleep problems, such as recurrent [[nightmare]]s.
* Learning or memory problems where none existed before.
* Significant behavioural changes; such as withdrawal, social isolation and [[aggression]].
An additional indicator could be the excessive use of drugs or [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. Depressed adolescents are at particular risk of further destructive behaviors, such as [[eating disorder]]s and [[self-harm]].
One of the most widely used instruments for measuring depression severity is the [[Beck Depression Inventory]], a 21 question multiple choice survey.
It is hard for people who have not experienced clinical depression, either personally or by regular exposure to people suffering it, to understand its emotional impact and severity, interpreting it instead as being similar to "having the blues" or "feeling down". As the list of symptoms above indicates, clinical depression is a serious, potentially lethal systemic disorder characterized by interlocking physical, affective, and cognitive symptoms which have consequences for function and survival well beyond sad or painful feelings.
== Types of depression ==
=== Major Depression ===
'''Major Depression''', or, more properly, 'Major Depressive Disorder' (MDD) is characterized by a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks, and is generally recognized to contain an organic (chemical) component. Major Depressive Disorder is specified as either "a single episode" or "recurrent", as periods of depression may occur as discrete events or as recurrent over the lifespan. <p>Diagnosticians recognize several sub-types of Major Depressive Disorder.
* ''[[Catatonic depression | Catatonic Features Specification]]'' - Catatonia is characterized by motoric immobility evidenced by [[catalepsy]] or [[stupor]]. This MDD sub-type may also manifest excessive, non-prompted motor activity (akathesia), extreme negativism and/or [[Selective mutism|mutism]], and peculiarities in movement, including stereotypical movements, prominent mannerisms, and/or prominent grimacing. There may also be evidence of [[echolalia]] or [[echopraxia]].
* ''[[Melancholic depression | Melancholic Features Specification]]'' - Melancholia is characterized by a loss of pleasure (anhedonia) in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early morning waking, psychomotor retardation, anorexia (excessive weight loss, not to be confused with [[Anorexia Nervosa]]), and/or excessive guilt.
* ''[[Atypical depression | Atypical Features Specification]]'' Atypicality is characterized by mood reactivity (paradoxical anhedonia) and positivity, significant weight gain or increased appetite, excessive sleep or somnolence (hypersomnia), leaden paralysis, and/or significant social impairment as a consequence of hyper-sensitivity to perceived interpersonal rejection.
* ''[[Psychosis | Psychotic Features Specification]]'' presents with [[hallucination]]s or [[delusion]]s that are either mood-congruent (content coincident with depressive themes) or non-mood-congruent (content not coincident with depressive themes). It is clinically more common to encounter a [[delusional system]] as an adjunct to depression than to encounter hallucinations, whether visual or auditory.
=== Other Categories of Depression ===
'''[[Dysthymia]]''' is a long-term, mild depression that lasts for a minimum two years. By definition the symptoms are not as severe as with Major Depression, although those with Dysthymia are vulnerable to co-occurring episodes of Major Depression. This disorder often begins in [[adolescence]], and crosses the lifespan.
'''[[Bipolar I Disorder]]''' is an episodic illness in which moods may cycle between [[mania]] and depression. In the US, Bipolar Disorder was previously referred to as "Manic Depression". This term is no longer favored by the medical community as not all Bipolar individuals will present depressive symptoms. "Manic Depression" is still often used in the non-medical community.
'''[[Bipolar II Disorder]]''' is an episodic illness that is defined primarily by depression, but evidences episodes of [[hypomania]].
== The role of anxiety in depression ==
=== Anxiety ===
The different types of Depression and Anxiety are classified separately by the DSM-IV-TR, with the exception of [[hypomania]], which is included under the [[Bipolar|Bipolar Disorder]] category. Despite the different categories, depression and anxiety can indeed be [[co-occurring]] (occurring together, independently, and without [[mood congruence]]), or [[co-morbid]] (occurring together, with overlapping symptoms, and with [[mood congruence]]). In an effort to bridge the gap between the [[DSM|DSM-IV-TR]] categories and what clinicians actually encounter, experts such as [[Herman Van Praag]] of the [[Maastricht University]] have proposed ideas like anxiety/aggression-driven depression {{citeneeded}}. This idea, and others like it, refers to an [[anxiety/depression spectrum]] for these two disorders, which differs from the mainstream perspective of discreet diagnostic categories.
While there is no specific diagnostic category for the co-morbidity of depression and anxiety in the DSM or ICD, the [[National Comorbidity S |
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