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- episode from ''Streghe'' *''I crudeli'' (Sergio Corbucci) *''La Cina è vicina''(Marco Bellocchio) *''Ad ogni costo'' (Giuliano Montaldo) *''L'harem'' (Marco Ferreri) *''La ragazza e il generale (Pasquale Festa Campanile) *''Faccia a faccia'' (Sergio Sollima) *''Arabella'' (Mauro Bolognini) *''[[Danger: Diabolik]]'' ([[Mario Bava]]) '''1968''' *''Scusi, facciamo l'amore?'' (Vittorio Caprioli) *''Tepepa'' (Giulio Petroni) *''Il mercenario'' / ''The Mercenary'' (Sergio Corbucci) *''Eat-it (mangiala)'' (Francesco Casaretti) *''L'Italia vista dal cielo'' (Folco Quilici) - documentary *''Grazie Zia'' (Salvatore Samperi) *''...e per tetto un cielo di stelle'' (Giulio Petroni) *''Ecce Homo'' (Bruno Gaburro) *''Corri, uomo, corri'' (Sergio Sollima) *''Escalation'' (Roberto Faenza) *''Da uomo a uomo'' (Giulio Petroni) *''La bataille de San Sebastian'' (Henry Verneuil) *''Comandamenti per un Gangster'' (Alfio Catabiano) *''Teorema'' / ''[[Theorem (movie)|Theorem]]'' (Pier Paolo Pasolini) *''Partner'' ([[Bernardo Bertolucci]]) *''Roma come Chicago (Banditi a Roma)'' (Alberto de Martino) - composed with [[Bruno Nicolai]] *''Gli intoccabili'' ([[Giuliano Montaldo]]) *''C'era una volta il West'' / ''[[Once Upon a Time in the West]]'' (Sergio Leone) *''Fräulein Doktor'' (Alberto Lattuada) *''Il grande silenzio'' / ''[[The Great Silence]]'' (Sergio Corbucci)'' *''L'alibi'' (Adolfo Celi, Luciano Lucignani, Vittorio Gassman) *''Galileo'' ([[Liliana Cavani]]) *''La monaca di Monza'' (Eriprando Visconti) *''Ruba al prossimo tuo'' (Francesco Maselli) *''Un tranquillo posto di campagna'' (Elio Petri) *''H2S'' (Roberto Faenza) '''1969''' *''Cuore di mamma'', Salvatore Samperi *''Gott Uns'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]] *''I cannibali'', Liliana Cavani *''La donna invisibile'', Paolo Spinola *''L'assoluto naturale'', Mauro Bolognini *''La stagione dei sensi'', Massimo Franciosa *''Le clan des siciliens'', Henri Verneuil *''Metti, una sera a cena'', Giuseppe Patroni Griffi *''Queimada'', [[Gillo Pontecorvo]] *''Sai cosa faceva Stalin alle donne?'', Maurizio Liverani *''Senza sapere niente di lei'', Luigi Comencini *''Tepepa'', Giulio Petroni *''Una breve stagione'', Renato Castellani *''Un bellissimo novembre'', Mauro Bolognini *''Un esercito di cinque uomini'' / ''[[The Five Man Army]]'', Italo Zingarelli *''Vergogna, schifosi'', Mauro Severino '''1970''' *''Città violenta'', Sergio Sollima *''Giochi particolari'', Franco Indovina *''Hornet's Nest'', Phil Carlson (USA vers.); Franco Girino (Italian vers.) *''Krasnaya Palatka'' (''La tenda rossa''), Mikhail Kalatozov - music of russian *version by Aleksandr Zatsepin *''Indagine su un cittadino al di sopra di ogni sospetto'', Elio Petri *''La califfa'', Alberto Bevilacqua *''La moglie più bella'', Damiano Damiani *''[[L'uccello dalle piume di cristallo]]'', [[Dario Argento]] *''Lui per lei'', Claudio Rispoli - never distributed film *''Metello'', Mauro Bolognini *''Quando le donne avevano la coda'', Pasquale Festa Campanile *''Sacco e Vanzetti'' / ''[[Sacco and Vanzetti]]'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]] *''Two Mules for Sister Sara'', [[Don Siegel]] *''Uccidete il vitello grasso e arrostitelo'', Salvatore Samperi *''Vamos a matar compañeros'', Sergio Corbucci '''1971''' *''Addio fratello crudele'', Giuseppe Patroni Griffi *''Correva l'annodi grazia 1870'', Alfredo Giannetti *''Forza G'', Duccio Tessari *''Giù la testa'', Sergio Leone *''Gli occhi freddi della paura'', Enzo G. Castellari *''Il Decamerone'', [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] *''Il gatto a nove code'', [[Dario Argento]] *''Incontro'', Piero Schivazappa *''La classe operaia va in paradiso'', Elio Petri *''Le casse'', Henri Verneuil *''La corta notte delle bambole di vetro'', Aldo Lado *''Le foto proibite di una signora perbene'', Lucio Ercoli *''L'istruttoria è chiusa: dimentichi'', Damiano Damiani *''Maddalena'', Jerzy Kawalerovicz *''Oceano'', Folco Quilici *''Quattro mosche di velluto grigio'', Dario Argento *''Sans mobile apparent'', Philippe Labro *''Tre nel mille'', Franco Indovina *''Una lucertola con la pelle di donna'', Lucio Fulci *''Veruschka'', Franco Rubartelli '''1972''' *''Anche se volessi lavorare, che faccio?'', Flavio Mogherini *''Bluebeard'', Edward Dmytrick *''Che c'entriamo noi con la rivoluzione?'', Sergio Corbucci *''Chi l'ha vista morire?'', Aldo Lado *''Cosa avete fatto a Solange?'', Massimo Dallamano *''D'amore si muore'', Carlo Carunchio *''Fiorina la vacca'', Vittorio De Sisti *''Giornata nera per l'ariete'', Luigi Bazzoni *''I figli chiedono perché'', Nino Zanchin *''Il diavolo nel cervello'', Sergio Sollima *''Il Maestro e Margherita'', Aleksander Petrovic *''Imputazione di omicidio per uno studente'', Mauro Bolognini *''I racconti di Canterbury'', [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] *''La banda, J. & S.'', Sergio Corbucci *''La tarantola dal ventre nero'', Paolo Cavara *''L'attentat'', Yves Boisset *''La vita a volte è molto dura, vero Provvidenza?'', Giulio Petroni *''L'ultimo uomo di Sara'', Maria Virginia Onorato *''Mio caro assassino'', Tonino Valeri *''Quando le donne persero la coda'', Pasquale Festa Campanile *''Questa specie d'amore'', Alberto Bevilacqua *''Violenza: quinto potere'', Florestano Vancini '''1973''' *''La proprietà non è più un furto'', Elio Petri *''Ci risiamo, vero Provvidenza?'',* Alberto De Martino *''Crescete e moltiplicatevi'', Giulio Petroni *''Giordano Bruno'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]] *''Il mio nome è Nessuno'', Tonino Valeri *''La cosa buffa'', Aldo Lado *''Le serpent'', Henri Verneuil *''Libera amore mio'', Mauro Bolognini *''Quando l'amore è sensualità'', Vittorio De Sisti *''Quando la preda è l'uomo / Spogliati protesta uccidi'', Vittorio De Sisti *''Rappresaglia'', George Pan Cosmatos *''Revolver'', Sergio Sollima *''Sepolta viva'', Aldo Lado *''Un uomo da rispettare'', Michele Lupo '''1974''' *''Allonsanfàn'', Paolo e Vittorio Taviani *''Fatti di gente perbene'', [[Mauro Bolognini]] *''Il fiore delle Mille e una notte'', Pier Paolo Pasolini *''Il giro del mondo degli innamorati di Peynet'',* Cesare Perfetto *''Il sorriso del grande tentatore'', Damiano Damiani *''La cugina'', Aldo Lado *''La faille'', Peter Fleischmann *''Le secret'', Robert Enrico *''Le trio infernal'', Francis Girod *''Macchie solari'', Armando Crispino *''Milano odia: la polizia non può sparare'', Umberto Lenzi *''Mussolini, ultimo atto'', Carlo Lizzani *''Sesso in confessionale'', [[Vittorio De Sisti]] *''Space 1999'', Lee H. Katzin - soundtrack based in the RCA Italiana repertoire with exception of the title theme *''Spasmo'', Umberto Lenzi '''1975''' *''Attenti al buffone'', Alberto Bevilacqua *''Divina creatura'',* Giuseppe Patroni Grifi *''Gente di rispetto'', Luigi Zampa *''Labbra di lurido blu'', Giulio Petroni *''La donna della domenica'', Luigi Comencini *''L'anticristo'',* Alberto De Martino *''Leonor'', [[Juan Buñuel]] *''L'ultimo treno della notte'', Aldo Lado *''Peur sur la ville'', Henri Verneuil *''[[Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma]]'' / ''Salo or the 120 Days of Sodom'', Pier Paolo Pasolini *''Storie di vita e malavita'', Carlo Lizzani *''The Human Factor'', Edward Dmytrick *''Todo modo'', Elio Petri - The presence of [[Charles Mingus]] in a presumed USA edition on some discographies is wrong. The production originally contacted Mingus, and from the collaboration came a recording which is probably the cause of the misleading. *''Un genio, due compari, un pollo'', [[Damiano Damiani]] '''1976''' *''Der Richter und sein Henker'', [[Maximilian Schell]] *''Il deserto dei tartari'', Valerio Zurlini *''L'Agnese va a morire'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]] *''L'eredità Ferramonti'', [[Mauro Bolognini]] *''Le ricain'', Jean Marie Pallardy - identity and collocation are doubtful, as it is doubtful that this is an original collaboration *''Novecento'', [[Bernardo Bertolucci]] *''Per amore'', Mino Giarda *''Per le antiche scale'', Mauro Bolognini *''René la Canne'', [[Francis Girod]] *''San Babila ore 20: un delitto inutile'', Carlo Lizzani *''Una vita venduta'', Aldo Florio '''1977''' *''Autostop rosso sangue'', Pasquale Festa Campanile *''Forza Italia'', Roberto Faenza *''Il gatto'', Luigi Comencini *''Il mostro'', Luigi Zampa *''Il prefetto di ferro'', Pasquale Squitieri *''[[Orca (film)|Orca]]'', [[Michael Joseph Anderson|Michael Anderson]] *''Stato interessante'', Sergio Nasca *''[[Exorcist II: The Heretic]]'', [[John Boorman]] '''1978''' *''Corleone'', Pasquale Squitieri *''Così come sei'', Alberto Lattuada *''[[Days of Heaven]]'', [[Terrence Malick]] *''Dove vai in vacanza?'', Episodio ''Sarò tutta per te'', Mauro Bolognini *''Ege kai ni sasagu'' (Dedicato al mare Egeo), [[Masuo Ikeda]] *''Holocaust 2000'', Alberto De Martino *''La cage aux folles'', Edouard Molinaro *''Le mani sporche'', Elio Petri *''L'immoralità'', Massimo Pirri *''Viaggio con Anita'', Mario Monicelli *''122 rue de Provence'', Christian Gion '''1979''' *''Bloodline'', [[Terence Young]] *''Dedicato al mare Igeo'' *''I... comme Icare'', Henri Verneuil *''Il giocattolo'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]] *''La luna'', [[Bernardo Bertolucci]] *''Le buone notizie'', [[Elio Petri]] *''L'umanoide'', [[Aldo Lado]] *''Il prato'', Paolo and [[Vittorio Taviani]] *''Ogro'', [[Gillo Pontecorvo]] '''1980''' *''Il bandito dagli occhi azzurri'', Alfredo Giannetti *''Il ladrone'', Pasquale Festa Campanile *''La cage aux folles II'', Edouard Molinaro *''Professione figlio'' / ''Bugie bianche'', Stefano Rolla *''Si salvi chi vuole'', Roberto Faenza *''Stark system'', Armenia Balducci *''The Island'', Michael Ritchie *''Un sacco bello'', Carlo Verdone *''Uomini e no'', Valentino Orsini *''Windows'', [[Gordon Willis]] '''1981''' *''Bianco rosso e verdone'', Carlo Verdone *''Butterfly'', Matt Cimber *''Espion lève toi'', Yves Boisset *''La banquiere'', Francis Girod *''La disubbidienza'', Aldo Lado *''La tragedia di un uomo ridicolo'', [[Bernardo Bertolucci]] *''La vera storia della signora dalle camelie'', [[Mauro Bolognini]] *''[[Le professionnel]]'', [[Georges Lautner]] *''
ncubator</title> <id>7744</id> <revision> <id>39867764</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:08:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Reinoutr</username> <id>158685</id> </contributor> <comment>added and corrected wikilinks</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galaxy7-1-.gif|thumb|right|150px|A typical CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubator.]] A '''cell incubator''' is an apparatus used to grow and maintain [[cell culture]]s. The incubator keeps cultures at an optimal [[temperature]] and [[humidity]]. Many will also regulate the [[carbon dioxide]](CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[oxygen]] content of the atmosphere inside, in which case they are also called ''CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubators''. Cell incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in [[cell biology]] and [[molecular biology]] and are used to culture both [[Bacteria|bacterial]] as well as [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells. For mammalian cells, the chamber temperature is typically set to 37° C, the relative humidity is &gt;95% and a slightly acidic [[PH|pH]] is achieved by maintaining a CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; level of 5%. == External links == * [http://hepcw.procureweb.ac.uk/lab_links_open/labindex.html UK academic website offering resources for obtaining further information on CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubators] * [http://www.wolflabs.co.uk/co2_incubator.htm Literature on the various different types of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubators can be obtained here] {{cellbio-stub}} [[Category:Cell biology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cult homicide</title> <id>7745</id> <revision> <id>31199153</id> <timestamp>2005-12-13T15:41:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jossi</username> <id>60449</id> </contributor> <comment>rd</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Destructive cult]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cult suicide</title> <id>7746</id> <revision> <id>42129006</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:33:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ombudsman</username> <id>135955</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Scientology */ Wikify [[Philip Gale]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cult suicide''' is that phenomenon by which some religious groups, in this context often referred to as &quot;[[cult]]s&quot;, have led to their membership committing [[suicide]]. Sometimes all members commit suicide at the same time and place. Groups which have done this include, [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]], [[Order of the Solar Temple]], [[Peoples Temple]] ([[Jonestown]]), and the [[Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God]]. In other cases certain denominations apparently supported mass suicide, but did not necessarily encourage all members to do it. Examples here include [[Filippians]], the [[Taiping]], and a few others. ==Known Cult Suicides== ===Peoples Temple (Jim Jones)=== In [[1978]], 914 American followers of [[Jim Jones]] died in a [[mass murder]]/[[suicide]] in [[Jonestown]], [[Guyana]]. The dead included 274 children. Alternative theories allege that most of the victims were unwillingly injected with the poison, and some even allege involvement of the [[CIA]]. However, an affadavit made by former member [[Deborah Layton]] days before the massacre testified to suicide drills called ''white nights'' in which members practiced mass suicide by ingesting poison, and in Jones' final speech, recorded on cassette tape, he states &quot;So my opinion is that you be kind to children and be kind to seniors and take the potion like they used to take in ancient Greece...&quot; stating the intention that the group kill themselves while casting it as a political act: &quot;We didn't commit suicide, we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world.&quot; === Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God === On [[March 17]] [[2000]], between 780 and 1000 members of the [[Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God]] died in a probable mass suicide in [[Uganda]]. The group had splintered from [[Roman Catholicism]] to emphasize [[apocalypticism]] and alleged [[Marian apparitions]]. They also deemed the wider world to be corrupt, seeing themselves as a [[Noah's Ark]] of purity. Along these ends members severely restricted their speech to avoid saying anything dishonest or sinful. Curiously, the group had a feast that involved large quantities of [[Coca-Cola]] and beef before dying. ===Solar Temple=== From [[1994]] to [[1997]], the [[Order of the Solar Temple]]'s members became so paranoid they began a series of mass suicides, which led to roughly 74 deaths. Farewell letters were left by members, stating that they believed their deaths would be an escape from the &quot;hypocrisies and oppression of this world.&quot; Added to this they felt they were &quot;moving on to [[Sirius]].&quot; Interestingly, a mayor, a journalist, a civil servant, and a sales manager were among the dead. Records seized by the Quebec police showed that some members had personally donated over $1 million to the cult's leader, Joseph Di Mambro. There was also another attempted mass suicide of the remaining members, which was thwarted in the late 1990s. All the suicide/murders and attempts occurred around the dates of the equinoxes and solstices, which likely held some relation to the beliefs of the group. ===Heaven's Gate=== On [[March 26]] [[1997]], 39 followers of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] cult died in a mass suicide near [[San Diego, California]]. In the beliefs of the cult, this was not an act of self-extermination; they believed that they were merely &quot;exiting their human vehicles&quot; so that their souls could go on a journey aboard a spaceship they believed to be following [[comet Hale-Bopp]]. Some male members of the cult underwent voluntary [[castration]] in preparation for the genderless life they believed awaited them after the suicide. On [[March 30]] [[1997]], Robert Leon Nichols, a former roadie for the [[Grateful Dead]], was discovered dead in his California trailer, with a note nearby that read in part &quot;I'm going to the spaceship with Hale-Bopp to be with those who have gone before me.&quot; Using propane gas rather than vodka and [[phenobarbital]] to end his life, Nichols, like the cult members, had his head covered by a plastic bag and his upper torso covered with a purple shroud. Nichols' connection with the cult is unknown. In May 1997, two cult members who had not been present for the mass suicide attempted suicide, one succeeding in the attempt, the other going into [[coma]] for two days and then recovering. In February 1998 the survivor, Chuck Humphrey, attempted suicide, this time succeeding. ==Suspected Cult Suicides== ===Branch Davidians=== The April 1993 deaths of the [[Branch Davidians]] near [[Waco, Texas]] was deemed to be a cult suicide by varied media sources. Many, however, reported that what happened is unknown and could have been some sort of accident or panic rather than an intentional cult-suicide. Others assign blame to the [[United States government]]. Still others believe it was actually murder-suicide committed by the group's leaders. In any event, it's widely agreed that most or all members did in fact die violent deaths of some kind. ===World Church of the Creator=== [[Ben Klassen]] formed the [[white supremacist]] group currently called the [[Creativity Movement]]. He wrote a book called ''The White Man's Bible'' which called suicide &quot;an honorable and dignified way to die for any ... of a number of reasons, such as having come to the decision that life is no longer worthwhile.&quot; After the death of his wife he practiced what he preached and committed suicide. A former member named [[Benjamin Nathaniel Smith]] committed suicide after a spree killing. ===Scientology=== A considerably weaker suspicion indicates [[Scientology]] caused a number of suicides actively, or through negligence. For example, according to [[Flo Conway]], a researcher at the [[University of Oregon]], Scientologists are taught that if they abandon the &quot;church&quot; they will soon kill themselves or have a serious illness or accident. Her research is said to conclude that they create suicidal people because &quot;Former Scientologists had the highest rates of persistent fear, sleeplessness, suicidal and self-destructive tendencies, violent outbursts, hallucinations and delusions, compared to ex-members of other religious groups.&quot; Ex-members have also claimed (most notably in the [[Fishman Affidavit]]) that the Church of Scientology ordered them or others to commit &quot;end of cycle&quot; (suicide) in order to protect the Church. In its cover story on Scientology on [[May 5]], [[1991]], ''Time'' magazine noted the case of [[Noah Lottick]], who committed suicide by jumping from a tall building. The magazine stated that he clutched in his fist &quot;practically the only money he had not yet given to the Church of Scientology.&quot; Former church member [[Philip Gale]] similarly committed suicide, by jumping out of a tall building. He chose to kill himself on [[March 13]], Scientology's most important annual holiday marking the birthday of its founder, [[L. Ron Hubbard]]. Critics of this theory state that this means that any religious practice which leads to death, or that rejects [[apostasy]], would taint the faith as having cult suicide. For example, deaths attributed to [[Christian Science]]' position against medical advice, or to a recent botched [[exorcism]] by a [[Romanian Orthodox]] priest. ==Questionable Cult Suicides== ===The Family International=== A less widespread suspicion indicates that The Family International, previously called [[The
s' geographical position made it very remote, inaccessible and off-centre from the rest of the New Zealand archipelago. [[Image:Map_of_Auckland.jpg|thumb|200px|1888 German map of Auckland]] Even in 1840 [[Port Nicholson]] (now [[Wellington Harbour]]) seemed the obvious choice for an administrative capital. Centrally situated at the south of the [[North Island]], close to the [[South Island]] and growing fast, it had a lot to commend it. But the [[New Zealand Company]] and the [[Wakefield brothers]] had founded and continued to dominate Port Nicholson. Furthermore, it already had a bad reputation with the [[Māori|M&amp;#257;ori]] for unscrupulous or even illegal occupation of land. On the initial recommendation of the missionary [[Henry Williams]], supported by the Surveyor General, [[Felton Mathew]], and the offer of land from Ng&amp;#257;ti Wh&amp;#257;tua, Hobson selected the south side of [[Waitemata Harbour]] as his future capital, while setting up a temporary capital at [[Okiato]] (also known now as Old Russell) in the Bay of Islands. The Chief Magistrate, Captain [[William Cornwallis Symonds]], soon purchased the further land from Ngāti Whātua, and a foundation ceremony took place at 1pm on [[18 September]] [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1840s|1840]], probably on the higher ground at the top end of present-day [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]]. Hobson named the new settlement in honour of [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland]], a patron and friend of his. The ''New Zealand Government Gazette'' announced royal approval of the name on [[26 November]] [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1840s|1842]]. From the outset a steady flow of new arrivals from within New Zealand and from overseas came to the new capital. Initially settlers from [[New South Wales]] predominated, but the first [[immigration | immigrant]] ships sailing directly from Britain started to arrive as early as 1842. From early times the eastern side of the settlement remained reserved for government officials while mechanics and artisans, the so-called &quot;unofficial&quot; settlers, congregated on the western side. This social division still persists in modern Auckland. Eventually [[Port Nicholson]] became the capital and, now known as [[Wellington]], remains so today. The advantages of a central position became even more obvious as the [[South Island]] grew in prosperity with the discovery of [[gold]] in [[Otago]], and with the development of sheep farming and [[refrigeration]], especially [[refrigerated ships]] which allowed chilled meat to be safely shipped to Britain. Parliament met for the first time in [[Wellington]] in [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1860s|1862]]. In [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1860s|1868]] [[Government House]] moved there too. ===Growth of Auckland=== [[Image:Aucklandmap.png|thumb|right|200px]] Auckland formed a base for Governor [[George Grey]]'s operations against the rebel [[Māori King Movement]] in the early 1860s. Grey's modus operandi involved opening up the [[Waikato]] and [[King Country]] by building roads, most notably [[Great South Road]], (a large part of which now forms [[State Highway 1]]). This enabled rapid movement, not only of soldiers, but also civilian settlers. It also enabled the extension of [[Pakeha]] influence and law to the [[South Auckland]] region. During the mid 19th century, European settlement of New Zealand was predominantly in the [[South Island]]. Auckland however gradually became the commercial capital. Market gardens were planted on the outskirts, while [[kauri]] tree logging and gum digging opened up the [[Waitakere Ranges]]. A Russian scare at the end of the century caused coastal guns to be bought and fortifications built, notably at [[Devonport, New Zealand|Devonport]] and on [[Waiheke Island]], where they can still be seen. By 1900 Auckland was the largest New Zealand city. In World War II the city was overflown by a Japanese seaplane, chased ineffectually by a [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] [[De Havilland Tiger Moth]]. In the 1950s [[Auckland Harbour Bridge]] was constructed, linking [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]] with the city. As flying boat services from [[Mechanics Bay]] and [[Hobsonville]] by aircraft such as the [[Short Solent]] and [[Short Sunderland]] were replaced by landplanes, an airport was opened at [[Mangere]], supplanting earlier airfields at [[Ardmore, New Zealand|Ardmore]] and [[Whenuapai]]. [[Image:Auckland-aerialview.jpg|400px|right|thumb|An aerial view of the central city]] Following the initiative of [[Michael Joseph Savage]]'s [[New Zealand Labour Party]] large numbers of state houses were constructed through the late 1930s, '40s and '50s, usually on quarter-acre (1,000 m&amp;sup2;) sections - a tradition that survives despite frequent subdivision. Auckland is a largely suburban city: although it has not much more than a seventh of the population of London, it sprawls over a considerably larger area - a fact that serves to make public transport by Auckland's rail and bus systems unpopular and uneconomic. All four electrical power cables supplying the Central Business District failed on [[20 February]] [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1990s|1998]], causing the [[1998 Auckland power crisis]]. It took five weeks before an emergency overhead cable was completed to restore the power supply to the Central Business District. For much of that time, about 60,000 of the 74,000 people who worked in the area worked from home or from relocated offices in the suburbs. Many of the 6,000 apartment dwellers in the area had to find alternative accommodation. == Geography and climate == === Volcanoes === [[Image:Auckland_Rangitoto_n.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Approaching Rangitoto Island from Auckland]]Auckland straddles the [[volcano]]es of the [[Auckland Volcanic Field]]. The 50 volcanic vents in the field take the form of cones, lakes, lagoons, islands and depressions. Some of the cones have been partly or completely quarried away. The volcanoes are all individually extinct although the volcanic field itself is merely dormant. The most recent and by far the largest volcano, [[Rangitoto Island]], was formed within the last 1000 years. 'Rangi' means 'sky' and 'toto' means 'blood', which indicates it was named by Māori who had witnessed its eruption. Its size, its symmetry, its position guarding the entrance to [[Waitemata Harbour]] and its visibility from many parts of the Auckland region make it Auckland's most iconic natural feature. Rangitoto is eerily quiet as almost no birds and insects have settled on the island because of the rich acidic soil and type of flora that has adapted to grow out of the black broken rocky soil. ===Isthmus and harbours=== [[Image:AucklandAcrossTheWater_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|250px|Auckland CBD From Across the Water]] Auckland lies on and around an [[isthmus]], less than two km wide at its narrowest point, between [[Mangere Inlet]] and [[Tamaki River]]. There are two harbours in the Auckland urban area surrounding this isthmus, [[Waitemata Harbour]] to the north, which opens east to the [[Hauraki Gulf]], and [[Manukau Harbour]] to the south, which opens west to the [[Tasman Sea]]. Bridges span both of these harbours, [[Auckland Harbour Bridge]] on Waitemata Harbour and [[Mangere Bridge]] on Manukau Harbour. === Climate === Auckland has a warm-temperate climate, with warm, humid summers and cool but damp and lengthy winters. January temperatures average 21-24 [[Celsius|&amp;#176;C]]. February and March are typically warmer than January, and July maximum temperatures average 14-16 &amp;#176;C. High levels of rainfall occur almost year-round (over 1100 mm per year), especially in winter. Climatic conditions vary in different parts of the city owing to geography such as hills, trees and ocean wind currents. Snow has never been recorded in Auckland, although a heavy hailstorm in the 1950s was mistaken for snow by many residents, unlike some [[South Island]] cities which may get snow most years. It has snowed north of Auckland, at [[Kaikohe]]. == People == * ''See also:'' [[Culture of New Zealand]] ===Cultures=== Auckland serves as a home to many cultures. The majority of inhabitants claim European &amp;mdash; predominantly British &amp;mdash; descent, but substantial [[Māori]], [[Pacific Islander]] and [[Asian]] communities exist as well. Auckland has the largest [[Polynesia]]n population of any city in the world. An almost equally large proportion of the population is made up of people of [[Asian]] origin (mainly [[East Asian]]). This is due to New Zealand's world-leading level of immigration, which flows primarily into Auckland. Ethnic groups from all corners of the world have a presence in Auckland, making it by far the country's most [[cosmopolitan]] city. It is estimated that over 14 people from other countries immigrate to Auckland every day. [http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/default.htm 2001 New Zealand Census] showed that: *66.9% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[European]] ethnic group. *14.9% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[Polynesia]]n ethnic group. *14.6% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[Asian]] ethnic groups. *11.5% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[Māori]] ethnic group. (Note that these percentages do not add up to 100%, some people belong to more than one ethnic group). ===Religion=== Like the rest of the country, more than half of Aucklanders are nominally [[Christianity|Christian]], but fewer than 10% regularly attend church and almost 40% profess no religious affiliation (2001 census figures). The main denominations are [[Anglican]], [[Presbyterian]] and [[Roman Catholic]]. [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and [[charismatic]] churches are the fastest growing. The charismatic and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] [[Destiny Church, New Zealand|Destiny Church]], headquartered in Auck
throne on his father's death in October 1901. Although Abdur Rahman had fathered many children, he groomed Habibullah to succeed him, and he made it difficult for his other sons to contest the succession by keeping power from them and sequestering them in Kabul under his control. == Habibullah Khan, [[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[1919]] == [[Habibullah Khan]], [[Abdur Rahman Khan]]'s eldest son but child of a slave mother, kept a close watch on the palace intrigues revolving around his father's more distinguished wife (a granddaughter of [[Dost Mohammad]]), who sought the throne for her own son. Although made secure in his position as ruler by virtue of support from the army which was created by his father, Habibullah was not as domineering as Abdur Rahman. Consequently, the influence of religious leaders as well as that of [[Mahmoud Beg Tarzi]], a cousin of the king, increased during his reign. Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet and journalist, founded an Afghan nationalist newspaper with Abdur Rahman's agreement, and until 1919 he used the newspaper as a platform for rebutting clerical criticism of Western-influenced changes in government and society, for espousing full Afghan independence, and for other reforms. Tarzi's passionate Afghan [[nationalism]] influenced a future generation of [[Asia|Asian]] reformers. The boundary with [[Iran]] was firmly delineated in 1904, replacing the ambiguous line made by a British commission in 1872. Agreement could not be reached, however, on sharing the waters of the [[Helmand River]]. Like all foreign policy developments of this period affecting [[Afghanistan]], the conclusion of the &quot;Great Game&quot; between [[Russia]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] occurred without the Afghan ruler's participation. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention (Entente, the [[Convention of St. Petersburg]]) not only divided the region into separate areas of Russian and British influence but also established foundations for Afghan neutrality. The convention provided for Russian acquiescence that Afghanistan was now outside this sphere of influence, and for Russia to consult directly with Britain on matters relating to Russian-Afghan relations. Britain, for its part, would not occupy or annex Afghan territory, or interfere in Afghanistan's internal affairs. During [[World War I]], Afghanistan remained neutral despite pressure to support [[Turkey]] when its sultan proclaimed his nation's participation in what it considered a holy war. Habibullah did, however, entertain a Turco-[[Germany|German]] mission in [[Kabul]] in 1915 conducted by the German legate [[:de:Werner Otto von Hentig|Werner Otto von Hentig]]. After much procrastination, he won an agreement from the [[Central Powers]] for a huge payment and arms provision in exchange for attacking British [[India]]. But the crafty Afghan ruler clearly viewed the war as an opportunity to play one side off against the other, for he also offered the British to resist a Central Powers from an attack on India in exchange for an end to British control of Afghan foreign policy. == Amanullah Khan, [[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]] == On [[February 20]], [[1919]], [[Habibullah Khan]] was assassinated on a hunting trip. He had not declared a succession, but left his third son, [[Amanullah Khan]], in charge in [[Kabul]]. Because Amanullah controlled both the national treasury and the army, he was well situated to seize power. Army support allowed Amanullah to suppress other claims and imprison those relatives who would not swear loyalty to him. Within a few months, the new amir had gained the allegiance of most tribal leaders and established control over the cities. == Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence == Amanullah's ten years of reign initiated a period of dramatic change in [[Afghanistan]] in both foreign and domestic politics. Amanullah declared full independence and sparked the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Amanullah altered foreign policy in his new relations with external powers and transformed domestic politics with his social, political, and economic reforms. Although his reign ended abruptly, he achieved some notable successes, and his efforts failed as much due to the centripetal forces of tribal Afghanistan and the machinations of [[Russia]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] as to any political folly on his part. Amanullah came to power just as the entente between Russia and Britain broke down following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. Once again Afghanistan provided a stage on which the great powers played out their schemes against one another. Amanullah attacked the British in May 1919 in two thrusts, taking them by surprise. Afghan forces achieved success in the early days of the war as [[Pashtun]] tribesmen on both sides of the border joined forces with them. The military skirmishes soon ended in a stalemate as the British recovered from their initial surprise. British forces used airpower to shock the Afghans, the King's home was directly attacked in what is the first case of aerial bombardment in Afghanistan’s history. The attacks played a key role in forcing a armistice but brought an angry rebuke from King Amanullah. He wrote: ''&quot;It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation. While we now see with our own eyes that such operations were a habit which is prevalent among all civilised people of the west&quot;'' Britain virtually dictated the terms of the 1919 [[Rawalpindi Agreement]], a temporary armistice that provided, somewhat ambiguously, for Afghan self-determination in foreign affairs. Before final negotiations were concluded in 1921, however, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy, including diplomatic relations with the new government in the Soviet Union in 1919. During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries. ==See also== *[[Imperialism in Asia]] [[Category:History of Afghanistan]] [[Category:History of Pakistan]] [[no:Europeisk innflytelse i Afghanistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dementia praecox</title> <id>9059</id> <revision> <id>15906982</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Schizophrenia]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dost Mohammed and the British in Afghanistan</title> <id>9060</id> <revision> <id>15906983</id> <timestamp>2003-08-08T06:53:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[European influence in Afghanistan]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[European influence in Afghanistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dolphin</title> <id>9061</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42007046</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:31:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naconkantari</username> <id>676502</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.193.242.189|128.193.242.189]] ([[User talk:128.193.242.189|talk]]) to last version by Deltabeignet</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Dolphin | image = Duskydolphin17.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Pacific White-sided Dolphin]]s | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Cetacea]] | subordo = [[Odontoceti]] | familia = '''Delphinidae''' | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = See article below. }} '''Dolphins''' are aquatic [[mammal]]s related to [[whale]]s and [[porpoise]]s. The name is from [[Ancient Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#948;&amp;#949;&amp;#955;&amp;#966;&amp;#8055;&amp;#962;}} ''delphis'' meaning &quot;with a womb&quot;, viz. &quot;a 'fish' with a womb&quot;. The word is used in a few different ways. It can mean: #Any member of the family [[Delphinidae]] (oceanic dolphins), #Any member of the families [[Delphinidae]] and [[Platanistoidea]] (oceanic and river dolphins), #Any member of the suborder [[Odontoceti]] (toothed whales; these include the above families and some others), #Used casually as a synonym for [[Bottlenose Dolphin]], the most common and familiar species of dolphin. In this article, the second definition is used. [[Porpoise]]s (suborder [[Odontoceti]], family [[Phocoenidae]]) are thus not dolphins in our sense. [[Orca]]s and some related species belong to the Delphinidae family and therefore qualify as dolphins, even though they are called whales in common language. There are almost 40 species of dolphin in 17 genera. They vary in size from 1.2 m (4 ft) and 40 kg (88 lb) ([[Maui's Dolphin]]), up to 9.5 m (30 ft) and 10 tonnes (the Orca). Most species weigh about 50 to 200 kg (110 to 440 lb). They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves, and all are carnivores, mostly eating fish and squid. The [[Family (biology)|family]] Delphinidae is the largest in the Cetacea, and relatively recent: dolphins evolved about 10 million years ago, during the [[Miocene]]. == Taxonomy == * [[Suborder]] [[Odontoceti]], toothed whales ** [[Family (biology)|Family]] [[Delphinidae]], oceanic Dolphins *** [[Genus]] Delphinus **** [[Long-Beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus capensis'' **** [[Short-Beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus delphis'' *** Genus Tursiops **** [[Bottlenose Dolphin]], ''Tursiops truncatus'' *** Genus Lissodelphis **** [[Northern Rightwhale Dolphin]], ''Lissodelphis borealis''
6/5702/1686] surveyed [[Abstract (summary)|abstracts]] of peer-reviewed research articles related to climate change. It concluded that a scientific consensus in favor of the global warming theory exists. Global warming skeptics dispute the claim that (or relevance of) a consensus of scientists supports the view of [[global warming]] presented by the IPCC, and say that even the IPCC report authors do not all support the reports. &lt;!-- Removed dead link - needs replacement? --&gt; However, of the 120 lead authors of the [[TAR]], only two are known to have complained. In fact, they say, the consensus of those who expend the effort to comment is moving in the opposite direction. Others dispute this. To support this claim, the website of S. Fred Singer's [[Science and Environmental Policy Project]] (SEPP) lists four separate petitions: *The 1992 &quot;Statement by Atmospheric Scientists on Greenhouse Warming&quot; (&quot;...Such policy initiatives [those concerning the Earth Summit is scheduled to convene in Brazil in June 1992] derive from highly uncertain scientific theories. They are based on the unsupported assumption that catastrophic global warming follows from the burning of fossil fuels and requires immediate action. We do not agree.&quot;) [http://www.sepp.org/statment.html] *The &quot;Heidelberg Appeal&quot; (also from 1992) *Singer's own &quot;Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change&quot; (1995 and 1997) *The &quot;Oregon Petition,&quot; which was circulated in 1998 by physicist Frederick Seitz. According to SEPP associate Candace Crandall, these petitions show that &quot;the number of scientists refuting global warming is growing.&quot; [http://www.sepp.org/glwarm/ccwtltr.html] However, people who have examined the petitions challenge that conclusion, pointing out that: #The 1992 &quot;Statement by Atmospheric Scientists&quot; is more than a decade old and only has 46 signers. #The [[Heidelberg Appeal]] actually does not say anything about global warming. #Most of the signers of the [[Leipzig Declaration]]s are non-scientists or lack credentials in the specific field of climate research. #Many of the signers of the [[Oregon Petition]] are also non-scientists or lack relevant scientific backgrounds. &lt;!-- Similar lists by supporters of global warming have received similar challenges. --&gt; ==Discussion of some of the points== ===Global warming and carbon dioxide=== One argument against anthropogenic global warming questions the contention that rising levels of [[carbon dioxide]] and other [[greenhouse gas]]es (GHGs) correlate with&amp;mdash;and thus have caused&amp;mdash;global warming. Proponents of the view that [[greenhouse gas]]es have caused recent global warming respond that correlation is not a significant part of the evidence. See [[attribution of recent climate change]]. [[Image:Vostok 420ky 4curves insolation.jpg|thumb|250px|420,000 years of ice core data from [[Vostok, Antarctica]] research station (present time at the left).]] *Correlation is not causation. Indeed, studies of ice age temperature variations show carbon dioxide levels increasing ''after'' warming rather than before. [http://www.co2science.org/subject/c/summaries/co2climatehistory.htm], [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/vostok.htm] This however assumes that current climate change can be expected to be like past climate change. While it is generally agreed that past (ice age) variations are timed by astronomical forcing; the current variations, of whatever size, are claimed to be timed by anthropogenic releases of CO2 (thus returning the argument to the importance of human CO2 emissions). *Most warming during the past century took place before most carbon dioxide had been released. *Between 1940 and 1970, global temperatures went down even though carbon-dioxide levels went up. As noted above, [[climate model]]s are only able to simulate the temperature record of the past century when GHG forcing is included, which some insist strongly points to the importance of GHGs, as does [[attribution of recent climate change]]. ===Urban heat islands=== {{main|Urban heat island}} Global warming skeptics question the accuracy of the temperature records. They say if the monitoring stations are located in more populated areas, they must be influenced by the increased heat generated by the city as a whole (known as the &quot;[[Urban heat island]] effect&quot;). Those who believe in the accuracy of the records point out their consistency with the unaffected marine record; the lack of a difference between the warmings observed in urban and rural areas; and various studies which have examined the records and found no bias. ===Global warming and solar activity=== {{main|Solar variation theory}} Another point of controversy regarding [[anthropogenic global warming]] is the investigation of temperature correlations with the [[solar variation]]. This subject is a point of controversy between supporters and opponents of anthropogenic global warming. ===Beneficial or detrimental=== There is also disagreement on whether the effects of global warming will be beneficial or detrimental. Many researchers predict disastrous consequences for a warming of 1.5 to 7&amp;nbsp;°C. The UN's [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) predicts such a warming is likely within the 21st century, unless severe measures are taken (see [[Kyoto Protocol]]). Other researchers feel that up to 1.5&amp;nbsp;°C of warming would increase crop yields and stabilize weather. Many of these doubt a larger warming is likely. In response, some advocates of strong early measures (well beyond Kyoto) note that the belief in beneficial effects and the doubt that a large warming is possible should be independent if these conclusions were in fact neutrally derived from scientific research. ===An unstable world=== New findings have suggested that the earth's climate system is inherently unstable, and that global warming could thus precipitate non-linear sudden climate shifts, as have been discovered to have occurred within the earth's past. Ocean circulation, believed to be the key to such climate shifts, has been observed to be slowing, causing alarm among oceanographers. Some scientists fear that the [[Gulf Stream]], which conveys warm water from the [[Caribbean Sea]] across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and is partly responsible for the relative mildness of northern Europe's climate (though other factors also predominate: [http://216.239.57.100/search?q=cache:OcOF6VQSvzEC:www.ofps.ucar.edu/joss_psg/meetings/clivar-atlantic/Seager.pdf+gulf+stream+responsible&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8]), could be reduced or stopped altogether by the decreased salt content of sea water resulting from global warming. This could cause temperatures in northern Europe to drop. The US [[National Academy of Sciences]] issued a report on this phenomenon in 2002, titled ''Abrupt Climate Change - Inevitable Surprises''. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309074347/html/] &quot;It is important not to be fatalistic about the threats posed by abrupt climate change,&quot; it stated. &quot;Societies have faced both gradual and abrupt climate changes for millennia and have learned to adapt through various mechanisms, such as moving indoors, developing irrigation for crops, and migrating away from inhospitable regions. Nevertheless, because climate change will likely continue in the coming decades, denying the likelihood or downplaying the relevance of past abrupt events could be costly.&quot; ===Kyoto Protocol=== Advocates of the global warming hypothesis who predict adverse consequences from as little as 1.5&amp;nbsp;°C of warming nearly all support the [[Kyoto Protocol]] as a countermeasure. &lt;!-- Others oppose it. --&gt; Details of the agreement are in the article about the Kyoto Protocol, including both the pollution and fiscal requirements. ===Paradigms present=== The evaluation of importance of influences is affected by several [[paradigm]]s being used, with some specialties using some concepts as having more influence than others. Many of the apparent contradictions can be resolved by noting that different specialties may use different time and amplitude scales for various influences and concepts. *The climate system has been in a steady state (e.g., during the [[Holocene]], i.e., the last 10 kyr). *The climate system has had large variations (canonically, [[ice age]]s). *The climate system is dominated by internal processes. *Large influences tend to have large effects. *The climate response to forcing is largely linear. *Internal processes exist which amplify otherwise small influences. *Conditions now are significantly different from those in the past. ==See also== *[[Global cooling]] *[[Greenhouse effect]] *[[Scientific skepticism]] ==External links== ===Politics=== *Paul D. Thacker &quot;Environmental Science &amp; Technology, [[31 August]] [[2005]], [http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2005/aug/business/pt_wsj.html &quot;How the Wall Street Journal and Rep. Barton celebrated a global warming skeptic&quot;] *Mark Lynas, ''[[New Scientist]], [[25 June]] 2005, [http://www.marklynas.org/documents/30.shtml &quot;Get off the fence over global warming&quot;] * [http://www.pbs.org/now/thisweek/index_012304.html Ode to Kyoto: The energy industry's stealth campaign to confuse the public and stop Kyoto] &amp;mdash; Broadcast [[23 January]] [[2004]] on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]' ''[[NOW with Bill Moyers]]'' ([[RealVideo]] format). *[http://www.ecoresearch.net/election2004/report/sentence?s=109 Global Warming Media Analysis] &amp;mdash; US Election 2004 Web Monitor *[http://www.earthisland.org/eijournal/spring98/sp98a_fe.htm The PR Plot to Overheat the Earth], analysis of industry efforts to discredit global warming science, by Bob Burton and Sheldon Rampton, published in the ''Earth Island Journal''. *[http://www.environmentaldefense.org/go/paidske
erve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of Howland Island</title> <id>13418</id> <revision> <id>15911031</id> <timestamp>2003-08-03T00:11:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Howland Island</title> <id>13419</id> <revision> <id>15911032</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:11:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation on Howland Island</title> <id>13421</id> <revision> <id>15911033</id> <timestamp>2004-05-12T18:38:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bkonrad</username> <id>44062</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rd --&gt; Howland Island</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Howland Island</title> <id>13422</id> <revision> <id>15911034</id> <timestamp>2003-08-03T00:11:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hungary/History</title> <id>13424</id> <revision> <id>15911035</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Hungary]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Hungary</title> <id>13425</id> <revision> <id>39208178</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:30:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bobblewik</username> <id>51235</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Implement MoS. x percent or x per cent -&gt; x %</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hu-map.png|300px|thumb|Map of Hungary]] [[Image:Satellite image of Hungary in December 2002.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Hungary in December 2002]] With a land area of 93,030 square kilometers, '''[[Hungary]]''' is a country in [[Central Europe]] roughly the size of [[Portugal]] or the [[U.S.]] state of [[Indiana]]. It measures about 250 kilometers from north to south and 524 kilometers from east to west. It has some 2,258 kilometers of boundaries, shared with [[Austria]] to the west, [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]] to the south and southwest, [[Romania]] to the southeast, the [[Ukraine]] to the northeast, and [[Slovakia]] to the north. Hungary's modern borders were first established after [[World War I]] when, by the terms of the [[Treaty of Trianon]] in 1920, it lost more than 71% of what had formerly been the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], 58.5% of its population, and 32% of the Hungarians. With the aid of Nazi Germany, the country secured some boundary revisions at the expense of parts of [[Slovakia]] in 1938 and [[Carpatho-Ukraine]] in 1939 and at the expense of [[Romania]] in 1940. ''(The most of these territories' population were Hungarian, but it's not true for [[Romania]]).'' However, Hungary lost these territories again with its defeat in [[World War II]]. After World War II, the Trianon boundaries were restored with a small revision that benefited [[Czechoslovakia]]. ==Topography== Most of the country has an elevation of fewer than 200 meters. Although Hungary has several moderately high ranges of mountains, those reaching heights of 300 meters or more cover less than 2 % of the country. The highest point in the country is [[Kékes|Mount Kékes]] (1,014 meters) in the [[Mátra|Mátra Mountains]] northeast of [[Budapest]]. The lowest spot is 77.6 meters above sea level, located in the south of Hungary, near [[Szeged]]. The major rivers in the country are the [[Danube]] and [[Tisza]]. The Danube also flows through parts of [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Serbia]], and [[Romania]]. It is navigable within Hungary for 418 kilometers. The Tisza River is navigable for 444 kilometers in the country. Less important rivers include the [[Drava]] along the [[Croatia]]n border, the [[Rába]], the [[Szamos]], the [[Sió]], and the [[Ipoly]] along the Slovakian border. Hungary has three major lakes. [[Lake Balaton]], the largest, is 78 kilometers long and from 3 to 14 kilometers wide, with an area of 592 square kilometers. Hungarians often refer to it as the ''Hungarian Sea''. It is [[Central Europe]]'s largest [[freshwater]] lake and an important recreation area. Its shallow waters offer good summer swimming, and in winter its frozen surface provides excellent opportunities for winter sports. Smaller bodies of water are [[Lake Velence]] (26 square kilometers) in Fejér County and Lake Fertő ([[Neusiedler See]]--about 82 square kilometers within Hungary). Hungary has three major geographic regions: the [[Great Alföld]], lying east of the Danube River; the [[Transdanubia]], a hilly region lying west of the Danube and extending to the Austrian foothills of the [[Alps]]; and the Northern Hills, which is a mountainous and hilly country beyond the northern boundary of the Great Hungarian Plain. The Great Alföld contains the basin of the Tisza River and its branches. It encompasses more than half of the country's territory. Bordered by mountains on all sides, it has a variety of terrains, including regions of fertile soil, sandy areas, wastelands, and swampy areas. Hungarians have inhabited the Great Plain for at least a millennium. Here is found the [[puszta]], a long, and uncultivated expanse (the most famous such area still in existence is the [[Hortobágy]]), with which much Hungarian folklore is associated. In earlier centuries, the Great Plain was unsuitable for farming because of frequent flooding. Instead, it was the home of massive herds of cattle and horses. In the last half of the nineteenth century, the government sponsored programs to control the riverways and expedite inland drainage in the Great Plain. With the danger of recurrent flooding largely eliminated, much of the land was placed under cultivation, and herding ceased to be a major contributor to the area's economy. The Transdanubia region lies in the western part of the country, bounded by the Danube River, the Drava River, and the remainder of the country's border with Slovenia and Croatia. It lies south and west of the course of the Danube. It contains Lake Fertő and Lake Balaton. The region consists mostly of rolling foothills of the Austrian Alps. However, several areas of the Transdanubia are flat, most notably the [[Little Alföld]] along the lower course of the Rába River. Transdanubia is primarily an agricultural area, with flourishing crops, livestock, and viticulture. Mineral deposits and oil are found in [[Zala]] county close to the border of Croatia. The Northern Hills lie north of Budapest and run in a northeasterly direction south of the border with Slovakia. The higher ridges, which are mostly forested, have rich coal and iron deposits. Minerals are a major resource of the area and have long been the basis of the industrial economies of cities in the region. Viticulture is also important, producing the famous [[Tokaji]] wine. The country's best natural resource is fertile land, although soil quality varies greatly. About 70 % of the country's total territory is suitable for agriculture; of this portion, 72 % is arable land. Hungary lacks extensive domestic sources of the energy and raw materials needed for industrial development. ==Climate== Temperatures in Hungary vary from -28° C to 22° C. Average yearly rainfall is about sixty-four centimeters. Distribution and frequency of rainfall are unpredictable. The western part of the country usually receives more rain than the eastern part, where severe droughts may occur in summertime. Weather conditions in the Great Plain can be especially harsh, with hot summers, cold winters, and scant rainfall. By the 1980s, the countryside was beginning to show the effects of pollution, both from herbicides used in agriculture and from industrial pollutants. Most noticeable was the gradual contamination of the country's bodies of water, endangering fish and wildlife. Although concern was mounting over these disturbing threats to the environment, no major steps had yet been taken to arrest them. {| border=2 |[[Geographic coordinates]]:||{{coor dm|47|00|N|20|00|E|type:country}} |- |Map references:||Europe |- |Area: |- |&amp;nbsp; total:||93,030 km² |- |&amp;nbsp; land:||92,340 km² |- |&amp;nbsp; water:||690 km² |- |Area - comparative:||slightly smaller than [[Indiana]] |- |Land boundaries, total:|| 2,009 km |- |border countries:||Austria 366 km, Croatia 329 km, Romania 443 km, Serbia and Montenegro 151 km (all with Serbia), Slovakia 515 km, Slovenia 102 km, Ukraine 103 km |- |Coastline:||0 km (landlocked) |- |Maritime claims:||none (landlocked) |- |Climate:||temperate; cold, cloudy, humid winters; warm summers |- |Terrain:||mostly flat to rolling plains; hills and low mountains on the Slovakian border |- |Elevation extremes: |- |&amp;nbsp; lowest point:|| [[Theiss River|Tisza River]] 78 m |- |&amp;nbsp; highest point:|| [[Kékes]] 1,014 m |- |Natural resources:||bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land |- |Land use: |- |&amp;nbsp; arable land:||51% |- |&amp;nbsp; permanent crops:||3.6% |- |&amp;nbsp; permanent pastures:||12.4% |- |&amp;nbsp; forests and woodland:||
hoice for Muslim speakers of Bangla. Furthermore, there are cases where speakers of Standard Bangla in West Bengal will use a different word than a speaker of Standard Bangla in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bangla descent. Because each pair of words is made up of only native vocabulary, the choice of which word to use is not based on one's religion, but on regional usage. Examples of such cases are listed below, with the West Bengali standard marked (W) and the Bangladeshi standard marked (E): * salt: nun (W) corresponds to lôbon (E) * turmeric: holdi (W) corresponds to holud (E) * chili pepper: lôngka (W) corresponds to morich (E) * with: shôngge (W) corresponds to shathe (E) * husband's sister: thakurjhi (W) corresponds to nônod (E) Note that these differences reflect the vocabulary of the standard varieties of Bangla in West Bengali and Bangladesh. Variation in the vocabulary of the countless regional dialects of both West Bengal and Bangladesh are even more pronounced. ==Bangla literature== ''Main article: [[Bangla literature]]'' The first evidence of Bangla literature is [[Charyapada]] or Charyageeti, buddhist hymns or dohas from the 8th century. [[Image:Rabindranath.png|Rabindranath Tagore|frame|right]] Possibly the most prolific writer in Bangla is [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]] [[Rabindranath Tagore]]. Tagore dominated both the Bengali and Indian philosophical and literary scene for decades. His 2,000 ''Rabindrasangeets'' play a pivotal part in defining Bengali culture, both in West Bengal and Bangladesh. He is the author of the [[national anthem|national anthems]] of both [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]], both composed in Bangla. Other notable Bangla works of his are ''[[Gitanjali]]'', a book of poems for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, and many short stories and a few novels. In a similar category is [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]], a Muslim who was invited to post-partition Bangladesh as the [[National Poet]] and whose work transcends sectarian boundaries. Adored by Bengalis both in Bangladesh and West Bengal, his work includes 3,000 songs, known as ''nazrul geeti''. He is frequently called the '''rebel poet''' because of his strong involvement in revolution leading to India's independence from British Rule. His songs and poems were frequently used during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] as well. [[Michael Madhusudan Dutt]], a Christian by conversion, is best known for his [[Ramayana]]-based masterpiece, &quot;The Slaying of Meghnadh,&quot; (in Bengali &quot;''Meghnadh Bodh Kabbo''&quot; (&amp;#2478;&amp;#2503;&amp;#2456;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2470; &amp;#2476;&amp;#2471; &amp;#2453;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2476;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2479;)), which essentially follows in the poetic tradition of [[John Milton|Milton]]'s ''Paradise Lost''. Those who have read it consider this work a world-class epic poem of the modern era. Michael Madhusudan Dutta is also credited with the introduction of sonnets to Bangla literature. [[Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]] was an author whose speciality was exploring complex human psychology. [[Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay]] was one of the earliest Bengali novelists and is popularly known as the author of India's first ''national song'', &quot;Bande M&amp;#257;tarom&quot; (pronounced in Hindi &quot;[[Vande Mataram|Vande M&amp;#257;t&amp;#257;ram]]&quot;). Tarashankar Bandopadhay was another famous novelist whose works feature a realistic picture of the many-colored fabric of life in rural Bengal. [[Jibanananda Das]] was a famous poet who, along with Buddhadev Basu, marks the beginning of the move to transcend the Tagore legacy. The new genere of Bengali poets departed considerably from Tagore's ideological style and adoped realism in their writing more pronouncedly. Titled '''polli-kobi''' (''Poet of the Village'') for works relating to the villages and countryside of Bengal, [[Jasimuddin]] is particularly famous for his poems that have become major highlights for pedagogical purposes in both West Bengal and Bangladesh. Seminal Hindu religious works in Bangla include the many songs of [[Ramprasad Sen]]. His works (still sung today) from the 17th century cover an astonishing range of emotional responses to the goddess [[Kali]], detailing complex philosophical statements based on [[Vedanta]] teachings and more visceral prouncements of his love of the goddess. There are also the laudatory accounts of the lives and teachings of the [[Vaishnava]] saint [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (the ''Choitanyo Chorit&amp;#257;mrit'') and [[Devi]] [[Advaitist]] Shri [[Ramakrishna]] (the ''Ramakrishna Kathamrita'', translated roughly as Gospel of Ramakrishna). There is also a large body of Islamic literature, that can be traced back atleast to ''Noornama'' by [[Abdul Hakim]]. ''Bishad Sindhu'' depicting the death of Hussain in [[Karbala]] is very popular novel written by [[Mir Mosharraf Hossain]]. Later works influenced by Islam include devotional songs written by Nazrul, and popularized by [[Abbas Uddin]], among others. The mystic [[Baul]]s of the Bengal countryside who preached the boundless spiritual truth of ''Sôhoj Pôth'' (the Simple, Natural Path) and ''Moner M&amp;#257;nush'' (The Man of The Heart) drew on Vedantic philosophy to propound transcendental truths in song format, traveling from village to village proclaiming that there was no such thing as Hindu, Muslim or Christian, only ''moner m&amp;#257;nush.'' The literature discussed so far can be more or less regarded as the common heritage of both [[Bangladesh]] and [[West Bengal]]. Since the partition of [[Bengal]] in 1947, the east and west parts of Bengal have also developed their own distinctive literatures. For example, the [[Naxalite]] movement has influenced much of West Bengal's literature, whereas the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Liberation War]] has had a similarly profound impact on [[Bangladesh]]i literature. Major literary figures in Bangladesh include [[Shamsur Rahman]], [[Sufia Kamal]], [[Hasan Azizul Huq]], [[Akhtaruzzaman Ilias]] and [[Humayun Azad]] , to name a few. Some notable writers from West Bengal are [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]], [[Shankha Ghosh]], [[Shakti Chattopadhyay]], [[Mahasweta Devi]] and [[Joy Goswami]]. == Modern History == Until the [[18th century]], Bangla did not have a well-documented grammar. Bangla existed as a collection of thousands of dialects. The first written Bangla grammar, ''Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido em duas partes'', was written by Manoel da Assumpcam, a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[missionary]]. Assumpcam wrote this grammar between [[1734]] and [[1742]] while he was serving in [[Bhawal]]. Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[grammarian]], is credited as being the first to write a Bangla grammar using Bangla texts and letters for illustration: ''A Grammar of the Bengal Language ([[1778]])''. [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], the great Bengali Reformer, also published a book &quot;Grammar of the Bengali Language&quot; in [[1832]]. Since then, the written form of Bengali has gone under numerous changes. Perhaps the most important was the adoption of ''Cholti Bhasha'' over ''Shadhu Bhasha'' (an archaic form of the language) as the form of choice for written Bangla, spearheaded by Pramatha Choudhury. Spoken and written Bangla continues to evolve in both [[West Bengal]] and [[Bangladesh]]. === Language movements === There have been several incidents of popular uprisings to protect the status of Bangla. Most notable among these is the [[Language movement]] of [[1952]], in [[East Pakistan]]. There have been other incidents in Bangla-speaking regions of [[India]] as well. Between the years of [[1947]] and [[1971]], what is now known as Bangladesh was part of [[Pakistan]] (and first known as [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]] and later [[East Pakistan]]). During this period, the Bangla language became the focus and foundation of the national identity of the [[Bengali people]], leading ultimately to the creation of the sovereign state of [[Bangladesh]]. Around [[1950]]-[[1952|52]], the emerging middle class of [[East Bengal]] underwent an uprising known later as the ''Bhasha Andolon'', or [[Language Movement]]. Bengalis (then East Pakistanis) were initially agitated by a decision by the central Pakistani government to establish [[Urdu]] as the sole national language for all of [[Pakistan]], despite the fact that Urdu was only a minority language spoken by the supposed elite class of what was then [[West Pakistan]]. At the peak of resentment, on [[February 21]], [[1952]], Bengali students (mainly of [[Dhaka Medical College and Hospital]] and [[University of Dhaka]]) and activists walked into military and police fire and were killed in demand of the recognition and establishment of the Bangla language - spoken by the majority of the then-Pakistani population - as one of the, if not the sole, national language of erstwhile Pakistan. The day is revered in modern-day Bangladesh and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in [[West Bengal]] as the [[Language Martyrs' Day]]. [[UNESCO]] decided to observe [[21 February]] as [[International Mother Language Day]]. The UNESCO General Conference took a decision to that took effect on [[17 November]] [[1999]] when it unanimously adopted a draft resolution submitted by Bangladesh and co-sponsored and supported by 28 other countries. In 1961, the Government of the Indian state of [[Assam]] passed legislation making the use of Assamese language compulsory. This legislation resulted in widespread protest across [[Assam]]. In one such incident, 11 people were killed due to police firing in Silchar in southern [[Assam]]. Coming under intense pressure, the Government withdrew the legislation &lt;ref name=&quot;silchar&quot;&gt; [http://www.swordoftruth.com/swordoftruth/archives/readersvoice/ulmobvoa.html Silchar police firing incident] &lt;/ref&gt; == See also == * [[Languag
rench origin, signed the ''Decreto de Nueva Planta'' in [[1715]], a new law that revoked most of the historical rights and privileges of the different kingdoms that conformed the Spanish Crown, unifying them under the laws of Castile, where the [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] had been more receptive to the royal wish. Spain became culturally and politically a follower of absolutist France. The rule of the Spanish Bourbons continued under [[Ferdinand VI of Spain|Ferdinand VI]] and [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]]. Under the rule of Charles III and his ministers, [[Leopoldo de Gregorio|Leopoldo de Gregorio, Marquis of Esquilache]] and [[José Moñino|José Moñino, Count of Floridablanca]], Spain embarked on a program of [[enlightened despotism]] that brought Spain a new prosperity in the middle of the [[eighteenth century]]. After losing alongside [[France]] against the [[United Kingdom]] in the [[Seven Years' War]], Spain recouped most of her territorial losses in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The reforming spirit of Charles III was extinguished in the reign of his son, [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]], seen by some as mentally handicapped. Dominated by his wife's lover, [[Manuel de Godoy]], Charles IV embarked on policies that overturned much of Charles III's reforms. After briefly opposing [[Revolutionary France]] early in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], Spain soon allied with its northern neighbor, only to be [[blockade]]d by the British. The loss of commercial and political ties to its colonies would lead to the independence of most of the [[Spanish Empire]] in the [[New World]]. Charles IV's vacillation as a loyal French ally led [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of France, to invade Spain in [[1808]], beginning the [[Peninsular War]]. Under the [[Bonaparte dynasty]], Spain failed to embrace the [[mercantilism|mercantile]] and [[industrial revolution]]s of the [[18th century]], and also failed to absorb the ideals of [[the Enlightenment]] that were revolutionizing European thought. These missed opportunities, combined with the economic and military failures of the [[17th century]], caused the country to fall desperately behind [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], [[France]], and [[Germany]] in economic and political power. ==Napoleonic Wars: War of Spanish Independence (1808-1814)== {{Seesubarticle|Peninsular war}} Spain initially sided against France in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], but the defeat of her army early in the war led to [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]]'s pragmatic decision to align with the revolutionary French. The Spanish fleet was annihilated, along with the French, at the decisive [[Battle of Trafalgar]] in [[1805]], prompting the vacillating king of Spain to reconsider his alliance with France. Spain broke off from the [[Continental System]] temporarily, and Napoleon - aggravated with the Bourbon kings of Spain - invaded and deposed Charles. The Spanish people vigorously resisted the move and ''juntas'' were formed across Spain that pronounced themselves in favor of Charles's son [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand]]. Spain was put under a British blockade, and her colonies - for the first time separated from their colonial rulers - began to trade independently with Britain. Initially, the juntas declared their support for Ferdinand, expecting greater autonomy from Madrid under the liberal constitution that the juntas had drafted. In [[1812]] the [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] took refuge at [[Cádiz]] and created the first modern Spanish constitution, the [[Constitution of 1812]] (informally named ''La Pepa''). The British, led by the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], fought Napoleon's forces in the [[Peninsular War]], with [[Joseph Bonaparte]] ruling as king at Madrid. The brutal war was one of the first [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]]s in modern Western history; French supply lines stretching across Spain were mauled repeatedly by Spanish guerrillas. The war in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] fluctuated repeatedly, with Wellington spending several years behind his fortresses in [[Portugal]] while launching occasional campaigns into Spain. The French were decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Vitoria]] in [[1813]], and the following year, Ferdinand was restored as King of Spain. ==Spain in the nineteenth century ([[1814]]-[[1873]])== {{Seesubarticle|Mid-nineteenth century Spain}} Although the ''juntas'' that had forced the French to leave Spain had sworn by the liberal [[Constitution of 1812]], [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] openly believed that it was too liberal for the country. On his return to Spain, he refused to swear by it himself, and he continued to rule in the authoritarian fashion of his forebears. Although Spain accepted the rejection of the Constitution, the policy was not warmly accepted in Spain's empire in the [[New World]]. Revolution broke out. Spain - nearly bankrupt from the war with France and the reconstruction of the country - was unable to pay her soldiers, and in [[1820]], an expedition intended for the colonies revolted in [[Cadiz]]. When armies throughout Spain pronounced themselves in sympathy with the revolters, led by [[Rafael del Riego]], Ferdinand relented and was forced to accept the liberal Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand himself was placed under effective house arrest for the duration of the liberal experiment. The [[Triennio liberal|three years]] of liberal rule that followed coincided with a [[Spanish Civil War, 1820-1823|civil war in Spain]] that would typify Spanish politics for the next century. The liberal government, which reminded European statesmen entirely too much of the governments of the [[French Revolution]], was looked on with hostility by the [[Congress of Verona]] in [[1822]], and France was authorized to intervene. France crushed the liberal government with massive force, and Ferdinand was restored as absolute monarch. The American colonies, however, were completely lost; in [[1824]], the last Spanish army on the American mainland was defeated at the [[Battle of Ayacucho]] in southern [[Peru]]. A period of uneasy peace followed in Spain for the next decade. Having borne only a female heir presumptive, it appeared that Ferdinand's brother, [[Infante Carlos of Spain]], would become crowned [[King of Spain]] on Ferdinand's death. While Ferdinand aligned with the conservatives, fearing another national insurrection, he did not view the reactionary policies of his brother as a viable option. Ferdinand - resisting the wishes of his brother - decreed the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1830]], enabling his daughter Isabella to become Queen. Carlos, who made known his intent to resist the sanction, fled to [[Portugal]]. Ferdinand's death in [[1833]] and the accession of Isabella (only three years old at the time) as Queen of Spain sparked the [[First Carlist War]]. Carlos invaded Spain and attracted support from reactionaries and conservatives in Spain; Isabella's mother, [[Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]], was named [[regent]] until her daughter came of age. The insurrection seemed to have been crushed by the end of the year; Maria Cristina's armies, called &quot;Cristino&quot; forces, had driven the Carlist armies from most of the Basque country. Carlos then named the [[Basque people|Basque]] general [[Tomás de Zumalacárregui]] his [[commander-in-chief]]. Zumalacárregui resuscitated the Carlist cause, and by [[1835]] had driven the Cristino armies to the [[Ebro River]] and transformed the Carlist army from a demoralized band into a professional army of 30,000 of quality superior to the government forces. Zumalacárregui's death in [[1835]] changed the Carlists' fortunes. The Cristinos found a capable general in [[Baldomero Espartero]]. His victory at the [[Battle of Luchana]] ([[1836]]) turned the tide of the war, and in [[1839]], the [[Convention of Vergara]] put an end to the first Carlist insurrection. Espartero, operating on his popularity as a [[war hero]] and his sobriquet &quot;Pacifier of Spain&quot;, demanded liberal reforms from Maria Cristina. The Queen Regent, who resisted any such idea, preferred to resign and let Espartero become regent instead. Espartero's liberal reforms were opposed, then, by moderates; the former general's heavy-handedness caused a series of sporadic uprisings throughout the country from various quarters, all of which were bloodily suppressed. He was overthrown as regent in [[1843]] by [[Ramón María Narváez]], a moderate, who was in turn perceived as too reactionary. Another Carlist uprising, the [[Matiners' War]], was launched in [[1846]] in [[Catalonia]], but it was poorly organized and suppressed by [[1849]]. Isabella took a more active role in government after she came of age, but she was immensely unpopular throughout her reign. She was viewed as beholden to whoever was closest to her at court, and that she cared little for the people of Spain. In [[1856]], she attempted to form a pan-national coalition, the [[Union Liberal]], under the leadership of [[Leopoldo O'Donnell]] who had already marched on Madrid that year and deposed another Espartero ministry. Isabella's plan failed and cost Isabella more prestige and favor with the people. Isabella launched a successful war against [[Morocco]], waged by generals O'Donnell and [[Juan Prim]], in [[1860]] that stabilized her popularity in Spain. However, a campaign to reconquer [[Peru]] and [[Chile]] during the [[Chincha Islands War]] proved disastrous and Spain suffered defeat before the determined South American powers. In [[1866]], a revolt led by [[Juan Prim]] was suppressed, but it was becoming increasingly clear that the people of Spain were upset with Isabella's approach to governance. In [[1868]], the [[Glorious Revolution (Spain)|Glorious Revolution]] broke out when the ''[[progresista]]'' generals [[Francisco Serrano y Dominguez|Francisco Serrano]] and [[Juan Prim]] r
on economic and social policy (principally relations between workers and employers) *[[Political and Security Committee]], established in the context of the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], monitoring and advising on international issues of global security. There are also a great number of bodies, usually set up by [[secondary legislation]], which exist to implement particular policies. These are the '''[[agencies of the European Union]]'''. Examples are the [[European Environment Agency]], the [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] and the [[Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market]]. Lastly, the [[European Ombudsman]] investigates complaints of maladministration by EU institutions. ====Location of EU institutions==== The EU has no official capital and its institutions are divided between several cities: *[[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] - Considered the ''de facto'' capital of the EU **Seat of the [[European Commission]] and the [[Council of the European Union]] **Venue for the [[European Parliament|European Parliament's]] committee meetings and mini-sessions **Host city for all [[European Council]] summits (since 2004) *[[Strasbourg]], [[France]] **Seat of the [[European Parliament]] and venue of its twelve week-long plenary sessions each year **Also the location of two key European organisations &amp;mdash; the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[European Court of Human Rights]] &amp;mdash; which are different from the EU and have a wider membership than the EU *[[Luxembourg City]], [[Luxembourg]] **Seat of the [[European Court of Justice]] and the [[Secretariat of the European Parliament]] **Seat of the [[European Investment Bank]] *[[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Germany]] **Seat of the [[European Central Bank]] *[[The Hague]], [[The Netherlands]] **Seat of [[EUROPOL]] (the European Police Office) ===Legal framework=== [[Image:EGKS.png|thumb|right|200px|Founding members of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]]]] [[European Union law]] comprises a large number of overlapping legal and institutional structures. This is a result of its being defined by successive international treaties, with each new treaty amending and supplementing earlier ones. In recent years, considerable efforts have been made to consolidate and simplify the treaties, culminating with the final draft of the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]]. If this proposed treaty is adopted, it will replace the set of overlapping treaties that form the current constitution of the EU with a single text. The earliest EU treaty was the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]] of 1951 (took effect in 1952) which established the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] between an original group of six European countries. This treaty has since expired, its functions taken up by subsequent treaties. On the other hand, the [[Treaty of Rome]] of 1957 is still in effect, though much amended since then, most notably by the [[Maastricht treaty]] of 1992, which first established the European Union under that name. The most recent amendments to the Treaty of Rome were agreed as part of the [[Treaty of Accession 2003|Treaty of Accession]] of the 10 new member states, which entered into force on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. The EU member states have recently agreed to the text of a new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|constitutional treaty]] that, if ratified by the member states, would have become the first official constitution of the EU, replacing all previous treaties with a single document. Although accepted by many countries, this document was rejected in a French referendum with a 55% majority on [[May 29]] and in the Dutch referendum with a 62% majority on [[June 1]]. If the Constitutional Treaty fails to be ratified by all member states, then it might be necessary to reopen negotiations on it. Most politicians and officials agree that the current pre-Constitution structures are inefficient in the medium term for a union of 25 (and growing) member states. Senior politicians in some member states (notably France) have suggested that if only a few countries fail to ratify the Treaty, then the rest of the Union should proceed without them, possibly creating an &quot;Avant Garde&quot; or Inner Union of more committed member states to proceed with &quot;an ever-deeper, ever-wider union&quot;. {{see also|EU treaties|Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe}} ====The role of the European Community within the Union==== '''European Communities: European Community plus [[Euratom]]''' The term [[European Communities]] refers collectively to two entities -- the European Economic Community (now called the European Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (also known as Euratom) -- each founded pursuant to a separate treaty in the 1950s. A third entity, the European Coal and Steel Community, was also part of the European Communities, but ceased to exist in 2003 upon the expiration of its founding treaty. Since 1967, the European Communities have shared common institutions, specifically the Council, the European Parliament, the Commission and the Court of Justice. In 1992, the European Economic Community, which of the three original communities had the broadest scope, was renamed the &quot;[[European Community]]&quot; by the Treaty of Maastricht. '''European Union: European Communities plus CFSP and PJCC''' The European Communities are one of the [[three pillars of the European Union]], being both the most important pillar and the only one to operate primarily through supranational institutions. The other two &quot;pillars&quot; &amp;ndash; [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], and [[Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters]] &amp;ndash; are looser intergovernmental groupings. Confusingly, these latter two concepts are increasingly administered by the Community (as they are built up from mere concepts to actual practice). '''Effect of Constitutional Treaty''' If it is ratified, the proposed new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] would abolish the three-pillar structure and, with it, the distinction between the European Union and the European Community, bringing all the Community's activities under the auspices of the European Union and transferring the Community's legal personality to the Union. There is, however, one qualification: it appears that Euratom would remain a distinct entity governed by a separate treaty. {| align=center style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |- | [[Image:EU Structure History.png|center]] |- | ''Evolution of the structures of the European Union.'' |- | {{EU-timeline}} |} ====Intergovernmentalism and supranationalism==== A basic tension exists within the European Union between [[intergovernmentalism]] and [[supranationalism]]. Intergovernmentalism is a method of decision-making in international organisations where power is possessed by the member states and decisions are made by unanimity. Independent appointees of the governments or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organisations today. An alternative method of decision-making in international organisations is supranationalism. In supranationalism power is held by independent appointed officials or by representatives elected by the legislatures or people of the member states. Member state governments still have power, but they must share this power with other actors. Furthermore, decisions are made by majority votes, hence it is possible for a member-state to be forced by the other member-states to implement a decision against its will. Some forces in European Union politics favour the intergovernmental approach, while others favour the supranational path. Supporters of supranationalism argue that it allows integration to proceed at a faster pace than would otherwise be possible. Where decisions must be made by governments acting unanimously, decisions can take years to make, if they are ever made. Supporters of intergovernmentalism argue that supra-nationalism is a threat to national sovereignty, and to democracy, claiming that only national governments can possess the necessary democratic legitimacy. Intergovernmentalism is being favoured by more [[Euroscepticism|Eurosceptic]] nations such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]; while more integrationist nations such as the [[Benelux]] countries, [[France]], [[Germany]], and [[Italy]] have tended to prefer the supranational approach. The European Union attempts to strike a balance between the two approaches. This balance however is complex, resulting in the often labyrinthine complexity of its decision-making procedures. Starting in March 2002, a [[Convention on the Future of Europe]] again looked at this balance, among other things, and proposed changes. These changes were discussed at an Intergovernmental Conference ([[Intergovernmental Conference|IGC]]) in May 2004 and led to the Constitutional Treaty discussed above. Supranationalism is closely related to the inter-governmentalist ''vs. '' neofunctionalist debate. This is a debate concerning why the process of integration has taken place at all. Intergovernmentalists argue that the process of EU integration is a result of tough bargaining between states. Neofunctionalism, on the other hand, argues that the supranational institutions themselves have been a driving force behind integration. For further information on this see the page on [[Neofunctionalism]]. ==Main policies== As the changing name of the European Union (from European Economic Community to European Community to European Union) suggests, it has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the member states to the EU. This picture of i
n be articulated in semiotic or sign-relational terms as follows: The first phase passes from the object domain to the sign domain, the second phase passes from the sign domain to the interpretant sign domain, continuing perhaps in a relay of successive passes, and the third phase passes from the last interpretant sign domain back to the object domain. There are a number of issues that typically arise with the continuing development of a symbolist perspective, in any field of endeavor, over the years of its natural life-cycle. We can see these issues illustrated clearly enough in our story problem paradigm, with its parsing of the problem-solving process into the three phases of abstraction, transformation, and application. :* Once the division of labor among the three phases of the process has been in place for a sufficiently long time, each of the three phases will tend to take on a certain degree of independence, sometimes actual and sometimes merely apparent, from the other two phases. :* As a side-effect of the increasing independence among the various phases of inquiry, there tend to develop specialized disciplines, each devoted to a single aspect of the initially interactive and integral process. A symptom of this stage of development is that references to the 'independence' of the several phases of inquiry may become confused with or even replaced by assertions of their 'autonomy' from one another. Returning to the formal sciences of logic and mathematics and focusing on the rise of symbolic logic in particular, all of the above issues were clearly recognized and widely discussed among the movers and shakers of the symbolist movement, with especial mention of [[George Boole]], [[Augustus De Morgan]], [[Benjamin Peirce]], and Charles Peirce. The first symptoms of a crisis typically arise in connection with questions about the status of the abstract symbols that are 'manipulated' in the transformation phase, to express it in sign-relational terms, the sign-to-sign aspect of semiosis. In the beginning, while it is still evident to everyone concerned that these symbols are mined from the matrix of their usual interpretations, which are generally more diverse than unique, these abstracted symbols are commonly referred to as '[[uninterpreted symbol]]s', the sense being that they are transiently detached from their interpretations simply for the sake of extra facility in processing the more general thrust of their meanings, after which intermediary process they will have their concrete meanings restored. When we start to hear these abstract, general, uninterpreted symbols being described as 'meaningless' symbols, then we can be sure that a certain line in our sand-reckoning has been crossed, and that the crossers thereof have hefted or sublimated '[[formalism]]' to the status of a full-blown [[Weltanschauung]] rather than a simple [[heuristic]] device. What we observe here is a familiar form of cyclic process, with the crest of excess followed by the slough of despond. The inflationary boom that raises 'formalism' beyond its formative sphere as one among a host of equally useful heuristic tricks to the status of a totalizing worldview leads perforce to the deflationary bust that makes of 'formalist' a pejorative term. The point of the foregoing discussion is this, that one of the main difficulties that we have in understanding what the whole complex of words rooted in 'form' meant to Peirce is that we find ourselves, historically speaking, on opposite sides of this cycle of ideas from him. And so we are required, as so often happens in trying to read a writer of another age, to lift the scales of the years from our eyes, to drop the reticles that have encrusted themselves on our 'reading glasses', our [[hermeneutic]] scopes, due to the interpolant philosophical schemata that have managed to enscounce themselves in our unthinking culture over the years that separate us from the writer in question. ===Logic as formal semiotic=== &lt;blockquote&gt; ''On the Definition of Logic''. [[Logic]] is ''[[formal semiotic]]''. A [[sign]] is something, ''A'', which brings something, ''B'', its ''[[interpretant]]'' sign, determined or created by it, into the same sort of correspondence (or a lower implied sort) with something, ''C'', its ''[[object]]'', as that in which itself stands to ''C''. This definition no more involves any reference to human thought than does the definition of a line as the place within which a particle lies during a lapse of time. It is from this definition that I deduce the principles of [[logic]] by mathematical reasoning, and by mathematical reasoning that, I aver, will support criticism of [[Weierstrass]]ian severity, and that is perfectly evident. The word &quot;formal&quot; in the definition is also defined. (Peirce, &quot;Carnegie Application&quot;, NEM 4, 54). &lt;/blockquote&gt; In 1902 Peirce applied to the newly established [[Carnegie Institution of Washington|Carnegie Institution]] for aid &quot;in accomplishing certain scientific work&quot;, presenting an &quot;explanation of ''what work'' is proposed&quot; plus an &quot;appendix containing a fuller statement&quot;. These parts of the letter, along with excerpts from earlier drafts, can be found in NEM 4 (Eisele 1976). The appendix is organized as a &quot;List of Proposed Memoirs on Logic&quot;, and No. 12 among the 36 proposals is titled &quot;On the Definition of Logic&quot;, the earlier draft of which is quoted in full above. On Peirce and his contemporaries [[Ernst Schröder]] and [[Frege]], [[Hilary Putnam]] (1982) wrote: &lt;blockquote&gt; When I started to trace the later [[History of logic | development of logic]], the first thing I did was to look at [[Ernst Schröder|Schröder]]'s ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik''. This book … has a third volume on the logic of [[relational algebra|relations]] (''Algebra und Logik der Relative'', 1895). [These] three volumes were the best-known logic text in the world among advanced students, and they can safely be taken to represent what any mathematician interested in the study of logic would have had to know, or at least become acquainted with in the 1890s. &lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt; While, to my knowledge, no one except [[Frege]] ever published a single paper in Frege's notation, many famous logicians adopted Peirce-Schröder notation, and famous results and systems were published in it. [[Leopold Löwenheim | Löwenheim]] stated and proved the [[Löwenheim-Skolem theorem]] ... in Peircian notation. In fact, there is no reference in Löwenheim's paper to any logic other than Peirce's. To cite another example, [[Ernst Zermelo | Zermelo]] presented his [[Zermelo set theory|axiom]]s for [[set theory]] in Peirce-Schröder notation, and not, as one might have expected, in [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]]-[[Alfred N. Whitehead|Whitehead]] notation. &lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt; One can sum up these simple facts (which anyone can quickly verify) as follows: Frege certainly discovered the [[quantifier]] first (four years before O. H. Mitchell did so, going by publication dates, which are all we have as far as I know). But [[Leif Ericson]] probably discovered [[The Americas|America]] 'first' (forgive me for not counting the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|native Americans]], who of course really discovered it 'first'). If the effective discoverer, from a European point of view, is [[Christopher Columbus]], that is because he discovered it so that it stayed discovered (by Europeans, that is), so that the discovery became known (by Europeans). Frege did 'discover' the quantifier in the sense of having the rightful claim to priority; but Peirce and his students discovered it in the effective sense. The fact is that until Russell appreciated what he had done, Frege was relatively obscure, and it was Peirce who seems to have been known to the entire world logical community. How many of the people who think that 'Frege invented [formal] logic' are aware of these facts? &lt;/blockquote&gt; The main evidence for Putnam's claims is Peirce (1885), published in the premier American mathematical journal of the day. [[Peano]], [[Ernst Schröder]], among others, cited this article. Peirce was apparently ignorant of Frege's work, despite their rival achievements in logic, [[philosophy of language]], and the [[foundations of mathematics]]. Peirce's other major discoveries in formal logic include: :* Distinguishing (Peirce, 1885) between first-order and second-order quantification. :* Seeing that Boolean calculations could be carried out by means of electrical switches (W5:421-24), anticipating [[Claude Shannon]] by more than 50 years. :* Devising the [[existential graph]]s, a diagrammatic notation for the [[predicate calculus]]. These graphs form the basis of the [[conceptual graph]]s of [[John F. Sowa]], and of Sun-Joo Shin's diagrammatic reasoning. A philosophy of logic, grounded in his categories and semeiotic, can be extracted from Peirce's writings. This philosophy, as well as Peirce's logical work more generally, is exposited and defended in , and in [http://www.jfsowa.com/peirce/putnam.htm Hilary Putnam (1982)], the ''Introduction'' to Houser et al (1997), and Dipert's chapter in Misak (2004). [[Jean Van Heijenoort]] (1967), [[Jaakko Hintikka]] in his chapter in Brunning and Forster (1997), and Brady (2000) divide those who study formal (and natural) languages into two camps: the [[model theory|model-theorists]] / [[semantics|semanticists]], and the [[proof theory|proof theorists]] / universalists. Hintikka and Brady view Peirce as a pioneer model theorist. On how the young [[Bertrand Russell]], especially his ''Principles of Mathematics'' and [[Principia Mathematica]], did not do Peirce justice, see Anellis (1995). Peirce's work on formal logic had admirers other than [[Ernst Schröder]]: :* The philosophical algebraist [[William Kingdon Clifford]
ernal links== * [http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/about/ministerial_profiles/minprofile_brown.cfm HM Treasury - Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP, Chancellor of the Exchequer] * [http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page1378.asp 10 Downing Street - Chancellor of the Exchequer, The Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP] * [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/person/0,9290,-644,00.html Guardian Unlimited Politics - Ask Aristotle: Gordon Brown MP] *[http://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/gordon_brown/kirkcaldy_and_cowdenbeath TheyWorkForYou.com - Gordon Brown] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4177281.stm BBC News - Tour diary: Gordon Brown in Africa] January 2005 trip about his 'Marshall plan for Africa' *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Scotland/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Labour/MPs/Brown,_Gordon/ Open Directory Project - ''Gordon Brown''] directory category {{start box}} {{succession box | before=''(none: constituency created)'' | title=[[Dunfermline East (UK Parliament constituency)|Member of Parliament for Dunfermline East]] | years=1983&amp;ndash;2005 | after=''(none: constituency abolished)''}} {{Incumbent succession box| before=''(none: constituency created)'' | title=[[Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath (UK Parliament constituency)|Member of Parliament for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath]] | start=2005 | after=''Incumbent''}} {{Incumbent succession box | before=[[Kenneth Clarke]] | title=[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] | start=1997}} {{end box}} {{G8-Finance}} {{Chancellor of the Exchequer}} [[Category:1951 births|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:Glaswegians|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:Chancellors of the Exchequer|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:British MPs|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:UK Labour Party politicians|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:Scottish politicians|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:Scottish journalists|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:Living people|Brown, Gordon]] [[Category:People with an ocular prosthetic|Brown, Gordon]] [[de:Gordon Brown]] [[es:Gordon Brown]] [[eo:Gordon BROWN]] [[fr:Gordon Brown]] [[it:Gordon Brown]] [[ja:ゴードン・ブラウン]] [[sv:Gordon Brown]] [[zh:&amp;#25096;&amp;#30331;&amp;#183;&amp;#24067;&amp;#26391;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Galileo spacecraft</title> <id>13077</id> <revision> <id>42067544</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:16:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vicarious</username> <id>386031</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Tape recorder anomalies and remote repair */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galileo preparations.jpg|thumb|260px|Galileo is prepared for mating with the [[Inertial Upper Stage|IUS]] booster]] [[image:Galileo_probe_deployed_(large).jpg|right|thumb|260px|''Galileo'' being deployed after being launched by the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]] on the [[STS-34]] mission]] '''''Galileo''''' was an [[Unmanned space missions|unmanned spacecraft]] sent by [[NASA]] to study the [[planet]] [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and its [[natural satellite|moon]]s. Named after the [[astronomer]] and [[Renaissance]] man [[Galileo Galilei]], it was launched on [[October 18]], [[1989]] by the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] on the [[STS-34]] mission. It arrived at Jupiter on [[December 7]], [[1995]], a little more than six years later, via gravitational assist flybys of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] and [[Earth]]. The Galileo spacecraft conducted the first [[asteroid]] flyby, discovered the first [[asteroid moon]], was the first spacecraft to maintain permanent orbit around Jupiter and launched the first probe into Jupiter's [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]]. On [[September 21]], [[2003]], after 14 years in space and 8 years of service in the [[Jovian system]], ''Galileo'''s mission was terminated by sending the orbiter into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of nearly 50 kilometres per second to avoid any chance of it contaminating local moons with [[bacterium|bacteria]] from [[Earth]]. Of particular concern was the [[ice]]-crusted moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], which, thanks to ''Galileo'', scientists now suspect harbors a salt water [[ocean]] beneath its surface. ==Mission overview== ''Galileo'''s launch had been significantly delayed by the hiatus in [[Space Shuttle]] launches that occurred after the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] disaster. New safety protocols introduced as a result of the Challenger accident forced Galileo to use a lower-powered upper stage booster rocket, instead of a [[Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] booster rocket, to send it from [[Earth]] [[orbit]] to Jupiter; several [[gravitational slingshot]]s (once by [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] and twice by [[Earth]]), commonly called a &quot;[[VEEGA]]&quot; or Venus Earth Earth Gravity Assist maneuver, provided the additional velocity required to reach its destination. Along the way Galileo performed close observation of the asteroids [[951 Gaspra]] ([[October 29]], [[1991]]) and [[243 Ida]], and discovered Ida's moon [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]]. In 1994 ''Galileo'' was perfectly positioned to watch the fragments of [[comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] crash into Jupiter. Terrestrial telescopes had to wait to see the impact sites as they rotated into view. ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s prime mission was a two-year study of the Jovian system. The spacecraft traveled around Jupiter in elongated [[ellipse]]s, each orbit lasting about two months. The differing distances from Jupiter afforded by these orbits allowed Galileo to sample different parts of the planet's extensive [[magnetosphere]]. The orbits were designed for close up flybys of Jupiter's largest moons. Once ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s prime mission was concluded, an extended mission followed starting on [[December 7]], [[1997]]; the spacecraft made a number of daring close flybys of Jupiter's moons [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] and [[Io (moon)|Io]]. The closest approach was 180 km (112 mi) on [[October 15]], [[2001]]. The [[radiation]] environment near Io in particular was very unhealthy for ''Galileo'''s systems, and so these flybys were saved for the extended mission when loss of the spacecraft would be more acceptable. ''Galileo'''s cameras were deactivated on [[January 17]], [[2002]] after they had sustained irrecoverable radiation damage. NASA engineers were able to recover the damaged tape recorder electronics, and once more ''Galileo'' continued to return other scientific data until it was deorbited in [[2003]] as described above, performing one last scientific experiment &amp;mdash;a measurement of [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]]'s mass as ''Galileo'' swung by. ==The Galileo spacecraft== [[Image:Galileo Diagram simpler.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Overview of ''Galileo'''s components]] The [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] built the ''Galileo'' spacecraft and managed the ''Galileo'' mission for NASA. [[Germany]] supplied the propulsion module. NASA's [[Ames Research Center]] managed the probe, which was built by [[Hughes Aircraft Company]]. At launch, the orbiter and probe together had a mass of 2,564 [[kilogram]]s (5,653 [[Pound (weight)|pound]]s) and was seven [[metre]]s tall. One section of the spacecraft rotated at 3&amp;nbsp;[[rpm]], keeping ''Galileo'' stable and holding six instruments that gathered data from many different directions, including the fields and particles instruments. The other section of the spacecraft held steady for [[camera]]s and the four instruments that had to point accurately while ''Galileo'' was flying through space. This was the job of the [[attitude control]] system (see below). In addition to computer programs which directly operated the spacecraft and were periodically transmitted to it, back on the ground the mission operations team used software containing 650,000 lines of programming code in the orbit sequence design process; 1,615,000 lines in the telemetry interpretation; and 550,000 lines of code in navigation. The spacecraft was controlled by a [[RCA 1802]] Cosmac [[microprocessor]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], clocked at about 1.6 MHz, and fabricated on [[sapphire]] ([[Silicon on Sapphire]]) which is a radiation-and static-hardened material ideal for spacecraft operation. This microprocessor was the first low-power [[CMOS]] processor chip, quite on a par with the 8-bit [[6502]] that was being built into the [[Apple II]] desktop computer at that time. ''Galileo'''s attitude control system software was written in the [[HAL/S]] programming language, also used in the [[Space Shuttle program]]. The 1802 CPU had previously been used onboard the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] and [[Viking program|Viking]] spacecraft. ===Propulsion=== The Propulsion Subsystem consisted of a 400 [[newton|N]] main engine and twelve 10 N thrusters together with propellant, storage and pressurizing tanks, and associated plumbing. The fuel for the system was 925 kg of monomethyl [[hydrazine]] and [[nitrogen tetroxide]]. Two separate tanks held another 7 kg of [[helium]] pressurant. The Propulsion Subsystem was developed and built by Daimler Benz Aero Space AG (DASA) (formerly Messerschmitt–Bolkow–Blohm) and provided by [[Germany]], the major international partner in Project Galileo [http://www.resa.net/nasa/engineer.htm]. ===Galileo's power=== [[Solar panels]] were not a practical solution for ''Galileo'''s power needs at Jupiter's distance from the Sun (it would have needed a ''minimum'' of 65 square metres (700 ft&amp;sup2;) of solar panels); as for batteries, they would have been prohibitively massive. The solution adopted consisted of two [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (RTGs). The RTGs powered the spacecraft through the radioactive decay of [[plutonium]]-238. The heat emitted by this decay was converted into electricity for the spacecraft through the solid-state [[Seebeck e
eobald Wolfe Tone|Wolfe Tone]]'s [[Society of the United Irishmen|United Irishmen]]'s [[Irish Rebellion of 1798 |Irish Rebellion]] *[[1846]] - [[United States|The United States]] annexes [[New Mexico]] *[[1851]] - [[Gold]] is discovered in [[Australia]] *1851 - The first [[America's Cup]] is won by the [[yacht]] ''[[America (yacht)|America]]''. *[[1875]] - The [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg]] between [[Japan]] and [[Russia]] is ratified, providing for the exchange of [[Sakhalin]] for the [[Kuril Islands]]. *[[1864]] - Twelve [[nation]]s sign the First [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]]. The [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] is formed. *[[1901]] - [[Cadillac|Cadillac]] Motor Company founded *[[1902]] - [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became the first [[President of the United States]] to ride in an automobile *[[1910]] - [[Japan]] annexes [[Korea]] with the signing of the [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty]]. The name Korea was abolished and replaced with the ancient name ''[[Joseon]]''. *[[1911]] - Theft of the ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' is discovered *[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: In [[Belgium]], British and German troops clash for the first time in the war. *[[1922]] - [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Irish Free State]] Army is shot dead during an Anti-Treaty ambush at Beal na mBlath, County Cork, during the [[Irish Civil War]]. *[[1926]] - [[Gold]] discovered in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]] *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: German [[troop]]s reach [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], leading to the [[siege of Leningrad]] *[[1942]] - World War II: [[Brazil]] declares [[war]] on the Axis powers ([[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Japan]]) *[[1944]] - World War II: Last transport of French Jews to [[concentration camp]]s in Germany *1944 - World War II: Thirty-two Spaniards &amp; four French [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]] tackle a German column (1,300 men in 60 lorries, with 6 tanks &amp; 2 self-propelled guns), at La Madeiline, France. Three Maquis are wounded, with 110 Germans killed and 200 wounded. *[[1950]] - [[Althea Gibson]] becomes the first black [[Competition|competitor]] in international [[tennis]] *[[1953]] - The [[Prison|jail]] on [[Devils Island|Devil's Island]] is closed *[[1962]] - An attempt to assassinate French president [[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]] fails *1962 - The [[NS Savannah|NS ''Savannah'']], the world's first [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered]] ship, completes its [[maiden voyage]] *[[1968]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] arrives in [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]. It is the first visit of a [[pope]] to [[Latin America]] *[[1972]] - [[Rhodesia]] is expelled by the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] for its racist policies *[[1988]] - The Australian ''koala'', the first [[platinum]] coin, is issued *[[1989]] - The first ring of [[Neptune|Neptune]] is discovered * 1989 - [[Nolan Ryan]] strikes out [[Rickey Henderson]] to become the first [[Major League Baseball|major league baseball]] [[pitcher]] to record 5000 [[strikeout]]s. *[[1992]] - [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] [[Hostage Rescue Team|HRT]] sniper [[Lon Horiuchi]] shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at [[Ruby Ridge]], [[Idaho]]. *[[2001]] - the [[Trojan room coffee pot]] is switched off for the last time. *[[2004]] - ''[[The Scream]]'', the painting by [[Edvard Munch]], is stolen at gunpoint from a museum in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]. ==Births== *[[1601]] - [[Georges de Scudéry]], French writer (d. [[1667]]) *[[1624]] - [[Jean Renaud de Segrais]], French writer (d. [[1701]]) *[[1647]] - [[Denis Papin]], French physicist, mathematician, and inventor *[[1679]] - [[Pierre Guérin de Tencin]], French cardinal (d. [[1758]]) *[[1760]] - [[Pope Leo XII]] (d. [[1829]]) *[[1764]] - [[Charles Percier]], French architect (d. [[1838]]) *[[1771]] - [[Henry Maudslay]], English inventor and tool-maker (d. [[1831]]) *[[1800]] - [[William S. Harney]], U.S. general (d. [[1889]]) *[[1802]] - [[Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard]], American land speculator (d. [[1886]]) *[[1834]] - [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], American astronomer, physicist, inventor, aviation pioneer (d. [[1906]]) *[[1854]] - King [[Milan Obrenović IV|Milan I of Serbia]] (d. [[1901]]) *[[1860]] - [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow|Paul Nipkow]], German inventor and television pioneer (d. [[1940]]) *[[1862]] - [[Claude Debussy]], French composer (d. [[1918]]) *[[1867]] - [[Maximilian Bircher-Benner]], Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. [[1939]]) *[[1873]] - [[Alexander Bogdanov]], Russian physician and philosopher (d. [[1928]]) *[[1874]] - [[Max Scheler]], German philosopher (d. [[1928]]) *[[1880]] - [[George Herriman]], American cartoonist (d. [[1944]]) *[[1893]] - [[Dorothy Parker]], American writer (d. [[1967]]) *[[1900]] - [[Sergei Ozhegov]], Russian lexicographer (d. [[1964]]) *[[1902]] - [[Leni Riefenstahl]], German film director (d. [[2003]]) *[[1904]] - [[Deng Xiaoping]], leader of the People's Republic of China (d. [[1997]]) *[[1908]] - [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]], French photographer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1915]] - [[Hugh Paddick]], British actor (d. [[2000]]) *1915 - [[Edward Szczepanik]], Polish economist and Prime Minister in exile (d. [[2005]]) *[[1917]] - [[John Lee Hooker]], American guitarist and singer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1920]] - [[Ray Bradbury]], American writer *1920 - [[Denton Cooley]], American heart surgeon *[[1928]] - [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]], German composer *[[1930]] - [[Gilmar]], Brazilian football player *[[1934]] - [[Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.|Norman Schwarzkopf]], U.S. general *[[1935]] - [[E. Annie Proulx]], American author *[[1938]] - [[Paul Maguire]], American football player *[[1939]] - [[George Reinholt]], American actor *1939 - [[Carl Yastrzemski]], baseball player *[[1940]] - [[Valerie Harper]], American actress *[[1941]] - [[Bill Parcells]], American football coach *[[1942]] - [[The Lennon Sisters|Kathy Lennon]], American singer ([[The Lennon Sisters]]) *[[1945]] - [[Ron Dante]], American singer ([[The Archies]]), songwriter and record producer *[[1947]] - [[Cindy Williams]], American actress *[[1955]] - [[Will Shetterly]], writer *1955 - [[Chiranjeevi]], Telugu film actor *[[1956]] - [[Paul Molitor]], baseball player *[[1957]] - [[Steve Davis]], English snooker player *[[1958]] - [[Colm Feore]], American-born actor *1958 - [[Vernon Reid]], American musician ([[Living Colour]]) *[[1961]] - [[Roland Orzabal]], singer and guitarist ([[Tears for Fears]]) *[[1963]] - [[Tori Amos]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist *[[1964]] - [[Mats Wilander]], Swedish tennis player *[[1966]] - [[GZA]], American rapper *[[1967]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician ([[Alice in Chains]]) (d. [[2002]]) *1967 - [[Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje]], British actor *[[1970]] - [[Charlie Connelly]], English writer *[[1973]] - [[Howie Dorough]], American singer ([[Backstreet Boys]]) *[[1977]] - [[Heiðar Helguson|Heidar Helguson]], Icelandic footballer *[[1978]] - [[Jeff Stinco]], Canadian musician ([[Simple Plan]]) *[[1981]] - [[Alex Holmes]], American football player ==Deaths== *[[408]] - [[Stilicho]], Roman general (b. [[359]]) *[[1155]] - [[Emperor Konoe]] of Japan (b. [[1139]]) *[[1188]] - King [[Ferdinand II of Leon]] *[[1241]] - [[Pope Gregory IX]] *[[1280]] - [[Pope Nicholas III]] *[[1286]] - [[Eric V of Denmark|Erik V Klipping]], King of Denmark (murdered) (b. [[1249]]) *[[1304]] - [[John II, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1247]]) *[[1350]] - King [[Philip VI of France]] (b. [[1293]]) *[[1485]] - King [[Richard III of England]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1452]]) *[[1553]] - [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|John Dudley]], English admiral and politician (beheaded) (b. [[1501]]) *[[1584]] - [[Jan Kochanowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1530]]) *[[1599]] - [[Beatrice Cenci]], Italian noblewoman who conspired to murder her father (b. [[1577]]) *1599 - [[Luca Marenzio]], Italian composer *[[1607]] - [[Bartholomew Gosnold]], English explorer and privateer (b. [[1572]]) *[[1609]] - [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel|Maharal of Prague]], Jewish mystic and philosopher (b. [[1525]]) *[[1652]] - [[Jacob De la Gardie]], Swedish soldier and statesman (b. [[1583]]) *[[1680]] - [[John George II, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1613]]) *[[1701]] - [[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath]], English royalist statesman (b. [[1628]]) *[[1711]] - [[Louis François, duc de Boufflers]], French marshal (b. [[1644]]) *[[1752]] - [[William Whiston]], English mathematician (b. [[1667]]) *[[1793]] - [[Louis, 4th duc de Noailles]], Marshal of France (b. [[1713]]) *[[1797]] - [[Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser]], Alsatian-born Austrian general (b. [[1724]]) *[[1806]] - [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], French artist (b. [[1732]]) *[[1818]] - [[Warren Hastings]], British Governor-General of India (b. [[1732]]) *[[1823]] - [[Lazare Carnot]], French general, politician, and mathematician (b. [[1753]]) *[[1828]] - [[Franz Joseph Gall]], Austrian neuroscientist (b. [[1758]]) *[[1850]] - [[Nikolaus Lenau]], Austrian poet (b. [[1802]]) *[[1861]] - [[Xianfeng Emperor|Xianfeng]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1831]]) *[[1891]] - [[Jan Neruda]], Czech author (b. [[1834]]) *[[1903]] - [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1830]]) *[[1904]] - [[Kate Chopin]], American author (b. [[1851]]) *[[1913]] - [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Italian physicist (d. [[1993]]) *[[1918]] - [[Korbinian Brodmann]], German neurologist (b. [[1868]]) *[[1922]] - [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], Irish revolutionary (ambushed) (b. [[1890]]) *[[1926]] - [[Charles_William_Eliot|Charles W. Eliot]], American President of Harvard University (b. [[1834]]) *[[1942]] - [[Michel Fokine]], Russian choreographer and dancer (b. [[1880]]) *[[1953]] - [[Jim Tabor]], baseball player (b. [[1916]]) *[[1958]] - [[Roger Martin du Gard]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]]) *[[1976]] - [[Juscelino Kubitschek
national republics. Still others insisted on the restoration of the old Soviet ways. Ultimately, Gorbachev could not forge a compromise among these forces and the consequence was the collapse of the Soviet Union. ==Post-Soviet restructuring== :''For main article see [[History of post-Soviet Russia]].'' [[Image:143669 beggar300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Begging in the streets of post-Soviet Russia became increasingly common in the 1990s.]] In order to restructure the Soviet administrative command system and effect a transition to [[capitalism]], Yeltsin's [[Shock_therapy_(economics)|shock program]], employed days after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, cut subsidies to money-losing farms and industries, decontrolled prices, moved toward convertibility of the [[ruble]], created opportunities for his circle and other enterpreneurs to seize the former people's property and moved toward restructuring the largely state-owned economy. After obtaining power, the vast majority of idealistic reformers gained huge possessions using their key positions in government structures. Preexisting institutions had been abandoned before the legal structures of a market economy that governed private property, oversaw the financial market, and enforced taxation had been made functional. Market economists believed that the dismantling of the administrative command system in Russia would raise [[GDP]] and living standards by allocating resources more efficiently. They also thought the collapse would create a movement outward towards production possibilities by eliminating central planning, substituting a decentralized market system, eliminating huge distortions through liberalization, and providing incentives through privatization. Russia currently faces many problems that the planners in 1992 did not expect, including the 25% of the population that now lives below the poverty line, a drop in life expectancy, low birthrates, and the drop in GDP, which plunged by half after the USSR's collapse. In the eyes of many of the older generation in Russia, life under the old Soviet system was much better and more secure than it is today. These problems led to a series of crises in the 1990s, which nearly lead to election of Yeltsin's Communist opponent in the [[Russian presidential election, 1996|1996 presidential election]]. {| width=100% |- |align=left|'''[[History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)|&lt;&lt; History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)]]''' |} ==External links== * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/coldwar/soviet_end_01.shtml Reform, Coup and Collapse: The End of the Soviet State] by Professor Archie Brown. * [http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/buk.html Soviet Archives] collected by [[Vladimir Bukovsky]] * [http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch33.htm The Soviet Union Disintegrates] by [[Frank E. Smitha]] ==Further reading== * Helene Carrere D'Encausse, ''The End of the Soviet Empire: The Triumph of the Nations'', Basic Books, 1992, ISBN 0465098185 * Ronald Grigor Suny, ''The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union'', Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0804722471 {{Communist Eastern Europe}} [[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia]] [[it:Storia dell'Unione Sovietica (1985-1991)]] [[ja:ソ連崩壊]] [[ro:Istoria Uniunii Sovietice (1985-1991)]] [[zh:苏联解体]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Corsican language</title> <id>7578</id> <revision> <id>38570903</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T04:29:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tobias Conradi</username> <id>10784</id> </contributor> <comment>{{Infobox Language</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Corsican |nativename=Corsu, Corso, Corse, Corsi |familycolor=Indo-European |region=[[Corsica]], [[France]] |speakers=402,000 (dubious, more probably ca. 100,000) |fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]] |fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]] |fam4=[[Italian language|Italian]] |iso1=co|iso2=cos|iso3=cos}} '''Corsican''' (''Corsu'' or ''Lingua Corsa'') is a [[Romance language]] spoken on the island of [[Corsica]] ([[France]]), alongside [[French language|French]], which is the official language. A similar dialect to Corsican is also spoken to some extent in the [[Gallura]] area of [[Sardinia]] ([[Italy]]). It has strong similarities to [[Italian language|Italian]] and in particular the [[Tuscany]] dialects of Italian. Most linguists consider it as a Tuscany dialect, the closest to modern Italian. According to its [[Unesco]] classification, the Corsican language is currently in danger of becoming extinct. In recent years, greater protection for the language has been discussed as part of proposals for increased autonomy of the region of Corsica from France. The language has several dialects including Northern Corsican, spoken in the [[Bastia]] and [[Corte]] area, and Southern Corsican, spoken around [[Sartene]] and [[Porto-Vecchio]]. The dialect of [[Ajaccio]] has been described as in transition. The dialects spoken at [[Calvi]] and [[Bonifacio]] are closer to [[Genoa]] dialect, also known as Ligurian. In the Sardinian region of Gallura, including the town of [[Tempio Pausania]], and on the island of [[La Maddalena]] &quot;[[Gallurese]]&quot; is spoken. This is a transitional dialect with many similarities with Southern Corsican. The Corsican language is a key vehicle for Corsican culture, which is notably rich in [[proverb]]s. Corsica also has a tradition of [[polyphony|polyphonic]] singing that dates back to the 16th century and is thought to have evolved from similar traditions on the Italian mainland. ==See also== *[[Languages of France]] ==External links== {{InterWiki|code=co}} * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=cos Ethnologue report for Corsican] * [http://wikiquote.org/wiki/Corsican_proverbs Wikiquote: Corsican proverbs] == References == * Marcel Peres, ''Le Chant religieux corse'' {{ie-lang-stub}} [[Category:Romance languages]] [[Category:Languages of France]] [[Category:Corsica]] [[af:Korsikaans]] [[co:Lingua Corsa]] [[da:Korsikansk (sprog)]] [[de:Korsische Sprache]] [[es:Idioma corso]] [[fr:Langue corse]] [[it:Lingua corsa]] [[li:Corsicaans]] [[nl:Corsicaans]] [[ja:コルシカ語]] [[pl:Język korsykański]] [[pt:Língua corsa]] [[sc:Limba corsicana]] [[sv:Korsikanska]] [[zh:科西嘉语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coxs theorem</title> <id>7579</id> <revision> <id>15905641</id> <timestamp>2002-04-14T14:45:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.39.46</ip> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Cox's theorem]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Cox's theorem]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commodore International</title> <id>7580</id> <revision> <id>41318091</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:59:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.52.81.43</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Commodore''' is the commonly used name for '''Commodore International''', a [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]] based electronics company who was a vital player in the [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]] field in the [[1980s]]. The company is also known under the name of its [[R&amp;D]] operation, '''Commodore Business Machines''' ('''CBM'''). Commodore developed and marketed the world's best-selling desktop computer, the [[Commodore 64]] (1982). The company declared [[bankruptcy]] in [[1994]], but since then, there have been several attempts to revive its [[Amiga]] systems. [[Image:CBM Logo.svg|right|thumb|220px|The classic '''Commodore''' (&quot;'''C='''&quot;) logotype (known informally as the &quot;[[chicken]]head&quot;).]] == History == === Foundation and early years === [[Image:Commodore Logo(197x).png|right|thumb|220px|Original Commodore logo: all-lowercase company name (1962&amp;ndash;1984).]] The company that would become Commodore International was started in Toronto by [[Jack Tramiel]] in [[1954]]. He had already run a small business fixing [[typewriter]]s for a few years while living in New York and driving a cab, but managed to sign a deal with a Czechoslovakian company to manufacture their designs in Canada and moved to Toronto to start production. By the late 1950s a wave of Japanese machines forced most North American typewriter companies out of business, but Tramiel instead turned to [[adding machine]]s. In [[1962]] the company was formally incorporated as '''Commodore Business Machines''' ('''CBM'''). In the late [[1960s]] history repeated itself again when Japanese firms started producing adding machines. The company's main investor and chairman, [[Irving Gould]], suggested that Tramiel travel to Japan to understand how they could compete. Instead he returned with a new idea, to produce electronic [[calculator]]s, which were just coming on the market. Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the more common brands in the early [[1970s]], producing both ordinary as well as scientific/programmable calculators. However in [[1975]] [[Texas Instruments]], the main supplier of calculator parts, decided to enter the market directly and put out a line of machines priced at less than what it charged Commodore for the parts. Commodore had to be rescued once again by an infusion of cash from Gould, which Tramiel used beginning in [[1976]] to purchase several second-source chip suppliers, including [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc.]], in order to guarantee supply. He agreed to buy MOS, who were having troubles of its own, only on the condition that its chip designer [[Chuck Peddle]] join Commodore directly as head of engineering. === &quot;Computers for the masses, not the classes&quot; === Once Chuck Peddle had taken over engineering at Commodore, he convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were already a dead end and that they should turn
ed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12180494&amp;query_hl=2] [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6T8P-47PNYWC-85&amp;_user=10&amp;_handle=V-WA-A-W-D-MsSAYVW-UUA-U-AABUAWEZDB-AAWDDAUVDB-BZUWEDBWC-D-U&amp;_fmt=summary&amp;_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1994&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_orig=browse&amp;_srch=%23toc%235092%231994%23999949993%23379195!&amp;_cdi=5092&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=f9e7576a5adb6c95153f396596cc0cff] Other scientists believe a) fruit juices and alcoholic beverages always contain protective chemicals such as [[ethanol]] that block conversion of methanol into formaldehyde, but aspartame contains no protective factors, b) the levels of methanol and particularly formaldehyde have been proven to cause chronic toxicity in humans, and c) the low levels of methanol and formaldehyde in human metabolism are tightly-controlled such that significant increases from aspartame ingestion are not safe. [http://www.dorway.com/monte84.html], [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/abuse/methanol.html] In 1998, a team of scientists in Spain conducted an experiment on rodents to indirectly measure the levels of formaldehyde adducts in the organs after ingestion of aspartame. They did this by [[radiolabeling]] the methanol portion of aspartame. The scientists concluded that formaldehyde bound to [[protein]] and [[DNA]] accumulated in the brain, liver, kidneys and other tissues after ingestion of either 20 mg/kg or 200 mg/kg of aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9714421&amp;query_hl=7] However, it has been argued by Tephly that these scientists were not directly measuring formaldehyde, but simply measuring levels of some by-product of the methanol from aspartame.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12180494&amp;query_hl=15] Tephly believes that the by-product was not formaldehyde. The researchers have stated that the data in the experiment has proven it was formaldehyde. [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/864] === Phenylalanine === [[Phenylalanine]] is an amino acid commonly found in foods. Approximately 50% of aspartame (by weight) is broken down into phenylalanine. Because aspartame is metabolized and absorbed very quickly (unlike phenylalanine-containing proteins in foods), it is known that aspartame could spike [[blood plasma]] levels of phenylalanine. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3574137&amp;query_hl=11], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1946186&amp;query_hl=12] The debate centers on whether a significant spike in blood plasma phenylalanine occurs at typical aspartame ingestion levels, whether a sudden influx of phenylalanine into the bloodstream adversely affects uptake of other amino acids into the brain and the production of [[neurotransmitter]]s (since phenylalanine competes with other Large Neutral Amino Acids (LNAAs) for entry into the brain at the [[blood brain barrier]]), and whether a significant rise in phenylalanine levels would be concentrated in the brain of fetuses and be potentially [[neurotoxic]]. Based on case histories from aspartame users, measuring levels of neurotransmitters in the brains of animals and measuring the potential of aspartame to cause seizures in animals, some scientists believe that aspartame may affect neurotransmitter production. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3319565&amp;query_hl=18], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3352866&amp;query_hl=21], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2442082&amp;query_hl=24] They believe that even a moderate spike in blood plasma phenylalanine levels from typical ingestion may have adverse consequences in long-term use. They are especially concerned that the phenylalanine can be concentrated in fetal brains to a potentially neurotoxic level. [http://www.dorway.com/elsas.txt], [http://www.trustedhands.com/content/aspartamepregnancy.html] Other scientists believe that rise in blood plasma phenylalanine is negligible in typical use of aspartame [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2215254&amp;query_hl=28] and their studies show no significant effects on neurotransmitter levels in the brain or changes in seizure thresholds. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2013754&amp;query_hl=16], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2379890&amp;query_hl=28], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2470165&amp;query_hl=28] In addition, they say that proven adverse effects of phenylalanine on fetuses has only been seen when blood phenylalanine levels stay at high levels as opposed to occasionally being spiked to high levels. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3351801&amp;query_hl=40] === Aspartic acid === [[Aspartic acid]] is an amino acid commonly found in foods. Approximately 40% of aspartame (by mass) is broken down into aspartic acid. Because aspartame is metabolized and absorbed very quickly (unlike aspartic acid-containing proteins in foods), it is known that aspartame could spike blood plasma levels of aspartate. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3574137&amp;query_hl=11], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3670074&amp;query_hl=2] Aspartic acid is in a class of chemicals known as [[excitotoxin]]s. Abnormally high levels of excitotoxins have been shown in hundreds of animals studies to cause damage to areas of the brain unprotected by the blood-brain barrier and a variety of chronic diseases arising out of this neurotoxicity. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0898597358], [http://www.holisticmed.com/msg/msg-review.txt] The debate amongst scientists has been raging since the early 1970's, when Dr. John Olney found that high levels of aspartic acid caused damage to the brains of infant mice [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=5464249&amp;query_hl=11]. Dr. Olney and consumer attorney, James Turner filed a protest with the FDA to block the approval of aspartame. The debate is complex and has focused on several areas: a) whether the increase in plasma aspartate levels from typical ingestion levels of aspartame is enough to cause neurotoxicity in one dose or over time b) whether humans are susceptible to the neurotoxicity from aspartic acid seen in some animal experiments, c) whether aspartic acid increases the toxicity of formaldehyde, d) whether neurotoxicity from excitotoxins should consider the combined effect of aspartic acid and other excitotoxins such as [[glutamic acid]] from [[monosodium glutamate]]. The Neuroscientists at a meeting of the Society for Neuroscience had a split of opinion on the issues related to neurotoxic effects from excitotoxic amino acids found in some additives such as aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2294587&amp;query_hl=8] Some scientists believe that humans and other primates are not as susceptible to excitotoxins as rodents and therefore there is little concern with aspartic acid from aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=810365&amp;query_hl=16], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=827619&amp;query_hl=22] While they agree that the combined effects of all food-based excitotoxins should be considered [http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?linkVars=SessionID%3D05092315500130003261%26BROWSER_STATE%3DGMResults%26ORBagentPort%3D14610%26GM2K_FORM%3DGMResults%26LAST_HIDDEN_TIMESTAMP%3D1127534667706%26UserSearchText%3Dstegink%2Bfiler%26sb_action%3DExpand%2BItem%2B%253A%2B1%26HIDDEN_TIMESTAMP%3D1127534686370], their measurements of the blood plasma levels of aspartic acid after ingestion of aspartame and monosodium glutamate demonstrate that there is not a cause for concern. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=903828&amp;query_hl=45], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2909831&amp;query_hl=48] Other scientists feel that primates are susceptible to excitotoxic damage [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=4626680&amp;query_hl=18] and that humans concentrate excitotoxins in the blood more than other animals. [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/abuse/stegink.jpg] Based on these findings, they feel that humans are approximately 5-6 times more susceptible to the effects of excitotoxins than are rodents. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=6152304&amp;query_hl=53] While they agree that typical use of aspartame does not spike aspartic acid to extremely high levels in adults, they are particularly concerned with potential effects in infants and young children [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;lis
. ==Named after Archimedes== * [[Archimedes (crater)|Archimedes crater]] on [[the Moon]]. * [[3600 Archimedes|Asteroid 3600 Archimedes]], named in his honour * The [[Acorn Archimedes]] * [[Archimedes' principle]] * [[Archimedean property]] * [[Archimedean solid]] * [[Archimedean point]] * [[Tiling_by_regular_polygons#Archimedean.2C_uniform_or_semiregular_tilings|Archimedean tiling]] * [[Archimedean spiral]] * [[Archimedean field]] * [[Trammal of Archimedes]] * [[Claw of Archimedes]] * [[Archimedes' screw|Archimedean screw]] * Archimedean [[copula (statistics)|copula]] * [[Archimedes number]] ==See also== * [[Archimedes Palimpsest]] * [[How Archimedes used infinitesimals]] == Notes== &lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]]&lt;/cite&gt; p. 95, ''[[Mathematical Expeditions: Chronicles by the Explorers]]'' by [[Reinhard Laubenbacher|Laubenbacher]] and [[David Pengelley|Pengelley]] ([[1999]]) ISBN 0387984348 (Hardcover) ISBN 038798433X (Paperback) [[Category:287 BC births]] [[Category:212 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek engineers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek inventors]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]] [[Category:Sicilian Greeks]] [[Category:Murdered scientists]] [[Category:History of physics]] == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/BookOfLemmas/index.shtml Archimedes' Book of Lemmas] at [[cut-the-knot]] *[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/rhombicubocta.html Archimedes and the Rhombicuboctahedron] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas. *[http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html Archimedes Home Page] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Archimedes }} *[http://www.thewalters.org/archimedes/frame.html The Archimedes Palimpsest] web pages at the [[Walters Art Museum]]. *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/archimedes/palimpsest.html NOVA program on Archimedes Palimpsest] *[http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/CrownIntro.html Archimedes - The Golden Crown] points out that in reality Archimedes may well have used a more subtle method than the one in the classic version of the story. *[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/parabola.html Archimedes' ''Quadrature Of The Parabola''] Translated by [[Thomas Heath]]. *[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/circle.html Archimedes' ''On The Measurement Of The Circle''] Translated by [[Thomas Heath]]. * [http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Cattle/Statement.html Archimedes' Cattle Problem] * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArchimedesCattleProblem.html Archimedes' Cattle Problem] *{{gutenberg author|id=Archimedes|name=Archimedes}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/archi.shtml Angle Trisection by Archimedes of Syracuse (Java)] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/Parabola.shtml#ArchimedesTriangle Archimedes'Triangle (Java)] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Archimedes.shtml An ancient extra-geometric proof] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/Parabola.shtml#SqParabola Archimedes' Squaring of Parabola (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mirrors.htm Archimedes and his Burning Mirrors, Reality or Fantasy?] [[ar:أرخميدس]] [[bg:Архимед]] [[bn:আর্কিমিডিস]] [[ca:Arquimedes]] [[cs:Archimédés]] [[da:Arkimedes]] [[de:Archimedes]] [[et:Archimedes]] [[el:Αρχιμήδης]] [[es:Arquímedes]] [[eo:Arkimedo]] [[fr:Archimède]] [[gl:Arquimedes]] [[ko:아르키메데스]] [[hr:Arhimed]] [[ia:Archimedes]] [[io:Archimede]] [[id:Archimedes]] [[is:Arkímedes]] [[it:Archimede]] [[he:ארכימדס]] [[la:Archimedes]] [[lt:Archimedas]] [[mk:Архимед]] [[nl:Archimedes]] [[ja:アルキメデス]] [[no:Arkimedes]] [[pl:Archimedes]] [[pt:Arquimedes]] [[ru:Архимед]] [[sco:Archimedes]] [[scn:Archimedi]] [[simple:Archimedes]] [[sk:Archimedes]] [[sl:Arhimed]] [[sr:Архимед]] [[fi:Arkhimedes]] [[sv:Arkimedes]] [[tl:Archimedes]] [[th:อาร์คิมิดีส]] [[vi:Archimedes]] [[tr:Arşimet]] [[uk:Архімед]] [[zh:阿基米德]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alternative medicine</title> <id>1845</id> <revision> <id>42123227</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:47:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dieter Simon</username> <id>2599</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Critiques */ Have formatted this link. This does not reflect my acceptance or otherwise of the opinions professed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Complementary and alternative medicine}} '''Alternative medicine''' broadly describes methods and practices used in place of, or in addition to, [[medicine|conventional medical]] treatments. The precise scope of alternative medicine is a matter of some debate and depends to a great extent on the definition of &quot;conventional medicine.&quot; Many practitioners regard the distinction as false, preferring &quot;good medicine&quot; (which demonstrably works) and &quot;bad medicine.&quot; Richard Dawkins, professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford, notes that alternative medicine is defined as that set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested or consistently fail tests. The debate on alternative medicine is complicated further by the diversity of treatments that are categorized as &quot;alternative.&quot; These include practices that incorporate spiritual, metaphysical, or religious underpinnings; non-European medical traditions; newly developed approaches to healing; and a number of others. Proponents of one class of alternative medicine may reject others. Detractors of alternative medicine may also define it as &quot;diagnosis, treatment, or therapy which can be provided legally by persons who are not licensed to diagnose and treat illness,&quot; although some medical doctors find value using alternative therapies in the practice of &quot;complementary medicine.&quot; Many in the scientific community define alternative medicine as any treatment, the efficacy and safety of which has not been verified through [[peer-review]]ed, controlled studies. This form of definition is not based on political views, turf protection, or economic interests, but hinges exclusively on questions of effectiveness and safety. It is thus possible for a method to change categories ''in either direction'', based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof. Some techniques and therapies once considered to be &quot;alternative&quot;, have - upon being proven to be effective - been accepted into mainstream medicine. The opposite is equally true, with methods once thought to be effective being dropped when it has been discovered that their only effect was because of the [[placebo effect]], or when their side effects were found to result in an unfavorable safety-to-benefit ratio. Various advocates and critics of alternative therapies believe that the term &quot;alternative medicine&quot; is misleading. Some advocates believe that Western therapies are the &quot;alternative&quot; in that they were preceded by traditional therapies. Others believe that the term was invented by advocates of &quot;allopathic&quot; medicine in an attempt to discredit natural therapies [http://www.quackpotwatch.org/]. Critics of alternative therapies assert that they are not effective and consequently are not a legitimate alternative to [[conventional medicine]]. [[Richard Dawkins]], professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University, defines alternative medicine as ''&quot;that set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested or consistently fail tests&quot;'' (See Diamond 2003). Many on both sides believe that alternative therapies can become accepted as conventional medicine if they are scientifically proven to be effective. &lt;!--INFOBOX -- SCROLL DOWN SEVERAL LINES FOR TEXT OF ARTICLE --&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:225px;margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot;&gt; &lt;table border=1&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot;&gt; '''Alternative Medicine'''&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;This article is part of the [[Terms and concepts in alternative medicine#CAM|CAM]] series of articles.&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot;&gt;'''[[:Category:Alternative medicine|CAM Article Index]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;!--//END OF INFOBOX--&gt; ==Complementary and alternative medicine== The [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] defines [[complementary and alternative medicine]] as &quot;a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine&quot;. One distinction that the NCCAM makes is that complementary medicine is used in conjunction with conventional medicine whereas alternative medicine is used in place of conventional medicine. The NCCAM also defines integrative medicine as the combination of &quot;mainstream medical therapies and CAM therapies for which there is some high-quality scientific evidence of safety and effectiveness&quot;. &quot;''Importantly, integrative medicine is not synonymous with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). It has a far larger meaning and mission in that it calls for restoration of the focus of medicine on health and healing and emphasizes the centrality of the patient-physician relationship.&quot;'' (Snyderman, Weil 2002) ==Regulation== [[Jurisdiction]] differs concerning which branches of alternative medicine are legal, which are regulated, and which (if any) are provided by a government-controlled [[Publicly_funded_medicine | health service]] or reimbursed by a [[ Health_insurance |private health medical insurance company]]. A number of alternative medicine advocates disagree with the restrictions of government agencies that approve medical treatments (s
Websters Dictionary include a definition of hillbilly as &quot;a Michigan Farmer&quot;. Historically, there were conflicts between &quot;hillbillies&quot; and the planters who lived on the coastal plains. During the [[American Civil War]], many residents of western Virginia were pro-Union in that they generally did not own slaves and resented the political dominance of planters who did. This resentment was a contributing factor to the creation of the state of [[West Virginia]]. This affiliation may also be observed in the pro-Union names of many rural Appalachian areas, e.g. [[Lincoln County]] or [[Union County]]. [[Country music|Country and Western music]] was originally called ''hillbilly music'', even by its fans, until the late [[1950s]]. However the older name is now deemed offensive (and silly) and is hardly ever used. The first tune that contained the word &quot;hillbilly&quot; was &quot;Hillbilly Boogie&quot; by the Delmore Brothers in 1946. However, in 1927, the [[Gennett Records|Gennett]] studios in [[Richmond, Indiana]], made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker with other instrumentalists; their recordings were labeled &quot;made for Hillbilly&quot; in the Gennett files, and marketed to a white audience. By the late forties, radio stations broadcast music described as &quot;hillbilly&quot;, originally to describe fiddlers and string bands, but was then used to describe the traditional music of the people of the Appalachian Mountains. The people who actually sang these songs and lived in the Appalachian Mountains never used these terms to describe their own music. Popular songs of the early 1950s whose style bore characteristics of both &quot;hillbilly&quot; and rock-and-roll genres was referred to as &quot;[[rockabilly]]&quot;. The versatile (to put it mildly) [[Elvis Presley]] was a prominent member of that genre. When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term &quot;hillbilly music&quot; gradually fell out of use. However, the term &quot;rockabilly&quot; is alive and well. [http://www.rockabillyhall.com/] == The hillbilly stereotype == Stereotypical characteristics of hillbillies as portrayed in popular media are that they: *smoke a corncob pipe. *are often [[moonshine]]rs with a still on their property. Often drink from traditional moonshine clay jugs marked &quot;XXX&quot;. *often wear a worn out floppy hat. *own a shotgun, often with a bell-shaped barrel. They use the shotgun in social situations when they believe a male hillbilly has had sexual relations with a female hillbilly - they will force this male to marry the female, either to save her status among the hillbilly clan or to ensure that the male remains responsible to any offspring from this relationship. This is termed a &quot;[[shotgun wedding]].&quot; *often fight each other along family lines. This is known as a &quot;[[feud]].&quot; A historically important fight between hillbilly clans was the [[Hatfield-McCoy feud]]. *are often barefoot. *are not motivated by money or attempt in any way to improve their social status in comparison to the outside world; are content with their lives; do not generally leave their clans to see other parts of the world or get an education. *have low [[IQ]]. ==Modern usage== Today, &quot;hillbilly&quot; has increasingly insulting connotations - especially as knowledge of the word's fairly harmless origins are forgotten. Since the mid 1970's the Applachian town of Pikeville, Kentucky has been home to the annual Hillbilly Day's Festival. The large festival, which raises money for the Shriner's Hospitals for Children, pokes fun at the local Hillbilly stereotype and celebrates Applachian culture and art. The festival is the second largest festival in the state of Kentucky often drawing nearly 100,000 people. In mock formality, some hillbillies may occasionally refer to themselves as &quot;Mountain Williams&quot;. {{fact}} To the people of the Appalachian Mountains, the term &quot;hillbilly&quot; carries a negative connotation which has been greatly emphasized by how Hollywood movies and films portray the &quot;hillbilly&quot; as impoverished, ill-educated, toothless, shoeless, unstylish, inbred, etc. While such stereotyping is generally offensive, socio-economic realities have left much of the Appalachian region impoverished, although the economy has been steadily improving since the 1990s. Because hillbillies are stereotypically assumed to lack footwear, Appalachia and places like it are sometimes referred to as the &quot;Barefoot Nation&quot;. {{fact}} In recent years, members of the American [[leftist|Left]] from the West Coast and New England have taken to calling [[conservatism|Christian Conservatives]] as &quot;Hillbillies&quot; presumably as an insult.{{fact}} ==In fiction== Hillbillies have often been characterized as ignorant [[hick]]s. *The hillbilly lifestyle of the [[Ozarks]] was gently parodied in the comic strip [[Li'l Abner]], which inspired a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical and movie by the same name. *[[Ma and Pa Kettle]] were very popular characters in comedic movies of the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]]. *In the [[1960s]] American [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'', the Clampett family were supposed to have come from near the Ozarks. *Festus, a prominent character on the TV series ''[[Gunsmoke]]'', belonged to a hillbilly clan. *An episode of ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard]]'' saw Bo and Luke rescuing Daisy from being forced to marry into a family of [[sociopath|sociopathic]] hillbillies. *A recurring character on ''[[The Simpsons]]'', [[Cletus Spuckler]] and his family are stereotypical hillbillies. *The [[1960s]] American [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]'' has two contrasting stereotypes of recurring hillbilly characters: The ignorant but kindly, impoverished but generous Darling family, portrayed by bluegrass band [[The Dillards]] and [[Denver Pyle]]; and the belligerent, paranoid, frankly violent buffoon, Ernest T. Bass, portrayed by [[Howard Morris]]. *In 1970 the author James Dickey published the [[novel]] ''[[Deliverance]]'', a story about four men going for a canoe-trip on a river in the mountains of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. They encounter several sociopathic hillbillies and are subsequently attacked, captured, tortured, and raped by them. *On [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[The Amanda Show]]'', starring [[Amanda Bynes]], a recurring skit titled &quot;Hillbilly Moment&quot; would be featured. Amanda Bynes and [[Drake Bell]] would appear as stereotypical hillbillies and behave accordingly. * A popular television comedy-variety show &quot;[[Hee Haw]]&quot; starred several well-known country singers and regularly lampooned the stereotypical hillybilly lifestyle. * In ABC's mystery drama [[Lost (TV Series)|Lost]], the spokesman for the Others, Mr. Friendly, is called 'Zeke' by Sawyer—Zeke is a derogatory hillbilly name, and Mr. Friendly resembles the stereotypical hillbilly. ==See also== *[[List of ethnic slurs]] *[[Hick]] *[[Hillbilly heroin]] *[[Redneck]] *[[White cracker]] *[[White trash]] *[[Poor White]] *[[Trailer trash]] == References == *''Hillbilly, A Cultural History of an American Icon'' by Anthony Harkins [[Category:Pejorative terms for people]] [[Category:Social groups]] [[Category:Appalachian culture]] [[Category:Stereotypes]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Host</title> <id>14012</id> <revision> <id>41984181</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:14:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.136.149.253</ip> </contributor> <comment>de-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} The term '''host''' can refer to a [[person]], [[organisation]], [[animal]], [[cell (biology)|cell]], [[host computer | computer]] or similar that receives [[guest]]s or [[intruder]]s. It can also refer to a large group, such as an army or any large number of people; for example, &quot;a host of US troops invaded Iraq in [[2003]]&quot;. Specific meanings include: ;Science * [[Host (biology)]], an organism that harbors a [[parasite]], mutual partner, or commensal partner; or a cell infected by a [[virus]] * [[Host (psychology)]], the most important mental entity in someone who has Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) *In [[host-guest chemistry]], a host molecule, such as a [[receptor]], can receive a guest, such as a ligand ;Technology * A [[server]] or [[node (networking)]] that has a [[hostname]] in [[computing]] ** [[Hosts file]], a file that serves to look up Internet Protocol addresses ** [[Web hosting|Web host]], a company or individual who offers web space and sometimes a domain name ** [[Bastion host]], a machine that controls access between a private network and a public one (such as the Internet) ;Other uses *[[Master of Ceremonies]] (host) of a television or radio show * [[Host club (Japan)]], in which a host or hostess provides [[escort service|escort services]] * ''[[Host (album)]]'', an album by the band [[Paradise Lost (band)|Paradise Lost]] *[[Host (Holy Communion)]], bread in the Eucharist *[[Heavenly host]], in the Bible, a &quot;chorus or army of angels&quot; {{disambig}} [[da:Vært (flertydig)]] [[de:Host]] [[als:Host]] [[es:Huésped]] [[fr:Hôte]] [[it:Host]] [[nl:Host]] [[pl:Host]] [[ru:Хост]] [[fa:هاست]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hernán Cortés</title> <id>14013</id> <revision> <id>41988221</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:44:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gorosaurus</username> <id>795925</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Later life */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}} [[Image:Cortes-Hernando-LOC.jpg|thumb|250px|Hernán Cortés]] '''Hernán(do) Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca''' ([[1485]]&amp;ndash;[[December 2]], [[1547]]) was the
retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office may also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right is infrequently exercised. After the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary will become judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and will be barred from sitting or voting until they retire as judges. The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are [[Life peer|life peers]]. Life peers with seats in the House of Lords rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the [[Life Peerages Act 1958]]. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to select some life peers so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by an independent House of Lords Appointments Commission. If an hereditary peer also holds a life peerage, he or she remains a member of the House of Lords without a need for an election. In [[2000]], the government announced it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under [[Lord Stevenson of Coddenham]], to select fifteen so-called &quot;People's Peers&quot; for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in [[April 2001]], from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were &quot;ordinary people&quot; as some had originally hoped. In many historical instances, some peers were not permitted to sit in the Upper House. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted in respect of Ireland when that kingdom merged with Great Britain in 1801; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the [[Peerage Act 1963]], under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House. ==Qualifications== [[Image:Thatcher-robes.jpg|thumb|Former Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] is one of the more famous members of the House of Lords.]] Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21. Furthermore, only [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] citizens and citizens of the [[Republic of Ireland]] may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], and prior to the [[British Nationality Act 1948]], only natural-born subjects were qualified. Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. A person may not sit in the House of Lords if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). A final restriction bars an individual convicted of [[high treason]] from sitting in the House of Lords until completing his or her full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. Note that an individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is ''not'' automatically disqualified. Finally, some qualifications apply only in the case of the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. No person may be created a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary unless he or she has either held &quot;high judicial office&quot; for two years, or has been a practising [[barrister]] for fifteen years. The term &quot;high judicial office&quot; encompasses membership of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]], of the [[Court of Session|Inner House of the Court of Session]] (Scotland), or of the [[Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland]]. Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act, passed in [[1958]] to address the declining number of active members, facilitated the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed but hereditary peeresses, whose existence had long been a constitutional anomaly, continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, hereditary peeresses remain eligible for election to the Upper House and there are three among the 92 hereditaries who continue to sit. All women in the House of Lords are amongst the Lords Temporal; the Church of England does not presently permit the consecration of female bishops, though this issue is currently under consideration, with many observers expecting female bishops in the near future. ==Officers== Unlike the House of Commons, the House of Lords does not elect its own Speaker; rather, the ''ex officio'' presiding officer is the [[Lord Chancellor]] ([[as of 2005]], [[Charlie Falconer, Baron Falconer of Thoroton|The Rt Hon. The Lord Falconer of Thoroton]]). The Lord Chancellor is not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the [[Department for Constitutional Affairs]]. In addition, the Lord Chancellor is the head of the judiciary of England and Wales, serving as the President of the [[Courts of England and Wales|Supreme Court of England and Wales]]. Thus, the Lord Chancellor is a part of all three branches of Government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. In June [[2003]], the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor, due to the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. However, the abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] preserves the office of Lord Chancellor, though amended. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords and allows for the House of Lords to elect a [[Lord Speaker|Speaker]] of their own. For the time being however, the Lord Chancellor will continue to act as the presiding officer, until at least the new rules of speakership are created. [[Image:Lchancellor.jpg|frame|left|The Lord Chancellor wears black and gold robes whilst presiding over the House of Lords.]] The Lord Chancellor may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The Chairman of Committees, the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and several Deputy Chairmen of Committees are all deputies to the Lord Chancellor, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself. By custom, the Crown appoints each Chairman, Principal Deputy Chairman, or Deputy Chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords. There is no legal requirement that the Lord Chancellor or a Deputy Speaker be a member of the House of Lords, though the same has long been customary. Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor wears ceremonial black and gold robes. The Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker sits on the [[Woolsack]], a large red seat stuffed with [[wool]], at the front of the Lords Chamber. When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the [[Speaker of the United Kingdom House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]]. He or she only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. The Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers remain members of their respective parties, and may participate in debate. Another officer of the body is the [[Leader of the House of Lords]], a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable Leader. The [[Clerk of the Parliaments]] is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, subject to the House's approval. The [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]] is also an officer of the House; he takes his title from the symbol of his office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and
ere many of the shopping malls of Bergen County are located. ===Court Cases=== The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], in the case of ''[[Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd.]]'', &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;1985&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (1 S.C.R. 295) ruled that the 1906 ''Lord's Day Act'', that required most places to be closed on Sunday did not have a legitimate [[secular]] purpose, and was an unconstitutional attempt to establish a [[religion|religious]]-based closing law in violation of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] held in ''[[McGowan v. Maryland]]'' (1961) that [[Maryland]]'s blue laws violated neither the [[Free Exercise Clause]] nor the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. While such laws originated to encourage attendance at [[Christian]] churches, the contemporary Maryland laws were intended to promote the secular values of &quot;health, safety, recreation, and general well-being&quot; through a common day of rest. That this day coincides with the Christian [[Sabbath]] neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days. The status of blue laws vis-à-vis the Free Exercise Clause conceivably would have to be re-evaluated if challenged by an adherent of a religion which required the conduct of commerce on Sunday. ==See also== *[[Sunday shopping]] [[Category:Sunday]] [[Category:Religious law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bar</title> <id>3360</id> <revision> <id>41588098</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:15:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cain-mi</username> <id>269668</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|bar|Bar}} '''Bar''' may mean: * A pole or stick, often made of wood or metal, sometimes used to mark a height, such as in [[high jump]], or as a handrail, such as in ballet (where the word is usually spelled &quot;[[barre]]&quot;), or as an obstacle. * [[Candy bar]] * [[Bar (establishment)]], a retail establishment which serves alcoholic beverages * [[Bar (counter)]], the counter from which drinks are dispensed * [[Bar (unit)]], a scientific unit of pressure * [[Bar (music)]], a period of music. * [[Bar association]], the community of persons engaged in the practice of law. * [[Bar (landform)]], a type of beach behind which lies a lagoon. * [[Bar (diacritic)]], a line through a letter used as a diacritic. * [[Toolbar]], a visual menu with various icons. * A [[macron]] over a digit or digits in mathematics used to indicated a [[repeating decimal]]. * The second [[metasyntactic variable]], after foo * [[Bar (Aramaic)]], a common prefix in New Testament Aramaic names * An addition to a [[Military decoration]] earned by a subsequent act '''Places:''' * [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro]], a large city in southeastern Montenegro. * [[Bar, Ukraine]], a fortress in the Podolia region of Ukraine that was once a part of Poland. * [[Barrois]], the territory of the [[counts and dukes of Bar]] * [[Bar River]], a tributary to the Meuse River in France. '''Communes of France''': * [[Bar, Corrèze]], in the [[Corrèze]], ''département''. * [[Bar-le-Duc]], in the Meuse ''département''. * [[Bar-sur-Aube]], in the Aube ''département''. * [[Bar-sur-Seine]], in the Aube ''département''. '''BAR''' may stand for: * [[Bit Aspect Ratio]], a Length (BPI) to Width (TPI) ratio of a magnetic bit, * [[British American Racing]], a Formula One racing team. * [[Browning Automatic Rifle]], a U.S. WWI and WWII military weapon * [[Buy-American restrictions]], a reference to the Buy American Act * [[Burn and Rip]], a commonly applied practise for circumventing [[DRM]] and other [[copy protection]] types on [[music]] and [[video]] files downloaded from such online [[music]] services as [[iTunes]], '''BAR''' may also represent: * [[Bangor and Aroostook]] railroad, AAR reporting mark * [[Barbados]], IOC country code {{disambig}} &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[de:Bar]] [[es:Bar]] [[fr:Bar]] [[gl:Bar]] [[ko:바]] [[it:Bar]] [[nl:Bar]] [[ja:バール]] [[pl:Bar]] [[pt:Bar]] [[ru:Бар]] [[sl:Bar]] [[fi:BAR]] [[sv:Bar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Beer</title> <id>3363</id> <revision> <id>42140474</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:13:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mhking</username> <id>262806</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 42022383 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the beverage; for the village in [[Devon]], [[England]], see [[Beer, Devon]]. See also [[beer (disambiguation)]].}} '''Beer''', generally, is an [[alcoholic beverage]] produced through the [[fermentation]] of [[sugar]]s suspended in an [[aqueous]] medium, and which is not [[distillation|distilled]] after fermentation. The unfermented sugar solution, called [[wort]], is obtained from steeping, or &quot;mashing,&quot; [[malt|malted]] [[cereal|grains]], usually [[barley]]. Alcoholic beverages made from the fermentation of sugars derived from non-grain sources &amp;mdash; fruit juices or honey, for example &amp;mdash; are generally not called &quot;beer,&quot; despite being produced by the same [[yeast]]-based biochemical reaction. The process of beer production is called [[brewing]]. Because the ingredients used to make beer differ from place to place, beer characteristics such as [[taste]] and [[color]] vary widely, and consequently its [[Beer style|style]] or classification. Brewing dates back to at least the 5th millennium BC (prior even to [[writing]]), and is recorded in the written history of [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as buying a round, pub crawling, or various pub games. There are a number of [[Beer#Related beverages|related beverages]] such as [[kvass]], [[sahti]] and [[pulque]]. [[Image:Beer.jpg|thumb|180px|A mug of golden [[lager beer]].]] [[Image:Achel_beer_and_glass.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Achel trappist beer with glass]] ==History== [[Image:Girl making beer.jpg|thumb|right|80px|Egyptian woman making beer (Cairo Museum)]] {{main|History of beer}} Beer is one of the oldest beverages humans have produced, dating back to at least the [[5th millennium BC]] and recorded in the written history of [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. In [[Classical Greece]] and [[Rome]] wine was the usual alcoholic beverage and beer was little known, except as a drink favoured by foreigners ([[barbarian]]s) of the Middle East and northern Europe. [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] wrote disparagingly of the beer brewed by the [[Germanic peoples]] of his day, but documentary evidence (e.g. from [[Vindolanda]]) shows that Roman troops serving in northern and central Europe customarily drank local types of beer. Beer largely remained a [[homemaker]]'s activity, made in the home in [[medieval]] times. By the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century|15th centuries]], beermaking was gradually changing from a family-oriented activity to an artisan one, with [[pub]]s and [[monastery|monasteries]] brewing their own beer for mass consumption. Today, the [[brewing industry]] is a huge global [[business]], consisting of several [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]], and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]]. == The brewing process == :''For a full explanation see [[Brewing]]'' Though the process of [[brewing]] beer is complex and varies considerably, the basic stages that are consistent are outlined below. There may be additional filtration steps between stages. [[Image:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|thumb|left|200px]] # '''Mashing''': The first phase of brewing, in which the malted grains are crushed and soaked in warm water in order to create a malt extract. The mash is held at constant temperature long enough for enzymes to convert starches into fermentable sugars. # '''Sparging''': Water is filtered through the mash to dissolve the sugars. The darker, sugar-heavy liquid is called the [[wort]]. # '''Boiling''': The [[wort]] is boiled along with any remaining ingredients (excluding yeast), to remove excess water and kill any [[microorganism]]s. The hops (whole, pelleted, or extract) are added at some stage during the boil. # '''Fermentation''': The yeast is added (or ''&quot;pitched&quot;'') and the beer is left to ferment. After primary fermentation, the beer may be allowed a second fermentation, which allows further settling of yeast and other particulate matter ''&quot;trub&quot;'' which may have been introduced earlier in the process. Some brewers may skip the secondary fermentation and simply filter off the yeast. # '''Packaging''': At this point, the beer contains alcohol, but not much carbon dioxide. The brewer has a few options to increase carbon dioxide levels. The most common approach by large-scale brewers is force [[carbonation]], via the direct addition of [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] gas to the [[keg]] or bottle. Smaller-scale or more classically-minded brewers will add extra (''&quot;priming&quot;'') sugar or a small amount of newly fermenting wort (''&quot;kräusen&quot;'') to the final vessel, resulting in a short refermentation known as ''&quot;cask-&quot;'' or ''&quot;bottle conditioning&quot;''. After brewing, the beer is usually a finished product. At this point the beer is [[keg]]ged, [[Cask ale|cask]]ed, [[bottle]]d, or [[aluminium can|can]]ned. Unfiltered beers may be stored for further fermentation in conditioning tanks,
ant articles in the ninth edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, Bart.}} {{1911}} [[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Abel, Frederick Augustus]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Abel, Frederick Augustus]] [[Category:English chemists|Abel, Frederick Augustus]] [[Category:1827 births|Abel, Frederick Augustus]] [[Category:1902 deaths|Abel, Frederick Augustus]] [[Category:People associated with Imperial College London|Abel, Frederick Augustus]] [[de:Frederick Augustus Abel]] [[nl:Frederick Augustus Abel]] [[ja:フレデリック・エイベル]] [[ru:Абель, Фредерик Август]] [[sv:Frederick Abel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fugazi</title> <id>11554</id> <revision> <id>41297927</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:30:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pictureuploader</username> <id>183121</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fugazi''' may mean: * Slang version of &quot;Fugacious&quot; derived from Latin fugax,fugac-,meaning &quot;ready to flee, flying; hence, fleeting, transitory,&quot; ** This resulted to the [[backronym]] &quot;Fucked Up, Got Ambushed, Zipped In&quot;, a U.S. Army slang from the Vietnam war era, meaning chaotic, out-of-control fighting, especially in jungle warfare. (Similar to [[Snafu]]) * an Italian surname, sometimes spelled Fugazzi. *[[Fugazi (band)]], a punk band from Washington, D.C. *''[[Fugazi (album)]]'', a 1984 studio album of the progressive rock band [[Marillion]], featuring a song also named Fugazi. *'''[[Fugazi (WWII)]]''', Japanese [[deserters]] during World War II. * [[Fugazzi College]], now part of [[National College of Business &amp; Technology]] [[de:Fugazi]] [[it:Fugazi (disambigua)]] [[nl:Fugazi]] {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fluorescence</title> <id>11555</id> <revision> <id>42125128</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:03:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mexaguil</username> <id>217002</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>merged Organic liquids, and made it a section</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fluorescence_in_various_sized_CdSe_quantum_dots.png|thumb|right|395px|Fluorescence induced by exposure to [[ultraviolet]] light in vials containing various sized [[Cadmium selenide]] (CdSe) [[quantum dot]]s.]] [[Image:Fluorit_uv_hg.jpg|thumb|Fluorite under white (left) and shortwave UV-Light (right)]] '''Fluorescence''' is a [[luminescence]] that&lt;!--&quot;which&quot; is INCORRECT, for a distinction is to be made in the various types of luminescence--&gt; is mostly found as an [[optical phenomenon]] in cold bodies, in which a molecule absorbs a high-energy [[photon]], and re-emits it as a lower-energy photon with a longer [[wavelength]]. The energy difference between the absorbed and emitted photons ends up as molecular [[kinetic energy|vibrations]] or [[heat]]. Usually the absorbed photon is in the [[ultraviolet]], and the emitted [[light]] is in the visible range, but this depends on the absorbance curve and [[Stokes shift]] of the particular [[fluorophore]]. Fluorescence is named after the [[mineral]] [[fluorite]], composed of [[calcium fluoride]], which exhibits this phenomenon. ==Equation== :&lt;math&gt;S_1 \to S_2 + h \nu&lt;/math&gt; This means that the system starts in state &lt;math&gt;S_1&lt;/math&gt;, and after the fluorescent emission of a photon with energy &lt;math&gt;h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, it is in state &lt;math&gt;S_2&lt;/math&gt; where: ''h'' = [[Planck's constant]] and &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; = [[frequency]] of the fluorescing light ==Rules== There are several [[law (principle)|rules]] that deal with fluorescence. The ''Kasha–Vavilov rule'' dictates that the quantum yield of luminescence is independent of the wavelength of exciting radiation. This is not quite true and is violated severely in many simple molecules. A somewhat more reliable statement, although still with exceptions, would be that the fluorescence spectrum shows very little dependence on the wavelength of exciting radiation. The ''[[Jablonski diagram]]'' describes most of the relaxation mechanism for excited state molecules. ==Applications== There are many natural and synthetic compounds that exhibit fluorescence, and they have a number of applications: ===[[Lighting]]=== The common [[fluorescent lamp|fluorescent tube]] relies on fluorescence. Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury. An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit light. The emitted light is in the [[ultraviolet]] (UV) range and is invisible, and also harmful to living organisms, so the tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the ''[[phosphor]]'', which absorbs the ultraviolet and re-emits visible light. Recently, &quot;white [[light-emitting diode]]s&quot; (&quot;white LEDs&quot;) have become available, which work through a similar process. Typically, the actual light-emitting [[semiconductor]] produces light in the blue part of the spectrum, which strikes a phosphor compound deposited on a reflector; the phosphor fluoresces in the orange part of the spectrum, the combination of the two colors producing a net effect of apparently white light. Compact fluorescent lighting (CFL) is the same as any typical fluorescent lamp with advantages. It is self-ballasted and used to replace incandescents in most applications. They are highly efficient with high CRI and good color temp index rating. The modern [[mercury vapor]] [[streetlight]] is said to have been evolved from the fluorescent lamp. ===Biochemistry and medicine=== There is a wide range of applications for fluorescence in this field. Large biological molecules can have a fluorescent chemical group attached by a chemical reaction, and the fluorescence of the attached tag enables very sensitive detection of the molecule. Examples: * automated sequencing of [[DNA]] by the [[chain termination method]]; each of four different chain terminating bases has its own specific fluorescent tag. As the labeled DNA molecules are separated, the fluorescent label is excited by a UV source, and the identity of the base terminating the molecule is identified by the wavelength of the emitted light. * DNA detection: the compound [[ethidium bromide]], when free to change its conformation in solution, has very little fluorescence. Ethidium bromide's fluorescence is greatly enhanced when it binds to DNA, so this compound is very useful in visualising the location of DNA fragments in [[agarose gel electrophoresis]] * The [[DNA microarray]] * Immunology: An antibody has a fluorescent chemical group attached, and the sites (e.g., on a microscopic specimen) where the antibody has bound can be seen, and even quantified, by the fluorescence. * FACS ([[fluorescent-activated cell sorting]]) * Fluorescence has been used to study the structure and conformations of DNA and proteins with techniques such as [[Fluorescence resonance energy transfer]]. This is especially important in complexes of multiple biomolecules. * Aequorin, from the jellyfish ''[[Aequorea victoria]]'', produces a blue glow in the presence of Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ions (by a chemical reaction). It has been used to image calcium flow in cells in real time. The success with aequorin spurred further investigation of ''A. victoria'' and led to the discovery of [[Green Fluorescent Protein]] (GFP), which has become an extremely important research tool. GFP and related proteins are used as reporters for any number of biological events including such things as sub-cellular localization. Levels of gene expression are sometimes measured by linking a gene for GFP production to another gene. Also, many biological molecules have an intrinsic fluorescence that can sometimes be used without the need to attach a chemical tag. Sometimes this intrinsic fluorescence changes when the molecule is in a specific environment, so the distribution or binding of the molecule can be measured. [[Bilirubin]], for instance, is highly fluorescent when bound to a specific site on serum albumin. Zinc [[protoporphyrin]], formed in developing red blood cells instead of hemoglobin when iron is unavailable or lead is present, has a bright fluorescence and can be used to detect these problems. ===Gemology, mineralogy and forensics=== [[Image:Fluorescent_minerals_hg.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Fluorescent Minerals]] [[Gemstone]]s, [[mineral]]s, [[fiber]]s and many other materials which may be encountered in [[forensics]] or with a relationship to various [[collectible]]s may have a distinctive fluorescence or may fluoresce differently under short-wave ultraviolet, long-wave ultra violet, or [[X-ray]]s. Many types of calcite will fluoresce under shortwave UV. [[Ruby|Rubies]], [[emerald]]s, and the [[Hope Diamond]] exhibit red fluorescence under short-wave UV light; diamonds also emit light under [[X ray]] radiation. ==Organic liquids== Organic liquids such as mixtures of [[anthracene]] in [[benzene]] or [[toluol]], or [[stilbene]] in the same [[solvent]]s, [[fluoresce]] with [[ultraviolet]] or [[gamma ray]] [[irradiation]]. The decay times of this fluorescence is of the order of nanoseconds since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene. ==See also== * [[Phosphorescence]] * [[Laser-induced fluorescence]] ==External links== * [http://home.howstuffworks.com/fluorescent-lamp.htm How Fluorescent Lamps Work] * [http://www.shsu.edu/~chemistry/chemiluminescence/JABLONSKI.html Jablonski diagram] * [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Fluorescence.html Fluorescence on Scienceworld] * [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/techniques/fluorescence/fluorescenceintro.html Basic Concepts in Fluorescence] * [http://johnbokm
ver, Jimmy Johnson and [[Jerry Jones]] had a falling out, so Johnson left the organization prior to the 1994 season. Jones hired former [[University of Oklahoma]] head coach [[Barry Switzer]] to be the team's new head coach. The Cowboys would finish 12-4, but lost in the NFC Championship game to the 49ers, 38-28. However, another 12-4 season in 1995 would earn the Cowboys a fourth straight Division Championship (17th total) and send the Cowboys to the playoffs once more where they claimed their 8th NFC Championship title by defeating the Green Bay Packers, 38-27. The Cowboys eventually defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27-17 in [[Super Bowl XXX]], getting revenge against the Steelers for the two four-point losses in [[Super Bowl X]] and [[Super Bowl XIII]]. However, the glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as [[free agency]] and injuries began taking their toll. The Cowboys went 6-10 in 1997, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions, and in January of 1998, Switzer resigned. Former Steelers offensive coordinator [[Chan Gailey]] was hired to take over head coaching duties. Gailey led the team to a 10-6 record in 1998, but was let go after an 8-8 season in 1999. ===2000s to present=== Defensive coordinator [[Dave Campo]] was promoted to head coach, but he could only post three consecutive 5-11 seasons, with his fate likely being sealed by an opening day loss in 2002 to the expansion [[Houston Texans]]. Many fans and media were beginning to blame [[Jerry Jones]] for the team's ills, noting that he refused to hire a strong coach, preferring to hire coaches who didn't want to be involved with personnel duties so that Jones himself could manage them. However, Jones proved them wrong in 2003 by luring [[Bill Parcells]] out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season, posting a 10-6 record with the best overall defense in the NFL. However, the 2004 season was one of turmoil. Injuries and persistent penalty problems hobbled the Cowboys, but a preseason quarterback controversy also caused trouble when [[Quincy Carter]] was suddenly terminated for drug use in favor of 40-year-old veteran [[Vinny Testaverde]], brought to the Cowboys from the New York Jets by his former coach in the off-season. The Cowboys started strong, with victories against the [[Cleveland Browns]] and [[Washington Redskins]], but quickly fell off to a 3-5 record by midseason, finishing the season 6-10. In November of 2004, a vote was passed by the City of [[Arlington, Texas|Arlington]] in [[Tarrant County]] to build a new stadium adjacent to the existing [[Ameriquest Field in Arlington]]. The deadline for either the City of Arlington or the Dallas Cowboys to back out of the deal for the new stadium has passed. The team will begin playing at the new site in 2009 after thirty-eight years playing in the City of Irving, and forty-nine years in the entire Dallas County. The Cowboys improved their defense before the 2005-2006 season with the additions of first round draft picks [[Demarcus Ware]] and [[Marcus Spears (defensive end)|Marcus Spears]]. Parcells drafted these two in the hopes of jumpstarting the team's transition from the traditional 4-3 defense to a 3-4 defense, which he believes favors the talents (speed and athleticism over power) of the current lineup. Jerry Jones also added a number of savvy veteran players, acquiring [[nose tackle]] [[Jason Ferguson]] and [[cornerback]] [[Anthony Henry]] via free agency, and [[linebacker]] [[Scott Fujita]] via the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. On offense, the Cowboys felt the need to upgrade their passing game to complement their top 2004 draft pick, running back [[Julius Jones]], acquiring both [[quarterback]] [[Drew Bledsoe]] and [[wide receiver]] [[Peerless Price]] via free agency. (Price's contribution to the team was meager, and he was released at the end of the 2005 season.) During his tenure, Parcells has made a point of signing players that have played for him in the past, including Bledsoe and [[wide receiver]] [[Terry Glenn]] (both with the Patriots); [[cornerback]] [[Aaron Glenn]], [[wide receiver]] [[Keyshawn Johnson]] and [[fullback]] [[Richie Anderson]] (all with the Jets; Anderson is no longer with the Cowboys). The Cowboys began their 2005 campaign on the road, winning a close road game against the [[San Diego Chargers]] 28-24. In Week 2 (a.k.a. NFL Hurricane Relief Week), the Cowboys wore their 1962 throwback jerseys for the first time that year, as they hoped to pound the [[Washington Redskins]] (one of their division rivals) into the ground. For most of the game, the Cowboys dominated the game, leading 13-0 for three quarters. Unfortunately, the defense couldn't hold off a late-game comeback and fell 14-13 to two [[Mark Brunell]] TD passes to [[Santana Moss]]. In Week 3 &amp; 4, the Cowboys traveled to the Bay Area to face the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and the [[Oakland Raiders]]. The Cowboys won a close game against the Niners (34-31), but lost a tight game against the Raiders (19-13). Afterwards, the Cowboys went home and took on their NFC East rivals. First, they won against the defending NFC Champion [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 33-10 and then beat the eventual NFC East champion [[New York Giants]] in overtime 16-13, with [[Jose Cortez]]'s 51-yard field goal. Then, on their road trip to Seattle, the Cowboys took on the Seahawks and played a close game with them. Unfortunately, Drew Bledsoe's late-game pass was intercepted by DB [[Jordan Babineaux]] and the Cowboys fell 13-10. However, they dominantly prevailed at home over the [[Arizona Cardinals]] 34-13. They then used their Week 9 Bye to prepare themselves for a Week 10 Monday Night Showdown in Philadelphia. The Cowboys trailed for most of the game, but then, late in the fourth quarter, the Cowboys came within striking distance (20-14). When [[Donovan McNabb]] tried to pass to [[Reggie Brown]], [[Roy Williams (DB)|Roy Williams]] intercepted the pass and ran 46 yards for the game-winning touchdown (21-20). Afterwards, they went home and defeated the [[Detroit Lions]] 20-7. On Thanksgiving Day, the Cowboys donned their '62 throwback jerseys again, as the [[Denver Broncos]] came to town. Both sides played hard and fierce football. Yet, the Cowboys fell to the Broncos in overtime 24-21, on a 24-yard field goal by [[Jason Elam]]. They then traveled to Giants Stadium and lost a close game to the Giants 17-10. The Cowboys would get redemption at home as the narrowly beat the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] 31-28. Unfortunately, when the Cowboys traveled to [[FedEx Field]] for a rematch with the Redskins, Drew Bledsoe wasn't safe. He was sacked seven times and they turned the ball over four times as the Redskins pummeled the Cowboys from start to finish. Basically, the Cowboys trailed from the start and failed to catch up, as they were swept by the Redskins for the first time since 1995 by a final score of 35-7. However, the Cowboys wouldn't let that loss shake them up. In their last road game of the season, they took on the [[Carolina Panthers]]. Trailing 20-17 late in the game, [[Billy Cundiff]] tried to tie the game with a field goal. The Bad News: CB [[Ken Lucas]] got his middle finger on the ball and it sailed wide right. The Good News: DE [[Julius Peppers]] was called for roughing the kicker. That penalty would set the stage for Drew Bledsoe's 2-yard Touchdown pass to [[Terry Glenn]]. The Cowboys would win 24-20. Unfortunately, their playoff hopes were dashed when the Redskins defeated the Philadephia Eagles. Even if Dallas and Washington had ended their regular seasons at 10-6, the Redskins would have advanced to the playoffs because of their two victories against Dallas. The Cowboys, knowing that they could not make the playoffs, went into Sunday night playing the [[St. Louis Rams]] on ESPN's last Sunday Night Football game. The Cowboys lost the game 20-10, and finished the season with a 9-7 record, and in 3rd place in the NFC East. ===Season-by-season records=== {{Start NFL SBS|#D6D6D6|#0D254C}} |- |1960 || 0 || 11 || 1 || 7th West || -- |- |1961 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 6th East || -- |- |1962 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 5th East || -- |- |1963 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 5th East || -- |- |1964 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 5th East || -- |- |1965 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd East || -- |- |1966 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st East || Lost [[NFL Championship Game, 1966|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]]) |- |1967 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 1st Capitol || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1967|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]]) |- |1968 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st Capitol || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1968|Conference Playoff Game]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]]) |- |1969 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st Capitol || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1969|Conference Playoff Game]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]]) |- |1970 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl V]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]]) |- |1971 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl VI]]''' |- |1972 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1972-73|Conference Championship]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]]) |- |1973 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1973-74|Conference Championship]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]]) |- |1974 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || -- |- |1975 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl X]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) |- |1976 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1976-77|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]]) |- |1977 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XII]]''' |- |1978 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XIII]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]]) |- |1979 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1979-80|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]]) |- |1980 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Conference Championshi
tty king [[Olaf Geirstad-Elf]], and the smith hero [[Weyland|Völund]] (titled as &quot;ruler of elves&quot; in the ''[[Völundarkviða]]''). Even crossbreeding was possible between elves and humans in the Old Norse belief. One case appears in ''[[Hrólf Kraki]]'s saga'', where the Danish king [[Helgi]] finds an elf-woman clad in silk who is the most beautiful woman he has ever seen. He rapes her and later she bears the daughter [[Skuld (Norse Mythology)|Skuld]], who married [[Heoroweard|Hjörvard]], Hrólf Kraki's killer. Another case was the hero [[Högni]], whose mother was a human queen, and whose father, according to the ''[[Thidrekssaga]]'', was an elf by the name of ''Aldrian'' (though it should be noted that this text is largely translated from German material). There are also in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'' and in ''[[Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]]'' accounts of a line of local kings who ruled over Álfheim, corresponding to the modern Swedish province [[Bohuslän]], and since they had elven blood they were said to be more beautiful than most men. :''The land governed by King Alf was called Alfheim, and all his offspring are related to the elves. They were fairer than any other people ...''{{mn|Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar|Th-1}} The last king is named ''Gandalf''. ===Scandinavian elves=== [[Image:Tomtebobarnen.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Little ''älvor'', playing with ''Tomtebobarnen''. From ''Children of the Forest'' (1910) by Swedish author and illustrator [[Elsa Beskow]].]] In [[Scandinavian folklore]], which is a later blend of Norse mythology and elements of [[Christian mythology]], an ''elf'' is called ''elver'' in [[Danish language|Danish]], ''alv'' in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and ''alv'' or ''älva'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (the first is [[masculine]], the second [[feminine]]). &lt;!--The word is etymologically related to elv/älv (&quot;[[river]]&quot;). This information should belong in an etymology section together with *albh--&gt; The Norwegian expressions seldom appear in genuine folklore, and when they do, they are always used synonymous to ''huldrefolk'' or ''[[vetter]]'', a category of earth-dwelling beings generally held to be more related to Norse dwarves than elves which is comparable to the Icelandic ''huldufólk'' (hidden people). In Denmark and Sweden, the elves appear as beings distinct from the vetter, even though the border between them is diffuse. The insect-winged [[fairies]] in the folklore of the [[British Isles]] are often called &quot;älvor&quot; in modern Swedish or &quot;alfer&quot; in danish, although the correct translation is &quot;feer.&quot; In a similar vein, the ''alf'' found in the fairy tale ''The Elf of the Rose'' by Danish author [[Hans Christian Andersen|H. C. Andersen]] is so tiny that he can have a rose blossom for home, and has &quot;wings that reached from his shoulders to his feet&quot;. Yet, Andersen also wrote about ''elvere'' in ''The Elfin Hill''. The elves in this story are more alike those of traditional Danish folklore, who were beautiful females, living in hills and boulders, capable of dancing a man to death. Like the ''[[huldra]]'' in Norway and Sweden, they are hollow when seen from the back. Small wingless elves of British folklore also appear distinct thus Santa's Elves at called &quot;[[tomte]]&quot; in Swedish or &quot;nisse&quot; in Norwegian. The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones{{mn|Hellström 1990:36|He-1}} (cf. [[Galadriel]]'s account of what would happen to the Elves who remained in [[Middle-Earth]]). The Swedish ''älvor''{{mn|Schön 1986|S-1}} (sing. ''älva'') were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king. They were long-lived and light-hearted in nature. The elves are typically pictured as fair-haired, white-clad and like most creatures in the Scandinavian folklore can be really nasty when offended. In the stories, they often play the role of disease-spirits. The most common, though also most harmless case was various irritating [[skin rash]]es, which were called ''älvablåst'' (elven blow) and could be cured by a forceful counter-blow (a handy pair of [[bellows]] was most useful for this purpose). ''Skålgropar'', a particular kind of [[petroglyph]] found in Scandinavia, were known in older times as ''älvkvarnar'' (elven mills), pointing to their believed usage. One could appease the elves by offering them a treat (preferably [[butter]]) placed into an elven mill – perhaps a custom with roots in the Old Norse ''álfablót''. [[Image:Älvdans.jpg|295px|left|thumb|''Ängsälvor'', &quot;meadow elves&quot;, (1850), painting by [[Nils Blommér]].]] The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings. They left a kind of circle were they had danced, which were called ''älvdanser'' (elf dances) or ''älvringar'' ([[elf circle]]s), and to urinate in one was thought to cause [[venereal diseases]]. Typically, it consisted of a ring of small [[mushroom]]s, but there was also another kind of elf circle: :''On lake shores, where the forest met the lake, you could find elf circles. They were round places where the grass had been flattened like a floor. Elves had danced there. By [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=59.007568,15.129204&amp;spn=0.074904,0.231245&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Lake Tisaren], I have seen one of those. It could be dangerous and one could become ill if one had trodden over such a place or if one destroyed anything there.''{{mn|Hellström 1990:36|He-1}} If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world. (This time phenomenon is retold in [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien's]] ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' when the Fellowship of the Ring discovers that time seems to have run more slowly in elven [[Lórien|Lothlórien]]. It also has a remote parallel in the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[sídhe]].) In a song from the late [[Middle Ages]] about Olaf Liljekrans, the elven queen invites him to dance. He refuses, he knows what will happen if he joins the dance and he is on his way home to his own wedding. The queen offers him gifts, but he declines. She threatens to kill him if he does not join, but he rides off and dies of the disease she sent upon him, and his young bride dies of a broken heart.{{mn|Keightley 1870|K-1}} However, the elves were not exclusively young and beautiful. In the Swedish folktale ''Little Rosa and Long Leda'', an elvish woman (''älvakvinna'') arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill. She is described as an old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the ''subterraneans''. {{mn|Svenska folksagor1984:158|SF}} ===German elves=== What remained of the belief in elves in [[German folklore]] was that they were mischievous pranksters that could cause disease to cattle and people, and bring bad dreams to sleepers. The German word for [[nightmare]], ''Alptraum'', means &quot;elf dream&quot;. The archaic form ''Albdruck'' means &quot;elf pressure&quot;; it was believed that nightmares are a result of an elf sitting on the dreamer's chest. This aspect of German elf-belief largely corresponds to the Scandinavian belief in the ''[[Mara (folklore)|mara]]''. It is also similar to the legends regarding [[Incubus (demon)|incubi]] and [[Succubus|succubi]].{{mn|Hall 2004|H-5}} As noted above, an elven king occasionally appears among the predominantly female elves in [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]. In the German middle-age epic the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', a [[dwarf]] named ''[[Alberich]]'' play an important role. ''Alberich'' literally translates as &quot;elf-sovereign&quot;, further contributing to the elf–dwarf confusion observed already in the [[Younger Edda]]. Via the French ''Alberon'', the same name has entered English as ''[[Oberon]]'' – king of elves and [[fairies]] in Shakespeare's ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' (see below). The [[legend]] of [[Der Erlkönig]] appears to have originated in fairly recent times in [[Denmark]] and [[Goethe]] based his poem on &quot;Erlkönigs Tochter&quot; (&quot;Erlkönig's Daughter&quot;), a Danish work translated into German by [[Johann Gottfried Herder]]. The Erlkönig's nature has been the subject of some debate. The name translates literally from the German as &quot;[[Alder]] King&quot; rather than its common English translation, &quot;Elf King&quot; (which would be rendered as ''Elfenkönig'' in German). It has often been suggested that ''Erlkönig'' is a mistranslation from the original [[Danish language|Danish]] ''ellerkonge'' or ''elverkonge'', which ''does'' mean &quot;elf king&quot;. According to German and Danish folklore, the Erlkönig appears as an omen of death, much like the [[banshee]] in [[Irish mythology]]. Unlike the banshee, however, the Erlkönig will appear only to the person about to die. His form and expression also tell the person what sort of death they will have: a pained expression means a painful death, a peaceful expression means a peaceful death. This aspect of the legend was immortalised by [[Goethe]] in his poem ''[[Der Erlkönig]]'', later set to music by [[Schubert]]. In the [[Brothers Grimm]] fairy tale ''[[Der Schuhmacher und die Heinzelmännchen]]'', a group of naked, one foot tall beings called ''[[Heinzelmännchen]]'' help a shoemaker in his work. When he rewards their work with little clothes, they are so delighted, that they run away and are never seen again. Even though ''Heinzelmännchen'' are akin to beings such as [[kobold]]s and [[dwarf|dwarves]], the tale has been translated to English as ''The Shoemaker &amp; the Elves'', (probably due to the similarity of the henzelmannchen to Scottish [[brownie (elf)|brownies]]) and is echoed in [[J. K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] stories (see [[House-elf]]). ===English elves=== &lt;div style=&quot;fl
tasks was to reestablish [[International Monetary Fund]] and donor community support for an economic stabilization program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on [[June 7]], [[1999]]. For the national parliament, [[Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle]] (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]) won 34% of the vote; [[Golkar]] (Suharto's party; formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; [[United Development Party]] (PPP, led by [[Hamzah Haz]]) 12%; and [[National Awakening Party]] (PKB, led by [[Abdurrahman Wahid]]) 10%. ===East Timorese Independence=== ''For full coverage, see [[History of East Timor]]'' On [[August 30]], [[1999]], the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-conducted popular consultation. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by murdering some 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]] (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in [[May 2002]]. ===Wahid administration=== In October [[1999]], the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] (commonly referred to as &quot;Gus Dur&quot;) as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice President, for 5-year terms. Wahid named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August [[2000]]. President Wahid's government continued to pursue democratization and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in [[Aceh]], [[Maluku Islands]], and Irian Jaya. In [[West Timor]], the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Wahid's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate. ===Megawati administration=== During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Wahid gave an account of his government's performance. On [[January 29]], [[2001]] thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and coordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government. Soon after, [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] assumed the presidency on [[July 23]]. ===Yudhoyono administration=== In [[2004]], the largest one-day election in the world and Indonesia's first direct [[Indonesian presidential election, 2004|Presidential election]] was held and was won by [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]], commonly referred by his initials SBY. ''See: [[Politics of Indonesia]]''. Early in Yudhoyono's administration, portions of northern [[Sumatra]], particularly [[Aceh]], as well as outlying islands were devastated by the massive [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]] on [[December 26]], [[2004]]. While challenged by the reconstruction effort, the tsunami did however begin a significant peace-process between SBY's government and the separatist [[Free Aceh Movement]] (GAM). Accords signed in [[Helsinki]] created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for Acehnese nationalist forces to form their own party, and other autonomy measures. ''See: [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia]]''. ==See also== * [[Indonesian Chinese]] * [[Sailendra]] * [[Singhasari]] ==References and further reading== * Ricklefs, M.C. 2001. ''A history of modern Indonesia since c.1200''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4480-7 * Taylor, Jean Gelman. 2003. ''Indonesia: Peoples and histories''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300097093 * Schwarz, Adam. 1994. ''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability''. 2nd Edition. St Leonards, NSW : Allen &amp; Unwin. * {{loc}} ==External links== *[http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/index.html Sejarah Indonesia] &amp;mdash; Detailed timeline of events in Indonesian history [[Category:History of Indonesia| ]] [[es:Historia de Indonesia]] [[id:Sejarah Indonesia]] [[it:Storia dell'Indonesia]] [[lt:Indonezijos istorija]] [[ms:Sejarah Indonesia]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Indonesië]] [[ja:インドネシアの歴史]] [[pt:História da Indonésia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Indonesia</title> <id>14644</id> <revision> <id>35916068</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T05:19:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DrDaveHPP</username> <id>158240</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Geographic regions */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Id-map.png|right|420px]] '''[[Indonesia]]''' is situated in [[Southeast Asia]], in the [[Malay Archipelago]] between the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]]s. It is in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from [[Indian Ocean]] to [[Pacific Ocean]]. The country's variations in culture have been shaped--although not specifically determined--by centuries of complex interactions with the physical environment. Although Indonesians are now less vulnerable to the vicissitudes of nature as a result of improved technology and social programs, to some extent their social diversity has emerged from traditionally different patterns of adjustment to their physical circumstances. '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|5|00|S|120|00|E|type:country}} ==Geographic regions== [[Image:Indonesia_2002_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Detailed map of Indonesia]] Indonesia is a huge archipelagic country extending 5,120 kilometers from east to west and 1,760 kilometers from north to south. It encompasses 13,667 islands (some sources say as many as 18,000), only 6,000 of which are inhabited. There are five main islands (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya), two major archipelagos (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands), and sixty smaller archipelagos. Three of the islands are shared with other nations; Kalimantan (known in the colonial period as Borneo, the world's third largest island) is shared with Malaysia and Brunei, Timor is shared with East Timor, and Irian Jaya shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. Indonesia's total land area is 1,919,317 square kilometers. Included in Indonesia's total territory is another 93,000 square kilometers of inlands seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water). The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally recognized territory (land and sea) to about 5 million square kilometers. The government, however, also claims an exclusive economic zone, which brings the total to about 7.9 million square kilometers. Geographers have conventionally grouped Sumatra, Java (and Madura), Kalimantan (formerly Borneo), and Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) in the Greater Sunda Islands. These islands, except for Sulawesi, lie on the Sunda Shelf--an extension of the Malay Peninsula and the Southeast Asian mainland. Far to the east is Irian Jaya (formerly Irian Barat or West New Guinea), which takes up the western half of the world's second largest island--New Guinea--on the Sahul Shelf. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 200 meters or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group where the surrounding seas in some places reach 4,500 meters in depth. The term Outer Islands is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura. Tectonically, this region--especially Java--is highly unstable, and although the volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils, it makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. The country has numerous mountains and some 400 volcanoes, of which approximately 100 are active. Between 1972 and 1991 alone, twentynine volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. The most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia. In 1815 a volcano at Gunung Tambora on the north coast of Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat Province, claimed 92,000 lives and created &quot;the year without a summer&quot; in various parts of the world. In 1883 Krakatau in the Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra, erupted and some 36,000 West Javans died from the resulting tidal wave. The sound of the explosion was reported as far away as Turkey and Japan. For almost a century following that eruption, Krakatau was quiet, until the late 1970s, when it erupted twice. Mountains ranging between 3,000 and 3,800 meters above sea level can be found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country's tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Mountains in Irian Jaya. The highest peak,
istence. ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', also released in [[1996]], was the first game using what proved to be the most popular engine of the decade (12 released titles), [[Ken Silverman]]'s [[Build engine]]. Build was outwardly similar to Doom's engine, but the internals (and many engine features) were radically new and different. The game itself was a new take on the shooter, with main character Duke characterizing himself by way of witty, egotistical one-liners and interaction with all sorts of goofy objects, from blowing up urinals to tossing cash at strippers. Duke, and Build, are also notable for having one of the simplest map editors of any 3D game ever made. In [[1997]], ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' was released for the [[Nintendo 64]]. It was praised for a realistic setting, incorporating impressive [[artificial intelligence]] and animation, elaborate bullet-hit detection (permitting a player to inflict maximum damage through accurate &quot;head shots&quot;; a practice encouraged through the incorporation of a &quot;sniper scope&quot; weapon function), and mission objectives and well-designed environments based on the ''[[GoldenEye]]'' film's sets. Its [[Split screen (computer graphics)|split screen]] multiplayer [[deathmatch]] mode was also well-regarded for the range of options offered. Console first-person shooters have for many years been criticised for having control schemes less precise than the [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer mouse|mouse]] of PC titles, yet ''GoldenEye'' overcame such complaints to be considered the first great FPS for a console, as well as one of the best movie-to-game adaptations. Also released that year was the first Western-based shooter by [[LucasArts]]: ''[[Outlaws (game) | Outlaws]]''. The game was mostly played through the [[Microsoft Internet Gaming Zone]]. Another popular game on the &quot;Zone&quot; was another LucasArts title, ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II]]'' a game with a [[Star Wars]] theme. ''Jedi Knight'' is distinctive from a technological standpoint because it uses a ''[[Negative-Space]]'' engine instead of the more common ''[[brush engine]]'', like Quake-derived games use. ''Jedi Knight'' is still active and is still being modded by enthusiasts today at locations like [http://www.massassi.net The Massassi Temple]. The lasting popularity of both ''Jedi Knight'' and ''GoldenEye'' is interesting considering their nature as film licences, relatively few of which are highly-regarded by gamers. In [[1998]], the game ''[[Half-Life]]'' was released, featuring a single-player game with a notable narrative focus directing the action and the goals of the player. The tremendous success of the game encouraged the creation of many more games with a similar focus on story-based action. ''Half-Life'' also produced many successful mods, such as the hit ''[[Counter-Strike]]''. Counter-Strike continues, seven years later, to be the most popular multi-player FPS in the world; a feat of no small achievement in a market of ever-changing consumer tastes. Also in [[1998]] ''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief, the Dark Project]]'' was released. It was considered by many critics to be one of the first FPSs to successfully implement stealth elements. Some deemed it a &quot;first-person sneaker&quot;. Another game released in the same period that contributed to expanding the genre was [[Shogo: Mobile Armor Division]] because of its heavy anime influence and strong emphasis on story and characters, although the game never made great commercial successes and is relatively unknown. Another game of 1998, ''[[Starsiege: Tribes]]'', while not a major commercial success, was also very influential. Supporting large numbers of players, vehicles, wide-open landscapes and innovative movement mechanics provided by the jetpack all players [[spawn (gaming)|spawn]]ed with, ''Tribes'' can be considered the ancestor of many modern multiplayer-focused shooters including ''[[Battlefield 1942]]'' and contributed greatly to the creation of the [[massively multiplayer online first-person shooter|massively multiplayer FPS]] genre (including ''[[World War II Online]]'' and ''[[PlanetSide]]''). [[1999]] was another important year for FPS, as two competing franchises were pitched head-to-head: ''[[Quake 3|Quake III Arena]]'' and ''[[Unreal Tournament]]''. Both games were widely acclaimed by game-industry critics and laid the basis for their respective franchises to continue onward: the ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' series with ''[[Unreal Tournament 2003]]'' and later ''[[Unreal Tournament 2004]]'', and the ''[[Quake]]'' series with ''[[Quake 4]]'', released October [[2005]]. &lt;!-- please expand the following --&gt; ===The 2000s=== In [[2000]], ''[[Deus Ex]]'' was released, a single-player FPS that blended elements from [[computer role-playing game|RPG]] and [[adventure game]]s. It featured many side-quests and multiple ways of completing each mission. This game also had a character building system similar to an RPG where the player gained [[experience points]] for completing various objectives, which were then spent on upgrades for your character. Additionally, it incorporated stealth elements that first appeared in ''Thief: The Dark Project''. In [[2001]], ''[[Operation Flashpoint]]'' was released, creating a new level of realism in an FPS environment with extensive vehicles and aircraft, seamless indoor / outdoor environments, and view distances an order of magnitude longer than anything else released before it in the genre. Also, ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'' was released for the [[Xbox]], a first person shooter with third-person vehicle usage. The game was acclaimed for its [[artificial intelligence]] used to control the game's enemies, and key features of its gameplay have since become genre standards. For example, the game's limited weapons inventory (two weapons at any given time), and recharging shield on top of a non-recharging health supply have been widely imitated. In [[2002]] ''[[Battlefield 1942]]'' was released, including easily-operated vehicles, aircraft, and ships. The game featured class based infantry combat system in a World War 2 setting, and proved to be a highly popular multiplayer game (though it could still not match the popularity of Counter-Strike, which as of [[2005]], continues to dominate the genre as far as popularity). Meanwhile, in the world of consoles, ''[[Metroid Prime]]'' was released. It was a quasi-FPS with platforming and third person elements for the [[Nintendo]] [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], set in a comparatively large world that focused more on exploration than combat; it also featured a unique approach to plot narration through a &quot;scan&quot; mechanic, which allowed the player to piece together the story and the game's myriad background details by examining enemies, computer screens and other objects. It utilised a lock-on based targeting system similar to that used in Nintendo's first-party title ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time]]''. Due to its weighting towards exploration, many critics referred to the title as a [[first-person adventure]] game. In [[2004]], many sequels to older games were released, along with some newcomers: *''[[Painkiller (game)|Painkiller]]'', ''[[Far Cry]]'': both titles featured vast and highly detailed environments, indoors and out. Also, they had sophisticated AI and physics systems rounding out the feature set. *''[[Doom 3]]'': Made use of a new graphics engine featuring hitherto unseen real-time lighting and shadows, used exclusively to create an atmosphere of fear and danger for the player. Essentially a &quot;re-telling&quot; of the original [[Doom]] story, and in many ways a throwback to some of the techniques used in earlier FPSes, the main selling point for the game was actually its graphics engine. Using cutting-edge technologies, id Software created one of the most powerful [[game engine|graphics engines]] to date. As with previous Doom and Quake engines, it is being widely licensed to developers. *''[[Halo 2]]'': The sequel to ''Halo: Combat Evolved'' with enhanced graphics and sound, and new game features such as hijacking vehicles, vehicle destruction, dual-wielding weapons and online multiplayer support. ''Halo 2'' also has enhanced LAN capablities over ''Halo''; players could now connect up to 16 Xboxs and TVs instead of four. ''Halo 2'' is also one of the few console games to have an expansion pack released for it. *''[[Half-Life 2]]'': Making extensive use of [[shader]]s, AI with squad tactics, [[Havok (software)|Havok]] [[middleware]] physics engine and relatively large maps for its level of graphic detail. The level of detail seen in the game is perhaps best exemplified by the complex character facial models developed especially for the game. The behind-the-scenes character engines can use voice recognition software, and the mouths of the models in the game will move according to what the character is saying and will express emotions when combined with script; this innovation vastly reduced the development time required to [[animate]] such complicated motions. *''[[Metroid Prime 2: Echoes]]'': A continuation of the ''Metroid'' series, this sequel to the successful GameCube &quot;first-person adventure&quot; diverged even further from the FPS mold by placing a larger emphasis on third-person exploration. There have been many attempts to combine the FPS genre with [[computer role-playing game|role-playing]] (RPG) or [[real-time strategy]] (RTS) games. The ''Half-Life'' [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]] ''[[Natural Selection (computer game)|Natural Selection]]'' blended a multiplayer FPS with some RTS elements. ''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' blended some RPG elements with an experience and skill-based point system that can work across matches. ''[[Battlefield 2]]'' has a stats tracking similar to ''Enemy Territory'', and a complicated scoring system. == FPS games and real-life violence
e '''feminine'''. Things, inanimate articles and abstract nouns are also either masculine or feminine according to convention, which must be ''learnt by heart'' by non-Hindi speakers if they wish to learn correct Hindi. The ending of a word, if a vowel, usually helps in this gender classification. Among ''tatsam'' words, the masculine words of Sanskrit remain masculine in Hindi, and same is the case for the feminine. Sanskrit neuter nouns usually become masculine in Hindi. Among the ''tadbhav'' words, if a word end in long / α: /, it is normally masculine. If a word ends in / i: / or / in/, it is normally feminine. Similarly, the gender is also tried to be preserved for words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. The categorization of Hindi words directly borrowed from English (which are numerous) is very arbitrary—but could be influenced by the ending. Adjectives ending in long / α: / must get inflected to agree with the gender of the noun. ===Interrogatives=== Besides the standard interrogative terms of who (''kaun''), what (''kyaa''), why (''kyõ''), when (''kab''), where (''kahã''), how (''kaisé''), how many (''kitnaa''), what type (''kaisaa''), etc, the Hindi word kyaa (क्या) can be used as a generic interrogative often placed at the beginning of a sentence to turn a statement into a Yes/No question. This makes it clear when a question is being asked. Questions can also be formed simply by modifying intonation, exactly as some questions are in English. ===Pronouns=== Hindi has pronouns in the first, second and third person, '''all''' for one gender only. Thus, unlike English, there is no difference between '''he''' or '''she'''. More strictly speaking, the third person of the pronoun is actually the same as the demonstrative pronoun (this / that). The verb, upon conjugation, usually indicates the difference in the gender. The pronouns have additional cases of [[accusative]] and [[genitive]]. There may also be multiple ways of inflecting the pronoun, which are given in parentheses. Note that for the second person of the pronoun (''you''), Hindi has three levels of honorifics: *'''&amp;#2310;&amp;#2346;''' (/ α:p /): Formal and respectable form for ''you''. Has no difference between the singular and the plural. Used in all formal settings and speaking to persons who are senior in job or age. Plural could be stressed by saying &amp;#2310;&amp;#2346; &amp;#2354;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2327; (/ α:p log / ''you people'') or &amp;#2310;&amp;#2346; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2348; (/ α:p səb /) ''you all''). *'''&amp;#2340;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2350;''' (/ tum /): Informal form of ''you''. Has no difference between the singular and the plural. Used in all informal settings and speaking to persons who are junior in job or age. Plural could be stressed by saying &amp;#2340;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2350; &amp;#2354;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2327; (/ tum log / ''you people'') or &amp;#2340;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2350; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2348; (/ tum səb /) ''you all''). *'''&amp;#2340;&amp;#2370;''' (/ tu: /): Extremely informal form of ''you'', as ''thou''. Strictly singular, its plural form being / tum /. Except for very close friends or poetic language involving God, it could be perceived as offensive in India. Because imperatives can already include politeness, the word &quot;kripayā&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;please&quot;, is much less common than in spoken English; it is generally only used in writing or announcements, and its use in common speech is usually intended as mockery. Unlike English, Hindi has '''no''' definite article (''the''). The numeral ''ek'' might be used as the indefinite singular article (''a/an'') if this needs to be stressed. ===Word order=== The standard word order in Hindi is, in general, [[Subject Object Verb]], but where different emphasis or more complex structure is needed, this rule is very easily set aside (provided that the nouns/pronouns are always followed by their postpositions or case markers). More specifically, the standard order is 1. Subject 2. Adverbs (in their standard order) 3. Indirect object and any of its adjectives 4. Direct object and any of its adjectives 5. Negation term or interrogative, if any, and finally the 6. Verb and any auxiliary verbs. (Snell, p93) The standard order can be modified in various ways to impart emphasis on particular parts of the sentence. Negation is formed by adding the word &quot;nahiin&quot; (&quot;no&quot;), in the appropriate place in the sentence, or by utilizing the particle &quot;na&quot; in some cases. ===Common tenses and aspects of Hindi verbs=== Some of the most common verb [[Grammatical tense|tenses]] include the present imperfect, present continuous, past imperfect, past continuous, past perfect, and future. Present imperfect is used for habitual actions or states of being. The present continuous is used for ongoing actions, while the past continuous reflects actions that were occurring at a particular time. The past imperfect is used for past habitual actions or conditions, while the past perfect reflects completed actions and has three forms including simple past perfect and two forms akin to where English would use have or had &quot;done&quot;. Hindi also has imperative, sunjunctive and the conditional moods. Usually, the aspect, tense and the mood is shown by a variety of auxillaries. Note that the verbs must be properly conjugated not only to show the number of the noun / pronoun, but also its gender. ''See also:'' [[Grammatical aspect]]. &lt;!-- Did not cover subjunctive or conditional. I also didn’t distinguish anything about aspect because I don’t know much about it. Tenses are present, past, and future. Common aspects are continuous, progressive, imperfect or habitual, and perfective (for completed actions). Hindi makes use of the progressive, while English does not distinguish between progressive and continuous. I believe subjunctive is a mood.--&gt; ===Case=== Hindi is a poorly inflected language; the relationship of a noun in a sentence is usually shown by '''postpositions''' (i.e., prepositions that ''follow'' the noun). Hindi has three cases for nouns. The '''Direct case''' is used for nouns not followed by any postpositions, typically for the subject case. The '''[[Oblique case]]''' is used for any nouns that is followed by a postposition. Some nouns have a separate '''Vocative case'''. Hindi has two numbers: singular and plural—but they may not be shown distinctly in all declinations. ===Postpositions=== Hindi uses postpositions to show the relationship between the noun and the verb. Postpositions are those prepositions that follow the noun / pronoun rather than preceeding it. ==Literature== ''Main article: [[Hindi literature]]'' The beginnings of [[Hindi Literature|Hindi literature]] can be traced to the [[Prakrit]]s of classical [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit plays]]. [[Tulasidas]]'s [[Ramacharitamanasa]] attained wide popularity. Modern litterateurs include [[Jaishankar Prasad]], [[Sumitranandan Pant]], [[Maithili Sharan Gupta]], [[Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala']], [[Mahadevi Varma]], [[Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayana]] 'Ajneya' and [[Munshi Premchand]]. ==Hindi cinema== No mention of Hindi may be deemed complete without mentioning the Hindi films. The mighty Hindi film industry [[Bollywood]] is located at [[Mumbai]] (Bombay), in the Marathi-speaking state [[Maharashtra]] in India. The dialogues and the songs use the dialects of Khariboli of Hindi-Urdu, [[Awadhi]], [[Rajasthani]], [[Bhojpuri]], [[Punjabi]] and quite often [[Bambaiya Hindi]] (along with many English words). These Hindi movies are full of songs and dances—songs which are almost always upon the lips of any Indian (and often many Pakistanis, Afghans, Bangladeshis, Iranians, etc.), whether a native Hindi speaker or not. Most of the songs are in Urdu ''shaayari'' style. Some of the hit films include [[Mahal]] (1949), [[Shree 420]] (1955), [[Mother India]] (1957), [[Mughal-e-Azam]] (1960), [[Guide]] (1965), [[Pakeezah]] (1972), [[Bobby]] (1973), [[Zanjeer]] (1973), Yaadon ki Baraat (1973), [[Deewaar]] (1975), [[Sholay]] (1975), [[Mr. India]] (1987), [[Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak]] (1988), [[Maine Pyar Kiya]] (1989), Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikander (1991), [[Hum Aapke Hain Koun]] (1994), [[Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge]] (1995), [[Dil To Pagal Hai]] (1997), [[Kuch Kuch Hota Hai]] (1998), [[Taal]] (1999), [[Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai]] (2000), [[Lagaan]] (2001), [[Dil Chahta Hai]] (2001), [[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]] (2001), [[Devdas (2002 film)|Devdas]] (2002), [[Saathiya]] (2002), [[Munnabhai MBBS]] (2003), [[Kal Ho Naa Ho]] (2003), [[Dhoom]] (2004), [[Veer-Zaara]] (2004), [[Swades]] (2004), [[Salaam Namaste]] (2005), etc. ===History of Hindi Cinema=== The first Hindi film made in India -- ''Raja Harishchandra'' was released in year 1913. It was a silent film that depicted the story of king Harishchandra, who sacrificed his family and kingdom for the sake of truth. It was made by Dada Saheb Falke, regarded as the ''father of hindi cinema''. The film had an all-male cast. Initially hindi films were made on mythological topics and invariably had gods or goddesses as their protagonists. ''Alam Ara'' ushered the era of talking films or talkies in India in year 1931. The film had seven songs in it. Soon songs became an integral part of hindi cinema with some movies films having as many as 71 songs in them. ===Hindi television serials=== In addition to Bollywood cinema, the Hindi television serials are also worth a mention. They include soap operas, detective serials, horror shows, dramas, cartoons, comedies, host shows for Hindi songs, Hindu mythology, Persio-Arabic mythology and documentaries. In addition to the govenment's official TV channel ''Doordarshan'', several private channels have come up in the 1990's, e.g., Zee TV, Sony Entertainment Television, Sahara TV, Start Plus, as well as Hindi versions of Cartoon Network and Discovery Channel. One of the most popular soap operas is ''
outh Asia]]n version of the [[languages of India|Indian]] word ''dakaethee'' which comes from ''dakoo'' which means armed robber. * '''Dacoity''' ([[Hindi]]: डकैती, ḍakaitī ) means armed [[robbery]]. * '''Dacoit''' ([[Hindi]]: दकैत, ḍakait) means a [[bandit]]. The most infamous member of the '''Dacoit''' &quot;profession&quot; was probably India's [[Phoolan Devi]]. But the title of the most legendary dacoit is held by [[Daku Man Singh]] and [[Daku Nirbhay Gujjar]] who was killed recently. Between 1939 and 1955, he had notched up 1,112 dacoities, 185 murders, countless ransom kidnappings, was involved in 90 police encounters and he had 32 dead policemen under his belt. == See also == [[Thuggee]] {{india-stub}} [[fr:Dacoït]] [[sv:Dacoit]] [[Category:Illegal occupations]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Divine Comedy</title> <id>9122</id> <revision> <id>15907034</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Divine Comedy]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Davis, California</title> <id>9123</id> <revision> <id>40808452</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:43:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phoenix Hacker</username> <id>93845</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Toad tunnel}} '''Davis''' is a city located in [[Yolo County, California]]. As of the local census, the city had a total population of 64,821 (60,308 in 2000). Davis is well-known in the state of [[California]] as being a socially and environmentally conscious university town. == History == Davis grew around a [[Southern Pacific Railroad]] depot which was built in 1868. It was then known as &quot;Davisville&quot;, named for [[Jerome C. Davis]], a prominent local farmer. However, the post office at Davisville shortened the town name to simply &quot;Davis&quot; in 1907. The name stuck, and the city of Davis was incorporated in March 1917. From its inception as a farming community, Davis has been known for its contributions to agriculture along with veterinary care and [[animal husbandry]]. This has especially been true ever since the [[University of California]] decided to build a [[land grant]] university there in 1908. Now the city is also known for its contributions in the areas of [[biotechnology]], [[medicine]] and other [[life sciences]]. == Geography == [[Image:CAMap-doton-Davis.png|right|frame| Location of Davis in Yolo County, California, USA]]Davis is located at {{coor dms|38|33|14|N|121|44|17|W}} (38.553856, -121.738095){{GR|1}} in [[Yolo County, California]]. The city is 18 km (11 mi) west of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], 113 km (72 mi) northeast of [[San Francisco]], 619 km (385 mi) north of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], at the intersection of [[Interstate 80]] and [[California State Highway 113]]. Neighboring towns include [[Dixon, California|Dixon]], [[Winters, California|Winters]], and [[Woodland, California|Woodland]]. Davis lies in the [[Sacramento Valley]] portion of the [[Central Valley]] in [[Northern California]], at an elevation of about 16 [[metre | m]] (52 [[foot (unit of length) | ft]]) above [[sea level | MSL]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10.5 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 27.1 km&amp;sup2; (10.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.04 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.19% water. The [[topography]] of Davis is very flat, which has helped Davis to become known as a haven for [[bicycle | bicyclists]]. == Climate == The climate in Davis resembles that of nearby [[Sacramento, CA | Sacramento]]. Davis is, however, closer to [[San Francisco Bay]] and the [[Sacramento River Delta]], which moderates the more extreme temperatures found elsewhere in the [[Sacramento Valley]] and nearby [[San Joaquin Valley]]. Summers in Davis are dry and hot, while winters are rainy and mild. == Demographics == As of the [[United States 2000 Census]]{{GR|2}}, there are 60,308 people, 22,948 households, and 11,290 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 2,228.2/km&amp;sup2; (5,769.2/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 23,617 housing units at an average density of 872.6/km&amp;sup2; (2,259.3/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 70.07% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.35% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.67% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 17.54% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.24% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 4.26% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.87% from two or more races. 9.61% of the population are [[Hispanic American | Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 22,948 households out of which 26.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% are [[Marriage | married couples]] living together, 8.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.8% are non-families. 25.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.00. In the city the population is spread out with 18.6% under the age of 18, 30.9% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 16.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 25 years. For every 100 females there are 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.8 males. The median income for a household in the city is $42,454, and the median income for a family is $74,051. Males have a median income of $51,189 versus $36,082 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,937. 24.5% of the population and 5.4% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 6.8% of those under the age of 18 and 2.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Demographics are unusual, even among &quot;college towns&quot;. This city of approximately 65,000 people is home to a university campus of 31,000 students. ==Bicycling== Being flat, Davis is naturally a very good place for bicyclists. The town has taken advantage of that precursor, and when it expands, new bike paths are usually mandated by the city. As a result, Davis is covered in bike paths, and biking is one of the more common types of transportation, used especially by [[UC Davis]] students because of bicycling's relative inexpensiveness. Davis has been referred to as the &quot;Most bicycle friendly town in the world&quot;, as most of the bike paths are in good repair, and one can get just about anywhere without leaving bike paths or bike lanes in streets. == Sights and Events == ===Farmers Market=== Every Wednesday evening and Saturday morning, families and friends flock to the Central Park (on 4th and C street) in Davis to buy fresh produce, a healthy meal or baked goods at the '''Davis Farmers Market'''. Open rain or shine, this event allows the participation of independent farmers, non-profit organizations, craftsmens and local businesses represented in a communal atmosphere. The times for the year-round Saturday market are from 8:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m. while the Wednesday market changes times with the season. During the month of April to October runs the popular ''Picnic in the Park'' from 4:30-8:30 p.m. while during October through March the market is from 2:00-6:00 p.m. Available products include fruits and vegetables that are currently in season, baked goods, and dairy and meat products, often from certified organic farms. With such a wide variety of produce and foods, many people can do the majority of their shopping here. The available stands, shoppers and overall atmosphere greatly depend on each particular market. For example ''Picnic in the Park'' is geared towards family attendance during dinner time because of the presence of a band and multiple restaurants. Some of which include The Buckhorn, Katmandu and The Hotdogger. While during the fall and winter months this market becomes smaller in size and geared mainly towards weekly shoppers. The Saturday market includes some local restaurants along with a performing group, craft persons and various non-profit organizations. More information of times, directions or becoming a market member can be found at their local website: http://www.davisfarmersmarket.org. This website also includes a search for available products as well as a calendar filled with special events! === Toad Tunnel === [[Image:toadhotel.jpg|thumb|The Post Office is a great place to stay if you're a toad.]] Davis' '''[[Toad]] Tunnel''' has drawn much attention over the years including a mention on [[The Daily Show]]. Because of the building of an overpass, animal lovers worried about toads being killed by cars commuting from South Davis to North Davis, since the toads hopped from one side of a dirt lot (which the overpass replaced) to the reservoir at the other end. After much controversy, a decision was made to build a toad tunnel, which runs beneath the Pole Line Road overpass. The tunnel has created problems of its own. The toads originally refused to use the tunnel and so the tunnel was lighted to encourage its use. The toads then died from the heat of the lamps inside the tunnel. The exit to the toad tunnel has been decorated by the Post-Master to resemble a toad town. === Whole Earth Festival === The '''Whole Earth Festival''' [http://wef.ucdavis.edu (WEF)] is a three-day music and education festival in the Spring, which usually takes place during Mother's Day Weekend on UC Davis' main quadrangle. It is considered by many to be a must-see Davis event. Every year, thousands of environm
rveyed in 1997, two thirds said that they prefer to purchase farm raised coral instead of wild-collected coral, and over 80% think that only sustainably caught or captive bred fish should be allowed for trade. Since the 'fighting fish' ''[[Betta splendens]]'' was first successfully bred in France in 1893, captive spawning techniques have been slowly discovered. Captive breeding for the aquarium trade is now concentrated in South [[Florida]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], and Bangkok, with smaller industries in [[Hawaii]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Captive breeding programs of [[marine organisms]] for the aquarium trade have been urgently in development since the mid-1990s. Breeding programs for freshwater species are comparatively more advanced than for saltwater species. [[Aquaculture]] is the cultivation of aquatic organisms in a controlled environment. Supporters of aquaculture programs for supply to the aquarium trade claim that well-planned programs can bring benefits to the environment as well as the [[society]] around it. Aquaculture can help in lessening the impacts on wild stocks, either by using raised cultivated organisms directly for sale or by releasing them to replenish wild stock (Tlusty 203), although such a practice is associated with several environmental risks. ==Ecology== Ideal aquarium [[ecology]] reproduces the [[equilibrium]] found in nature in the closed system of an aquarium. In practice it is virtually impossible to maintain a perfect balance. As an example, a balanced [[predation|predator-prey relationship]] is nearly impossible to maintain in even the largest of aquaria. Typically an aquarium keeper must take steps to maintain equilibrium in the small ecosystem contained in his aquarium. Approximate equilibrium is facilitated by large volumes of water. Any event that perturbs the system pushes an aquarium away from equilibrium; the more water that is contained in a tank, the easier such a [[systemic shock]] is to absorb, as the effects of that event are diluted. For example, the death of the only fish in a three U.S. gallon tank (11 L) causes dramatic changes in the system, while the death of that same fish in a 100 U.S. gallon (400 L) tank with many other fish in it represents only a minor change in the balance of the tank. For this reason, hobbyists often favor larger tanks when possible, as they are more stable systems requiring less intensive attention to the maintenance of equilibrium. ===Nitrogen cycle=== [[Image:Aquarium Nitrogen Cycle.png|thumb|300px|The nitrogen cycle in an aquarium.]] Of primary concern to the aquarist is management of the biological [[waste]] produced by an aquarium's inhabitants. Fish, invertebrates, [[fungus|fungi]], and some bacteria excrete [[nitrogen]] waste in the form of [[ammonia]] (which may convert to [[ammonium]], depending on water chemistry) which must then pass through the [[nitrogen cycle]]. Ammonia is also produced through the [[decomposition]] of plant and animal matter, including [[feces|fecal]] matter and other [[detritus]]. Nitrogen waste products become [[toxic]] to fish and other aquarium inhabitants at high concentrations. A well-balanced tank contains organisms that are able to [[metabolism|metabolize]] the waste products of other aquarium residents. The nitrogen waste produced in a tank is metabolized in aquaria by a type of [[bacterium|bacteria]] known as [[nitrification|nitrifier]]s (genus Nitrosomonas). Nitrifying bacteria capture ammonia from the water and metabolize it to produce [[nitrite]]. Nitrite is also highly toxic to fish in high concentrations. Another type of bacteria, genus Nitrospira, converts nitrite into [[nitrate]], a less toxic substance to aquarium inhabitants. ([[Nitrobacter]] bacteria were previously believed to fill this role, and continue to be found in commercially available products sold as kits to &quot;jump start&quot; the nitrogen cycle in an aquarium. While biologically they could theoretically fill the same niche as Nitrospira, it has recently been found that Nitrobacter are not present in detectable levels in established aquaria, while Nitrospira are plentiful.) This process is known in the aquarium hobby as the nitrogen cycle. In addition to bacteria, aquatic plants also eliminate nitrogen waste by metabolizing ammonia and nitrate. When plants metabolize nitrogen compounds, they remove nitrogen from the water by using it to build [[biomass]]. However, this is only temporary, as the plants release nitrogen back into the water when older leaves die off and decompose. Although informally called the nitrogen cycle by hobbyists, it is in fact only a portion of a true cycle: nitrogen must be added to the system (usually through food provided to the tank inhabitants), and nitrates accumulate in the water at the end of the process (or contribute to a growth in biomass via plant metabolism). This accumulation of nitrates in home aquaria requires the aquarium keeper to remove water that is high in nitrates or remove plants which have grown from the nitrates. A balanced system, in which the fish eat the plants, is generally difficult to create. Aquaria kept by hobbyists often do not have the requisite populations of bacteria needed to detoxify nitrogen waste from tank inhabitants. This problem is most often addressed through two [[filtration]] solutions: [[Activated carbon]] filters absorb nitrogen compounds and other [[toxins]] from the water, while biological filters provide a medium specially designed for [[colony (biology)|colonization]] by the desired nitrifying bacteria. ====Cycling==== New aquaria also do not usually have the required populations of bacteria for the handling of nitrogen waste. In a process called ''cycling'', aquarists cultivate these bacteria as fish and other producers of nitrogen waste are gradually added to the tank over the course of several weeks. Aquarists use several different methods to jump start this process, including the use of water additives containing small populations of the bacteria, or &quot;seeding&quot; a new tank with a mature bacterial colony removed from another aquarium (such as can be found on gravel or biological filter media). Other cycling methods that have gained popularity in recent years are the ''fishless cycle'' and the ''silent cycle''. As the name of the former implies, no fish are kept in a tank undergoing a fishless cycle. Instead, small amounts of ammonia are added to the tank to feed the bacteria being cultured. During this process, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate levels are tested to monitor progress. The silent cycle is basically nothing more than densely stocking the aquarium with fast-growing aquatic plants and relying on them to consume the nitrogen products rather than bacteria. According to anecdotal reports of aquarists specializing in planted tanks, the plants can consume nitrogenous waste so efficiently that the spikes in ammonia and nitrite levels normally seen in more traditional cycling methods are greatly reduced, if they are detectable at all. Improperly cycled aquaria can quickly accumulate toxic concentrations of nitrogen waste and kill its inhabitants. ===Other nutrient cycles=== Nitrogen is not the only nutrient that cycles through an aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters the system at the surface water-air interface or through the actions of an air pump. Carbon dioxide escapes the system into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients also cycle through the system, entering as food and exiting as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with supplying an adequately balanced food supply and considered biological loading, is usually enough to keep these other nutrient cycles in approximate equilibrium. ===Biological loading=== Biological loading is a measure of the burden placed on the aquarium ecosystem by its living inhabitants. High biological loading in an aquarium represents a more complicated tank ecology, which in turn means that equilibrium is easier to perturb. In addition, there are several fundamental constraints on biological loading based on the size of an aquarium. The [[surface area]] of water exposed to air limits [[Oxygen saturation|dissolved oxygen]] intake by the tank. The capacity of nitrifying bacteria is limited by the physical space they have available to colonize. Physically, only a limited size and number of plants and animals can be fit into an aquarium while still providing room for movement. In order to prevent biological overloading of the system, aquarists have developed a number of [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]]. Perhaps the most popular of these is the &quot;one inch of fish per U.S. gallon&quot; rule, which dictates that the sum in inches of the lengths of all fish kept in an aquarium (excluding tail length) should not exceed the capacity of the tank measured in U.S. gallons (about 7 mm per liter of water). This rule is usually applied to the expected mature size of the fish, in order to not stunt growth by overcrowding, which can be unhealthy for the fish. For [[goldfish]] and other high-waste fish, some aquarists recommend doubling the space allowance to one inch of fish per every two gallons. The true maximum or ideal biological loading of a system is very difficult to calculate, even on a theoretical level. To do so, the variables for waste production rate, nitrification [[efficiency]], gas exchange rate at the water surface, and many others would need to be determined. In practice this is a very complicated and difficult task, and so most aquarists use rules of thumb combined with a [[trial and error]] approach to reach an appropriate level of biological loading. ==Public aquaria== [[Image:KelpAquariumMed.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A 335,000 U.S. gallon (1.3 million liter) aquarium at the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] in California displaying a simulated [[kelp forest]] ecosystem]] Public aquaria
to in the [[Western world|West]] as '''[[Persian Empire|Persia]]''', although Iranians since the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanian]] period have referred to their country as ''Iran'' which means ''Land of the [[Aryan#Iranian|Aryans]]'' &lt;ref&gt;http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/indoIranianBranch.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm&lt;/ref&gt;. On [[March 21]] [[1935]] [[Reza Pahlavi|Reza Shah Pahlavi]] issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the native term ''Iran'' in formal correspondence. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Iran/persia_or_iran.htm&lt;/ref&gt; [[Iran naming dispute|A dispute exists]] about the country's current official name. After Persian scholars protested, [[Mohammad Reza Shah]] in 1959 announced both ''Persia'' and ''Iran'' could be used interchangeably. The [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979 ultimately led to the establishment of a [[theocratic]] [[Islamic Republic]] and the country retained its name, while its political title was changed to the ''Islamic Republic of Iran''. ==History== {{main|History of Iran}} [[Image:Takht-jamshid.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The 2500 year old ruins of [[Persepolis]].]] Written history in Iran begins with the [[Proto-Elamite]]s around [[3000 BCE]], and continues with the arrival of the [[Aryans]] and the establishment of the [[Median dynasty]], followed by the [[Achaemenid]]s, who built the [[Persian Empire|world's first global empire]], under [[Cyrus the Great]] in [[546 BCE]]. The name '''Persia''' is derived from ''Persis'', the ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the empire, although [[Eratosthenes]] also mentions the name '''Iran.''' [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Persia in [[331 BCE]], soon only to be succeeded by the [[Parthia|Parthian]] and [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] dynasties, who followed the [[Achaemenid]]s as Persia's greatest pre-[[Islamic]] empires. The [[Middle Ages]] saw the unfolding of many critical events such as the [[Islamic Conquest of Iran]], the destruction of Iran under the [[Military advances of Genghis Khan|Mongol invasion]] beginning in 1220, the conquest of [[Tamerlane]], and the establishment of Iran's first [[Shi'a]] [[Islam|Islamic]] state under the [[Safavids|Safavid dynasty]] in 1501. From then on Persia increasingly became the arena for rival colonial powers such as [[Russia]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. With the arrival of [[modernization]] in the late [[19th century]], Iranians longed for a change and thus the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] of 1905/1911 followed. [[Image:Mahan asemoon.jpg|thumb|right|[[9th century|9th]]-[[11th century|11th]] century Persia was at the center of what came to be known as the [[Golden Age of Islam]].]] In 1953 Iran's [[prime minister]] Dr. [[Mohammed Mossadegh]], was removed from power in a plot orchestrated by British and [[United States|U.S.]] intelligence agencies to protect their oil interests (''dubbed &quot;[[Operation Ajax]]&quot;''). The operation was conducted following the Prime-Minister's [[nationalization]] of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]]. It reinstated the Iranian monarchy, handing power back to former Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]. Following Dr. Mosaddegh's fall, the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Shah]]'s rule became increasingly [[dictator]]ial, particularly in the late [[1970s]]. With strong support from the [[United States|USA]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the Shah further modernized Iranian industry but crushed [[civil liberties]]. His [[autocracy|autocratic]] rule led to the [[Iranian revolution]] in 1979. An [[Islamic republic]] was soon established under the [[Ayatollah Khomeini]]. The new [[theocracy|theocratic]] political system instituted some [[conservative]] Islamic [[reforms]] as well as introducing an unprecedented level of direct [[cleric]]al rule. It also engaged in an anti-Western course due to Western support of the Shah. In particular Iranian-American relations were severely strained after the [[Iran hostage crisis|Iranian seizure of U.S. embassy personnel in 1979]], Iran's subsequent attempts to export its revolution, and its support of anti-Western militant groups such as [[Hezbollah|Lebanese Hezbollah]]. In 1980 Iran was attacked by neighbouring [[Iraq]] and the destructive [[Iran-Iraq War]] continued until 1988. The struggle between the reformists and conservatives over the future of the country continues today through [[electoral]] politics and was a central Western focus in the 2005 elections where conservative candidate [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] triumphed. == Government and Politics == {{main|Politics of Iran}} Iran is a [[constitutional]] Islamic [[Republic]], whose political system is laid out in the 1979 [[constitution]] called ''Qanun-e Asasi'' (literally 'Basic Law'). Iran's makeup has several intricately connected governing bodies, some of which are [[democratic]]ally elected and some of which operate by co-opting people based on their religious inclinations. ====The Supreme Leader==== [[Image:Azadi1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Azadi Tower]] ''(&quot;Tower of Freedom&quot;)'']] The concept of ''[[velayat-e faqih]]'' (guardianship of the [[jurist]]) plays a crucial role in the governmental structure of Iran. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.kadivar.com/Htm/English/Papers/Velayat-e%20Faghih.htm&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Constitution, the [[Supreme Leader|Supreme Leader of Iran]] is responsible for the delineation and supervision of &quot;the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.&quot; In the absence of a single leader, a council of religious leaders is appointed. The Supreme Leader is ''commander-in-chief'' of the armed forces and controls the Islamic Republic's intelligence and security operations; he alone can declare war. He has the power to appoint and dismiss the leaders of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, and the supreme commander of the ''[[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps]].'' He also appoints six of the twelve members of the [[Council of Guardians]]. He, or the council of religious leaders, are elected by the ''Assembly of Experts'', on the basis of their qualifications and the high popular esteem in which they are held. &lt;ref&gt;http://countrystudies.us/iran/81.htm&lt;/ref&gt; The Supreme Leader is arguably an elected monarch (see [[elective monarchy]]), by the definition of that term. ====The President==== The [[President of Iran]] is responsible for implementing the Constitution and acting as the head of the executive, except in matters directly concerned with (the office of) the Leadership. According to the law, all presidential candidates must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]] prior to running, after which he is elected by [[universal suffrage]] to a four-year term by an absolute majority of votes. After his election, the president appoints and supervises the [[List of current Iranian officials|''Council of Ministers'' (the cabinet)]], coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the Parliament. Eight vice presidents serve under the president, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers. The Council of Ministers must be confirmed by Parliament. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. ====The Parliament (''The Majles'')==== [[Image:Jalaseh Majles.jpg|right|thumb|[[Majlis of Iran|Parliament]] of The Islamic Republic of Iran.]] The [[unicameral]] [[Majlis of Iran|Iranian parliament]], the Islamic Consultative Assembly or &quot;Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami&quot;, consists of 290 members elected to a four-year term. The members are elected by direct and [[secret ballot]]. It drafts [[legislation]], ratifies international [[treaties]], and approves the country's budget. All [[Member of Parliament|MP]] candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]]. ====The Assembly of Experts==== The [[Assembly of Experts]], which meets for one week every year, consists of eighty-six &quot;virtuous and learned&quot; [[Cleric|clerics]] elected by the public to eight-year terms. Like presidential and parliamentary elections, the [[Council of Guardians]] determines eligibility to run for a seat in this assembly. Members of the Assembly of Experts in turn elect the [[Supreme Leader]]. The assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions, although according to the Iranian constitution it has the authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. ====The Council of Guardians==== Twelve jurists comprise the [[Council of Guardians]], six of whom are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The head of the judiciary recommends the remaining six, which are officially appointed by [[Majles|Parliament]]. The Council of Guardians is vested with the authority to interpret the constitution and determines if the laws passed by Parliament are in line with ''[[sharia]]'' (Islamic law). Hence the council can exercise [[veto power]] over Parliament. If a law passed by Parliament is deemed incompatible with the ''constitution'' or ''sharia'', it is referred back to Parliament for revision. ====The Expediency Council==== The [[Expediency Discernment Council|Expediency Council]] has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country. ====The Judiciary==== {{main|Judicial system of Iran}} The head of the Judiciary is appointed by the Supreme Leader, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. Public courts deal with civil and criminal cases. &quot;Revolutionary&quot; courts try certain categories of offenses, including crimes against [[national security]]. Decisions rend
[1676]] - [[Michiel de Ruyter]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1607]]) *[[1688]] - [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg]] (b. [[1620]]) *[[1698]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis]], First Lord of the British Admiralty (b. [[1655]]) *[[1707]] - [[George Farquhar]], Irish dramatist (b. [[1678]]) *[[1743]] - [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre]], French writer (b. [[1658]]) *[[1768]] - [[Georg Brandt]], Swedish chemist and minerologist (b. [[1694]]) *[[1776]] - [[Edward Wortley Montagu]], English traveler and writer (b. [[1713]]) *[[1793]] - [[Yechezkel Landau]], Polish rabbi and Talmudist (b. [[1713]]) *1793 - [[John Michell]], English scientist (b. [[1724]]) *[[1798]] - [[Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus]], German entomologist (b. [[1723]]) *[[1854]] - [[Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey]], English general (b. [[1768]]) *[[1933]] - [[Constantine P. Cavafy]], Greek poet (b. [[1863]]) *[[1937]] - [[William Gillette]], American actor (b. [[1853]]) *[[1944]] - [[Bernardino Machado]], [[President of Portugal]] (b. [[1851]]) *[[1951]] - [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], Austrian-born philosopher (b. [[1889]]) *[[1966]] - [[William Eccles]], English physicist and radio pioneer (b. [[1875]]) *[[1980]] - [[Alfred Hitchcock]], English film director (b. [[1899]]) *[[1988]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (b. [[1926]]) *[[1993]] - [[Mick Ronson]], British musician (b. [[1946]]) *[[1997]] - [[Mike Royko]], American columnist (b. [[1932]]) *[[2005]] - [[William J. Bell]], television writer and producer (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[feast days]]: **[[Saint Catherine of Siena]] **[[Saint Robert]] **[[Wilfred the Younger]] **[[Peter of Verona]] **[[Hugh of Cluny]] *[[International Dance Day]] *[[Japan]] (public holiday since 1927, traditionally the start of the [[Golden Week]] holiday period.) **[[The Emperor's Birthday]] (1927-1988. Holiday of [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Hirohito]]'s birthday until his death in [[1989]]) **[[Greenery Day]] (1989-2006) **[[Shōwa Day]] (2007- . Day of [[Showa_period]], which is reigned by Empelor Hirohito) *[[Roman Empire]] - second day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Chloris|Flora]] *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - The ninth day of the Festival of [[Ridván]] ==Other== &quot;April 29th 1992 (Miami)&quot; is the title of a song by [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] on their [[Sublime (album)|self-titled album]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/29 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/29 Today in History: April 29] ---- [[April 28]] - [[April 30]] - [[March 29]] - [[May 29]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 29]] [[nap:29 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 29]] [[pam:Abril 29]] [[af:29 April]] [[ar:29 أبريل]] [[an:29 d'abril]] [[ast:29 d'abril]] [[bg:29 април]] [[be:29 красавіка]] [[bs:29. april]] [[ca:29 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 29]] [[co:29 d'aprile]] [[cs:29. duben]] [[cy:29 Ebrill]] [[da:29. april]] [[de:29. April]] [[et:29. aprill]] [[el:29 Απριλίου]] [[es:29 de abril]] [[eo:29-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 29]] [[fo:29. apríl]] [[fr:29 avril]] [[fy:29 april]] [[ga:29 Aibreán]] [[gl:29 de abril]] [[ko:4월 29일]] [[hr:29. travnja]] [[io:29 di aprilo]] [[id:29 April]] [[ia:29 de april]] [[ie:29 april]] [[is:29. apríl]] [[it:29 aprile]] [[he:29 באפריל]] [[jv:29 April]] [[ka:29 აპრილი]] [[csb:29 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:29'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 29]] [[lb:29. Abrëll]] [[li:29 april]] [[hu:Április 29]] [[mk:29 април]] [[ms:29 April]] [[nl:29 april]] [[ja:4月29日]] [[no:29. april]] [[nn:29. april]] [[oc:29 d'abril]] [[pl:29 kwietnia]] [[pt:29 de Abril]] [[ro:29 aprilie]] [[ru:29 апреля]] [[sco:29 Aprile]] [[sq:29 Prill]] [[scn:29 di aprili]] [[simple:April 29]] [[sk:29. apríl]] [[sl:29. april]] [[sr:29. април]] [[fi:29. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:29 april]] [[tl:Abril 29]] [[tt:29. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 29]] [[th:29 เมษายน]] [[vi:29 tháng 4]] [[tr:29 Nisan]] [[uk:29 квітня]] [[ur:29 اپریل]] [[wa:29 d' avri]] [[zh:4月29日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>August 14</title> <id>1417</id> <revision> <id>41966608</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:57:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.138.229.246</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=14}} |} '''[[August 14]]''' is the 226th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (227th in [[leap year]]s), with 139 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1040]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] is killed in battle against his cousin and successor [[Macbeth of Scotland|Macbeth]]. *[[1183]] - [[Taira no Munemori]] and the [[Taira]] clan take the young [[Emperor Antoku]] and the [[Imperial Regalia of Japan|three sacred treasures]] and flee to western Japan to escape pursuit by the [[Minamoto]] clan. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: Twenty-fifth Day of the Seventh Month of the Second Year of Juei). *[[1385]] - [[1383-1385 Crisis]]: [[Castilia]]ns are defeated by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] at the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]]. *[[1598]] - [[Ireland|Irish]] under [[Hugh O'Neill]], Earl of [[Tyrone]], destroy [[England|English]] force at the [[Battle of the Yellow Ford]]. *[[1842]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Seminole Wars|Second Seminole War]] ends, with the [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminoles]] forced from [[Florida]] to [[Oklahoma]]. *[[1846]] - The Cape &amp;#65279;Girardeau meteorite, a 2.3 [[kilogram|kg]] chondrite-type [[meteorite]] strikes near the town of [[Cape Girardeau, Missouri|Cape Girardeau]] in [[Cape Girardeau County, Missouri]]. *[[1848]] - [[Oregon Territory]] organized by Act of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]. *[[1880]] - [[Cologne Cathedral]], the most famous landmark in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]], completed. *[[1885]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[patent]] is issued to the inventor of a rust-proof paint. *[[1893]] - France introduces motor vehicle registration. *[[1900]] - A joint [[Europe]]an-[[Japan|Japanese]]-[[United States]] force occupies [[Beijing]], in campaign to end the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in [[China]]. *[[1901]] - The first claimed [[aviation|powered flight]], by [[Gustave Whitehead]] in his [[Number 21 (plane)|Number 21]]. *[[1908]] - First [[beauty contest]] held in [[Folkestone]], England *[[1911]] - [[United States Senate]] leaders [[Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate, 1911-1913|agree to rotate the office]] of [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|Presdent pro tempore of the Senate]] among leading candidates to fill the vacancy left by [[William P. Frye]]'s death. *[[1912]] - [[United States]] [[U.S. Marines|Marines]] invade [[Nicaragua]] to support the U.S.-backed government installed there after [[José Santos Zelaya]] resigned three years earlier. *[[1921]] - [[Tannu Tuva]],later [[Tuvinian People's Republic]] is established as a completely independent country (which is supported by Russia). *[[1933]] - Loggers cause a [[forest fire]] in the [[Coast Range]] of [[Oregon]], later known as the first forest fire of the [[Tillamook Burn]]. It is extinguished on September 5, after destroying [[1 E8 m²|240,000 acres (970 km&amp;sup2;)]]. *[[1936]] - [[Rainey Bethea]] is hanged in [[Owensboro, Kentucky]] in the last public [[capital punishment in the United States|execution in the United States]]. *[[1935]] - [[United States]] [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] Act passes, creating a government pension system for the retired. *[[1941]] - [[World War II]] - [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sign the [[Atlantic Charter]] of war stating postwar aims. *[[1945]] - [[Japan]] accepts the Allied [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|terms of surrender]] in [[World War II]] and the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] records the [[Gyokuon-hoso|Imperial Rescript on Surrender]] ([[August 15]] in [[Japan standard time]]). *[[1947]] - [[Pakistan]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1967]] - [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Marine Broadcasting Offences Act]] declares participation in offshore [[pirate radio]] illegal. *[[1969]] - [[United Kingdom]] troops deploy in [[Northern Ireland]]. *[[1971]] - [[Bahrain]] declares its independence from [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1972]] - An [[East Germany|East German]] [[Ilyushin Il-62]] crashes during takeoff from [[East Berlin]], killing 156. *[[1976]] - The [[Senegal]]ese [[political party]] ''[[African Independence Party-Renewal|PAI-Rénovation]]'' is legally recognized. PAI-Rénovation thus becomes the third legal party in the country. *[[1980]] - [[Lech Wałęsa]] leads strikes at [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]] shipyards. *[[1994]] - [[Ilich Ramírez Sánchez]], the [[terrorism|terrorist]] known as &quot;Carlos the Jackal&quot;, is captured. *[[2003]] - [[2003 North America blackout|Widescale power blackout]] in the northeast [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. *[[2004]] - [[Sales tax]] holiday in [[Massachusetts]]. All sales taxes are suspended on purchases of $2500 or less. *[[2005]] - [[Helios Airways Flight 522]] crashes north of Athens, killing the 121 on board. ==Births== *[[1297]] - [[Emperor Hanazono]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1348]]) *[[1473]] - [[Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury]], daughter of [[George, Duke of Clarence]] (d. [[1541]]) *[[1575]] - [[Robert Hayman]], English-born poet (d. [[1629]]) *[[1586]] - [[William Hutchinson]], Rhode Island colonist (d. [[1642]]) *[[1599]] - [[Méric Casaubon]], English classical scholar (d. [[1671]]) *[[1625]] - [[François de Harlay de Champvallon]], Archbishop of Paris (d. [[1695]]) *[[1642]] - [[Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (d. [[1723]]) *[[1653]] - [[Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle]], English statesman (d. [[1688]]) *[[1688]] - [[Frederick William I of Prussia]] (d. [[1740]]) *[[1714]] - [[Claude Joseph Vernet]], French painter (d. [[1789]]) *[[1740]] - [[Pope Pius VII]] (d. [[1823]]) *[
* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] A collection of map projections and reference systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen * [http://www.links4maps.com Links for maps] Directory for maps and cartography links == References == * {{cite book | author=Monmonier, Mark | title=How to Lie with Maps | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0226534219}} * {{cite book | author=Pickles, John | title=A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World | publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis, Inc. | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0415144973}} * {{cite book | author=Wilford, John Noble | title=The Mapmakers | publisher=Vintage Books | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0375708502}} [[Category:Cartography| ]] [[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]] [[ar:علم الخرائط]] [[bg:Картография]] [[ca:Cartografia]] [[cy:Cartograffeg]] [[de:Kartografie]] [[el:Χαρτογραφία]] [[eo:Kartografio]] [[es:Cartografía]] [[fr:Cartographie]] [[gl:Cartografía]] [[hu:Térképészet]] [[ia:Cartographia]] [[id:Kartografi]] [[it:Cartografia]] [[ja:地図学]] [[nl:Cartografie]] [[no:Kartografi]] [[pl:Kartografia]] [[pt:Cartografia]] [[ru:Картография]] [[simple:Cartography]] [[sl:Kartografija]] [[sv:Kartografi]] [[tr:Kartografi]] [[uk:Картографія]] [[vi:Bản đồ học]] [[zh:地图学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Consumption</title> <id>7295</id> <revision> <id>42121913</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:37:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Catquas</username> <id>899948</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergewith|consumption (economics)}} :''&quot;Consumption&quot; is also an archaic name for the disease [[tuberculosis]].'' '''Consumption''' is the using up of a [[resource]]. Discussions of human consumption of resources plays an important role in both [[economics]] and [[environmentalism]]. In [[Keynesian]] economics, &quot;consumption&quot; is short-hand for '''[[consumption (economics)| personal consumption expenditure]]''' and is determined by the [[consumption function]], especially by the [[marginal propensity to consume]]. It is part of [[aggregate demand]] or [[effective demand]]. Consumption can also be defined as &quot;the selection, adoption, use, disposal and recycling of goods and services&quot;, as opposed to their design, production and marketing. Studies of consumption investigate how and why society and individuals consume goods and services, and how this affects society and human relationships. Contemporary studies focus on meanings, role of consumption in indentity making, and the 'consumer' society. Traditionally, consumption was seen as rather unimportant compared to production, and the political and economic issues surrounding it. With the development of a consumer society, increasing consumer power in the market place, the growth in marketing, advertising, sophisticated consumers, ethical consumption etc, it is recognised as central to modern life. [[Sociology]] of consumption has moved well beyond [[Thorstein Veblen|Veblen]]'s early work on [[conspicuous consumption|'conspicuous']] consumption. Current theories investigate the role of economic and cultural factors in constraining consumption, as development of an approach that sees consumers as 'victims' of producers and their social situation. A counter theory highlights the subversive aspects of consumption, with consumers buying and using goods, places etc in ways unintended by the producers. Examples include city squares turned to skateboard parks, and music sharing on the internet. Studies of consumption come from a variety of backgrounds. Consumer studies attempt to help marketing. User research aims to improve product design. [[Feminist]] studies highlights the importance of women as consumers, and particularly the role of the domestic arena in consumption. [[Media studies]] try to understand the consumption of media products such as television and video games. [[Critical Theory]] is an important influence on contemporary studies, as consumption is central to contemporary culture. Studying consumption can be done through traditional survey methods, or various [[ethnographic]] techniques. Consumption studies are difficult because they involve investigating everyday life situations, rather than formalised settings such as the workplace. Well known studies of consumption include those by Pierre [[Bourdieu]] and Daniel Miller. Favourite topics include studies of food, new technologies, fashion items, and television. ==See also== * [[Consumerism]] * [[List of things which are neither production nor consumption]] * [[Over-consumption]] * [[Net creativity]] * [[Consumption (economics)]] ==External links== * [http://www.chrisjordan.com/ Intolerable Beauty - Portraits of American Mass Consumption] (Chris Jordan Photography), artistic photos of mass consumerism [[Category:Economics]] [[da:Forbrug]] [[de:Verbrauch]] [[fr:Consommation]] [[hu:Fogyasztás]] [[io:Konsumo]] [[it:Consumo]] [[ka:მოხმარება]] [[nl:Consumptie]] [[fi:Kulutus]] [[sv:Konsumtion]] [[tl:Pagkonsumo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cardiac glycoside</title> <id>7296</id> <revision> <id>36908545</id> <timestamp>2006-01-27T06:22:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DHN-bot</username> <id>575307</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cardiac glycosides''' are [[medication|drugs]] used in the treatment of [[congestive heart failure]] and cardiac [[arrhythmia]]. These [[glycoside]]s are found as [[secondary metabolite]]s in several [[plant]]s, but also in some animals. Some of these compounds (ouabain and some frog poisons) are used in Africa as arrow-poisons for hunting. Cardiac glycosides work by inhibiting the [[NaKATPase|Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;/K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; pump]]. This inhibition increases the amount of [[Calcium|Ca]]&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt; [[ion]]s available for contraction of the heart [[muscle]], improves cardiac output and reduces distention of the heart. They have an [[antiarrhythmic]] effect by prolonging the refractory period of the AV node ([[Atrioventricular node]]), reducing the number of impulses reaching the [[ventricle]]s. Cardiac output is restored but [[atrial fibrillation]] or atrial flutter are not abolished. Examples of plants producing cardiac glycosides: * ''[[Strophanthus]]'' - [[ouabain]] g/k/e-strophanthin * ''[[Digitalis]] lanata'' and ''Digitalis purpurea'' - [[digoxin]], [[digitoxin]] * ''[[Scilla]] maritima'' - proscillaridine A * ''Adonis vernalis, Adonis aestivalis'' * ''Ammi visnaga'' * ''Crataegus'' (vitexin, rutin) * ''Acokanthera oblongifolia'' * ''Convallaria'' Some frog-poison contain bufalin, marinobufagenin and bufadienolides, cardiac glycosides. {{biochem-stub}} [[Category:Cardiac glycosides| ]] [[Category:Glycosides]] [[de:Herzglykosid]] [[fr:Glycoside cardiotonique]] [[pt:Cardioglicosideo]] [[vi:Glycoside tim]] [[zh:强心甙类]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ca plus plus antagonist</title> <id>7297</id> <revision> <id>15905372</id> <timestamp>2004-06-19T15:50:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ksheka</username> <id>40019</id> </contributor> <comment>It's a (somewhat) better article. Also, no one calls them &quot;ca plus plus antagonists&quot;. :-)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Calcium channel blocker]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyclic AMP</title> <id>7298</id> <revision> <id>15905373</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Colonialism</title> <id>7299</id> <revision> <id>40966886</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:12:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jaxl</username> <id>309415</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/172.192.141.183|172.192.141.183]] ([[User talk:172.192.141.183|talk]]) to last version by 199.172.241.191</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colonization 1945.png|thumb|right|300px|World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War in 1945.]] '''Colonialism''' is the extension of a nation's sovereignty over territory and people outside its own boundaries, often to facilitate economic domination over their resources, labor, and markets. The term also refers to a set of beliefs used to legitimize or promote this system, especially the belief that the [[mores]] of the colonizer are superior to those of the colonized. Advocates of colonialism argue that colonial rule benefits the colonized by developing the economic and political infrastructure necessary for modernization and [[democracy]]. They point to such former colonies as the [[United States of America]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]] as examples of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] success. These nations do not, however, represent the normal course of colonialism in that they are either [[settler]] societies, or [[Trading post|tradepost cities]]. Colonialism is historically a natural phase in the development of nations. Most nation states have gone through a phase of expansion. The large-scale European colonialism of the nineteenth century was encouraged by the industrial revolution and inter-state rivalry. It was however in essence no different from the colonial expansion of the [[Roman]] and [[Islamic conquests|Islamic]] [[empire]]s in the ancient world, [[Russia]] durin
Sweden]] (yyyy-mm-dd or yyyy.mm.dd) * [[Taiwan]] It is often used in scientific, technical or international communication. ====yyyy-mmm-dd==== *[[Canada]] (as in 2006-JAN-01) ====m/d/y (month, day, year) is used by:==== * [[Canada]] (Although most official documents use the y-m-d format, the m/d/y format is also understood due to influences from the United States. However, m/d/y is not an official format in Canadian English and its use should be avoided where possible.) * [[United States]] (Although [[Independence Day (United States)|Independence Day]] is often referred to as &quot;the Fourth of July.&quot;) ===Day and year only=== The U.S. military sometimes uses a system that indicates the year and day, but not the month. For example, &quot;[[10 December]] [[1999]]&quot; can be written in some contexts as &quot;9345&quot;, for the 345th day of 1999. This system is most often used on forms. :''See also'': [[calendar]], [[time]], [[date-time group]], [[Japanese calendar]], [[Wikibooks:English:Time]] ===Week number used=== Companies in Europe often use year, week number and day, for planning purposes. Since week is a fundamental unit for working life, it makes sense. An event in a project can happen for example w43, w0543 or w543 (week 43 year 2005) or even w43-1 (Monday week 43 year 2005). One problem is that week numbering have different standards, for example [[ISO 8601]], not used by the [[USA]]. ==External links== * [[IETF]]:[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3339.txt RFC 3339], [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime W3C Date and Time Formats], [[Internet date/time format]]. * [http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/formats.htm The ISO 8601 Date Format] * [http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/date English Dates] - explanations, exercises and date generator (written and spoken dates) * [http://www.timeanddate.com/date/dateadd.html Date calculator, add or subtract days to or from a given date] * [http://www.hermetic.ch/edc/edc.htm Easy Date Converter] Windows software for conversion of Gregorian, Julian and ordinal dates and for calculations with them [[Category:Calendars]] [[de:Datumsformat]] [[eo:Dato]] [[es:fecha]] [[fr:Date]] [[sv:Datum]] [[pl:data]] [[sl:datum]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cist</title> <id>7124</id> <revision> <id>38798109</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T18:57:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CarolGray</username> <id>239028</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cist''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[k&amp;#618;st]}}) is a small stone-built coffin-like box used to hold the [[corpse|bodies of the dead]] (notably during the [[Bronze Age]] in [[Britain]] and occasionally in [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] burials). The sides are usually built of single slabs. A cist may have been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a [[cairn]] or long [[tumulus|barrow]]. It would not be uncommon to find several cists close together within the same cairn or barrow. Occasionally, ornaments have been found within a cist under excavation, which could indicate the wealth of the interred individual. A cist is also a mediterranean flower, see [[rockrose]]. =See also== *[[kistvaen]] [[Category:Death customs]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Center (group theory)</title> <id>7125</id> <revision> <id>27693138</id> <timestamp>2005-11-08T05:21:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LeonardoRob0t</username> <id>389639</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], the '''center''' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is the set ''Z''(''G'') of all elements in ''G'' which [[Commutative|commute]] with all the elements of ''G''. Specifically, :''Z''(''G'') = {''z'' &amp;isin; ''G'' | ''gz'' = ''zg'' for all ''g'' &amp;isin; ''G''} Note that ''Z''(''G'') is a [[subgroup]] of ''G'' &amp;mdash; if ''x'' and ''y'' are in ''Z''(''G''), then for each ''g'' in ''G'', ''(xy)g'' = ''x(yg)'' = ''x(gy)'' = ''(xg)y'' = ''(gx)y'' = ''g(xy)'' so ''xy'' is in ''Z''(''G'') as well. A similar argument applies to inverses. Moreover, ''Z''(''G'') is an [[abelian group|abelian subgroup]] of ''G'', a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'', and even a strictly [[characteristic subgroup]] of ''G'', but not always fully characteristic. The center of ''G'' is all of ''G'' [[iff]] ''G'' is an abelian group. At the other extreme, a group is said to be '''centerless''' if ''Z''(''G'') is trivial. Consider the map ''f'': ''G'' &amp;rarr; Aut(''G'') to the [[automorphism group]] of ''G'' defined by ''f''(''g'')(''h'') = ''ghg''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. The [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of this map is the center of ''G'' and the image is called the [[inner automorphism group]] of ''G'', denoted Inn(''G''). By the [[first isomorphism theorem]] ''G''/''Z''(''G'') &lt;math&gt;\cong&lt;/math&gt; Inn(''G''). Example: The center of the [[orthogonal group]] O(''n'' ) is { ''I'', &amp;minus;''I'' }. ==See also== *[[center (algebra)]] *[[centralizer and normalizer]] *[[conjugacy class]]. [[Category:Group theory]] [[de:Zentrum (Gruppentheorie)]] [[fr:Centre d'un groupe]] [[it:Centro di un gruppo]] [[hu:Centrum (algebra)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cut-and-cover</title> <id>7127</id> <revision> <id>15905207</id> <timestamp>2004-06-21T09:02:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mennonot</username> <id>73999</id> </contributor> <comment>changed redirection to point at the section of the &quot;tunnel&quot; article that mentions cut-and-cover construction technique</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tunnel#Construction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Collective nouns</title> <id>7128</id> <revision> <id>15905208</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Collective noun]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Commonwealth of England</title> <id>7129</id> <revision> <id>41341545</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:41:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Philip Baird Shearer</username> <id>26801</id> </contributor> <comment>/* The dissolution of the Rump */ dismissal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=200 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Commonwealth of England'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot; | width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Commonwealth-Flag-1649.png|125px|Flag of the Commonwealth]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Cromwell8.png|100px]] |- | width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Commonwealth Jack|Commonwealth Flag]] || style=&quot;text-align:center; width:130px;&quot; | [[Commonwealth Coat of Arms]] |} |- | align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto|Motto]]: PAX, QUÆRITUR, BELLO &lt;br&gt;([[English language|English]]: Peace is obtained by war)''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt; |- | '''[[Capital]]''' || [[London]] |- | '''Head of State''' || none |- | '''Parliament''' || [[Rump Parliament]] (1649-53), [[Barebones Parliament]] (1653) |} '''The Commonwealth''' was the [[republic]]an government which ruled first [[England]] and then the whole of [[Ireland]], the colonies and other Crown possessions during the periods from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660. After the beheading of the monarch [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] on [[January 30]] 1649, its existence was initially declared (&quot;[[Wikisource:An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth|An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth]]&quot;) by the [[Rump Parliament]] on [[19 May]] that year. The government during 1653 to 1659 is properly called [[The Protectorate]], and took the form of direct personal rule by [[Oliver Cromwell]] and, after his death, his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]], as [[Lord Protector]]. The term &quot;The Commonwealth&quot; is, however, loosely used to describe the system of government during the whole of 1649 to 1660, the years of the [[English Interregnum]]. == Radicals vs. Conservatives == Parliament had, to a large degree, encouraged the radical political groups which emerged when the usual social controls broke down during the [[English Civil War]]. It had also unwittingly established a new political force when it set up the [[New Model Army]]. Not surprisingly, all these groups had their own hopes for the new Commonwealth. === Levellers === Led by [[John Lilburne]], [[Levellers]] drew their main support from London and the Army. In the [[Agreement of the People]], 1649, they asked for: a more representative and accountable parliament, to meet every two years; a reform of law so it would be available to, and fair to all; and religious toleration. Though they wanted a more [[Democracy|democratic]] society, their proposed franchise did not extend to women or to the lowest orders of society. Levellers saw the Rump as little better than the monarchy it had replaced, and they showed their displeasure in demonstrations, pamphlets and mutinies. While their numbers did not pose a serious threat to the government, they scared the Rump into action and the [[Treasons Act 1649|Treasons Act]] was passed against them in 1649. === Diggers === Led by [[Gerrard Winstanley]], [[Diggers (True Levellers)
eterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for Veterans of Iran. Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers immediately, according to official reports. Of the 90,000 survivors, some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions. Many others were hit by mustard gas. Furthermore, 308 Iraqi missiles were launched at population centers inside Iranian cities between 1980 and 1988 resulting in 12,931 casualties.{{ref|1}} There is great resentment in Iran that the international community helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal and armed forces, and also that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of chemical weapons against Iran throughout the war &amp;mdash; particularly since the US and other western powers later felt obliged to oppose the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and eventually invade Iraq itself to remove Hussein. Also see [[Halabja poison gas attack|The Chemical Attack on Halabja]]. Further reading on surviving veterans of these weapons: *[http://www.sc-ems.com/ems/NuclearBiologicalChemical/MedicalAspectsofNBC/chapters/chapter_7.htm A report on Iranian victims of Iraqi blister agents], ''Medical Management of Chemical Casualties'' * [http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?/specialprojects/mideaststories/me1209.html The New Jersey Star Ledger, report] * [http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=39470 The South Africa Star, report] * [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm The NY Times report] * [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3068535/site/newsweek/ MSNBC report] * [http://www.netiran.com/?fn=artd(1585) Report: Iranian WMD Veterans sue Germany] * [http://www.payvand.com/news/00/nov/1108.html Vets suing the U.S.] * [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1742878 NPR report on Iranian WMD veterans] (audio) * [http://www.chronicillnet.org/PGWS/tuite/IRMED/IRANTOC.htm Medical reports] {{note|1}} Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. ==Human Wave Attacks in the Iran-Iraq War== Many people claim that the Iran-Iraq conflict spawned a particularly gruesome variant of the &quot;human wave&quot; attack. The Iranian clergy, with no professional military training, were slow to adopt and apply professional military doctrine. The country at that time lacked sufficient equipment to breach Iraqi minefields and were not willing to risk their small tank force. Therefore, [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps|Pasdaran]] forces and [[Basij]] volunteers were often used to sweep over minefields and entrenched positions developed by the more professional Iraqi military. Allegedly, unarmed human wave tactics involving children as young as 9 were employed. One unnamed East European journalist claims to have seen &quot;tens of thousands of children, roped together in groups of about 20 to prevent the faint-hearted from deserting, make such an attack.&quot;[http://countrystudies.us/iraq/104.htm] There has been a suggestion that girls were more commonly used for frontline mine clearance, and boys for unarmed &quot;assaults.&quot; Reliable firsthand accounts of the use of children in human wave attacks are rare, however. The most serious contemporary firsthand account recently surfaced at the end of an article[http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20041104.html] by the technology journalist [[Robert X. Cringely]], who relates the experience of a trip to the front for an unconnected ''[[Penthouse magazine|Penthouse]]'' magazine assignment. In recent years, however, Cringely's credibility has been questioned, after the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' and [[Stanford University]] revealed in 1998 that Cringely falsely claimed to hold a Ph.D. from Stanford University. Cringely also falsely claimed to be a former Stanford professor. ''[http://daily.stanford.org/Daily98-99/11-11-1998/news/tempo?page=content&amp;id=4462&amp;repository=0001_article (The Stanford Daily, [[11 November]] [[1998]])]'' ==Aftermath== &lt;!--Image of unknown copyright status removed. [[Image:Iraqibaghdadi.jpg|frame|The [[Hands of Victory]] triumphal arch in Baghdad has 5000 helmets of killed Iranian soldiers piled at the base of the swords, and alludes to the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] where the [[Persian empire]] fell to invading Arab forces.]]--&gt; The war was disastrous for both countries, stalling economic development and disrupting oil exports. It cost Iran an estimated 1.5 million casualties (1, p. 206), and $350 billion (1, p. 1). [[Iraq]] was left with serious debts to its former [[Arab]] backers, including US$14 billion loaned by [[Kuwait]], a debt which contributed to [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām's]] [[1990]] decision to [[Persian Gulf War|invade]]. Much of both sides' oil industry was damaged in [[air raid]]s. The war left the [[border]]s unchanged. Two years later, as war with the western powers loomed, Saddām recognized Iranian rights over the eastern half of the [[Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-`Arab]], a reversion to the status quo ante bellum that he had repudiated a decade earlier. The war was extremely costly, one of the deadliest wars since the [[Second World War]]. (Conflicts since [[1945]] which have surpassed the Iran-Iraq War in terms of casualties include the [[Vietnam War]], [[Korean War]], the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], and the [[Second Congo War|war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]). Many of the prisoners taken by both sides weren't released until up to 10 years after the conflict was over. ==Final ruling== [[Image:Shohada hoveizeh.JPG|thumb|right|An Iranian mother mourns the loss of her son in a war cemetery in [[Hoveizeh]].]] On [[9 December]] [[1991]], the UN Secretary-General reported the following to the UN Security Council: &lt;blockquote&gt; &lt;p&gt;That Iraq's explanations do not appear sufficient or acceptable to the international community is a fact. Accordingly, the outstanding event under the violations referred to is the attack of [[22 September]] [[1980]], against Iran, which cannot be justified under the charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules and principles of international law or any principles of international morality and entails the responsibility for the conflict. &lt;p&gt;Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not justify Iraq's aggression against Iran&amp;mdash;which was followed by Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict&amp;mdash;in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens. &lt;p&gt;On one occasion I had to note with deep regret the experts' conclusion that &quot;chemical weapons ha[d] been used against Iranian civilians in an area adjacent to an urban centre lacking any protection against that kind of attack&quot; (s/20134, annex). The Council expressed its dismay on the matter and its condemnation in resolution 620 (1988), adopted on [[26 August]] [[1988]]. &lt;/blockquote&gt; ==List of successful Iranian operations during the war== #[[27 September]] [[1981]]: ''Operation Thamen-ol-A'emeh''. #[[29 November]] [[1981]]: ''Operation Tarigh ol-Qods''. #[[21 March]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Fath-ol-Mobeen''. #[[30 April]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Beit-ol-Moqaddas''. #[[14 July]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Ramadhan''. #[[9 April]] [[1983]]: ''Operation Valfajr-1''. #[[19 October]] [[1983]]: ''Operation Valfajr-4''. #[[22 February]] [[1984]]: ''Operation Kheibar''. #[[10 March]] [[1985]]: ''Operation Badr''. #[[9 February]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Valfajr-8''. #[[2 June]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-1''. #[[1 September]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-2''. #[[9 January]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-5''. #[[21 June]] [[1987]]: ''Operation Nasr 4''. #[[16 March]] [[1988]]: ''Operation Valfajr-10''. #[[27 July]] [[1988]]: ''Operation Mersad''. ==References== * Martsching, Brad. &quot;[http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/iraniraq.htm Iran-Iraq War and Waterway Claims],&quot; [[American University]] Inventory of Conflict &amp; Environment, May 1998. * [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]: [http://www.csis.org/burke/reports/9005lessonsiraniraqII-chap01.pdf ''The Lessons of Modern War: Volume Two - The Iran-Iraq Conflict''], with Abraham R. Wagner, Westview, Boulder, 1990. * Center for Strategic and International Studies: [http://www.csis.org/burke/sa/iranwmdbackground032700.pdf ''Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iran and Iraq ''], [[March 27]] [[2000]]. * GlobalSecurity.org: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)] * The Iran-Iraq war: the politics of aggression. Farhang Rajaee. Gainesville : University Press of Florida, 1993. * UN Secretary General report to the UNSC: [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page1.pdf p1] [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page2.pdf p2] * [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page3.pdf p3]. * [[United States Marine Corps]]: [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/ FMFRP 3-203 - Lessons Learned: Iran-Iraq War, [[10 December]] [[1990]]]. * Saddām Husayn. 'Address given'. Baghdād, Voice of the Masses in Arabic, 1200 GMT 02 April 1980. FBIS-MEA-80-066. 03 April 1980, E2-3. *D. Hiro. The Longest War''. 1991. ISBN 0-415-90406-4 *[http://www.historyguy.com/wars_of_iraq.html A list of Iraq's wars and conflicts.] ==See also== *[[Iran-Israel relations]] *[[US-Iran relations]] *[[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] *[[History of Iran]] *[[History of Iraq]] *[[Al-Faw Peninsula]] *[[Frans Van Anraat]] *[[Mostafa Chamran]], Minister of Defense killed during the Iran-Iraq war. *[[Saddam's Trial and Iran-Iraq War|Saddam's trial and Iran-Iraq War]] *[[Arms sales to Iraq 1973-1990]] *[[Operation Prime Chance]], the United State's involvement *[[Iran Ajr]], the minelaying ship captured by the U.S. ==External links and furthe
number 2i as the base, having the unusual feature that every complex number can be represented with the digits 0, 1, 2, and 3, without a sign. ==Personal== Knuth's hobbies include music, specifically playing the [[organ (music)|organ]]. He has a pipe organ installed in his home. Knuth disclaims any particular talent in the instrument, however. He does not use [[email]], saying that he used it from about 1975 until [[January 1]], [[1990]], and that was enough for one lifetime. He finds it more efficient to respond to correspondence in &quot;batch mode&quot;, such as one day every three months, to be sent by [[Mail|postal mail]]. He is married to [[Jill Knuth]] &lt;ref&gt; [http://logic.pdmi.ras.ru/Slissenko60/Knuth.gif Early picture]&lt;/ref&gt;, who published a book on [[liturgy]] titled ''Banner without Words'', published by Resource Publications in 1986. They have two children. ==Awards== * First [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]] - [[1971]] * [[Turing Award]] - [[1974]] * [[National Medal of Science]] - [[1979]] * [[John von Neumann Medal]] - [[1995]] * [[Kyoto Prize]] - [[1996]] ==Works== A short list of his works&lt;ref&gt;A complete list is also available: [http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/books.html &quot;Books&quot; at Stanford site]&lt;/ref&gt; can be found on Donald Knuth's homepage): * Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volumes 1&amp;ndash;3 # Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd edition), 1997. ISBN 0201896834 # Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd Edition), 1997. ISBN 0201896842 # Volume 3: Sorting and Searching (2nd Edition), 1998. ISBN 0201896850 # Volume 4: Combinatorial Algorithms, in preparation # Volume 5: Syntaxic Algorithms, in preparation, estimated to be ready in 2010 * Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, fascicles: # Volume 1, Fascicle 1: MMIX &amp;mdash; A RISC Computer for the New Millennium, 2005. ISBN 0201853922 # Volume 4, Fascicle 2: Generating All Tuples and Permutations, 2005. ISBN 0201853930 # Volume 4, Fascicle 3: Generating All Combinations and Partitions, 2005. ISBN 0201853949 # Volume 4, Fascicle 4: Generating All Trees -- History of Combinatorial Generation, 2006. ISBN 0321335708 * Donald E. Knuth, The TeXbook (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1984. ISBN 0201134489 * Donald E. Knuth, The METAFONTbook (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1986. ISBN 0201134446 * [[Ronald Graham|Ronald L. Graham]], Donald E. Knuth, Oren Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science, 2nd edition (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1994. ISBN 0201558025 *''Selected papers'' series:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/selected.html &quot;Selected Papers&quot; at Stanford site]&lt;/ref&gt; # Donald E. Knuth, Literate Programming (Center for the Study of Language and Information - Lecture Notes), 1992. ''ISBN 0937073806'' # Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Science (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 59), 1996. ISBN 1881526917 # Donald E. Knuth, Digital Typography (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 78), 1999. ISBN 1575860104 # Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 102), 2000. ISBN 1575862123 # Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Languages (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 139), 2003. ISBN 1575863812 (cloth), ISBN 1575863820 (paperback) # Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Discrete Mathematics (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 106), 2003. ISBN 1575862492 (cloth), ISBN 1575862484 (paperback) # Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (scheduled for publication in 2007) # Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Fun and Games (scheduled for publication in 2007) * Donald E. Knuth, 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions), 1990. ISBN 0895792524 * Donald E. Knuth, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About (Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes no 136), 2001. ISBN 157586326X ==References== ===Interviews, Q&amp;A=== * Doernberg, D. [http://www.literateprogramming.com/clb93.pdf Computer Literacy Interview With Donald Knuth]. [[7 December]] [[1993]]. * [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb17-1/tb50knut.pdf TUG'95 (St Petersburg, FL, USA) Questions and answers with Prof. Donald E. Knuth]. ''TUGboat'' 17 (1), [[1996]] * Woehr, J. [http://www.ntg.nl/maps/pdf/16_14.pdf An interview with Donald Knuth] ''Dr. Dobb's Journal'', April [[1996]], p. 16-22. * [http://www.awprofessional.com/content/images/0201896834/interview/0201896834.html Donald Knuth on The Art of Computer Programming] Addison-Wesley Innovations, 1996 * [http://bulletin.cstug.cz/pdf/bul964.pdf Questions and Answers with Prof. Donald E. Knuth]. Czech TUG, Charles University, [[Prague]], [[1996]] * [http://www.ntg.nl/maps/pdf/16_15.pdf Knuth meets NTG members], [[Amsterdam]], [[13 March]] [[1996]]. * [http://www.literateprogramming.com/byte1996.html Knuth Comments on Code], [[Byte magazine]], September 1996. * [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/feature/-/4165 Donald Knuth: A life's work in the art of programming] [[Amazon.com]], [[1997]]. * [http://technetcast.ddj.com/tnc_play_stream.html?stream_id=199 Donald Knuth: MMIX, A RISC Computer for the New Millennium]. Audio recording of a presetation at the monthly meeting of the [[Boston]] [[ACM]] [[30 December]][[1999]] * [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb22-1-2/tb70knut.pdf U.K. TUG, Oxford, [[12 September]] [[1999]]: Question &amp; Answer Session with Donald Knuth]. ''TUGboat'', 22 (1/2), [[2001]]. * Wallace, Mark. [http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/1999/09/16/knuth The art of Don E. Knuth] Interview on [[salon.com]], [[1999]]. * [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb21-2/tb67advo.pdf Advogato, 2000], also available as [http://www.advogato.org/article/28.html HTML Version] * [http://www.ams.org/notices/200203/fea-knuth.pdf AMS, 2001] * [http://www.geekchic.com/repliq6.htm Geek Celebs, 2001] * [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb23-3-4/tb75knuth.pdf Oslo, 2002] * [http://www.heise.de/ct/02/05/190 c't, 2002 (in German)] * [http://www-x.nzz.ch/folio/archiv/2002/02/articles/haffner.html NZZ Folio, 2002 (in German)] * [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4532247 Donald Knuth, Founding Artist of Computer Science]. Audio interview by David Kestenbaum on [[National Public Radio]]; or [http://www.soundbytes.org/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t=5643&amp;sid=bf7d0d454451865c6409201cf55746f5 Transcript], [[14 March]] [[2005]]. * [http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/free_issues/issue_07/pdfs/FSM_issue_07_interview_knuth.pdf Free Software Magazine interview by Gianluca Pignalberi, [[August]] [[2005]]]. &lt;references /&gt; ==See also== *[[Knuth-Morris-Pratt algorithm]] *[[Knuth shuffle#Shuffling algorithms|Knuth shuffle]] *[[Knuth's up-arrow notation]] *[[Knuth-Bendix completion algorithm]] *[[Man or boy test]] *[[Trabb Pardo-Knuth algorithm]] *[[Dancing Links]] ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/ The Stanford home page of Donald Knuth] * [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Knuth.html Long biography of Knuth] * [http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Knuth/index.shtml Donald Knuth: Leonard Euler of Computer Science (Softpanorama)] * [http://scpd.stanford.edu/knuth/ Videos of presentations w/ Donald Knuth] * [http://www.crossmyt.com/hc/potrzebi.gif The Potrzebie System of Weights and Measures] &lt;!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt; [[Category:1938 births|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Living people|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:American computer scientists|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:American mathematicians|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:American professors|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:American technology writers|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:California writers|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Christians in science|Knuth]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Computer scientists|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Computer scientists|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Fellows of the ACM|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Programmers|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Theta Chi brothers|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Turing Award laureates|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Knuth]] [[Category:Free Software developers|Knuth, Donald]] [[Category:Members of Oxford University Computing Laboratory|Knuth, Don]] [[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Knuth, Don]] [[ast:Donald Knuth]] [[bn:ডনাল্ড কানুথ]] [[ca:Donald Knuth]] [[cs:Donald Ervin Knuth]] [[da:Donald E. Knuth]] [[de:Donald Ervin Knuth]] [[es:Donald Knuth]] [[eo:Donald KNUTH]] [[fa:دونالد کنوت]] [[fr:Donald Ervin Knuth]] [[ko:도널드 카누스]] [[id:Donald Knuth]] [[it:Donald Knuth]] [[he:דונלד קנות]] [[li:Donald Knuth]] [[hu:Donald Knuth]] [[nl:Donald Knuth]] [[ja:ドナルド・クヌース]] [[pl:Donald Knuth]] [[pt:Donald Knuth]] [[ro:Donald E. Knuth]] [[ru:Кнут, Дональд Эрвин]] [[sk:Donald Ervin Knuth]] [[sl:Donald Knuth]] [[su:Donald Knuth]] [[fi:Donald Knuth]] [[sv:Donald Ervin Knuth]] [[tl:Donald Knuth]] [[zh:高德纳]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Donald E. Knuth</title> <id>8096</id> <revision> <id>15906118</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Knuth]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dairy product</title> <id>8097</id>
ot include her own work when analyzing the culture.) She then entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives. She arrived in the [[United States]] in February 1926, at the age of twenty-one. After a brief stay with her relatives in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], she resolved never to return to the [[Soviet Union]], and set out for [[Hollywood]] to become a [[screenwriter]]. She then changed her name to &quot;Ayn Rand&quot;. There is a story told that she named herself after the [[Remington Rand]] [[typewriter]], but she began using the name Ayn Rand before the typewriter was first sold. She stated that her first name, 'Ayn', was an adaptation of the name of a Finnish writer. This may have been the Finnish-Estonian author [[Aino Kallas]], but variations of this name are common in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking regions. ===Major works=== Initially, Rand struggled in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. While working as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] on [[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''[[The King of Kings|King of Kings]]'', she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]], who caught her eye. The two married in 1929. In 1931, Rand became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' in 1932 to [[Universal Studios]]. Rand then wrote the play ''[[The Night of January 16th]]'' in 1934, which was highly successful, and published two novels, ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936), and ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938). While ''We the Living'' met with mixed reviews in the U.S. and positive reviews in the U.K., ''Anthem'' received significiant and positive reviews only in England, due in part to its odd publication history. She was up against [[The Red Decade ]] in America, and ''Anthem'' did not even find a publisher in the United States; it was first published in England. Besides, Rand had still not perfected her literary style and these novels cannot be considered representative. Without Rand's knowledge or permission, ''[[We The Living]]'' was made into a pair of films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'' in 1942 by Scalara Films, [[Rome]]. They were nearly censored by the [[Italy|Italian]] government under [[Benito Mussolini]], but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realized that they were as much against Fascism as Communism, and the government banned them quickly thereafter. These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986. Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943), which she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers, who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of American thought. It was finally accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed. Eventually, ''The Fountainhead'' was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. The theme of ''The Fountainhead'' is &quot;individualism and collectivism in man's soul&quot;. It features the lives of five main characters. The hero, Howard Roark, is Rand's ideal, a noble soul ''par excellence'', an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field, especially architecture. All the other characters in the novel demand that he renounce his values, but Roark maintains his integrity. Unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world; Roark, in contrast, does it with a disdainful, almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism. Rand's [[magnum opus]], ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', was published in 1957, becoming an international bestseller. ''Atlas Shrugged'' is often seen as Rand's most complete statement of the [[Objectivist philosophy]] in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary: :&quot;My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute.&quot; The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is &quot;The role of man's mind in society&quot;. Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex, music, medicine, politics, and human ability. Along with [[Nathaniel Branden]], his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and others including [[Alan Greenspan]] and [[Leonard Peikoff]], (jokingly designated &quot;[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]&quot;), Rand launched the [[Objectivism|Objectivist]] movement to promote her philosophy. ===The Objectivist movement=== ''Main article: The [[Objectivist movement]]'' In 1950 Rand moved to [[New York City]], where in 1951 she met the young [[psychology]] student [[Nathaniel Branden]] [http://www.nathanielbranden.com], who had read her book, ''The Fountainhead'', at the age of 14. Branden, then 19, enjoyed discussing Rand's emerging Objectivist philosophy with her. Together, Branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the [[Collective]], which included some participation by future Federal Reserve chairman [[Alan Greenspan]]. After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair, despite the fact that both were married at the time. Their spouses were both convinced to accept this affair but it eventually led to the separation and then divorce of [[Nathaniel Branden]] from his wife. Although one of Rand's most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms, Ayn Rand abandoned her own name (see top of page), as did Branden (born Nathan Blumenthal). Throughout the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_fiction] and non-fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_nonfiction] works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (&quot;the NBI&quot;) which Branden established to promote her philosophy. After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife, [[Barbara Branden]], in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott (this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier Branden/Rand affair). Rand refused to have any further dealings with the NBI. She then published a letter in &quot;The Objectivist&quot; announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained a ''persona non grata'' in the Objectivist movement. [[Image:ayn rand stamp.jpg|222px|frame|left|1999 U.S. [[postage stamp]] honoring Rand. Art by [[Nick Gaetano]].]] Barbara Branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book, ''The Passion of Ayn Rand.'' She describes the encounter between Nathaniel and Rand, saying that Rand slapped him numerous times, and denounced him in these words: &quot;If you have an ounce of morality left in you, an ounce of psychological health — you'll be impotent for the next twenty years! And if you achieve any potency, you'll know it's a sign of still worse moral degradation!&quot; Conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest &quot;Collective&quot; friends began to part ways, and during the late 70's, her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband in 1979. One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Rand died of heart failure on [[March 6]], [[1982]] in [[New York City]], years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]]. [[Image:Ayn_Rand_Marker.jpg|thumb|right|324px|Grave marker of [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]] and Ayn Rand.]] ===Philosophical influences=== Rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools. She acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with [[Aristotle]] and [[John Locke]], and more generally with the philosophies of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Age of Reason]]. She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]]. She seems also to have respected the American rationalist [[Brand Blanshard]]. However, she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil. She singled out [[Immanuel Kant]] as the most influential of the latter sort. Nonetheless, there are connections between Rand's views and those of other philosophers. She acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Though she later repudiated his thought a
gy|hemolitic disorders]] {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.355}}. [[Image:Memnon2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Colossus]] of [[Memnon]].]] ==History== :''Main article: [[History of ancient Egypt]]'' Egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. This includes religion, customs, art expression, architecture and social structure. The [[history of ancient Egypt]] proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around [[3000 BC]]. [[Narmer]], who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first [[pharaoh]]; though [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian [[society]] existed for a much longer period (see [[Predynastic Egypt]]). Along the [[Nile]], in [[10th millennium BC]], a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] using the earliest type of [[sickle]] [[blade]]s had been replaced by another culture of [[hunting|hunters]], [[fishing|fishers]], and [[hunter-gatherer|gathering]] peoples using [[stone tool]]s. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the [[Sudan]] border, before [[8000 BC]]. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around [[8th millennium BC|8000 BC]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of [[Egypt]], eventually forming the [[Sahara]] (c.[[2500 BC]]), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralized [[society]] (see [[Nile#History|Nile: History]]). There is evidence of [[pastoralism]] and cultivation of [[cereal]]s in the East [[Sahara]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. By [[6000 BC]] ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were [[herding]] cattle and [[construction|constructing]] large buildings. [[Mortar (masonry)]] was in use by [[4000 BC]]. The [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]] continues through this time, variously held to begin with the [[Naqada]] culture. Some authorities however begin the [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]] earlier, in the [[Lower Paleolithic]] (see [[Predynastic Egypt]]). Egypt unified as a single state circa [[3000 BC]]. [[Egyptian chronology]] involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The [[conventional Egyptian chronology]] is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by [[Manetho]]'s ''Aegyptaica''. * '''[[List of pharaohs]]''': The pharaohs stretch from before [[3000 BC]] to around [[30 BC]]. * '''Dynasties''' (see also: [[List of Egyptian dynasties]]): ** [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt]] (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. [[27th century BC]]) ** [[Old Kingdom]] (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries [[Anno Domini|BC]]) ** [[First Intermediate Period]] (7th to 11th Dynasties) ** [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC) ** [[Second Intermediate Period]] (14th to 17th Dynasties) *** [[Hyksos]] (15th to 16th Dynasties) ** [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC) ** [[Third Intermediate Period]] (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC) ** [[Late Period of Ancient Egypt]] (26th to 31st Dynasties; [[7th century BC]] to [[332 BC]]) *** [[Achaemenid Dynasty]] ** [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman Egypt]] ([[332 BC]] to AD [[639]]) *** [[Ptolemaic Dynasty]] *** [[Roman Empire]] === Taxation === The Egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people. As there was no known form of currency during that time period, taxes were paid for &quot;in kind&quot; (with produce or work). The Vizier controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock availible, and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a persons craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property. Craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals or mining. However, a richer noble could hire a poorer man to do his labor tax. ==Language== {{main|Egyptian language}} Ancient Egyptian constitutes an independent branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] language [[phylum (linguistics)|phylum]]. Its closest relatives are the [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], and [[Beja language|Beja]] groups of languages. Written records of the [[Egyptian language]] have been dated from about [[32nd century BC|3200 BC]], making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Scholars group Egyptian into six major chronological divisions: *'''[[Archaic Egyptian]]''' (before 3000 BC) :Consists of inscriptions from the late [[Predynastic Period|Predynastic]] and [[Early Dynastic Period|Early Dynastic]] period. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian [[hieroglyphic]] writing appears on [[Naqada]] II pottery vessels. *'''[[Old Egyptian]]''' (3000&amp;ndash;2000 BC) :The language of the [[Old Kingdom]] and [[First Intermediate Period]]. The [[Pyramid Texts]] are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of [[ideogram]]s, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage. *'''[[Middle Egyptian]]''' (2000&amp;ndash;1300 BC) :Often dubbed '''Classical Egyptian''', this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in [[hieroglyphic]] and [[hieratic]] scripts dated from about the [[Middle Kingdom]]. It includes funerary texts inscribed on [[sarcophagi]] such as the [[Coffin Texts]]; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the [[Ipuwer papyrus]]); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinhue]]; medical and scientific texts such as the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] and the [[Ebers papyrus]]; and poetic texts praising a god or a [[pharaoh]], like the [[Hymn to the Nile]]. The Egyptian [[vernacular]] already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as [[Late Middle Egyptian]]). *'''[[Late Egyptian]]''' (1300&amp;ndash;700 BC) :Records of this stage appear in the second part of the [[New Kingdom]], considered by many as the &quot;Golden Age&quot; of ancient Egyptian civilization. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the [[Story of Wenamun]] and the [[Instructions of Ani]]. It was also the language of [[Ramesside]] administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many &quot;classicisms&quot; appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It's also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic [[orthography]] saw an enormous expansion of its [[grapheme|graphemic]] inventory between the Late Dynastic and [[Ptolemaic]] periods. *'''[[Demotic Egyptian]]''' (7th century BC&amp;ndash;4th century AD) {{main|Demotic Egyptian}} *'''[[Coptic language|Coptic]]''' (3rd&amp;ndash;17th century AD) {{main|Coptic language}} ===Writing=== For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the [[Narmer Palette]], found during excavations at [[Hierakonpolis]] (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the [[1890s]], which has been dated to c.[[3200 BC]]. However recent [[Archaeology|archaeological]] findings reveal that symbols on [[Gerzean]] pottery, ''c.''[[4000 BC]], resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms {{ref|www.touregypt.net.356}}. Also in 1998 a German archeological team under [[Gunter Dreyer]] excavating at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (modern [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]) uncovered tomb [[U-j]], which belonged to a [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with [[proto-hieroglyphics]] dating to the [[Naqada IIIA]] period, circa [[33rd century BC]] {{ref|www.exn.ca.357}}, {{ref|www.findarticles.com.358}}. Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as '''[[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]]s''', today standing as the world's earliest known [[writing system]]. The hieroglyphic script was partly [[syllabic]], partly [[ideographic]]. '''[[Hieratic]]''' is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC &amp;ndash; c. 2775 BC). The term '''[[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]''', in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the [[Nubian]] [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|25th dynasty]] until its marginalization by the Greek [[Koine]] in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of [[Amr ibn al-A'as]] in the 7th century AD, the [[Coptic language]] survived as a spoken language into the [[Middle Ages]]. Today, it continues to be the liturgi
identified, doctors determined that they were all part of a single syndrome with many possible signs and symptoms. To avoid confusion, this condition is usually called 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, a description based on its underlying genetic cause. ==Symptoms== Individuals with a 22q11 deletion have a range of findings, including: * [[Congenital heart disease]] (74% of individuals), particularly [[conotruncal]] malformations ([[tetralogy of Fallot]], [[interrupted aortic arch]], [[ventricular septal defect]], and [[truncus arteriosus]]) * [[palatal]] abnormalities (69%), particularly [[velopharyngeal incompetence]] (VPI), submucosal [[cleft palate]], and [[cleft palate]]; characteristic facial features (present in the majority of [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] individuals) * [[learning difficulties]] (70-90%) * an [[immune deficiency]] regardless of their clinical presentation (77%) * [[hypocalcemia]] (50%) * significant [[feeding problems]] (30%) * [[renal]] anomalies (37%) * [[hearing loss]] (both [[conductive]] and [[sensorineural]]) * [[laryngotracheoesophageal]] anomalies * [[growth hormone]] deficiency * [[autoimmune disorders]] * [[seizures]] (without [[hypocalcemia]]) * [[skeletal]] abnormalities [[Thymus]], [[parathyroid gland]]s and [[heart]] derive from the same primitive embryonic structure and that is why these three organs are dysfunctioned together in this disease. Affected patients (usually children) are prone to [[yeast infections]]. ==Cause== The disease is related with genetic deletions (loss of a small part of the genetic material) found on the long arm of the 22nd chromosome. Some patients with similar clinical features may have deletions on the short arm of chromosome 10. ==Treatment== Although genetic transplantation methods are currently being developed by researchers, there is no genetic treatment of this disease, as yet. Therefore, the treatment is symptomatic, that is [[calcium]] is administered, [[infections]] are treated with [[antibiotics]], and these patients may occasionally undergo [[cardiac surgery]] for their heart abnormalities. ==Diagnosis/testing== The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is diagnosed in individuals with a submicroscopic deletion of [[chromosome]] 22 detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using DNA probes from the DiGeorge chromosomal region (DGCR). Such [[genetic testing]] is widely available for the clinical and [[prenatal testing]] of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Fewer than 5% of individuals with clinical symptoms of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome have normal routine cytogenetic studies and negative FISH testing. They may have variant deletions of DiGeorge syndrome that may be detectable on a research basis only. ==Genetics== Most people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are missing about 3 million [[base pair]]s (the building blocks of DNA) on one copy of [[chromosome 22 (human)|chromosome 22]] in each cell. This region contains about 30 genes, but many of these genes have not been well characterized. A small percentage of affected individuals have shorter deletions in the same region. This condition is often described as a contiguous gene deletion syndrome because a deletion in chromosome 22 leads to the loss of many genes. Researchers have not yet identified all of the genes that contribute to the features of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. They have determined that the loss of one particular gene on chromosome 22, ''[[TBX1]]'', is probably responsible for many of the syndrome's characteristic signs (such as heart defects, a cleft palate, distinctive facial features, and low calcium levels). A loss of this gene does not appear to cause learning disabilities, however. Additional genes in the deleted region are likely to contribute to the signs and symptoms of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] manner. Almost all (about 93%) of cases have a de novo (new to the family) deletion of 22q11.2 but about 7% inherit the 22q11.2 deletion from a parent. Children of individuals with del 22q11.2 have a 50% chance of inheriting the 22q11.2 deletion. [[Prenatal testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], is available for pregnancies determined to be at risk. Also pregnancies who have findings of congenital heart disease and/or cleft palate detected by ultrasound examination may be offered prenatal testing. [[Genetic counseling]] may be helpful for families who may have DiGeorge syndrome. ==Epidemiology== 22q11.2 deletion syndrome affects an estimated 1 in 1800 live births. The condition may be more common, however, because some people with the deletion have few signs and symptoms and may not have been diagnosed. ==References== * {{cite journal issue | author=Baldini A | title=DiGeorge syndrome: an update | journal=Curr Opin Cardiol | year=2004 | pages=201-4 | volume=19 | issue=3 }} PMID 15096950 * {{cite journal issue | author=Maynard TM, Haskell GT, Lieberman JA, LaMantia AS | title=22q11 DS: genomic mechanisms and gene function in DiGeorge/velocardiofacial syndrome | journal=Int J Dev Neurosci | year=2002 | pages=407-19 | volume=20 | issue=3-5 }} PMID 12175881 * {{cite journal issue | author=McDermid HE, Morrow BE | title=Genomic disorders on 22q11 | journal=Am J Hum Genet | year=2002 | pages=1077-88 | volume=70 | issue=5 }} PMID 11925570 ''[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=11925570 Full text]'' * {{cite journal issue | author=Perez E, Sullivan KE | title=Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (DiGeorge and velocardiofacial syndromes) | journal=Curr Opin Pediatr | year=2002 | pages=678-83 | volume=14 | issue=6 }} PMID 12436034 * {{cite journal issue | author=Yagi H, Furutani Y, Hamada H, Sasaki T, Asakawa S, Minoshima S, Ichida F, Joo K, Kimura M, Imamura S, Kamatani N, Momma K, Takao A, Nakazawa M, Shimizu N, Matsuoka R | title=Role of TBX1 in human del22q11.2 syndrome | journal=Lancet | year=2003 | pages=1366-73 | volume=362 | issue=9393 }} PMID 14585638 * {{cite journal issue | author=Yamagishi H, Srivastava D | title=Unraveling the genetic and developmental mysteries of 22q11 deletion syndrome | journal=Trends Mol Med | year=2003 | pages=383-9 | volume=9 | issue=9 }} PMID 13129704 ''This article incorporates public domain text from [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov The U.S. National Library of Medicine]'' ==External links== * [http://www.vcfsef.org/index.html VCFS Educational Foundation, Inc.] * [http://www.chop.edu/consumer/jsp/division/generic.jsp?id=74634 Children's Hospital of Philadelphia] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowSection&amp;rid=gnd.section.150 NIH] * {{OMIM|188400}} * [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic567.htm eMedicine] * [http://www.maxappeal.org.uk MaxAppeal] [[Category:Genetic disorders]] [[Category:Eponymous diseases]] [[es:Síndrome de DiGeorge]] [[fr:Microdélétion 22q11]] [[nl:Syndroom van DiGeorge]] [[pl:Zespół Di George'a]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deduction</title> <id>8278</id> <revision> <id>32879296</id> <timestamp>2005-12-27T14:57:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alsandro</username> <id>493274</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">There are several meanings for the word '''''deduction''''': * [[Natural deduction]] * [[Deductive reasoning]] * Deductions in terms of [[taxation]], such as ** [[Itemized deduction]]s ** [[Standard deduction]] See also: * [[Logic]] * [[Venn diagram]] * [[Inductive reasoning]] * Both [[statistics]] and the [[scientific method]] rely on both induction and deduction. {{disambig}} [[de:Deduktion]] [[ka:დედუქცია]] [[nl:Deductie]] [[sv:Deduktion]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digital Millennium Copyright Act</title> <id>8279</id> <revision> <id>41708081</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:09:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>137.22.122.30</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox U.S. legislation| titlename=Digital Millennium Copyright Act| fullname=To amend title 17, United States Code, to implement the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] Copyright Treaty and Performances and Phonograms Treaty, and for other purposes.| acronym=DMCA| enactedby=[[105th Congress]]| effectivedate=[[October 28]], [[1998]]| cite_publ=Pub. L. 105-304| publ_url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/toGPO/http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public_laws&amp;docid=f:publ304.105.pdf| cite_stat=112 Stat. 2860 (1998)| actsamended=[[Copyright Act of 1976]]| titleamended=5 (Government Organization and Employees); 17 (Copyrights); 28 (Judiciary and Judicial Procedure); 35 (Patents)| sectionscreated=17 U.S.C. &amp;sect;&amp;sect; 512, 1201-1205, 1301-1332; 28 U.S.C. &amp;sect; 4001| sectionsamended=17 U.S.C. &amp;sect;&amp;sect; 101, 104, 104A, 108, 112, 114, 117, 701| leghisturl=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d105:HR02281:@@@X| introducedin=[[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]| introducedbill=H.R. 2281| introducedby=Rep. [[Howard Coble]] ([[United States Republican Party|R]]-[[North Carolina|NC]])| introduceddate=[[July 29]], [[1997]]| committees=[[House Judiciary Committee]] (Subcommittee on Courts and Intellectual Property); [[House Commerce Committee]] (Subcommittee on Telecommunications, Trade, and Consumer Protection)| passedbody1=[[United States House of Representatives|House]]| passeddate1=[[August 4]], [[1998]]| passedvote1=voice vote| passedbody2=[[United States Senate|Senate]]| passeddate2=[[September 17]], [[1998]]| passedvote2=unanimous consent| conferencedate=[[October 8]], [[1998]]| passedbody3=[[United States Senate|Senate]]| passeddate3=[[October 8]], [[1998]]| passedvote3=unanimous consent| passedbody4=[[United States House of Representatives|House]]| passeddate4=[[October 12]
Hurricane Charley|Charley]] ([[August 13]]), [[Hurricane Frances|Frances]] ([[September 4]]-September 5|5), [[Hurricane Ivan|Ivan]] ([[September 16]]), and [[Hurricane Jeanne|Jeanne]] ([[September 25]]-[[September 26|26]]) cumulatively cost forty-two billion dollars to the state. In 2005, [[Hurricane Dennis]] ([[July 10]]) became the fifth storm to strike Florida within 11 months. Later, [[Hurricane Katrina]] ([[August 25]]) passed through [[South Florida]] and [[Hurricane Rita]] ([[September 20]]) swept through the [[Florida Keys]]. [[Hurricane Wilma]] made landfall in Florida in the early morning of [[October 24]] as a [[Saffir-Simpson Scale|category 3]] hurricane, with storm's eye hitting near [[Cape Romano]], just south of [[Marco Island, Florida|Marco Island]], according to [[National Hurricane Center]]. Florida was also the site of the second most costly single weather disaster in U.S. history, [[Hurricane Andrew]], which caused more than twenty-five [[billion]] dollars ($25,000,000,000) in damage when it struck on [[August 24]], [[1992]]. Among a long list of other infamous hurricane strikes were the 1926 [[Great Miami Hurricane]], the [[Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928]], the [[Labor Day Hurricane of 1935]], [[Hurricane Donna]] in 1960, and [[Hurricane Opal]] in 1995. {{see also|Catastrophic Florida Hurricanes: 1900-1960|Catastrophic Florida Hurricanes: 1961-present|List of all-time high and low temperatures by state}} ==Economy== [[Image:Shuttle.jpg|thumb|right|Launch of [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] from [[Kennedy Space Center]].]] [[Image:wiki_florida.jpg|thumb|150px||left|Greetings from Florida]] The gross state product of Florida in 2003 was $550 billion. The per capita personal income was $30,098, ranking 26&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation. Florida's economy is heavily based on tourism. About 60 million visitors come to Florida every year. Warm weather most of the year and hundreds of miles of beach provide a thriving vacation spot for travelers from around the world. The large [[Walt Disney World Resort]] with four theme parks and over twenty hotels plus countless water parks, shopping centers and other facilities, located in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida|Lake Buena Vista]] drives the economy of that area, along with more recent entries into the theme park arena such as the [[Universal Orlando Resort]]. The great amount of sales and tourist tax revenue is what allows the state to be one of the few to not levy a personal income tax. Other major industries include [[citrus]] [[fruit]] and juice production, banking, and [[phosphate]] mining within the [[Bone Valley]] region. With the arrival of the space program at [[Kennedy Space Center]] in the 1960s, Florida has attracted a large number of aerospace and military industries to the state. Florida did not have any state minimum wage laws until [[November 2]], [[2004]], when voters passed a Constitutional Amendment requiring inflationary increases to the minimum wage every six months. Historically, Florida's economy was based upon cattle farming and agriculture (especially [[sugar cane]], [[citrus]], [[tomato]]es, and [[strawberry|strawberries]]). As land speculators discovered Florida in the early 1900's, and when Plant and Flagler developed the railway systems, more people moved in, drawn by the usually good weather. From then on, tourism boomed, fueling a cycle of development and tourism that overwhelmed a great deal of farmland. Other key industries, commercial fishing and water-based tourist activities (sports fishing and diving) were threatened by severe Red Tide outbreaks in 2004 and 2005 off the west coast. ==Demographics== {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations |- ! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population |- | colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 34,730 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 54,477 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 87,445 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 140,424 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 187,748 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 269,493 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 391,422 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 528,542 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 752,619 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 968,470 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,468,211 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,897,414 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,771,305 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,951,560 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,789,443 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 9,746,324 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 12,937,926 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 15,982,378 |} As of 2005, Florida has an estimated population of 17,789,864, which is an increase of 404,434, or 2.3%, from the prior year and an increase of 1,807,040, or 11.3%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 246,058 people (that is 1,115,565 births minus 869,507 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 1,585,704 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 528,085 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 1,057,619 people. {{fact}} ===Race and ancestry=== {| |- |[[Image:Florida_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Florida Population Density Map]] &lt;table&gt;[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=Search&amp;geo_id=&amp;_geoContext=&amp;_street=&amp;_county=&amp;_cityTown=&amp;_state=04000US12&amp;_zip=&amp;_lang=en&amp;_sse=on&amp;pctxt=fph&amp;pgsl=010] &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style = &quot;width:30px;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style = &quot;width:200px&quot;&gt; [[Whites|White]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;65.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Hispanic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16.8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Blacks|Black]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Asian American|Asian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Mixed Race]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Over 16 per cent of Florida's population was Hispanic of any race. The largest reported ancestries in the 2000 Census were [[German people|German]] (11.8%), [[Irish people|Irish]] (10.3%), [[English people|English]] (9.2%), [[United States|American]] (8%) and [[Italian people|Italian]] (6.3%){{fact}}. |} Blacks, who during the cotton and sugar plantation era made up fully 50 percent of the state's population, have a large presence in the deeply southern middle Florida region of North Florida and in the cities of [[Jacksonville]], [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], and [[Fort Lauderdale]]. Transplanted Northerners are prominent on the West Coast, particularly in the Tampa suburbs. Floridians of British ancestry are dominant in most coastal cities, while Floridians of white American ancestry dominate the culturally Southern areas of inland North Florida. Florida's large and diverse Hispanic community consists particularly of Cubans in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]] and [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], Puerto Ricans in Tampa and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]] and Mexican migrant workers in inland West-Central and South Florida. There are also a number of Haitian Americans in Miami and other parts of Florida. Native white Floridians, especially those who have descended from long-time Florida families, are affectionately referred to as &quot;[[White cracker|Florida Crackers]].&quot; Florida's fast-growing Hispanic population is heaviest in [[Miami]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], and [[Tampa]]. [[Black (people)|Black]] Floridians are overwhelmingly [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] voters. Blacks comprise a large fraction of the populations of [[North Central Florida]], [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]], and the [[Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area|Tampa Bay area]]. ===Languages=== As of 2000, 76.9% of Florida residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 16.5% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 2.2%, followed by [[German language|German]] at 0.6% and [[Italian language|Italian]] at 0.4%. Article II, Section 9 of the [[Florida Constitution]] provides that &quot;English is the official language of the State of Florida.&quot; This was adopted in 1988 by a vote following an Initiative Petition. ===Religion=== Florida is mostly Protestant, but with a growing Roman Catholic community due to immigration. There is also a sizable Jewish community in some parts of Florida which makes Florida unique among Southern states because no other Southern state has a large Jewish community. Florida's current religious affiliations are shown in the table below: *[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 82% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 54% ***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 19% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;nd
London in [[2000]]. He has worked on special make-up effects for the films ''[[Alien³]]'', ''[[Alien: Resurrection]]'' and ''[[Judge Dredd (film)|Judge Dredd]]'' and model making on ''[[Hardware (1990 film)|Hardware]]'' and ''[[Nightbreed]]''. He also worked for over a year on the film ''[[A.I. (film)|A.I.]]'' when it was a [[Stanley Kubrick]] project. Cunningham once had plans to direct a film of ''[[Neuromancer]]'' by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], and of the comic book series ''[[RanXerox]]'', as well as ''[[A Scanner Darkly]]'' by [[Philip K Dick]]. He has said in at least two interviews that he no longer wishes to adapt someone else's work, but write his own screenplay. == Videos == * &quot;[[Space Junkie]]&quot; (1996) video for [[Holy Barbarians]] * &quot;[[Another Day]]&quot; (1996) video for [[Lodestar]] * &quot;[[Personally]]&quot; (1996) video for [[12 Rounds]] * &quot;[[Something To Say]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Jocasta]] * &quot;[[Jesus Coming In for the Kill]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Life's Addiction]] * &quot;[[Tranquillizer]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Geneva]] * &quot;[[No More Talk]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Dubstar]] * &quot;[[Light Aircraft On Fire]]&quot; video for [[Auteurs]] * &quot;[[Back With The Killer Again]]&quot; video for [[Auteurs]] * &quot;[[The Next Big Thing]]&quot; video for [[Jesus Jones]] * &quot;[[36 Degrees]]&quot; video for [[Placebo]] * &quot;[[Second Bad Vilbel]] (1995)&quot; video for [[Autechre]] * &quot;[[Only You (Portishead)|Only You]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Portishead]] * &quot;[[Afrika Shox]]&quot; video for [[Leftfield]] (1999) * &quot;[[Come On My Selector]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Squarepusher]] * &quot;[[Frozen (Madonna)|Frozen]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] * &quot;[[All is Full of Love]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Björk]] * &quot;[[Come to Daddy]]&quot;, (1997) &quot;[[Windowlicker]]&quot; (1999) and &quot;[[Monkey Drummer]]&quot; (2001) videos for [[Aphex Twin]] * &quot;[[Rubber Johnny]]&quot; (2005), using a track from Aphex Twin's album ''[[drukqs]]'' == External links == *[http://www.director-file.com/cunningham/ Director File &amp;middot;&amp;middot; Chris Cunningham] documents all of Chris' work *[http://www.directorslabel.com/ DirectorsLabel.com] co-founded with [[Spike Jonze]] and [[Michel Gondry]] * [http://pitchforkmedia.com/interviews/c/cunningham_chris-05/ Interview] with [http://www.pitchforkmedia.com Pitchfork Media] * [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0192260/ Internet Movie Database listing] - - [[Category:1970 births|Cunningham, Chris]] [[Category:Living people|Cunningham, Chris]] - [[Category:Music video directors|Cunningham, Chris]] - - [[de:Chris Cunningham]] - [[es:Chris Cunningham]] - [[fr:Chris Cunningham]] - [[hu:Chris Cunningham]] - [[pl:Chris Cunningham]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Centaur</title> <id>7401</id> <revision> <id>41705521</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:41:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Prosfilaes</username> <id>49272</id> </contributor> <comment>rv bowlderism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is on the mythological creatures. For information on the use of the term &quot;centaur&quot; in astronomy and space sciences, see the articles [[centaur (planetoid)]] and [[Centaur (rocket stage)]].'' [[Image:GuidoNessus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Guido Reni]], ''Abduction of Deianira'', 1620-21]] In [[Greek mythology]], the '''centaurs''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Κένταυροι) are a race part [[human]] and part [[horse]], with a horse's body, including all four legs, and a human head and torso with arms. The human portion is joined at the waist to the horse's shoulders where the head and neck would be. The general character of centaurs is that of wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the slaves of their animal passions. Two exceptions to this rule were [[Pholus]] and [[Chiron]], who expressed their &quot;good&quot; nature, wise and kind centaurs. They are variously explained by a fancied resemblance to the shapes of clouds, or as spirits of the rushing mountain torrents or winds. Dwelling in the mountains of [[Thessaly]], the centaurs were the offspring of [[Ixion]] and [[Nephele]], the rain-cloud. Alternatively, the centaurs were the offspring of Kentauros (the son of Ixion and Nephele) and some [[Magnesia]]n mares or of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] and [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]]. It was sometimes said that Ixion planned to have sex with [[Hera]] but [[Zeus]] prevented it by fashioning a cloud in the shape of Hera. Since Ixion is usually considered the ancestor of the centaurs, they may be referred to by poets as the [[Ixionidae]]. [[Image:AC marbles.jpg|thumb|left|A Centaur battles a Lapith on this [[metope (architecture)|metope]] from the [[Parthenon]]]] The Centaurs are best known for their fight with the [[Lapith]]ae, caused by their attempt to carry off [[Hippodamia]] (a &quot;horse&quot; woman herself) on the day of her marriage to [[Peirithous]], king of the Lapithae, himself the son of [[Ixion]]. The strife among these cousins is a metaphor for the conflict between the lower appetites and civilized behavior in humankind. [[Theseus]], who happened to be present, a hero and founder of cities, threw the balance in favor of the right order of things, and assisted [[Pirithous]]. The Centaurs were driven off ([[Plutarch]], ''Theseus,'' 30; [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' xii. 210; [[Diodorus Siculus]]. iv. 69, 70). Vignettes of the battle between Lapiths and Centaurs were sculpted in [[bas-relief]] on the [[frieze]] of the [[Parthenon]], which was dedicated to wise [[Athena]]. Like the [[Titanomachy]], the defeat of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]s by the Olympian gods, the contests with the Centaurs typify the struggle between civilization and barbarism. [[Image:Centaur.JPG|thumbnail|right|''Abduction of [[Hippodameia]]'', [[Carrier-Belleuse]]]] Among the centaurs, the third one with an individual identity is [[Nessus (mythology)|Nessus]]. The mythological episode of the centaur Nessus carrying off Deianira, the bride of [[Heracles]], also provided [[Giambologna]] (1529-1608), a Flemish sculptor whose career was spent in Italy, splendid opportunities to devise compositions with two forms in violent interaction. He made several versions of Nessus carrying off Deianira, represented by examples in the [[Louvre Museum|Louvre]], the [[Grünes Gewölbe]], Dresden, the [[Frick Collection]], New York and the [[Huntington Library]], San Marino, California. His followers, like [[Adriaen de Vries]] and [[Pietro Tacca]], continued to make countless repetitions of the subject. When [[Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse|Belleuse]] tackled the same play of forms in the 19th century, (''illustration right'') he titled it ''Abduction of [[Hippodameia]]'' . In early Attic vase-paintings centaurs were represented as human beings in front, with the body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back; later, they were men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, and the adventure of [[Heracles]] with Pholus ([[Apollodorus]], ii. 5; Diod. Sic. IV, li) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney Colvin, ''Journal of Hellenic Studies,'' I, 1881, and the exhaustive article in [[Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher|Roscher]]'s ''Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie''). ==Theories of origin== The armchair anthropologist and writer [[Robert Graves]] speculated that the Centaurs of Greek myth were a dimly-remembered, pre-Hellenic fraternal earth cult who had the horse as a totem. A similar theory was incorporated into [[Mary Renault]]'s ''The Bull from the Sea.'' Other sources speculate that the idea of centaurs came from the first reaction of a non-riding culture, as in the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Aegean Sea|Aegean world]], to nomads who were mounted on horses. The theory goes that such riders would appear as half-man, half-animal. Horse taming and horseback culture evolved first in the southern [[steppe]] grasslands of Central Asia, perhaps approximately in modern [[Kazakhstan]]. Of the various Classical Greek authors who mentioned centaurs, [[Pindar]] was the first who describes undoubtedly a combined monster. Previous authors ([[Homer]] etc) only use words that could also mean ordinary men riding ordinary horses. The Greek word ''kentauros'' could be [[etymology|etymologized]] as ''ken - tauros'' = &quot;piercing bull&quot;. Some say that the Greeks took the constellation of [[Centaurus]], and also its name &quot;piercing bull&quot;, from [[Mesopotamia]], where it symbolized the god [[Baal]] who represents rain and fertility, fighting with and ''piercing'' with his horns the demon [[Mot]] who represents the summer drought. (In Greece, Mot became the constellation of [[Lupus]].) Later in Greece, the constellation of Centaurus was reinterpreted as a man riding a horse, and linked to legends of Greece being invaded by tribes of horsemen from the north. The idea of a combined monster may have arisen as an attempt to fit the pictorial figure to the stars better. ==Centaurs in modern fiction== [[Image:UT-Hodges-Centaur.jpg|thumb|240px|right|The Centaur from [[Volos]], at the [[University of Tennessee Hodges Library]].]] Centaurs have appeared many times and in many places in modern times, in for example [[Artemis Fowl]], ''[[Fantasia (film) |Fantasia]]'', the ''[[Narnia]]'' books, ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'', ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' and ''[[Harry Potter]]''. In fantasy novels the view of centaurs has been changed from barbarism to an honorable race that practices breeding and other actions relative to that of animals. Though the Greek word ''kentauros'' is said to be composed of a single [[morpheme]]&amp;mdash; perhaps not a Greek one in its origin&amp;mdash;, a suffix ''-taur'' has been invented by w
changed into the [[Siren|Sirens]] as punishment for not having interfered. Life came to a standstill as the depressed Demeter (goddess of the earth) searched for her lost daughter (resting on the stone, [[Agelasta]]). Finally, Zeus could not put up with the dying earth and forced Hades to return Persephone by sending [[Hermes]] to retrieve her. But before she was released, Hades tricked her into eating three [[pomegranate]] seeds, which forced her to return three months each year. When Demeter and her daughter were together, the earth flourished with vegetation. But for three months each year, when Persephone returned to the underworld, the earth once again became a barren realm. The three months when the earth is barren are the summer months, since in Greece this is when all vegetation dies from heat and lack of rainfall. The winter by comparison has heavy rainfall and mild temperatures in which plant life flourishes. It was during her trip to retrieve Persephone from the underworld that she revealed the Eleusinian Mysteries. In an alternate version, [[Hecate]] rescued Persephone. In other alternative versions, Persephone was not tricked into eating the pomegranate seeds but chose to eat them herself. Some versions say that she ate six seeds rather than three. Regardless, the end result is the occurrence of summer, spring, winter, and fall. ==Demeter's stay at Eleusis== While Demeter was searching for her daughter Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called [[Doso]], she received a hospitable welcome from [[Celeus]], the King of [[Eleusis]] in [[Attica, Greece|Attica]] (and also [[Phytalus]]). He asked her to nurse [[Demophon]] and [[Triptolemus]], his sons by [[Metanira]]. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make Demophon as a god, by coating and anointing him with [[Ambrosia]], breathing gently upon him while holding him in her arms and bosom, and making him immortal by burning his mortal spirit away in the family hearth every night. She put him in the fire at night like a firebrand or ember without the knowledge of his parents. Demeter was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual. Instead of making Demophon immortal, Demeter chose to teach Triptolemus the art of agriculture and, from him, the rest of Greece learned to plant and reap crops. He flew across the land on a winged [[chariot]] while Demeter and Persephone cared for him, and helped him complete his mission of educating the whole of Greece on the art of agriculture. Later, Triptolemus taught [[Lyncus]], King of the [[Scythia]]ns the arts of agriculture but he refused to teach it to his people and then tried to kill Triptolemus. Demeter turned him into a [[lynx]]. Some scholars believe the Demophon story is based on an earlier prototypical folk tale.{{ref|Nilsson3}} ==Portrayals and Miscellanea== Demeter was usually portrayed on a chariot, and frequently associated with images of the harvest, including flowers, fruit, and grain. She was also sometimes pictured with Persephone. Demeter is not generally portrayed with a consort: the exception is [[Iasion]], the youth of Crete who lay with Demeter in a thrice-ploughed field, and was sacrificed afterwards&amp;mdash; by a jealous Zeus with a thunderbolt, Olympian mythography adds, but the Cretan site of the myth is a sign that the Hellenes knew this was an act of the ancient Demeter. Demeter placed [[Aethon]], the god of famine, in [[Erysichthon]]'s gut, making him permanently famished. This was a punishment for cutting down trees in a sacred grove. ==Notes== #{{note|Nilsson1}} Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', p.45: &quot;We have a document concerning the Eleusinian cult which is older and more comprehensive than anything concerning any other Greek cult, namely, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter composed in Attica before Eleusis was incorporated into the Athenian state, not later than the end of the seventh century B.C. We know that the basis of the Eleusinian Mysteries was an old agrarian cult celebrated in the middle of the month Boedromion (about October) and closely akin to the Thesmophoria, a festival of the autumn sowing celebrated by the women not quite a month later. I need not dwell upon this connection, which is established by internal evidence as well as by direct information.&quot; #{{note|Nilsson2}} Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', p.56: &quot;Isocrates speaks in his ''Panegyricus'' of the two greatest gifts granted the Athenians by Demeter-- the Corn, which is the reason why men do not live like wild beasts, and the Mysteries, from which they derive higher hopes in regard to their life and all time&quot;. #{{note|Nilsson3}} Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', p.50: &quot;The Demophon story in Eleusis is based on an older folk-tale motif which has nothing to do with the Eleusinian Cult. It is introduced in order to let Demeter reveal herself in her divine shape&quot;. == References == * [[Walter Burkert]] (1985) ''Greek Religion,'' Harvard University Press, 1985. * [[Ingri &amp; Edgar Parin d'Aulaire]], ''D'Aulaire's Book of Greek Myths'', 1962. An illustrated book of Greek myths retold for children. * [[Jane Ellen Harrison]], ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,'' 1903 * [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Eleusis: archetypal image of mother and daughter,'' 1967. * [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life,'' 1976 * Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', 1940. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gpr/] * [[Carl_A._P._Ruck|Carl Ruck]] and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth,'' 1994. == External links == {{Commonscat|Demeter}} *[http://www.templeofdemeter.com/index.html &quot;Temple of Demeter&quot; website] *[http://uh.edu/~cldue/texts/demeter.html Text of Homeric Hymn to Demeter] *[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gpr/ Online book of Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion''] {{Greek myth (chthonic olympian)}} [[Category:Agricultural goddesses]] [[Category:Greek goddesses]] [[ca:Demèter]] [[de:Demeter]] [[el:Δήμητρα (μυθολογία)]] [[es:Deméter]] [[fr:Déméter]] [[hr:Demetra]] [[it:Demetra]] [[lt:Demetra]] [[lb:Demeter (Mythologie)]] [[hu:Démétér]] [[nl:Demeter (mythologie)]] [[ja:デメテル]] [[pl:Demeter]] [[pt:Deméter]] [[ro:Demetra]] [[ru:Деметра]] [[sl:Demetra]] [[sr:Деметра]] [[sv:Demeter]] [[tr:Demeter]] [[uk:Деметра]] [[zh:德米特尔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Daleks</title> <id>8231</id> <revision> <id>15906244</id> <timestamp>2005-04-29T15:10:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Khaosworks</username> <id>60133</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.54.208.177|24.54.208.177]] to last version by Bryan Derksen</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dalek]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Death metal</title> <id>8233</id> <revision> <id>42158625</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:12:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hmas</username> <id>1019222</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Florida death metal}} '''Death metal''' is a sub-genre of [[Heavy metal music|Heavy Metal]] that evolved out of [[Thrash Metal]] during the early 1980s. Commonly recognized characteristics include rhythmic, chromatic progressions and a narrative or &quot;story telling&quot; song structure such that there is not a verse-chorus cycle as much as an ongoing development of themes and motifs. Aesthetically, it is usually identified by violent rhythm guitar, fast percussion and dynamic intensity. &quot;[[Blast beat]]s&quot; are frequently used to add to the ferocity of the music. The vocals are commonly low gurgles named growl, death growl, or death grunt. This kind of vocalising is distorted by use of the throat, unlike traditional singing technique which discourages it. Music journalist Chad Bowar notes that, due to the similarity of the vocals to &quot;unintelligible yelling&quot;, the style is sometimes described as &quot;[[Cookie monster]] vocals&quot;{{ref|Bowar}}. Also, those not familiar with the genre sometimes confuse it with &quot;[[Deathrock]]&quot;. Death metal's subject matter usually addresses more nihilistic themes than any other genre (except maybe [[black metal]]), usually using metaphors of a gruesome nature to represent a larger concept. The focus on mortality along with the extreme nature of the music (as well as the name of [[Death (band)|Death]], one of the genre's pioneers) likely inspired the naming of this genre as &quot;death&quot; metal. Death metal is commonly known for abrupt [[tempo]] and count/[[time signature]] changes, and extremely fast and complex guitar and [[drum]]work, although this is not always the case. Bands of this genre frequently utilize downtuned and distorted [[guitar]]s, a downtuned, sometimes distorted [[bass guitar]], a drum set (almost universally using two [[bass drum]]s). Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to incorporate other instruments such as [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]. Death metal is very physically demanding of its musicians, especially in its more &quot;technical&quot; forms. == Early history (up to 1991) == Death metal is a subgenre of [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]]. [[Death grunt|Growling vocals]] are the primary identifier for death metal for the newer generation. But this by itself also includes works such as ''Welcome to Hell'' from [[1981]] by British metal group [[Venom (band)|Venom]] where the vocals may be mostly &quot;growling&quot;, but the music is not what is generally meant by &quot;death metal&quot; today. '''Venom''' nev
e, is regarded as another marvel of engineering. The [[music of Africa]] is one of its most dynamic art forms. Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular west Africa, was transmitted through the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to modern [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[rap music|rap]], and [[rock and roll]]. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of [[soukous]], dominated by the [[music of the Democratic Republic of Congo]]. A recent development of the 21st century is the emergence of [[African hip hop]], in particular a form from [[Senegal]] is blended with traditional [[mbalax]]. Recently in South Africa, a form of music related to [[house music]] known under the name [[Kwaito]] has developed, although the country has been home to its own form of [[South African jazz]] for some time, while [[Afrikaans]] music is completely distinct and comprised mostly of traditional [[Boere musiek]], and forms of [[Folk music|Folk]] and [[Rock and roll|Rock]]. * [[List of African musicians]] * [[List of African writers]] * [[African Cinema]] * [[Afrology]] ==Religion== Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, with [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] being the most widespread. Approximately 40% of all Africans are Christians and another 40% Muslims. Roughly 20% of Africans primarily follow indigenous [[African religions]]. A small number of Africans also have beliefs [[African Jew|from the Judaic tradition]], such as the [[Beta Israel]] and [[Lemba]] tribes. The indigenous African religions tend to revolve around [[animism]] and [[ancestor worship]]. A common thread in traditional belief systems was the division of the [[spiritual world]] into &quot;helpful&quot; and &quot;harmful&quot;. Helpful [[Spiritual being|spirits]] are usually deemed to include ancestor spirits that help their descendants, and powerful spirits that protected entire communities from natural disaster or attacks from enemies; whereas harmful spirits include the [[soul]]s of murdered victims who were buried without the proper [[Funeral|funeral rites]], and spirits used by hostile spirit [[Medium (spirituality)|mediums]] to cause illness among their enemies. While the effect of these early forms of worship continues to have a profound influence, belief systems have evolved as they interact with other religions. The formation of the [[Old Kingdom]] of [[Egypt]] in the [[third millennium BCE]] marked the first known complex religious system on the continent. Around the [[ninth century BCE]], [[Carthage]] (in present-day [[Tunisia]]) was founded by the Phoenicians, and went on to become a major cosmopolitan center where [[deity|deities]] from neighboring Egypt, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan city-states]] were worshipped. The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] officially dates from the [[fourth century]], and is thus one of the first established [[Christianity|Christian]] churches anywhere. At first Christian Orthodoxy made gains in modern-day Sudan and other neighbouring regions; however following the spread of Islam, growth was slow and restricted to the highlands. Islam entered Africa as Muslims conquered North Africa between 640 and 710, beginning with Egypt. They established Mogadishu, Melinde, Mombasa, Kilwa, and Sofala, following the sea trade down the coast of [[East Africa]], and diffusing through the Sahara desert into the interior of Africa -- following in particular the paths of Muslim traders. Muslims were also among the Asian peoples who later settled in British-ruled Africa. Many Africans were converted to [[Western Christianity|West European forms of Christianity]] during the colonial period. In the last decades of the twentieth century, various sects of [[charismatic movement|Charismatic Christianity]] rapidly grew. A number of Roman Catholic African bishops were even mentioned as possible [[Pope|papal]] candidates in 2005. African Christians appear to be more socially conservative than their co-religionists in much of the industrialized world, which has quite recently led to tensions within [[Religious denomination|denominations]] such as the [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] and [[Methodism|Methodist Churches]]. ==Territories== [[Image:Africa-regions.png|thumb|300px|Regions of Africa. Blue: North Africa, green: West Africa, brown: Central Africa, orange: Horn of Africa, magenta: East Africa, red: Southern Africa.]] [[Image:AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|thumb|300px|Political Map of Africa]] [[Image:topography_of_africa.jpg|thumb|310px|Physical map of Africa]] ===Independent states=== '''[[East Africa]]''' East Africa proper * [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Kenya]] &lt;!--* [[Mozambique]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--&gt; * [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Tanzania]] * [[Uganda]] [[North East Africa]] ([[Horn of Africa]]) * [[Djibouti]] * [[Eritrea]] * [[Ethiopia]] * [[Somalia]] (including [[Somaliland]]) '''[[Central Africa]]''' &lt;!--* [[Angola]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--&gt; * [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) &lt;!--* [[Cameroon]] (usually considered part of West Africa)--&gt; * [[Central African Republic]] * [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] * [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) * [[Republic of Congo]] &lt;!--* [[Zambia]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--&gt; '''[[North Africa]]''' * [[Algeria]] * [[Egypt]] * [[Libya]] * [[Mauritania]] * [[Morocco]] * [[Sudan]] * [[Tunisia]] '''[[Southern Africa]]''' * [[Angola]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Botswana]] * [[Lesotho]] * [[Malawi]] * [[Mozambique]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) * [[Namibia]] * [[South Africa]] * [[Swaziland]] * [[Zambia]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Zimbabwe]] '''[[West Africa]]''' * [[Benin]] * [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cameroon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Côte d'Ivoire]] * [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[The Gambia]] * [[Ghana]] * [[Guinea]] * [[Guinea-Bissau]] * [[Liberia]] * [[Mali]] &lt;!--* [[Mauritania]] (usually considered part of North Africa)--&gt; * [[Niger]] * [[Nigeria]] * [[Senegal]] * [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Togo]] '''African Island Nations''' * [[Cape Verde]] (West Africa) * [[Comoros]] (Southern Africa) * [[Madagascar]] (Southern Africa) * [[Mauritius]] (Southern Africa) * [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Central Africa or West Africa) * [[Seychelles]] (East Africa) ===Territories, possessions, départements=== * [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]) * [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] ([[Spain]]/claimed by [[Morocco]]) * [[Madeira]] ([[Portugal]]) * [[Mayotte]] ([[France]]) * [[Réunion]] ([[France]]) * [[Saint Helena]] (including dependencies [[Ascension Island]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]]) ([[United Kingdom]]) ===Disputed territories=== * [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. ===Table of territories and regions=== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#ECECEC&quot; ! Name of territory,&lt;br&gt;with [[flag]] ! [[List of countries by area|Area]]&lt;br&gt;(km&amp;sup2;) ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]&lt;br&gt;([[1 July]] [[2002]] est.) ! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]]&lt;br&gt;(per km&amp;sup2;) ! [[Capital]] |- | colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Eastern Africa]]{{ref|region}}''': |- | {{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Burundi]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 27,830 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 6,373,002 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 229.0 | [[Bujumbura]] |- | {{flagicon|Comoros}} [[Comoros]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,170 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 614,382 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 283.1 | [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |- | {{flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 23,000 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 472,810 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 20.6 | [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] |- | {{flagicon|Eritrea}} [[Eritrea]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 121,320 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,465,651 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 36.8 | [[Asmara]] |- | {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[Ethiopia]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,127,127 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 67,673,031 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 60.0 | [[Addis Ababa]] |- | {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 582,650 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 31,138,735 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 53.4 | [[Nairobi]] |- | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} [[Madagascar]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 587,040 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 16,473,477 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 28.1 | [[Antananarivo]] |- | {{flagicon|Malawi}} [[Malawi]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 118,480 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,701,824 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 90.3 | [[Lilongwe]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,040 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,200,206 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 588.3 | [[Port Louis]] |- | {{flagicon|Mayotte}} [[Mayotte]] ([[France]]) | align=&quot;right&quot; | 374 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 170,879 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 456.9 | [[Mamoudzou]] |- | {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]] | align=&quot;right&quot; | 801,590 | align=&quot;right&quot; | 19,607,519 | align=&quot;right&quot;
t the dawn of womanhood. The work is structured as a play and is concise, witty and engaging; the archetypal Sadean characters are, here, used most effectively. The book contains a lengthy political pamphlet ''Frenchmen! One More Effort If You Wish To Be Republicans!'' in which Sade advocates for a utopian form of [[socialism]]. He states that laws against theft are absurd: they protect the original thieves, the wealthy, against the poor who have no option left but theft. He also argues that the state has no right to outlaw murder if it continues to sanction institutionalized murder in the form of executions and war. Laws against [[blasphemy]] are seen as pointless: they are not needed if God doesn't exist, and if He does, he surely won't be petty enough to care about minor attacks. The pamphlet was reprinted separately for distribution during the [[The_Revolutions_of_1848_in_France|revolution of 1848]]. In ''[[Aline and Valcour]]'' (1795) he contrasts a brutal African kingdom with a utopian island paradise. This was the first book published under his true name. In [[1800]] he published a four-volume collection of [[short story|short stories]] titled ''Crimes of Love''. In the introduction, ''Reflections on the novel'', he gives general advice to writers and also provides a critique of [[gothic novel]]s, especially of ''[[The Monk]]'' by [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]] which he considers superior to the work of [[Ann Radcliffe]] [http://www.tabula-rasa.info/DarkAges/MonkFiles.html]. One notable story in the collection, ''Florville and Courval'', has itself been called &quot;gothic&quot; and revolves around a young woman who is unwittingly entangled in a web of incest. While incarcerated again at Charenton, he completed three historical novels: ''Adelaide of Brunswick'', ''Isabelle of Bavaria'' and ''The Marquise de Gange''. He also wrote several plays, most of them unpublished. ''Le Misanthrope par amour ou Sophie et Desfrancs'' was accepted by the [[Comédie-Française]] in [[1790]], and ''Le Comte Oxtiern ou les effets du libertinage'' was performed at the [[Theatre Moliere]] in [[1791]]. Several letters written from prison to his wife have been preserved and were published in [[1998]] as ''Letters from Prison''. Some of them show a bizarre and paranoid obsession with the hidden meaning of numbers. == Appraisal and criticism == Numerous artists, especially those concerned with sexuality, have been both repelled and fascinated by de Sade. [[Simone de Beauvoir]] (in her essay ''Must we burn Sade?'') and other writers have attempted to locate traces of a [[radical]] philosophy of [[freedom]] in Sade's writings, preceding that of [[existentialism]] by some 150 years. The [[surrealism|surrealists]] admired him as one of their precursors, and [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] called him &quot;the freest spirit that has yet existed&quot;. One of the essays in [[Max Horkheimer]] and [[Theodor Adorno]]'s ''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]]'' (1947) is titled &quot;Juliette or Enlightenment and Morality&quot; and interprets the behavior of ''[[L'Histoire de Juliette|Juliette]]'' as the embodiment of the philosophy of [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]]. In [[Harlan Ellison]]'s [[science fiction]] [[anthology]], ''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' (1967), [[Robert Bloch]] wrote a story entitled &quot;A Toy For Juliette&quot; whose title character was both named for and used techniques based on Sade's works. [[Andrea Dworkin]] saw Sade as the exemplar woman-hating pornographer, supporting her theory that pornography inevitably lead to violence against women. One chapter of her book ''Pornography: Men Possessing Women'' (1979) is devoted to an analysis of Sade. [[Susie Bright]] claims that Dworkin's first novel ''Ice and Fire'', which is rife with violence and abuse, is a modern re-telling of Sade's ''Juliette''. == Works about Sade or his books== ===Books=== *''Marquis de Sade: his life and works.'' (1899) by [[Iwan Bloch]] ([http://supervert.com/elibrary/zips/sade_life_and_work.zip download]) *''The Marquis de Sade, a biography.'' (1961) by Gilbert Lély *''The life and ideas of the Marquis de Sade.'' (1963) by Geoffrey Gorer *''Sade, Fourier, Loyola.'' (1971) by [[Roland Barthes]] ([http://supervert.com/elibrary/zips/barthes_life_of_sade.zip life of Sade download]) *''The Marquis de Sade: the man, his works, and his critics: an annotated bibliography.'' (1986) by Colette Verger Michael *''[[The Misfits: A Study of Sexual Outsiders]]'' (1988) by [[Colin Wilson]] *''Sade, his ethics and rhetoric.'' (1989) by Colette Verger Michael *''Marquis de Sade: A Biography'' (1991) by Maurice Lever *'' Dark Eros: The Imagination of Sadism'' (1995) by Thomas Moore *''The philosophy of the Marquis de Sade.'' (1995) by Timo Airaksinen *''An Erotic Beyond: Sade.'' (1998) by [[Octavio Paz]] [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A00E3D7153DF93AA25757C0A96E958260 review] *''Sade: A Biographical Essay.'' (1998) by Laurence L. Bongie ([http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/691/sade138.html review]) *''The Marquis de Sade: a life.'' (1999) by Neil Schaeffer *''At Home With the Marquis de Sade: A Life.'' (1999) by Francine du Plessix Gray *''Marquis de Sade: the genius of passion.'' (2003) by Ronald Hayman === Plays === * The play by [[Peter Weiss]] titled ''The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat, as performed by the inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the direction of the Marquis de Sade'', or ''[[Marat/Sade]]'' for short, is a fictional account of Sade directing a play in Charenton. * The [[Japanese people|Japanese]] writer [[Yukio Mishima]] wrote a play titled ''[[Madame de Sade]]''. * The [[Canadian people|Canadian]] writer/actor [[Barry Yzereef]] wrote a play titled ''[[Sade]]'', a one-man show set in Vincennes prison. * [[Doug Wright]] wrote a play, ''Quills'', a surreal account of the attempts of the Charenton governors to censor the Marquis' writing, which was adapted into the slightly less surreal [[Quills|film]] of the same name. === Films === Perhaps unsurprisingly, Sade's life and writings have proved irresistible to filmmakers. While there are numerous [[pornographic film]]s based on his themes, here are some of the more mainstream movies based on his history or his works of fiction: * ''[[Marat/Sade]]'', a film of the Peter Weiss play (1966) (The full title being ''The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade'') * ''[[Justine_(1968_film)|Marquis de Sade: Justine]]'', directed by [[Jesus Franco]] (1968) * ''[[Eugenie...The Story of Her Journey into Perversion]]'' aka ''Philosophy in the Boudoir'' (1969) * ''[[De Sade (movie)|De Sade]]'' (1969) * ''[[Salo, or the 120 Days of Sodom]]'' aka ''Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma'', directed by [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] (1975) * ''[[Cruel Passion]]'' (1977) * ''[[Marquis (movie)|Marquis]]'' (1989) * ''[[Dark Prince]]'' (1996) * ''[[Sade (movie)|Sade]]'' (1999) * ''[[Quills]]'' (2000) == External links == {{wikiquotepar|Marquis de Sade}} ===About his life and work=== &lt;!-- This formerly good site says nothing much now except &quot;new site coming soon&quot;. We should keep an eye on it, it will probably eventually be worth restoring. -- [[User:Jmabel|Jmabel]] | [[User talk:Jmabel|Talk]] 06:18, Feb 4, 2005 (UTC) *[http://www.monsieurlesix.be/ Monsieur Le Six], a source of texts by and about Sade. Includes engravings from his books as well as photos of his skull.--&gt; *[http://www.routledge-ny.com/enc/eros/individual.html Marquis de Sade], extensive assessment of his work, from the upcoming Routledge Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature *[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/desade.htm Marquis de Sade], from &quot;books and writers&quot; *[http://www.neilschaeffer.com/sade/index.htm Site about Neil Schaeffer's biography of Sade], includes some letters written by Sade while in prison, a timeline, and a bibliography *[http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~riw/MarquesDeSade.htm Timeline of his life] *[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/M/masters_darkness/desade.html Biography of Sade] from [[Channel 4]]. *[http://desade.free.fr/docs/sade.html A Brief Account of the Life of the Marquis de Sade], by Anthony Walker *[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/pornographers/marquis-de-sade/ Biography of Sade] from [http://www.rotten.com Rotten.com] *[http://www.historyhouse.com/in_history/desade/ Detailed description of one of de Sade's escapes] *[http://www.littere.com/lostbooks/engl/enbibliot1.shtm Extensive annotated bibliography], by Marina Pianu ===His works online=== ====French==== * [http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Donatien_Alphonse_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Sade French Wikisource], many public domain works by Sade * [http://desade.free.fr/ desade.free.fr], many works by or about Sade, in several languages. ====English==== * [http://supervert.com/elibrary/marquis_de_sade Marquis de Sade elibrary] -- Electronic library featuring PDFs of 120 Days of Sodom, Philosophy in the Bedroom, a short story, as well as biographical materials * [http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/120Days/ The 120 Days of Sodom] (online e-book) * [http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/Justine/ Justine] * [http://www.horrormasters.com/Text/a0293.pdf Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man] * [http://readytogoebooks.com/FC-P15.html Florville and Courval] * {{gutenberg author| id=Sade+Marquis+de | name=Marquis de Sade}} [[Category:1740 births|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:1814 deaths|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:Atheists|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:BDSM|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:Erotic writers|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:French Revolution|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:French nobility|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:French novelists|Sade, Marquis de]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or tra
t denomination. Many Catholics consider Protestantism to be material rather than formal heresy, and thus non-culpable. Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the belief that the [[Bible]] is the only source and rule of faith (&quot;[[sola scriptura]]&quot;), that faith alone can lead to salvation (&quot;[[sola fide]]&quot;) and that there is no sacramental, ministerial priesthood attained by ordination, but only a universal priesthood of all believers, as first introduced by Luther. ====Protestantism and heresy==== The main meaning of 'heresy' to a Protestant is the concept of telling lies about God. It is not at its core a matter of opposing the authorities (though, like all authorities religious or otherwise, Protestant leaders often invoke the concepts of heresy and [[apostasy]] to defend themselves from attack). Protestants chose the difficult course of action, to try to steer a middle course between (1) respecting God enough to care that humans tell the truth about God, and (2) being tolerant and loving of those who honestly see things differently, giving them an open ear because there might be something to learn from them. Protestant sects which seek to reestablish what they see as ancestral Christian principles -- i.e. [[Fundamentalism|Fundamentalists]] -- sometimes refer to Catholicism (or indeed other Protestant groups) as heretical. One aspect of Catholicism many Protestants regard as heresy against original Christianity is the [[Veneration of saints|veneration of the saints]], and in particular the [[cultus]] of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]. Another is the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]], the event where the bread and wine at Mass becomes the Body and Blood of Christ. ===Heresy in Judaism=== [[Orthodox Judaism]] considers views departing from the traditional [[Jewish principles of faith]] to be heretical. [[Haredi Judaism]] holds that all Jews who reject their specific understanding of [[Maimonides]]'s 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics. Haredi Jews and some [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox]] Jews consider [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] to be heretical movements, and regard most of [[Conservative Judaism]] as heretical. The liberal wing of Modern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups. The Greek term άίρεσις originally denoted &quot;division,&quot; &quot;sect,&quot; &quot;religious&quot; or &quot;philosophical party,&quot; and is applied by [[Josephus]] to the three Jewish sects — [[Sadducee]]s, [[Pharisee]]s, and [[Essenes]]. The specific rabbinical term for heresies, or religious divisions due to an unlawful spirit, is &quot;minim&quot; (lit. &quot;kinds {of belief}&quot;; the singular &quot;min,&quot; for &quot;heretic&quot; or &quot;Gnostic,&quot; is coined idiomatically, like &quot;goy&quot; and &quot;'am ha-aretz&quot;;). The law &quot;You shall not cut yourselves&quot; () is interpreted by the Rabbis: &quot;You shall not form divisions, but shall form one bond.&quot; (Source: [[Midrash]] Sifre on Deuteronomy 96) Besides the term &quot;min&quot; for &quot;heretic,&quot; the [[Talmud]] uses the words &quot;Hitsonim&quot; (outsiders), &quot;[[apikoros]],&quot; and &quot;kofer ba-Torah&quot; (R. H. 17a), or &quot;kofer ba-'ikar&quot; (he who denies the fundamentals of faith; Pes. xxiv. 168b); also &quot;poresh mi-darke tsibbur&quot; (he who deviates from the customs of the community; Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 5; R. H. 17a). Of all these it is said that they are consigned to Gehinnom for all eternity (Tosef., Sanh. l.c.; comp. ib. xii. 9, apparently belonging to xiii. 5: &quot;He who casts off the yoke [of the Law], and he who severs the Abrahamic covenant; he who interprets the Torah against the halakic tradition, and he who pronounces in full the Ineffable Name—all these have no share in the world to come&quot;). The [[Mishnah]] says the following have no share in the world to come: &quot;He who denies that the Torah is divinely revealed, and the apiḳoros.&quot; R. Akiba says, &quot;also he who reads heretical books&quot;. This is explained in the Talmud (Sanh. 100b) to mean &quot;sifre Ẓeduḳim&quot; (Sadducean writings); but this is an alteration by the censor of &quot;sifre ha-Minim&quot; (books of the Gnostics or Heretics). The Biblical version, &quot;That ye seek not after your own heart&quot; (Num. xv. 39), is explained (Sifre, Num. 115; Ber. 12b) as &quot;Ye shall not turn to heretic views [&quot;minut&quot;] which lead your heart away from God&quot; (see Maimonides, &quot;Yad,&quot; 'Akkum, ii. 3). In summarizing the Talmudic statements concerning heretics in Sanh. 90-103, Maimonides (&quot;Yad,&quot; Teshubah, iii. 6-8) says: &quot;The following have no share in the world to come, but are cut off, and perish, and receive their punishment for all time for their great sin: the minim, the apiḳoresim, they that deny the belief in the Torah, they that deny the belief in resurrection of the dead and in the coming of the Redeemer, the apostates, they that lead many to sin, they that turn away from the ways of the [Jewish] community. Five are called 'minim': (1) he who says there is no God and the world has no leader; (2) he who says the world has more than one leader; (3) he who ascribes to the Lord of the Universe a body and a figure; (4) he who says that God was not alone and Creator of all things at the world's beginning; (5) he who worships some star or constellation as an intermediating power between himself and the Lord of the World. &quot;The following three classes are called 'apiḳoresim': (1) he who says there was no prophecy nor was there any wisdom that came from God and which was attained by the heart of man; (2) he who denies the prophetic power of Moses our master; (3) he who says that God has no knowledge concerning the doings of men. &quot;The following three are called 'koferim ba-Torah': (1) he who says the Torah is not from God: he is a kofer even if he says a single verse or letter thereof was said by Moses of his own accord; (2) he who denies the traditional interpretation of the Torah and opposes those authorities who declare it to be tradition, as did [[Zadok]] and Boethus; and (3) he who says, as do the Nazarenes and the Mohammedans, that the Lord has given a new dispensation instead of the old, and that he has abolished the Law, though it was originally divine.&quot; It is noteworthy, however, that Abraham ben David, in his critical notes, objects to Maimonides characterizing as heretics all those who attribute corporeality to God; and he insinuates that the [[Kabbalah|Kabbalists]] are not heretics. In the same sense all Biblical critics who, like [[Ibn Ezra]] in his notes on Deut. i. 2, doubt or deny the Mosaic origin of every portion of the Pentateuch, would protest against the Maimonidean (or Talmudic; see Sanh. 99a) conception of heresy. See Apiḳoros; Articles of Faith; Judaism; Gnosticism. K. ====Legal status==== The status of heretics in Jewish law is not clearly defined. While there are certain regulations scattered throughout the Talmud concerning the minim, the nearest approach to the English term &quot;heretic,&quot; these are mostly of a haggadic nature, the codes taking little cognizance of them. The governing bodies of the Synagogue frequently exercised, from motives of self-defense, their power of excommunication against heretics. The heretic was excluded from a portion in the world to come (Maimonides, &quot;Yad,&quot; Teshubah, iii. 6-14); he was consigned to [[Gehenna]], to eternal [[punishment]] (R. H. 17a; comp. Ex. R. xix. 5; see Apiḳoros, and compare D. Hoffmann, &quot;Der Schulchan Aruch und die Rabbinen über das Verhältnis der Juden zu Andersgläubigen,&quot; 2d ed., Berlin, 1894); but the Jewish courts of justice never attended to cases of heresy; they were left to the judgment of the community. There are, however, in the rabbinic codes, laws and regulations concerning the relation of the Jew to the heretic. The sentiment against the heretic was much stronger than that against the pagan. While the pagan brought his offerings to the Temple in Jerusalem and the priests accepted them, the sacrifices of the heretic were not accepted (Ḥul. 13b, et al.). The relatives of the heretic did not observe the laws of mourning after his death, but donned festive garments, and ate and drank and rejoiced (Sem. ii. 10; &quot;Yad,&quot; Ebel, i. 5, 6; Yoreh De'ah, 345, 5). Scrolls of the Law, tefillin, and mezuzot written by a heretic were burned (Giṭ. 45b; Shulḥan 'Aruk, Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 39, 1; Yoreh De'ah, 281, 1); and an animal slaughtered by a heretic was forbidden food (Ḥul. 13a; Yoreh De'ah, 2, 5). Books written by heretics did not render the hands impure (&quot;Yad,&quot; She'ar Abot ha-Ṭum'ot, ix. 10; comp. Yad. iv. 6; see Purity); they might not be saved from fire on the Sabbath (Shab. 116a; Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 334, 21). A heretic's testimony was not admitted in evidence in Jewish courts (Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ, 34, 22; see &quot;Be'er ha-Golah&quot; ad loc.); and if an Israelite found an object belonging to a heretic, he was forbidden to return it to him (Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ 266, 2). ====Classes of heretics==== The &quot;mumar le-hak'is&quot; (one who transgresses the Law, not for personal advantage, but out of defiance and spite) was placed by some of the Rabbis in the same category as the minim ('Ab. Zarah 26a; Hor. 11a). Even if he habitually transgressed one law only (for example, if he defiantly violated one of the dietary laws), he was not allowed to perform any religious function (Yoreh De'ah, 2, 5; SHaK and &quot;Pitḥe Teshubah,&quot; ad loc.), nor could he testify in a Jewish court (Sanh. 27a; &quot;Yad,&quot; 'Edut, x. 3; Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ, 34, 2). One who violated the Sabbath publicly or worshiped idols could not participate in the
s of inflation, the price of gold rises by roughly the devaluation of the paper currency.]] As noted, in countries experiencing hyperinflation, the [[central bank]] often prints money in larger and larger denominations as the smaller denomination notes become worthless. This can result in the production of some interesting [[banknote]]s, including those denominated in amounts of 1,000,000,000 or more. * By late [[1923]], the [[Weimar Republic]] of Germany was issuing fifty-million-mark banknotes and postage stamps with a face value of fifty billion marks. The highest value banknote issued by the Weimar government's Reichsbank had a face value of 100 Billion marks (100,000,000,000,000) {100 Trillion US/UK}. [http://www.sammler.com/coins/inflation.htm]. One of the firms printing these notes submitted an invoice for the work to the Reichsbank for 32,776,899,763,734,490,417.05 (3.28&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt;, or 33 [[quintillion]]) Marks. * The largest denomination banknote ever officially issued for circulation was in 1946 by the [[Hungarian National Bank]] for the amount of 100 quintillion Peng&amp;#337; (100,000,000,000,000,000,000, or 10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;). [http://bankjegy.szabadsagharcos.org/xxcentury/p136.htm image] (There was even a banknote worth 10 times more, i.e. 10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt; Peng&amp;#337;, printed, but not issued [http://bankjegy.szabadsagharcos.org/xxcentury/p137.htm image].) The Post-WWII hyperinflation of Hungary holds the record for the most extreme monthly inflation rate ever — 41,900,000,000,000,000% ({{sn|4.19|16}}%) for July, 1946, amounting to prices doubling every fifteen hours. One way to avoid the use of large numbers is by declaring a new unit of currency (so, instead of 10,000,000,000 Dollars, a bank might set 1 New Dollar = 1,000,000,000 old Dollars, so the new note would read &quot;10 New Dollars&quot;.) While this does not lessen actual value of a currency, it is called [[revaluation]] and also happens over time in countries with standard inflation levels. During hyperinflation, currency inflation happens so quickly that bills reach large numbers before revaluation. Some banknotes were stamped to indicate changes of denomination. This is because it would take too long to print new notes. By time the new notes would be printed, they would be obsolete (that is, they would be of too low a denomination to be useful). Metallic coins were rapid casualties of hyperinflation, as the scrap value of metal enormously exceeded the face value. Massive amounts of coinage were melted down, usually illictly, and exported for hard currency. Governments will often try to disguise the true rate of inflation through a variety of techniques. These can include the following: *Outright lying as to official statistics such as money supply, inflation or reserves. *Suppression of publication of money supply statistics, or inflation indices. *Price and wage controls. *Forced savings schemes, designed to suck up excess liquidity. These savings schemes may be described as pensions schemes, emergency funds, war funds, or similar. *Adjusting the components of the Consumer Price Index, to remove those items whose prices are rising the fastest. ==Hyperinflation around the world== ;[[Angola]]:Angola went through the worst inflation from 1991 to 1995. In early 1991, the highest denomination was 50,000 Kwanzas. By 1994, it was 500,000 Kwanzas. In the 1995 currency reform, 1 Kwanza Reajustado was exchanged for 1,000 Kwanzas. The highest denomination in 1995 was 5,000,000 Kwanzas Reajustados. In the 1999 currency reform, 1 new Kwanza was exchanged for 1,000,000 Kwanzas Reajustados. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 new Kwanza = 1,000,000,000 pre 1991 Kwanzas. ;[[Argentina]]:Argentina went through steady inflation from 1975 to 1991. At the beginning of 1975, the highest denomination was 1,000 Pesos. In late 1976, the highest denomination was 5,000 Pesos. In early 1979, the highest denomination was 10,000 Pesos. By the end of 1981, the highest denomination was 1,000,000 Pesos. In the 1983 currency reform, 1 Peso Argentino was exchanged for 10,000 Pesos. In the 1985 currency reform, 1 Austral was exchanged for 1,000 Pesos Argentino. In the 1992 currency reform, 1 new Peso was exchanged for 10,000 Australes. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 new Peso = 100,000,000,000 pre-1983 Pesos. ;[[Austria]]: Between 1921 and 1922, inflation in Austria reached 134%. ;[[Belarus]]: Belarus went through steady inflation from 1994 to 2002. In 1993, the highest denomination was 5,000 Rublei. By 1999, it was 5,000,000 Rublei. In the 2000 currency reform, the ruble was replaced by the new Ruble at an exchange rate of 1 new Ruble = 2,000 old Rublei. The highest denomination in 2002 was 50,000 Rublei, equal to 100,000,000 pre-2000 Rublei. ;[[Bolivia]]:Bolivia went through the worst inflation between 1984 and 1986. Before 1984, the highest denomination was 1,000 Pesos Bolivianos. By 1985, the highest denomination was 10 Million Pesos Bolivianos. In the 1987 currency reform, Peso Boliviano was replaced by Boliviano which was pegged to U. S. dollar. ;[[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]:Bosnia-Hezegovina went through the worst inflation in 1993. In 1992, the highest denomination was 1,000 Dinara. By 1993, the highest denomination was 100,000,000 Dinara. In the [[Republika Srpska]], the highest denomination was 10,000 Dinara in 1992 and 10,000,000,000 Dinara in 1993. 50,000,000,000 Dinara notes were also printed in 1993 but never issued. ;[[Brazil]]: Since 1986 every few years the currency has been renamed, and three zeros dropped from the bank notes. A 1960's Cruzeiro was, in 1994, worth less than one trillionth of a US cent, after adjusting for multiple devaluations and note changes. A new currency called Real was adopted in 1994, after the use of a transitional unit during some months, the URV, and since then inflation was under control. ;[[China]]:China went through the worst inflation 1948-49. In 1947, the highest denomination was 50,000 Yuan. By mid-1948, the highest denomination was 180,000,000 Yuan. The 1948 currency reform replaced the Yuan by the Gold Yuan at an exchange rate of 1 Gold Yuan = 3,000,000 Yuan. In less than 1 year, the highest denomination was 10,000,000 Gold Yuan. The highest denomination by a regional bank was 6,000,000,000 Yuan issued by Sinkiang Provincial Bank in 1949 ;[[Free City of Danzig]]:Danzig went through the worst inflation in 1923. In 1922, the highest denomination was 1,000 Mark. By 1923, the highest denomination was 10,000,000,000 Mark. ;[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]:Georgia went through the worst inflation in 1994. In 1993, the highest denomination was 100,000 Laris. By 1994, the highest denomination was 1,000,000 Laris. In the 1995 currency reform, 1 new Lari was exchanged for 1,000,000 Laris. ;[[Germany]]:Germany went through the worst inflation in 1923-24. In 1922, the highest denomination was 50,000 Mark. By 1923, the highest denomination was 100,000,000,000,000 Mark. ;[[Greece]]:Greece went through the worst inflation in 1944. In 1943, the highest denomination was 25,000 Drachmai. By 1944, the highest denomination was 100,000,000,000,000 Drachmai. In the 1944 currency reform, 1 new Drachma was exchanged for 50,000,000,000 Drachmai. Another currency reform in 1953 replaced the Drachma at an exchange rate of 1 new Drachma = 1,000 old Drachma. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 (1953) Drachma = 50,000,000,000,000 pre 1944 Drachmai. The Greek inflation rate reached 8.5 billion percent. ;[[Hungary]]:Hungary went through the worst inflation in modern history in 1945-46. Before 1945, the highest denomination was 1,000 Pengo. By the end of 1945, it was 10,000,000 Pengo. The highest denomination in mid-1946 was 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 Pengo. [http://tomchao.com/hb12.html Banknotes] The rate of inflation was 4.19 quintillion percent. The 1946 currency reform changed the currency to Forint. Previously, between 1922 and 1924 inflation in Hungary reached 98%. ;[[Israel]]: Inflation accelerated in the 1970s, rising steadily from 13% in 1971 to 111% in 1979.From 133% in 1980, it leaped to 191% in 1983 and then to 445% in 1984, threatening to become a four-digit figure within a year or two. In 1985 Israel froze all prices by law. In 1985, inflation fell to 185% (less than half the rate in 1984). Within a few months, the authorities began to lift the price freeze on some items; in other cases it took almost a year. In 1986, inflation was down to just 19%. ;[[Republic of Serbian Krajina|Krajina]]:Krajina went through the worst inflation in 1993. In 1992, the highest denomination was 50,000 Dinara. By 1993, the highest denomination was 50,000,000,000 Dinara. Note that this unrecognized country was reincorporated into Croatia in 1998. ;[[Madagascar]]: The [[Malagasy franc]] had a turbulent time in 2004, losing nearly half its value and sparking rampant inflation. On 1st January 2005 the [[Malagasy ariary]] replaced the previous currency at a rate of 0.2 ariary for one Malagasy franc. In May 2005 there were riots over rising inflation, although falling prices have since calmed the situation. ;[[Nicaragua]]:Nicaragua went through the worst inflation from 1987 to 1990. Before 1987, the highest denomination was 1,000 Cordobas. By 1987, it was 500,000 Cordobas. In the 1988 currency reform, 1 new Cordoba was exchanged for 1,000 old Cordobas. The highest denomination in 1990 was 10,000,000 new Cordobas. In the mid-1990 currency reform, 1 gold Cordoba was exchanged for 5,000,000 new Cordobas. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 gold Cordoba = 5,000,000,000 pre 1988 Cordobas. ;[[Peru]]:Peru went through the worst inflation from 1984 to 1990. The highest denomination in 1984 was 50,000 Soles De Oro. By 1985, it was 500,000 Soles De Oro. In the 1985 currency reform, 1 Intis was exchanged for 1000 Soles De Oro. In 1986, the highest denomination
(Canada)|Department of Energy, Mines and Resources]]. Developed by [[Roger Tomlinson]], it was called &quot;[[Canadian GIS]]&quot; (CGIS) and was used to store, analyse and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI)&amp;mdash;an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:250,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis. CGIS was the world's first &quot;system&quot; and was an improvement over &quot;mapping&quot; applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, digitizing/scanning, supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as &quot;arcs&quot; having a true embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. Its developer, geographer Roger Tomlinson, has become known as the &quot;father of GIS.&quot; CGIS lasted into the [[1990s]] and built the largest digital land resource data base in Canada. It was developed as a mainframe based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex data sets. The CGIS was never available in a commercial form. Its initial development and success stimulated various commercial mapping applications being sold by vendors such as [[Intergraph]]. The development of micro-computer hardware spurred vendors such as [[ESRI]], [[MapInfo]] and [[CARIS]] to successfully incorporate many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. The [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of GIS on [[Unix]] workstations and the [[personal computer]]. By the end of the [[20th century]], the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards. ==Techniques used in GIS== ===Relating information from different sources=== If you could relate information about the rainfall of your [[state]] to aerial photographs of your [[county]], you might be able to tell which wetlands dry up at certain times of the year. A GIS, which can use information from many different sources in many different forms, can help with such analyses. The primary requirement for the source data consists of knowing the locations for the variables. Location may be annotated by x,y, and z coordinates of [[longitude]], [[latitude]], and [[elevation (geography)|elevation]], or by other [[geocode]] systems like [[ZIP Code]]s or by highway [[mile marker]]s. Any variable that can be located spatially can be fed into a GIS. Several computer [[database]]s that can be directly entered into a GIS are being produced by government agencies and non-government organizations. Different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS. A GIS can also convert existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize and use. For example, digital [[satellite images]] generated through [[remote sensing]] can be analyzed to produce a map-like [[layer]] of digital information about vegetative covers. Another fairly developed resource for naming GIS objects is the [[Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names]] ([[GTGN]]), which is a structured vocabulary containing around 1,000,000 names and other information about places[http://gis.ednet.ns.ca/gis_uses_in_US.htm]. Likewise, [[census]] or hydrologic tabular data can be converted to map-like form, serving as layers of thematic information in a GIS. ===Data representation=== GIS data represents real world objects (roads, land use, elevation) with digital [[data]]. Real world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both abstractions: Raster and Vector. [[Raster]] data type consists of rows and columns of cells where in each cell is stored a single value. Most often, raster data are images ([[Raster_graphics|raster]] images), but besides just color, the value recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a continuous value, such as rainfall, or a [[null]] value if no data is available. While a raster cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue) colors, colormaps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster dataset is its cell width in ground units. For example, in a [[LIDAR]] raster image, each cell is a pixel that represents an area of 3 meters by 3 meters. Usually cells represent square areas of the ground, but other shapes can also be used. [[Vector graphics|Vector]] data type uses geometries such as points, lines (series of point coordinates), or polygons, also called areas (shapes bounded by lines), to represent objects. Examples include property boundaries for a housing subdivision represented as polygons and well locations represented as points. Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology rules such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data can also be used to represent continuously varying phenomena. [[Contour line]]s and [[triangulated irregular network]]s (TIN) are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles represent the terrain surface. There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality. Raster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as [[vector graphics]] used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an [[image]] that may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. Additional non-spatial data can also be stored besides the spatial data represented by the coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data are attributes of the object. For example, a forest inventory polygon may also have an identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to [[record (computer science)|records]] in another table. ===Data capture=== Data capture&amp;mdash;entering information into the system&amp;mdash;consumes much of the time of GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format. Existing data printed on paper or [[mylar]] maps can be [[digitizer|digitized]] or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. [[Image scanner|Scanning]] a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. [[Surveying|Survey]] data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments. Positions from a [[global positioning system]] (GPS), another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS. [[Remote sensing|Remotely sensed]] data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include [[camera]]s, digital scanners and [[LIDAR]], while platforms usually consist of aircraft and [[satellite]]s. The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of [[Aerial photography | aerial photographs]]. [[Soft copy workstation]]s are used to digitize features directly from [[Stereoscopy|stereo pairs]] of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in 2 and 3 dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of [[photogrammetry]]. Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped. Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as [[radar]]. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover. When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. In addition to collecting and entering spatial data, attribute data is also entered into a GIS. For vector data this includes additional information about the objects represented in the system. After entering data into a GIS, it usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made &quot;topologically correct&quot; before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a
eligious belief system, practiced within the Igbo nation. It is the belief of many Igbo traditionalists that the Osus are people historically owned by deities, and are therefore considered to be a 'living sacrifice', an outcaste, untouchable and sub-human. Caste systems in [[Somali]] outcaste Midgan-Madhiban, Yibir, Tumal and other groups deemed to be impure. The outcaste clans do not descend from the Arabic-origin ancestors of the political powerful noble caste, such as the Darood, Hawiye and Isaak clans, and are traditionally forbidden to socialize with others in Somali society, have no access to public wells and other water sources, cannot own land and are not allowed to live in villages. Among the Mande societies in [[Senegal]], [[Gambia]], [[Guinea]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[Ghana]] people are divided by occupation and ethnic ties. The highest hierarchy in the Mande caste system, the Horon (nobles/freeborn), are traditionally comprised of farmers, fisherman, warriors and animal breeders, the lowest caste are the Jonow, a &quot;slave&quot; caste, made up of people whose ancestors were enslaved by other Africans during tribal wars. The Wolof hierarchical caste system in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the Geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendents) and the outcasted neeno (people of caste). The caste system found amongst the Borana in North Eastern [[Kenya]] is divided into four distinct castes. At the top, there are Borana Gutu (Pure), followed by Gabra, then Sakuye, and Watta, a traditional hunter-gatherer caste, being the last. The Watta are condemned to life-long servitude for members of the higher castes. Among the Tuareg societies found in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mali]] and [[Niger]], exists a similar caste system, where the Bellah slave caste is treated as slaves to other castes. In [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] and eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] it is known as ''ubuhake''. The [[Tutsi]], who comprise about 15% of the population of these areas, were the ruling, Cattle-owning caste - corresponding to the &quot;Kshatriyas&quot; in the Vedic system. Below them were the [[Hutu]], the farmers - corresponding with the Vedic ''Sudras''; about 80% of the population. Fewer than 3% of the population are [[Twa]] or [[Pygmies]], who occupy a position similar to that of 'tribals' in the Indian system. During the [[Germany|German]] suzerainty over Rwanda and Burundi, the authorities reinforced the system by employing Tutsis in hegemonic roles. The [[Belgian]] colonialists who succeeded them after [[World War I]] continued this policy, instituting 'ethnic' identity cards. They also incorporates subsidiary populations, such as the [[Hima]] and the [[Baganwa]], into the Tutsi. After independence, tensions intensified. In [[1972]], Tutsis were responsible for a wholesale massacre of Hutus. In the [[1990s]], Hutus responded with counter-massacres. ==References== *Bryce Ryan, ''Caste in Modern Ceylon'', Rutgers University Press, 1953.</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Creation</title> <id>7258</id> <revision> <id>39757258</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:46:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Happyhyper</username> <id>838216</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} {{disambig}} '''Creation''' is the following: *Generally, '''creation''' is the act or result of bringing something into existence [[ex nihilo|from nothing at all]]. *In theology, '''[[Creation (theology)|Creation]]''' is God's act of bringing the universe into existence from nothing. ** [[Creationism]] is the belief that the natural universe, life, and humanity were created by a supreme being's supernatural intervention. *Creation is a yearly Christian music festival which happens in the Eastern and Western parts of the United States. It's also known as [[Creation Festival|Creation Fest]]. *In genealogy and heraldry, '''creation''' is the [[investment]] of a [[peerage|peer]]. If a peerage no longer exists, and is created anew, the peers bearing the new [[dignity]] are said to be of the second (third, fourth) creation. *In art or design, a '''creation''' is the actual thing the artist creates, from [[sculpture]], [[costume]], [[music]], or [[architecture]]. *In literature, '''''[[Creation (book)|Creation]]''''' is a book written in 1981 by [[Gore Vidal]]. *In classical music, [[The Creation]] is an [[oratorio]] by [[Joseph Haydn]] *In the music business, '''[[Creation (record label)|Creation]]''' is record label created by [[Alan McGee]]. *'''[[The Creation (band)|Creation]]''' was a British band with one hit called ''Painter Man'' in [[1967]]. *'''''[[Creation magazine|Creation]]''''' is the name of a magazine promoting creationism that is published by [[Answers in Genesis]]. *'''''[[Creation (1931 film)|Creation]]''''' was a 1931 film that inspired ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' *In [[particle physics]], '''creation''' is the opposite of [[annihilation]]. It refers to the appearance of [[elementary particle]]s, in physical processes such as [[pair production]] or abstractly as in a [[creation operator]]. * '''Creation''' is the name of a number of [[nightclub]]s in the United Kingdom, including those in Leicester, Brighton and Cardiff. [[it:Creazione]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Collegiate Shag</title> <id>7259</id> <revision> <id>15905336</id> <timestamp>2005-02-02T04:13:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>132.170.40.41</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Collegiate Shag''' is a form of [[swing dancing]], similar to the [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]] (another swing dance), but with different footwork (footwork: the dance term for steps). Danced with a [[Lead and follow]], it is danced to upper tempo music (usually 200+ beats per minute) and the couple dancing is positioned very closely for a body lead [[Connection (dance)|connection]]. Collegiate Shag began in New Orleans in the 1920's and it was performed by young (&quot;college age&quot;) dancers to ragtime jazz. It pre-dates the [[Lindy Hop]] and [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]]. As it spread, new breeds of the dance were created such as [[Carolina Shag]] and [[St. Louis Shag]]. The dance is still performed today by swing dance enthusiasts wordwide. [[Category:Swing dances]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Characteristic</title> <id>7261</id> <revision> <id>29811180</id> <timestamp>2005-12-01T15:42:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Commander Keane bot</username> <id>502295</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Character</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Characteristic''' has several meanings: ;Mathematics * [[characteristic (algebra)]] * [[characteristic function]] * [[characteristic subgroup]] * [[Euler characteristic]] * [[method of characteristics]] ;Or * [[characteristic (genetics)]]. ''Characteristic'' is also sometimes used as a piece of jargon in discussions of [[Universal--metaphysics|universals]] in [[metaphysics]], often in the phrase 'distinguishing characteristics'. *An ''I-V'' or [[current-voltage characteristic]] is the current in a circuit as a function of the applied voltage ==See also== * [[character]] (disambiguation) {{disambig}} [[io:Karakterizo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CORAL66 programming language</title> <id>7262</id> <revision> <id>40330557</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:36:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marcika</username> <id>42989</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix: &quot;commerical&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CORAL''' ('''C'''omputing '''O'''nline '''R'''ealtime '''A'''lgorithmic '''L'''anguage) was developed in [[1966]] at the [[Royal Radar Establishment]] (RRE), [[Malvern, Worcestershire|Malvern]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths. CORAL 66 is a general purpose [[programming language]] based on [[Algol 60]], with some features from [[CORAL 64]], [[JOVIAL]], and [[Fortran|FORTRAN]]. Like [[Edinburgh IMP]] it allows embedded assembler, and also offered good run-time checking and diagnostics. The language uses reserved keywords [[stropping|stropped]] by single quotes, such as 'BEGIN'. While the syntax is slightly reminiscent of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], in some ways it is more like FORTRAN than Algol, in that recursive procedures are not supported. Intended for [[real-time computing|real-time]] applications, the language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry. It was used to write software for both the [[Ferranti]] and [[The General Electric Company|GEC]] computers from [[1971]] onwards. Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, [[PDP-11]], [[VAX]] and [[Alpha processor]]s; for the [[Honeywell]], and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL) Modular-1; as well as for [[SPARC]] running [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] and [[Intel]] running [[Linux]]. Source code for a Coral66 compiler (written in [[BCPL]]) has been recovered and the &quot;Official Definition of Coral66&quot; document by HMSO has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has agreed to issue a licence to allow us to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use. This should become available in March 2006. ==External links== * [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/deimos/ercm09/emas-2900/coral2.txt CORAL 66 test program] extracted from the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/emas/users/ercm09/emas-2900/cor
sted election]]s are now held at the village level and legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time, the party retains effective control over governmental appointments. While the state uses authoritarian methods to deal with challenges to its rule, it simultaneously attempts to reduce dissent by improving the economy, allowing expression of personal grievances, and giving lenient treatment to persons expressing dissent whom the regime does not believe are organizers. [[Censorship]] of political speech and information is openly and routinely used to protect what the government claims to be national security interests, including [[Internet censorship in China|internet censorship]]. The government has a policy of suppressing any protests and organizations that it considers a threat to its power, as was the case after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square protests]]. However, there are limits to the repression that the Party is willing or able to achieve. The media have become increasingly active in publicizing social problems and exposing corruption and inefficiency at lower levels of government, although recently the PRC has tended to increase crackdowns on reporters. The Party has also been rather unsuccessful at controlling information, and in some cases has had to change policies in response to public outrage. Although organized opposition against the Party is not tolerated, demonstrations over local issues are frequent and increasingly tolerated. The support that the Communist Party of China has among the Chinese population is unclear, as there are no national elections, and private conversations and anecdotal information often reveal conflicting views. Many in China appear to appreciate the role that the government plays in maintaining social stability, which has allowed the economy to grow without interruption. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor in the PRC, and the growing discontent with widespread corruption within the leadership and officials. {{seealso|Chinese nationalism|Propaganda in the People's Republic of China|Imperialism in Asia|Politics of Taiwan|Hong_Kong#Politics|Macau#Politics}} ===Human rights debates=== ''Main article [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]]'' The PRC is sometimes under criticism from Western governments and [[NGO]]s concerning allegations of lengthy [[detention without trial]], forced confessions, [[torture]], and [[mistreatment of prisoners]] as well as allegations of restrictions on freedoms of [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[freedom of the press|the press]], [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], [[freedom of association|association]], [[freedom of religion|religion]], and [[workers' rights]], as being violations of their definition of human rights. They argue these alleged violations stem from the PRC government's intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for individual political rights. The PRC government argues that the notion of human rights should include economic standards of living and measures of health and economic prosperity. It views the rise in the standard of living of the Chinese people as an indicator of improvement of the human rights situation. ==Political Divisions== {{main|Political divisions of China}} The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces (省); the government of the People's Republic of China considers [[Taiwan Province|Táiwān]] (台湾), which is actually controlled by the [[Republic of China]], to be its 23rd province. (See [[Political status of Taiwan]] for more information.) Apart from provinces there are 5 autonomous regions (自治区) containing concentrations of several minorities; 4 municipalities (直辖市) for China's largest cities and 2 [[Special Administrative Region]]s (SAR) (特别行政区), which are governed by the PRC but enjoy considerable autonomy. The 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities can be collectively referred to as &quot;[[mainland China]]&quot;, a term which usually excludes Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. [[Image:China administrative.png|300px|thumb|Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China]] The following are a list of administrative divisions of areas under the control of the People's Republic of China. {{col-begin|width=}} {{col-break}} '''Provinces'''（省） *[[Anhui|Ānhuī]] (安徽) *[[Fujian|Fújiàn]] (福建) *[[Gansu|Gānsù]] (甘肃) *[[Guangdong|Guǎngdōng]] (广东) *[[Guizhou|Guìzhōu]] (贵州) *[[Hainan|Hǎinán]] (海南) *[[Hebei|Héběi]] (河北) *[[Heilongjiang|Hēilóngjiāng]] (黑龙江) *[[Henan|Hénán]] (河南) *[[Hubei|Húběi]] (湖北) *[[Hunan|Húnán]] (湖南) *[[Jiangsu|Jiāngsū]] (江苏) *[[Jiangxi|Jiāngxī]] (江西) *[[Jilin|Jílín]] (吉林) *[[Liaoning|Liáoníng]] (辽宁) *[[Qinghai|Qīnghǎi]] (青海) *[[Shaanxi|Shaanxi (Shǎnxī)]] (陕西) *[[Shandong|Shāndōng]] (山东) *[[Shanxi|Shānxī]] (山西) *[[Sichuan|Sìchuān]] (四川) *[[Yunnan|Yúnnán]] (云南) *[[Zhejiang|Zhèjiāng]] (浙江) {{col-break}} '''Autonomous regions'''（自治区） *[[Guangxi|Guǎngxī]] (广西壮族自治区) *[[Inner Mongolia|Inner Mongolia (Nèi Měnggǔ)]] (内蒙古自治区) *[[Ningxia|Níngxià]] (宁夏回族自治区) *[[Xinjiang|Xīnjiāng]] (新疆维吾尔自治区) *[[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet (Xīzàng)]] (西藏自治区) &lt;br /&gt; '''Municipalities'''（直辖市） *[[Beijing|Běijīng]] (北京市) *[[Chongqing|Chóngqìng]] (重庆市) *[[Shanghai|Shànghǎi]] (上海市) *[[Tianjin|Tiānjīn]] (天津市) &lt;br /&gt; '''Special Administrative Regions'''（特别行政区） *[[Hong Kong|Hong Kong (Xiānggǎng)]] (香港特别行政区) *[[Macau|Macau (Àomén)]] (澳门特别行政区) &lt;br /&gt; '''Claimed by the PRC, but governed by [[Republic of China]]''' *[[Taiwan Province|Táiwān]] (台湾) ([[Political status of Taiwan|disputed]]) {{col-end}} ==Geography and climate== [[Image:ChinaGeography.png|left|The Geography of China|thumb|300px|The Geography of China]] [[Image:Baitou_Mountain_Tianchi.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Tianchi]] in [[Baitou Mountain]].]] [[Image:Hangzhou_mountains.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Landscape in [[Hangzhou]].]] [[Image:Saihanba5.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Saihanba National Park]] in [[Hebei]].]] {{main|Geography of China}} The PRC is the largest [[country]] in [[area]] in [[East Asia]] (excluding Russia) and the [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1007029394365&amp;a=KCountryProfile&amp;aid=1018965313021 third largest] in the world by land-and-sea area. (However, the [[United States of America]] disputes this and instead believes itself to be the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html third largest].) It borders 14 nations (counted clockwise from south): [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]] (commonly known as Burma), [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]]{{ref|disp}}, [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], [[Mongolia]] and [[North Korea]]. The PRC contains a large variety of landscapes. In the east, along the shores of the [[Yellow Sea]] and the [[East China Sea]], are found extensive and densely populated [[alluvium|alluvial plains]]; the [[shore]] of the [[South China Sea]] is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges. In the central-east are found the [[river delta|delta]]s of China's two major rivers, the [[Huang He]] and [[Yangtze River]] (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the [[Xijiang River]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra]] and [[Amur]]. To the west, major mountain ranges, notably the [[Himalaya]] with China's highest point [[Mount Everest]], and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscape of [[desert]]s such as the [[Taklamakan]] and the [[Gobi Desert]]. Due to a prolonged [[drought]] and poor agricultural practices [[dust storm|dust storms]] have become usual in the spring in China. According to China's Environmental Protection Agency, the Gobi Desert has been expanding &quot;like a tsunami&quot; and is a major source of dust storms which affect [[Mainland China]] and other parts of northeast Asia such as [[Taiwan]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]. Dust from the northern plains has been tracked to the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] of the [[United States]]. River management (human waste dumping, factory pollution, and water extraction for irrigation and drinking) and dust erosion are problems affecting other countries that have become recent important concerns for relations between China and its neighboring countries. ==Foreign relations== {{main|Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China}} The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world, but makes acknowledging its claim to [[Taiwan]] and severing any official ties with the [[Republic of China]] (ROC) government a prerequisite for diplomatic exchanges. It actively opposes foreign travels by current and former political officials of Taiwan, such as [[Lee Teng-hui]] and [[Chen Shui-bian]], and other persons it sees politically dangerous, such as [[Tenzin Gyatso]] (considering [[Tibet]]) and [[Li Hongzhi]] (considering [[Falun Gong]]). [[Image:Clinton and jiang.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Jiang Zemin]] and [[Bill Clinton]].]] In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative for &quot;China&quot; in the [[United Nations]] and as one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]]; it is also considered a founding member although the PRC was not in control at the founding of the UN. (See [[China and the United Nations]]) It was for a time a member and leader of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], but now is an observer. Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of [[China's peaceful rise]]. [[Sino-Japanese relations]] have been strained several times in the past few decades by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its past [[Japanese war crimes|war crimes]] and violations to Chinese satisfaction, most notable among which is the [[Nanking Massacre|Nanjing Massacre]]. Recent incidents with the United States include t
on=31; 13:1-2] (the &quot;little Apocalypse&quot;, see below) have been seen as a reference to the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]]. This would mean that either Mark recorded Jesus prophesying that the temple would be destroyed, or that the work was written ''after'' it happened in AD 70. Most scholars contrast these comments with the more specific ones in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and would be hesitant to assign a date later than AD 70-73, the latter being when Jerusalem was finally and fully sacked. Nevertheless, a great majority of moderate and conservative scholars assign Mark a date between AD 60 and 70, although there are vocal minority groups which argue for earlier or later dates.&lt;!--waffle. solid information requires names and the date ranges that they assign--&gt; Two papyrologists, Fr. [[Jose O'Callaghan]] and [[Carsten Peter Thiede]], have proposed that lettering on a postage stamp-sized papyrus fragment found in a cave at [[Qumran]], [[7Q5]], represents a fragment of Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:52-53;&amp;version=31; 6:52-53]; thus they assert that the present gospel was written and distributed prior to AD 68. Almost all other papyrologists, however, consider this identification of the fragmentary text, and its supposition that early Christians lived at [[Qumran]], to be dubious. ==Audience== The general theory is that Mark is a Hellenistic gospel, written primarily for an audience of Greek-speaking residents of the [[Roman Empire]]. Jewish traditions are explained, clearly for the benefit of non-Jews (e.g. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:1-4;&amp;version=31; 7:1-4]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:12;&amp;version=31; 14:12]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:42;&amp;version=31; 15:42]). [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] words and phrases are also expanded upon by the author: e.g. &amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;theta;&amp;alpha; &amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;mu; (&quot;talitha cum&quot;, 5:41); &amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;beta;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu; (&quot;Corban&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:11;&amp;version=31; 7:11]); &amp;alpha;&amp;beta;&amp;beta;&amp;alpha; (&quot;abba&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:36;&amp;version=31; 14:36]). The Hellenism exhibited is not confined to language. The description in this Gospel of how the [[Sanhedrin]] plotted to execute Jesus has been used to promote and condone [[anti-Semitism]]. The demonization of [[Pharisee]]s at first seems to direct this gospel at a [[Gentile]] audience; perhaps one only partly of Jewish extraction, as at Alexandria. (See [[Jews in the New Testament]] for further discussion.) Alongside these Hellenistic influences, ''Mark'' in common with the other [[synoptic gospels]] makes detailed use of the Old Testament in the form in which it had been translated into Greek, the [[Septuagint]], for instance ''Mark'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:2;&amp;version=31; 1:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:23-28;&amp;version=31; 2:23-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2010:48;&amp;version=31; 10:48b]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2012:18-27;&amp;version=31; 12:18-27]; also compare [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:10;&amp;version=31; 2:10 ]with ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel%207:13-14;&amp;version=31; 7:13-14]. Those who seek to temper the anti-Semitism in ''Mark'' note passages such as [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:44;&amp;version=31; 1:44]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:7;&amp;version=31; 5:7] (&quot;Son of the Most High God&quot;; cf. [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2014:18-20;&amp;version=31; 14:18-20]); [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:27;&amp;version=31; 7:27]; and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:27-30;&amp;version=31; 8:27-30]. These also indicate that the audience of ''Mark'' has kept at least some of its Jewish heritage, and also that the gospel might not be as Hellenistic as it first seems. The author of Mark also employed certain Latinised vocabulary not found in any of the other gospels: e.g. &amp;sigma;&amp;pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha; (&quot;soldier of the guard&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:27;&amp;version=47; 6:27], NRSV), &amp;xi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;sigma;&amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; (Greek corruption of ''sextarius'' (&quot;pots&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:4;&amp;version=47; 7:4]), &amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;delta;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf; (&quot;penny&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2012:42;&amp;version=47; 12:42], NRSV), &amp;kappa;&amp;epsilon;&amp;nu;&amp;tau;&amp;upsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; (&quot;[[centurion (Roman army)|centurion]]&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:39;&amp;version=47; 15:39], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:44-45;&amp;version=47; 15:44-45]). It has been suggested that these usages show that Mark was written in Rome. ==Sources: ''Mark'' and Midrash== The Gospel of Mark appears to be [[Midrash]] of the Tanakh. Mark contains over 150 citations or allusions to the Tanakh, with the bulk of the Gospel episodes being derived from Kings 1 &amp; 2 stories about Elijah and Elisha. See [http://users2.ev1.net/~turton/GMark/GMark_index.html Michael A. Turton's Historical Commentary on the Gospel of Mark] Errors of geography and culture suggest the author was not a local, but may have written in Rome. ==Sources: ''Mark'''s disputed relation with [[Q Gospel]]== Many mainstream textual critics agree that ''Matthew'' as we now have it and ''Luke'' depend upon ''Mark'' and the theorized lost &quot;sayings&quot; gospel called ''Q''. Associated with the subject of &quot;Markan priority&quot; discussed below, is the question raised whether ''Mark'' depends on the Q gospel at all. Several possible relationships are offered: ''Mark'' supplementing the sayings source, Q as a supplement to Mark, even &quot;a critical debate by Mark with the Christology of the sayings source&quot; [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/q.html]. The existence of ''Q'' was suggested originally to account for the &quot;double tradition&quot; material, that material which is present in both ''Matthew'' and ''Luke'' but not ''Mark''. Some scholars, like Burton Mack (1993 pp 177-9), discuss &quot;a myriad of interesting points at which the so-called overlaps between Mark and Q show Mark's use of Q material for his own narrative designs.&quot; [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/q.html]. On the other hand [[Udo Schnelle]] (1998 p 195) finds that &quot;a direct literary connection between Mark and Q must be regarded as improbable&quot; and looks to connections through the oral tradition [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/q.html].a ==Characteristics== Unlike both Matthew and Luke, Mark does not offer any information about the life of Jesus before he begins his ministry: there is no nativity in Mark, as in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%201:18-2:12;&amp;version=31; 1:18-2:12]) and [[Luke 2|Luke]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:1-20;&amp;version=31; 2:1-20]), nothing about John the Baptist's birth (as in [[Luke 1]]), no massacre of the infants ([[Matthew 2|Matthew]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:16;&amp;version=31; 2:16]), and no childhood tales (Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:41-52;&amp;version=31; 2:41-52]). Neither is there a genealogy of Jesus ([[Matthew 1|Matthew]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%201:1-17;&amp;version=31; 1:1-17] or, differently, [[Luke 3|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%203:23-38;&amp;version=31; 3:23-38]). The detailed narrative concentrates on the miracle stories, omitted by the later synoptics, show us otherwise (compare e.g. Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:19;&amp;version=31; 1:19] and [[Luke 4|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%204:38;&amp;version=31; 4:38a]; Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mark%205:21-43;&amp;version=31; 5:21-43] and Matthew [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%209:18-26;&amp;version=31; 9:18-26]). ===Other characteristics unique to ''Mark''=== *[[Son of Man]] is the major title used of Jesus in Mark (2:10, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:28;&amp;version=31; 2:28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:31;&amp;version=31; 8:31]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209:9;&amp;version=31; 9:9], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209:12;&amp;version=31; 9:12], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209:31;&amp;version=31; 9:31]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2010:33;&amp;version=31; 10:33], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2010:45;&amp;version=31; 10:45]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:21;&amp;version=31; 14:21], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:41;&amp;version=31; 14:41]). Many people have seen that this title is a very important one within Mark’s Gospel, and it has important implications for Mark’s christology. Jesus raises a question that demonstrates the association in Mark between ‘Son of Man’ (compare Daniel 7:13-14) and the suffering servant in [[Book of Isaia
dams's posthumously published work, ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'', features multiple articles written by Douglas on the subject of technology, including reprints of articles that originally ran in ''MacUser'' magazine, and in ''The Independent on Sunday'' newspaper. In these, Adams claims that one of the first computers he ever saw was a [[Commodore PET]], and that his love affair with the [[Apple Macintosh]] first began after seeing one at Infocom's headquarters in Massachusetts in 1983 (though that was actually very likely an [[Apple Lisa]]). {{ref|Adams2002_90-1}} Adams was a Macintosh user from the time they first came out in 1984 until his death in 2001. Adams was also an &quot;Apple Master,&quot; one of several celebrities whom Apple made into spokespeople for its products (other Apple Masters included [[John Cleese]] and [[Gregory Hines]]). Adams's contributions included a rock video that he created using the first version of [[iMovie]] with footage featuring his daughter Polly. The video can still be seen on Adams's [[.Mac]] homepage. Adams even installed and started using the first release of [[Mac OS X]] in the weeks leading up to his death. His very last post to his own forum was in praise of Mac OS X and the possibilities of its [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] programming framework. {{ref|AdamsForum}} Adams can also be seen in the ''Omnibus'' tribute included with the Region One/NTSC DVD release of the TV adaptation of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' using Mac OS X (version 10.0.x) on his [[PowerBook]] G3. Adams used e-mail extensively from the technology's infancy, adopting a very early version of e-mail to correspond with [[Steve Meretzky]] during the pair's collaboration on Infocom's version of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''. While living in New Mexico in 1993 he set up another e-mail address and began posting to his own [[USENET]] newsgroup: alt.fan.douglas-adams. {{ref|GoogleAFDA1}} Many of his posts are now archived through [[Google]]. Challenges to the authenticity of his identity later led Adams to set up a message forum on his own website to avoid the issue. ==Personal life== In the early 1980s, Adams had an affair with married novelist [[Sally Emerson]], to whom he dedicated his book ''[[Life, the Universe, and Everything]]''. Emerson returned to her husband after splitting with Adams in 1981, and Adams was soon afterward introduced by friends to Jane Belson, with whom he later became romantically involved. Belson was the &quot;lady barrister&quot; mentioned in the jacket-flap biography printed in his books during the mid-1980s (&quot;He [Adams] lives in Islington with a lady barrister and an Apple Macintosh&quot;). The two lived in Los Angeles together during 1983 while Adams worked on an early screenplay adaptation to make ''Hitchhiker'' into a Hollywood movie. When the deal fell through, they moved to London, and after several separations and an aborted engagement, they were married on [[25 November]] [[1991]]. Adams and Belson had one daughter together, Polly Jane Rocket Adams, born on [[22 June]] [[1994]], in the year that Adams turned [[42 (number)#In pop culture|42]]. In 1999, the family moved from London to [[Santa Barbara, California]], where they lived until Adams's death. Following his funeral, Jane Belson and Polly Adams returned to London, where they currently reside. {{ref|Webb2005_ch10}} ==Adams's death== [[Image:The_Salmon_of_Doubt_Macmillan_front.jpg|thumb|175px|The front cover of the UK first hardcover edition of ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]''.]] Adams died of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 49 on Friday 11th May 2001, while working out at a private [[gym]] in [[Montecito, California|Montecito]], [[California]]. He is survived by his wife Jane and daughter Polly. He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in [[Highgate Cemetery]] in north [[London]]. In May 2002, ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' was published, containing many short stories, essays, and letters, and [[eulogy|eulogies]] from [[Richard Dawkins]], [[Stephen Fry]] (in the UK edition), [[Christopher Cerf]] (in the U.S. edition), and [[Terry Jones]] (in the U.S. paperback edition). It also includes eleven chapters of his long-awaited but unfinished novel, ''The Salmon of Doubt'', which was to be a new [[Dirk Gently]] and/or ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|HHGG]]'' novel, or neither. Other events after Adams's death included the completion of ''[[Shada]]'', radio dramatizations of the final three books in the ''Hitchhiker's'' series, and the completion of the film adaptation of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''. ==Biographies== His [[official biography]], ''Wish You Were Here'', by [[Nick Webb (author)|Nick Webb]], was published on [[6 October]] [[2003]] (ISBN 0755311558). {{ref|2003WebbBio}} Another biography is ''[[Hitchhiker: a Biography of Douglas Adams (book)|Hitchhiker: a Biography of Douglas Adams]]'' (2003) by M. J. Simpson, with a [[foreword]] (in the [[UK]] edition) by [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] (ISBN 0340824883). The [[United States|American]] edition contains a foreword by [[Neil Gaiman]] (ISBN 1932112170). Upon the mutual discovery that Webb and Simpson were both working on new posthumous biographies, the two authors agreed that the former would focus on Adams's life and personality, and the latter on his work. The BBC produced a tribute as part of their TV series Omnibus. It was first broadcast on BBC 2 on [[4 August]] [[2001]], presented by [[Kirsty Wark]]. The programme included interviews with [[Stephen Fry]], [[Clive Anderson]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Griff Rhys Jones]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and John Lloyd, among others. A copy is included with the Region One DVD release of the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' TV series. A movie documentary, ''Life, The Universe and Douglas Adams'', was released in 2002, directed and produced by Rick Mueller and Joel Greengrass. Archive footage of Adams is generously included, as well as interviews with Adams's friends, colleagues and family. This documentary was narrated by [[Neil Gaiman]] and is available on VHS tape. {{ref|2002Video}} Earlier biographies include: *''[[Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Companion]]'' (1988, 1993, 2002), [[Neil Gaiman]] et al. Reissued October 2003 (ISBN 1840237422) with new chapters by M. J. Simpson and [[David K. Dickson]]. *''The Unofficial Guide to the Hitchhiker's Guide'' (2001), M. J. Simpson. Published the same year as ''The Pocket Essential Hitchhiker's Guide'' in the U.K. (ISBN 1903047404). A second, revised edition was published in 2005 in the UK, with new material (ISBN 1904048463). ==Douglas Adams's works== ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' on audio and video: The [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases|original 12 radio episodes]] (from 1978 and 1980) are available in CD sets from BBC Audio (as The Primary &amp; Secondary Phases), as well as on a single [[MP3]]-CD. ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' was the first radio series released on Compact Disc and on MP3-CD, respectively, by the then [[BBC Radio Collection]]. The three additional phases adapted from the last three books in the series are available from BBC Audio. [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Tertiary Phase|The Tertiary Phase]] was broadcast on BBC Radio [[21 September]] to [[26 October]] [[2004]], whilst [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quandary Phase|The Quandary Phase]] was broadcast [[3 May]] to [[24 May]] [[2005]], and [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quintessential Phase|The Quintessential Phase]] followed immediately afterward, from [[31 May]] through [[21 June]] [[2005]]. A script book for the original 12 episodes has been published, and a new script book for the final 14 episodes was published in July 2005. BBC Audio released a CD boxset containing all 26 episodes in October 2005. An Audio DVD for each of the three 2004-2005 series, in 5.1 surround sound, are also planned for release in 2006, starting in October, per Dirk Maggs. These DVD-Audio discs will be a first for BBC Audio. The six episode [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)|TV adaptation]] is also available from the BBC (or its distributors, e.g. Warner Home Video in the USA and Canada) on VHS and DVD. ===Novels in the ''HHGG'' series=== * ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' (1979) * ''[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]'' (1980) * ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'' (1982) * ''[[So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish]]'' (1984) * ''[[Mostly Harmless]]'' (1992) All of the above are also available as audio books, read by Adams. ''The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy'' is also available as an audiobook read by [[Stephen Fry]]. ===The Dirk Gently series=== * ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'' (1987) * ''[[The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul]]'' (1988) Audiobook recordings of both novels do exist, read by Adams and [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]] respectively, but are out of print. ===Other works=== [[Image:Deeper Meaning of Liff front cover.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Adams on the front cover of the ''[[The Deeper Meaning of Liff]]'', 1990.]] * ''[[The Meaning of Liff]]'' (1983, with [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]]) * ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts]]'' (1985, with [[Geoffrey Perkins]]) * ''[[The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book]]'' (1986, edited by Douglas Adams and [[Peter Fincham]]), which includes ** ''[[Young Zaphod Plays it Safe]]'' (also printed in a slightly reworked version in ''The Wizards of Odd'', ''The Salmon of Doubt'', and several omnibus editions of ''Hitchhiker'') ** ''[[The Private Life of Genghi
that the suffixed &quot;e&quot; represented &quot;Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale)&quot;. In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman asking how the 'E' represents [[Scotland]], given Scotland's contribution of providing the nosecone for the aircraft. Benn replied &quot;E stands also for Ecosse&quot;, the [[French language|French]] name for Scotland. Construction of the first two prototypes began in February, 1965. Concorde 001 was built by Aerospatiale at Toulouse and Concorde 002 by BAC at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 took off for the first test flight from [[Toulouse]] on [[March 2]] [[1969]] and the first supersonic flight followed on [[October 1]]. As the flight programme of the first development aircraft progressed, 001 started off on a sales and demonstration tour beginning on [[September 4]] [[1971]]. Concorde 002 followed suit in [[June 2]] [[1972]] with a sales tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the [[United States]] in 1973, landing at the new [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] to commemorate its opening. These trips led to an influx of orders for over 70 aircraft. However, a combination of factors caused a sudden cascade of order cancellations, including the 1970s oil crisis, acute financial difficulties of the partner airlines, a spectacular crash of the competing Soviet [[Tupolev Tu-144]], and environmental issues such as [[sonic boom]] noise and pollution. [[Air France]] and [[British Airways]] ended up as the only buyers. The aircraft and parts were later sold to them for the nominal price of one [[Pound Sterling|British pound]] apiece; however, the governments continued to take a cut of any profits made. The [[United States]] had cancelled its supersonic ([[Supersonic transport|SST]]) program in 1971. Two designs had originally been submitted; the [[Lockheed L-2000]], looking like a scaled-up Concorde, lost out to the [[Boeing 2707]], which had originally been intended to be faster, carry 300 passengers, and feature a [[swing-wing]] design. It was suggested in [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] that part of the American opposition to Concorde on grounds of noise pollution was in fact orchestrated or at least encouraged by the [[United States Government]] out of spite at not being able to propose a viable competitor. However, other countries, such as Malaysia, also ruled out Concorde supersonic overflights due to noise issues. Both European airlines operated demonstration and test flights to various destinations from 1974 onwards. The testing of Concorde set records which are still not surpassed; it undertook 5,335 flight hours in the prototype, preproduction, and first production aircrafts alone. A total of 2,000 test hours were supersonic. This equates to approximately four times as many as for similarly sized subsonic commercial aircraft. == Technological features == [[image:supersonic.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|An unusual angle on the final Concorde landing]] Many features common in early 21st century airliners were first used in the Concorde. For high speed and optimization of flight: *Double-delta ([[ogive]]) shaped wings *[[Rolls-Royce]]/[[Snecma]] [[Olympus]] [[turbojet]]s with reheat (afterburners) *[[Supercruise]] capability *Thrust-by-wire engines, ancestor of today's [[FADEC]] controlled engines *[[Droop-nose]] section for good landing visibility For weight-saving and enhanced performance: * Mach 2.04 'sweet spot' for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum, whilst jet engines are more efficient at high speed) * Mostly aluminium construction for low weight and relatively conventional build * Full-regime [[autopilot]] and autothrottle allowing &quot;hands off&quot; control of the aircraft from climb out to landing * Fully electrically-controlled analogue [[fly-by-wire]] flight controls systems * Multifunction flight control surfaces * High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 lbf/in²) for lighter hydraulic systems components * Fully electrically controlled analog [[brake-by-wire]] system * Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control * Parts milled from single alloy billet reducing the part number count Concorde's primary legacy is the experience gained in its design and manufacture later became the basis of the [[Airbus]] consortium, and many of these features are now standard equipment in Airbus airliners. [[Snecma Moteurs]], for example, got its first entry into civil engines here. Experience with Concorde opened the way for it to establish the CFM International with [[GE]] producing the successful [[CFM International CFM56]] series engines. Although Concorde was a technological marvel when introduced into service in the early 1970s, thirty years later its cockpit cluttered with analogue dials and switches looked very dated. With no competition in either type or airline service, there was no commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde with new avionics or passenger comforts, as occurred with other airliners of the same vintage (e.g. Boeing 747). The primary partners, BAC (later to become [[BAE Systems]]) and Aerospatiale (later to become [[EADS]]), are the joint owners of Concorde's [[type certificate]]. Responsibility for the Type Certificate transferred to Airbus with formation of [[Airbus]] SAS. ==Scheduled flights== [[Image:concorde.planview.arp.jpg|thumb|left|The final Concorde flight lands at Filton Airfield, near Bristol, on November 26, 2003]] Scheduled flights started on [[January 21]] [[1976]] on the [[London]]-[[Bahrain]] and [[Paris]]-[[Rio de Janeiro|Rio]] routes. The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] had just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over [[sonic boom]]s, preventing launch on the coveted [[atlantic Ocean|transatlantic]] routes. These concerns over sonic booms and the 'damage' allegedly caused by them (although never proven scientifically or otherwise) may have been caused by America's lack of success in building their own equivalent airliner. When the US ban was lifted in February for over-water supersonic flight, [[New York]] quickly followed by banning Concorde locally. Left with little choice on the destination, AF and BA started transatlantic services to [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[May 24]]. Finally, in late 1977, the noise concerns of New York residents gave way to the advantages of Concorde traffic, and scheduled service from Paris and London to New York's [[JFK International Airport|John F. Kennedy airport]] started on [[November 22]] [[1977]]. Flights operated by BA were coded 'BA001' through 'BA004'. The average flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Up to 2003, both Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. Additionally, Concorde flew to [[Barbados]]'s [[Grantley Adams International Airport]] during the winter holiday season and, occasionally, to charter destinations such as [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]]. On [[November 1]] [[1986]], a chartered Concorde circumnavigated the world in 31 hours and 51 minutes. For a brief period in 1977, and again from 1979 to 1980, British Airways and [[Singapore Airlines]] used a shared Concorde for flights between Bahrain and [[Paya Lebar International Airport|Singapore Paya Lebar Airport]]. The aircraft, G-BOAD, was painted in Singapore Airways livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard side. The service was discontinued after three months because of noise complaints from the [[Malaysia]]n government; it could only be reinstated when a new route, bypassing Malaysian airspace, was designed. However, an ongoing dispute with [[India]] prevented the Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable. From September 1978 to November 1982 during the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew the Concorde twice weekly to [[Mexico City]]'s [[Benito Juárez International Airport]] via Washington D.C.. The economic crisis caused the cancellation of the route to Mexico City and the last flights were almost empty. From time to time the Concorde came back on chartered flights with stops in Mexico City and Acapulco. British Airways also, between 1984 and 1991, offered a thrice weekly Concorde service to London from Miami. This was accomplished subsonically by extending the Dulles flight to Miami and returning the same way. From 1979 to 1980, [[Braniff International]] leased two Concordes, one each from [[British Airways]] and [[Air France]]. These were used on [[subsonic]] flights from [[Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas-Fort Worth]] to [[JFK International Airport|JFK]], feeding the routes of BA and AF to London and Paris. The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries, for legal reasons: a sticker would cover up each aircraft's European registration while it was being operated by Braniff. On DFW-JFK flights, the Concordes had Braniff flight crews, although they maintained their native airline livery. However, the flights were not profitable for Braniff and were usually less than 25% booked, which forced Braniff to end its term as the only U.S. Concorde operator. ==Passenger experience== Compared to other commercial airliners, Concorde provided an unusual passenger experience. Both British Airways and Air France configured the passenger cabin as a single class with around 100 seats &amp;mdash; four seats across with a central aisle. Despite being a luxury class, most passengers were surprised to find how cramped the cabin was. Headroom in the central aisle was barely six feet (1.8 m), and the leather seats were unusually narrow with legroom comparable to economy class on other planes. In the 1990s many features which were common in the first class and business class cabins of a long haul [[Boeing 747]] flight such as video entertainment, rotating or reclini
Zone 51]] [[ko:에어리어 51]] [[it:Area 51]] [[he:אזור 51]] [[hu:51-es körzet]] [[nl:Area 51]] [[ja:エリア51]] [[no:Area 51]] [[pt:Área 51]] [[ro:Zona 51]] [[fi:Area 51]] [[sv:Area 51]] [[zh:51区]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Audio signal processing</title> <id>2322</id> <revision> <id>37014502</id> <timestamp>2006-01-27T23:55:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alvestrand</username> <id>50958</id> </contributor> <comment>disambig analysis</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Audio signal processing''', sometimes referred to as '''audio processing''', is the processing of a [[representation]] of [[sound|auditory]] [[Signal (information theory)|signals]], or [[sound]]. The representation can be [[digital]] or [[analog signal|analog]]. An analog representation is usually electrical; a [[voltage]] level represents the [[air pressure]] [[waveform]] of the sound. Similarly, a digital representation expresses the pressure wave-form as a sequence of symbols, usually [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers. The focus in audio signal processing is most typically a [[mathematical analysis]] of which parts of the signal are audible. For example, a signal can be modified for different purposes such that the modification is controlled in the auditory domain. Which parts of the signal are heard and which are not, is not decided merely by [[physiology]] of the [[human]] [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] system, but very much by [[psychological]] properties. These properties are analysed within the field of [[psychoacoustics]]. Processing methods and application areas include [[audio storage|storage]], [[audio level compression|level compression]], [[audio data compression|data compression]], [[transmission (telecom)|transmission]], enhancement (e.g., [[equalization]], [[audio filter|filtering]], [[noise cancellation]], [[echo]] or [[reverb]] removal or addition, etc.), [[source separation]], [[sound effect]]s and [[computer music]]. ==Glossary== [[Category:Signal processing]] [[es:Procesamiento digital de sonido]] [[th:การประมวลผลสัญญาณเสียง]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amdahl's law</title> <id>2323</id> <revision> <id>35717106</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:15:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.248.162.88</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amdahl's law''', named after [[computer]] architect [[Gene Amdahl]], is used to find the maximum expected improvement to an overall system when only part of the system is improved. __TOC__ Amdahl's law can be interpreted more technically, but in simplest terms it means that it is the [[algorithm]] that decides the speedup not the number of processors. You eventually reach a place where you can not parallelise the algorithm any more. Amdahl's law is a demonstration of the [[Diminishing returns|law of diminishing returns]]: while one could speed up part of a computer a hundred-fold or more, if the improvement only affects 12% of the overall task, the best the [[speedup]] could possibly be is &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{1 - 0.12} = 1.136&lt;/math&gt; times faster. More technically, the law is concerned with the [[speedup]] achievable from an improvement to a computation that affects a proportion ''P'' of that computation where the improvement has a speedup of ''S''. (For example, if an improvement can speedup 30% of the computation, ''P'' will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the portion affected twice as fast, ''S'' will be 2.) Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be :&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{(1 - P) + \frac{P}{S}}&lt;/math&gt;. To see how this formula was derived, assume that the running time of the old computation was 1, for some unit of time. The running time of the new computation will be the length of time the unimproved fraction takes (which is 1 &amp;minus; ''P'') plus the length of time the improved fraction takes. The length of time for the improved part of the computation is the length of the improved part's former running time divided by the speedup, making the length of time of the improved part ''P''/''S''. The final speedup is computed by dividing the old running time by the new running time, which is what the above formula does. Here's another example. We are given a task which is split up into four parts: P1 = .11 or 11%, P2 = .18 or 18%, P3 = .23 or 23%, P4 = .48 or 48%, which add up to 100%. Then we say P1 is not sped up, so S1 = 1 or 100%, P2 is sped up 5x, so S2 = 5 or 500%, P3 is sped up 20x, so S3 = 20 or 2000%, and P4 is sped up 1.6x, so S4 = 1.6 or 160%. By using the formula &lt;math&gt;\frac{P1}{S1} + \frac{P2}{S2} + \frac{P3}{S3} + \frac{P4}{S4}&lt;/math&gt;, we find the running time is &lt;math&gt;{\frac{.11}{1} + \frac{.18}{5} + \frac{.23}{20} + \frac{.48}{1.6}} = .4575&lt;/math&gt; or a little less than 1/2 the original running time which we know is 1. Therefore the overall speed boost is &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{.4575} = 2.186&lt;/math&gt; or a little more than double the original speed using the formula &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\frac{P1}{S1} + \frac{P2}{S2} + \frac{P3}{S3} + \frac{P4}{S4}}&lt;/math&gt;. Notice how the 20x and 5x speedup don't have much effect on the overall speed boost and running time when over half of the task is only sped up 1x (i.e. not sped up) or 1.6x. == Parallelization == In the special case of parallelization, Amdahl's law states that if ''F'' is the fraction of a calculation that is sequential (i.e. cannot benefit from parallelisation), and (1 &amp;minus; ''F'') is the fraction that can be parallelised, then the maximum speedup that can be achieved by using ''N'' processors is :&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{F + (1-F)/N}&lt;/math&gt;. In the limit, as ''N'' tends to [[infinity]], the maximum speedup tends to 1/''F''. In practice, price/performance ratio falls rapidly as ''N'' is increased once (1 &amp;minus; ''F'')/''N'' is small compared to ''F''. As an example, if ''F'' is only 10%, the problem can be sped up by only a maximum of a factor of 10, no matter how large the value of ''N'' used. For this reason, [[parallel computing]] is only useful for either small numbers of [[central processing unit|processor]]s, or problems with very low values of ''F'': so-called [[embarrassingly parallel]] problems. A great part of the craft of [[parallel programming]] consists of attempting to reduce ''F'' to the smallest possible value. ==Amdahl's Rule Of Thumb== '''Amdahl's Rule Of Thumb''' is that 1 byte of [[memory]] and 1 byte per second of [[Input/output|I/O]] are required for each [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]] per second supported by a [[computer]]. ==References== * Gene Amdahl, &quot;Validity of the Single Processor Approach to Achieving Large-Scale Computing Capabilities&quot;, AFIPS Conference Proceedings, (30), pp. 483-485, 1967. ==See also== *[[Observations named after people]] * [[Amdahl]] Corporation * [[Ninety-ninety rule]] ==External links== * [http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/Publications/Gus/AmdahlsLaw/Amdahls.html Reevaluating Amdahl's Law] * [http://joda.cis.temple.edu/~shi/docs/amdahl/amdahl.html Reevaluating Amdahl's Law and Gustafson's Law] [[Category:Computer architecture]] [[Category:Electronic design]] [[Category:Rules of thumb]] [[Category:Eponymous laws]] [[de:Amdahlsches Gesetz]] [[fr:Loi d'Amdahl]] [[ko:%EC%95%94%EB%8B%AC%EC%9D%98_%EB%B2%95%EC%B9%99]] [[pl:Prawo Amdahla]] [[pt:Lei de Amdahl]] [[zh:Amdahl定理]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>All Saints Day</title> <id>2324</id> <revision> <id>15900752</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[All Saints]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 27</title> <id>2326</id> <revision> <id>41947375</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.193.173.233</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Events */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=27}} |} '''[[April 27]]''' is the 117th day of the year (118th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 248 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1124]] - [[David I of Scotland|David I]] becomes King of [[Scotland]]...... *[[1296]] - [[Battle of Dunbar (1296)|Battle of Dunbar]]: The [[Scotland|Scots]] are defeated by [[Edward I of England]]. *[[1509]] - [[Pope Julius II]] places the [[Italy|Italian]] state of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] under [[interdict]]. *[[1521]] - [[Battle of Mactan]]: Explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] is killed by natives in the [[Philippines]] led by chief [[Lapu-Lapu]]. *[[1565]] - [[Cebu City|Cebu]] is established becoming the first [[Spain|Spanish]] settlement in the [[Philippines]]. *[[1650]] - The [[Battle of Carbisdale]]: A [[Cavaliers|Royalist]] army invades mainland [[Scotland]] from the [[Orkney Islands]] but is defeated by a [[Covenanter]] army. *[[1667]] - The blind, impoverished [[John Milton]] sells the copyright of ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' for [[Pound sterling|£]]10. *[[1773]] - The [[British Parliament]] passes the [[Tea Act]], designed to save the [[British East India Company]] by granting it a monopoly on the [[North America]]n [[tea]] trade. *[[1805]] - [[First Barbary War]]: [[United States Marines]] and [[Berber]]s attack the [[Tripoli|Tripolitan]] city of [[Derna]] (The &quot;shores of Tripoli&quot; part of the [[Marines' hymn]]). *[[1813]] - [[War of 1812]]: [[United States]] troops capture the capital of Ontario, York (present day [[Toronto, Ontario]]). *[[1840]] - Foundation stone for new [[Palace of Westminster]]
m Al Qahir&quot; in Arabic, from which the name of the city was derived. However the legacy of the name evolved into the title &quot;Qahirat Al Adaa&quot; meaning &quot;subduer of the enemies&quot;. This title was given to the city as many armies were destroyed in attempts to invade Cairo or defeated elsewhere by troops sent from Cairo. ([[Mongols]], Crusaders &amp; Ottomans are examples.) ==Geography== [[Image:ClimateCairoEgypt.PNG|thumb|200px|right|Average temperature and precipitations in Cairo]] &lt;!--[[Image:Cairo_Egypt_ASA_IMG_Orbit_12013_20040617.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This Envisat ASAR Wide-Swath radar multicolour composite image is focused over the capital city of Cairo, Egypt, seen as a large bright area centre left of the image, Credit-ESA 2004.]]--&gt; [[Image:Large_Cairo_Landsat.jpg||thumb|left|A simulated-color satellite image of Cairo, Egypt, taken on NASA's Landsat 7 satellite.]] Cairo is located on the banks and islands of the [[Nile|Nile River]] in the north of [[Egypt]], immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and breaks into two branches into the low-lying [[Nile Delta]] region. The oldest part of the city is somewhat east of the river. There, the city gradually spreads west, engulfing the agricultural lands next to the [[Nile]]. These western areas, built on the model of [[Paris]] by [[Isma'il Pasha|Ismail the Magnificent]] in the mid-[[19th century]], are marked by wide boulevards, public gardens, and open spaces. The older eastern section of the city is very different: having grown up haphazardly over the centuries it is filled with small lanes and crowded tenaments. While western Cairo is dominated by the government buildings and modern architecture, the eastern half is filled with hundreds of ancient [[mosque]]s that act as landmarks. Extensive water systems have also allowed the city to expand east into the desert. Bridges link the Nile islands of [[Gezira, Egypt|Gezira]] and [[Rodah (island)|Roda]], where many government buildings are located and government officials live. Bridges also cross the Nile attaching the city to the suburbs of [[Giza]] and [[Imbabah]] (part of the Cairo conurbation). West of Giza, in the desert, is part of the ancient [[necropolis]] of Memphis on the Giza plateau, with its three large [[pyramid|pyramids]], including the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] (last surviving of the [[Wonders of the world|Seven Ancient Wonders of the World]]). Approximately 11 miles (18 km) to the south of modern Cairo is the site of the ancient Egyptian city of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] and adjoining necropolis of [[Saqqara]]. These cities were Cairo's ancient predecessors, when Cairo was still in this approximate geographical location. ==History== ===Founding and early history=== [[Image:cairo3.jpg|thumb|left|Cairo incorporates an entire mediæval section, which is now a popular neighborhood and contains important buildings of Islamic architecture. ]] The current location of Cairo was too far from the ancient course of the Nile to support a city. Just to the south of the modern city's location are the ruins of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], which was the capital of [[Ancient Egypt]] and was founded in around [[3100 BC]] by [[Menes]] of [[Tanis, Egypt|Tanis]] after he had united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, although the capital later moved to [[Heliopolis]], further south to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], and, under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], [[Alexandria]]. [[Image:spa.jpg|thumb|right|The Citadel]]The first settlement on the location of modern Cairo was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] fort, known as [[Babylon Fort]], built about [[150|AD 150]], built near the settlement known as [[Babylon-in-Egypt]], which lay close to an ancient Egyptian canal from the Nile to the Red Sea. A small town mostly of [[Coptic Christian]]s slowly grew around the fort. Muslim invaders, lead by [[Amr Ibn-el-As]], took the fort town in [[642]] and also established their army in the location, rebuilding its defenses. The Muslim tented camp outside the fortress, known as [[Al-Fustat]], slowly became the permanent base of the Muslim forces in Egypt under the [[Umayyad]]s and [[Abbasid]]s, and contains the first [[mosque]] in Africa. Slowly, the settlement grew into a small city. The [[North Africa]]n [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid]] Dynasty conquered Egypt in [[972]] and built a new capital, [[Al-Mansureya]], north of the old settlement. Their leader, [[Al-Muez Ledin-Ellah]], renamed the city Al-Qahirah after the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] which was rising on the day the city was founded. The [[Al-Azhar mosque]] was founded the same year, and along with its accompanying [[university]] it made Cairo a centre of learning and philosophy. The school remains a major center for [[Islamic]] study today. The [[Seljuk]]s captured Cairo in the mid 1100s, and [[Saladin]] and his successors expanded the city further, including the construction of its massive [[Cairo Citadel|citadel]]. The sack of [[Baghdad]] in 1258 heightened the importance of the city and it became the leading intellectual and artistic centre in the Middle East, and perhaps the world, for the next 250 years. It is believed that Cairo was the largest city in the world from 1315 to 1348 [http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm](year of the [[Black Death]]). But power was shifting from the Arab world north to the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[European]]s. The city was taken by the [[Ottoman Empire]] under [[Selim I]] in 1517, but the ruling [[Mameluks]] quickly returned to power as nominal vassals to the Ottoman Sultan. The family of 26th Ottoman sultan [[Selim III]] died on the way to [[Medina]]. They have been buried in an impressive Ottoman mausoleum in the old quarter of Cairo. The mausoleum is still favorite plot to visit for Turkish tourists. ===Era of westernization=== [[Image:Cairo.jpg|thumb|left|Lions guard the Kasr-el-Nil Bridge which traverses the Nile at Tahrir Square. European architecture and urban design, major infrastructural projects and intense cultural patronage were part of [[Khedive]] Ismail's vision for Cairo as &quot;Paris on the Nile.&quot; ]] [[Napoleon]] conquered Egypt in 1798, and Cairo was quickly surrendered to him by its Mameluk rulers. Napoleon left Egypt after his fleet was destroyed at the [[Battle of Aboukir Bay]] in August 1798, leaving [[Jean Baptiste Kléber|General Kléber]] in charge. Kléber was [[assassinate]]d in 1800 and the three-year [[France|French]] occupation had little lasting effect. The first hints of westernization began under the successors to [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehemet Ali]] with the introduction of a railway connection to [[Alexandria]] in 1851. Significant change, however, did not occur until the reign of [[Isma'il Pasha]] when, in 1863, construction of the [[Suez Canal]] brought significant numbers of westerners to Egypt. A network of gas lighting was installed by a [[France|French]] company and the railway lines were greatly expanded. In 1867, Isma'il visited [[Paris]] to attend the [[Universal Exposition of 1867]]. There he saw the newly redesigned city of [[Baron Haussmann|Haussmann]] and, funded by a booming [[cotton]] trade, decided to rebuild Cairo on the model of a European capital. He hoped to have this done by 1869 when representatives from around the world came to Egypt for the opening of the Suez Canal. Rather than rebuild the old city, Isma'il elected to add a new quarter to the western section along the bank of the [[Nile]]. The project was carried out by [[Ali Pasha Mubarak]] and designed by the French urban planner [[Pierre Grand]]. A new area of luxurious villas and apartments was constructed and new government ministries were erected. Grand boulevards were opened through the old town and tram lines soon followed. The era of colonization in 1882 saw the rebuilding of Cairo continuing. A modern sewer system was installed and new suburbs such as [[Heliopolis]] were constructed in the desert. Cairo's population exploded, increasing from 374,000 in 1882 to 1,312,000 by 1937. The city was dominated by westerners, however, and city planners tended to emphasize [[Christianity|Christian]] cathedrals over mosques. ===Modern Cairo=== Cairo remained the central city of Egypt throughout the period of British rule and afterwards. The [[20th century]] saw massive growth in the size of the city as peasants left the farmlands in pursuit of work in the factories and commerce of the metropolis. The city was especially burdened by refugees from the various wars with [[Israel]]: much of the population of the [[Sinai]] peninsula and the cities along the Suez Canal left for Cairo between 1967 and 1978. Today Cairo is Africa's most populous city and the [[Arab world]]'s cultural centre. Since the [[19th century]] Cairo has also become a center for [[tourism]] as people from around the world have come to see the monuments and artifacts of [[Ancient Egypt]], especially the [[Pyramid]]s. Laws against the export of these treasures has meant that the [[Egyptian Museum]] in Cairo is the only place in the world that many items can be seen. &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Kairo_001.jpg|View of the modern city's skyline. Image:CairoFromTower.jpg|View of the Nile and Tahrir Square from the [[Cairo Tower]] &lt;/gallery&gt; == Infrastructure == === Health === Cairo, as well as neighbouring [[Giza]], have been established as [[Egypt]]'s main centre for medical treatment, as well as a major Health Centre in the [[Middle East]]. Some of Cairo's most famous hospitals are [[Al-Salam International Hospital]], [[Ain-Shams University Hospital]], as well as [[Qasr El Ainy General Hospital]]. Due to the fact that most of Egypt is sand, there is little land available for human burials. This has caused a part of the community to use the ground underneath homes, in an area refered to as the City of the Dead. [[Image:City_of_the_Dead3091.jpg|thumb|Cit
<revision> <id>34928048</id> <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:39:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Acjelen</username> <id>107326</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gas giants''' may refer to: *more than one [[gas giant]], a planet composed mostly of gas *[[Gas Giants]], a rock band that formed in 2001 {{disambiguation}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greek</title> <id>11882</id> <revision> <id>42047555</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:56:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sysin</username> <id>55969</id> </contributor> <comment>rv; I've never seen this definition before - please support in Talk:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The ''noun'' '''Greek''' refers to: *Synonymous to Grecian; a native or inhabitant of [[Greece]] (Ελλάδα), or a person of Greek descent. - ''main articles: [[Greeks|Greek people]]'' and ''[[Greek (name)|Names of the Greeks]]'' *The [[Indo-European]] language of the Greeks. - ''see main article: [[Greek language]]'' __NOTOC__ The ''adjective'' '''Greek''' may refer to a number of things relating to: === History &amp; Geography=== * [[History of Greece|Greek history]] **[[Greek Neolithic Period]] (ca. 6000 - 2900 BC) **[[Greek Early Bronze Age]] (ca. 2900-2000 BC) **[[Minoan civilization|Minoan Civilization]] (ca. 2000-1400 BC) **[[Mycenaean Greece]] (ca. [[1600s BC|1600]]&amp;ndash;[[1200s BC|1200]] BC) **[[Greek Dark Ages]] (ca. [[1200s BC|1200]]&amp;ndash;[[800s BC|800]] BC) **[[Ancient Greece]] ([[776 BC|776]]&amp;ndash;[[323 BC|323]] BC) **[[Hellenistic Greece]] ([[323 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[146 BC]]) **[[Roman Greece]] ([[146 BC|146]]&amp;ndash;[[330]] AD) **[[Byzantine Empire]] ([[330]]&amp;ndash;[[1453|1453 AD]]) **[[Ottoman Greece]] ([[1453]]&amp;ndash;[[1832]]) **[[History of Modern Greece|Modern Greece]] (after [[1832]]) * [[Greek colonies]] * [[Greco-Turkish relations]] * [[Greek islands]] ===Language &amp; Culture=== ==== Arts ==== * [[Architecture of Ancient Greece]] * [[Art in Ancient Greece]] * [[Greek and latin roots]] * [[Greek theatre]] * [[Greeked text]] * [[Greek key]] * [[Music of Greece]] ==== Literature ==== * [[Greek language]] * [[Greek literature]] * [[Greek alphabet]] ==== Organizations ==== * [[Greek organizations]] ==== Philosophy ==== * [[Greek philosophy]] ==== Religion ==== * [[Greek mythology]] * [[Greek Orthodox Church]] === Science and technology=== * [[Greek fire]] * [[The Greeks]] &amp;mdash; use of the Greek alphabet in [[mathematical finance]] === Academic traditions=== * The academic traditions of so-called '''Greek''' [[university]] [[fraternities and sororities]], each using a few Greek letters as its name === Cuisine === * [[Cuisine of Greece]] ** [[Greek salad]] === Persons of Greek origin === * [[Greek American|Greek Americans]] * [[Greek-Australian|Greek Australians]] * [[Greek Canadians]] * [[Greek Cypriots]] ===See also=== *[[Hellenic]] *[[Grecian]] *[[Greco-Roman]] {{disambig}} [[da:Græsk (flertydig)]] [[de:Griechisch]] [[el:Ελληνικός]] [[es:Griego]] [[pt:Grego]] [[th:กรีก]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Germanic languages</title> <id>11883</id> <revision> <id>41731903</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:10:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.37.52.1</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Vocabulary comparison */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family |name=Germanic |altname=Teutonic |region=Originally in northern and central Europe; today worldwide |familycolor=Indo-European |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] |child1=[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] |child2=[[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] |child3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] }}{{Template:Indo-European}} The '''Germanic languages''' form one of the branches of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European (IE) language family]]. The largest Germanic languages are [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]], with ca. 340 and 120 million native speakers, respectively. Other significant languages include a number of [[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic languages]] (including [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]) and the [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian languages]] (principally [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]). The [[SIL]] ''Ethnologue'' lists 53 different Germanic languages and dialects. Their common ancestor is [[Common Germanic]], probably spoken in the mid-[[1st millennium BC]] in [[Jastorf culture|Iron Age Northern Europe]]. Common Germanic, and all its descendants, is characterised by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the [[consonant]] change known as [[Grimm's law]]. Early Germanic dialects enter history with the [[Germanic tribes|Germanic peoples]] who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the [[Roman Empire]] from the 2nd century. ==Characteristics of some Germanic languages== [[Germanic languages]] differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other [[language family|language families]] such as the [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Slavic languages]]. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive they are with respect to an overall trend towards [[analytic language|analycity]]. Some, like [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]], have preserved much of the complex [[inflectional morphology]] ultimately inherited from [[Indo-European]]. Others, like [[English language|English]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Afrikaans]] have moved towards a largely [[analytic language|analytic]] type. A characteristic of many Germanic languages, especially the more conservative ones and the older stages, is '''verb second''' or [[V2 word order]], which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. Other Germanic languages, most notably English, have replaced this structure with an overall [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] structure. Most Germanic languages have fairly complex vowel systems with a large phoneme inventory. ==Writing== Our earliest evidence of Germanic is from names, recorded in the 1st century by [[Tacitus]], and in a single instance in the [[2nd century BC]], on the [[Negau helmet]]. From roughly the [[2nd century AD]], some speakers of early Germanic dialects developed the [[Elder Futhark]]. Early runic inscriptons are also largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The [[Gothic language]] was written in the [[Gothic alphabet]] developed by Bishop [[Ulfilas]] for his translation of the [[Bible]] in the 4th century. Later, [[Christianity|Christian]] priests and monks who spoke and read [[Latin]] in addition to their native Germanic tongue began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters, but in Scandinavia, [[runic alphabet]]s remained in common use throughout the [[Viking Age]]. In addition to the standard [[Latin alphabet]], various Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including [[umlaut]]s, the [[ß]] (''Eszett''),[[IJ]] [[Ø]], [[Æ]], [[Å]], [[Ð]], [[Yogh|&amp;#540;]], and [[Þ]] and [[wynn|&amp;#503;]], from runes. Historic printed [[German language|German]] is frequently set in [[blackletter]] [[typeface]]s (e.g. [[fraktur (typeface)|fraktur]] or [[schwabacher]]). ==Linguistic Markers== Some unique features of Germanic languages are: # The levelling of the IE [[grammatical tense|tense]] system into past and present (or common) # The use of a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of [[vowel]] alternation ([[Indo-European ablaut]]) to indicate past tense. See: [[Germanic weak verb]]. # The presence of two distinct types of [[verb]] [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]: [[weak (grammatical term)|weak]] (using ''dental suffix'') and [[strong (grammatical term)|strong]] (using ''ablaut''). English has 161 strong verbs; all are of native English origin. See: [[West Germanic strong verb]]. # The use of strong and weak [[adjective]]s. Modern English adjectives don't change except for comparative and superlative; this was not the case with [[Old English language|Old English]], where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative, or not. # The consonant shift known as [[Grimm's Law]]. # A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages. ''See [[Germanic substrate hypothesis]].'' # The shifting of stress onto the root of the stem. Though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what's added to them. This is arguably the most important change. == History == [[Image:Germanic language zones 3.PNG|thumb|400px|right|The global distribution of Germanic languages. Solid red indicates that a majority of inhabitants speaks a Germanic language. Striped red indicates that a sizeable minority (more than 10%) speaks a Germanic language.]] All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], united by their having been subjected to the sound shifts of [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]]. These took place probably during the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] of Northern Europe from ca. [[500 BC]], but other common innovations separating Germanic from [[Proto-Indo European]] suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the [[Nordic Bronze Age]]. From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic dialects are divided into three groups, [[West Germanic languages|West]], [[East Germanic languages|East]] and [[North Germanic languages|North]] Germanic. Their exact
[[Non-enzymatic browning|brown]]. Some cheeses, like [[raclette]], melt smoothly; many others can be coaxed into doing so in the presence of acids or [[starch]]. [[Fondue]], with wine providing the acidity, is a good example of a smoothly-melted cheese dish. Other cheeses turn elastic and stringy when they melt, a quality that can be enjoyed in dishes like [[pizza]] and [[Welsh rabbit|Welsh rarebit]]. Some cheeses melt unevenly, their fats separating as they heat, while a few acid-curdled cheeses, including [[halloumi cheese|halloumi]], [[paneer]] and [[ricotta]], do not melt at all and can become firmer when cooked. ==History== Cheese is an ancient food whose origins may predate recorded history. Probably discovered in [[Central Asia]] or the [[Middle East]], cheesemaking spread to [[Europe]] and had become a sophisticated enterprise by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. As Rome's influence receded, distinct local cheesemaking techniques emerged. This diversity reached its peak in the early industrial age and has declined somewhat since then due to mechanization and economic factors. ===Origins=== The exact origins of cheesemaking are unknown, and estimates range from around 8000 [[Common Era|BCE]] (when [[sheep]] were [[domestication|domesticated]]) to around 3000 BCE. Credit for the discovery most likely goes to nomadic Turkic tribes in [[Central Asia]], around the same time that they developed [[yogurt]], or to people in the [[Middle East]]. A common tale about the discovery of cheese tells of an [[Arab]] nomad carrying milk across the desert in a container made from an animal's stomach, only to discover the milk had been separated into [[curd]] and [[whey]] by the rennet from the stomach. Folktales aside, cheese likely began as a way of preserving soured and curdled milk through pressing and salting, with rennet introduced later&amp;mdash; perhaps when someone noticed that cheese made in an animal stomach produced more solid and better-textured curds. The earliest [[archeology|archaeological]] evidence of cheesemaking has been found in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] tomb murals, dating to about 2300 BCE. The earliest cheeses would likely have been quite sour and salty, similar in texture to rustic [[cottage cheese]] or [[feta]]. From the Middle East, basic cheesemaking found its way into [[Europe]], where cooler climates meant less aggressive salting was needed for preservation. With moderate salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for a variety of beneficial [[microbe]]s and molds, which are what give aged cheeses their pronounced and interesting flavors. ===Classical times=== Ancient [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] mythology credited [[Aristaeus]] with the discovery of cheese. [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'' ([[8th century BC|8th century BCE]]) describes the [[Cyclops]] making and storing sheep's and goats' milk cheese. From [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler's]] translation: :We soon reached his cave, but he was out shepherding, so we went inside and took stock of all that we could see. His cheese-racks were loaded with cheeses, and he had more lambs and kids than his pens could hold... :When he had so done he sat down and milked his ewes and goats, all in due course, and then let each of them have her own young. He curdled half the milk and set it aside in [[wicker]] strainers... By [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times, cheese was an everyday food and cheesemaking a mature art, not very different from what it is today. [[Columella]]'s ''De Re Rustica'' (circa 65 CE) details a cheesemaking process involving rennet coagulation, pressing of the curd, salting, and aging. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny's]] [[Natural History (Pliny)|''Natural History'']] (77 CE) devotes a chapter (XI, 97) to describing the diversity of cheeses enjoyed by Romans of the early [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. He stated that the best cheeses came from the villages near [[Nîmes]], but did not keep long and had to be eaten fresh. Cheeses of the [[Alps]] and [[Apennines]] were remarkable for their variety then as now. A [[Ligures|Ligurian]] cheese was noted for being made mostly from sheeps' milk, and some cheeses produced nearby were stated to weigh as much as a thousand pounds each. Goats' milk cheese was a recent taste in Rome, improved over the &quot;medicinal taste&quot; of [[Gaul]]'s similar cheeses by [[smoking (food)|smoking]]. Of cheeses from overseas, Pliny preferred those of [[Bithynia]] in Asia Minor. ===Post-classical Europe=== Rome spread a uniform set of cheesemaking techniques throughout much of Europe, and introduced cheesemaking to areas without a previous history of it. As Rome declined and long-distance trade collapsed, cheese in Europe diversified further, with various locales developing their own distinctive cheesemaking traditions and products. [[France]] and [[Italy]] are the nations with the most diversity in locally made cheeses&amp;mdash; today with approximately 400 each. (A French proverb says there is a different French cheese for every day of the year, and [[Charles de Gaulle]] once asked &quot;how can you govern a country in which there are 246 kinds of cheese?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted in [[Newsweek]], October 1, 1962 according to ''The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations'' (Columbia University Press, 1993 ISBN 0-2310719-4-9 p 345). Numbers besides 246 are often cited in very similar quotes; whether these are misquotes or whether de Gaulle repeated the same quote with different numbers is unclear.&lt;/ref&gt; Still, the advancement of the cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome's fall. Many of the cheeses we know best today were first recorded in the late [[Middle Ages]] or after&amp;mdash; cheeses like [[cheddar cheese|cheddar]] around 1500 CE, [[Parmesan cheese|Parmesan]] in 1597, [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]] in 1697, and [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]] in 1791.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=Smith, John H. | title=Cheesemaking in Scotland - A History | publisher=The Scottish Dairy Association | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0-9525323-0-1}}. [http://www.ebs.hw.ac.uk/SDA/publshr.html Full text], [http://www.ebs.hw.ac.uk/SDA/cheese1.html Chapter with cheese timetable].&lt;/ref&gt; In 1546, [[John Heywood]] wrote in ''Proverbes'' that &quot;the moon is made of a greene cheese.&quot; (''Greene'' refers here not to the color, as many now think, but to being new or unaged.)&lt;ref&gt;Cecil Adams (1999). [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990723a.html Straight Dope: How did the moon=green cheese myth start?]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Variations on this sentiment were long repeated. Although some people assumed that this was a serious belief in the era before [[space exploration]], it is more likely that Heywood was indulging in [[nonsense]]. ===Modern era=== The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815, but it was in the United States where large-scale production first found real success. Credit usually goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from [[Rome, New York|Rome]], [[New York]], who in 1851 started making cheese in an [[assembly line|assembly-line]] fashion using the milk from neighboring farms. Within decades hundreds of such dairy associations existed. The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced. Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheesemaking in the [[World War II]] era, and factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe ever since. Today, Americans buy more [[processed cheese]] than &quot;real&quot;, factory-made or not.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2}}. p 54. &quot;In the United States, the market for process cheese [...] is now larger than the market for 'natural' cheese, which itself is almost exclusively factory-made.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Worldwide, cheese is a major [[agriculture|agricultural]] product. According to the [[Food and Agricultural Organization]] of the [[United Nations]], over 18 million [[metric ton]]s of cheese was produced worldwide in 2004. This is more than the yearly production of [[coffee]] beans, [[tea]] leaves, [[cocoa]] beans and [[tobacco]] combined. Germany is the largest importer of Cheese from France, the major exporter. ==Cultural attitudes== Cheese is rarely found in [[Asian cuisine|East Asian]] dishes, as dairy products in general are rare. However, East Asian sentiment against cheese is not universal. Cheese made from [[yak]]s' (''chhurpi'') or [[mare]]s' milk is common on the Asian [[steppe]]s, and cheese is used in [[Cuisine of India|India]], where [[paneer]] [[curry|curries]] are popular. Even in [[People's Republic of China|China]], cheese consumption is increasing, with annual sales more than doubling from 1996 to 2003 (to a still quite-small 30 million [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]] a year).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author=Rebecca Buckman | title=Let Then Eat Cheese | journal=Far Eastern Economic Review | year=2003 | volume=166 n. 49 | pages=41}} [http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/cultural/2003/1211chinacheese.htm Full text]&lt;/ref&gt; Certain kinds of Chinese preserved [[Bean curd#Fermented|bean curd]] are sometimes misleadingly referred to in English as &quot;Chinese cheese&quot;, due to their strong flavor. Strict followers of the dietary laws of [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] must avoid most hard cheeses, which are made with rennet from animals not slaughtered in a manner adhering to [[kosher foods|kosher]] or [[halal]]&lt;ref&gt;Toronto Public Health. [http://www.toronto.ca/health/nm_faq_halal_foods.htm Frequently Asked Questions about Halal Foods]. Retrieved O
> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euclidean_algorithm]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emin Boztepe</title> <id>10281</id> <revision> <id>38116673</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T07:40:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emin Boztepe''' (born 1962) is a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[martial art]]ist . Born in [[Eskisehir]], [[Turkey]], he started learning martial arts at the age of 14, as a result of racial insults he had to confront as a small child in [[Germany]], where he moved together with his family in 1966. After decades of training, he emerged as a master practitioner of [[Wing Tsun]]. He has formed his own ''Emin Boztepe Martial Arts System'' and trains military and police units in the [[United States|USA]]. Boztepe attacked [[William Cheung]] in Germany and the altercation was taped, one of the most controversial martial arts moments in recent history. ==External links== * [http://www.ebmas.net Official webpage] [[Category:1962 births|Boztepe, Emin]] [[Category:Living people|Boztepe, Emin]] [[Category:Turkish Wing Chun practitioners|Boztepe, Emin]] {{martialartbio-stub}} [[de:Emin Boztepe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erlang unit</title> <id>10283</id> <revision> <id>40535294</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:52:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.3.233.176</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Erlang B */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[dimensionless unit]] named the '''erlang''' is a statistical measure of [[telecommunication]]s [[traffic]] used in [[telephony]]. It is named after the [[Denmark|Danish]] telephone [[engineer]] [[Agner Krarup Erlang|A. K. Erlang]], the originator of [[traffic engineering (telecommunications)|traffic engineering]] and [[queueing theory]]. In the traffic calculation, one Erlang implies a single [[resource]] in continuous use (or two [[channel (communications)|channels]] at fifty percent use, and so on, ''[[pro rata]]''). For example, if a [[banking|bank]] has two tellers and they are both busy the whole time, that would represent two erlang of traffic. The traffic measured in erlang is used to determine if a system is over- or under-provisioned (has too many or too few resources allocated). The traffic measured over many busy hours might be used for a [[T-carrier#T1|T1]] or [[E-carrier#E1|E1]] circuit group to determine how many [[human voice|voice]] lines are in use at the busiest hours. For example, if no more than 12 out of 24 channels are ever in use at any given time, the other 12 might be made available as [[data]] channels. Traffic measured in erlang is used to calculate [[grade of service]] (GoS) or [[quality of service]] (QoS). There are a range of different Erlang formulae, including Erlang B, Extended Erlang B, Erlang C and a related Engset formula to calculate GoS. ==Erlang B== Calculates blocking probability in loss system. If a request is not served immediately when it tries to use a resource, then the request is aborted. These systems are therefore not queued. The formula assumes the blocked traffic is immediately cleared. ===Erlang B formula=== :&lt;math&gt;Eb(0, t) = 1 \,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;Eb(r,t) = { {t Eb(r-1,t)} \over {r+t Eb(r-1,t)} } \,&lt;/math&gt; ''where:'' * '''Eb''' is the probability of blocking * '''r''' is the number of resources (eg.g. servers or circuits in a group). * '''t''' is the amount of traffic offered in Erlang. Erlang B formula works for loss systems thus it applies to telephony systems both for fixed and mobile networks due to their ''real time nature'' where they simply do not (and is not intended to) provide traffic buffer. ==Extended Erlang B== This formula is essentially Erlang B, but assumes that a certain percentage of calls to the system will immediately represent themselves to the system after being blocked. This formula accounts for this retry percentage. ==Erlang C== This formula calculates the probability of queueing offered traffic. This formula assumes that blocked calls stay in the system until they can be handled. This formula can be applied to the design of call centre staffing arrangements, because when calls cannot be immediately answered, they enter a queue. The formula is used to determine the number of agents or customer service representatives needed to staff a [[call centre]]. ===Erlang C formula=== :&lt;math&gt;P(&gt;0) = {{\frac{A^N}{N!} \frac{N}{N - A}} \over \sum_{x=0}^{N-1} \frac{A^x}{x!} + \frac{A^N}{N!} \frac{N}{N - A}} \,&lt;/math&gt; ''where:'' * '''A''' is the total traffic units offered in Erlangs * '''N''' is the number of servers in a full availability environment * '''P(&gt;0)''' probability that delay is greater than 0 * '''P''' is the probability of loss - see [[Poisson distribution]] Erlang C formula works for queueing systems thus it applies to ''packet data networks'' (such as internet, etc) due to their ''non real time nature''. Delay time generally acceptable for packet transmission allows the incorporation of data buffer along with routers. The buffer provides queuing for the data traffic. ==Engset formula== The [[Engset calculation|Engset formula]] (''named after [[T O Engset|Tore Olaus Engset (1865-1943)]])'' is also related but deals with a small population of finite sources rather than the large population of infinite sources that Erlang assumes. ==See also== * [[Agner Krarup Erlang|A. K. Erlang]] * [[Call centre|Call center]] * [[Engset calculation]] * [[Erlang programming language]] * [[Erlang distribution]] * [[Poisson distribution]] * [[Traffic Mix]] ==External links== * [http://mmc.et.tudelft.nl/presan/node46.html#64 Erlang formulae] (in Dutch) * [http://www.erlang.com www.erlang.com] for more information. * [http://www.tarrani.net/mike/docs/TrafficEngineering.pdf Traffic Engineering Techniques in Telecommunications by Richard Parkinson] (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae) * [http://www.angustel.ca/reports/Erlang%20B%20&amp;%20C.PDF An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C by Ian Angus] (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae plus biography) * [http://www.diagnosticstrategies.com/papers/Traffic_Modeling.pdf Traffic Modeling and Resource Allocation in Call Centers by Diagnostic Strategies] (PDF Document) * [http://members.iinet.net.au/~clark/models.htm#Engset Engset Model] [[Category:Units of measure]] [[Category:Telecommunications terms]] [[nl:Erlang]] [[de:Erlang (Einheit)]] [[it:Erlang]] [[pl:Erlang (jednostka)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eligible receiver</title> <id>10285</id> <revision> <id>28754943</id> <timestamp>2005-11-19T15:16:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CalJW</username> <id>233571</id> </contributor> <comment>recategorised</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[American Football]] and [[Canadian Football]], not all players on offence are entitled to receive a forward pass. Only an '''eligible pass receiver''' may legally catch a [[forward pass]], or be more than five yards over the [[line of scrimmage]] on a forward passing play. If the pass is received by a non-eligible receiver, the penalty for ineligible receiver is assessed (the play is treated as an incomplete pass, unless the ball is downed behind the line of scrimmage - in either case a down is lost). If a non-eligible receiver is more than five yards downfield on a completed forward pass, the penalty assessed is &quot;ineligible receiver downfield&quot; (a loss of yardage, but not loss of down). In both forms of football, every player on the defensive team is considered eligible. The offensive team must have at least seven players lined up on the line of scrimmage. Of the players on the line of scrimmage, only the two players on the ends of the line of scrimmage are eligible receivers. The four remaining players in the backfield (five in Canadian football), including the [[quarterback]], are also eligible receivers&amp;mdash;except in the [[National Football League]], where a quarterback who takes the snap directly from the center is '''''never''''' eligible. However, a quarterback who receives a longer snap from the center, such as in a [[shotgun formation]], is eligible even in the NFL. With the assignment of numbers to positions, a player who is not wearing a number that corresponds to an eligible receiver is not eligible even if he lines up in an eligible position. However, in the American game, a person who reports to the [[referee]] that he will be eligible on the play is allowed to line up and act as an eligible receiver. If, for example, eight men line up on the line of scrimmage, the team loses an eligible receiver. This can often happen when a [[Wide receiver#Specific terminology|flanker or slot receiver]], who is supposed to line up behind the line of scrimmage, instead lines up on the line of scrimmage between the [[offensive line]] and a [[Wide receiver#Specific terminology|split end]]. In most cases where a pass is caught by an ineligible receiver, it is usually because the quarterback was under pressure and threw it to an [[offensive lineman]] out of desperation. In the American game, eligible receivers may only move parallel to the line of scrimmage, only one eligible receiver may be in motion at any given time before the snap of the ball, and if forward motion has occurred, the receiver must be still for a full second before the snap. The receiver may be in motion laterally or away from the line of scrimmage at the snap. A breach of this rule results in a penalty for [[illegal procedure]] (five yards). However, in the Canadian
he entire combustion process is usually complete by the time the piston reachs [[Bottom Dead Center]]. It is critical for this type of engine to have a [[Knock resistance|knock resistant]] fuel. Otto cycle engines need a minimum amount of fuel to resist pre-combustion in order to run properly. When fuel is injected into this type of engine it has a cooling effect on the inside of the cylinder. The more fuel injected, the more it cools the cylinder, so that the fuel/air charge does not heat up too much. If too little fuel is injected along with the air, and then compressed, the fuel/air charge will overheat and pre-combust, making the engine knock. This is why gasoline engines have a minimum amount of fuel that must be injected. Efficiency suffers as a result, but only when the engine is not at wide open throttle. = General Information = The diesel engine has the lowest [[specific fuel consumption]] of any large internal combustion engine, 0.26 lb/hp.h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines. In fact, two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly [[turbocharging]], make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines. In [[North America]], diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad environment. However, cars continue to use [[gasoline]], primarily due to consumer desire for &quot;peppy&quot; cars with a wider range of RPM. In [[Europe]], the use of diesel engines in passenger vehicles is far more common. There is considerable interest today in [[hybrid car]]s using diesel engines for better efficiency, with an electric motor added to provide the &quot;pep&quot;. Current models seem to suggest that cars with all the performance of modern designs can deliver over '''100''' mpg, ''on the less expensive fuel''. Although Diesel engines are more efficient when throttled down, they are not suitable for most aircraft. The higher compression ratios of the Diesel cycle demand a much stronger block, head, and almost all moving parts. These stronger parts add a lot of weight - or a lot of expense, if lighter alloys are used. Otto cycle engines are cheaper to build for these reasons, and others. For the same displacement of the engine, an Otto cycle will produce more actual power than a Diesel cycle can, because the fuel burns at a much faster rate, allowing more power strokes per minute (higher RPM) than diesels can offer. This means that less fuel has to be carried. Additionally, commercial aircraft are usually run at preset limits (slightly less than Wide Open Throttle), so that Otto cycle engines used in aircraft do not suffer anywhere near the efficiency penalties that (stop-and-go) land vehicles do. Jet engines are preferred for commercial aviation because they are more efficient - and more powerful - than either type of engine discussed here. Heavy equipment, such as that used in mining and construction, almost always uses diesel engines. Diesel engines are also used in conventional [[submarine]]s. In these submarines, the diesel engine is run when the submarine is on the surface, which charges the [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] that power the submarine when it is submerged. Most all marine vessels over a certain size are powered by diesel engines, as they allow greater range at lower cost, and are more effective at developing torque at lower speed than gas-powered engines. == Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs == Many [[Model airplane]]s use very simple &quot;glow&quot; and &quot;diesel&quot; engines. Glow engines use [[glow plug]]s. &quot;Diesel&quot; model airplane engines have variable compression ratios. Both types depend on special fuels (easily obtainable in such limited quantities) for their ignition timing. Some 19th century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression. (It was not until [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]] that the thermodynamic value of compression was known.) An historical implication of this is that the diesel engine would eventually have been invented without the aid of electricity. [[Category:Thermodynamic cycles]] [[es:Ciclo del diésel]] [[it:Ciclo Diesel]] [[ja:&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12476;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12469;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12523;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deus Ex</title> <id>8484</id> <revision> <id>42140943</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>151.199.19.97</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Modding sites */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Deus Ex | image = [[Image:Deus Ex Box.jpeg|250px|Box shot of the PC version]] | developer = [[Ion Storm Inc.]] | publisher = [[Eidos Interactive]] | designer = [[Warren Spector]], [[Harvey Smith]] | engine = [[Unreal engine#Unreal Engine 1|Unreal Engine 1]] | released = United States &lt;li&gt; [[June 22]], [[2000]] (PC) &lt;li&gt; [[July 7]], [[2000]] (Mac OS)&lt;li&gt; [[May 9]], [[2001]] (PC, Game Of The Year edition) &lt;li&gt; [[March 25]], [[2002]] (PS2) | genre = [[First-person shooter]]&lt;br&gt;[[Computer role-playing game]] | modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]] | ratings = [[ESRB]]: M (Mature)&lt;br&gt;[[PEGI]]: 16+ &lt;br&gt;[[ELSPA]]: 15+ | platforms = [[Windows]] &lt;br&gt; [[Mac OS]] &lt;br&gt;[[PlayStation 2]] }} '''''Deus Ex''''' ('''''DX''''') is a [[computer role-playing game]] developed by [[Ion Storm Inc.]] and published by [[Eidos Interactive]] in [[2000]]. Set in a [[dystopia]]n world during the [[2050s]], with a [[cyberpunk]] story and setting elements, the game combines the [[action game|action]] elements of a [[first-person shooter]] with the [[character development]] and interaction of a role playing game. It won much acclaim upon its release and was (and still is) considered by many to be a pioneering title, receiving praise for its depth and variety. The game sold quite well during its initial run and remains among the top selling [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]'s. As of [[February 2006]] it is #34 in [[Amazon.com]]'s top selling PC RPGs [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/new-for-you/top-sellers/-/videogames/289966/videogames/0/0/2], #12 in top selling Mac RPGs [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/new-for-you/top-sellers/-/videogames/10988221] , and also appears in [[CNET]]'s list of most popular PC role playing games [http://shopper.cnet.com/4014-9702_9-30984301.html?pbrpt=4541]. == Etymology == The game's name is derived from the [[Latin]] [[expression]] ''[[deus ex machina]]'' (pronounced DAY-us EKS MAH-ki-nah), literally meaning &quot;''god from the machine''&quot;, i.e. &quot;''a person or event that provides a sudden, unexpected solution to a story''&quot; (referencing the practice in Greek drama of using a machine rig to lower an actor playing a deity down to a stage, quickly resolving a drama). These most obviously refer to the game's [[protagonist]] [[JC Denton]] and the cybernetic themes of the game. Also, [[Warren Spector]] (producer of ''[[System Shock]]''), one of the game's designers, has stated the name was a dig at the typical [[Computer and video games|video game]] plot, which tends to be laden with &quot;deus ex machina&quot; artifices and other poor script writing techniques. [[Image:Deus-Ex-logo.png|thumb|50px|The '''Deus Ex''' logo]] Some fans have speculated that the protagonist's name, JC Denton, is derived from the initials of [[Jesus Christ]] the savior sent 'from God' in [[Christian]] religions, leading some to believe that instead of referring to ''deus ex machina'' the title is actually meant to be translated literally as 'from God.' The names of several main characters reinforce this interpretation. Paul Denton, for example, uses the name of [[Paul of Tarsus]], an early church leader during the formative years of the Christian church. However, according to Sheldon Pacotti, lead [[writer]] on the game, the name &quot;JC&quot; was merely chosen for its [[unisex]] qualities when the [[Software developer|developers]] were still planning to let the player choose the gender of the main character. == Overview == {{spoiler}} [[Image:Deus ex - in game screenshot.jpg|thumb|240px|An in-game dialog sequence.]] The game is built based on a modified [[Unreal engine]] and ''Deus Ex'' is seen as combining a variety of gaming genres. The game featured environments often drawn from real locations, including a severely damaged [[Statue of Liberty]], [[Hell's Kitchen]] in [[New York City]], and the [[Wan Chai District]] in [[Hong Kong]], among others. It was also notable for the complex tactical possibilities, where players could choose many different ways of achieving evolving goals, including stealth (akin to ''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief]]''), long-range sniping, all-out combat with various heavy weapons, character interaction, bypassing devices, computer hacking and use of objects in the environment. This level of freedom required levels, characters and puzzles to be designed with an enormous level of redundancy - a single play-through of the game will miss hundreds of lines of dialogue, alternate routes and large sections of the environment. For this reason few games have managed - or even tried - to create a similar experience. Its uniquely liberal nature and emergent gameplay have earned it a large cult following who see it as a first step into a new level of interactive experience. Deus Ex's plot drew together several current [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] into a narrative with characters having a deeper development than those of most FPS games. It also presented a philosophical dilemma in its conclusion where the player is
day]] and ends at Easter Sunday. The week before Easter is very special in the Christian tradition: the Sunday before is [[Palm Sunday]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]] or Holy Thursday, [[Good Friday]] and [[Holy Saturday]] (sometimes referred to as [[Silent Saturday]]). Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus' entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]]. Holy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the [[Easter Triduum]] ([[Latin]] for &quot;Three Days&quot;). In some countries, Easter lasts two days, with the second called &quot;[[Easter Monday]]&quot;. The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called [[Easter Week]] or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with 'Easter', e.g. Easter Monday, Easter Tuesday, etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday ''after'' Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday. Many churches start celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the [[Easter Vigil]]. [[Eastertide]], the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of [[Pentecost]], seven weeks later. ===Eastern Christianity=== In Eastern Christianity, preparations begin with [[Great Lent]]. Following the fifth Sunday of Great Lent is Palm Week, which ends with [[Lazarus]] Saturday. Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues for the following week. After Lazarus Saturday comes Palm Sunday, [[Holy Week]], and finally Easter itself, or Pascha (Πάσχα), and the fast is broken immediately after the Divine Liturgy. Easter is immediately followed by Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday. The Paschal Divine Liturgy generally takes place around midnight, into the early morning of Pascha. Placing the Paschal Divine Liturgy at midnight guarantees that no Divine Liturgy will come earlier in the morning, ensuring its place as the pre-eminent &quot;Feast of Feasts&quot; in the [[liturgical year]]. ==Religious observation of Easter== ===Western Christianity=== The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among [[Western Christianity|Western Christians]]. The traditional, [[liturgy|liturgical]] observation of Easter, as practised among [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and some [[Lutheran]]s and [[Anglican]]s begins on the night of [[Holy Saturday]] with the [[Easter Vigil]]. This, the most important liturgy of the year, begins in total darkness with the blessing of the Easter fire, the lighting of the large [[Paschal candle]] (symbolic of the Risen Christ) and the chanting of the [[Exsultet]] or Easter Proclamation attributed to Saint [[Ambrose of Milan]]. After this service of light, a number of readings from the [[Old Testament]] are read; these tell the stories of [[creation]], the sacrifice of [[Isaac]], the crossing of the [[Red Sea]], and the foretold coming of the [[Messiah]]. This part of the service climaxes with the singing of the [[Alleluia]] and the proclamation of the [[gospel]] of the [[resurrection]]. A [[sermon]] may be preached after the gospel. Then the focus moves from the [[lectern]] to the [[font]]. Anciently, Easter was considered the most perfect time to receive [[baptism]], and this practice is alive in [[Roman Catholicism]], as it is the time when new members are initiated into the Church, and it is being revived in some other circles. Whether there are baptisms at this point or not, it is traditional for the congregation to renew the vows of their baptismal faith. This act is often sealed by the sprinkling of the congregation with [[holy water]] from the font. The Catholic [[sacrament]] of [[Confirmation]] is also celebrated at the Vigil. The Easter Vigil concludes with the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] and [[Holy Communion]]. Additional celebrations are usually offered on Easter Sunday itself. Some churches prefer to keep this vigil very early on the Sunday morning instead of the Saturday night to reflect the gospel account of the women coming to the tomb at dawn on the first day of the week. Some churches read the Old Testament lessons before the procession of the Paschal candle, and then read the gospel immediately after the Exsultet. In predominantly Roman Catholic [[Philippines]], the morning of Easter (known in the national language as [[Pasko ng Muling Pagkabuhay]] or the Pasch of the Resurrection) is marked with joyous celebration, the first being the dawn [[Salubong]], wherein large statues of Jesus and Mary are brought together to meet, imagining the first reunion of Jesus and his mother Mary after Jesus' Resurrection. This is followed by the joyous Easter Mass. ===Eastern Christianity=== '''Easter''' is the fundamental and most important festival of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental]] Orthodox. Every other religious festival on their calendars, including [[Christmas]], is at best secondary in importance to the celebration of the Resurrection of the Lord. This is reflected in the cultures of countries that are traditionally Orthodox Christian majority. Easter-connected social customs are native and rich. Christmas customs, on the other hand, are usually foreign imports, either from [[Germany]] or the [[United States|USA]]. [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Rite Catholics]] in [[Communion (Christian)|communion]] with the [[Pope|Pope of Rome]] have similar emphasis in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar. This is not to say that Christmas and other elements of the Christian liturgical calendar are ignored. Instead, these events are all seen as necessary but ''preliminary'' to the full climax of the Resurrection, in which all that has come before reaches fulfilment and fruition. Pascha (Easter) is the primary act that fulfils the purpose of Christ's ministry on earth&amp;mdash;to defeat death by dying and to purify and exalt humanity by voluntarily assuming and overcoming human frailty. This is succinctly summarized by the Paschal [[Troparion]], sung repeatedly during Pascha until the [[Apodosis]] of Pascha (which is the day before [[Ascension]]): {| border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=100% |- style=&quot;background:#efefef&quot; ! [[English language|English]] !! [[Koine Greek|Greek]] !! [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]]* |- |Christ is risen from the dead,&lt;br /&gt;Trampling down death by death,&lt;br /&gt;And upon those in the tombs&lt;br /&gt;Bestowing life! |{{polytonic|Χριστὸς ἀνέστη ἐκ νεκρῶν,&lt;br /&gt;θανάτῳ θάνατον πατήσας,&lt;br /&gt;καὶ τοῖς ἐν τοῖς μνήμασι,&lt;br /&gt;ζωὴν χαρισάμενος!}} |&lt;span lang=&quot;cu&quot; class=&quot;Cyrillic&quot; style=&quot;font-family:{{CYchar fonts}}&quot;&gt;Хрїсто&amp;#769;съ воскре&amp;#769;се и&amp;#769;зъ ме&amp;#769;ртвыхъ,&lt;br /&gt;Сме&amp;#769;ртїю сме&amp;#769;рть попра&amp;#769;въ,&lt;br /&gt;И сѹ&amp;#769;щымъ во гробѣ&amp;#769;хъ&lt;br /&gt;живо&amp;#769;тъ Дарова&amp;#769;въ!&lt;/span&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; size=&quot;+1&quot;| '''Transliterations''' |Christos anesti ek nekron,&lt;br /&gt;Thanato thanaton patisas,&lt;br /&gt;Kai tis en tis mnimasi&lt;br /&gt;Zo-in charisamenos! |Christos voskrese iz mertvich,&lt;br /&gt;Smertiu smert poprav,&lt;br /&gt;I soushchim vo grobyech&lt;br /&gt;Zhivot darovav! |} &lt;small&gt;*This language is not well-supported on many systems, so it may not appear as intended here.&lt;/small&gt; Celebration of the holiday begins with the &quot;anti-celebration&quot; of [[Great Lent]]. In addition to fasting, almsgiving, and prayer, Orthodox are supposed to reduce all entertainment and non-essential activity, gradually eliminating them until Holy Friday. Traditionally, on the evening of Holy Saturday, the Midnight Office is celebrated shortly after 11:00 pm. At its completion all light in the church building is extinguished. A new flame is struck in the altar, or the priest lights his candle from a perpetual lamp kept burning there, and he then lights candles held by deacons or other assistants, who then go to light candles held by the congregation. Entirely lit by candle, the priest and congregation process around the church building, re-entering ideally at the stroke of midnight, whereupon [[Matins]] begins immediately followed by the Paschal [[Canonical hours|Hours]] and then the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Immediately after the Liturgy it is customary for the congregation to share a meal, essentially an [[agape]] dinner (albeit at 2.00 am or later!) [[Image:neObgig_Samara.jpg|frame|right|The [[Holy Fire]] in Jerusalem, celebrated on Holy Saturday, has been described as the oldest miracle-related ceremony in Christendom.]] The day after, Easter Sunday proper, there is no liturgy, since the liturgy for that day has already been celebrated. Instead, in the afternoon, it is often traditional to hold &quot;Agape vespers&quot;. In this service, it has become customary during the last few centuries for the priest and members of the congregation to read a portion of the Gospel of John (20:19&amp;ndash;25 or 19&amp;ndash;31) in as many languages as they can manage. For the remainder of the week (known as &quot;Bright Week&quot;), all fasting is prohibited, and the customary greeting is &quot;Christ is risen!&quot;, to be responded with &quot;Truly He is risen!&quot; (See also [[Pascha greeting]]) ==Non-religious Easter traditions== As with many other Christian dates, the celebration of Easter extends beyond the church. Since its origins, it has been a time of celebration and feasting. Today it is commercially important, seeing wide sales of [[greeting card]]s and confectionery such as chocolate [[Easter eggs (decorative)|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, [[Peeps]], and [[jelly beans]]. Despite the religious preeminence of Easter, in many traditionally Christian countries [[Christmas]] is now a more prominent event in the cal
ibed as a patriarch blessed by God (the Jewish people called him &quot;Father Abraham&quot;), and [[promise]]d great things, father of the People of Israel through his son [[Isaac]]; the Muslims regard [[Ishmael]] as the father of the [[Arab]]s. In Islam, Abraham is considered to be one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, [[Jesus]]. In Islamic belief, Abraham obeyed God by offering up Ishmael. His original name was '''Abram''' ('''אַבְרָם''' &quot;High/Exalted father/leader&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾAḇrām'''); he was the foremost of the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]. Later in life he went by the name Abraham. There is no contemporary mention of his life, and no source earlier than ''Genesis'' mentions him. According to calculations derived from the [[Masoretic]] Hebrew [[Torah]], Abraham was born 1,948 years after creation and lived for 175 years, which would correspond to a life spanning from 1812 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 1637 [[Common Era|BCE]] by Jewish dating; or from 2166 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 1991 [[Common Era|BCE]] by other calculations. The figures in the [[book of Jubilees]] have Abraham born 1,876 years after creation, and 534 years before the Exodus; the ages provided in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan version of Genesis]] agree closely with those of Jubilees before the Deluge, but after the Deluge, they add roughly 100 years to each of the ages of the Patriarchs in the Masoretic Text, resulting in the figure of 2,247 years after creation for Abraham's birth. The Greek [[Septuagint]] version adds around 100 years to nearly ''all'' of the patriarchs' births, producing the even higher figure of 3,312 years after creation for Abraham's birth. [[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|&quot;Abraham Sacrificing Isaac&quot; by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]] ==Abraham in Judaism== The account of his life is found in the Book of [[Genesis]], beginning in Chapter 11, at the close of a [[genealogy]] of the sons of [[Shem]] (which includes among its members [[Eber]], the [[eponym]] of the [[Hebrews]]). His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]], popularly identified only since 1927 (thanks to Sir [[Charles Woolley]]) with the ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]] which was under the rule of the Chaldeans &amp;mdash; although [[Josephus]], Islamic tradition and Jewish authorities like Maimonides all concur that [[Ur-Of-The-Khaldis]] was in Northern Mesopotamia (where is now [[Kurdistan]]) (Identified with [[Urartu]], [[Urfa]], and [[Kutha]] respectively). This is in keeping with the local tradition that Abraham was born in Urfa; or with the nearby [[Urkesh]], which others identify with &quot;Ur of the Chaldees&quot;. They also say &quot;Chaldees&quot; refers to a group of gods called [[Khaldis]]. Abram migrated to [[Harran]], apparently the classical [[Carrhae]], on a branch of the [[Habor]]. Thence, after a short stay, he, his wife [[Sarah|Sarai]], [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] (the son of Abram's brother [[Haran]]), and all their followers, departed for [[Canaan]]. There are two cities possibly identifiable with the biblical Ur, neither far from Haran: Ura and Urfa, a northern Ur also being mentioned in tablets at [[Ugarit]], [[Nuzi]], and [[Ebla]]. These possibly refer to Ur, Ura, and Urau (See ''BAR'' January 2000, page 16). Moreover, the names of Abram's forefathers [[Peleg]], [[Serug]], [[Nahor]], and Terah, all appear as names of cities in the region of Haran (''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', page 373). [[Yahweh]] called Abram to go to &quot;the land I will show you&quot;, and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], and at the sacred tree (compare Gen. 25:4, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:26, [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 9:6) received a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed (descendant or descendants). Having built an [[altar]] to commemorate the [[theophany]], he removed to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]], where he built another altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen. 12:1-9). Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the [[Jordan River]], while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]] and built an altar. In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], Abram appears prominently in a passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom, and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein, the city shall be preserved (18:16-33). Driven by a [[famine]] to take refuge in [[Egypt]] (26:11, 41:57, 42:1), Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the [[Pharaoh]], who took her into the royal [[harem]] and enriched Abram with herds and servants. But when Yahweh &quot;plagued Pharaoh and his house with great [[Plagues of Egypt|plagues]]&quot; Abram and Sarai left Egypt. There are two other parallel tales in Genesis of [[a wife confused for a sister]] (Genesis 20-21 and 26) describing a similar event at Gerar with the [[Philistine]] king Abimelech, though the latter attributing it to Isaac not Abraham. As Sarai was infertile, God's promise that Abram's seed would inherit the land seemed incapable of fulfillment. His sole heir was his servant, who was over his household, a certain [[Eliezer of Damascus]] (15:2). Abraham is now promised as heir one of his own flesh. The passage recording the ratification of the promise is remarkably solemn (see [[Genesis]] 15). Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid [[Hagar]], who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of [[Hannah]], [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 1:6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (16:1-14). Hagar is promised that her descendants will be too numerous to count, and she returns. Her son [[Ishmael]] thus was Abram's [[firstborn]] (and [[Islam]]ic doctrine holds that he was the rightful [[heir]]). Hagar and Ishmael were eventually driven permanently away from Abram by Sarah (chapter 21). The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well. The covenant of circumcision (unlike the earlier promise) was two-sided and conditional: if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part of the covenant, Yahweh would be their God and give them the land. The promise of a son to Abraham made Sarah &quot;laugh,&quot; which became the name of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarah herself &quot;laughs&quot; at the idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (18:1-15) and, when the child is born, cries &quot;God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth will laugh at me&quot; (21:6). In Genesis 18, Abraham pleads with God not to destroy [[Sodom]], and God agrees that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it, or 45, or 30, 20, even 10 righteous people. (Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] had been living in Sodom.) Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an [[angel]] as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity (22). Then he returned to [[Beersheba]]. The [[Binding of Isaac|near sacrifice of Isaac]] is one of the most challenging, and perhaps [[ethics|ethic]]ally troublesome, parts of the Bible. According to Josephus, Isaac is 25 years old at the time of the sacrifice or ''Akedah'', while the [[Talmud]]ic sages teach that Isaac is 37. In either case, Isaac is a fully grown man, old enough to prevent the elderly Abraham (who is 125 or 137 years old) from tying him up had he wanted to resist. The primary interest of the narrative now turns to Isaac. To his &quot;only son&quot; (22:2, 12) Abraham gave all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside [[Canaan]]; they were thus regarded as less intimately related to [[Isaac]] and his descendants (25:1-6). See also: [[Midianites]], [[Sheba]]. Sarah died at an old age, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]] near [[Hebron]], which Abraham had purchased, along with the adjoining field, from [[Ephron the Hittite]] (Genesis 23). Here Abraham himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place of [[pilgrimage]] and [[Muslim]]s later built an [[Islam]]ic [[mosque]] inside the site. Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as their first Patriarch, and having a son (Isaac), who in turn begat [[Jacob]], and from there the [[Israelite|Twelve Tribes]]. To father the nation, God &quot;tested&quot; Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. God promised the land of Israel to his
e]] * [[B-tree]] * [[Binary space partitioning]] * [[Red-black tree]] [[da:binært søgetræ]] [[de:Binärbaum]] [[es:Árbol binario]] [[fr:Arbre binaire]] [[he:עץ בינארי]] [[ko:%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%84_%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC]] [[pl:Drzewo binarne]] [[sl:dvojiško drevo]] [[fi:Binääripuu]] [[sv:Binärträd]] [[uk:Бінарне дерево]] [[zh:二叉树]] [[Category:Trees (structure)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Borel measure</title> <id>4322</id> <revision> <id>29106492</id> <timestamp>2005-11-24T03:18:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TakuyaMurata</username> <id>6707</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>See also: [[Borel set]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the [[borel algebra|Borel algebra]] is the smallest [[sigma-algebra|&amp;sigma;-algebra]] on the [[real number]]s '''R''' containing the [[interval (mathematics)|intervals]], and the '''Borel measure''' is the [[measure (mathematics)|measure]] on this &amp;sigma;-algebra which gives to the interval [''a'', ''b''] the measure ''b'' &amp;minus; ''a'' (where ''a'' &lt; ''b''). The Borel measure is not [[complete measure|complete]], which is why in practice the complete [[Lebesgue measure]] is preferred: every Borel measurable set is also Lebesgue measurable, and the measures of the set agree. In a more general (abstract) measure-theoretic context, Let E be a [[Hausdorff_space|Hausdorff space]]. A measure &amp;mu; on the &amp;sigma;-algebra &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{B}(E) &lt;/math&gt; (the [[Borel_algebra|Borel &amp;sigma;-algebra]] on E) is '''Borel''' iff &lt;math&gt;\mu(K) &lt; +\infty&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;K \subset E&lt;/math&gt; compact. See also: [[Borel set]] [[Category:Measure theory]] [[de:Borel-Maß]] [[fr:Mesure de Borel]] [[zh:Borel測度]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle Creek</title> <id>4323</id> <revision> <id>15902599</id> <timestamp>2002-05-04T09:11:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.26.98.90</ip> </contributor> <comment>*redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle Creek, Michigan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Banach-Tarski Paradox</title> <id>4324</id> <revision> <id>35262712</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T11:54:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dbenbenn</username> <id>38020</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blackadder</title> <id>4326</id> <revision> <id>42151163</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:54:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>147.69.51.30</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Cast */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{infobox television | | show_name = Blackadder | image = [[Image:Blackadder.jpg|200px|center|]] | caption = Left to right: Tony Robinson, Rowan Atkinson and Tim McInnerny in ''Blackadder II'' | format = [[Comedy]] | runtime = 30 minutes | creator = [[Richard Curtis]] &amp; [[Rowan Atkinson]] | writers = Richard Curtis &amp; [[Rowan Atkinson]] (series 1)&lt;br&gt;Richard Curtis &amp; Ben Elton (series 2-) | starring = [[Rowan Atkinson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tony Robinson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tim McInnerny]]&lt;br&gt;[[Hugh Laurie]]&lt;br&gt;[[Brian Blessed]]&lt;br&gt;[[Miranda Richardson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Stephen Fry]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gabrielle Glaister]]&lt;br&gt;[[Patsy Byrne]]&lt;br&gt;[[Rik Mayall]]&lt;br&gt;[[Helen Atkinson-Wood]] | country = [[United Kingdom]] | network = [[BBC]] | first_aired = 1983 | last_aired = 1989 | num_episodes = [[List of Blackadder episodes|24]] |}} '''''Blackadder''''' is the generic name that encompasses four series of an acclaimed [[BBC]] historical [[British sitcom|sitcom]], along with several one-off instalments. The first series was written by [[Richard Curtis]] and [[Rowan Atkinson]], while subsequent episodes were written by Curtis and [[Ben Elton]]. The shows were produced by [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]], and starred Rowan Atkinson as the [[eponym|eponymous]] [[anti-hero]], [[Edmund Blackadder]], and [[Tony Robinson]] as his [[sidekick]], [[Baldrick]]. Each series was set in a different period of [[history of Britain|British history]], and comprised six half-hour episodes. The first series, made in 1983, was called ''The Black Adder''. This was followed by ''Blackadder II'' in 1986, ''Blackadder the Third'' in 1987, and finally ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' in 1989. In addition to these, three specials were also made: &quot;Blackadder: The [[cavaliers|Cavalier]] Years&quot; appeared as a 15-minute insert during the 1988 [[Comic Relief]] telethon; ''[[Blackadder's Christmas Carol]]'' was a 45-minute [[Christmas]] instalment, broadcast the same year; and ''[[Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth]]'' was a 30-minute [[film]] originally shown in a special [[movie theater|cinema]] at the [[Millennium Dome]] throughout 2000, and later transmitted by [[British Sky Broadcasting|Sky]] and the BBC. A [[pilot episode]] was filmed in 1982, but has never been shown on television. In January 2005, Tony Robinson told [[ITV]]'s ''[[This Morning]]'' that [[Rowan Atkinson]] is more keen than he has been in the past to do a fifth series, set in the 1960s (centered around a rock band called the &quot;Black Adder Five&quot;, with [[Baldrick]] &amp;mdash; aka 'Bald Rick' &amp;mdash; as the drummer). However, although the BBC stated that there were no plans for a comeback, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4606743.stm this article] might confirm a new series for 2006. Furthermore, in November 2005, Rowan Atkinson told BBC Breakfast News that although he would very much like to do a new series set in [[Colditz]] or another prisoner-of-war camp during [[World War Two]], the chances of it happening are extremely low. In the 2004 TV poll to find &quot;[[Britain's Best Sitcom]]&quot;, Blackadder was voted the second best British sitcom of all time, beaten only by ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]''. ==''Blackadder '' overview== {{spoiler}} ===Developments over the series=== It is implied in each series that the Blackadder character is a distant descendant of the previous one. With each observed generation, his [[social class|social standing]] is reduced, from [[prince]], to [[nobleman]], to royal [[butler]], to army [[captain]] and by the end, in the final episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth'', nothing more than [[cannon-fodder]]. However, he concurrently goes from being an incompetent fool (in the first series), to an ever more devious strategist in matters that affect him. The [[Macbeth]]-inspired witches, in &quot;The Foretelling&quot; (1.1) (thinking he is someone else), promise that one day Blackadder will be [[Monarch|King]] and, in &quot;Bells&quot; (2.1), the 'wise woman' says &quot;thou plottest Edmund: thou wouldst be King!&quot; In the first series, Edmund does become King for less than a minute, but then dies after succumbing to some poisoned wine (a fact alluded to in a song in ''Blackadder II'', whose lyrics include &quot;His great-grandfather was a king/Although for only thirty seconds&quot;). In the second series, Blackadder comes very close to marrying [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] but fails. At the end of ''Blackadder the Third'', the character assumes the role of [[Prince Regent]] after the real prince is killed in a duel with the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], and (presumably, though not definitely) goes on to assume the identity of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]]. After the continual decline in status through the series, Blackadder, or at least the descendant of the original, finally becomes King in ''Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth'' through manipulation of the timeline. A [[Admiral|Grand Admiral]] Blackadder of the far future is also seen in the Christmas special, and his status further rises when he manages to achieve control of the entire universe upon marrying Queen Asphyxia XIX. ====Comparison between Baldrick and Blackadder==== It is also noticeable that, as Blackadder becomes more cunning, so Baldrick develops into a dimwit. It is clear that in the first series, the latter is smarter than his superior, saving the day on several occasions. However, in later instalments, this situation is reversed: e.g., in &quot;Captain Cook&quot; (4.1), Baldrick scratches his name on a bullet, because &quot;somewhere there's a bullet with your name on it&quot; &amp;mdash; and if he owns it, then he cannot be shot by it. ===Similarities over the series=== Each series tended to feature the same set of actors in different period settings. [[Stephen Fry]] played the mild-mannered [[Melchett#Lord Melchett|Lord Melchett]], an advisor to Queen Elizabeth I in the second series, The Duke of Wellington in the final episode of the third series and [[Melchett#General Sir Anthony Cecil Hogmanay Melchett|General Melchett]], a blustering buffoon, in the fourth. [[Tim McInnerny]] played [[Lord Percy Percy]] in the first and second series, [[The Scarlet Pimpernel]] (for one episode) in the third and [[Kevin Darling]] in both the fourth series and ''Blackadder Back and Forth''. [[Hugh Laurie]] plays Simon Partridge in episode five and Prince Ludwig the Indestructible in the final instalment of ''Blackadder II'', a foppish Prince George in ''Blackadder the Third'' and the idiotic Lieutenant George in ''Blackadder Goes Forth''. [[Rik Mayall]] plays 'Mad Gerald' in the first series and the dashing [[Lord Flashheart]], a vulgar yet successful rival of Blackadder in both the second and fourth series; he also plays a decidedly Flashheart-like [[Robin Hood]] in ''Back and Forth''. [[Gabrielle Glaister]] plays an attractive girl who poses as a man and calls herself [[
and [[Pino Donaggio]]. De Palma is credited with fostering the careers of or outright discovering [[Robert De Niro]], [[Jill Clayburgh]], [[John C. Reilly]], [[John Leguizamo]], and [[Margot Kidder]]. De Palma has encouraged and fostered the filmmaking careers of directors such as [[Mark Romanek]] and [[Keith Gordon]]. [[Terrence Malick]] credits seeing De Palma's early films on college campus tours as a validation of [[independent film]], and subsequently switched his attention from [[philosophy]] to filmmaking. De Palma, whose background is [[Italian people|Italian]] [[Catholic]], was raised in [[Philadelphia]] and [[New Jersey]] in various [[Protestant]] and [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] schools. The frisson between the Catholic and Protestant ethic is exemplified in De Palma's cinema, where the [[grand guignol]] exists alongside the [[status quo]], where the normal is made epic and the extraordinary deflated into the mainstream. Enrolled at [[Columbia University|Columbia]] as a physics student, De Palma became enraptured with the filmmaking process after viewing ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' and ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]''. He switched majors and enrolled at the newly coed [[Sarah Lawrence College]] in the late [[1960s]], becoming one of the first male students among a female population. Once there, influences as various as drama teacher Wilford Leach, the [[Albert and David Maysles|Maysles brothers]], [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]], [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Alfred Hitchcock]] impressed upon De Palma the many styles and themes that would shape his own cinema in the coming decades. An early association with discovery [[Robert De Niro]] resulted in ''[[The Wedding Party]]'', codirected with Leach and producer Cynthia Munroe. The film was shot in [[1963]] but remained unreleased until [[1969]], when De Palma's star had risen sufficiently within the [[Greenwich Village]] filmmaking scene, though De Niro's remained low enough for the credits to display his name as &quot;Robert Denero&quot;. Various small films for the [[NAACP]] and The [[Treasury Department]] followed. Early efforts ''[[Greetings (film)|Greetings]]'' and ''[[Hi, Mom!]]'' (starring De Niro) espouse a [[Leftist]] [[revolutionary]] viewpoint common of their era, and experiments in narrative and [[intertextuality]] reflect De Palma's stated intention to become the &quot;American Godard.&quot; ''Hi, Mom!'', in its ''[[Be Black, Baby]]'' sequence, parodies [[cinéma vérité]], championed by the documentary movement of the late '60s, while simultaneously providing the audience with as visceral and disturbingly emotional an experience as fiction film can provide, and remains a significant touchstone in interpreting De Palma's filmography. == Career beginnings and highlights == Following a disastrous [[Hollywood]] foray, in which his next film ''[[Get to Know Your Rabbit]]'' was reedited by [[Warner Bros.]] at the behest of star [[Tom Smothers]], De Palma returned to [[independent film]]. Both ''[[Sisters (movie)|Sisters]]'' and ''[[Phantom of the Paradise]]'' were [[tongue-in-cheek]] experiments in [[pure cinema]] and allowed De Palma to jettison the more dated [[hippie]] trappings of his earlier films. ''[[Obsession]]'', an emotional alternative take on ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' scripted by [[Paul Schrader]], seems less now a bold attempt to usurp [[Alfred Hitchcock]] than an extension of the experiment begun on ''[[Sisters (movie)|Blood Sisters]]'', using the [[Hitchcock]] film as a template to analyze male and female roles and how an audience expects them to be reinforced. It is this tension, at once removed from the superficial elements of the plot or characters, yet intended to elicit emotional responses, that drives De Palma's work; the somewhat notorious reputation he has earned and the critical dismissal De Palma has experienced is a direct result of the [[distantiation]] techniques he employs in films that use the methodology of thrillers to engage the audience. De Palma's chief entrance into the mainstream has been his public image (fostered by De Palma in the early [[1980s]] and later rejected as counterproductive) as a combative and controversial director of sex and violence. '''De Palma''', a veteran of the New York underground scene, had yet to produce a certifiable commercial hit by 1975, while his friends [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Martin Scorsese]] benefitted from a comparatively larger financial and critical windfall. Therefore his next film, the [[psychic]] thriller ''[[Carrie]]'' is seen by some as De Palma's bid for a blockbuster. In fact, the project was small, underfunded by [[United Artists]], and well under the cultural radar during the early months of production, as [[Stephen King]]'s source novel had yet to climb the bestseller list. De Palma gravitated toward the project and changed crucial plot elements based upon his own predilections, not the salability of the novel. The cast was young and relatively new, though stars [[Sissy Spacek]] and [[John Travolta]] had gained considerable attention for previous work in, respectively, film and episodic [[sitcom]]s. ''Carrie'' became a hit, the first genuine box-office success for De Palma. Preproduction for the film had coincided with the casting process for [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'', and many of the actors cast in De Palma's film had been earmarked as contenders for Lucas's, and vice-versa. The &quot;shock ending&quot; finale is effective even while it upholds horror-film convention, its suspense sequences are buttressed by [[teen comedy]] tropes, and its use of [[split-screen]], split-diopter and [[slow motion]] shots tell the story visually rather than through dialogue. The financial and critical success of ''Carrie'' allowed De Palma to pursue more personal material. ''[[The Demolished Man]]'' was a novel that had fascinated De Palma since the late [[1950s]] and appealed to his background in mathematics and [[avant-garde]] storytelling. Its unconventional unfolding of plot (exemplified in its mathematical layout of dialogue) and its stress on perception have analogs in De Palma's filmmaking. He sought to adapt it on numerous occasions, though the project would carry a substantial price tag, and has yet to appear onscreen (Steven Spielberg's adaptation of [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[Minority Report]]'' bears striking similarities to De Palma's visual style and some of the themes of ''The Demolished Man''). The result of his experience with adapting ''The Demolished Man'' was ''[[The Fury (film)|The Fury]]'', a [[sci-fi]] psychic thriller that starred [[Kirk Douglas]], [[Carrie Snodgress]], [[John Cassavetes]] and [[Amy Irving]]. The film was admired by [[Jean-Luc Godard]], who featured a clip in his mammoth [[Histoire(s) du cinéma]] and [[Pauline Kael]], who championed both ''The Fury'' and De Palma. The film boasted a larger budget than ''[[Carrie]]'', though the consensus view at the time was that De Palma was repeating himself, with diminishing returns. As a film it retains De Palma's considerable visual flair, but points more toward his work in mainstream entertainments such as ''[[The Untouchables]]'' and ''[[Mission: Impossible (movie)|Mission: Impossible]]'', the thematic complex thrillers for which he is better known. For many film-goers, De Palma's gangster films, most notably ''[[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]]'' and ''[[Carlito's Way]]'', pushed the envelope of violence and depravity, and yet greatly vary from each other in both style and content and also illustrate De Palma's evolution as a film-maker. In essence, Scarface's excesses contrast with the more emotional tragedy of Carlito's Way. Both films feature Al Pacino in what has become a fruitful working relationship. == Themes and Critical Opinion == His works explore themes of [[suspense]] and [[obsession]], along with [[gender identity]] and the destructive nature of the [[male gaze]]. He is famous for his extensive use of [[split screen]], split-diopter and process shots, and long tracking shots. His films also frequently feature characters changing their hair colour from blonde to brunette and vice versa. Critics of De Palma accuse him of being [[misogyny|misogynistic]] and of emphasizing technical aspects of storytelling at the expense of human stories. These views, along with the charge of 'ripping off' various filmmakers, is slowly fading from mainstream critical analysis of De Palma's work, as the complexities of his [[Film editing|montage]] and [[mise en scène]] come into focus. Emerging views of De Palma compare him less and less with modernist filmmakers like [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and more with transgressionists such as [[Luis Bunuel]] and Jean-Luc Godard and to traditions ranging from [[Surrealism]], [[Postmodernism]] to the [[theatre of the Absurd|theater of the Absurd]]. ==Trivia== His father, [[Anthony DePalma]], was an [[orthopedic]] [[surgery|surgeon]] and teacher who made a lifelong contribution to the practice of medicine. His oldest brother [[Bruce De Palma]], who passed away in 1997, was a well known figure in the [[alternative energy]] community, while [[Bart De Palma]] is an artist who contributed photographic mosaics (and a cameo appearance) to ''[[Femme Fatale (movie)|Femme Fatale]]''. DePalma was interested in [[physics]] in his youth and won the top prize in his [[high school]]'s regional [[science fair]]. He placed second in the nation in 1957 and 1958. The 1957 project was entitled &quot;The Application of Cybernetics to the Solution of Differential Equations.&quot; An incident involving a stolen motorcycle left De Palma in a New York City jail overnight after a bullet was removed from his leg, courtesy of the [[New York City Police Department|NYPD]]. He directed [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s &quot;[[Dancing In The Dark]]&quot; [[music video]] and is widely believed to have written the crawl that begins ''[[A New Hope|St
ogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh - pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomach'', ed. by V. P. Kozlov et al., Moskva: ROSSPEN 2004-5, 7 vols. ISBN 5824306044 ==See also== *[[Internal Troops]] *[[101st km]] *[[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)]] *[[Concentration camp]] *[[Dissident]] *[[Evil empire]] *[[Helsinki Accords]] *[[History of the Soviet Union]] *[[Human Rights]] *[[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union]] *[[Katorga]] *[[Laogai]] *[[List of Gulag camps]] *[[Memorial (society)|Memorial]] *Norilsk Uprising, an uprising in [[Norilsk]] &quot;Gorlag&quot; ([[mining]] camp), [[1953]] *[[Parasitism (social offense)]] *[[Penal colony]] *[[Samizdat]] *[[Troika (triumvirate)]] *[[ZATO]] === People === *[[Naftaly Frenkel]] *[[Vassily Grossman]] *[[Gustaw Herling-Grudziński]] *[[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]] *[[Eduard Streltsov]] *[[Sharashka#Notable sharashka inmates|Notable sharashka inmates]] == Wikisource == *[[s:ru:Декрет ВЦИК Советов о лагерях принудительных работ|Decree about labor camps of 1919, in Russian]] *[[s:ru:Постановление СНК СССР от 11.07.29 об использовании труда уголовно-заключённых|A decree about penal labor, 1929, in Russian]] == External links == {{commons|ГУЛАГ}} * [http://www.osa.ceu.hu/gulag/ Gulag: Forced Labor Camps, Online Exhibition, Open Society Archives] * [http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/maps/ussri.htm Map of Gulag] * [http://www.gulagmuseum.org/index_eng.htm Virtual Gulag Museum] * [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/11/books/11MCFA.html?th New York Times article of June 11, 2003, &quot;Camps of Terror, Often Overlooked&quot;, by Michael Mcfaul] * [http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/gulag.html The Economics of Forced Labour: The Soviet Gulag (ed. by Paul Gregory, Valery Lazarev), Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003] * [http://www.angelfire.com/de/Cerskus/english/Gulag1.html Gulag Photo album] * [http://www.artukraine.com/paintings/getman.htm The Gulag Collection: Paintings by Former Prisoner Nikolai Getman] * [http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchresult.cfm?parent_id=288285&amp;word= Gulag prisoners at work, 1936-1937] Photoalbum at NYPL Digital Gallery [[Category:GULAG| ]] [[Category:Soviet phraseology]] {{Link FA|he}} [[cs:Gulag]] [[da:Gulag]] [[de:Gulag]] [[es:Gulag]] [[eo:Gulago]] [[fr:Goulag]] [[io:Gulag]] [[it:Gulag]] [[he:גולאג]] [[ja:グラグ]] [[lt:Gulagas]] [[hu:Gulág]] [[nl:Goelag]] [[no:Gulag]] [[pl:Gułag]] [[pt:Gulag]] [[ro:Gulag]] [[ru:ГУЛАГ]] [[fi:Gulag]] [[sv:Gulag]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Garnishee order</title> <id>12983</id> <revision> <id>36183515</id> <timestamp>2006-01-22T05:36:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cjmnyc</username> <id>15282</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In the field of law, a &quot;'''garnishee order'''&quot; or, more commonly now, &quot;'''garnishment'''&quot; is a [[court order]] for collecting a [[civil law (common law)|civil]] judgment. It is, therefore, one kind of &quot;attachment&quot; (= taking property from someone under the authority of a court order). If (Defendant) A owes (Plaintiff) B a certain sum of money as a judgment in a lawsuit against A that B won, and A does not pay it to B, and (Garnishee) C owes A some money, B may have a court issue a garnishee order to C, and then C has to pay the money directly to B. (C is often A's employer but could be anyone who owes A money, including someone who had borrowed from A.) [[Category: Civil law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geiger counter</title> <id>12984</id> <revision> <id>41909936</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:31:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Leithp</username> <id>225576</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.216.127.197|68.216.127.197]] ([[User talk:68.216.127.197|talk]]) to last version by Zs</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__ [[Image:geiger counter.jpg|thumb|Modern geiger counter.]] A '''Geiger counter''', also called a '''Geiger-Müller counter''', measures [[Ionizing radiation|ionizing radiation]]. Geiger counters can be used to detect [[alpha radiation|alpha]] and [[beta radiation]]. (Due to the low density of in a GM tube, it is unlikely that a gamma photon will interact with it, hence the GM tube is very insensitive to gamma rays. A much better device for detecting gamma rays is a [[sodium]] iodide [[scintillation counter]]. The window on the scintillation counter is too thick to allow beta particles to enter the detector. It is vital that the correct detector is chosen for the radiation which is to be measured.) The sensor is a [[Geiger-Müller tube]], a gas-filled tube that briefly conducts electricity when a [[particle]] or [[photon]] of radiation briefly makes the gas conductive. The instrument amplifies this signal and displays it to the user, either as a current measurement (needle, lamp) or an audible click, with one click for each single particle. [[Hans Geiger]] developed the Geiger counter in [[1908]] together with [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson|Ernest Rutherford]]. This counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles. In [[1928]] Geiger and [[Walther_Müller|Walther Müller]] (a PhD student of Geiger) improved the counter so that it could detect all kinds of ionizing radiation. The current version of the Geiger counter is called the halogen counter. It was invented in 1947 by [[Sidney H. Liebson]] (Phys. Rev. 72, 602–608 (1947)). It has superseded the earlier Geiger counter because of its much longer life and lower operating voltage. The Geiger-Müller tube is one form of a class of radiation detectors called ''gaseous detectors'' or simply gas detectors. Although useful, cheap and robust, a counter using a GM tube can only detect the presence and intensity of radiation. The Geiger-Müller counter has applications in the fields of [[nuclear physics]], [[geophysics]] ([[mining]]) and medical therapy with isotopes. Gas detectors with the ability to both detect radiation and determine particle energy levels (due to their construction, test gas, and associated electronics) are called [[proportional counter]]s. Some proportional counters can detect the position and/or angle of the incident radiation as well. Some of these have many internal wires and electrodes and are called [[multi-wire proportional counter]]s or simply MWPCs, and have been used extensively in nuclear physics, [[medicine]], [[particle physics]], [[astronomy]] and in industry. Other devices detecting radiation include: [[ionization chamber]], [[dosimeter]]s, [[photomultiplier]], [[semiconductor detector]]s and variants including [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]s, [[microchannel plate]]s, [[scintillation counter]]s, solid-state [[track detector]]s, [[cloud chamber]]s, [[bubble chamber]]s, [[spark chamber]]s, [[neutron detector]]s and [[microcalorimeter]]s. ==See also== ===General=== * [[Timeline of invention]] * [[Measuring instrument]] * [[Hardware random number generator]] * [[Civil Defense Geiger Counters]] ===People=== * [[James Van Allen]] * [[Hans Geiger]] * [[Walther Bothe]] * [[Sidney H. Liebson]] ===Radiation=== * [[Radioactive decay]] * [[Timeline of particle physics technology]] * [[Van Allen radiation belt]] * [[X-ray]] [[Category:Particle detectors]] [[bg:Гайгеров брояч]] [[da:Geigertæller]] [[de:Geigerzähler]] [[es:Contador_geiger]] [[fr:Compteur Geiger]] [[he:מונה גייגר]] [[hu:Geiger-Müller-cső]] [[it:Contatore Geiger]] [[ja:ガイガー＝ミュラー計数管]] [[nl:Geigerteller]] [[pl:Licznik Geigera]] [[pt:Contador Geiger]] [[sv:Geigermätare]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>General Synod</title> <id>12985</id> <revision> <id>39032934</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T06:19:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.39.174.238</ip> </contributor> <comment>Heading</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''General Synod''' is the title of the governing body of some church organizations. ==Church of England== In the [[Church of England]], General Synod was instituted in [[1970]] and is the culmination of a process of rediscovering self-government for the Church of England that had started in the 1850s. The General Synod is unique in that it is the only body to which [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] had delegated the power to pass Measures, which become part of English law. The Church Assembly, the predecessor of the General Synod, was in 1919 given the power to pass legislation on any matter to do with the Church of England; if Parliament accepts the Measures, then they become law &amp;ndash; if MPs or members of the House of Lords are not happy with a Measure then they can reject it, but not amend it. General Synod is elected every five years by a system of [[Single Transferable Vote]] and officially opened by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. It is divided into the House of Bishops, the House of Clergy and the House of Laity. All diocesan bishops are members of the House of Bishops ex-officio; in addition, nine suffragan bishops are elected by all suffragan bishops. Membership of the House of Clergy is by [[election]] through the House of Clergy in each Diocesan Synod. Membership of the House of Laity is by election through the House of Laity in each Deanery Synod. There are 574 General Synod members in total. There are two synodical sessions per year (4-5 days each), one in Church House, [[Westminster]], the other at the [[University of York]]. General Synod deals with three main areas: *Central church business *Relations with other churches *Public issues The General Synod elects some members to the [[Archbis
lex'', or they would be misunderstood or misrepresented. The precursors of complex systems, when they are not useful in themselves, may be useful to perform other, unrelated functions. Evolutionary biologists argue that evolution often works in this kind of blind, haphazard manner in which the function of an early form is not necessarily the same as the function of the later form. The [[mammal]]ian ear (derived from a jawbone) and the [[Giant Panda|panda]]'s thumb (derived from a wrist bone spur) are considered classic examples. A current article in ''Nature'', Vol. '''439''', pp. 318-321 (Jan 19, 2006) by M. Brazeau and P. Ahlberg demonstrates intermediate states leading toward the development of the ear in a [[Devonian]] fish (about 360 million years ago). Furthermore, recent research shows that viruses play a heretofore unexpectedly great role in evolution by mixing and matching genes from various hosts. Evolution can act to simplify as well as to complicate. This raises the possibility that apparently irreducibly complex biological features may have been achieved with a period of increasing complexity, followed by a period of simplification. By analogy, stone arches are irreducibly complex &amp;mdash; if you remove any stone the arch will collapse &amp;mdash; yet we build them easily enough, one stone at a time, by building over scaffolding that is removed afterward. Similarly, naturally occurring arches of stone are formed by weathering away bits of stone from a large concretion that has formed previously. Behe has been accused of using an [[Argument from ignorance|argument by lack of imagination]], or constructing a &quot;[[God of the gaps]].&quot; Behe himself acknowledges that simply because scientists cannot currently see how an &quot;irreducibly complex&quot; organism could evolve, it does not prove that there is no possible way for it to have occurred. Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin, both of [[East Tennessee State University]], have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Apologetics/POS6-99ShenksJoplin.html]. They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is redundant complexity \u2014 a kind of complexity that is the product of an [[evolution|evolved]] biochemical process. They argue that Behe overestimates the significance of irreducible complexity because his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions results in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded and an over-reliance of overly-simplistic metaphors such as his mousetrap. There has also been a theory that challenges irreducible complexity called [[facilitated variation]]. The theory has been presented by [[Marc W. Kirschner]], a professor and chair of Department of Systems Biology at [[Harvard Medical School]], and [[John C. Gerhart]], a professor in the Graduate School, [[University of California, Berkeley]]. In their theory they describe how certain mutation and changes can cause apparent irreducible complexity. Their book was published in 2005. === Gradual replacement === Arguments for irreducibility often assume that things started out the same way they ended up (as we see them now). However, that may not necessarily be the case. Regarding Behe's '''antibody example''', we have the &quot;marker&quot; substance and the &quot;killer&quot; substance, that together hunt and kill marked invaders. Behe is saying that by themselves, the marker and the killer are useless, and thus must have been made at the same time. The killer cannot kill what it cannot find and the marker has no ability to kill even if it can find a target. However, under gradual replacement, a different marker may have started out as an independent hunter AND killer. After a while, a helper killer joined this army because it had some nice specialties. However, this second killer still depended on the first one to find the target. Thus the first killer served as both a marker and a killer, and the second killer is just a killer, relying on the first to hunt. Perhaps over time it is more efficient to have the 2nd killer specialize in killing and the first specialize in marking, and so the first killer is replaced by a similar substance that is merely a marker (perhaps a better marker than the first dual-purpose one). Thus, each step is an advantage, yet the final result is a dependent pair that does not resemble the proto-killer. This example can be laid out as: :A = original killer and marker :K = second killer :M = replacement marker :# A :# AK :# AMK :# MK All we see today is &quot;MK&quot;. Opponents of irreducible complexity state that Behe erroneously assumes that if the structure ended up MK, then it must have started out as M or K by themselves. === Handicaps and sexual selection === According to critics, another overlooked source of &quot;irreducibly complex&quot; features in a sexually reproducing organism is the [[Handicap principle]]. [[Sexual selection]] often favors those who can demonstrate to their mates a surplus of energy by maintaining a feature or behavior that is unnecessary for basic survival &amp;mdash; sometimes even a hindrance. Examples include certain horns and antlers, display feathers, skin or hair colors and patterns, bony structure, scents, songs, symmetry, and elaborate ritualistic behavior. It is not unreasonable to imagine a handicapping feature eventually developing a useful purpose in a changing environment or for two or more handicapping features to become useful when combined. Conversely, a useful feature may evolve to become a handicapping feature, but through sexual selection the feature is passed through generations to again become useful in a completely different context. In this new context it may seem impossible to us that it was naturally selected to its purpose. Imagine that a spontaneous hole formed in a pre-bird lizard's lung and quickly became a demonstration to potental mates that it has &quot;energy to burn&quot; because it was successful despite its handicap. Perhaps it evolved as a mating display because it made a distinctive sound like a frog's mating display. That feature could have been maintained by sexual selection long enough to have evolved into the modern bird lung we see today. However, this objection accounts for relatively few of the virtually unlimited potential intermediate stages of evolving features. === Falsifiability and experimental evidence === Some critics, such as [[Jerry Coyne]] (professor of [[evolutionary biology]] at the [[University of Chicago]]) and [[Eugenie Scott]] (a [[physical anthropology|physical anthropologist]] and executive director of the [[National Center for Science Education]]) have argued that the concept of irreducible complexity, and more generally, the theory of [[intelligent design]] is not [[falsifiable]], and therefore, not [[scientific]]. Behe argues that the theory that irreducibly complex systems could not have been evolved can be falsified by an experiment where such systems are evolved. For example, he posits taking bacteria with no [[flagella]] and imposing a selective pressure for mobility. If, after a few thousand generations, the bacteria evolved the bacterial flagellum, then Behe believes that this would refute his theory. Other critics take a different approach, pointing to experimental evidence that they believe falsifies the argument for Intelligent Design from irreducible complexity. For example, [[Kenneth Miller]] cites the lab work of Barry Hall on [[E. coli]], which he asserts is evidence that &quot;Behe is wrong.&quot; === Behe's own Criticisms === In his &quot;Reply to My Critics&quot;{{ref|behe_reply}}, Behe admitted that there was a &quot;defect&quot; in his view of irreducible complexity because, while it purports to be a challenge to natural selection, it does not actually address &quot;the task facing natural selection&quot;. Behe specifically explained that the &quot;current definition puts the focus on removing a part from an already functioning system&quot;, but the &quot;difficult task facing Darwinian evolution, however, would not be to remove parts from sophisticated pre-existing systems; it would be to bring together components to make a new system in the first place.&quot; In that article, Behe wrote that he hoped to &quot;repair this defect in future work&quot;. However, such work has not yet been published. ===God and Irreducible Complexity=== The most basic philosophical criticism of irreducible complexity is that it defeats its own purpose. Namely, that either God is irreducibly complex and hence requires a further creator-of-God ([[ad infinitum]]) to create God, or that God is not irreducibly complex, and can be reduced to naturalistic explanation. == Claimed significance == Behe argues that organs and biological features which are irreducibly complex cannot be wholly explained by current models of [[evolution]]. He argues that: : ''An irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly (that is, by continuously improving the initial function, which continues to work by the same mechanism) by slight, successive modifications of a precursor system, because any precursor to an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional.'' Irreducible complexity is not an argument that evolution does not occur, but rather an argument that it is incomplete. In the last chapter of [[Darwin's Black Box]], Behe goes on to explain his view that irreducible complexity is evidence for [[intelligent design]]. Mainstream critics however argue that irreducible complexity, as defined by Behe, can be generated by known evoluti
] **30× CBU-87/[[CBU-89 Gator|89]] cluster munitions **30× CBU-97 sensor fused weapons **30× CBU-103/104/105 WCMD **24× GBU-31 [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] GPS guided bombs (both Mk-84 general purpose and BLU-109 penetrating bombs) **24× [[Mark 84 bomb|Mk-84 general purpose bombs]] **24× [[AGM-158 JASSM]] **12× AGM-154 JSOW **8× [[Mark 85 naval mine|Mk-85 naval mines]] *Unlike any other heavy-bomber, can carry and employ any mix of the above ordnance (i.e. a different type of weapon in each bay) *6 external hardpoints for an additional 59,000 lb (27,000 kg) of ordinance (use for weapons currently restricted by [[START I]] treaty) }} == Popular Culture == *Footage shot from the tail of a B-1A/B flying over the desert appears in [[Godfrey Reggio]]'s film [[Koyaanisqatsi]], pictured [http://www.spiritofbaraka.com/slideshow.aspx?image=KoyanisA422 here] *In the movie [[Real Genius]], a B-1B is outfitted with an air-to-ground laser weapon. ==External links== * [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=81 Official U.S. Air Force B-1 Fact Sheet] * [http://www.b1b.wpafb.af.mil/ B-1 System Program Office Public Website] * [http://globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-1.htm GlobalSecurity.org B-1 page] * [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/B-1_crash_site.htm The Crash of the B-1A] ==Related content== {{Commons|B-1 Lancer}} {{aircontent| |sequence= * '''B-1''' - [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]] &lt;!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? --&gt; |related= * [[Boeing 2707]] |similar aircraft= &lt;!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability --&gt; * [[Tupolev Tu-160]] |lists= &lt;!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) --&gt; * [[List of bomber aircraft]] * [[List of military aircraft of the United States]] |see also= }} [[Category:Swing-wing aircraft]] [[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1970-1979]] [[de:Rockwell B-1]] [[es:B-1B Lancer]] [[fr:Rockwell B-1 Lancer]] [[ja:B-1 (爆撃機)]] [[pl:Rockwell B-1 Lancer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Common Prayer</title> <id>4953</id> <revision> <id>41616844</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:22:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Roger Arguile</username> <id>953143</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* The [[1559]] prayer book */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Image:Bcp79.jpg|thumbnail|right|1979 [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|ECUSA]]''BCP'' ]]''' The '''''Book of Common Prayer'''''{{ref|titl}} is the prayer book of the [[Church of England]] and also the name for similar books used in other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]]. It went through several revisions during the 16th and 17th centuries but has remained largely unchanged since 1662. It contains the order to be followed in church services. == History == === The Prayer Books of Edward VI === The work of producing English language books for use in the liturgy was, at the outset, the work of [[Thomas Cranmer]] Archbishop of Canterbury, under the reign of [[Henry VIII]]. The king was not unsympathetic to Cranmer's ideas, but it was the Archbishop, supported by more radical protégés, who forced the pace. His first work, the earliest English-language service book of the Church of England, was the [[Exhortation and Litany (1544)|Exhortation and Litany]]. This was no mere translation: its Protestant character is made clear by the drastic reduction of the place of saints, compressing what had been the major part into three petitions. Published in [[1544]], it borrowed greatly from [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Litany]] and [[Myles Coverdale]]'s [[New Testament]], and was the only service that might be considered to be &quot;[[Protestant]]&quot; to be finished within the lifetime of [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]]. {{template:anglicanism}} It was not until Henry's death in 1547 and the accession of [[Edward VI]] that the reform could proceed faster. [[Cranmer]] finished his work on an English [[Eucharist|Communion]] rite in [[1548]], obeying an order of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] that Communion was to be given as both bread and wine. The service existed as an addition to the pre-existing Latin Mass. It was included, one year later, in [[1549]],in a full prayer book, set out with a daily office, readings for Sundays and Holy Days, the Communion Service, Public Baptism, of Confirmation, of Matrimony, The Visitation of the Sick, At a Burial and the Ordinal (added in 1550). (This text of the Communion is online http://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/communion/1549/ here). The Preface to this edition, which contained Cranmer's explanation as to why a new prayer book was necessary, began: &quot;There was never any thing by the wit of man so well devised, or so sure established, which in continuance of time hath not been corrupted&quot;. The original version was used until only [[1552]], when a further revision was released. This second book marked a considerable change. In response to criticisms by such as [[Peter Martyr]] and [[Martin Bucer]] deliberate steps were taken to excise Catholic practices. In the [[Eucharist]], gone were the words [[Mass]] and [[altar]]; gone was the 'Lord have mercy' to be replaced by the [[Ten Commandments]]; removed to the end was the [[Gloria]]; gone was any reference to an offering of a 'Sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving' in the Eucharistic prayer, which ended with the words of institution (This is my Body..This is my blood...). The part of the prayer which followed, the Prayer of Oblation, was transferred, much changed, to a position after the congregation had received communion. The words at the administration of communion which, in the prayer book of 1549 described the eucharistic species as 'The body of our Lorde Jesus Christe...', 'The blood of our Lorde Jesus Christe...' were replaced with with the words 'Take, eat, in remembrance that Christ died for thee..' etc. The Peace, at which in earlier times the congregation had exchanged a greeting, was removed altogether. Vestments such as the [[stole]], [[chasuble]] and [[cope]] were no longer to be worn, but only a surplice. It was the final stage of Cranmer's work of removing all elements of sacrifice from the Latin Mass. In the Baptism service the signing with the cross was moved until after the baptism and the exorcism, the anointing, the putting on of the chrysom robe and the triple immersion were omitted. Most drastic of all was the removal of the Burial service from church: it was to take place at the graveside. In 1549, there had been provision for a Requiem (not so called) and prayers of commendation and committal, the first addressed to the deceased. All that remained was a single reference to the deceased, giving thanks for their delivery from ' the myseryes of this sinneful world'. Before the book was in general use Edward VI died. In [[1553]], [[Mary I of England|Mary I]], upon her succession to the throne, re-established the old religion. The [[Mass]] was re-established, altars, rood screens and statues were re-instated; an attempt was made to restore the Church to its Roman affiliation. Cranmer was punished for his work in the Protestant reformation by being burned at the stake on March 21, [[1556]]. Nevertheless, the 1552 book was to survive. After Mary's death in 1558,it was re-instated, with subtle if significant changes only, and Cranmer's work was to survive until the 1920s as the only authorised book in the Church of England. === The [[1559]] prayer book === Thus, under [[Elizabeth I of England]], a restoration of the Reformed religion was undertaken, and the 1552 book was republished in 1559. In its Elizabethan form, scarcely altered, it was used for nearly 100 years, thus being the official prayer book under the Stuarts as well as being the first Anglican service in America. This was the prayer book of [[William Shakespeare]], [[John Donne]], and [[Richard Hooker]]. [[Image:Book of common prayer 1596.jpg|thumb|Title page of 1596 Prayer Book]] The alterations, though minor, were to cast a long shadow. One related to what was worn. Instead of the banning of all vestments save the rochet (for bishops) and the surplice for parish clergy, it permitted 'such ornaments...as were in use...in the second year of K.Edward VI'. This was to be the basis of claims in the 19th. century that vestments such as chasubles, albs and stoles were legal. At the Communion the words 'the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ' etc. were combined with the words of Edward's second book, 'Take eat in remembrance..' etc. The prohibition on kneeling at the Communion was omitted. The conservative nature of these changes underlines the fact that Elizabeth's Protestantism was by no means universally popular, a fact which she herself recognised; her revived Act of Supremacy, giving her the ambiguous title of [[Supreme Governor]] passed without difficutly, but the Act of Uniformity passed through Parliament by only three votes. Elizabeth succeeded in creating a stable state, the Elizabethan settlement. However, on her death in 1603, this book,substantially the book of 1552, having been regarded as offensive by the likes of Bishop Stephen Gardiner in the sixteenth century as being a break with the tradition of the Western church, as it was, by the seventeenth century had come to be regarded as unduly Catholic. On the accession of [[James I]], following the so-called Millenary Petition, the [[Hampton Court conference]] of 1604, a meeting of bishops and Puritan divines, produced little change save to the catechism. By the reign of [[Charles I]] (1625-1649) the Puritan pressure, exercised through a much changed Parliament, increased. Government-inspired petitions for the removal of the prayer book and episcopacy 'root and branch' resulted in local disquiet in many places and eventually th
6. [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]] published the two first printings of the original ''D&amp;D'' and ''[[TSR, Inc.|TSR Hobbies, Inc]]'' went on with the game. A few years later a new version of ''D&amp;D'' was created, ''[[Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' (AD&amp;D) (1977-9). &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt; The ''[[Players Handbook|Player's Handbook]]'' would be the first rule book of the new system. The new rules were not compatible with D&amp;D. As a result, the D&amp;D and AD&amp;D had distict product lines and expansions. Gary Gygax left TSR in [[1985]] during changes in TSR's management. Problems arose while Gary was preoccupied with making the [[CBS]] cartoon series Dungeons and Dragons. &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I was pretty much boxed out of the running of the company because the two guys, who between them had a controlling interest, thought they could run the company better than I could. I was set up because I could manage. In 1982 nobody on the West Coast would deal with TSR, but they had me start a new corporation called &quot;Dungeons and Dragons Entertainment.&quot; It took a long time and a lot of hard work to get to be recognized as someone who was for real and not just a civilian, shall we say, in entertainment. Eventually, though, we got the cartoon show going (on CBS) and I had a number of other projects in the works.&quot; Gygax was President in title of the company but the Blumes were the real management. During this period TSR Hobbies's debt was around $15 million. &quot;While I was out there, though, I heard that the company was in severe financial difficulties and one of the guys, the one I was partnered with, was shopping it on the street in New York. I came back and discovered a number of gross mismanagements in all areas of the company. The bank was foreclosing and we were a million and a half in debt. We eventually got that straightened out, but I kind of got one of my partners kicked out of office. (Kevin Blume, who was removed as TSR CEO in 1984 - ed.). Then my partners, in retribution for that, sold his shares to someone else (Lorraine Williams - ed.). I tried to block it in court, but in the ensuing legal struggle the judge ruled against me. I lost control of the company, and it was then at that point I just decided to sell out.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; After leaving TSR Gary Gygax created ''[[Dangerous Journeys]]'', an advanced RPG spanning multiple genres containing almost every rule that Gary could think of. &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt; He began work in [[1995]] on a major new RPG, originally intended for a computer game, but in [[1999]] released as ''[[Lejendary Adventure]]'' which some consider to be his best work to date. A key part of its design was to keep the gaming rules as simple as possible, as Gygax felt that role playing games were becoming too complex and discouraged new users. He is now in semi-retirement, &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt; having almost suffered a [[heart attack]] after receiving incorrect medication &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt; to prevent further [[Cerebrovascular accident|strokes]] after those on [[April 1]] and [[May 4]] [[2004]]. Although working hours declined gaming is still very much a part of Gary's life. Together with [[James M. Ward]], creator of the ''[[Metamorphosis Alpha]]'' and ''[[Gamma World]]'', Thursday night is RPG night. &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I would like the world to remember me as the guy who really enjoyed playing games and sharing his knowledge and his fun pastimes with everybody else.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; ===Personal=== Gary Gygax married Gail Carpenter on [[August 15]], [[1987]], which was the same day as his own parents' 50th anniversary. As of [[2005]], he is father to six children and seven grandchildren as well. The first five, [[Ernest Gygax, Jr|Ernest G. Jr.]], [[Mary Elise Gygax|Mary Elise]], [[Heidi Jo Gygax|Heidi Jo]], [[Cindy Lee Gygax|Cindy Lee]] and [[Lucion Paul Gygax|Lucion Paul]] are from his first marriage. His latest, through his current marriage, is Alexander Hugh Hamilton Gygax born on [[October 2]], [[1986]]. His latest grandson is Jonathan To (pronounced toe, his father being Chinese-Vietnamese).&lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt; Gary describes his studio in his typical narrative fashion as, &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;a small but sunny upper room—cluttered with books, magazines, papers, and who-knows-what else. Right now, pending the redecorating of that room, I am lodged in the downstairs dining room at a long table that holds two computers and a scanner, with the printer hiding to one side below it. The radio there in the studio was usually tuned to a classical music station, but the station was sold, programming changed, so now I work sans music, or now and then with a CD playing through the computer. While there are bookcases in the upper studio, elsewhere on the second floor, and on the first floor, the main repository of printed lore (other than that piled here and there) is my basement library which includes thousands of reference works, maps, magazines, and works of fiction.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; ===Honorable Mention=== From [[1975]] to [[1994]], Gary Gygax received several awards related to gaming ... &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt; *Strategists Club's, &quot;Outstanding Designer &amp; Writer&quot; &amp;ndash; for creating D&amp;D *Origin Game Convention's, &quot;Adventure Gaming Hall of Fame&quot; *Origins Award, &quot;Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts &amp; Design Hall of Fame Honors&quot; (2004) *Four time winner of Games Day's, &quot;Best Games Inventor&quot; (1979-82). Gary Gygax was tied with [[J. R. R. Tolkien|J.R.R.Tolkien]] for #18 on &quot;GameSpy's 30 Most Influential People in Gaming&quot; (Gamespy Magazine, March 2002) As of [[March 13]], [[2003]], Gygax is listed under the entry ''Dungeons and Dragons'' in the Oxford English Dictionary. A strain of bacteria has been named in honor of Gary Gygax, namely &quot;''Arthronema gygaxiana sp nov UTCC393''&quot; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Molecular and Morphological Characterization of Ten Polar and Near-Polar Strains within the Oscillatoriales'' (Cyanobacteria)&quot;, by Dale A. Casamatta, Jeffrey R. Johansen, Morgan L. Vis, and Sharon T. Broadwater, Journal of Psychology, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ''Sync'' Magazine named Gary Gygax #1 on the list of &quot;The 50 biggest Nerds of All Time&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Number 1: Gary Gyrax: &quot;&lt;cite&gt;Cocreator of Dungeons &amp; Dragons and father of role-playing games. &lt;br /&gt; Defining nerd moment: With a last name that sounds like a barbarian warrior from space, is it any wonder this guy invented the 20-sided die? Between 1977 and 1979, Gygax released Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons for advanced dorks, taking the cult phenomenon to new heights whilst giving himself a +5 salary of lordly might.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; ''Sync'' Magazine, December/January 2004/05&lt;/ref&gt; ''SFX'' Magazine listed him as #37 on the list of the &quot;50 greatest [[Sci-Fi|SF]] pioneers&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;''SFX'' Magazine March (#128) 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ===Media Coverage=== Gary Gygax appeared on a ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'' episode, &quot;Anthology of Interest 1&quot; (aired in 2000), during which he rolled dice to decide on what greeting to give when introduced to Fry (&quot;It's a... *roll* ...pleasure to meet you.&quot;). Later, he gives his &quot;mace +1&quot; to Fry to fight off the robots of the future. The episode ends with Gary [[Dungeon Master|dungeon mastering]] a Dungeons &amp; Dragons game with [[Philip J. Fry|Fry]], [[Al Gore]], [[Nichelle Nichols]], [[Steven Hawking]], and [[Deep Blue]]. His appearance along side Al Gore on Futurama was something of an inside joke since Gore's wife, [[Tipper Gore]], has been publicly critical of Dungeons &amp; Dragons. The Gores' daughter writes for the show. He had a cameo appearance in the [[April 13]], [[2004]] strip of R. K. Milholland's on-line comic [[Something Positive]]. Gary is shown getting busted by the FBI for creating Dungeons &amp; Dragons and causing &quot;years and years of anti-social mayhem&quot;. In an episode of ''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'' (entitled D&amp;DeeDee), Dexter attempts to play a super-powerful character named Gygax with a soul-stealing sword, but ends up with [[Frodo Baggins|Hodo the Furry-Footed Burrower]] instead. His name has twice been an answer in the board game [[Trivial Pursuit]]. Mentioned in magazines and newspapers too abundant to list here. {{mn|GaryLONGBio|1}} ==Job Titles== *1970-73 – Editor-in-Chief, Guidon Games (publisher of Wargaming rules and wargames) *1973-83 – Partner of TSR and then President of TSR Hobbies, Inc. *1983-85 – President, DUNGEONS &amp; DRAGONS Entertainment Corporation :::Co-Producer, [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons (TV series)|DUNGEONS &amp; DRAGONS Animated Television Show]] *1983-85 – Chairman of the Board of Directors and President (1985 only) of TSR, Inc. *1986-88 – Chairman of the Board of Directors, New Infinities Productions, Inc. *1988-94 – Creator/author under contract to Omega Helios Limited *1995-... – Creator/author under contract to Trigee Enterprises Corporation *1999-... – Partner, Hekaforge Productions ==Role-Playing Games== ''[[Boot Hill (role-playing game)|Boot Hill]]'' - role-playing elements in the Wild West, with Brian Blume, 1975 [[Image:D&amp;d_original.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Dungeons &amp; Dragons Basic Set]] ===Dungeons &amp; Dragons=== (see also [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]) *Supplements: **''Greyhawk'' (with Rob Kuntz) **''Eldritch Wizardry'' (with Brian Blume) **''Swords &amp; Spells'' *Accessories: **''The Book of Marvelous Magic'' (with Frank Mentzer) *Adventures: **''[[The Keep on the Borderlands|B2 The Keep on the Borderlands]]'' ===Advanced Dungeons
roperties attributed to a deity are incompatible with what we observe in the world. Examples of this may be found in quantum physics, where the existence of mutually exclusive data negates the possibility of omniscience, usually a core attribute of monotheistic conceptions of deity. ''[[Agnosticism]]'' is distinct from strong atheism, though many weak atheists may be agnostics, and those who are strong atheists with regard to a particular deity might be weak atheists or agnostics with regard to other deities. ===Ignosticism=== :''Main article: [[Ignosticism]]'' Ignosticism is the view that the question of whether or not deities exist is inherently meaningless. It is a popular view among many [[logical positivism|logical positivists]] such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], who hold that talk of gods is literally [[nonsense]]. According to ignostics, &quot;Does a god exist?&quot; has the same logical status as &quot;What color is Saturday?&quot;; they are both nonsensical, and thus have no meaningful answers. Ignostics commonly hold that statements about religious or other transcendent experiences cannot have any truth value, often because theological statements lack [[falsifiability]], because of an [[epistemology|epistemological]] view that renders the [[ontological argument]] nonsensical, or because the terminology being used has not been properly or consistently defined &amp;mdash; the latter view is known as [[theological noncognitivism]]. The use of the word &quot;god&quot; is thus solely a matter of [[semantics]] to ignostics, dealing with word use and technicalities rather than with existence and reality. In ''Language, Truth and Logic'', Ayer stated that theism, atheism and agnosticism were equally meaningless, insofar as they treat the question of the existence of God as a real question. However, there are varieties of atheism and agnosticism which do not necessarily agree that the question is meaningful, especially using the &quot;lack of theism&quot; definition of atheism. Despite Ayer's criticism of atheism (perhaps using the definition typically associated with [[strong atheism]]), Ignosticism is usually counted as a form of atheism; Ayer (1966) was clear on his position: &lt;blockquote&gt;I do not believe in God. It seems to me that theists of all kinds have very largely failed to make their concept of a deity intelligible; and to the extent that they have made it intelligible, they have given us no reason to think that anything answers to it. (p226) &lt;/blockquote&gt; The ignostic position is mentioned (though the term ''ignostic'' is not used) as one of the three forms of &quot;critical atheism&quot; (in Smith) or &quot;rejectionist atheism&quot; (in Nagel). Active disbelief in god or supernatural beings is one other type of critical/rejectionist atheism. Finally, the third type is the positive claim that deities do not exist. Since critical/rejectionist atheism is a type of explicit atheism, if follows that ignosticism is a type of explicit atheism. There is some debate over whether it should be classified as [[weak atheism]] or [[strong atheism]]. Ignosticism is distinct from apatheism in that while ignostics hold ''questions'' and ''discussions'' of whether deities exist to be meaningless, apatheists hold that even a hypothetical ''answer'' to such questions would be completely irrelevant to human existence. ===Gnostic and agnostic atheism=== :''Main article: [[Agnostic atheism]]'' Agnostic atheism is a fusion of atheism or [[nontheism]] with [[agnosticism]], the [[epistemology|epistemological]] position that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown ([[weak agnosticism]]) or unknowable ([[strong agnosticism]]). Agnostic atheism is typically contrasted with [[agnostic theism]], the belief that deities exist even though it is impossible to know that deities exist, and with gnostic atheism, the belief that there is enough information to determine that deities do not exist. ''Agnostic atheism'''s definition varies, just as the definitions of agnosticism and atheism do. It may be a combination of lack of theism with [[strong agnosticism]], the view that it is impossible to know whether deities exist to any reliable degree. It may also be a combination of lack of theism with [[weak agnosticism]], the view that there is not currently enough information to decide whether or not a deity exists, but that there may be enough in the future. ''Gnostic atheism'' is a more rarely used term, because often anyone who is not labeled as agnostic is assumed to be gnostic by default. Gnostic atheism also has varying meanings. When nontheism is combined with strong gnosticism, it denotes the belief that it is rational to be absolutely certain that deities do not, and perhaps cannot, exist. When it is with weak gnosticism, it denotes the belief that there is enough information to be reasonably sure that deities do not exist, but not absolutely certain. The term should not be confused with [[Gnosticism]]. ''Gnostic atheism'' is also sometimes used as a synonym of [[strong atheism]], and thus ''agnostic atheism'' is occasionally a synonym for [[weak atheism]]. This is similar to the more common confusion of the terms ''implicit atheism'' and ''explicit atheism'' with strong and weak atheism. [[Apatheism]] often overlaps with agnostic atheism, such as with [[apathetic agnosticism]], a fusion of apatheism with strong agnostic atheism. ===Atheism in philosophical naturalism=== Many, if not most, atheists have preferred to say that atheism is a lack of a belief, rather than a belief in its own right (see, for example, Krueger (1998, p.22-24); Smith (1979, p.15-16)). This keeps the burden of proof on the theist (see Flew (1984b)), as the only one making any positive assertions. &quot;Belief&quot; also has other connotations that many atheists may wish to avoid. Nevertheless, some atheist writers identify atheism with the [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic world view]], and defend it on that basis. The case for naturalism is used as a positive argument for atheism. See, for example, Thrower (1971), Harbour (2001), [[Kai Nielsen|Nielsen]] (2001) and [[Julian Baggini|Baggini]] (2003). See also Everitt's discussion of an anti-atheist argument against naturalism (2004, Chapter 9, p.178-190). According to Thrower, &lt;blockquote&gt;Much atheism... can be understood only in the light of the current theism which it was concerned to reject. Such atheism is relative. There is, however, a way of looking at and interpreting events in the world, whose origins... can be seen as early as the beginnings of speculative thought itself, and which I shall call naturalistic, that is atheistic per se, in the sense that it is incompatible with any and every form of supernaturalism... naturalistic or absolute atheism is both fundamentally more important, and more interesting, representing as it does one polarity in the development of the human spirit. (p.3-4) &lt;/blockquote&gt; [[Julian Baggini]] argues that, &quot;atheism can be understood not simply as a denial of religion, but as a self-contained belief system, if it is seen as a commitment to the view that there is only one world and this is the world of nature&quot; (p.74). For Baggini, therefore, &lt;blockquote&gt;the evidence for atheism is to be found in the fact that there is a plethora of evidence for the truth of naturalism and an absence of evidence for anything else. 'Anything else' of course includes God, but it also includes goblins, hobbits, and truly everlasting gobstoppers. There is nothing special about God in this sense. God is just one of the things that atheists don't believe in, it just happens to be the thing that, for historical reasons, gave them their name. (p.17) &lt;/blockquote&gt; Baggini's position is that &quot;an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal souls, life after death, ghosts, or supernatural powers. Although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist... the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental&quot; (p.3-4). [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]] (1990, p.470) notes that the view that &quot;naturalism is compatible with nonatheism is true only if 'god' is understood in a most peculiar and misleading way&quot;, but he also points out that &quot;atheism does not entail naturalism&quot;. ===Antitheism=== :''Main article: [[Antitheism]]'' ''Antitheism'' (sometimes hyphenated) typically refers to a direct opposition to [[theism]]. In this use, it is a form of critical [[strong atheism]]. Antitheism may sometimes overlap with [[ignosticism]], the view that theism is inherently meaningless, and may directly contradict [[apatheism]], the view that theism is irrelevant rather than dangerous. However, ''antitheism'' is also sometimes used, particularly in religious contexts, to refer to opposition to [[God]] or [[divine]] things, rather than to the belief in God. Using the latter definition, it may be possible &amp;mdash; or perhaps even necessary &amp;mdash; to be an antitheist without being an atheist or nontheist. Antitheists may believe that theism is actually harmful, or may simply be atheists who have little tolerance for views they perceive as [[irrationality|irrational]]. Strong atheists who are not antitheists may believe positively that deities do not exist, but not believe that theism is directly harmful or necessitates opposition. ==History== {{main|History of atheism}} Although the actual term ''atheism'' originated in 16th Century [[France]], ideas that would be recognized as atheistic today existed even before [[Classical Antiquity]]. [[Epicurus]] proposed theories that can be classified as atheistic, such as a lack of belief in an afterlife, though he remained ambiguous concerning the actual existence of deities. Before him, [[So
ds behave in a plasma (or any electrically conductive fluid such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] or [[seawater]]). In a plasma, [[magnetic field lines]] are normally tied to individual pieces of matter, so that the [[topology]] of the magnetic field remains the same: if a particular north and south [[magnetic pole]] are connected by a single field line, then even if the plasma is stirred or if the magnets are moved around, that field line will continue to connect those particular poles. The connection is maintained by electric currents that are induced in the plasma. Under certain conditions, the electric currents can collapse, allowing the magnetic field to &quot;reconnect&quot; to other magnetic poles and release heat and wave energy in the process. [[Magnetic reconnection]] is known to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system. Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50-1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this &quot;magnetic carpet&quot;, so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of &quot;microflares&quot; that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy. The idea that microflares might heat the corona was put forward by [[Eugene Parker]] in the [[1980s]] but is still controversial. In particular, [[ultraviolet]] telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona. The additional energy not accounted for could be made up by wave energy, or by gradual magnetic reconnection that releases energy more smoothly than micro-flares and therefore doesn't appear well in the TRACE data. Variations on the microflare hypothesis use other mechanisms to stress the magnetic field or to release the energy, and are a subject of active research in [[2005]]. == External links == * [http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/physics_astronomy/report-33153.html Coronal heating problem at Innovation Reports] * [http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/mysteries_l1/corona.html NASA/GSFC description of the coronal heating problem] * [http://solar-center.stanford.edu/FAQ/Qcorona.html FAQ about coronal heating] * [http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, including near-real-time images of the solar corona] [[Category:Sun]] [[Category:Space plasmas]] [[Category:Plasma physics]] [[de:Korona (Sonne)]] [[fr:Couronne solaire]] [[ko:코로나]] [[it:Corona solare]] [[he:עטרה (שמש)]] [[nl:Corona (astronomie)]] [[ja:コロナ]] [[pl:Korona słoneczna]] [[sk:Koróna]] [[sl:Korona]] [[sv:Korona]] [[zh:日冕]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chrono Cross</title> <id>7840</id> <revision> <id>42121149</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:31:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Deckiller</username> <id>335672</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv deletion of entry</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Chrono Cross | image = [[Image:chronocrossbox.jpg|250px|Chrono Cross North American Box Art]] | developer = [[Square Co., Ltd.]] | publisher = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[Square Co., Ltd.]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|United States of America]] [[Square Electronic Arts|Square EA]] | designer = | engine = | released = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[November 18]], [[1999]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|United States of America]] [[August 15]], [[2000]] | genre = [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] | modes = [[Single player]] | ratings = [[ESRB]]: [[Image:ESRB_T.png|12px|T]] Teen | platforms = [[PlayStation]] | media = 2 x [[CD-ROM]] | requirements = | input = }} '''''Chrono Cross''''' (クロノ・クロス ''Kurono Kurosu'') is a [[PlayStation]] [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] created by [[Square Co., Ltd.]] (now [[Square Enix]]) with a story that builds upon ''[[Chrono Trigger]]''. However, ''Chrono Trigger'' team members [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] (Supervisor), [[Yuji Horii]] (Supervisor, Initial Scenario Writer), and [[Akira Toriyama]] (Character Design) were not a part of the ''Chrono Cross'' development team, and their absence is very noticeable. Indeed, few of the original staff participated on the game as they had been reassigned to different teams over the years. In [[1996]], ''Chrono Trigger'' had a [[side story]] released in [[Japan]] called ''[[Radical Dreamers]]'' for the [[Satellaview]] add-on for the [[Super Famicom]] (SNES), but was an illustrated [[Interactive fiction|text adventure]]. When ''Chrono Cross'' was being designed, parts of the plot and characters of ''Radical Dreamers'' were used. However, ''Chrono Cross'' cannot be viewed as a mere remake of ''Radical Dreamers'' as they have a lot of differences and incompatibilities. ''Chrono Cross'' was released in [[United States]] in [[2000]] and features music composed by [[Yasunori Mitsuda]]. The game was hailed by professional reviewers, but some ''Chrono Trigger'' fans denounced it as an inferior sequel. In some cases, this is a result of these players wanting to control the old cast of ''Chrono Cross''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s predecessor and play a more direct sequel. ''Chrono Cross'' sold to expectations in the [[United States]], but disappointing Japanese sales lead some to speculate that the ''Chrono'' series has been halted. Like the majority of [[Square Co., Ltd.|Square]] productions, ''Chrono Cross'' has yet to be granted an official [[European]] release. Square has cited a combination of economic and technical expenses involved with formatting the game for PAL territories as the reason behind not converting this game for release in Europe. ==Plot== {{spoiler}} The story of ''Chrono Cross'' revolves around the character Serge, the protagonist, who, as a small child, is supposed to drown, but is saved by a powerful force. The resulting shift in the world's history creates two distinct parallel [[dimension]]s. In one dimension, he survives and lives for 10 years before the game begins. In the [[alternate dimension]], he drowns in a beach near his home. The plot itself revolves around Serge's unknowing efforts to free [[Schala]] from the Time Devourer: a fusion of [[Lavos]], the ultimate enemy from ''Chrono Trigger'' with the capacity to destroy the planet, and [[Schala]], a princess of Zeal and sister of [[Magus (Chrono Trigger)|Magus]] with immense magical power who has disappeared into the Darkness Beyond Time due to an accident. Years in the future, Belthasar, a former guru of Zeal, discovered that the Time Devourer had formed and planned to consume all spacetime; he thus set in motion an almost ludicrously complex chain of events meant to give rise to and guide Serge to venture to the Time Devourer and use an artifact known as the ''Chrono Cross'' to restore the dimensions to one and free Schala from Lavos's grasp. While the plot is sound, its delivery is criticized by some as excessively complex. Unlike ''Chrono Trigger'', in which the basic plot is simple and straight-forward, much of the dialogue throughout the game of ''Chrono Cross'' must be read carefully in order to make sense of the story. Because some ''Chrono Cross'' players do not listen to much of the game's characters, they mistakenly accuse the plot of being weak and senseless. Thus, many players resort to guides, such as the following link, to understand the story's intricacies. [http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Chrono_Cross_Condensed_Plot_Summary] While ''Chrono Cross'' incorporates elements from ''Radical Dreamers'', the stories of the two games are incompatible. To resolve the scenario continuity issue and to acknowledge the existence of ''Radical Dreamers'', the designers suggested that the events of Radical Dreamers did happen, but took place in a parallel [[dimension]]. This can be found by reading one of the computer consoles in Chronopolis, a city which was pulled back in time due to a failed experiment. Chronopolis now monitors the El Nido Archipelago, in an attempt to prevent a paradox from occurring which would prevent its existence in the future. The most notable difference is that Magus is absent from the game. While confirmed to be Magil in Radical Dreamers by both the game and its creator, Magus does not assume the identity Guile in ''Chrono Cross'', as is commonly assumed. It was noted in an interview that the developers originally planned for Magus to be in the game, but scrapped the idea due to difficulties representing his story amongst forty-three other characters. [[Image:Chrono-Cross-title-screen.jpg|right|220px|thumb|''Chrono Cross'' title screen]] ==Characters== There are 44 characters normally (Lynx unlockable through an odd twist in the gameplay), with six Elements for each of them. While the presence of six elements is a departure from ''Chrono Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s limit at four, the game does provide an explanation for the change — that ''Chrono Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s magic was the manipulating of the basic four fundamental properties of the universe, and ''Chrono Cross''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s magic is the use of manufactured tools to effect changes in nature. The game has 45 possible party members to acquire, all of whom come with several abilities of their own, with some combining into Double and Triple Techs. Because of the incredibly vast number of possible party combinations, the North American version of the game contains a system to modify base text for each character's accent. Whereas other ga
ss, policymakers and the general public about [[civil liberties]] issues related to technology; and to act as a defender of those liberties. The EFF is a membership organisation supported by donations and is based in [[San Francisco]], [[California]], with staff members in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] and [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. EFF has taken action in several ways: *providing or funding legal defence in court *defending the individual and new technologies from the [[chilling effect]]s of baseless or misdirected legal threats *providing guidance to the government and courts *organizing political action and mass mailings *supporting new technologies which it believes preserve personal [[freedom]]s *maintaining a database and web sites of related news and information *monitoring and challenging potential legislation that it believes would infringe on personal liberties and erode [[fair use]] *soliciting a list of what it considers [[patent abuse]]s with intentions to defeat those that it considers without merit ==History== [[Image:MitchKapor.jpg|thumb|[[Mitch Kapor]], founder EFF]] The Electronic Frontier Foundation was founded in July [[1990]] by [[Mitch Kapor]], [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]] and [[John Perry Barlow]]. The founders met through the online service The [[WELL]]. The creation of the organization was motivated by the massive search and seizure on [[Steve Jackson Games]] by the [[United States Secret Service]] early in 1990. Similar but officially unconnected law-enforcement raids were being conducted across the United States at about that time as part of a state-federal task force called [[Operation Sundevil]], but the Steve Jackson Games case, which became EFF's first high-profile case, was the major rallying point when EFF began promoting computer- and Internet-related civil liberties. EFF's second big case was [[Bernstein v. United States]] led by [[Cindy Cohn]], where programmer and professor [[Daniel Bernstein]] sued the government for permission to publish his [[encryption]] software, [[Snuffle]], and a paper describing it. More recently the organization has been involved in defending [[Edward Felten]], [[Jon Johansen]] and [[Dmitry Sklyarov]]. The organization was originally located at [[Mitch Kapor]]'s K.E.I. in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. By the fall of [[1993]], the main EFF offices were housed in [[Washington, D.C.]], headed up by [[Jerry Berman]]. During this time, some of EFF's attention focused on the business of influencing national policy, a worthy business, but one perhaps not entirely palatable to parts of the organization. In [[1994]], Mr. Berman parted ways with EFF and formed the [[Center for Democracy and Technology]]. EFF moved offices across town, where Drew Taubman briefly took the reigns as director. In [[1995]], under the auspices of director Lori Fena, after some downsizing and in an effort to regroup and refocus on their base support, the organization moved offices to [[San Francisco, California]]. There, it took up temporary residence at [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]]'s Toad Hall, and soon afterward moved into the Hamm's building at 1550 Bryant St. After Fena moved onto the EFF board of directors for a while, the organization was led by Tara Lemmey. Just prior to the EFF's move into its new and present offices at 454 Shotwell St. in SF's Mission District, long-time EFF Legal Director Shari Steele became, and remains as of mid-2005, the Executive Director. ===Books and references=== [[Image:John-gilmore.2001.small.png|thumb|[[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]], founder EFF]] Books that cover EFF's history in-depth from a policy and legal cases perspective include: *Robert B. Gelman &amp; Stanton McCandlish's ''Protecting Yourself Online: The Definitive Resource on Safety, Freedom &amp; Privacy in Cyberspace''. *[[Mike Godwin]]'s ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0262571684/103-2519896-5577451?v=glance&amp;n=283155&amp;n=507846&amp;s=books&amp;v=glance Cyber Rights: Defending Free Speech in the Digital Age'']''. *Several other books of the 1990s (Bruce Sterling's ''[http://stuff.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html The Hacker Crackdown]'', etc.) also go into EFF's activities in some depth. Their more recent work in the sphere of fair use and the abuse of intellectual property law is better documented at their web site and in periodicals. Some other references are: * ''[http://www.law.com/jsp/statearchive.jsp?type=Article&amp;oldid=ZZZKE6G4FDC Electronic Frontier Foundation bulks up, renews focus on litigation]''. An article which recaps EFF's history, details the 2000 transition to Shari Steele's leadership, and discusses the concomitant strategy changes. ==Major supporters== *On [[February 18]], [[2004]], the EFF announced [http://www.eff.org/about/20040218_eff_pr.php] that it has received $1.2 million from the estate of [[Leonard Zubkoff]]. It will use $1 million of this money to establish the ''EFF Endowment Fund for Digital Civil Liberties''. *EFF often receives additional [[pro bono]] legal assistance from Prof. [[Eben Moglen]]. *[[Lawrence Lessig]]: EFF boardmember and [[Stanford]] professor *Board members: [[Brad Templeton]] (Chairman), [[John Perry Barlow]], [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]], [[David Farber]], [[Joe Kraus]], [[Lawrence Lessig]], [[Pamela Samuelson]] and [[Brewster Kahle]]. ==Criticisms== Some feel the EFF prioritizes wholesale changes to law (such as legalizing potentially unauthorized trading of copyrighted files over [[peer-to-peer]] networks, implying some change of the copyright laws) over stopping abuses of the law (such as stopping abusive patents and DMCA complaints). However, EFF's successes in its defense of Skylink and OPG against DMCA abuse as well as its Patent Busting project demonstrate real efforts to limit abuses of existing law. Some feel the EFF prioritizes consumer rights at the expense of artists' rights. &lt;!-- example? --&gt; Some in the anti-[[spam (electronic)|spam]] community criticize the EFF for officially opposing certain anti-spam techniques that do not deliver all wanted messages to the end-user. The EFF argues that the decision as to what is spam and what is not resides with the recipient, not intermediaries such as ISPs, and that there are efficient spam filters available to the end-user. Prior to the EFF's defense of ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]'' magazine in 2001, the hacker community criticized EFF as &quot;[[missing in action]]&quot; with regards to their legal troubles. ==Milestones and accomplishments== &lt;!-- these need dates and detail... --&gt; [[Image:Eff.final.jpg|thumb|Print ad in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine]] *[[1990]]: Founded the organization and laid the groundwork for the successful representation of [[Steve Jackson Games|Steve Jackson Games (SJG)]] in a Federal court case to prosecute the [[United States Secret Service]] for unlawfully raiding their offices and seizing computers. *[[1990]] [[Mike Godwin]] joins the organization as the first staff counsel. *[[1991]] [[Esther Dyson]] and [[Jerry Berman]] join EFF Board *[[1991]] [[Steve Jackson Games|Steve Jackson Games (SJG)]] v. United States Secret Service filed in federal court. *[[1992]] EFF gives first annual [[EFF Pioneer Award | Pioneer Awards]] at 2nd [[Computers, Freedom, and Privacy]] conference in [[Washington, DC]] *[[1992]] Cliff Figallo became the new director of EFF-Cambridge *[[1992]] December - Jerry Berman becomes Acting Executive Director *[[1993]] [[Steve Jackson Games|Steve Jackson Games (SJG)]] wins its case against the Secret Service. *[[1993]] Offices moved to 1001 G. St. office in [[Washington, DC]] *[[1993]] Big Dummy's guide to the Internet made available for free download. *[[1993]] October - [[Stanton McCandlish]] joins the organization as online activist. *[[1994]] Drew Taubman named Executive Director *[[1994]] [[Center for Democracy and Technology]] is formed by [[Jerry Berman]] *[[1994]] [[Scientology versus The Internet]] *[[1995]] [[Bernstein v. United States]] *[[1995]] EFF Moves to San Francisco *[[1995]]-[[1996]] EFF opens its &quot;Blue Ribbon Campaign&quot; in direct response to the [[Communications Decency Act]] *[[1996]] The EFF co-founds TRUSTe, the first Privacy Seal company, with CommerceNet, a non-profit industry consortium. *In [[1998]], the EFF built [[Deep Crack]], a machine that decrypted a [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]]-encrypted message after only 56 hours of work, winning [[RSA Security]]'s DES Challenge II-2. *[[1999]] EFF and Anonymizer launch the Kosovo Privacy Project, an anonymous and secure email and Web surfing service conceived by Alex Fowler and Patrick Ball to ensure the protection of Kosovars, Serbs, and others reporting on the [[Kosovo War]] within the region from reprisal from Serbian officials. *Professor [[Edward Felten]]: [[DMCA]] used to censor his research to break [[Secure Digital Music Initiative]] (SDMI) *November [[2002]] *[[2600_The_Hacker_Quarterly|2600]] Magazine case, [[Universal_v._Corley]]. EFF loses its appeal before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, establishing a legal precedent to permit prior restraint, a stunning blow to the First Amendment. 2600 Magazine is restrained from publishing links to the [[DeCSS]] code under provisions of the [[DMCA]] and declines to appeal to the Supreme Court. *Supports the [[Chilling Effects Clearinghouse]] efforts to organize a database of IP law abuse and educate potential victims *December [[2003]]: [[RIAA]] v. [[Verizon]], D.C. Cir. EFF supported Verizon in a successful challenge to a lower court ruling holding that the company must reveal the identity of a [[Verizon]] customer accused of copyright infringement using the [[peer-to-peer]] file-sharing software [[KaZaA]]. The DC Circuit Court of Appeals agreed with [[Verizon]] and EFF that the special subpoena provisions in the [[DMCA]] apply to potentially infringing material stored on an [[internet
aharan Africa, and was a leader in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. While it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring [[Morocco]], the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's [[Greater Morocco|claim to portions of western Algeria]] (which led to the [[Sand war]] in 1963), and Algeria's support for the [[Polisario]], an armed group of [[Sahrawi]] [[refugee]]s seeking [[independence]] for the Moroccan-ruled [[Western Sahara]], which it hosts within its borders in the city of [[Tindouf]]. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco, as well as issues relating to the [[Algerian Civil War]], have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the [[Maghreb Arab Union]], nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors. ==Provinces== {{main|Provinces of Algeria}} Algeria is divided into 48 ''[[Wilayah|wilayas]]'' ([[provinces]]):- {| |- | *&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Adrar (Algerian province)|Adrar]] *&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Aïn Defla]] *&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Aïn Témouchent]] *&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Algiers|Alger]] *&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Annaba (province)|Annaba]] *&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Batna (province)|Batna]] *&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; [[Béchar]] *&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt; [[Béjaïa (province)|Béjaïa]] *&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt; [[Biskra (province)|Biskra]] *&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt; [[Blida]] *&lt;small&gt;11&lt;/small&gt; [[Bordj Bou Arréridj (province)|Bordj Bou Arréridj]] *&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; [[Bouira]] *&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt; [[Boumerdès]] *&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt; [[Chlef]] *&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] *&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt; [[Djelfa (province)|Djelfa]] *&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; [[El Bayadh]] | *&lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt; [[El Oued (province)|El Oued]] *&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; [[El Tarf]] *&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; [[Ghardaïa]] *&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt; [[Guelma]] *&lt;small&gt;22&lt;/small&gt; [[Illizi]] *&lt;small&gt;23&lt;/small&gt; [[Jijel]] *&lt;small&gt;24&lt;/small&gt; [[Khenchela]] *&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; [[Laghouat]] *&lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; [[Mila]] *&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt; [[Mostaganem (province)|Mostaganem]] *&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt; [[Medea]] *&lt;small&gt;29&lt;/small&gt; [[Muaskar]] *&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; [[M'Sila]] *&lt;small&gt;31&lt;/small&gt; [[Naama]] *&lt;small&gt;32&lt;/small&gt; [[Oran]] *&lt;small&gt;33&lt;/small&gt; [[Ouargla]] | *&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt; [[Oum el-Bouaghi]] *&lt;small&gt;35&lt;/small&gt; [[Relizane]] *&lt;small&gt;36&lt;/small&gt; [[Saida (province)|Saida]] *&lt;small&gt;37&lt;/small&gt; [[Sétif]] *&lt;small&gt;38&lt;/small&gt; [[Sidi Bel Abbes]] *&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt; [[Skikda]] *&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt; [[Souk Ahras]] *&lt;small&gt;41&lt;/small&gt; [[Tamanrasset]] *&lt;small&gt;42&lt;/small&gt; [[Tébessa]] *&lt;small&gt;43&lt;/small&gt; [[Tiaret]] *&lt;small&gt;44&lt;/small&gt; [[Tindouf Province|Tindouf]] *&lt;small&gt;45&lt;/small&gt; [[Tipaza]] *&lt;small&gt;46&lt;/small&gt; [[Tissemsilt]] *&lt;small&gt;47&lt;/small&gt; [[Tizi Ouzou]] *&lt;small&gt;48&lt;/small&gt; [[Tlemcen]] | |[[Image:Algeria provinces.png|right|250px|Map of the provinces of [[Algeria]] in alphabetical order.]] |} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Algeria}} [[Image:Algeria map.png|220px|right|Map of Algeria with cities]] [[Image:Hoggar3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ahaggar Mountains|Hoggar]] Mountains]] Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are few good harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the [[Tell]], is fertile. Further south is the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range and the [[Sahara]] desert. [[Algiers]], [[Oran]] and [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] are the main cities. Algeria's [[climate]] is arid and hot, although the coastal climate is mild, and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe. Algeria is prone to [[sirocco]], a hot dust- and sand-laden wind especially common in summer. ''See also'': [[Extreme points of Algeria]] ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Algeria}} [[Image:Unknown origin coin2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Algerian coins]] The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th in [[Petroleum]] reserves. Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the [[Paris Club]]. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the [[European Union]] that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. ==Demographics== [[Image:Algiers coast.jpg|thumb|[[Algiers]] coast]] {{main|Demographics of Algeria}} About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the [[Sahara desert]] are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. Ninety-nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as [[Arab]]/[[Berber]], and religiously as [[Muslim]]; other religions are restricted to extremely small groups, mainly of foreigners. Europeans account for less than 1%. Most Algerians are Arab by language and identity, and of mixed Berber-Arab ancestry. The Berbers inhabited Algeria before the arrival of Arab tribes during the expansion of Islam, in the 7th century. The issue of ethnicity and language is sensitive after many years of government marginalization of Berber (or [[Amazigh]], as some prefer) culture. Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The 20% or so of the population who self-identify as Berbers, and primarily speak Berber languages (such as [[Tamazight]]), are divided into several ethnic groups, notably [[Kabyle]] (the largest) in the mountainous north-central area, [[Chaoui]] in the eastern [[Atlas Mountains]], [[Mozabite]]s in the [[M'zab]] valley, and [[Tuareg]] in the far south. ==Language== {{main|Languages of Algeria}} The [[official language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], spoken natively in dialectal form (&quot;[[Algerian Arabic|Darja]]&quot;) by some 80% of the population; the other 20% or so speak [[Berber]] ([[Tamazight]]), officially a [[national language]]. [[French language|French]] is the most widely studied foreign language (distantly followed by [[English language|English]]), but is very rare as a [[native language]]. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic [[Arabization]] of education and bureaucracy, with some success, although many university courses continue to be taught in French. ==Culture== [[Image:Algiers mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Mosque]] in Algiers]] {{main|Culture of Algeria}} Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]] and [[Kateb Yacine]], while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Important novelists of the 1980s included [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of Amnesty International, and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views. As early as Roman times, [[Apuleius]], born in [[Mdaourouch]], was native to what would become Algeria. In philosophy and the humanities, [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]], while [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (about 60 miles from the present day city of [[Annaba]]), and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]], the main religion. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in precolonial times, and of Emir [[Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The [[Music of Algeria|Algerian musical]] genre best known abroad is [[raï]], a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as [[Khaled (musician)|Khaled]] and [[Cheb Mami]]. However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal [[chaabi]] style remains more popular, with such stars as [[El Hadj El Anka]] or [[Dahmane El Harrachi]], while the tuneful melodies of [[Kabyle]] music, exemplified by [[Idir]], [[Ait Menguellet]], or [[Lounès Matoub]], have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusi music]], brought from [[Al-Andalus]] by [[Morisco]] refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns. In painting, [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hemed Issiakhem]] are notable in recent years. == Picture gallery == &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Houbel.JPG|''The Monument of the Martyrs Algiers'' Image:Algernuit.jpg|''Algiers by night'' Image:Finace.jpg|''Minister of the finances'' Image:Makam Echehid.jpg|''Algiers view by air'' Image:Benyen.JPG|''the Forest Bainem in Algeria at (Bouzareah)'' Image:Algierssnow.jpg|''Snow on Algiers'' Image:Church Saintcharlesalgiers.jpg|''The church Saint charles at Algiers'' Image:PE Alge
] to speculate that there were 1080 parts in an hour because that number was evenly divisible by all numbers from 1 to 10 except 7. But the same statement can be made regarding 360. The weekdays start with Sunday (day 1) and proceed to Saturday (day 7). Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday. ===Measurement of lunar conjunctions/molads=== The calendar is based on mean lunar conjunctions called &quot;molads&quot; spaced precisely 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts apart. Actual conjunctions vary from the molads by up to 7 hours in each direction due to the nonuniform velocity of the moon. This value for the interval between molads (the mean synodic month) was measured by Babylonians before [[300 BCE]] and was adopted by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] and the Alexandrian astronomer [[Ptolemy]]. Its remarkable accuracy was achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the [[eighth century BC|eighth]] to [[fifth century BC|fifth centuries BCE]]. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale, such as that provided by an [[atomic clock]], the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the rotation of the earth is slowing even more the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of the day-night cycle. The value 29-12-793 was almost exactly correct at the time of [[Hillell II]] and is now about 0.6 s per month too great. However it is still the most correct value possible as long as only whole numbers of parts are used. Especially, it is far more accurate than the average solar year due to the 19-years-235-months equality described above &amp;mdash; the total accumulated error of 29-12-793 from its Babylonian measurement until the present amounts to only about five hours. ===Metonic cycle=== The 19 year cycle has 12 common and 7 leap years. There are 235 lunar months in each [[Metonic cycle|cycle]]. This gives a total of 6939 days, 16 hours and 595 parts for each cycle. Due to the vagaries of the Hebrew calendar, 19 Hebrew years can be either 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days each. To start on the same day of the week, the days in the cycle must be divisible by 7, but none of these values can be so divided. This keeps the Hebrew calendar from repeating itself too often. The calendar almost repeats every 247 years, except for an excess of 50 minutes (905 parts). So the calendar actually repeats every 36,288 cycles (every 689,472 Hebrew years). Leap years of 13 months are the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and the 19th years beginning at the epoch of the modern calendar. Dividing the Hebrew year number by 19, and looking at the remainder will tell you if the year is a leap year (for the 19th year, the remainder is zero). A Hebrew leap year is one that has 13 months in it, a common year has 12 months. A mnemonic word in Hebrew is &lt;nowiki&gt;GUCHADZaT&lt;/nowiki&gt; (the Hebrew letters gimel-vav-het aleph-dalet-zayin-tet, i.e. 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9. See [[Hebrew numerals]]). Another mnemonic is that the intervals of the [[major scale]] follow the same pattern as do Hebrew leap years: a [[whole step]] in the scale corresponds to two common years between consecutive leap years, and a [[half step]] to one common between two leap years. A Hebrew common year will only have 353, 354, or 355 days. A leap year will have 383, 384, or 385 days. ===Special holiday rules=== Although simple math would calculate 21 patterns for calendar years, there are other limitations which mean that [[Rosh Hashanah]] may only occur on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays (the &quot;four gates&quot;), according to the following table: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;float; margin: 9px;&quot; ! Day of Week ! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Number of Days |- | Monday || 353 || 355 || 383 || 385 |- | Tuesday || 354 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 384 |- | Thursday || 354 || 355 || 383 || 385 |- | Saturday || 353 || 355 || 383 || 385 |} The lengths are described in the section [[#Names and lengths of the months|Names and lengths of the months]]. In leap years, a 30 day month called Adar I is inserted immediately after the month of Shevat, and the regular 29 day month of Adar is called Adar II. This is done to ensure that the months of the Jewish calendar always fall in roughly the same seasons of the solar year, and in particular that Nisan is always in spring. Whether either Chesvan or Kislev both have 29 days, or both have 30 days, or one has 29 days and the other 30 days depends upon the number of days needed in each year. Thus a leap year of 13 months has an average length of 383½ days, so for this reason alone sometimes a leap year needs 383 and sometimes 384 days. Additionally, adjustments are needed to ensure certain holy days and festivals do or do not fall on certain days of the week in the coming year. For example, Yom Kippur, on which no work can be done, can never fall on Friday because the high fast could not be broken at sunset &amp;mdash; because the end of Yom Kippur would be the start of the Sabbath, on which no work can be done. Thus some flexibility has been built in. The 265 days from the first day of the 29 day month of Adar (i.e. the twelfth month, but the thirteenth month, Adar II, in leap years) and ending with the 29th day of Heshvan forms a fixed length period that has all of the festivals specified in the Bible, such as [[Pesach]] (Nisan 15), [[Shavuot]] (Sivan 6), [[Rosh Hashana]] (Tishri 1), [[Yom Kippur]] (Tishri 10), [[Sukkot]] (Tishri 15), and [[Shemini Atzeret]] (Tishri 22). The festival period from Pesach up to and including Shemini Atzeret is exactly 185 days long. The time from the traditional day of the ''vernal [[equinox]]'' up to and including the traditional day of the ''autumnal equinox'' is also exactly 185 days long. This has caused some unfounded speculation that Pesach should be [[March 21]], and Shemini Atzeret should be [[September 21]], which are the traditional days for the equinoxes. Just as the Hebrew day starts at sunset, the Hebrew year starts in the Autumn (Rosh Hashanah), although the mismatch of solar and lunar years will eventually move it to another season if the calendar isn't reformed ''(this will not happen for thousands of years).'' ===Karaite interpretation=== [[Karaites]] use the lunar month and the solar year, but determine when to add a leap month by observing the ripening of [[barley]] in [[Israel]], rather than the calculated and fixed calendar of [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. This puts them in sync with the Written [[Torah]], while other Jews are often a month later. (For several centuries, many Karaites, especially outside Israel, have just followed the calculated dates of the [[Oral Law]] (the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]) with other Jews for the sake of simplicity. However, in recent years most Karaites have choose to again follow the Written [[Torah]] practice.) ==Accuracy== The average length of the month assumed by the calendar is correct within a fraction of a second (although individual months may be a few hours longer or shorter than average). There will thus be no significant errors from this source for a very long time. However, the assumption that 19 [[tropical year]]s exactly equal 235 months is wrong, so the average length of a 19 year cycle is too long (compared with 19 tropical years) by about 0.088 days or just over 2 hours. Thus on average the calendar gets further out of step with the tropical year by roughly one day in 216 years. If the intention of the calendar is that Pesach should fall on the ''first'' full moon after the vernal equinox, this is still the case in most years. However, at present three times in 19 years Pesach is a month late by this criterion (as in [[2005]]). Clearly, this problem will get worse over time and if the calendar is not amended, Pesach and the other festivals will progress through a complete cycle of seasons in about 79,000 years. As the 19 year cycle (and indeed all aspects of the calendar) is part of codified Jewish law, it would only be possible to amend it if a [[Sanhedrin]] could be convened. This will only take place when the rebuilding of the [[Third Temple]] has begun, which will mark the salvation of the [[Hebrews]] according to Jewish belief. Theoretically, if Jewish law could be modified, one solution would be to replace the 19-year cycle with a 334-year cycle of 4131 lunations. This cycle has an error of only one day in about 11,500 years. However, this would be impossibly cumbersome in practice. Further, no fixed rule could be valid in perpetuity, because the lengths of both the month and tropical year are slowly changing. Another possibility would be to calculate the approximate time of the vernal equinox and have a leap year if and only if Pesach would otherwise start before the vernal equinox. Similar ideas are used in the [[Chinese calendar]] and some [[Hindu calendar|Indian calendar]]s. ==References== * ''The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon''. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume '''XI''', Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956. * Ernest Wiesenberg. &quot;Appendix: Addenda and Corrigenda to Treatise VIII&quot;. ''The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three: The Book of Seasons''. Yale Judaica Series Volume '''XIV''', Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1961. pp.557-602. * Samuel Poznanski. &quot;Calendar (Jewish)&quot;. ''Encylopædia of Religion and Ethics'', 1911. * F.H. Woods. &quot;Calendar (Hebrew)&quot;, ''Encylopædia of Religion and Ethics'', 1911. * Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby. ''Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars''. George Bell and Sons, London, 1901. * W.H. Feldman. ''Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy'',3rd edition, Sepher-Hermon Press, 1978. * Otto Neugebauer. ''Ethiopic astronomy and computus''. Österreichische Akademie der
ther country, if not to a casual observer from a third country. The vocabulary used also exhibits some striking differences. ===Spelling=== The exposure to the different spellings of British and American English leads to a certain amount of spelling variation such as ''organise/organize''. British spelling is generally preferred, although some words are usually written in the American form, such as ''program'' and ''jail'' rather than ''programme'' and ''gaol'' (although commonly one could be 'jailed' in a 'gaol'). Publishers, schools, universities and governments typically use the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] as a standard spelling reference. Both -ise and -ize are accepted, as in British English, but '-ise' is the preferred form in Australian English by a ratio of about 3:1 according to the [[Australian Corpus of English]]. There is a widely-held belief in Australia that American spellings are a modern &quot;intrusion&quot;, but the debate in fact goes back to the [[19th century]]. A pamphlet titled ''The So Called &quot;American Spelling.&quot;'', printed in Sydney over 100 years ago, argued that &quot;there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc.&quot; At the time it was noted that &quot;the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form&quot;. Some Melbourne newspapers once excised the &quot;u&quot;, but do not anymore, and the [[Australian Labor Party|Australian ''Labor'' Party]] officially adopted the '-or' ending in [[1912]]. ===Irish influences=== There is some influence from [[Hiberno-English]], but perhaps not as much as might be expected given that many Australians are of [[Ireland|Irish]] descent. Perhaps most noticeable is the widespread – but not universal – pronunciation of the name of the letter &quot;H&quot; as &quot;''haitch''&quot; {{IPA|/hæɪtʃ/}}, rather than the unaspirated &quot;''aitch''&quot; {{IPA|/æɪtʃ/}} found in New Zealand, as well as most of Britain and North America. This is most often found amongst speakers of ''Broad Australian English'' and is thought to be the influence of Irish [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priests and nuns. Others include the non-standard plural of &quot;you&quot; as &quot;''youse''&quot; {{IPA|/jʉːz/}}, which is common in some social circles, and the expression &quot;''good on you''&quot; or &quot;''good onya''&quot;, although the former is common throughout North America and the latter is also encountered in New Zealand English and British English. Another usage indicative of an Irish influence is use of the word 'me' replacing 'my'. Example: ''Where's me hat?'' ===Samples of Australian English=== The [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] provides many [http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/ streams of their radio programmes]. Non-Australians can also gain an impression of Australian English from well-known actors and other native speakers. The voices of [[Cate Blanchett]], [[Russell Crowe]], [[Nicole Kidman]], [[Hugh Jackman]] and [[Naomi Watts]] are examples of [[Australian_English#General_Australian_English|General Australian accents]], unless they are acting in roles as non-Australians. Several [[List of Australians#Film_and_television|Australian actors]] provided voices for ''[[Finding Nemo]]'': Nigel the pelican, the three sharks, and the dentist have Australian accents. Television star [[Steve Irwin|Steve &quot;Crocodile hunter&quot; Irwin]] has a [[Australian_English#Broad_Australian_English|Broad Australian accent]] (see below) and as a result his voice is often parodied inside Australia as well as out. [[John O'Grady]]'s novel ''[[They're a Weird Mob]]'' has many good examples of pseudo-phonetically written Australian speech during the 1950s, such as ''&quot;owyergoinmateorright?&quot;'' (&quot;how're you going mate, alright?&quot;) and [[Tom Keneally]]'s novels, particularly ''The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith'', of putatively 19th century Australianisms such as &quot;yair&quot; for &quot;yes&quot; and &quot;nothink&quot; for &quot;nothing.&quot; ==Vocabulary== {{main|Australian words}} ===The origins of Australian words=== Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider to be unique to their country. One of the best-known of these is ''outback'' which means remote, sparsely-populated areas. The similar ''bush'' can mean either native forests, or country areas in general. Both terms are historically widely used in many English speaking countries, however. Many such words, phrases or usages originated with the British convicts transported to Australia. Many words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example: a ''creek'' in Australia, as in North America, is any stream or small river, whereas in England it is a small watercourse flowing into the sea; ''paddock'' is the Australian word for a field, while in England it is a small enclosure for livestock and; wooded areas in Australia are known as ''bush'' or ''scrub'', as in North America, while in England, they are commonly used only in proper names (such as [[Shepherd's Bush]] and [[Wormwood Scrubs]]). Cockney and Australian English also both use the word ''mate'' to mean a close friend of the same gender (rather than the conventional meaning of &quot;a [[spouse]]&quot;), although this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English. The origins of other terms are not as clear, or are disputed. ''Dinkum'' (or &quot;fair dinkum&quot;) means &quot;true&quot;, or when used in speech: &quot;is that true?&quot;, &quot;this is the truth!&quot;, and other meanings, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum dates back to the [[Australian goldrushes]] of the 1850s, and that it is derived from the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] (or Hokkien) ''ding kam'', meaning &quot;top gold&quot;. However, scholars give greater credence to the notion that it originated with a now-extinct dialect word from the [[East Midlands]] in England, where dinkum (or dincum) meant &quot;hard work&quot; or &quot;fair work&quot;, which was also the original meaning in Australian English.[http://www.anu.edu.au/andc/ozwords/November_98/7._dinkum.htm] The derivation ''dinky-di'' means a native-born Australian. Similarly, ''g'day'', a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with &quot;good day&quot; in other varieties of English and is never used as an expression for &quot;farewell&quot;, as &quot;good day&quot; is in other countries. Some elements of [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Aboriginal languages]] have been incorporated into Australian English, mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example [[dingo]], [[kangaroo]]). Beyond that, some terms have been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms, or slang. Some examples are ''cooee'', ''yarn'' and ''Hard yakka''. The former is a high-pitched call (pronounced {{IPA|/kʉː.iː/}}) which travels long distances and is used to attract attention. ''Cooee'' has also become a notional distance: ''if he's within cooee, we'll spot him''. ''Yarn'' means to chat or tell a story. This has further evolved into ''spin a yarn'' for telling a long and engaging tale. ''Hard yakka'' means ''hard work'' and is derived from ''yakka'', from the [[Yagara]]/[[Jagara]] language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from the Brisbane region comes the word ''bung'' meaning broken. A failed piece of equipment might be described as having ''gone bung''. Though often thought of as an Aboriginal word, [[didgeridoo]] (a well known wooden musical instrument) is probably an [[onomatopoeia|onomatopaoeic]] word of Western invention. It has also been suggested that it may have an [[Irish language|Irish]] derivation.[http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02] ==Varieties of Australian English== Most linguists consider that there are three main varieties of Australian English: &quot;'''Broad'''&quot;, &quot;'''General'''&quot; and &quot;'''Cultivated'''&quot;. These three main varieties are actually part of a continuum and are based on variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the [[social class]] and/or [[education]]al background of the speaker. ====Broad Australian English==== Broad Australian English is the [[archetype|archetypal]] and most recognisable variety and is familiar to English speakers around the world, because of its use in identifying Australian characters in non-Australian [[film]]s and [[television]] programs. In reality it is less common than General Australian English. Broad Australian English is recognisable by a certain nasal [[drawl]] and the prevalence of long [[diphthong]]s. Broad Australian English is more likely to be encountered when travelling farther away from the capital cities. ====General Australian English==== General Australian English is the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] variety of Australian English. It is the variety of English used by the majority of Australians and it dominates the accents found in contemporary Australian-made films and television programs, such as ''[[Neighbours]]''. This variety has noticeably shorter vowel sounds than Broad Australian English, among other differences. There is perhaps a trend towards General Australian away from the extremes. ====Cultivated Australian English==== Cultivated Australian English (CAE) has many similarities to [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Received Pronunciation]], and is often mistaken for it. CAE is now spoken by less than 10% of the population. An overwhelmingly large and growing majority of Australians now have either General or Broad accents. One effect of this is that the speech of people like [[Alexander Downer]], the [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] is mocked as sounding
6.894757 MPa |----- | kilogram-force per square millimetre || kgf/mm² | ≡ 1 kgf/mm² | = 9.806 65 MPa |} ===Energy or work=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ [[Energy]], E, W !Name of unit !Symbol !Definition !Relation to [[SI]] units |----- | [[joule]] (SI unit) || J | ≡ N·m = W·s = V·A·s | = kg·m²/s² |----- | [[Electron volt|electronvolt]] || eV | ≡ ''[[elementary charge|e]]'' × 1 V | ≈ 1.602 176×10&lt;sup&gt;-19&lt;/sup&gt; J |----- | [[Johannes Robert Rydberg|rydberg]] || Ry | ≡ ''[[Rydberg constant|R&lt;sub&gt;∞&lt;/sub&gt;]]''·[[Planck constant|ℎ]]·''[[speed of light|c]]'' | ≈ 2.179 872×10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; J |----- | [[Hartree|hartree]] || E&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; | ≡ m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;·[[fine structure constant|α]]²·''[[speed of light|c]]''² (= 2 Ry) | ≈ 4.359 744×10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; J |----- | [[atomic units|atomic unit of energy]] || au | ≡ E&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; ≈ 4.359 744×10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; J&lt;/td&gt; |----- | [[erg]] ([[cgs unit]]) || erg | ≡ 1 g·cm²/s² | = 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; J |----- | [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-poundal || ft pdl | ≡ 1 lb·ft²/s² | = 4.214 011 009 380 48×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; J |----- | cubic centimetre of [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]]; standard cubic centimetre || cc atm; scc | ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm³ | = 0.101 325 J |----- | [[inch]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]] force || in lbf | ≡ ''g'' × 1 lb × 1 in | = 0.112 984 829 027 616 7 J |----- | [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]] force || ft lbf | ≡ ''g'' × 1 lb × 1 ft | = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 J |----- | [[calorie]] (20 °C) || cal&lt;sub&gt;20 °C&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 4.1819 J |----- | [[calorie]] (thermochemical) || cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≡ 4.184 J |----- | [[calorie]] (15 °C) || cal&lt;sub&gt;15 °C&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≡ 4.1855 J |----- | [[calorie]] (International Table) || cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≡ 4.1868 J |----- | [[calorie]] (mean) || cal&lt;sub&gt;mean&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 4.190 02 J |----- | [[calorie]] (3.98 °C) || cal&lt;sub&gt;3.98 °C&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 4.2045 J |----- | [[litre]]-[[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] || l atm; sl | ≡ 1 atm × 1 L | = 101.325 J |----- | [[gallon]]-atmosphere (U.S.) || US gal atm | ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (US) | = 383.556 849 013 8 J |----- | [[gallon]]-atmosphere (Imperial) || US gal atm | ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (Imp) | = 460.632 569 25 J |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (thermochemical) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; | ≡ 1 lb/g × 1 cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 °F/°C = 9.489&amp;nbsp;152&amp;nbsp;380&amp;nbsp;4 ÷ 9 kJ | ≈ 1.054 350 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (ISO) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;ISO&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≡ 1.0545 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (63 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;63 °F&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 1.0546 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (60 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;60 °F&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 1.054 68 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (59 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≡ 1.054 804 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (International Table) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | ≡ 1 lb/g × 1 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 °F/°C | = 1.055 055 852 62 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (mean) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;mean&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 1.055 87 kJ |----- | [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (39 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;39 °F&lt;/sub&gt; | | ≈ 1.059 67 kJ |----- | [[Celsius]] heat unit (International Table) || CHU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 °C/°F | = 1.899 100 534 716 kJ |----- | cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of atmosphere; standard cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || cu ft atm; scf | ≡ 1 atm × 1 ft³ | = 2.869 204 480 934 4 kJ |----- | kilocalorie; large [[calorie]] || kcal; Cal | ≡ 1000 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | = 4.1868 kJ |----- | cubic [[yard]] of atmosphere; standard cubic [[yard]] || cu yd atm; scy | ≡ 1 atm × 1 yd³ | = 77.468 520 985 228 8 kJ |----- | cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of natural gas || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 1000 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | = 1.055 055 852 62 MJ |----- | [[horsepower]]-[[hour]] || hp·h | ≡ 1 hp × 1 h | = 2.6845 MJ |----- | [[Board of Trade Unit]]; kilowatt-hour || B.O.T.U.; kW·h | ≡ 1 kW × 1 h | = 3.6 MJ |----- | thermie || th | ≡ 1 Mcal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | = 4.1868 MJ |----- | therm (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 100 000 BTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt; | = 105.4804 MJ |----- | therm (E.C.) || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 100 000 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | = 105.505 585 262 MJ |----- | [[ton]] of [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]] || tTNT | ≡ 1 Gcal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; | = 4.184 GJ |----- | [[barrel of oil equivalent]] || bboe | ≈ 5.8 MBTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt; | ≈ 6.12 GJ |----- | [[ton of coal equivalent]] || TCE | ≡ 7 Gcal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; | = 29.3076 GJ |----- | [[ton of oil equivalent]] || TOE | ≡ 10 Gcal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; | = 41.868 GJ |----- | quad || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; | = 1.055 055 852 62 EJ |} ===Power=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ [[Power (physics)|Power]], P !Name of unit !Symbol !Definition !Relation to [[SI]] units |----- | [[watt]] (SI unit) || W | ≡ J/s = N·m/s | = kg·m²/s³ |----- | lusec || lusec | ≡ 1 L·µmHg/s | ≈ 1.333 224×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]]-force per [[hour]] || ft lbf/h | ≡ 1 ft lbf/h | ≈ 3.766 161×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | atmosphere cubic centimetre per [[minute]] || atm ccm | ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm³/min | = 1.688 75×10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]]-force per [[minute]] || ft lbf/min | ≡ 1 ft lbf/min | = 2.259 696 580 552 334×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | atmosphere&amp;ndash;cubic centimetre per [[second]] || atm ccs | ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm³/s | = 0.101 325 W |----- | [[BTU]] (International Table) per [[hour]] || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h | ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h | ≈ 0.293 071 W |----- | atmosphere&amp;ndash;cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[hour]] || atm cfh | ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/h | = 0.797 001 244 704 W |----- | [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound-force]] per [[second]] || ft lbf/s | ≡ 1 ft lbf/s | = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 W |----- | [[litre]]-atmosphere per [[minute]] || L·atm/min | ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/min | = 1.688 75 W |----- | [[calorie]] (International Table) per [[second]] || cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s | ≡ 1 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s | = 4.1868 W |----- | [[BTU]] (International Table) per [[minute]] || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/min | ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/min | ≈ 17.584 264 W |----- | atmosphere-cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]] || atm·cfm | ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/min | = 47.820 074 682 24 W |----- | square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] equivalent direct radiation || sq ft EDR | ≡ 240 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h | ≈ 70.337 057 W |----- | litre-atmosphere per second || L·atm/s | ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/s | = 101.325 W |----- | [[horsepower]] (metric) || hp | ≡ 75 m kgf/s | = 735.498 75 W |----- | [[horsepower]] (European electrical) || hp | ≡ 75 kp·m/s | = 736 W |----- | [[horsepower]] (Imperial mechanical) || hp | ≡ 550 ft lbf/s | = 745.699 871 582 270 22 W |----- | [[horsepower]] (Imperial electrical) || hp | | ≡ 746 W |----- | [[ton]] of air conditioning || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 1 t × 1005 J/kg × 1 °F/K ÷ 10 min | = 844.2 W |----- | poncelet || p | ≡ 100 m kgf/s | = 980.665 W |----- | [[BTU]] (International Table) per [[second]] || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s | ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s | = 1.055 055 852 62×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | atmosphere-cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[second]] || atm cfs | ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/s | = 2.869 204 480 934 4×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | [[ton]] of refrigeration (IT) || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 sh tn/lb ÷ 10 min/s | ≈ 3.516 853×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | [[ton]] of refrigeration (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp; | ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 lng tn/lb ÷ 10 min/s | ≈ 3.938 875×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W |----- | boiler [[horsepower]] || bhp | ≈ 34.5 lb/h × 970.3 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/lb | ≈ 9.810 657×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W |} ===Angular momentum=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ Action, Angular momentum, L, J !Name of unit !Symbol !Definition !Relation to [[SI]] units |----- | SI unit || J·s | | ≡ kg·m²/s &lt;!--- previous entry was: |----- | [[atomic unit of action]] || au | [[Dirac constant|&lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt;]] = [[Planck constant|&lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt;]]/2[[Pi|&lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt;]] 1.054 571 596×10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; J·s ---&gt; |----- | [[atomic units|atomic unit of action]] || au | ≡ [[Dirac constant|ℏ]] = [[Planck constant|ℎ]]/2[[Pi|π]] | ≈ 1.054 571 596×10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; J·s |----- | [[cgs unit]] || erg·s | | = 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; J·s |} ===Electric current=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ [[Electric current]], I !Name of unit !Symbol !Definition !Relation to [[SI]] units |----- | [[ampere]] || A | | ([[SI base unit]]) |----- | [[esu per second]]; statampere ([[cgs unit]]) || esu/s | ≡ (0.1 A·m/s) /''[[speed of light|c]]'' | ≈ 3.335 641×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; A |----- | [[electromagnetic unit]]; abampere ([[cgs unit]]) || abamp | | ≡ 10 A |} ===Electric charge=== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+ [[Electric charge]], Q !Name of unit !Symbol !Definition !Relation to [[SI]] units |----- | [[coulomb]] (SI unit) || C | | ≡ A·s |----- | [[atomic units|atomic unit of charge]] || au | ≡ ''[[elementary charge|e]]'' | ≈ 1.602 176 462×10&lt;sup&gt;-19&lt;/sup&gt; C |----- | [[statcoulomb]]; [[franklin (unit)|franklin]]; electrostatic unit ([[cgs unit]]) || statC; Fr; esu | ≡ (0.1 A·m) /''[[speed of light|c]]'' | ≈ 3.335 641×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; C |----- | [[abcoulomb]]; electromagnetic unit ([[cgs unit]]) || abC; emu | | ≡ 10 C |----- | [[faraday]] || F | ≡ 1 mol × ''[[Avogadro's number|N&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]]''·''[
Lowry|Lowry]] formulated this definition, which includes water-insoluble substances not in the Arrhenius definition. * '''Lewis''': According to this definition, an acid as an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electron-pair donor. (These are frequently referred to as &quot;[[Lewis acid]]s&quot; and &quot;[[Lewis base]]s,&quot; and are [[electrophile]]s and [[nucleophile]]s in [[organic chemistry]]). Lewis acids include substances with no [[protons]], such as [[iron(III) chloride]]. The Lewis definition can also be explained with [[molecular orbital]] theory. In general, an acid can receive an electron pair in its lowest unoccupied orbital ([[LUMO]]) from the highest occupied orbital ([[HOMO]]) of a base. That is, the HOMO from the base and the LUMO from the acid combine to a bonding [[molecular orbital]]. This definition was developed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]]. Although not the most general theory, the Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition. The strength of an acid may be understood by this defintion by the stability of [[hydronium]] and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation. Increasing stability of the the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound. This concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as [[carboxylic acid]]. The molecular orbital description, where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair, is connected to the Lewis definition. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form [[buffer solution]]s. Acid/base systems are different from [[redox]] reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state. Generally, acids have the following chemical and physical properties: * '''Taste''': Acids generally are sour when dissolved in water. * '''Touch''': Acids produce a stinging feeling, particularly strong acids. * '''Reactivity''': Acids react aggressively with or corrode most [[metal]]s. * '''Electrical conductivity''': Acids are [[electrolyte]]s. [[Strong acid]]s are dangerous, causing severe burns for even minor contact. Generally, acid burns are treated by rinsing the affected area abundantly with water and followed up with immediate medical attention. == Nomenclature == Acids are named according to the ending of their [[anion]]. That ionic ending is dropped and replaced with a new suffix according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; color: black; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot; !Anion Ending !Acid Prefix !Acid Suffix |- |per-anion-ate |per |ic acid |- |ate | |ic acid |- |ite | |ous acid |- |hypo-anion-ite |hypo |ous acid |- |ide |Hydro |ic acid |} == Chemical characteristics == In water the following [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] occurs between an acid (HA) and water, which acts as a base: HA(aq) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) The [[acidity constant]] (or acid dissociation constant) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of HA with water: :&lt;math&gt;K_a = {[\mbox{H}_3\mbox{O}^+]\cdot[A^-] \over [HA]}&lt;/math&gt; [[Strong acid]]s have large ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values (i.e. the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right; the acid is almost completely dissociated to H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and A&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;). Strong acids include the heavier [[hydrohalic acid]]s: [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), and [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI). (However, [[hydrofluoric acid]], HF, is relatively weak.) For example, the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; value for [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) is 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;. [[Weak acid]]s have small ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values (i.e. at equilibrium significant amounts of HA and A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; exist together in solution; modest levels of H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; are present; the acid is only partially dissociated). For example, the K&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; value for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;. Most organic acids are weak acids. [[Oxoacid]]s, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen may be quite strong or weak. [[Nitric acid]], [[sulfuric acid]], and [[perchloric acid]] are all strong acids, whereas [[nitrous acid]], [[sulfurous acid]] and [[hypochlorous acid]] are all weak. Note the following: * The terms &quot;[[hydrogen]] ion&quot; and &quot;proton&quot; are used interchangebly; both refer to H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. * In aqueous solution, the water is protonated to form [[hydronium]] ion, H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq). This is often abbreviated as H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) even though the symbol is not chemically correct. * The strength of an acid is measured by its [[acid dissociation constant]] (''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) or equivalently its p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;= - log(''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;). * The [[pH]] of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of [[hydronium]]. This will depend of the concnetration and nature of acids and bases in solution. === Polyprotic acids === [[Polyprotic]] acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as '''diprotic acid''' (two potenital protons to donate) and '''triprotic acid''' (three potenital protons to donate) A monoprotic acid can undergo one [[dissociation]] (sometimes called ionization) as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above: :::::HA(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; and K&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt;. :::::H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + HA&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; :::::HA&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq)&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; . For example, [[sulfuric acid]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) can donate one proton to form the [[bisulfate]] anion (HSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), for which ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the [[sulfate]] anion (SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), wherein the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; is intermediate strength. The large ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable [[carbonic acid]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) can lose one proton to form [[bicarbonate]] anion (HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) and lose a second to form [[carbonate]] anion (CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;). Both ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values are small, but ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; . A triprotic acid (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a3&lt;/sub&gt; . :::::H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;A(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; :::::H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + HA&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; :::::HA&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;3&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a3&lt;/sub&gt; An [[inorganic]] example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), usually just called [[phosphoric acid]]. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;, then HPO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;, and finally PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; , the orthophosphate ion, usually just called [[phosphate]]. An [[Organic compound|organic]] example of a triprotic acid is [[citric acid]], which can successively lose three protons to finally form the [[citrate]] ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equiv
by Hindustani classical ''thumri'' style. Many singers in [[West Bengal]] proudly base their entire careers on the singing of Tagore musical masterpieces. ==Qawwali== ''Main article: [[Qawwali]]'' [[Qawwali]] is a [[Sufi]] form of devotional music based on the principles of [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani classical]]. It is performed with one or two lead singers, several chorus singers, [[harmonium]], [[tabla]], and [[dholak]]. ==Further reading== *Maycock, Robert and Hunt, Ken. &quot;How to Listen - a Routemap of India&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 63-69. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 *Hunt, Ken. &quot;The Sacred and the Profane&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 86-93. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 *Hunt, Ken. &quot;Soundtrack to a Billion Lives&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 102-108. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 *Hunt, Ken. &quot;Meetings by the River&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 109-116. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 *Hunt, Ken and Broughton, Simon. &quot;Everything Is Left Behind&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 94-101. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 *Hunt, Ken. &quot;Sounds of the Saints&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 79-85. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 *Hunt, Ken. &quot;Ragas and Riches&quot;. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 70-78. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 ==See also== * [[Indian musicologists]] * [[Indian musical instruments]] * [[Natya Shastra]] * [[Naradiya Shiksha]] * [[Dattilam]] * [[Brihaddeshi]] * [[Abhinava Bharati]] * [[Sangita-Ratnakara]] * [[List of regional genres of music]] ==External links== *[http://batish.com/archives/arcgloss.html A Glossary of Indian Music Terms] *[http://www.4indianmusic.com Download Indian Music] *[http://www.artistspages.org Fraternity for Indian musicians] *[http://www.anuragjain.com/indianmusic.html A List of Indian Fusion &amp; Rock Bands, and Indian World Music Artistes] *[http://www.aakash.co.in/indian-music/directory.htm List of few resources available on the net about Carnatic music with small description.] {{SouthAsianmusic}} [[Category:Indian music]] [[ca:Música índia]] [[es:Música India]] [[eo:Hindia muziko]] [[fi:Intialainen musiikki]] [[fr:Musique indienne]] [[nl:Indiase muziek]] [[pt:Música indiana]] [[sv:Indisk musik]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Indian musical instruments</title> <id>14536</id> <revision> <id>41500390</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:07:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sprichard</username> <id>1001427</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Cool Guy */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:india_snake_charmer.jpg|thumb|right|175px|A [[snake charmer]] with [[pungi]] during his performance in [[Jaipur]], India]] '''Indian musical instruments''' can be broadly classified into three categories, namely classical, western and folk. See [[Carnatic music]] and [[Hindustani music]]. ==Classification== The instruments are further sub-classified into the type based on the science behind the same. ===Wind Instruments=== * [[Bansuri]] * [[Nadaswaram]] * [[Pungi]] or [[Pungi|Been]] * [[Shehnai]] ===Percussion=== * [[Chenda]] * [[Dhol]] * [[Dholak]] * [[Ghatam]] * [[Idakka]] * [[Mridangam]] * [[Pakhavaj]] * [[Tabla]] * [[Thavil]] ===String instruments=== * [[Ektara]] * [[Esraj]] * [[Tanpura]] * [[Sarangi]] * [[Santoor]] * [[Sarod]] * [[Sitar]] * [[Veena]] * [[Rudra Veena]] * [[Gottuvadhyam|Gottuvadhyam (also known as the Chitravina)]] ===Others=== * The [[Violin]] is a popular western instrument used widely in [[Indian classical music]], specifically [[Carnatic music]]. *The [[Harmonium]] is originally a western instrument, but is now more popular in India than in other countries. There are numerous native musical instruments used in folk music. See also [[Music of India]]. ==External links== * [http://www.aakash.co.in/indian-music/instrument.htm categorization of Indian Musical instruments] * [http://www.pakrashi-harmonium.com/ Indian musical instruments] * [http://www.indianmusicals.com/ Indian musical instruments web site] [[sv:Indiska musikinstrument]] * [http://www.buydhol.com/ North Indian musical instruments] * [http://makar-records.com/ all Indian classical music instruments with mp3 music samples] * [http://www.akp.co.in/ Thavil Maestro - Haridwaramangalam Sri. A.K. Palanivel]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IRIX</title> <id>14537</id> <revision> <id>41672134</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:47:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nickhumphrey</username> <id>608442</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_OS | name = IRIX | screenshot = [[Image:IRIX 6.5.6 Desktop.jpg|200px]] | caption = An IRIX v6.5.6 desktop | developer = [[Silicon Graphics]] | family = [[Unix]] | version_number = Varies | source_model = [[Closed source]] | working_state = Current | latest_release_version = 6.5.29 | latest_release_date = [[February 14]], [[2006]] | kernel_type = [[Kernel (computer science)#Monolithic kernels|Monolithic]] | ui = [[IRIX Interactive Desktop]] | license = closed source | working_state = Current | website = [http://www.sgi.com/products/software/irix/ SGI IRIX] | }} '''IRIX''' is the [[UNIX System V|System V]]-based [[Unix]] [[Operating System]] with [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] extensions developed by [[Silicon Graphics]] (SGI) to run natively on their 32 and 64-bit [[MIPS architecture]] workstations and servers. As a result of its Unix underpinnings, it is capable of extremely long [[uptime]], and its [[XFS]] filesystem is regarded to be one of the most advanced [[journaling file system]]s in the industry. IRIX has particularly strong support for [[3D graphics]], video and high-bandwidth bulk data transfer. IRIX was one of the first Unix flavors to feature a [[GUI]] for the main desktop environment, and is widely used in the [[computer animation]] industry and for [[scientific visualization]] due to its extremely high 3D graphics performance. IRIX uses the [[IRIX Interactive Desktop]] with its default [[4dwm]] [[X window manager|window manager]] and [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] [[widget toolkit]] with a custom look and feel. The current major version of IRIX is IRIX 6.5. New minor versions are released every quarter. Up to and including Version 6.5.22, there were two branches of each release: a maintenance release that includes only fixes to the original IRIX 6.5 code, and a feature release that includes improvements and enhancements. Versions up until the 6.5.22 maintenance release are available for free download; 6.5.23 and higher require an active Silicon Graphics support contract, despite only running on Silicon Graphics hardware. SGI has [[end-of-life|retired]] IRIX and the [[MIPS architecture]] in favor of [[Linux]] on [[Itanium]], it is however expected that IRIX support will continue for a while longer. ==External links== *[http://www.sgi.com/products/software/irix/ Overview of information related to the IRIX operating system] *[http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-bin/init.cgi Technical Publications Library] *[http://www.sgi.com/products/software/irix/datasheet.pdf IRIX Datasheet] *[http://software.majix.org/irix/index.shtml IRIX Administration Guide] *[http://www.nekochan.net/ Nekochan Net] *[http://www.siliconbunny.com/ Silicon Bunny - IRIX software and information] *[http://www.tliquest.net/ryan/sgi/irix_versions.html IRIX Versions and History] [[Category:SGI]] [[Category:Unix]] {{unix-like}} [[de:IRIX]] [[es:IRIX]] [[fr:Irix]] [[it:IRIX]] [[nl:IRIX]] [[pl:IRIX]] [[ro:IRIX]] [[ru:IRIX]] [[sl:IRIX]] [[fi:IRIX]] [[sv:IRIX]] [[tr:IRIX]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Islam</title> <id>14538</id> <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions> <revision> <id>42133011</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:08:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Blubberbrein2</username> <id>1013417</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Beliefs */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses, including people named &quot;Islam&quot;, see [[Islam (disambiguation)]]}} {{Islam}} {{portal}} '''Islam''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{Ar|الإسلام}}; ''{{ArabDIN|al-islām}}'' ({{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|listen}}), &quot;submission (to the will of [[God]])&quot;) is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faith, one of the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, and the world's second-largest [[religion]]. Followers of Islam are known as '''[[Muslims]]'''. Muslims believe that [[God]] revealed his divine word directly to mankind through many [[prophet]]s and that [[Muhammad]]
er)|Gordon Wilson]], Peace campaigner and Irish senator == References == *Fermanagh: its special landscapes: a study of the Fermanagh countryside and its heritage /Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. - Belfast: HMSO, 1991 ISBN 0337082766 *Friel, Charles P.. - Fermanagh's railways : a photographic tribute / Charles P. Friel, Norman Joh. - Newtownards, Co. Down: Colourpoint Press, 1998. ISBN 1898392390 *Livingstone, Peadar. - The Fermanagh story :a documented history of the County Fermanagh from the earliest times to the present day - Enniskillen: Cumann Seanchais Chlochair, 1969. *Lowe, Henry N. - County Fermanagh 100 years ago: a guide and directory 1880. - Belfast: Friar's Bush Press, 1990. ISBN 0946872295 *Parke, William K. - A Fermanagh Childhood. Derrygonnelly, Co Fermanagh: Friar's Bush Press, 1988. ISBN 0946872120 == External links == * [http://www.enniskillen.com Enniskillen.Com] == See also == *[[List of places in County Fermanagh]] {{Ireland_counties}} [[Category:Counties of Ireland|Fermanagh]] [[Category:Ulster|Fermanagh]] [[Category:County Fermanagh|*]]&lt;!--articles d dining categories should also be in supercategory/s --&gt; [[ast:Condáu de Fermanagh]] [[ca:Comtat de Fermanagh]] [[de:Fermanagh (County)]] [[es:Condado de Fermanagh]] [[fr:Comté de Fermanagh]] [[ga:Contae Fhear Manach]] [[nl:County Fermanagh]] [[no:Fermanagh (grevskap)]] [[fi:Fermanagh]] [[sv:Fermanagh (grevskap)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cupid</title> <id>5834</id> <revision> <id>42105350</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:35:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CaveatLector</username> <id>587577</id> </contributor> <comment>&quot;Eros&quot; is not Latin</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the Roman god}} : ''For the album ''Cupid?'' by [[Stabilo (band)|Stabilo]], see [[Cupid?]] [[Image:Cupidon.jpg|thumb|250px|float|[[Cupidon]] (French for Cupid), by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]], 1875.]] In [[Roman mythology]], '''Cupid''' is the [[god]] of [[erotic]] [[love]]. He is equated with the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] God [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] and another one of his [[Latin]] names Amor. == Cupid's lineage == There are differing stories about his parentage. [[Cicero]] provides three different lineages: son of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] ([[Hermes]]) and [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] ([[Artemis]]), son of Mercury and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ([[Aphrodite]]), and son of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] ([[Ares]] in Greek mythology) and Venus. Plato mentions two of these, and [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]], the most ancient Greek theoography, says that Cupid was created coevally with [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] and the earth. Throughout ancient mythological writing, there appear to be either two Cupids or two sides to the figure of Cupid. One is the son of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] ([[Zeus]]) and Venus. He is a lively youth who delights in pranks and spreading love. The other is a son of [[Nyx]] and [[Erebus]], known for riotous debauchery. == Cult == Cupid's cult was closely associated with that of Venus, with Cupid being worshipped as devotedly as she. Additionally, Cupid's power was supposed to be even greater than his mother's, since he had dominion over the dead in [[Hades]], the creatures of the sea and the gods in [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]]. Some of the cults of Cupid suggested that Cupid as son of Night and Hell mated with Chaos to produce both men and gods, making the gods the offspring of love. == Portrayal in art and literature == [[Image:Amor Victorious.jpg|left|thumb|[[Caravaggio]]'s ''[[Amor Vincit Omnia]]'']] &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:cupidbutterfly.jpg|right|thumb|[[Chaudet]]'s ''[[Cupid and the Butterfly]]'']] --&gt; In [[painting]] and [[sculpture]], Cupid is portrayed as a nude winged boy armed with a bow and a quiver of arrows. The traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] depiction of a [[cherub]] is based on him. On gems and other surviving pieces, he is usually shown amusing himself with childhood play, sometimes driving a hoop, throwing darts, catching a butterfly, or flirting with a [[nymph]]. He is often depicted with his mother (in graphic arts, this is nearly always Venus), playing a horn. He is also shown wearing a helmet and carrying a buckler, perhaps in reference to [[Virgil]]'s ''Omnia vincit amor'' or as [[political satire]] on wars for love or love as war. Cupid figures prominently in [[ariel poetry]], lyrics and, of course, [[elegiac]] love and [[metamorphic poetry]]. In epic poetry, he is less often invoked, but he does appear in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'' changed into the shape of [[Ascanius]] inspiring [[Dido]]'s love. In later literature, Cupid is frequently invoked as fickle, playful, and perverse. He is often depicted as carrying two sets of arrows: one set gold-headed, which inspire love; and the other lead-headed, which inspire hatred. The best-known story involving Cupid is the tale of [[Cupid and Psyche]]. &lt;br clear=all&gt; == See also == *[[Roman mythology]] *[[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] *[[Kamadeva|Kama]], the god of love in [[Hinduism]]. &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Roman gods]] [[Category:Love and lust gods]] &lt;!--Other languages--&gt; [[ar:كيوبد]] [[de:Amor (Mythologie)]] [[es:Cupido]] [[he:קופידון]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christian (disambiguation)</title> <id>5835</id> <revision> <id>40627931</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:53:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RhomboidFive</username> <id>958988</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}} '''Christian''' may refer to several different subjects: *A '''[[Christian]]''' is an adherent of the [[religion]] [[Christianity]]; ''Christian'' is also an adjective referring to Christianity.&lt;br&gt; **In [[North America]] and the [[Western world|West]] today, ''Christian'' is often used in contradistinction to [[Catholicism|Catholics]] (and other non-Protestants), to refer to [[Evangelical]] or [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christians. **In some Western languages, the word &quot;Christian&quot; was used in earlier [[time period|periods]] to mean &quot;[[human being]].&quot; **A ''[[Christian name]]'' in [[Commonwealth English]] is a [[first name]] or [[given name]]. *'''Christian''' is a popular [[first name]] and [[surname]], in the [[Western world|West]], especially in Northern [[Europe]]. The use of ''Christian'' as a personal name derives from its use to describe followers of Christianity. Today in Europe—though not the United States—it is almost exclusively used as a male name, but in the 17th and 18th centuries it was a popular female first name in [[Scotland]]. Female versions of the name include [[Christine (disambiguation)|Christine]], [[Christina]], [[Kristen (name)|Kristen]], [[Kristin]], and [[Kirsten]]. Holders of the name ''Christian'' may go by the [[nicknames]] or shortened forms &quot;[[Chris]],&quot; &quot;[[Chrissy]]&quot; or &quot;Kissa&quot; (in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]). ** The name of several [[List of Danish monarchs|kings of Denmark]] ** The name of the protagonist in [[John Bunyan]]'s [[allegory|allegorical]] [[novel]] ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' ** The surname of [[Fletcher Christian]], the leader of the [[mutiny|mutineers]] on the ''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (history)|HMAV Bounty]]'' and the founder of a [[colony]] on [[Pitcairn Island]] ** A [[stage name]] of [[Canada|Canadian]] [[professional wrestler]] [[Jason Reso]]. He currently goes by the slightly-extended '''Christian Cage'''. ** [[Christian of Oliva]], 13th century [[Cistercian]] monk and the first [[bishop]] of [[Prussia (Baltic)| Prussia]]. ** The 1980s British music group [[The Christians]] also derive their name from popular, rather than religious, naming convention ;Other languages * Chrétien ([[French language|French]]) * Cristiano ([[Italian language|Italian]]) * Christ ([[German language|German]]) :''See also:'' [[Special:Allpages/Christian|List of all pages beginning with &quot;Christian&quot;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Colombia</title> <id>5836</id> <revision> <id>41609233</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:06:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Blastwizard</username> <id>425784</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 39947488 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:colombia.png|right|Map Of Colombia]] [[Image:Colombia_rel_2001.jpg|thumb|200px|Shaded relief map of Colombia]] [[Image:Colombia.A2004117.1535.250m.jpg|thumb|200px|Flooding in Colombia, April 2004]] [[Image:Colombia_land_1970.jpg|thumb|200px|Land use map of Colombia, 1970]] [[Image:Colombia_econ_1970.jpg|thumb|200px|Economic activity map of Colombia, 1970]] '''[[Colombia]]''' is located in the North of [[South America]] (4 00 N, 72 00 W) and part of [[Caribbean South America]]. It is the only South American country with coast in both oceans ([[Atlantic]] or [[Caribbean Sea]] with 1,760 km and [[Pacific Ocean]] with 1,448 km. Colombia borders the following: North with the Caribbean Sea (sea boaders with [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]] and [[Dominican Republic]]). West with [[Panama]] (225 km) and sea borders with [[Costa Rica]] both in the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean and [[Nicaragua]]. South with [[Ecuador]] (590 km), [[Peru]] (1,496 km) and [[Brazil]] (1,643 km). East with Brazil and [[Venezuela]] (2,050 km). Colombia has a total area of 1,138,910 sq km being the fourth biggest country in South America after Brazil, [[Argentina]] and Peru and the seventh one in the [[The Americas|American Continent]]. From this area, the land has 1,038,700 sq km and the water area has 100,210 sq km. It has also an archipelago in the Caribbean sea (San Andre
[[Portugal]] | February 3, 1992 | |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | February 4, 1992 | |- | [[Slovenia]] | February 6, 1992 | |- | [[Holy See]] | February 8, 1992 | |- | [[The Netherlands]] | February 11, 1992 | |- | [[Australia]] | February 13, 1992 | |- | [[Latvia]] | February 14, 1992 | |- | [[Ukraine]] | February 18, 1992 | |- | [[Finland]] | February 19, 1992 | |- | [[Norway]] | February 20, 1992 | |- | [[New Zealand]] | February 25, 1992 | |- | [[Estonia]] | March 2, 1992 | |- | [[Spain]] | March 9, 1992 | |- | [[Belgium]] | March 10, 1992 | |- | [[Paraguay]] | March 13, 1992 | |- | [[Lithuania]] | March 18, 1992 | |- | [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] | March 30, 1992 | |- | [[Poland]] | April 11, 1992 | |- | [[Argentina]] | April 13, 1992 | |- | [[Chile]] | April 15, 1992 | |- | [[Iran]] | April 18, 1992 | |- | [[France]] | April 24, 1992 | |- | [[Luxembourg]] | April 29, 1992 | |- | [[Malaysia]] | May 4, 1992 | |- | [[People's Republic of China]] | May 13, 1992 | |- | [[Russian Federation]] | May 25, 1992 | |- | [[United Arab Emirates]] | June 23, 1992 | |- | [[United Kingdom]] | June 24, 1992 | |- | [[Morocco]] | June 26, 1992 | |- | [[Iceland]] | June 30, 1992 | |- | [[Malta]] | June 30, 1992 | |- | [[India]] | July 9, 1992 | |- | [[Sudan]] | July 17, 1992 | |- | [[Greece]] | July 20, 1992 | |- | [[Moldova]] | July 20, 1992 | |- | [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] | July 21, 1992 | |- | [[United States of America]] | August 11, 1992 | |- | [[Bulgaria]] | August 13, 1992 | |- | [[Albania]] | August 25, 1992 | |- | [[Turkey]] | August 26, 1992 | |- | [[Romania]] | August 29, 1992 | |- | [[Indonesia]] | September 3, 1992 | |- | [[Thailand]] | September 9, 1992 | |- | [[Cuba]] | September 23, 1992 | |- | [[Belarus]] | September 25, 1992 | |- | [[Egypt]] | October 1, 1992 | |- | [[Venezuela]] | October 9, 1992 | |- | [[Algeria]] | October 15, 1992 | |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | October 20, 1992 | |- | [[South Korea]] | November 18, 1992 | |- | [[South Africa]] | November 19, 1992 | |- | [[Singapore]] | November 23, 1992 | |- | [[Bolivia]] | November 26, 1992 | |- | [[North Korea]] | November 30, 1992 | |- | [[Qatar]] | December 5, 1992 | |- | [[Mexico]] | December 6, 1992 | |- | [[Knights Hospitaller|Sovereign Military Order of Malta]] | December 22, 1992 | |- | [[Guatemala]] | December 22, 1992 | |- | [[Brazil]] | December 23, 1992 | |- | [[Czech Republic]] | January 1, 1993 | |- | [[Slovakia|Slovak Republic]] | January 1, 1993 | |- | [[Nigeria]] | January 7, 1993 | |- | [[Peru]] | January 12, 1993 | |- | [[Yemen]] | January 17, 1993 | |- | [[Bahrain]] | January 18, 1993 | |- | [[Tunisia]] | January 30, 1993 | |- | [[Republic of Georgia]] | February 1, 1993 | |- | [[Cyprus]] | February 4, 1993 | |- | [[San Marino]] | February 11, 1993 | |- | [[Ghana]] | February 17, 1993 | |- | [[Philippines]] | February 25, 1993 | |- | [[Japan]] | March 5, 1993 | |- | [[Mongolia]] | March 10, 1993 | |- | [[Canada]] | April 14, 1993 | |- | [[Uruguay]] | May 4, 1993 | |- | [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] | May 23, 1993 | |- | [[Tanzania]] | July 2, 1993 | |- | [[Togo]] | December 20, 1993 | |- | [[Tonga]] | December 20, 1993 | |- | [[Samoa]] | March 8, 1994 | |- | [[Jordan]] | June 29, 1994 | |- | [[Vietnam]] | July 1, 1994 | |- | [[Armenia]] | July 8, 1994 | |- | [[Pakistan]] | July 20, 1994 | |- | [[Kuwait]] | August 10, 1994 | |- | [[Cape Verde]] | August 13, 1994 | |- | [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] | October 7, 1994 | |- | [[Angola]] | November 16, 1994 | |- | [[Lebanon]] | December 5, 1994 | |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | January 26, 1995 | |- | [[Ireland]] | January 27, 1995 | |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | February 6, 1995 | |- | [[Colombia]] | April 25, 1995 | |- | [[Andorra]] | April 28, 1995 | |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | May 18, 1995 | |- | [[Saudi Arabia]] | June 8, 1995 | |- | [[Mali]] | September 20, 1995 | |- | [[Zambia]] | September 20, 1995 | |- | [[Côte D'Ivoire]] | October 17, 1995 | |- | [[Ethiopia]] | October 17, 1995 | |- | [[Guinea-Bissau]] | October 19, 1995 | |- | [[Costa Rica]] | October 19, 1995 | |- | [[Afghanistan]] | January 3, 1996 | |- | [[Belize]] | January 23, 1996 | |- | [[Ecuador]] | February 22, 1996 | |- | [[Laos]] | March 4, 1996 | |- | [[Nicaragua]] | March 29, 1996 | |- | [[Panama]] | June 12, 1996 | |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | July 2, 1996 | |- | [[Mozambique]] | August 23, 1996 | |- | [[Serbia and Montenegro]] | September 9, 1996 | |- | [[Cambodia]] | September 10, 1996 | |- | [[Jamaica]] | October 9, 1996 | |- | [[Kyrgyzstan]] | December 23, 1996 | |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | February 14, 1997 | |- | [[Maldives]] | April 8, 1997 | |- | [[El Salvador]] | July 24, 1997 | |- | [[Mauritius]] | September 3, 1997 | |- | [[Israel]] | September 4, 1997 | |- | [[Seychelles]] | September 30, 1997 | |- | [[Senegal]] | October 1, 1997 | |- | [[Saint Lucia]] | December 10, 1997 | |- | [[Suriname]] | December 17, 1997 | |- | [[Nepal]] | February 6, 1998 | |- | [[The Gambia]] | October 16, 1998 | |- | [[Lesotho]] | November 6, 1998 | |- | [[Uganda]] | March 10, 1999 | |- | [[Eritrea]] | June 4, 1999 | |- | [[Comoros]] | June 29, 1999 | |- | [[Myanmar]] | September 3, 1999 | |- | [[Chad]] | September 17, 1999 | |- | [[Antigua and Barbuda]] | September 20, 1999 | |- | [[Honduras]] | September 20, 1999 | |- | [[Grenada]] | May 19, 2000 | |- | [[Nauru]] | December 14, 2000 | |- | [[Benin]] | March 26, 2001 | |- | [[Gabon]] | October 22, 2001 | |- | [[Mauritania]] | November 11, 2004 | |- | [[Iraq]] | January 5, 2005 | |- |} Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Croatia [http://www.mfa.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid=1177] &lt;br&gt; == External links == * [http://www.seerecon.org/Croatia/Croatia.htm Economic Reconstruction and Development in South East Europe - Croatia] * [http://www.ebrd.org/country/country/croatia/ EBRD and Croatia] * [http://www.stabilitypact.org/ Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe] * [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/see/sap/rep3/cr_croat.htm Opinion of the European Commission on the application of Croatia for membership of the European Union] [[Category:Foreign relations of Croatia| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cuba</title> <id>5583</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42093903</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:05:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.128.147.169</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Religion */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country| native_name=República de Cuba| common_name=Cuba| image_flag=Flag of Cuba.svg| image_coat=Cuba coa.png| image_map=LocationCuba.png| national_motto=Patria y Libertad&lt;br&gt;(Spanish: Motherland and Freedom)| national_anthem=[[La Bayamesa]] (The Bayamo Song)| official_languages=[[Spanish language|Spanish]]| capital=[[Havana]]| latd=23|latm=8|latNS=N|longd=82|longm=23|longEW=W| largest_city=[[Havana]]| government_type=[[Communist State]] | leader_titles=[[President]] &lt;small&gt;of the [[Council of State of Cuba|Council of State]]&lt;/small&gt;| leader_names=[[Fidel Castro]]| area_rank=104th| area_magnitude=1_E11| area=110,860| areami² = 42,803 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; percent_water=negligible| population_estimate=11,346,670| population_estimate_year=2005| population_estimate_rank=70th| population_census=11,177,743| population_census_year=2002| population_density=102| population_densitymi² = 264 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; population_density_rank=73rd| GDP_PPP_year=2004| GDP_PPP=$33.9 billion| GDP_PPP_rank=89th| GDP_PPP_per_capita=$3,000| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=126th| HDI_year = 2005| HDI = 0.817| HDI_rank = 52nd| HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;| sovereignty_type=[[Independence]]| established_events=&amp;nbsp;• Declared from Spain&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;• Cuban Republic declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;• Date recognised in Cuba| established_dates=[[Ten Years' War]]&lt;br&gt;[[October 10]] [[1898]]&lt;br&gt;[[Spanish-American War]]&lt;br&gt;[[May 20]] [[1902]]&lt;br&gt;[[January 1]], [[1959]]| currency=[[Cuban peso|Peso]] (&lt;code&gt;[[ISO 4217|CUP]]&lt;/code&gt;)&lt;!-- kludge to deal with fact that template expects only one currency per country --&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Cuban convertible peso|Convertible peso]] &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;| currency_code=CUC| time_zone=[[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]| utc_offset=-5| time_zone_DST=(Starts [[April 1]], end date varies)| utc_offset_DST=-4| cctld=[[.cu]]| CCTLD=CU| calling_code=53| footnotes=&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 1993–2004, the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] was used in addition to the peso until the dollar was replaced by the convertible peso. }}{{Otheruses}} The '''Republic of Cuba''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Cuba'', [[International Phonetics Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe ˈkuβa]}}) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest of the [[Greater Antilles]]), the [[Isle of Youth]] and various adjacent small islands. The name Cuba is said to be derived from the [[Arawakan languages|Taíno]] word ''cubanacán'', meaning &quot;a central place.&quot; At least as early as colonial times ''Cuba'' was the name given to areas near Santiago de Cuba. It is located in the northern [[Caribbean]] at the confluence of the [[Caribbean Sea]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Cuba is south of the eastern [[United States]], and the [[Bahamas]], west of the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] and [[Haiti]], and east of [[Mexico]]. The [[Cayman Islands]] and [[Jamaica]] are south of eastern Cuba. ==History== {{main|History of Cuba}} Cuba was first visited by Europeans when explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] made landfall here for the first time on [[October 28]], [[1492]], at the eastern tip, in the [[Cazigazgo]] of [[Baracoa]]. In [[1511]] [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]] led the Spanish invasion, subdued the [[indigenous]] populations, to become governor of Cuba for Spain and
ole in the center instead of being solid, and draw this as with other displays. Many of these various types of early computer display CRTs use &quot;slow&quot; or long persistance phosphor, to reduce flicker for the operator. [[Image:shadow_mask.jpg|200px|thumb|Shadow mask CRT close-up]] [[Image:aperture_grille.jpg|200px|thumb|Aperture grille CRT close-up]] Color tubes use three different materials which specifically emit red, green, and blue light, closely packed together in strips (in [[aperture grille]] designs) or clusters (in [[shadow mask]] CRTs). There are three electron guns, one for each color, and each gun can reach only the dots of one color, as the grille or mask absorbs electrons that would otherwise hit the wrong phosphor. The outer glass allows the light generated by the phosphor out of the monitor, but (for color tubes) it must block dangerous [[X-ray]]s generated by the impact of the high energy electron beam. For this reason, the glass is made of leaded glass (sometimes called &quot;lead crystal&quot;). Because of this and other shielding, and protective circuits designed to prevent the anode voltage rising too high, the X-ray emission of modern CRTs is well within safety limits. CRTs have a pronounced [[triode]] characteristic, which results in significant [[gamma correction|gamma]] (a nonlinear relationship between beam current and light intensity). In early televisions, screen gamma was an advantage because it acted to compress the screen [[contrast]]. The gamma characteristic exists today in all [[digital video]] systems. However, in some systems where a linear response is required, as in [[desktop publishing]], [[gamma correction]] is applied. CRT displays accumulate [[static electricity|static]] electrical charge on the screen, unless protective measures are taken. This charge does not pose a safety hazard, but can lead to significant degradation of image quality through attraction of [[dust]] particles to the surface of the screen. Unless the display is regularly cleaned with a dry cloth or special cleaning tissue (using ordinary household cleaners may damage anti-glare protective layer on the screen), after a few months the brightness and clarity of the image drops significantly. The high voltage (E.H.T.) used for accelerating the electrons is provided by a transformer. For CRTs used in televisions, this is usually a [[flyback transformer]] that steps up the line (horizontal) deflection supply to as much as 32,000 volts for a colour tube. (Monochrome tubes may operate at a somewhat lower voltage and specialty CRTs may operate at much lower voltages.) The output of the transformer is rectified and the pulsating output voltage is smoothed by a capacitor formed by the tube itself: the accelerating anode being one plate, the glass being the dielectric, and the earthed coating on the outside of the tube being the other plate. Before all-glass tubes, the structure between the screen and the electron gun was made from a heavy metal cone which served as the accelerating anode. Smoothing of the E.H.T. was then done with a massive capacitor, external to the tube itself. ==Other technologies== It is likely that technologies such as [[plasma display]]s, [[liquid crystal display]]s, and other newer technologies will eventually make CRT-based displays mostly obsolete, because the new designs are less bulky and consume less power. As of mid-2003, LCDs are becoming directly comparable in price to CRTs, with LCDs forming 30% of the computer display market by value. However, color CRTs still find adherents in computer gaming, due to their very quick response time, and in the printing and TV broadcasting industries for their better color fidelity and contrast. In 2005 Sony announced that they would stop the production of CRT computer displays. ==Magnets== [[Magnet]]s should never be put next to a colour CRT, as they may cause magnetisation of the shadow mask, which will cause incorrect colours to appear in the magnetised area and may be expensive to have corrected (although this will correct itself over a few days or weeks). Most modern television sets and nearly all newer computer monitors have a built-in [[degauss]]ing coil (pronounced &quot;de-gow-sing&quot;). This coil creates a brief, alternating magnetic field from standard 50 or 60 Hz household power upon power-up which decays in strength as a resistor in the circuit increases resistance with its increasing temperature as a result of the current passing through it. The alternating magnetic field created is sufficient enough to shake off most cases of shadow mask magnetisation. It is also possible to purchase or to build your own external degaussing coil which can aid in demagnetising older sets or in cases where the built-in coil was not effective. A soldering gun (a [[soldering iron]] will not work as it does not contain a large transformer which produces a large alternating magnetic field) may also be used to degauss a monitor by holding it up to the center of the monitor with the hot tip end facing safely '''AWAY''' from the glass (and yourself!) and while holding down the on button, slowly moving the gun in ever wider concentric circles past the edge of the monitor until the shimmering colours can no longer be seen. This may need to be repeated several times to remove severe magnetisation. In extreme cases, high power magnets such as the now popular [[neodymium]] [[iron]] [[boron]], or [[Neodymium magnet|NIB magnets]], can actually deform the shadow mask. This type of damage is considered permanent and will render the CRT mostly useless. However, subjecting an old black and white television or monochrome (green screen, amber screen) computer monitor to magnets is generally harmless. This can be used as a demonstration tool and children should even be encouraged to do this so that they may see the immediate and dramatic effect of a magnetic field on moving charged particles, provided they are informed to never do the same with a colour tube. == Health danger== Some believe the electromagnetic fields emitted by CRT monitors constitute a health danger to the functioning of living cells. Exposure to these fields is far lower at distances of 85 cm or farther. It is also less intensive for the display's user than for a person located behind it. CRTs also emit very small amounts of [[X-rays]] as a result of the electron beam's bombardment of the shadow mask/aperture grille and phosphors. Almost all of this radiation is blocked by the thick leaded glass in the screen so the amount of radiation escaping the front of the monitor is mostly harmless. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] regulations in 21 CFR 1020 are used to strictly limit, for instance, television receivers to 0.5 milliroentgens per hour (mR/h) (0.13 µC/(kg·h) (at a distance of 5 cm from any external surface and as mentioned above, most CRT emissions fall well below this limit.[http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=1020.10] Old CRTs may also have used toxic phosphors, although that is much less common today. An implosion or other breaking of the glass envelope could release these toxic phosphors. And because of the X-ray hazard, the glass envelopes of most modern CRTs are made from heavily [[leaded glass]]. The [[lead]] in this glass may represent an environmental hazard, especially in the presence of [[acid rain]] leaking through [[landfill]]s. The constant refreshing of a CRT can cause [[headaches]] in [[migraine]] sufferers and [[seizure|seizures]] in [[epilepsy|epileptics]], if they are [[Photosensitive epilepsy|photosensitive]]. Filters are available to reduce these effects. A high refresh rate (above 75 Hz) also helps to negate these effects. CRTs operate at very high voltages. These voltages can persist long (several days) after the device containing the CRT has been switched off and unplugged. (Modern circuits contain [[bleeder resistor]]s to ensure the high-voltage supply is discharged to safe levels within a couple of minutes at most.) CRT tubes present a hazard to those without proper training and appropriate precautions. Since the CRT contains a vacuum, there is also risk of implosion, as well as electrocution from any residual charge. == High vacuum safety == Because of the strong vacuum within a CRT, they store a large amount of mechanical energy; they can [[Implosion|implode]] very forcefully if the outer glass envelope is damaged. Most modern CRTs used in televisions and computer displays include a bonded, multi-layer faceplate that prevents implosion if the faceplate is damaged, but the bell of the CRT (back portions of the glass envelope) offers no such protection. Certain specialized CRTs (such as those used in [[oscilloscope]]s) do not even offer a bonded faceplate; these CRTs require an external plastic faceplate or other cover to render them implosion safe while in use. Before the use of bonded faceplates one of the hazards would be that a broken neck or envelope would cause the neck and electron gun to be propelled by atmosperic pressure at such a velocity that it would erupt through the face of the tube. When handling or disposing of a CRT, you must take steps to avoid creating an implosion hazard for you or your trash removal service. The most simple and safe method to make the tube safe is to identify the small sealed glass nib at the far back of the tube (this may be obscured by the electrical connector) and then (while wearing [[safety glasses]] and gloves) filing a small nick across this and then to break it off using a pair of pliers. A loud sucking sound will be heard as the air enters the tube, filling the vacuum. One must be very cautious not to break the neck of the tube when it is evacuated since there is no plastic coating preventing shattering of the glass. ''High vacuum and high voltage can be dangerous.'' ==See also== {{Commons|CRT|Cathode ray tube}} * [[Flat panel display]] * [[Compariso
[Sputnik I]] by the [[USSR]] in 1957, his production of nonfiction, particularly popular science books, greatly increased, with a consequent drop in his science fiction output. Over the next quarter century, he would write only four science fiction novels. Starting in 1982, the second half of his science fiction career began with the publication of ''[[Foundation's Edge]]''. From then until his death, Asimov would publish several sequels and prequels to his existing novels, tying them together in a way he had not originally anticipated. In his own view, Asimov believed that his most enduring contributions would be his &quot;[[Three Laws of Robotics]]&quot; and the [[Foundation Series]] (see ''Yours, Isaac Asimov,'' p. 329). Furthermore, the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' credits his science fiction for introducing the words ''[[positron]]ic'' (an entirely fictional technology), ''[[psychohistory (fictional)|psychohistory]]'' (frequently used in a different sense than the imaginary one Asimov employed) and ''[[robotics]]'' into the English language. Asimov coined the term ''robotics'' without suspecting that it might be an original word; at the time, he believed it was simply the natural analogue of [[mechanics]], [[hydraulics]] and so forth. (The original word ''[[robot]]'' derives from the [[Czech language|Czech]] word for &quot;forced labor&quot;, ''robota,'' and was first employed by the playwright [[Karel Čapek]].) Unlike his other two coinages, the word ''robotics'' continues in mainstream and technical use with Asimov's original definition. ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' featured [[android]]s with &quot;positronic brains&quot;, giving Asimov full credit for inventing this (fictional) technology. ===Science fiction=== Asimov began contributing stories to science fiction magazines in 1939, &quot;[[Marooned Off Vesta]]&quot; being his first published story, written when he was 18. Two and a half years later, he published his 32nd short story, &quot;[[Nightfall (Asimov)|Nightfall]]&quot; (1941), which has been described as one of &quot;the most famous science-fiction stories of all time&quot; [http://www.bewilderingstories.com/issue8/asimov.html]. In 1968 the Science Fiction Writers of America voted &quot;Nightfall&quot; the best science fiction short story ever written [http://www.rudysbooks.com/asimovobit.html]. In his short anthology ''Nightfall and Other Stories'' he wrote, &quot;The writing of 'Nightfall' was a watershed in my professional career ... I was suddenly taken seriously and the world of science fiction became aware that I existed. As the years passed, in fact, it became evident that I had written a 'classic'&quot;. &quot;Nightfall&quot; is an archetypical example of [[social science fiction]], a term coined by Asimov to describe a new trend in the 1940's, led by authors including Asimov and [[Robert A. Heinlein|Heinlein]], away from gadgets and [[space opera]] and toward speculation about the human condition. [[Image:Foundation cover.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|[[Hari Seldon]]'s holographic image on the cover of ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]''. The [[Foundation Series]] is among Asimov's most famous fiction works.]] In 1942 he began his ''Foundation'' stories&amp;mdash;later collected in the ''[[Foundation Trilogy]]'': ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]'' (1951), ''[[Foundation and Empire]]'' (1952), and ''[[Second Foundation]]'' (1953)&amp;mdash;which recount the collapse and rebirth of a vast [[Galactic Empire (Asimov)|interstellar empire]] in a universe of the future. Taken together, they are his most famous work of science fiction, along with the [[Robot Series]]. Many years later, he continued the series with ''[[Foundation's Edge]]'' (1982) and ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'' (1986) and then went back to before the original trilogy with ''[[Prelude to Foundation]]'' (1988) and ''[[Forward the Foundation]]'' (1992). The series features his fictional science of [[Psychohistory (fictional)|Psychohistory]] in which the future course of the history of large populations can be predicted. His [[robot]] stories&amp;mdash;many of which were collected in ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950)&amp;mdash;were begun at about the same time. They promulgated a set of rules of [[ethics]] for robots (see [[Three Laws of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject. One such short story, &quot;[[The Bicentennial Man]]&quot;, was made into a [[film|movie]] starring [[Robin Williams]]. The recent film ''[[I, Robot (movie)|I, Robot]]'', starring [[Will Smith]], was based on the ''[[Hardwired]]'' script by [[Jeff Vintar]] with Asimov's ideas incorporated later after acquiring the rights to the ''I, Robot'' title. It is not related to the ''I, Robot'' script by [[Harlan Ellison]], who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version that captured the spirit of the original. Asimov is quoted as saying that Ellison's screenplay would lead to &quot;the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made&quot;. The screenplay was published in book form in 1994, after hopes of seeing it in film form were becoming slim. See: ''[[I, Robot]]'', [http://www.moviepoopshoot.com/bottom/56.html] Besides movies, his [[The Foundation Series|Foundation]] and [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot]] stories have inspired other derivative works of science fiction literature, many by well-known and established authors such as [[Roger MacBride Allen]], [[Greg Bear]], and [[David Brin]]. These appear to have been done with the blessing, and often at the request of, Asimov's widow [[Janet Asimov]]. In 1948 he also wrote a [[False document|spoof science article]], &quot;[[Thiotimoline|The Endochronic Properties of Resublimated Thiotimoline]]&quot;. At the time, Asimov was preparing for his own doctoral [[dissertation]]. Fearing a prejudicial reaction from his Ph.D. evaluation board, he asked his editor that it be released under a pseudonym, yet it appeared under his own name. During his oral examination shortly thereafter, Asimov grew concerned at the scrutiny he received. At the end of the examination, one evaluator turned to him, smiling, and said &quot;Mr. Asimov, tell us something about the thermodynamic properties of the compound thiotimoline&quot;. After a twenty-minute wait, he was summoned back into the Examination Room and congratulated as &quot;Dr. Asimov.&quot; He continued writing short stories for science fiction magazines in the 1950s, which he referred to as his golden decade. A number of these are included in his ''[[The Best of Isaac Asimov|Best of]]'' anthology, including &quot;[[The Last Question]]&quot; (1956), on the ability of humankind to cope with and reverse [[entropy]]. It was his personal favorite and considered by many to be a contender to &quot;Nightfall&quot;. Asimov wrote of it in 1973, :Why is it my favorite? For one thing I got the idea all at once and didn't have to fiddle with it; and I wrote it in white-heat and scarcely had to change a word. This sort of things endears any story to any writer. :Then, too, it has had the strangest effect on my readers. Frequently someone writes to ask me if I can give them the name of a story, which they ''think'' I may have written, and tell them where to find it. They don't remember the title but when they describe the story it is invariably &quot;The Last Question&quot;. This has reached the point where I recently received a long-distance phone call from a desperate man who began, &quot;Dr. Asimov, there's a story I think you wrote, whose title I can't remember&amp;mdash;&quot; at which point I interrupted to tell him it was &quot;The Last Question&quot; and when I described the plot it proved to be indeed the story he was after. I left him convinced I could read minds at a distance of a thousand miles. Beginning in 1977, he lent his name to ''[[Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine]]'' (now ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]'') and penned an editorial for each issue. There was also a short-lived ''Asimov's SF Adventure Magazine'' and a companion ''Asimov's Science Fiction Anthology'' reprint series, published as magazines (in the same manner as stablemates ''[[Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine]]'' and ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine]]'''s &quot;anthologies&quot;). ===Popular science=== During the late 1950s and 1960s, Asimov shifted gears somewhat, and substantially decreased his fiction output (he published only four adult novels between 1957's ''[[The Naked Sun]]'' and 1982's ''Foundation's Edge'', two of which were mysteries). At the same time, he greatly increased his non-fiction production, writing mostly on science topics; the launch of [[Sputnik]] in 1957 engendered public concern over a &quot;science gap&quot;, which Asimov's publishers were eager to fill with as much material as he could write. Meanwhile, the monthly ''[[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'' invited him to continue his regular non-fiction column, begun in the now-folded bimonthly companion magazine ''[[Venture Science Fiction]]'', ostensibly dedicated to [[popular science]], but with Asimov having complete editorial freedom. The first of the ''F&amp;SF'' columns appeared in November of 1958, and they followed uninterrupted thereafter, with 399 entries, until Asimov's terminal illness took its toll. These columns, periodically collected into books by his principal publisher, [[Doubleday]], helped make Asimov's reputation as a &quot;Great Explainer&quot; of science and were referred to by him as his only pop-science writing in which he never had to assume complete ignorance of the subjects at hand on the part of his readers. The popularity of his first wide-ranging reference work, ''The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science'', also allowed him to give up most of his academic responsibilities and become essentially a full-time freelance writer. He published ''As
pose of giving the Cyprus National Guard an air scouting ability with increased lethality. * [[Mi-24|Mil Mi-35]] [[Image:ARMY_PICS_MI-25.jpg|thumb|left|Mi-35 with Armament]] [[Image:Cypriot Mil-35 firing.jpg|thumb|right|Cypriot Mi-35 firing AT Missiles during training]] The Mil Mi-35 is the export version of the [[Mi-24]] attack transport helicopter. Designed originally as a platform for both troop transport and anti-tank operations, the Mi-35 has evolved into a lethal anti-tank platform using the [[ATAKA]] anti-tank missile system. The Mi-35 can carry up to 8 ATAKA missiles into battle, including two salvos of anti-personnel rockets and a powerful 30mm machine gun. The Mi-35 can carry in addition eight fully armed troops (air cavalry or commandos) and a crew of two. *PC-9A Pilatus Aircraft [[Image:Pc9 in flight.jpg|thumb|left|A PC-9/A during a training flight, in Cypriot colouring]] The PC-9/A is a two-seat single engine turboprop aircraft and is the major basic training aircraft for the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Manufacturer Pilatus Role Two seat advanced trainer; forward air controland aerobatics Engine Pratt and Whitney PT6A- 62 turboprop- 950 shaft horsepower (708 kW) Airframe Length: 10.18 m Height: 3.28 m Wingspan 10.24 m Weight 2, 250 basic, 2710 kg maximum (PC-9/A (F) max 3210 kg) Range (with two underwing tanks) 1,850km, combat radius 650 km Ceiling 25,000 ft Weapons Two underwing smoke grenade launchers Avionics VHF omni directional range/ instrument landing system, two multi-functional cathode ray tube displays Crew Pilot, observer/student {{sectstub}} ==See also== *[[Cyprus]] * [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|UK sovereign base areas]] {{Cypriot Military}} [[Category:Military of Cyprus|Military of Cyprus]] [[Category:Militaries|Cyprus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Cyprus</title> <id>5602</id> <revision> <id>41934757</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:00:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>194.42.22.4</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cyprus}} [[Cyprus]] has historically followed a non-aligned foreign policy, although it increasingly identifies with the West in its cultural affinities and trade patterns, and maintains close relations with [[Greece]]. The prime originator of Cypriot non-alignment was [[Makarios III]], the first [[Presidents of Cyprus|President]] ([[1960]]-[[1977|77]]) of the independent republic of Cyprus. Prior to independence, Makarios - by virtue of his post as [[List of Archbishops of Cyprus|Archbishop of Cyprus]] and head of the [[Cypriot Orthodox Church]] - was the Greek Cypriot Ethnarch, or [[de facto]] leader of the community. A highly influential figure well before independence, he participated in the 1955 [[Bandung Conference]]. After independence, Makarios took part in the 1961 founding meeting of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] in [[Belgrade]]. Reasons for this neutrality may lie in the extreme pressures exerted on the infant Republic by its larger neighbours, Turkey and Greece. [[Cyprus dispute | Intercommunal rivalries]] and movements for [[Enosis | union with Greece]] or partial union with Turkey may have persuaded Makarios to steer clear of close affiliation with either side. In any case Cyprus became a high-profile member of the Non-Aligned Movement and retained its membership until its entry into the [[European Union]] in [[2004]]. Immediately after the [[1974]] Greek-sponsored [[coup d'etat]] and the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|Turkish invasion]], Makarios secured international recognition of his administration as the legitimate government of the whole island. This was disputed only by [[Turkey]], which currently recognises only the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], established in [[1983]]. Since the 1974 crisis, the chief aim of the foreign policy of the Republic of Cyprus has been to secure the withdrawal of Turkish forces and the reunification of the island under the most favourable constitutional and territorial settlement possible. This campaign has been pursued primarily through international forums such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and in recent years through the European Union. Cyprus' [[1990]] application for full [[European Union|EU]] membership caused a storm in the Turkish Cypriot community, which argued that the move required their consent. Following the December [[1997]] EU Summit decisions on [[EU enlargement]], accession negotiations began [[31 March]] [[1998]]. Cyprus joined the European Union on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. To fulfil its commitment as a member of the European Union, Cyprus finally withdrew from the Non-Aligned Movement on accession. The Government of Cyprus enjoys close relations with Greece. Cyprus is expanding relations with [[Russia]], [[Israel]], and [[Syria]], from which it purchases most of its oil. Cyprus is a member of the [[United Nations]] and most of its agencies as well as the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[Council of Europe]], and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. In addition, the country has signed the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) and the [[Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Agreement]] (MIGA). '''Disputes - international:''' The 1974 invasion of the Turkish army divided the island into two [[de facto]] autonomous areas, a Greek Cypriot area controlled by the internationally recognised Cypriot Government (59% of the island's land area) and a [[TRNC|Turkish-Cypriot area]] (37% of the island) which declared [[Declaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|UDI]] in [[1983]], that are separated by a [[United Nations]] [[UN Buffer Zone on Cyprus|buffer zone]] (4% of the island); there are two [[Sovereign Base Areas|UK sovereign base areas]] mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island. '''Illicit drugs:''' Cyprus is a minor transit point for [[heroin]] and [[hashish]] via air routes and container traffic to [[Europe]], especially from [[Lebanon]] and [[Turkey]]; some [[cocaine]] transits as well :''See also :'' [[Cyprus]] :[[Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus]] {{Europe_in_topic|Foreign relations of}} [[Category:Foreign relations of Cyprus| ]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Cyprus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic</title> <id>5604</id> <revision> <id>15903806</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Czech Republic]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Geography</title> <id>5606</id> <revision> <id>15903807</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T15:00:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of the Czech Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/People</title> <id>5607</id> <revision> <id>15903808</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dreamyshade</username> <id>32</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Czech Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Government</title> <id>5608</id> <revision> <id>15903809</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dreamyshade</username> <id>32</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Czech Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Economy</title> <id>5609</id> <revision> <id>15903810</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T16:55:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy_of_the_Czech_Republic]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy_of_the_Czech_Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Communications</title> <id>5610</id> <revision> <id>15903811</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T16:56:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_the_Czech_Republic]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_the_Czech_Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Transportation</title> <id>5611</id> <revision> <id>15903812</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:03:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Transportation_in_the_Czech_Republic]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation_in_the_Czech_Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Military</title> <id>5612</id> <revision> <id>15903813</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dreamyshade</username> <id>32</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Czech Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czech republic/Transnational issues</title> <id>5613</id> <revision> <id>15903814</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
c structure]]s (such as [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, or [[vector space]]s). The word ''homomorphism'' comes from the [[Greek language]]: ''homo'' meaning &quot;same&quot; and ''morphos'' meaning &quot;shape&quot;. ==Informal discussion== Because abstract algebra studies [[set]]s with [[operator|operation]]s that generate interesting structure or properties on the set, the most interesting [[function (mathematics)|function]]s are those which preserve the operations. These functions are known as ''homomorphisms''. For example, consider the [[natural number]]s with addition as the operation. A function which preserves addition should have this property: ''f''(''a'' + ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') + ''f''(''b''). Note that ''f''(''x'') = 3''x'' is a homomorphism, since ''f''(''a'' + ''b'') = 3(''a'' + ''b'') = 3''a'' + 3''b'' = ''f''(''a'') + ''f''(''b''). Note that this homomorphism maps the natural numbers back onto themselves. Homomorphisms do not have to map between sets which have the same operations. For example, operation-preserving operations exist between the set of real numbers with addition and the set of positive real numbers with multiplication. A function which preserves operation should have this property: ''f''(''a'' + ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') * ''f''(''b''), since addition is the operation in the first set and multiplication is the operation in the second. Given the laws of [[exponent]]s, ''f''(''x'') = e&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; satisfies this condition. A particularly important property of homomorphisms is that if an [[identity element]] is present, it is always preserved, that is, mapped to the identity. Note in the first example ''f''(0) = 0, and 0 is the additive identity. In the second example, ''f''(0) = 1, since 0 is the additive identity, and 1 is the multiplicative identity. If we are considering multiple operations on a set, then all operations must be preserved for a function to be a considered a homomorphism. Even though the set may be the same, the same function might be a homomorphism, say, in [[group theory]] (sets with a single operation) but not in [[ring theory]] (sets with two related operations), because it fails to preserve the additional operation that ring theory considers. ==Formal definition== A '''homomorphism''' is a [[map (mathematics)|map]] from one [[algebraic structure]] to another of the same type that preserves all the relevant structure; i.e. properties like [[identity element]]s, [[inverse element]]s, and [[binary operation]]s. :&lt;small&gt;N.B. Some authors use the word ''homomorphism'' in a larger context than that of algebra. Some take it to mean any kind of structure preserving map (such as [[continuous map]]s in [[topology]]), or even a more abstract kind of map&amp;mdash;what we term a ''[[morphism]]''&amp;mdash;used in [[category theory]]. This article only treats the algebraic context. For more general usage see the [[morphism]] article.&lt;/small&gt; For example; if one considers [[set]]s with a single [[binary operation]] defined on them (an algebraic structure known as a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]), a homomorphism is a map &lt;math&gt;\phi: X \rightarrow Y&lt;/math&gt; such that :&lt;math&gt;\phi(u \cdot v) = \phi(u) \circ \phi(v)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt; is the operation on &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt; is the operation on &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;. Each type of algebraic structure has its own type of homomorphism. For specific definitions see: *[[group homomorphism]] *[[ring homomorphism]] *[[module homomorphism]] *[[linear operator]] (a homomorphism on [[vector space]]s) *[[algebra homomorphism]] The notion of a homomorphism can be given a formal definition in the context of [[universal algebra]], a field which studies ideas common to all [[algebraic structure]]s. In this setting, a homomorphism &lt;math&gt;\phi: A \rightarrow B&lt;/math&gt; is a map between two algebraic structures of the same type such that :&lt;math&gt;\phi(f_A(x_1, \ldots, x_n)) = f_B(\phi(x_1), \ldots, \phi(x_n))\,&lt;/math&gt; for each ''n''-ary operation &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; and for all &lt;math&gt;x_i&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;. ==Types of homomorphisms== * An '''[[isomorphism]]''' is a [[bijective]] homomorphism. Two objects are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them. Isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned. * An '''[[epimorphism]]''' is a [[surjective]] homomorphism. * A '''[[monomorphism]]''' is an [[injective]] homomorphism. * A homomorphism from an object to itself is called an '''[[endomorphism]]'''. * An endomorphism which is also an isomorphism is called an '''[[automorphism]]'''. The above terms are used in an analogous fashion in [[category theory]], however, the definitions in [[category theory]] are more subtle; see the article on [[morphism]] for more details. Note that in the larger context of structure preserving maps, it is generally insufficient to define an isomorphism as a bijective morphism. One must also require that the inverse is a morphism of the same type. In the algebraic setting (at least within the context of [[universal algebra]]) this extra condition is automatically satisfied. == Kernel of a homomorphism == {{mainarticle|[[kernel (algebra)]]}} Any homomorphism ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' defines an [[equivalence relation]] ~ on ''X'' by ''a''&amp;nbsp;~ ''b'' [[iff]] ''f''(''a'')&amp;nbsp;= ''f''(''b''). The relation ~ is called the '''kernel''' of ''f''. It is a [[congruence relation]] on ''X''. The [[quotient set]] ''X''/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g., [''x''] * [''y''] = [''x'' * ''y'']. In that case the image of ''X'' in ''Y'' under the homomorphism ''f'' is necessarily [[isomorphic]] to ''X''/~; this fact is one of the [[isomorphism theorem]]s. Note in some cases (e.g. [[group (mathematics)|group]]s or [[ring (algebra)|ring]]s), a single [[equivalence class]] ''K'' suffices to specify the structure of the quotient, so we write it ''X''/''K''. (''X''/''K'' is usually read as ''X'' [[modulo|mod]] ''K''.) Also in these cases, it is ''K'', rather than ~, that is called the [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of ''f'' (cf. [[normal subgroup]], [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]]). ==See also== * [[morphism]] * [[continuous function]] * [[homeomorphism]] * [[diffeomorphism]] [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[da:Homomorfi]] [[de:Homomorphismus]] [[et:Homomorfism]] [[es:Homomorfismo]] [[it:Omomorfismo]] [[he:הומומורפיזם (אלגברה)]] [[nl:Homomorfisme]] [[pl:Homomorfizm]] [[ru:Гомоморфизм]] [[sl:Homomorfizem]] [[fi:Homomorfismi]] [[uk:Гомоморфізм]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of computers</title> <id>13565</id> <revision> <id>15911164</id> <timestamp>2003-12-22T02:46:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cyan</username> <id>9503</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>I'm putting the redirect back until the deletion goes through...</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of computing hardware]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HYPERCARD</title> <id>13566</id> <revision> <id>15911165</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HyperCard]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HyperCard</title> <id>13567</id> <revision> <id>41308871</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:55:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grstain</username> <id>74943</id> </contributor> <comment>rev addition by 206.124.131.110</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HyperCard 2-icon.png|left]] [[image:hypercard.png|thumb|HyperCard]] '''HyperCard''' is an [[application program]] and a simple programming environment produced by [[Apple Computer]] which runs natively only in [[Mac OS]] versions 9 or earlier (it can still be used in [[Mac OS X]]'s [[Classic (Mac OS X)|Classic]] mode). It most closely resembles a [[database application]] in concept, in that it stores information, but unlike traditional database systems HyperCard is graphical, flexible and easy to modify. It also includes a powerful and easy to use [[programming language]], [[HyperTalk]], to manipulate data and the user interface. HyperCard users often used it as a programming system for [[Rapid Application Development]] as opposed to a database. HyperCard was originally released with [[System 6]] in [[1987]], and was finally withdrawn from sale in [[March 2004]], although it had not been updated for many years at that time. ==History== HyperCard was created by [[Bill Atkinson]] and initially released in August [[1987]], with the understanding that Atkinson would give HyperCard to Apple only if they promised to release it for free on all Macs. Apple timed its release to coincide with the [[MacWorld Conference &amp; Expo]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to guarantee maximum publicity. HyperCard was a huge hit almost instantly. Many people who thought they would never be able to program a computer started using HyperCard for all sorts of automation and prototyping tasks, a surprise even to its creator. Apple itself never seemed to understand what HyperCard was. Management saw that it was being used by a huge number of people, internally and externally, and bug reports and upgrade suggestions continued to flow in demonstrating it had a wide variety of users. However it was also free, which made it difficult to justify dedicating engineering resources to improving it. Unwilling, or unable, to see that HyperCard was making the Macintosh platform, as a whole, much mor
IDI file and sheet music] *[http://www.mch.govt.nz/anthem/ Official website for NZ's national anthem] *[http://www.nz.com/new%2Dzealand/guide%2Dbook/music/ Page about the national anthem] includes a recording by the [[New Zealand Symphony Orchestra]] [[Category:National anthems]] [[Category:New Zealand culture]] [[da:God Defend New Zealand]] [[de:God Defend New Zealand]] [[es:God Defend New Zealand]] [[fr:God Defend New Zealand]] [[it:God Defend New Zealand]] [[hu:Új-zélandi himnusz]] [[ms:God Defend New Zealand]] [[nl:God Defend New Zealand]] [[ja:ニュージーランドの国歌]] [[nn:God Defend New Zealand]] [[pt:Hino nacional da Nova Zelândia]] [[sl:God Defend New Zealand]] [[sr:Химна Новог Зеланда]] [[sv:God Defend New Zealand]] [[zh:天佑新西兰]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gerrit Rietveld</title> <id>12648</id> <revision> <id>37550130</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T18:50:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Solipsist</username> <id>49943</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm other commercial link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rietveld chair 1.JPG|195px|thumb|right|Red and Blue chair]] [[Image:Rietveldlamp.jpg|195px|thumb|right|Lamp, designed by Rietveld]] [[Image:Rietveldschroderhuis.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Rietveld-Schröder house]] '''Gerrit Rietveld''' ([[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] [[June 24]] [[1888]] &amp;ndash; Utrecht [[June 26]] [[1964]]), was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[design]]er, [[architect]] and cabinet maker. In [[1911]], Rietveld started his own furniture factory, while studying architecture. Rietveld designed the [[Red and Blue Chair]] in [[1918]], influenced by the '[[De Stijl]]' movement, of which he became a member in [[1919]], the same year in which he became an architect. In [[1924]] he designed the [[Rietveld Schröder House|Schröder house]] for [[Truus Schröder-Schräder]], with whom he cooperated. The house is located in Utrecht. The house, while guided by geometric forms, is asymmetrical. Rietveld broke with the 'De Stijl' movement in [[1928]] and switched to the [[Nieuwe Zakelijkheid]]. The same year he joined the [[Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne]]. He designed the '[[Zig-Zag]]' chair in [[1934]] and started the design of the [[Van Gogh Museum]] in [[Amsterdam]]. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; == External links == *[http://www.centraalmuseum.nl/rietveld/ Rietveld at the Centraal Museum Utrecht] *[http://www.roland-collection.com/rolandcollection/section/17/502B.htm Video tour of Schroder House] {{Commons|Gerrit Rietveld}} [[Category:1888 births|Rietveld, Gerrit]] [[Category:1964 deaths|Rietveld, Gerrit]] [[Category:Dutch architects|Rietveld, Gerrit]] [[Category:Furniture makers|Rietveld, Gerrit]] [[Category:Dutch architecture|Rietveld, Gerrit]] [[Category:De Stijl|Rietveld]] [[de:Gerrit Rietveld]] [[es:Gerrit Rietveld]] [[fy:Gerrit Rietveld]] [[nl:Gerrit Rietveld]] [[pl:Gerrit Rietveld]] [[pt:Gerrit Rietveld]] [[sv:Gerrit Rietveld]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gary</title> <id>12649</id> <revision> <id>41890390</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:40:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ben W Bell</username> <id>73920</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Fictional Characters */ Remove incorrect data.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">==Place Name== Several places in the [[United States|United States of America]] are called '''Gary''' (in decreasing population order): * [[Gary, Indiana]] * [[Gary, West Virginia]] * [[Gary, Minnesota]] * [[Gary, South Dakota]] There are other similarly-named towns: * [[Gary City, Texas]] * [[Garysburg, North Carolina]] * [[Garyville, Louisiana]] [[GNIS]] also lists the following tiny (or uninhabited) towns: * [[Gary, Colorado]] * [[Gary, Florida]] * [[Gary, Georgia]] * [[Gary, Illinois]] * [[Gary, Maryland]] * [[Gary, New Mexico]] * [[Gary, South Carolina]] * [[Gary, Texas]] * [[Gary, Virginia]] * [[Gary Springs, Alabama]] * [[Garywood, Alabama]] * [[Gary Estates, Mississippi]] * [[Gary Corner, New Jersey]] * [[Gary Creek, South Carolina]] * [[Garysville, Virginia]] == Music == *[[Gary (band)|Gary]] is also the name of a German band. ==Slang Nickname== The word '''Gary''' is a local term used by people in the [[Midlands]] of the [[United Kingdom]] to refer to a [[Chav]] or [[Townie]]. ==Person Name== The usage of '''Gary''' as a male [[given name]] in America is interestingly intertwined with the success of the actor [[Gary Cooper]]. According to the [[Social Security Administration]], Gary was relatively rare as a given name in the 1900-1920s period (e.g., in the 1910s it was the 677th most frequent name, given to less than 0.01% of the babies born in that decade). However, when the actor's [[Gary, Indiana]]-born agent Nan Collins told him to change his name (then Frank Cooper) to Gary, this name's popularity soared. In the 1930s, 0.38% of the male babies in America were named Gary, and in the 1950s as many as 1.54% of the male babies were given this name, making it the 12th most popular given name of that decade. The name Gary reached its record popularity (9th place) in 1953, the same year that Gary Cooper received his Best Actor [[Academy Award]] for his leading role in [[High Noon]]. Since then, the popularity of Gary as a given name in America has been on a very slow, but steady decline. In the 1990s, this name is the 170th most popular, given to around 0.1% of newborn males. The name '''Gary''' can also be a variant of similar names, such as the [[Wales|Welsh]] ''[[Gareth]]'', or [[Garry]]. Articles on some of the people named Gary: (see also [[Special:Allpages/Gary]]) * [[Gary Ablett]] * [[Gary Barlow]], [[Gary Bartz]], [[Gary Barwin]], [[Gary Bauer]], [[Gary Becker]], [[Gary Bettman]], [[Gary Burghoff]], [[Gary Burton]], [[Gary Busey]] * [[Gary Carter]], [[Gary Cherone]], [[Gary Cole]], [[Gary Coleman]], [[Gary Condit]], [[Gary Cooper]] * [[Gary Daniels]], [[Gary Dell'Abate]], [[Gary Doer]], [[Gary Dourdan]] * [[Gary Filmon]], [[Gary Fisher]], [[Gary L. Francione]], [[Gary Frank]], [[Gary Frank (actor)]] * [[Gary Gabelich]], [[Gary Gaetti]], [[Gary Gilmore]], [[Gary Glitter]], [[Gary Gordon]], [[Gary Graham]], [[Gary LeRoi Gray]], [[Gary Groth]], [[Gary Gygax]] * [[Gary Hall Jr.]],[[Gary Hall Sr.]], [[Gary Hamel]], [[Gary Hardgrave]], [[Gary Hart]], [[Gary Helms]], [[Gary Hug]], [[Gary Hume]], [[Gary Humphries]] * [[Gary Jennings]], [[Gary Johnson]], [[Gary Jules]] * [[Gary Karr]], [[Gary Kasparov]], [[Gary Kemp]], [[Gary Kildall]], [[Gary Kirsten]], [[Gary Kleck]], [[Gary Klein]], [[Gary Kremen]] * [[Gary LaFree]], [[Gary Larson]], [[Gary Lineker]], [[Gary Locke]], [[Gary Louris]] * [[Gary Masyk]], [[Gary Miller]], [[Gary Moore]], [[Gary Morton]], [[Gary Mounfield]] * [[Gary Nairn]], [[Gary Neville]], [[Gary Nolan]], [[Gary North]], [[Gary Numan]] * [[Gary Oldman]], [[Gary Owen (footballer)]], [[Gary Owen (snooker)]], [[Gary Owens]] * [[Gary Payton]], [[Gary Peacock]], [[Gary Pettis]], [[Gary Player]], [[Gary Powers]], [[Gary Price]] * [[Gary Ridgway]], [[Gary Roberts]], [[Gary Robichaud]] * [[Gary Shipman]], [[Gary Sick]], [[Gary Sinise]], [[Gary Snyder]], [[Gary Soto]], [[Gary Stewart]], [[Gary Streeter]], [[Gary Sullivan]] * [[Gary Titley]] * [[Gary Ward]], [[Gary Wilkinson]] ===Fictional Characters=== * [[Gary the Snail]], SpongeBob's pet snail in ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' * [[Gary Oak]] from the ''[[Pokémon]]'' series * [[List_of_Beyblade_Characters#Gary|Gary]] from the ''[[Beyblade]]'' series. ===References=== * [http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/babynames/ Social Security Administration - Popular Baby Names] {{disambig}} [[ja:&amp;#12466;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12540;]] [[category:given names]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gary, Indiana</title> <id>12650</id> <revision> <id>42133433</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:12:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dralwik</username> <id>98543</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Demographics */ 1970 pop</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City-NoFlag | official_name = City of Gary, Indiana | nickname = City of the Century | image_flag =| image_seal =| image_map = US-IN-Gary.png | map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]] | subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] | subdivision_name = [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]]| leader_title = [[Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Scott King]] | area_note =| area_magnitude = 1 E8 | area_total = 148.3 | area_land = 130.1 | area_water = 18.2 | population_as_of = 2000 | population_note =| population_total = 102,746 | population_density = 789.8 | timezone = [[Central Standard Time|CST]] | utc_offset = -6 | timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]] | utc_offset_DST = -5 | latitude = 41&amp;deg;34'51&quot; N | longitude = 87&amp;deg;20'44&quot; W | website = www.gary.in.us | footnotes =| }} '''Gary''' is the largest city located in [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake County]] in northwest [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]], near the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. As of the [[2000]] [[U.S. census|census]], the city had a total population of 102,746 and is the largest Indiana city that is not a county seat. It borders [[Lake Michigan]] and is known for its large [[steel mill]]s (and the attendant [[air pollution]]) and as the hometown of the musical Jackson family. Gary is home of [[Indiana University Northwest]], a regional campus of the [[Indiana University]] system. Gary, Indiana is also the subject of a song in the musical ''[[The Music Man]],'' and songs and albums by The Jacksons: &quot;Going Back to Indiana,&quot; and &quot;2300 Jackson Street.&quot; ==History== The city was founded in [[1906]] by the [[United States Steel Corporation]] as the home for its new plant. The city was named after the chairman of U.S. Steel, [[Elbert Henr
nism ''qua'' [[science]] is the chief issue of the [[creation-evolution controversy]] as it does not conform to the [[scientific method]]. Some advocates have spent many years arguing for inclusion of creation science in the science curriculum of [[public education#United States Public School|U.S. public schools]]. == History and organization == Creationism, the belief in a created universe, was originally based purely on [[creation theology|theology]]. The vast majority of [[Church Fathers]] and [[Reformers]] accepted Genesis straightforwardly, and even the few who did not, such as [[Origen]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], defended an earth that was on the order of thousands of years old. By the [[1830s]], [[scientific evidence]] contrary to the doctrine of &quot;special creation&quot; had begun to collect. In [[1859]] [[Charles Darwin]] published ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' and by the [[1900s]] [[natural selection]] and descent with modification was widely accepted as the unifying principle of biological development. Opposition to this [[scientific consensus]] became condified as the [[creationism|creationist]] movement and has had an associated [[history of creationism|history]]. The history of Creation Science begins with certain writers who looked to studying geology within the Biblical timeframe detailed in the [[Ussher-Lightfoot Calendar]]. Such a timeframe directly contradicted that provided by geologists for the [[age of the Earth]]. Some consider the first serious Creation Science writer to be Canadian [[George McCready Price]] who wrote extensively contradicting mainstream geological understandings of timeframes and [[geologic history]]. However, Creation Science (dubbed '''Scientific Creationism''' at the time) only emerged as an organized movement during the [[1960s]] following the publication of ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' by [[Henry M. Morris]] and John C. Whitcomb. Subsequently, advocates of Creation Science have expanded their critiques into [[biology]] and [[cosmology]]. However, efforts to have it legislated to be taught in schools in the United States were eventually halted by the Supreme Court's interpretation of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First amendment]] in [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] 1987 [http://www.robibrad.demon.co.uk/Chapter3.htm]. Following the Edwards v. Aguillard decision, some adherents lent support to the teaching of [[intelligent design]] under its [[Intelligent design movement#Origin of the movement|'big tent' strategy]] [http://www.equip.org/free/DL303.pdf]. The allied ''[[Teach the Controversy]]'' campaign argues that intelligent design is on par with the scientific theory of evolution and therefore that both should be taught in schools as equally worthy of consideration. Creation Science is distinguished from [[Neo-Creationism]], which is largely associated with the [[intelligent design movement]], in that most advocates of Creation Science accept scripture as a foundation for their claims and seek to validate scripture as historical fact through science as a primary a goal. Neo-Creationism eschews references to scripture altogether from its [[polemics]] and stated goals as a matter of principle (see [[Wedge strategy]]). By so doing, intelligent design proponents hope to succeed where creation science has failed in securing a place in public school science curricula. Carefully avoiding any reference to the identity of the [[intelligent designer]] as God in their arguments, intelligent design proponents believe that their movement will return a version of creationism back to science classrooms without violating the [[First Amendment]]. Today, Creation Science as an organized movement is primarily centered within the [[United States]], although Creation Science organizations are known in other countries. For example, [[Answers in Genesis]] was founded in Australia. Proponents are found primarily among various denominations of [[Christianity]] described as [[evangelicalism|evangelical]], conservative, or [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]]. While creationist movements also exist in [[Islam]], and [[Judaism]], these movements do not use the phrase ''creation science'' to describe their beliefs. == Issues in creation science == Creation Science has its roots in the ongoing effort by [[Young Earth creationism|young-earth creationists]] to critique [[science|modern science]]'s description of [[natural history]] (particularly [[biological evolution]], but also [[geology]] and [[physical cosmology]]) while attempting to offer an alternative explanation of observable phenomena&amp;mdash;an explanation they also describe as &quot;science&quot;&amp;mdash;compatible with the Biblical account. The proponents of Creation Science often argue that many observable phenomena fit more easily into the Biblical account than with the naturalistic worldview [http://www.originsresource.org/creationsci.htm] [http://www.creationism.org/heinze/Universe.htm]. The vast majority of mainstream scientists argue that this premise runs counter to the core principles of coherent [[scientific method]]ology and that literal interpretations of the Bible which demand a global flood, a young Earth, or special creation of [[created kinds]] can be shown incorrect with available [[scientific evidence]] [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html]. Creation Science has therefore been considered by most who evaluate it [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mclean-v-arkansas.html] to be religious, rather than scientific, because it stems from [[faith]] in the Bible, a religious book rather than by the application of the scientific method. For example, according to the [[United States National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS), &quot;Religious opposition to evolution propels antievolutionism. Although antievolutionists pay lip service to supposed scientific problems with evolution, what motivates them to battle its teaching is apprehension over the implications of evolution for religion.&quot; [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/4550_antievolutionism_and_creationi_2_13_2001.asp]. Creation science does not necessarily disagree that their oppositional stance is based on religion. [[Duane Gish]], a prominent creation science proponent, has argued that &quot;We cannot discover by scientific investigation anything about the creative processes used by the Creator.&quot; [http://people.hofstra.edu/faculty/robert_l_hall/ISB1F01/ScienceInCreationScience.html]. Creation Science advocates argue that mainstream [[scientific theories]] of the origins of the universe, the earth, and life are rooted in an assumption of [[Methodology|methodological]] [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] and [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]], each of which is disputed. However, in other areas of science, for example [[chemistry]], [[meteorology]] or [[medicine]], the assumptions of a naturalistic universe and uniformitarianism are not considered problematic to creation science proponents. As a matter of principle, Creation Science advocates single out the scientific theories that they have determined are most in conflict with their beliefs against which to level their philosophical critiques. ===Religious criticisms of creation science=== [[Fideism|Fideists]] criticize Creation Science on the grounds either that religious faith, alone, should be a sufficient basis for belief, or that efforts to prove the Genesis account of creation on scientific grounds are inherently futile, arguing that faith is a necessary component of divine salvation. Since much of [[Christian theology]], including [[Liberal Christianity]], considers the [[Creation according to Genesis|Genesis narrative]] to be a [[poetry|poetic]] and [[allegory|allegorical]] work rather than a literal history, many Christian churches &amp;ndash; including the [[Roman Catholic]] [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8712_message_from_the_pope_1996_1_3_2001.asp], [[Anglican]] and the more liberal denominations of the [[Lutheran]], [[Methodist]], [[Congregationalist]] and [[Presbyterian]] faiths &amp;ndash; have either rejected creation science outright or are ambivalent to it. Supporters of [[Young Earth creationism]] aruge the [[hermeneutics|hermeneutical point]] that [[Genesis]] has the style of a historical narrative and none of the earmarks of Hebrew poetry [http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v16/i1/genesis.asp]. ===Scientific criticisms of creation science=== The [[United States National Academy of Sciences]] states that ''&quot;creation science is in fact [[pseudoscience|not science]] and should not be presented as such.&quot;'' [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html] and that &quot;the claims of creation science lack empirical support and cannot be meaningfully tested.&quot; [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html]. According to [[Skeptic Magazine]], the &quot;''creation 'science' movement gains much of its strength through the use of distortion and scientifically unethical tactics''&quot; and &quot;''seriously misrepresents the theory of evolution''&quot;. &lt;!--Joyce Arthur, Published in the Skeptic, magazine of the Skeptic Society, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1996, pp. 88-93--&gt;[http://mypage.direct.ca/w/writer/gish.html]. For a [[theory]] to qualify as [[Scientific method|scientific]] it must be: * consistent (internally and externally) * [[Parsimony|parsimonious]] (sparing in proposed entities or explanations) * useful (describes and explains observed phenomena) * empirically testable and [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] * based upon controlled, repeatable experiments * correctable and dynamic (changes are made as new data is discovered) * progressive (achieves all that previous theories have and more) * tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty) For any [[hypothesis]] or [[conjecture]] to be considered scientific, it must meet at
nd characteristics. For someone unfamiliar with Athens, getting to know about these ''neighborhoods'' can often come very handy for exploring and understanding the city. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; ==Olympics 2004== &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ceremony4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Scene from the opening ceremony of the Athens Olympics 2004]] --&gt; [[Image:3D View of Athens.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Simulated view of Athens from above]] Athens was awarded the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] on [[September 5]], [[1997]] in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], after having lost a previous bid to host the [[1996 Summer Olympics]], the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern [[Olympic Games]], to [[Atlanta]], [[USA]]. It was to be the second time Athens had hosted the Olympic Games, the first being in [[1896]]. In [[1997]], Athens made an improved bid based largely on an appeal to Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated [[Rome]], 66 [[vote]]s to 41. Before this, [[Buenos Aires]], [[Stockholm]], and [[Cape Town]], had already been eliminated from consideration after receiving fewer votes. In the first three years of preparations, the [[International Olympic Committee]] repeatedly expressed concerns over the status of progress of construction work of the new Olympic venues. In [[2000]] the Organizing Committee's president was replaced by [[Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki]], who was the president of the Bidding Committe back in [[1997]], and preparations began at an accelerated pace. Although the heavy cost was criticized, as is not unusual with Olympic preparations, Athens was transformed into a modern city that enjoys state-of-the-art technology in transportation and urban development. Some of the most modern sporting venues in the world were created, almost all of which were fully ready on schedule. The 2004 Games were adjudged a huge success, as both security and organization were exceptionally good and only a few visitors reported minor problems, mainly concerning transportation or accommodation issues. Essentially, the only notable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some preliminary events, during the first days of competition. Eventually, however, a total of more than 3.2 million tickets were sold [http://216.239.59.104/search?q=cache:nBu-MEzPTloJ:www.worldmayor.com/results05/profile_bakoyannis.html+2004+athens+olympics+tickets+3.2+million&amp;hl=en], which was higher than any other Olympics with the exception of [[Sydney]] (more than 5 million tickets were sold there in [[2000]]). ==See also== * [[Athens Metro]] * [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006]] * [[Hellenic civilization]] * [[Politics of Greece]] * [[University of Athens]] ==Cities nicknamed &quot;Athens&quot;== ''See [[Athens (disambiguation)]] for other cities named &quot;Athens&quot;.'' * Athens of the East - [[Madurai|Madurai, India]] * Athens of the West - [[Berkeley, California]] * Athens of the South - [[Nashville, Tennessee]] * Athens of the North - [[Edinburgh|Edinburgh, Scotland]] * Athens of America - [[Boston, Massachusetts]] * Spree Athens - [[Berlin]], Germany * Athens on the Isar - [[Munich]], Germany * Athens of Latin America - [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] * Athens of Finland - [[Jyväskylä]], Finland * Serbian Athens - [[Novi Sad|Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro]] * Athens of Ireland - [[Cork]], [[Ireland]] ==External links== *[http://www.cityofathens.gr City of Athens official website] *[http://www.athensguide.org/pictures-of-athens.html Pictures of Athens] *[http://www.athens-today.com/ Take a long virtual tour of Athens] *[http://www.culture2000.tee.gr/ Athens contemporary architecture and suggested walking routes] *[http://www.timeoutathens.gr/englishnew/default.asp/ TimeOut Athens - Find out what's on in Athens] *[http://www.athinorama.gr/ ''Athenorama'': the city's oldest weekly entertainment guide (in Greek)] *[http://www.oasa.gr/ Journey planner by the city's transport authority] *[http://www.athens2004.com/ 2004 Olympics official website] *[http://www.chem.uoa.gr/Location/AthensMap/Athensmap.htm Interactive Map of Central Athens] *[http://www.transport.ntua.gr/map/en/ Real time traffic map of Athens] *[http://www.constitution.org/ari/athen_00.htm The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle] *[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_athens_greece.html Earth from Space] - Athens {| width =&quot;75%&quot; border = 2 align=&quot;center&quot; |- | width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | | width =&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''North:''' [[Galatsi]], [[Filothei]] | width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | |- | width =&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''West:''' [[Peristeri]], [[Aigaleo]], [[Tavros]], [[Kallithea]] | width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Athens''' | width =&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''East:''' [[Zografou]] |- | width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | | width =&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''South:''' [[Dafni]], [[Ymittos]] | width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | |} &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{placeopedia}} [[Category:Athens| ]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]] [[Category:Capitals in Europe|Greece]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Greek prefectural capitals]] [[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]] [[Category:Eurovision host cities]] {{Link FA|el}} [[ar:أثينا]] [[an:Atenas]] [[roa-rup:Athena]] [[be:Атэны]] [[bg:Атина]] [[zh-min-nan:Athína]] [[bs:Atina]] [[ca:Atenes]] [[cs:Athény]] [[da:Athen]] [[de:Athen]] [[et:Ateena]] [[el:Αθήνα]] [[es:Atenas]] [[eo:Ateno]] [[eu:Atenas]] [[fo:Athen]] [[fr:Athènes]] [[fy:Atene]] [[ga:An Aithin]] [[gl:Atenas - Αθήνα]] [[ko:아테네]] [[io:Athina]] [[id:Athena]] [[is:Aþena]] [[it:Atene]] [[he:אתונה]] [[ka:ათენი]] [[la:Athenae]] [[lv:Atēnas]] [[lt:Atėnai]] [[lb:Athen]] [[hu:Athén]] [[mk:Атина]] [[nl:Athene]] [[nds:Athen]] [[ja:アテネ]] [[no:Athen]] [[nn:Aten]] [[pl:Ateny]] [[pt:Atenas]] [[ro:Atena]] [[ru:Афины]] [[scn:Ateni]] [[simple:Athens]] [[sk:Atény]] [[sl:Atene]] [[sr:Атина]] [[fi:Ateena]] [[sv:Aten]] [[tl:Athína]] [[ta:ஏதென்ஸ்]] [[th:เอเธนส์]] [[tr:Atina]] [[uk:Афіни]] [[zh:雅典]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anguilla</title> <id>1217</id> <revision> <id>41671601</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:44:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Anguillidae]] for the zoological genus.'' {| class=&quot;infobox&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''Anguilla'''&lt;/big&gt; |- |style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Flag of Anguilla.svg|125px|Flag of Anguilla]] |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Coat of Arms of Anguilla.png|90px|Coat of Arms of Anguilla]] |- |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|([[Flag of Anguilla|Full Size]]) |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|([[Coat of arms of Anguilla|In Detail]]) |} |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''National [[motto]]:&lt;br/&gt; Each Endeavouring, All Achieving''&lt;/font&gt; |- |align=center colspan=2|[[Image:LocationAnguilla.png]] |- |width=&quot;115px&quot;|[[Official language]]||[[English language|English]] |- |[[Political status]] || Non-[[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[Overseas territory]] of the [[U.K]] |- |[[Capital]]||[[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]] |- |[[Governor of Anguilla|Governor]]||[[Alan Huckle]] |- |[[Chief Minister of Anguilla|Chief Minister]] ||[[Osbourne Fleming]] |- |[[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water||[[List of countries by area|Ranked n/a]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E7 m²|91 km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt; 35 mi²&lt;br&gt;Negligible |- |[[Population]]&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Total (2002)&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] |&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; 12,800&lt;br&gt; 140/km&amp;sup2;&lt;br&gt; 363/mi² |- |[[Currency]]||[[East Caribbean dollar]] |- |[[Time zone]]||[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 |- |[[National Song]]||God Bless Anguilla {{ref|national_song}} |- |[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]||[[.ai]] |- |[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]||[[Area code 264|1-264]] |} '''Anguilla''' is a [[British overseas territory]] in the [[Caribbean]], the most northerly of the [[Leeward Islands]] in the [[Lesser Antilles]]. It consists of 5 islands, with the capital, [[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]] situated on the main island of Anguilla. The total area of the territory is 102 square kilometres (39.4 [[square mile|mi²]]), with a population of approximately 14,000 in 2005. ==History== {{main|History of {{PAGENAME}}}} First colonized by English settlers in 1650, Anguilla was incorporated into a single British dependency along with the neighbouring islands of [[Saint Kitts]] and [[Nevis]] in the early 19th century, much to the objections of many Anguillans. In 1980, however, Anguilla formally withdrew from the territory, becoming a separate British dependency, which it remains. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of {{PAGENAME}}}} Executive authority is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]], who is represented in the territory by the [[Governor of Anguilla|Governor]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]]. The constitution of Anguilla came into force in 1982, amended in
(United States) presidential nominees|Pierce, Franklin]] [[Category:Episcopalians|Pierce, Franklin]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Hampshire|Pierce, Franklin]] [[Category:People from New Hampshire|Pierce, Franklin]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Pierce, Franklin]] [[Category:United States Army generals|Pierce, Franklin]] [[Category:United States Senators from New Hampshire|Pierce, Franklin]] [[ang:Franklin Pierce]] [[bg:Франклин Пиърс]] [[da:Franklin Pierce]] [[de:Franklin Pierce]] [[es:Franklin Pierce]] [[eo:Franklin PIERCE]] [[fr:Franklin Pierce]] [[ga:Franklin Pierce]] [[gl:Franklin Pierce]] [[ko:프랭클린 피어스]] [[id:Franklin Pierce]] [[it:Franklin Pierce]] [[he:פרנקלין פירס]] [[nl:Franklin Pierce]] [[ja:フランクリン・ピアース]] [[no:Franklin Pierce]] [[nn:Franklin Pierce]] [[pl:Franklin Pierce]] [[pt:Franklin Pierce]] [[sq:Franklin Pierce]] [[fi:Franklin Pierce]] [[sv:Franklin Pierce]] [[zh:福兰克林·皮尔斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 19</title> <id>11006</id> <revision> <id>42120929</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:29:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nigosh</username> <id>221949</id> </contributor> <comment>rv vanity entry</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{FebruaryCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=19}} |} '''February 19''' is the 50th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 315 days remaining, 316 in [[leap year]]s. ==Events== * [[197]] – [[Roman Emperor]] [[Septimius Severus]] defeats [[Roman usurper|usurper]] [[Clodius Albinus]] in the [[Battle of Lugdunum]], the bloodiest battle between Roman armies. * [[607]] - [[Pope Boniface III|Boniface III]] becomes [[Pope]]. * [[1594]] - Having already inherited the [[List of Polish rulers|throne]] of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] through his mother [[Catherine Jagellonica of Poland]], [[Sigismund III of Poland|Sigismund III]] of the [[House of Vasa]] is [[coronation|crowned]] [[List of Swedish monarchs|King]] of [[Sweden]], succeeding his father [[John III of Sweden]]. * [[1600]] - The Peruvian stratovolcano [[Huaynaputina]] exploded in the most violent eruption in the recorded history of South America. * [[1674]] - [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]] sign the [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Peace of Westminster]], ending the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]]. A provision of the agreement transfers the Dutch colony of [[New Amsterdam]] to England, which renamed it [[New York]]. * [[1807]] - In [[Alabama]], Former [[Vice President of the United States]] [[Aaron Burr]] is arrested for [[treason]]. * [[1819]] - [[British Empire|British]] [[exploration|explorer]] [[William Smith (mariner)|William Smith]] discovers the [[South Shetland Islands]], and claims them in the name of [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]. * [[1846]] - In [[Austin, Texas]] the newly-formed Texas state government is officially installed. The [[Republic of Texas]] government officially transfers power to the [[State of Texas]] government following Texas' [[annexation]] by the [[United States]]. * [[1847]] - The [[Donner Party]] is rescued. It is noted that some of the survivors seem to be remarkably well-fed considering their ordeal. * [[1852]] - The [[Phi Kappa Psi]] fraternity is founded at [[Washington and Jefferson College|Jefferson College]] in [[Canonsburg, Pennsylvania]]. * [[1861]] - [[Serf]]dom is [[Emancipation_of_the_serfs|abolished]] in [[Russia]]. * [[1878]] - The [[phonograph]] is patented by [[Thomas Edison]]. * [[1881]] - [[Kansas]] became the first [[U.S. state]] to prohibit all [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]]. * [[1913]] - Prizes are included in [[Cracker Jack]] candy boxes for the first time. * [[1915]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Battle of Gallipoli]] began. * [[1937]] - During a public ceremony at the Viceregal Palace (the former Imperial residence) in [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]], two [[Eritrea]]n nationalists attempt to kill viceroy [[Rodolfo Graziani]] with a number of grenades. The Italian security guard fire into the crowd of Ethiopian onlookers, and over the passing weeks indiscriminately slaughter native Ethiopians in reprisal. * [[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Afrika Korps]], the [[corps]]-level headquarters controlling the German [[Panzer]] [[division (military)|division]]s in [[North Africa]], was formed. * [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: nearly 250 [[Japan]]ese warplanes attack the northern Australian city of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] killing anywhere from 243 to 1100 people. * 1942 - World War II: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signs the [[executive order]] [[Executive Order 9066|''9066'']], allowing the [[United States military]] to relocate [[Japanese-American]]s to [[Japanese internment]] camps. * [[1943]] - World War II: [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]] in [[Tunisia]] begins. * [[1945]] - World War II: [[Battle of Iwo Jima]] - about 30,000 [[United States Marine]]s land on [[Iwo Jima]]. * [[1949]] - [[Ezra Pound]] is awarded the first [[Bollingen Prize in poetry]] by the [[Bollingen Foundation]] and [[Yale University]]. * [[1953]] - [[Censorship]]: [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] approves the first [[literature]] censorship board in the [[United States]]. * [[1959]] - The [[United Kingdom]] grants [[Cyprus]] its [[independence]], which is then on formally proclaimed on [[August 16]], [[1960]]. * [[1964]] - [[Paul Simon]] writes &quot;The Sounds of Silence,&quot; the song which, in a year and a half, will catapult him and [[Art Garfunkel]] to stardom as [[Simon &amp; Garfunkel]]. * [[1980]] - [[Bon Scott]] (Ronald Belford Scott), lead singer of AC/DC, dies after a night of heavy drinking. * [[1985]] - [[Artificial heart]] patient [[William J. Schroeder]] becomes the first such patient to leave [[hospital]]. * 1985 - A Spanish [[Boeing 747]] crashes into Mount Oiz in [[Spain]], killing 148. * 1985 - ''[[EastEnders]]'' first airs on televisions across the [[United Kingdom]], on the first night of a major ident change for [[BBC1]]. * [[1986]] - The [[Soviet Union]] launches the [[Mir]] [[space station]]. * 1986 - After waiting 37 years, the [[United States Senate]] approves a treaty outlawing genocide. * [[1999]] - [[Dennis Franz]] receives a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]]. * [[2001]] - A [[Oklahoma City bombing]] museum is dedicated at the [[Oklahoma City National Memorial]]. * [[2002]] - [[NASA]]'s [[Mars Odyssey]] [[space probe]] begins to map the surface of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] using its thermal emission imaging system. * [[2004]] - [[Nazi]]-hunter [[Simon Wiesenthal]] is awarded an honorary [[knight]]hood in recognition of a &quot;lifetime of service to humanity.&quot; * [[2006]] - [[The Rolling Stones]] made the largest show open to the public of the world in [[Copacabana beach]], Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1.3 million people went to the show. ==Births== *[[1473]] - [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], Polish astronomer (d. [[1543]]) *[[1526]] - [[Charles de L'Ecluse]], Flemish botanist (d. [[1609]]) *[[1552]] - [[Melchior Klesl]], Austrian cardinal and statesman (d. [[1630]]) *[[1630]] - [[Shivaji]], founder of the Maratha Empire (d. [[1680]]) *[[1660]] - [[Friedrich Hoffmann]], German physician and chemist (d. [[1742]]) *[[1717]] - [[David Garrick]], British actor (d. [[1779]]) *[[1722]] - [[Tiphaigne de la Roche]], French writer (d. [[1774]]) *[[1743]] - [[Luigi Boccherini]], Italian composer (d. [[1805]]) *[[1802]] - [[Wilhelm Matthias Naeff]], Swiss Federal Councillor (d. 1881) *[[1804]] - [[Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky]], German physician (d. [[1878]]) *1804 - [[David Wark]], Canadian politician and Senator (d. [[1905]]) *[[1821]] - [[August Schleicher]], German linguist (d. [[1868]]) *[[1833]] - [[Élie Ducommun]], Swiss journalist and activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1906]]) *[[1859]] - [[Svante Arrhenius]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1927]]) *[[1865]] - [[Sven Hedin]], Swedish explorer (d. [[1952]]) *[[1876]] - [[Constantin Brancusi]], Romanian sculptor (d. [[1957]]) *[[1877]] - [[Gabriele Munter|Gabriele Münter]], German painter (d. [[1962]]) *[[1888]] - [[José Eustasio Rivera]], Colombian writer (d. [[1928]]) *[[1893]] - Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]], British actor (d. [[1964]]) *[[1895]] - [[Louis Calhern]], American actor (d. [[1956]]) *[[1899]] - [[Yury Olesha]], Russian novelist (d. [[1960]]) *[[1900]] - [[Giorgos Seferis]], Greek writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]]) *[[1902]] - [[Kay Boyle]], American writer (d. [[1992]]) *[[1911]] - [[Merle Oberon]], British actress (d. [[1979]]) *[[1912]] - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician (d. [[1979]]) *[[1914]] - [[Jacques Dufilho]], French comedian and actor (d. [[2005]]) *[[1916]] - [[Eddie Arcaro]], American jockey (d. [[1997]]) *[[1917]] - [[Carson McCullers]], American author (d. [[1967]]) *[[1920]] - [[Jaan Kross]], Estonian writer *1920 - [[George Rose]], British music hall entertainer (d. [[1988]]) *[[1924]] - [[David Bronstein]], Ukrainian chess player *1924 - [[Lee Marvin]], American actor (d. [[1987]]) *[[1930]] - [[John Frankenheimer]], American film director (d. [[2002]]) *[[1936]] - [[Marin Sorescu]], Romanian poet, writer and novelist (d. [[1997]]) *[[1940]] - [[Smokey Robinson]], American musician *1940 - [[Saparmurat Niyazov]], President of Turkmenistan *[[1941]] - [[David Gross]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1942]] - [[Paul Krause (football player)|Paul Krause]], American football player *[[1943]] - [[Lou Christie]], American singer *1943 - [[Tim Hunt]], British biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1945]] - [[Michael Nader]], American actor *[[1946]] - [[Karen Silkwood]], American activist (d. [[1974]]) *[[1
, Holy Roman Emperor]] (also [[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]] between [[1516]]-[[1556]]). He was originally [[Egypt]]ian, and his sword was a [[katana]] he received in [[Japan]] by his father-in-law [[Masamune]]. Masamune was the father of Princess Shakiko, Ramirez's third wife, and supposedly a genius ahead of his time in the forging of swords. The novelization of this film gives Ramirez's original name as Tak-Ne, his birth in [[890s BC|896 BC]], his first &quot;death&quot; in [[850s BC|851 BC]], and his marriage to Shakiko in [[590s BC|593 BC]]. Connor's training under Ramirez lasted for about a year. In [[1542]], the Kurgan managed to locate them both. He arrived at their residence while MacLeod himself was absent. The Kurgan and Ramirez dueled, with the frightened Heather their only spectator. The Kurgan managed to decapitate Ramirez, and proceeded to [[rape]] Heather, in the belief that he was further humiliating his old enemy (Ramirez) and &quot;his woman.&quot; Connor soon returned to find his residence in ruins, his mentor deceased, and his wife alive but traumatised, although she never told him about the rape. Connor stayed by his wife's side for the rest of her life, until she died of old age and natural causes in [[1590]]. Dying in Connor's arms, she confided that her only regret was not having his children. Connor had not physically aged in more than fifty years of marriage. After burying Heather and burning their residence, MacLeod started wandering the world, eventually journeying as far away as Japan. A number of other references in the film connected him to many historical figures and events. The movie hints that his experiences over time left him a bitter, cynical man. The action then shifts to [[New York, New York|New York]], circa [[1985]], where the few surviving Immortals are drawn for &quot;The Gathering,&quot; a final series of confrontations to determine the victor of &quot;The Prize.&quot; Eventually, the last two surviving are Connor, under the alias of Russell Edwin Nash; and the Kurgan, under the alias of Victor Kruger. Meanwhile, the spike in murders by decapitation has drawn the attention of the police, who suspect Connor as the sole person responsible. Among the investigators of the case is police forensic scientist Brenda Wyatt ([[Roxanne Hart]]). Her investigation gets her closer to Connor, and they eventually fall in love with each other. This does not escape the attention of the Kurgan, who abducts her to get Connor to finally stand and fight him, instead of avoiding the final battle. Connor battles the Kurgan, defeats him, and apparently wins The Prize. Connor is left satisfied that the age-long Game is finally over. He proceeds in marrying Brenda and pursuing a new life. (It should be noted that subsequent movies and series have [[retcon]]ned the battle with the Kurgan into a personal victory for Connor, instead of the actual end of &quot;The Game.&quot;) The film was directed by [[Russell Mulcahy]] and scripted by [[Peter Bellwood]], [[Larry Ferguson]] and [[Gregory Widen]]. It remains arguably the best-known film of the Highlander series, and the one better-received by the public. It is noted for its introduction of the themes and concepts further explored by the later movies and TV series. The original movie had a well-regarded soundtrack by [[Queen (band)|Queen]], most notably containing &quot;Princes of the Universe,&quot; which is also used in the ''Highlander'' television series [[title sequence]]. While an album specifically tied to the ''Highlander'' movie was never released, the Queen album ''&quot;[[A Kind Of Magic]]&quot;'' (a phrase spoken twice in the movie by Connor) featured most of the songs from the film, as well as other music on the same theme. Notably, Queen's version of &quot;New York, New York&quot; (playing while the Kurgan drives Brenda through New York) was never released by Queen. All the Queen songs in Highlander were purposely written for the movie, except the song &quot;Hammer To Fall&quot; which had been previously released on their album ''[[The Works (Queen album)|The Works]]'' in [[1984 in music|1984]]. Queen saw an early screening of Highlander, and decided to compose music for the film's entire non-symphonic soundtrack. They wrote many of the songs specifically to match the mood of the scenes when the songs were played. == ''Highlander II: The Quickening'' == === Plot === Released on [[January 31]], [[1991]]. The film features a series of events occurring over a period of about twenty-five years from August, [[1999]] to [[2024]]. The film's opening scene occurs on August, [[1999]]. News broadcasts explain that the [[ozone layer]] will be completely gone in a matter of months, and that the [[ozone hole]] has been significantly expanded and covers most of planet [[Earth]]. In [[Africa]] millions have died, due to the effects the unfiltered sunlight has had on them. Among them is Connor's wife, who makes him promise that he will work in solving the problem presented. (In the original release of the film, this woman is revealed to be Brenda Wyatt, per her tombstone seen in the movie; ''Highlander III'' somewhat contradictorily reveals that Brenda died around 1987, with Alex Johnson possibly having died circa 1995.) In the period following his wife's death, Connor becomes the supervisor of a scientific team attempting to create an artificial shield, which will cover the planet and protect it from the [[Sun]]'s radiation. The actual head of the team is Dr. Allan Neyman ([[Allan Rich]]). In [[1999]], the team succeeded in its goal, and Earth gained its artificial shield filtering sunlight in place of the ozone layer. MacLeod and Neyman were proud in having apparently saved humanity, and believed they would be remembered for a thousand years. However, the shield has the side-effect of condemning the planet to a state of constant night, and humanity can no longer see the [[sun]], the [[moon]], or the [[star]]s. The film then proceeds to the year [[2024]]. According to a narration by Connor, twenty-five years of darkness have had caused humanity to lose hope and fall into a decline. The Shield has fallen under the control of &quot;Shield [[Corporation]],&quot; and its current head David Blake ([[John C. McGinley]]), taxing for its services in pursuit of profit. A number of [[terrorism|terrorists]] have emerged trying to take down the Shield. Among them is Louise Marcus ([[Virginia Madsen]]), a former employee of the Corporation. Meanwhile, Connor has since begun aging once again ever since his 1985 victory over the Kurgan -- a result of his winning The Prize. He has physically aged into a frail old man, and expects himself to eventually die of natural causes. Meanwhile, MacLeod has been able to recover his memories from a previous life in his series of [[reincarnation]]s. A flashback to &quot;Planet Zeist 500 years ago&quot; begins with the last meeting of the members of a rebellion against the rule of General Katana ([[Michael Ironside]]). The rebellion's leader, a previous incarnation of Ramirez, chooses &quot;a man of great destiny&quot; from among them, Connor's previous incarnation, to carry out a mission against Katana. At this moment, Katana and his troops attack, and the rebellion is crushed. Katana orders his men to capture &quot;Ramirez&quot; and &quot;MacLeod&quot; alive, and kill the rest of the rebels. The two captives are put on trial by Zeist's [[priest]]s, who sentence them to be exiled from Zeist and reborn on Earth as Immortals in pursuit of the Prize. Given the choice to grow old and die on Earth or return to Zeist, they choose Earth. Katana is unsatisfied with their decision, but the sentence is executed and the events of the previous film follow. Oddly, both Immortals were born before [[1524]] on Earth; whether the &quot;500 years ago&quot; message was in error, or their Earth incarnations were somehow born before the death of their Zeist incarnations is left unexplained. The film then returns to the Earth of 2024. Louise Marcus discovers that the ozone layer has been reformed, and the artificial Shield is no longer needed. The Corporation is aware of this development, but has apparently decided to hide it from the general public in order to maintain its main source of profit. Meanwhile on Zeist, General Katana is still alive. His information seems to indicate that Connor wants to return to Zeist. However, he decides that cannot be allowed to happen and sends his Immortal henchmen Corda ([[Pete Antico]]) and Reno ([[Peter Bucossi]]) to Earth to kill him in battle. Louise manages to reach Connor first, and asks for his help in taking down the Shield. To Louise's disappointment, she finds the passionate person she once admired to have grown into &quot;a tired old man.&quot; MacLeod explains to Louise that he is dying, and expresses his disapproval of terrorism. Before Connor and Louise can finish their conversation, Corda and Reno locate them and attack. MacLeod soon manages to decapitate them both, and in the process regains his youthful appearance. While he absorbs their energy, Connor summons Ramirez. In [[Glencoe, Scotland]], the location of his death, Ramirez is apparently revived. He finds himself on a theatrical stage during a performance of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''. Meanwhile, in New York Connor has found a new lover in Louise Marcus. He attempts to explain to her the concepts of his Immortality, but she finds them confusing. Elsewhere in New York, General Katana arrives, and proceeds to spread havoc. Both Ramirez and Katana soon adapt to their new environment. Ramirez's [[earring]]s are apparently valuable enough to pay for the new costume he acquires from the &quot;finest and oldest&quot; tailor's shop in Scotland, and for an [[Aircraft|airplane]] ticket to New York. On the other hand, Katana finds New York much to his liking. After entertaining himself for a while, Katana manages
= 11.3 |change = }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Conservative Party (UK) |candidate = Peter Harper |votes = 2,835 |percentage = 7.9 |change = }} {{Template:Election box candidate with party link| |party = Plaid Cymru |candidate = Philip Cockwell |votes = 2,088 |percentage = 5.8 |change = }} {{Template:Election box candidate| |party = [[Referendum Party]] |candidate = Peter David |votes = 970 |percentage = 2.7 |change = }} {{Template:Election box candidate| |party = Independent |candidate = Captain Beany |votes = 341 |percentage = 1.0 |change = }} {{Template:Election box majority| |votes = 22571 |percentage = 62.8 |change = }} {{Template:Election box turnout| |votes = 35963 |percentage = 71.9 |change = }} {{Template:Election box end}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberavon}} == See also == * [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in West Glamorgan]] {{Constituencies in Wales}} [[Category:Parliamentary constituencies in Wales]] [[Category:Neath Port Talbot]] [[Category:Glamorgan]] [[cy:Aberafan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abercarn</title> <id>2700</id> <revision> <id>32989365</id> <timestamp>2005-12-28T12:11:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Owain</username> <id>26576</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{1911}} {{infobox Wales place| |Place= Abercarn |Council= [[Caerphilly (county borough)|Caerphilly]] |Traditional= [[Monmouthshire]] |Ceremonial= [[Gwent]] |Constituency= [[Islwyn (UK Parliament constituency)|Islwyn]] |PostalTown= NEWPORT |PostCode= NP11 |DiallingCode= +44-1633 |GridReference= ST216947 |Population= 10,007&lt;br /&gt;(with [[Newbridge, Wales|Newbridge]]) |Police= [[Gwent Police]] }} '''Abercarn''' is a town in [[south Wales]], 10 miles north-west of [[Newport, Monmouthshire|Newport]] by the [[Great Western Railway]], at {{gbmapping|ST216947}}. The district is traditionally associated with collieries, ironworks and tinplate works, although all have now closed; the town, which lies in the middle portion of the [[Ebbw River|Ebbw]] valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of [[Glamorgan]] and [[Monmouthshire]]. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abercarn}} {{Wales-geo-stub}} [[Category:Traditional county of Monmouthshire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aberdare</title> <id>2701</id> <revision> <id>40655700</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:32:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.231.172.85</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Trivia */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Welsh town. [[Aberdare, New South Wales]] is also a coal mining town.'' {{infobox Wales place| |Place= Aberdare |Council= [[Rhondda Cynon Taff]] |Traditional= [[Glamorganshire]] |Ceremonial= [[Mid Glamorgan]] |Constituency= [[Cynon Valley (UK Parliament constituency)|Cynon Valley]] |PostalTown= ABERDARE |PostCode= CF44 |DiallingCode= 01685 |GridReference= SO005025 |Population= |Police= [[South Wales Police]] }} '''Aberdare''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Aberdâr'') is an industrial town in the county borough of [[Rhondda Cynon Taff]] in the [[traditional county]] of [[Glamorgan]], in south [[Wales]], situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and Cynon rivers. The population at the ([[1991]]) census was 31,619. It is 4 miles S.W. of [[Merthyr Tydfil]] and 24 from [[Cardiff]]. From being, at the beginning of the [[19th century]], a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore, and the population of the whole parish (which was only 1486 in [[1801]]) increased tenfold during the first half of the century. It has since declined, owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry. Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in [[1799]] and [[1800]] respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in [[1827]] and [[1847]]. These have not been worked since about [[1875]]. Prior to [[1836]], most of the coal worked in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun, pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which after [[1875]] was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half Of the [[19th century]], considerable public improvements were made to the town, which became, despite its neighbouring collieries, a pleasant place to live. Its institutions included a post-graduate theological college (opened in connection with the Church of [[England]] in [[1892]], until [[1907]], when it was removed to [[Llandaff]]). Aberdare, with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, had twelve Anglican churches, one [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] church (built in [[1866]] in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to [[Penrhys Abbey]]) and at one time had over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh. The urban district includes what were once the separate villages of [[Aberaman]], [[Abernant, Aberdare|Abernant]], [[Cwmaman]], [[Cwmbach]], [[Cwmdare]], [[Llwydcoed]], [[Penywaun]] and [[Trecynon]]. There are several [[cairn]]s and the remains of a circular [[Great Britain|British]] encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. [[Hirwaun]] moor, 4 miles to the N.W. of Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of [[Dyfed]], was defeated by the ailied forces of the Norman [[Robert Fitzhamon]] and [[Iestyn ab Gwrgan]], the last prince of Glamorgan. The Coliseum is Aberdare's main [[arts]] venue, containing a 600-seat [[auditorium]] and [[movie theater|cinema]]. It was built in [[1938]] using [[miner]]s' subscriptions. The town is served by [[Aberdare railway station]], the terminus of the [[Merthyr Line|Merthyr Line - Aberdare branch]]. ==Trivia== * Aberdare was the birthplace of the [[World War II|Second World War]] poet [[Alun Lewis]], and a plaque commemorating him is to be found, including a quotation from his poem, ''The Mountain over Aberdare''. * Aberdare is the home of the rock band [[Stereophonics]], who come from Cwmaman. * Aberdare hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in its first year, [[1861]], and again in [[1885]]. * Aberdare is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Slagelse]], [[Denmark]]. *famed [[anarchist-punk]] band [[crass]] played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare. ==See also== *[[Aberdare Boys Grammar School]] ==External links== *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/aberdare/ Aberdare on bbc.co.uk] {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdare}} {{1911}} [[Category:Towns in Rhondda Cynon Taff]] [[cy:Aberdâr]] [[da:Aberdare]] [[de:Aberdare]] [[gl:Aberdare - Aberdâr]] [[nl:Aberdare]] [[no:Aberdare]] [[pl:Aberdare]] [[pt:Aberdare]] [[sv:Aberdare]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aberration</title> <id>2702</id> <revision> <id>32737204</id> <timestamp>2005-12-26T04:36:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dreg743</username> <id>541883</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>NPOV</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|aberration}} '''Aberration ''' ([[Latin]] ''ab,'' from or away + ''errare,'' to wander), a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense as: # In [[ethics]], a deviation from the truth, however this does not carry a negative connotation. # In [[pathology]], a mental derangement. # In [[zoology]] and [[botany]], atypical development or structure. # In [[optics]], the word has two special applications: ::4.1 [[Aberration of light]], also referred to as ''astronomical aberration'' or ''stellar aberration''. ::4.2 [[Aberration in optical systems]], see also the article on [[Lens (optics)|lenses]]. {{disambig}} [[ca:Aberració (desambiguació)]] [[da:Aberration]] [[de:Aberration]] [[es:Aberración]] [[pl:Aberracja]] [[ru:Аберрация]] [[sl:Aberacija]] [[sv:Aberration]] [[uk:Аберація]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aberration of light</title> <id>2703</id> <revision> <id>40574975</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:26:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ghalas</username> <id>224367</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Moving in the rain */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''aberration of light''' (also referred to as '''astronomical aberration''' or '''stellar aberration''') is an astronomical phenomenon which produces an [[apparent motion]] of celestial objects. It is caused by the twin facts that the [[speed of light]] is finite, and that an observer on [[Earth]] is moving in an inertial frame. It does not require Earth to carry an observer to some other position after some period of time—only that Earth have some instantaneous velocity. A change in the position of an observer causes [[parallax]], which must not be confused with the aberration of light. Stellar aberration is ''independent'' of the distance of a celestial object from the observer. It should also be distinguished from [[light-time correction]], which is due to the displacement of a solar system object, like a [[planet]], through space during the time taken by its light to reach an observer on Earth. Light-time
A is inserted into a host cell (''E. coli'' in this case). The host cells are then allowed to grow and reproduce normally, and due to the inserted human DNA, they produce actual human insulin. [[Genentech]] developed the technique Lilly used to produce Humulin. [[Novo Nordisk]] has also developed a genetically engineered insulin independently. Most insulins used clinically are produced this way, for it avoids the allergic reaction problem. === Modes of administration === Unlike many medicines, insulin cannot be taken orally. It is treated in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] precisely as any other protein; that is, reduced to its amino acid components, whereupon all 'insulin activity' is lost. There are research efforts underway to develop methods of protecting insulin from the digestive tract so that it can be taken orally, but none has yet reached clinical use. Instead insulin is usually taken as [[subcutaneous]] [[injection]]s by single-use [[syringe]]s with [[hypodermic needle|needle]]s, or by repeated-use [[insulin pen]]s with needles. There are several difficulties with the use of insulin as a clinical treatment for diabetes: * Mode of administration. * Selecting the 'right' dose and timing. * Selecting an appropriate insulin preparation (typically on 'speed of onset and duration of action' grounds). * Adjusting dosage and timing to fit food amounts and types. * Adjusting dosage and timing to fit exercise undertaken. * Adjusting dosage, type, and timing to fit other conditions as for instance the increased stress of illness. * The dosage is non-physiologic in that a subcutaneous [[bolus]] dosage of only insulin is given instead of the pancreas releasing insulin and C-peptide gradually and directly into the [[portal vein]]. * It is simply a nuisance for patients to inject themselves once or several times a day. * It may be dangerous in the case of mistake (most especially 'too much' insulin). There have been several attempts to improve upon this mode of administering insulin as many people find injection awkward and painful. One alternative is jet injection (also sometimes used for some vaccinations) which has different insulin delivery peaks and durations as compared to needle injection of the same amount and type of insulin. Some diabetics find control possible with jet injectors, but not with hypodermic injection. There are also 'insulin pumps' of various types which are 'electrical injectors' attached to a semi-permanently implanted needle (ie, a catheter). Some who cannot achieve adequate glucose control by conventional injection (or sometimes jet injection) are able to with the appropriate pump. An [[insulin pump]] is a reasonable solution for some. However there are several major limitations - cost, the potential for hypoglycemic episodes, catheter problems, and, thus far, no approvable means of controlling insulin delivery in the field based on blood glucose levels. If too much insulin is delivered or the patient eats less than normal, there will be hypoglycemia. On the other hand, if too little insulin is delivered by the pump, there will be hyperglycemia. Both of these can lead to potentially life-threatening conditions. In addition, indwelling catheters pose the risk of infection and ulceration. However, that risk can be minimized by keeping catheter sites clean. Thus far, insulin pumps require considerable care and effort to use correctly. However, some diabetics are able to keep their glucose in reasonable control only on a pump. Researchers have produced a watch-like device that tests for blood glucose levels through the skin and administers corrective doses of insulin through [[pore]]s in the skin of the patient. Both electricity and ultrasound have been found to make the skin temporarily porous. The insulin administration aspect remains experimental at this writing. The blood glucose test aspect of such 'wrist appliances' is, at this writing, commercially available essentially as described. Another 'improvement' would be to avoid periodic insulin administration entirely by installing a self-regulating insulin source. For instance, pancreatic, or beta cell, [[transplantation]]. Transplantation of an entire pancreas (as an individual [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]) is technically difficult, and is not common. Generally, it is performed in conjunction with [[liver]] or [[kidney]] transplant surgery. However, transplantation of only pancreatic beta cells is a possibility. It has been highly experimental (for which read 'prone to failure') for many years, but some researchers in [[Alberta, Canada]], have developed techniques which have produced a much higher success rate (about 90% in one group). Beta cell transplant may become practical, and common, in the near future. Additionally, some researchers have explored the possibility of transplanting [[Genetic Engineering|genetically engineered]] non-beta cells to secrete insulin, as an alternative to beta cell transplantation.&lt;sup&gt;[http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/8/3840]&lt;/sup&gt; Clinically testable results are far from realization. Several other non-transplant methods of automatic insulin delivery are being developed in the research labs as this is written. None is currently close to clinical approval. [[Inhaled insulin]] is under active investigation as are several other insulin administration techniques. Currently the only inhalable insulin approved by the [[FDA]] {{ref|exubera}} for use is [[Exubera]]. === Dosage and timing === The central problem for those requiring external insulin is picking the right dose of insulin and the right timing. &lt;!-- It would be best to show this graphically. Eg, a graph of typical blood glucose levels and blood insulin levels in people without diabetes and in those with diabetes injecting themselves 1, 2, 3 or more times a day. --&gt; Physiological regulation of blood glucose, as in the non-diabetic, would be best. Increased blood glucose levels after a meal is a stimulus for prompt release of insulin from the pancreas. The increased insulin level causes glucose absorption and storage, reducing glycogen to glucose conversion, reducing blood glucose levels, and so reducing insulin release. The result is that the blood glucose level rises somewhat after eating, and within an hour or so returns to the normal 'fasting' level. Even the best diabetic treatment with human insulin, however administered, falls short of normal glucose control in the non-diabetic. Complicating matters is that the composition of the food eaten (see ''[[glycemic index]]'') affects intestinal absorption rates. Glucose from some foods is absorbed more (or less) rapidly than the same amount of glucose in other foods. And, fats and proteins both cause delays in absorption of glucose from carbohydrate eaten at the same time. As well, exercise reduces the need for insulin even when all other factors remain the same, since working muscle has some ability to take up glucose without the help of insulin. It is in principle impossible to know for certain how much insulin (and which type) is needed to 'cover' a particular meal in order to achieve a reasonable blood glucose level within an hour or two after eating. Non-diabetics' beta cells routinely and automatically manage this by continual glucose level monitoring and adjustment of insulin release. All such decisions by a diabetic must be based on general experience and training (ie, at the direction of a physician or PA, or in some places a specialist diabetic educator) and, further, specifically based on the individual experience of the patient. It is not straightforward and should never be done by habit or routine, but with care can be done quite successfully in practice. For example, some diabetics require more insulin after drinking [[skim milk]] than they do after taking an equivalent amount of fat, protein, carbohydrate, and fluid in some other form. Their particular reaction to skimmed milk is different than other diabetics', but the same amount of whole milk is likely to cause a still different reaction even in that same person. Whole milk contains considerable fat while skimmed milk has much less. It is a continual balancing act for all diabetics, especially for those taking insulin. Insulin dependant diabetics require a base level of insulin (Basal Insulin), as well as extra short acting insulin to cope with meals (Bolus Insulin). Maintaining the basal rate and the bolus rate is a continuous balancing act that all insulin diabetics have to manage each day. This is normally achieved through regular blood tests, although there is work being undertaken on continuous blood sugar testing equipment. It is important to notice that diabetics generally need more insulin than the usual -not less- during physical stress like infections or surgeries. ===Types=== Medical preparations of insulin (from the major suppliers &amp;ndash; [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] and [[Novo Nordisk]] -- or from any other) are never just 'insulin in water'. Clinical insulins are specially prepared mixtures of insulin plus other substances. These delay absorption of the insulin, adjust the pH of the solution to reduce reactions at the injection site, and so on. Some recent insulins are not even precisely insulin, but so called [[insulin analog]]s. The insulin molecule in an insulin analog is slightly modified so that they are: * Absorbed rapidly enough to mimic real beta cell insulin (Lilly's is 'lispro', Novo Nordisk's is 'aspart'). * Steadily absorbed after injection instead of having a 'peak' followed by a more or less rapid decline in insulin action ([[Novo Nordisk]] version is 'Insulin detemir' and [[Aventis]]' version is 'Insulin glargine'). * All while retaining insulin action in the human body. The management of choosing insulin type and dosage / timing should be done by an experienced medical professional working with the diabetic. Allowing blood gluco
], Bosnian singer ==Deaths== *[[1192]] - [[Emperor Go-Shirakawa]] of Japan (b. [[1127]]) *[[1444]] - [[Robert Campin]], Flemish painter (b. [[1378]]) *[[1478]] - [[Giuliano di Piero de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (assassinated) (b. [[1453]]) *[[1489]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshihisa]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1465]]) *[[1716]] - [[John Somers, 1st Baron Somers]], Lord Chancellor of England (b. [[1651]]) *[[1784]] - [[Nano Nagle]], Irish convent founder (b. [[1718]]) *[[1789]] - Count [[Petr Ivanovich Panin]], Russian soldier (b. [[1721]]) *[[1865]] - [[John Wilkes Booth]], American actor and assassin (shot) (b. [[1838]]) *[[1892]] - Sir [[Provo Wallis]], British Admiral and naval hero (b. [[1791]]) *[[1910]] - [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]], Norwegian author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1832]]) *[[1920]] - [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]], Indian mathematician (b. [[1887]]) *[[1932]] - [[Hart Crane]], American poet (suicide) (b. [[1899]]) *1932 - [[William Lockwood]], English cricketer (b. [[1868]]) *[[1938]] - [[Edmund Husserl]], Austrian philosopher (b. [[1859]]) *[[1940]] - [[Carl Bosch]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b.g [[1874]]) *[[1951]] - [[Arnold Sommerfeld]], German physicist (b. [[1868]]) *[[1956]] - [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]], American actor (b. [[1890]]) *[[1964]] - [[E. J. Pratt]], Canadian poet born Newfoundland (b. [[1882]]) *[[1969]] - [[Morihei Ueshiba]], Japanese martial artist (b. [[1883]]) *[[1970]] - [[Gypsy Rose Lee]], American actress (b. [[1911]]) *[[1973]] - [[Irene Ryan]], American actress (b. [[1902]]) *[[1976]] - [[Sid James]], British comedian (b. [[1913]]) *[[1981]] - [[Jim Davis (actor)|Jim Davis]], American actor (b. [[1909]]) *[[1984]] - [[Count Basie]], American musician and composer (b. [[1904]]) *[[1986]] - [[Broderick Crawford]], American actor (stroke) (b. [[1911]]) *1986 - [[Dechko Uzunov]], Bulgarian painter (b. [[1899]]) *[[1988]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (b. [[1926]]) *[[1989]] - [[Lucille Ball]], American actress and comedian (b. [[1911]]) *[[1991]] - [[Carmine Coppola]], American composer and conductor (b. [[1910]]) *1991 - [[Emily McLaughlin]], American actress (b. [[1930]]) *[[1996]] - [[Stirling Silliphant]], American writer and producer (b. [[1918]]) *[[1999]] - [[Jill Dando]], British television presenter (b. [[1961]]) *[[2002]] - [[Lisa Lopes]], American singer (b. [[1971]]) *[[2003]] - [[Rosemary Brown (politician)|Rosemary Brown]], Canadian politician (b. [[1930]]) *2003 - [[Edward Max Nicholson|Max Nicholson]], Irish environmentalist (b. [[1904]]) *2003 - [[Peter Stone]], American writer (b. [[1930]]) *[[2004]] - [[Hubert Selby Jr.]], American author (b. [[1928]]) *[[2005]] - [[Mason Adams]], American actor (b. [[1919]]) *2005 - [[Blade Icewood]], American rapper (b. [[1977]]) *2005 - [[Maria Schell]], Austrian-born actress (b. [[1926]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]: **[[Saint Alda]] (d. 1309) **[[Richarius]] or Riquier (d. 643) **[[Radbertus|Paschasius]] (d. 865) **Saint Cletus ([[Pope Anacletus]]) and [[Marcellinus]] ([[Pope]]s and [[martyr]]s) **[[Lucidius]] (4th century) **[[Trudpert]] ([[Ireland|Irish]] [[monk]] martyred in [[Germany]] in [[607]]). * [[Tanzania]] - [[Union Day]] * [[Shi'a Islam]] - [[Mawlid]], [[Muhammad]]'s [[birthday]] ([[2005]]) * [[Florida]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia, USA]] - [[Confederate Memorial Day]] * [[Intellectual property]] - [[World Intellectual Property Day]] (since [[2001]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26 BBC: On This Day] ==Other Facts== This date is reffered to in the [[Alec Empire]] song &quot;[[2641998]]&quot; (26/4/1998) ---- [[April 25]] - [[April 27]] - [[March 26]] - [[May 26]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 26]] [[nap:26 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 26]] [[pam:Abril 26]] [[af:26 April]] [[ar:26 أبريل]] [[an:26 d'abril]] [[ast:26 d'abril]] [[bg:26 април]] [[be:26 красавіка]] [[bs:26. april]] [[ca:26 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 26]] [[co:26 d'aprile]] [[cs:26. duben]] [[cy:26 Ebrill]] [[da:26. april]] [[de:26. April]] [[et:26. aprill]] [[el:26 Απριλίου]] [[es:26 de abril]] [[eo:26-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 26]] [[fo:26. apríl]] [[fr:26 avril]] [[fy:26 april]] [[ga:26 Aibreán]] [[gl:26 de abril]] [[ko:4월 26일]] [[hr:26. travnja]] [[io:26 di aprilo]] [[id:26 April]] [[ia:26 de april]] [[ie:26 april]] [[is:26. apríl]] [[it:26 aprile]] [[he:26 באפריל]] [[jv:26 April]] [[ka:26 აპრილი]] [[csb:26 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:26'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 26]] [[lb:26. Abrëll]] [[li:26 april]] [[hu:Április 26]] [[mk:26 април]] [[ms:26 April]] [[nl:26 april]] [[ja:4月26日]] [[no:26. april]] [[nn:26. april]] [[oc:26 d'abril]] [[pl:26 kwietnia]] [[pt:26 de Abril]] [[ro:26 aprilie]] [[ru:26 апреля]] [[sco:26 Aprile]] [[sq:26 Prill]] [[scn:26 di aprili]] [[simple:April 26]] [[sk:26. apríl]] [[sl:26. april]] [[sr:26. април]] [[fi:26. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:26 april]] [[tl:Abril 26]] [[tt:26. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 26]] [[th:26 เมษายน]] [[vi:26 tháng 4]] [[tr:26 Nisan]] [[uk:26 квітня]] [[ur:26 اپریل]] [[wa:26 d' avri]] [[zh:4月26日]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Argot</title> <id>1262</id> <revision> <id>42089985</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:34:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Polylerus</username> <id>111744</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Argot''' is primarily slang used by various groups, including but not limited to thieves and other criminals, to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations. ''Argot'' is [[French language|French]] for [[slang]]. See also [[Cant (language)]] and [[cryptolect]]. ==See also== *[[Barallete]] *[[Bron (language)|Bron]] *[[Broun (language)|Broun]] *[[Caló]] *[[Cant (language)|Cant]] *[[Fala dos arxinas]] ([[Verbo dos arginas]]) *[[Gacería]] *[[Gail language|Gail]] *[[Klezmer-loshn]] *[[Language game]] *[[Langue verte]] *[[Louchebem]] *[[Pig Latin]] *[[Polari]] *[[Rotwelsch]] *[[Šatrovački]] *[[slang]] *[[Variety (linguistics)]] *[[Verlan]] *[[Xíriga]] [[Category:Cant languages]] [[Category:Folklore]] [[bg:Таен говор]] [[da:Argot]] [[de:Argot]] [[es:Germanía]] [[fr:Argot]] [[ja:業界用語]] [[ru:Арго]] [[sk:Argot]] [[sv:Argot]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anisotropy</title> <id>1264</id> <revision> <id>41768292</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:38:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.168.72.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|anisotropy}} [[image:WMAP.jpg|thumb|300px|[[WMAP]] image of the anisotropic background cosmic radiation]] '''Anisotropy''' (the opposite of [[isotropy]]) is the property of being directionally dependent. In the field of [[computer graphics]], an anisotropic surface will change in appearance as it is rotated about its geometric [[surface normal|normal]], as is the case with [[velvet]]. Anisotropic scaling occurs when something is scaled by different amounts in different directions. An example is down-scaling a 64&amp;times;64-pixel [[texture]] to cover a 12&amp;times;34-pixel [[rectangle]]; this is [[anisotropic filtering]]. An anisotropic [[filter]], on the other hand, is a filter with increasingly smaller [[interstitial]] spaces in the direction of filtration so that the [[proximal]] [[region]]s filter out larger particles and [[distal]] regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration. [[Cosmologists]] use the term to describe the fluctuations in the [[background radiation]] left over after the [[big bang]]. The term refers to the difference in the temperature of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] with direction. An anisotropic liquid is one which has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but, unlike water or [[chloroform]], which contain no structural ordering of the molecules, they have an average structural order relative to each other along their molecular axis. [[Liquid crystals]] are examples of anisotropic liquids. Some materials [[heat conduction|conduct heat]] in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source. It is more common for heat conduction to be anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in [[electronics]] are often anisotropic. [[Geological]] formations where distinct layers of sedimentary material are disposited can exhibit electrical anisotropy. That is electrical [[conductivity]] in one direction e.g. parallel to a layer, is different to that in another e.g. perpendicular to a layer. This property is used in the gas and [[oil exploration]] industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of [[sand]] and [[shale]]. Sand bearing [[hydrocarbon]] assets have high resistivity (relatively low conductivity) whereas shales are much more conductive. [[Formation evaluation]] instruments measure this conductivity and [[resistivity]] and the results are used to help best site oil and gas wells. Many [[crystal]]s are anisotropic to [[light]], and exhibit properties such as [[birefringence]]. [[Crystal optics]] describes light propagation in these media. == External links == *[http://baker-atlas.bakerhughesdirect.com/oil-and-gas-exploration/ Baker Atlas - Formation Evaluation] *[http://baker-atlas.bakerhughesdirect.com/anisotropy-and-resistivity-measurements/ Baker Atlas - Anisotropy and Resistivity Measurements] [[Category:Anisotropy| ]] [[ca:Anisotropia]] [[de:Anisotropie]] [[fr:Anisotrope]] [[it:Anisotropia]] [[pl:Anizotropia]] [[ru:Анизотропия]] [[sk:Anizotropia]] [[sv:Ani
ip of [[Hamah]]. In [[1312]] he became prince with the title '''Malik us-Salhn''', and in [[1320]] received the hereditary rank of ''sultan'' with the title '''Malik ul-Mu'ayyad'''. For more than twenty years all together he reigned in tranquillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of government and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in [[1331]]. ==Works== His chief historical work is ''An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race,'' in the form of [[annals]] extending from the creation of the world to the year [[1329]] ([[Constantinople]], 2 vols. [[1869]]). His geography is, like much of the history, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately on the work of [[Ptolemy]]. A long introduction on various geographical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each name are given the longitude, latitude, climate, spelling, and then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts of the work were published and translated as early as [[1650]] in [[Europe]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1273 births]] [[Category:1331 deaths]] [[Category:Arab historians]] [[Category:Arab geographers]] [[Category:Muslim scientists]] [[fr:Aboul Féda]] [[sl:Abulfeda]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acacia</title> <id>1445</id> <revision> <id>42150188</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:44:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vuong Ngan Ha</username> <id>225920</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Acacia'' | image = Acacia melanoxylon2.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''[[Acacia melanoxylon]]'' foliage and flowers | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Fabales]] | familia = [[Fabaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Mimosoideae]] | tribus = Acacieae | genus = '''''Acacia''''' | genus_authority = [[Gerrit Smith Miller|Miller]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = About 1,300; see [[List of Acacia species]] }} :''For Acacia Research Corporation, see [[Acacia Technologies]]. For Acacia Fraternity, see [[Acacia Fraternity]].'' '''''Acacia''''' is a genus of [[shrub]]s and [[tree]]s of [[Gondwana|Gondwanian]] origin belonging to the Subfamily [[Mimosoideae]] of the Pea Family (Family [[Fabaceae]]), first described from Africa by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in [[1773]]. There are roughly 1300 species of ''Acacia'' worldwide, about 950 of them native to [[Australia]], with the remainder spread around the dry tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas. The Genus ''Acacia'' however is apparently not [[monophyletic]]. This discovery has led to the breaking up of ''Acacia'' into five new genera as discussed in [[List of Acacia species]]. The northernmost species in the genus is ''Acacia greggii'' ([[Catclaw Acacia]]), reaching 37°10' N in southern [[Utah]] in the [[United States]]; the southernmost are ''Acacia dealbata'' ([[Silver Wattle]]), ''Acacia longifolia'' ([[Coast Wattle]] or Sydney Golden Wattle), ''Acacia mearnsii'' ([[Black Wattle]]), and ''Acacia melanoxylon'' ([[Acacia melanoxylon|Blackwood]]), reaching 43°30' S in [[Tasmania]], Australia, while ''Acacia caven'' ([[Espinillo Negro]]) reaches nearly as far south in northeastern [[Chubut Province]] of [[Argentina]]. Australian species are usually called '''[[wattle]]s''', while African and American species tend to be known as '''acacias'''. The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks ('''[[petiole]]s''') become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves; these are known as '''[[phyllode]]s'''. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as ''[[Acacia glaucoptera]]'') lack leaves or phyllodes altogether, but possess instead '''[[cladode]]s''', modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves. The small [[flower]]s have five, very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, even purple (as in ''[[Acacia purpureapetala]]'') or red (in the recently grown cultivar ''[[Acacia leprosa]] 'Scarlet Blaze'''). The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. ''Acacia armata'' is the [[Kangaroo-thorn]] of Australia, ''Acacia giraffae'', the [[Camelthorn]] of Africa. In the Central American ''Acacia sphaerocephala'' ([[Bullthorn Acacia]]) and ''[[Acacia spadicigera]]'', the large thorn-like stipules are hollow and afford shelter for [[ant]]s, which feed on a secretion of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-eating insects. In common parlance the term &quot;acacia&quot; is occasionally misapplied to species of the Genus ''Robinia'', which also belongs in the pea family. ''Robinia pseudoacacia'', an American species locally known as [[Black locust]], is sometimes called &quot;false acacia&quot; in cultivation in Britain. In Australia, ''Acacia'' species are sometimes used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of [[Hepialidae|hepialid]] [[moth]]s of the genus ''[[Aenetus]]'' including ''A. ligniveren''. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other [[Lepidoptera]] larvae which have been recorded feeding on ''Acacia'' include [[Brown-tail]], ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita malabaricus]]'' and [[Turnip Moth]]. The leaf-mining larvae of some [[Bucculatricidae|bucculatricid]] moths also feed on ''Acacia'': ''Bucculatrix agilis'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia horrida'', ''Bucculatrix flexuosa'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia nilotica''. == Uses == [[Image:Acaciaauriculiformis1web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earpod Wattle (''Acacia auriculiformis'')]] ===Industrial and medicinal uses=== Various species of acacia yield gum. True [[gum arabic]] is the product of ''[[Acacia senegal]]'', abundant in dry tropical west Africa from [[Senegal]] to northern [[Nigeria]]. ''[[Acacia arabica]]'' is the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-arabic. The bark of ''Acacia arabica'', under the name of '''babul''' or '''babool''', is used in Scinde for tanning. In [[Ayurvedic medicine]], babul is considered a remedy that is helpful for treating premature ejaculation. The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include ''Acacia pycnantha'' (Golden Wattle), ''Acacia decurrens'' (Tan Wattle), ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle) and ''Acacia mearnsii'' (Black Wattle). Black Wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa. The pods of ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'' (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. Some species afford valuable timber; such are ''Acacia melanoxylon'' (Blackwood) from [[Australia]], which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and ''Acacia homalophylla'' ([[Myall Wood]], also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. ''[[Acacia formosa]]'' supplies the valuable [[Cuba]]n timber called sabicu. ''[[Acacia seyal]]'' is thought to be the shittah tree of the [[Bible]], which supplied shittim-wood. This was used in the construction of the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. As a spiritual icon it is also one of the most powerful symbols in [[freemasonry]], representing the eternal soul and purity of the soul. ''[[Acacia heterophylla]]'' from [[Réunion]] island, and ''[[Koa|Acacia koa]]'' from the [[Hawaiian Islands]] are excellent timber trees. ''Acacia farnesiana'' is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. An astringent medicine, called [[catechu]] or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from ''[[Acacia catechu]]'', by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. ===Ornamental uses=== A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in [[garden]]s; the most popular perhaps is ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as &quot;mimosa&quot; in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus ''[[Mimosa]]''. ===Culinary uses=== [[Acacia seed]]s are often used for food and a variety of other products. The seeds of ''[[Acacia niopo]]'', for instance, are roasted and used as [[snuff]] in [[South America]]. In [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], the feathery shoots of ''[[Acacia pennata]]'' (common name ''cha-om'') are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries. ===Pharmacological uses=== Many Acacia species contain some psychoactive alkaloids of which [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and [[N-methyltryptamine|NMT]] are the most prominent and useful. The leaves, stems and/or roots can be made into a brew together with some [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAOI]]-containing plant to obtain an effect when taken orally. This could be seen as a kind of ''[[Ayahuasca]]''. Maybe in relation to this effect, [[Egyptian mythology]] has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the [[tree of life]] (cf. article on the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]]). Alkaloids in different
source) *&quot;Israfel&quot; (1831) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Israfel Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The City in the Sea]]&quot; (1831) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_City_in_the_Sea Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;To One in Paradise&quot; (1834) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/To_One_In_Paradise Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Conqueror Worm]]&quot; (1837) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Conqueror_Worm Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Silence&quot; (1840) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Silence_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[Lenore]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lenore Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Dreamland&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dream-Land Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Divine Right of Kings (poem)|The Divine Right of Kings]]&quot; (1845) *&quot;[[The Raven (Edgar Allan Poe)|The Raven]]&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Raven_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource; [http://librivox.org/the-raven-by-edgar-allan-poe/ audio] at [http://librivox.org LibriVox]) *&quot;[[Ulalume]]&quot; (1847) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulalume Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[Eureka (Edgar Allan Poe)|Eureka]]&quot; (1848) a prose poem. *&quot;[[Annabel Lee]]&quot; (1849) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Annabel_Lee Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Bells]]&quot; (1849) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Bells Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[Eldorado]]&quot; (1849) ===Short Stories=== *&quot;[[MS. Found in a Bottle]]&quot; (1833) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/MS._Found_in_a_Bottle Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[Berenice (short story)|Berenice]]&quot; (1835) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Berenice Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[Ligeia]]&quot; (1838) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ligeia Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]&quot; (1839) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_House_of_Usher Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[William Wilson (short story)|William Wilson]]&quot; (1839) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/William_Wilson Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion]]&quot; (1839) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Conversation_of_Eiros_and_Charmion Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Masque of the Red Death]]&quot; (1842) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Masque_of_the_Red_Death Full Text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Pit and the Pendulum]]&quot; (1842) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pit_and_the_Pendulum Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Light-House]]&quot; (unfinished, published posthumously in 1909 and 1942) *&quot;[[The Gold Bug]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Gold-Bug Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Heart Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Black Cat (short story)|The Black Cat]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Black_Cat Full text] at Wikisource; [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-001/ audio] at [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]) *&quot;[[The Premature Burial]]&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Premature_Burial Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Balloon-Hoax]]&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Balloon-Hoax Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar]]&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Facts_in_the_Case_of_M._Valdemar Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Some Words with a Mummy&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Some_Words_with_a_Mummy Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;The Imp of the Perverse&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Imp_of_the_Perverse Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_System_of_Dr._Tarr_and_Prof._Fether] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Cask of Amontillado]]&quot; (1846) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Cask_of_Amontillado Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Spectacles (short story)|The Spectacles]]&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Spectacles Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Morella&quot; (1835) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Morella Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;The Thousand-And-Second Tale of Scheherazade&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Thousand-and-Second_Tale_of_Scheherazade Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;A Tale of Jerusalem&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Tale_of_Jerusalem Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;The Oblong Box&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Oblong_Box Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[A Descent into the Maelstrom]]&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Descent_into_the_Maelstrom Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;Hop-Frog, or The Eight Chained Ourang-Outangs&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hop-Frog Full text] at Wikisource) ====The [[Auguste Dupin]] stories==== *&quot;[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]]&quot; (1841) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Murders_in_the_Rue_Morgue Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Mystery of Marie Roget]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mystery_of_Marie_Rog%C3%AAt Full text] at Wikisource) *&quot;[[The Purloined Letter]]&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Purloined_Letter Full text] at Wikisource) ===Longer Works=== *''The Unparalleled Adventures of One Hans Pfall'' (1835) *''[[The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket]]'' (novel) (1838) ===Essays=== *&quot;[[Mechanical Turk|Maelzel's Chess-Player]]&quot; (1836) *&quot;Mesmeric Revelation&quot; (1844) *&quot;[[The Philosophy of Composition]]&quot; (1846) *&quot;The Rationale of Verse&quot; *&quot;[[Landor´s Cottage]]&quot; *&quot;The Domain of Arnheim&quot; *&quot;[[The Poetic Principle]]&quot; (Posthumously published, 1850) *&quot;[[Eureka (Edgar Allan Poe)|Eureka: An Essay on the Material and Spiritual Universe]]&quot; (1848) [http://www.eapoe.org/works/editions/eurekac.htm] (also known as &quot;Eureka: A Prose Poem&quot;) ===Play=== *'' Politian'' (fragment, 1835) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Scenes_from_Politian Scenes Full Text] at Wikisource) ==Adaptations== *Several of Poe's works were made into [[film|movie]]s, notably a series of movies directed by [[Roger Corman]] and starring [[Vincent Price]]. The [[1993]] [[film]] ''The Mummy Lives'', starring [[Tony Curtis]], screenplay by [[Nelson Gidding]], was suggested by Poe's ''Some Words with a Mummy'' ([[1845]]). * Vincent Price collaborated with actor [[Basil Rathbone]] on a collection of their readings of Poe's stories and poems. *Author [[Ray Bradbury]] is a great admirer of Poe, and has either featured Poe as a character or alluded to Poe's stories in many of his works. *[[Robert R. McCammon]] wrote ''Ushers Passing'', a sequel to ''Fall of the House of Usher'', published in [[1984]] *In [[1995]] several of Poe's stories were combined to make an interactive novel stylised as a video game called [http://www.adventuregamers.com/article/id,317 The Dark Eye]. *A double-[[Compact disc|CD]] organized by Hal Willner, &quot;[[Closed On Account of Rabies]]&quot; with poems and tales of Poe performed by artists as diverse as [[Christopher Walken]], [[Marianne Faithfull]], [[Iggy Pop]] and [[Jeff Buckley]] was issued in 1997. * &quot;The Black Cat&quot; was translated to ''[[giallo]]'' film as ''Eye of the Black Cat'' (a.k.a. ''Your Vice is a Locked Room and Only I have the Key'') *''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode 7F04, &quot;Treehouse of Horror,&quot; aired [[October 25]], [[1990]] contains a segment in which [[James Earl Jones]] reads Poe's poem &quot;The Raven,&quot; with [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] playing the narrator, [[Marge Simpson|Marge]] making a brief appearance as Lenore, and [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] as the raven. *In the [[Nintendo]] [[video game]] series ''[[The Legend Of Zelda]]'', the ghosts that feature throughout the games are called Poes. *Poe's &quot;The Cask of Amontillado&quot; has been animated as a [[brickfilm]] by Canadian animator, [http://logan.brickfilms.com/tcoa.htm Logan Wright]. It can be found online [http://www.brickfilms.com/filmview.php?filmID=719 here]. *In 2005, Lurker Films released an Edgar Allan Poe film collection on [[DVD]], including short film adaptations of &quot;[[Annabel Lee]]&quot; by director George Higham, &quot;[[The Raven]]&quot; by director Peter Bradley and &quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]&quot; by director Alfonso S. Suarez. == Selected Films Based on or Inspired By Poe's Life and Works== *''[[Edgar Allan Poe]] (1909) *''[[The Gold Bug]] (1910) - France *''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]] (1910) - Italy *''[[The Bells]] (1912) *''[[The Avenging Conscience]] (1914) *''[[The Tell Tale Heart]] (1928) *''[[The Fall of the House of Usher]] (1928) *''[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]] (1932) *''[[The Loves of Edgar Allan Poe]] (1942) *''[[Tell-Tale Heart]] (1953) *''[[The Phantom of the RueMorgue]] (1953) *''[[House of Usher]] (1960) *''[[The Tell-Tale Heart]] (1960) *''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]] (1961) *''[[The Premature Burial]] (1962) *''[[Tales of Terror]] (1962) *''[[The Raven]] (1963) *''[[The Masque of the Red Death]] (1964) *''[[Danza macabra]] (1964) *''[[The Tomb of Ligeia]] (1965) *''[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]] (1971) *''[[The Spectre of Edgar Allan Poe]] (1974) *''[[The Raven...Nevermore]] (1999) *''[[The Raven]] (short film - 2003) *''[[The Death of Poe]] (2005) *''[[Poe]] (2006) ==Poe as a character== *''When It Was Moonlight'', a short story by [[Manly Wade Wellman]] appeared in the February [[1940]] issue of ''[[Unknown (magazine)|Unknown]]'' *''[[The Loves of Edgar Allan Poe]]''([[1942]]); Poe is played by [[John Shepherd]] ( sometimes known as [[Shepherd Strudwick]]. *''[[Danza macabra]]'' ([[1964]]) [[horror film]] directed by [[Antonio Margheriti]]; Poe is played by Silvano Sorrente. *''[[Torture Garden]]''([[1967]]) [[horror film]] dire
or playful, but rather clinical and detached. Some examples of this type are ''terminate'', ''wet work'', to ''take care of'' one or to ''take them for a ride'', to ''do them in'', to ''off'', ''frag'', ''smoke'', ''whack'' or ''waste'' someone. To ''cut loose'' (from U.S. Sgt. Massey's account of activities during the American occupation of Iraq) or ''open up'' on someone, means 'to shoot at with every weapon available'. The [[Dead Parrot|Dead Parrot Sketch]] from [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]] contains an extensive list of euphemisms for death, referring to the deceased parrot that the character played by [[John Cleese]] purchases (the sketch has led to another euphemism for death: &quot;pining for the fjords&quot;, although in the sketch it was used by the shop owner to mean the parrot was ''not'' dead, but was merely quiet and contemplative). A similar passage occurs near the beginning of ''[[The Twelve Chairs]]'', where Bezenchuk, the undertaker, astonishes Vorobyaninov with his classification of people by the euphemisms used to speak of their deaths. ==Doublespeak== What distinguishes [[doublespeak]] from other euphemisms is its deliberate usage by governmental, military, or corporate institutions. Doublespeak is in turn distinguished from [[jargon]] in that doublespeak attempts to confuse and conceal the truth, while jargon often provides greater precision to those that understand it (while inadvertently confusing those who do not). An example of the distinction is the use by the military of the word ''casualties'' instead of ''deaths'' &amp;mdash; what may appear to be an attempt to hide the fact that people have been killed is actually a precise way of saying &quot;personnel who have been rendered incapable of fighting, whether by being killed, being badly wounded, psychologically damaged, incapacitated by disease, rendered ineffective by having essential equipment destroyed, or disabled in any other way.&quot; &quot;Casualties&quot; is used instead of &quot;deaths,&quot; not for propagandistic or squeamish reasons, but because most casualties are not dead, but nevertheless useless for waging war. Proper examples of doublespeak included ''taking friendly fire'' as a euphemism for being attacked by your own troops. Commentators such as [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[George Orwell]] have written at length about the dangers of allowing such euphemisms to shape public perceptions and national policy. Violent countercultural groups and their apologists have doublespeak of their own, such as replacing &quot;sabotage&quot; and &quot;vandalism&quot; with &quot;direct action.&quot; ==Common examples== Other common euphemisms include: * ''restroom'' for ''[[toilet]] room'' (the word ''toilet'' was itself originally a euphemism). This is an [[Americanism (general)|Americanism]]. * ''making love to'', ''getting it on'', ''doing it'', or ''sleeping with'' for ''having sexual intercourse with'' * ''motion discomfort bag'' and ''air-sickness bag'' for ''vomit bag'' or ''barf bag'' * ''sanitary landfill'' for ''garbage dump'' (and a temporary garbage dump is a ''transfer station'') *''pre-owned vehicles'' for ''used cars'' * ''the big C'' for ''cancer'' (in addition, some people whisper the word when they say it in public, and doctors have euphemisms to use in front of patients, e.g. &quot;c.a.&quot;) * ''bathroom tissue'', ''t.p.'', or ''bath tissue'' for [[toilet paper]] (Usually used by toilet paper manufacturers) * ''[[custodian]]'' for ''[[janitor]]'' (also originally a euphemism&lt;!-- for shit cleaner --&gt;&amp;mdash;in Latin, it means ''doorman''.) * ''sanitation worker'' (or, sarcastically, ''sanitation engineer'') for &quot;garbage man&quot; (also known as ''dustman'' in the U.K.) * ''Where can I wash my hands?'' or ''Where can I powder my nose?'' for ''Where can I find a toilet?''. (This is also an [[Americanism]]. If this question is asked in Europe to someone not used to American habits the person who asks the question might actually end up at a place where there is only a washbasin and not at a place equipped according to their needs.) These lists might suggest that most euphemisms are well-known expressions. Often euphemisms can be somewhat situational; what might be used as a euphemism in a conversation between two friends might make no sense to a third person. In this case, the euphemism is being used as a type of [[innuendo]]. As an example, in the [[television]] series ''[[The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air]]'', the Banks family (who are black) discuss Hilary's new boyfriend, who happens to be white, using ''tall'' as a euphemism for ''white''. Will, who apparently doesn't catch on, remarks that he is the only one who seems to notice the new boyfriend is white. The inflation of occupational titles is similar to the euphemism treadmill. For instance, the [[engineering]] professions have traditionally resisted the tendency by other technical trades to appropriate the prestige of the title ''engineer''. Most people calling themselves ''[[software engineering|software engineers]]'' or ''network engineers'' are not, in fact, accredited in engineering. Extreme cases, such as ''sanitation engineer'' for ''janitor'' are cited humorously more often than they are used seriously. In the [[television]] [[cartoon]] series &quot;[[The Flintstones]]&quot;, Fred takes a job as the live-in [[janitor|superintendent]] of a large apartment building and is given a title using the word ''engineer'' to make his job sound more important than it actually is. As he and his wife are moving in, a policeman is about to write him a [[parking ticket]] for being illegally parked in front of the building. He informs the officer that he is (as the building's owner referred to him) the &quot;''Resident Stationary Engineer''&quot; for the building. The cop turns to him and says, &quot;I don't care if you ''are'' the janitor, move this car now!&quot; Less extreme cases, such as ''custodian'' for ''[[janitor]]'', are considered more terms of respect than euphemisms. The word euphemism itself can be used as a euphemism. In the animated short ''It's Grinch Night'' (See [[Dr. Seuss]]), a child asks to go to the ''euphemism'', where ''euphemism'' is being used as a euphemism for ''[[outhouse]]''. This euphemistic use of &quot;euphemism&quot; originally occurred in the play ''[[Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]'' where a character requests, &quot;Martha, will you show her where we keep the, uh, euphemism?&quot;. It is analogous to the 18th-century use of ''unmentionables'' for ''underpants''. == See also == {{wiktionarycat|type=that are used as euphemisms|category=Euphemism}} * [[List of Euphemisms]] * [[Minced oaths]] * [[Bypassing]] * [[Politeness]] * [[Doublespeak]] * [[Spin (public relations)]] * [[Toilet humour]] * [[Fuck|F-word]] * [[Framing (communication theory)]] * [[Code word (figure of speech)]] * [[Thomas Bowdler|Bowdlerisation]] * [[Sexual slang]] ==References== * Rawson, Hugh, ''A Dictionary of Euphemism &amp; Other Doublespeak'', second edition, 1995. ISBN 0517702010 * R.W.Holder: ''How Not to Say What You Mean: A Dictionary of Euphemisms'', [[Oxford University Press]], 501 pages, 2003. ISBN 0198607628 * ''[[Maledicta]]: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression'' (ISSN US 0363-3659) ==External links== * [http://www.propagandacritic.com/articles/ct.wg.euphemism.html Propaganda critic: Euphemisms] * [http://phrontistery.50megs.com/longpig/dead.html Dead and Buried: Death Euphemisms] * [http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/faculty/cumming/ling50/euphemism+dysphemism.htm Language &amp;amp; Power: Euphemism and dysphemism] *[http://www.figarospeech.com Figures of speech, served up fresh] [[Category:slang]] [[Category:Figures of speech]] [[Category:Rhetoric]] [[Category:Propaganda]] {{Link FA|bg}} [[bg:Евфемизъм]] [[da:Eufemisme]] [[de:Euphemismus]] [[es:Eufemismo]] [[fr:Euphémisme]] [[io:Eufemismo]] [[is:Skrautyrði]] [[it:Eufemismo]] [[lb:Euphemismus]] [[hu:Eufemizmus]] [[nl:Eufemisme]] [[no:Eufemisme]] [[nn:Eufemisme]] [[pl:Eufemizm]] [[ru:Эвфемизм]] [[sk:Eufemizmus]] [[fi:Eufemismi]] [[sv:Eufemism]] [[zh:委婉]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edmund Spenser</title> <id>9536</id> <revision> <id>41723294</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:10:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.136.99.194</ip> </contributor> <comment>m</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EdmundSpenser.jpg|right|framed|Edmund Spenser]] '''Edmund Spenser''' (c. [[1552]] - [[13 January]], [[1599]]) was an [[England|English]] [[poet]] and [[Poet Laureate]]. Spenser is a controversial figure due to his zeal for the destruction of the [[Culture of Ireland|Irish culture]]. ==Life== Spenser was born circa 1552, and educated in London at the [[Merchant Taylors' School]]. He went to [[Ireland]] in the 1570s, during the [[Elizabethan]] re-conquest of the country, to acquire land and wealth there. From 1579 to 1580, he served with the English forces during the second of the [[Desmond Rebellions]], and afterwards was awarded lands in [[Cork]] that had been confiscated from the rebels in the [[Plantations_of_Ireland#The_Munster_Plantation|Munster Plantation]]. Amongst his acquaintances in the area was [[Walter Raleigh]] who, like Spenser, had been granted land in [[Munster]]. In the early [[1590s]] he wrote a prose pamphlet titled, ''A View on the Present State of Ireland''. This piece has become quite famous since it was published in the mid [[seventeenth century]], although it was not published in Spenser's lifetime, being thought too inflammatory. The pamphlet argued [[Ireland]] would never be totally 'pacified' until its indigenous language and customs had been destroyed, if necessary by violence. He recommended using scorched earth tactics, such as he had seen used in the Desmond Rebellions, to create famine. Although it has been highly regarded as a polemic
chnyafree.ru/index.php?lng=eng Free Chechnya site (in English)] *[http://www.watchdog.cz/ Prague Watchdog - collects and disseminates information on the conflict in Chechnya] *[http://www.aeronautics.ru/chechnya/cindex.htm War in Chechnya 1999] *[http://www.chechen.org/ The News Service of the ChRI President (in Russian)] *[http://www.chechnya-mfa.info/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the ChRI] *[http://www.chechenpress.co.uk/ The Chechenpress, official bilingual site of the ChRI news media] *[http://www.polosbastards.com/artman/publish/chechnya-history.shtml Russia's Splitting Headache - A Brief History Of Chechnya] *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/chechnya-sl/ Moderated Chechen news database in English] *[http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&amp;report_id=221&amp;language_id=1 PINR - Chechnya: Russia's Second Afghanistan] *[http://members.tripod.com/~ChechenianPhenomenon/ Almanac &quot;Chechenian Phenomenon&quot; in English and Russian] *[http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/chechnya/ CBC.ca News Indepth: Chechnya] *[http://www.gateway2russia.com/art/Current%20Topics/Who%20is%20to%20blame_252029.html Who is to blame?] *[http://web.archive.org/web/20041010191212/http://www.chechenpress.info/english/news/2004/08/30/02.shtml Opinion of a group of Baltic politicians regarding the latest presidential elections in Chechnya] *[http://www.russiavotes.org/Mood_int_cur.htm Russians polled on Chechnya] *[http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc04/EDOC10276.htm The PACE report on the Chechnya political situation] *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27550-2004Sep16.html WashingtonPost: Is there no solution to the nine-year-old Chechen bloodbath?] *[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/11/19/civiliandeath.shtml Casualties since 1994] *[http://www.einnews.com/russia/newsfeed.php?nid=16801&amp;afid=384 Einnews: Russia Today: Chechnya] *[http://www.canoe.ca/NewsStand/Columnists/Toronto/Eric_Margolis/2005/02/27/944231.html Chechen struggle ignored] *[http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2002/10/22/011.html Chechnya Population Inexplicably Swells] *[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/22/international/europe/22chechnya.html New York Times: Rights Group Reports Thousands of Disappearances in Chechnya] *[http://www.globalpolitician.com/articleshow.asp?ID=990&amp;cid=4&amp;sid=35 The Rise and Fall of Chechen Independence Movement] *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/chechen.html UT: Chechnya maps][http://harki.ath.cx/maps/chechnya.php?segment=b4 and a Chechnya topographical map] *[http://www.da.mod.uk/CSRC/documents/Special/S40/view?searchterm=chechnya CSRC: The Caspian: Comminatory Crosscurrents, Oil and geopolitics] *[http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1289/ Significant excerpts are available online for free at the Rand] *[http://www.da.mod.uk/CSRC/documents/Caucasus/ The CSRC publications in the Caucasus Series] *[http://www.jamestown.org/publications_view.php?publication_id=1/ The Jamestown Foundation, Chechnya weekly] *[http://www.gazeta.ru/2005/08/15/oa_167396.shtml Chechen Death Toll claimed to be 160,000 by Chechen Authorities (in Russian)] *[http://www.chechnyaadvocacy.org Chechnya Advocacy Network (in English)] *[http://www.freechechnya.com Free Chechnya] *[http://www.foxbat.ru/Chechnya.htm Russian Air Force in Chechnya] ==Further reading== *Vyacheslav Mironov. ''Ya byl na etoy voyne.'' (I was at this war) Biblion - Russkaya Kniga, 2001. Partial translation available online [http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/CHECHNYA/chechen_war.txt] *Matthew Evangelista, ''The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union?''. ISBN 0815724993. *Roy Conrad. ''A few days...'' Available online [http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/CHECHNYA/grozny_engl.txt] *Olga Oliker, ''Russia's Chechen Wars 1994 - 2000: Lessons from Urban Combat''. ISBN 0833029983. (A strategic and tactical analysis of the Chechen Wars.) *Charlotta Gall &amp; Thomas de Waal. ''Chechnya: A Small Victorious War''. ISBN 0330350757 *Paul J., Ph.D. Murphy. ''The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror''. ISBN 1574888307 *Anatol Lieven. ''Chechnya : Tombstone of Russian Power'' ISBN 0300078811 *John B Dunlop. ''Russia Confronts Chechnya : Roots of a Separatist Conflict'' ISBN 0521636191 *Paul Khlebnikov. ''Razgovor s varvarom'' (Interview with a barbarian). ISBN 5-89935-057-1. Available online in full [http://www.compromat.ru/main/chechya/nuhaevar.htm] *Marie Benningsen Broxup. ''The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance Towards the Muslim World''. ISBN 1850650691 *Anna Politkovskaya. ''A Small Corner of Hell : Dispatches from Chechnya'' ISBN 0226674320 *Chris Bird. ''&quot;To Catch a Tartar: Notes from the Caucasus&quot;'' [ISBN 0719565065] *Carlotta Gall, Thomas de Waal, ''Chechnya: Calamity in the Caucasus'' [ISBN 0814731325] * Yvonne Bornstein and Mark Ribowsky, &quot;Eleven Days of Hell: My True Story Of Kidnapping, Terror, Torture And Historic FBI &amp; KGB Rescue&quot; AuthorHouse, 2004. ISBN 1418493023. {{Subdivisions of Russia}} [[Category:Disputed territories]] [[Category:Chechnya| ]] [[ar:شيشان]] [[bg:Чеченска република]] [[ca:Txetxènia]] [[cs:Čečensko]] [[da:Tjetjenien]] [[de:Tschetschenien]] [[et:Tšetšeeni Vabariik]] [[es:Chechenia]] [[eo:Ĉeĉenio]] [[fr:Tchétchénie]] [[gl:Chechenia - Нохчичьо]] [[ko:체첸 공화국]] [[io:Chechenia]] [[id:Chechnya]] [[it:Cecenia]] [[he:צ'צ'ניה]] [[ka:ჩეჩნეთი]] [[lt:Čečėnija]] [[nl:Tsjetsjenië]] [[ja:チェチェン共和国]] [[no:Tsjetsjenia]] [[nn:Tsjetsjenia]] [[pl:Czeczenia]] [[pt:Chechênia]] [[ro:Cecenia]] [[ru:Чечня]] [[sh:Čečenija]] [[sr:Чеченија]] [[fi:Tšetšenia]] [[sv:Tjetjenien]] [[zh:车臣]] [[ce:Нохчийчоь]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canonization</title> <id>6097</id> <revision> <id>42004855</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:10:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TKE</username> <id>531146</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 40361405 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the process of declaring saints. For the canonization of Scripture, see [[Biblical canon]].'' '''Canonization''' is the process of declaring someone a [[saint]] and involves proving that a candidate has lived in such a way that he or she is worthy of sainthood. It is currently practised by the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] (including Churches of the [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Rites]]), by the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]], and by the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]].(Also the [[Church of England]] does not rule out canonization, however it has only ever canonized one man, see [[Charles I of England]].) ==Roman Catholicism== The process of an individual being declared a [[saint]] in the Roman Catholic Church began in the [[900s]], when the church in [[Rome]] demanded that all saints throughout her [[jurisdiction]] be added to an official list to be kept in Rome. Before that time, the name &quot;saint&quot; was applied more informally (as the plural form was often used in Scripture to designate the faithful), and many early saints have never been formally canonized. The first saint to be added to this official list was Saint [[Ulrich of Augsburg]], who was canonized in [[993]]. The process has become a detailed study of the life, writings, and after-life ([[miracle]]s) of the candidate. The process involves several steps, including [[beatification]], and the last is canonization. Canonization is taken very seriously. Most Roman Catholic theologians hold canonization to be an [[Infallibility of the Church|infallible]] act of the Church. In particular, [[Thomas Aquinas]] says, &quot;Since the honor we pay the saints is in a certain sense a profession of faith, i.e., a belief in the glory of the Saints [''quâ sanctorum gloriam credimus''] we must piously believe that in this matter also the judgment of the Church is not liable to error.&quot; ===Historical development of the process=== According to some writers the origin of beatification and canonization in the Catholic Church is the ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] [[apotheosis]]. [[Pope Benedict XIV]] examined and refuted this view. He showed that both the grounds for and meaning of apotheosis differ markedly from Christian beatification. Apotheosis often came from the statement of a single person that while the body of the new god was being burned, an eagle (for [[Roman Empire|emperors]]) or a peacock ([[Juno]]'s sacred bird) (for imperial consorts) was seen to carry heavenward the spirit of the departed ([[Livy]], Hist. Rome, I, xvi; [[Herodian]], Hist. Rome, IV, ii, iii). Apotheosis was awarded to most members of the imperial family, with no regard to virtues or remarkable achievements. Also, apotheosis was often given to escape popular hatred by distracting attention from the cruelty of imperial rulers. [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] was deified by the senators who slew him; [[Poppaea]] owed her apotheosis to her imperial paramour, [[Nero]], after he had kicked her to death; [[Geta]] had the honour from his brother [[Caracalla]], who had got rid of him through jealousy. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, canonizes or beatifies only those whose lives have been marked by heroic virtue, and only after this has been proved by common repute for sanctity and by conclusive arguments. Finally, the Church sees saints as nothing more than friends and servants of God whose holy lives have nevertheless made them worthy of His special love. This is why Catholics do not &quot;worship&quot; saints. The origin of canonization and beatification comes from the Catholic doctrine of the devotion to, invocation and intercession of the saints. As was taught by St. Augustine, Catholics honour God in His saints as the loving distributor of supernatural gifts. [[Scholastics|Scholastic]] theologians have defined three types of worship. Strict adoration, or ''latria'' (&amp;lambda;&amp;a
ion = ***[[Sponge|Porifera]] (sponges) ***[[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies) ***[[Cnidaria]] (coral, jellyfish, anemones) ***[[Trichoplax|Placozoa]] (trichoplax) *'''''Subregnum [[Bilateria]]''''' ([[symmetry (biology)|bilateral symmetry]]) ***[[Acoelomorpha]] (basal) ***[[Orthonectida]] (parasitic to flatworms, echinoderms, etc.) ***[[Rhombozoa]] (dicyemids) ***[[Myxozoa]] (slime animals) **'''Superphylum [[Deuterostome|Deuterostomia]]''' (blastopore becomes anus) ***[[Chordate|Chordata]] (vertebrates, etc.) ***[[Hemichordata]] (acorn worms) ***[[Echinoderm]]ata (starfish, urchins) ***[[Chaetognatha]] ([[arrow worm]]s and [[Pterobranchia]]) **'''Superphylum [[Ecdysozoa]]''' (shed exoskeleton) ***[[Kinorhyncha]] (mud dragons) ***[[Loricifera]] ***[[Priapulida]] (priapulid worms) ***[[Nematoda]] (roundworms) ***[[Nematomorpha]] (horsehair worms) ***[[Onychophora]] (velvet worms) ***[[Tardigrada]] (water bears) ***[[Arthropoda]] (insects, etc.) **'''Superphylum [[Platyzoa]]''' ***[[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) ***[[Gastrotricha]] (gastrotrichs) ***[[Rotifera]] (rotifers) ***[[Acanthocephala]] (acanthocephalans) ***[[Gnathostomulida]] (jaw worms) ***[[Micrognathozoa]] (limnognathia) ***[[Cycliophora]] (pandora) **'''Superphylum [[Lophotrochozoa]]''' (trochophore larvae / lophophores) ***[[Sipuncula]] (peanut worms) ***[[Nemertea]] (ribbon worms) ***[[Phoronida]] (horseshoe worms) ***[[Bryozoa]] (moss animals) ***[[Entoprocta]] (goblet worms) ***[[Brachiopoda]] (brachipods) ***[[Mollusca]] (mollusks) ***[[Annelida]] (segmented worms) }} {{redirect|Animalia|the book by Graeme Base|[[Animalia (book)]]}}{{otheruses}} '''Animals''' are a major group of [[organism]]s, classified as the [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] '''Animalia''' or '''Metazoa'''. In general they are [[multicellular]], capable of locomotion and responsive to their environment, and feed by consuming other organisms. Their body plan becomes fixed as they develop, usually early on in their [[ontogeny|development]] as [[embryo]]s, although some undergo a process of [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] later on. The name animal comes from the [[Latin]] word ''animal'', of which ''animalia'' is the plural, and ultimately from ''anima'', meaning vital breath or soul. ==Characteristics== Kingdom Animalia has several characteristics that set it apart from other living things. Animals are [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] and [[multicellular]], which separates them from [[bacteria]] and most [[protist]]s. They are [[Heterotroph|heterotrophic]], generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from [[plant]]s and [[alga]]e. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and [[fungus|fungi]] by lacking cell walls. ==Structure== With a few exceptions, most notably the [[sponge|sponges]] (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differentiated into separate [[biological tissue|tissues]]. These include [[muscle]]s, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a [[nervous system]], which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal [[digestion|digestive]] chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or [[eumetazoan]]s when the former is used for animals in general. All animals have [[eukaryotic]] cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of [[collagen]] and elastic [[glycoprotein]]s. This may be calcified to form structures like [[shell]]s, [[bone]]s, and [[spicule]]s. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: [[tight junction]]s, [[gap junction]]s, and [[desmosome]]s. ==Reproduction and development== Nearly all animals undergo some form of [[sexual reproduction]]. Adults are [[diploid]] or occasionally [[polyploid]]. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo [[meiosis]] to produce smaller motile [[spermatozoon|spermatozoa]] or larger non-motile [[ovum|ova]]. These fuse to form [[zygote]]s, which develop into new individuals. Many animals are also capable of [[asexual reproduction]]. This may take place through [[parthenogenesis]], where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation. A [[zygote]] initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a [[blastula]], which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first [[invagination|invaginates]] to form a [[gastrula]] with a digestive chamber, and two separate [[germ layer]]s - an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs. Animals grow by indirectly using the energy of [[sunlight]]. Plants use this [[energy]] to turn air into simple [[sugars]] using a process known as [[photosynthesis]]. These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as [[glycolysis]]. ==Origin and fossil record== Animals are generally considered to have evolved from [[flagellate]] protozoa. Their closest living relatives are the [[choanoflagellate]]s, collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do. Molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the [[opisthokont]]s, which also include the [[fungus|fungi]] and a few small parasitic [[protist]]s. The name comes from the posterior location of the [[flagellum]] in motile cells, such as most animal sperm, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella. The first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the [[Precambrian]], around 600 million years ago, and are known as the [[Vendian biota]]. These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all. Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the [[Cambrian]] period, about 570 million years ago. It is still disputed whether this event, called the [[Cambrian explosion]], represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible. ==Groups of animals== [[Image:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg|thumb|left|Elephant ear [[sponge]]]] The sponges ([[Porifera]]) diverged from other animals early. As mentioned, they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through [[pore]]s. [[Archaeocyatha]], which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a separate phylum. [[Image:Brain_coral.jpg|thumb|right|[[Brain Coral]]]] Among the eumetazoan phyla, two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. These are the [[Cnidaria]], which include [[sea anemone]]s, [[coral]]s, and [[jellyfish]], and the [[Ctenophora]] or comb jellies. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into [[organ (anatomy)|organs]]. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called [[diploblastic]]. The tiny phylum [[Placozoa]] is similar, but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber. The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the [[Bilateria]]. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is [[triploblastic]], i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however - for instance adult [[echinoderm]]s are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures. [[Image:Common_clownfish.jpg|thumb|right|[[Clownfish]] in their [[Sea Anemone]] home]] Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to four major lineages: # [[Deuterostomes]] # [[Ecdysozoa]] # [[Platyzoa]] # [[Lophotrochozoa]] In addition to these, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups. These include the [[Acoelomorpha]], [[Rhombozoa]], and [[Orthonectida]]. The [[Myxozoa]], single-celled parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have developed from the Bilateria as well. [[Image:Magellanic-penguin02.jpg|thumb|left|the [[Magellanic Penguin]]]] ===Deuterostomes=== [[Deuterostome]]s differ from the other Bilateria, called [[protostome]]s, in several ways. In both cases there is a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes the initial opening (the [[archenteron]]) develops into the mouth, and an anus forms separately. In deuterostomes this is reversed. In most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes it for
d Frank Sinatra but we got [[Motörhead]] instead.&quot; The music was actually more reminiscent of [[the Meters]] rather than Motörhead. Connick also took his funk music to the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1995]], playing at the [[Shanghai Center Theatre]]. The performance was televised live in China for what became known as the [[Shanghai]] [[Gumbo]] special. Connick played a homicidal killer in his third film, ''[[Copycat (movie)|Copycat]]'' (1995), which starred [[Holly Hunter]] and [[Sigourney Weaver]]. The next year, he released his second funk album, ''[[Star Turtle]]'', which did not sell as well as previous albums, although it did reach No. 38 on the charts. However, he appeared in the most successful movie of that year, ''[[Independence Day (movie)]]'', with [[Will Smith]] and [[Jeff Goldblum]]. ==Back to basics: return to jazz, 1999&amp;mdash;current== For his [[1997]] release ''[[To See You]]'', Connick recorded original love songs, touring the United States and Europe with a full symphony orchestra backing him and his piano in each city. As part of his tour, he played at the [[Nobel Peace Prize Concert]] in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]], with his final concert of that tour in [[Paris]] being recorded for a [[St. Valentine's Day]] special on PBS in [[1998]]. He also starred in ''[[Excess Baggage]]'' opposite [[Alicia Silverstone]] and [[Benicio del Toro]] in 1997. In May 1998, he had his first leading role in a movie in ''[[Hope Floats]]'', with [[Sandra Bullock]] as his female lead. He released ''[[Come By Me]]'', his first album of [[big band]] music in eight years in [[1999]], and embarked on a world tour visiting the United States, Europe, Japan and Australia. In addition, he provided the voice of Dean McCoppin in the animated film ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' in that year. Connick was involved in writing the soundtrack for [[Susan Stroman]]'s [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Musical theater|musical]] ''[[Thou Shalt Not (musical)|Thou Shalt Not]]'', based on [[Émile Zola]]'s novel ''[[Thérèse Raquin]]'', in [[2000]]; it premiered in [[2001]]. It was nominated for a [[Tony Award]]. He was also the narrator of the film ''[[My Dog Skip]]'', released in that year. In March 2001, Connick starred in a television production of ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' with [[Glenn Close]], televised on the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] network. He also starred in his twelfth movie, ''[[Mickey (2004 movie)|Mickey]]'', featuring a screenplay by [[John Grisham]] that same year. In October 2001, he again released two albums: ''[[Songs I Heard]]'', featuring big band reworkings of children's show themes, and ''[[30 (album)|30]]'', featuring Connick on piano with guest appearances by several other musical artists. ''Songs I Heard'' won Connick another Grammy for best traditional pop album and he toured performing songs from the album, holding matinees at which each parent had to be accompanied by a child. Connick appeared as Grace Adler's boyfriend (and later husband) [[Leo Markus]] on the [[NBC]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' from [[2002]] to [[2004]]. In July 2003, Connick released his first instrumental album in fifteen years, ''[[Other Hours Connick on Piano Volume 1]]''. It was released on [[Branford Marsalis]]'s new label [[Marsalis Music]] and led to a short tour of nightclubs and small theaters. [[Image:Connick_Harry.jpg|thumb|right|205px|Harry Connick Jr., promo picture ''[[Only You (Harry Connick Jr)|Only You]]'' (2004)]] Connick appeared in the film ''[[Basic (movie)|Basic]]'' with [[John Travolta]] and [[Samuel L. Jackson]]. In October 2003, he released his second Christmas album, ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'', which went gold and reached No. 12 on the [[Billboard 200]] album chart. He also had a television special on [[NBC]] featuring [[Whoopi Goldberg]], [[Nathan Lane]], [[Marc Anthony]] and [[Kim Burrell]]. ''[[Only You (Harry Connick Jr)|Only You]]'', his seventeenth album for Columbia Records, was released in February [[2004]]. A collection of [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] ballads, ''Only You'', went Top Ten on both sides of the Atlantic and was certified gold in the United States in March 2004. The ''Only You'' tour with big band went on in America, Australia and a short trip to Asia. ''Harry for the Holidays'' was certified platinum in November 2004. A music DVD ''Harry Connick Jr. - &quot;Only You&quot; in Concert'' was released in March 2004, after it had first aired as a ''Great Performances'' special on [[PBS]]. The special won him an [[Emmy]] for Outstanding Music Direction. The DVD received a Gold &amp; Platinum Music Video - Long Form awards from the RIAA in November 2005. An animated holiday special, ''[[The Happy Elf]]'', aired on NBC in December 2005, and had Connick as the composer, the narrator, and one of the executive producers. Shortly after, it was released on DVD. The holiday special was based on his original song ''The Happy Elf'', from his 2003 album ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]''. Another album from [[Marsalis Music]] was recorded in 2005, ''[[Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2]]'', a duo album with Harry Connick, Jr on piano together with [[Branford Marsalis]] on saxophone. A music dvd, ''[[A Duo Occasion]]'', was filmed at the [[Ottawa International Jazz Festival]] 2005 in Canada, and released in November 2005. He appeared in another episode of NBC sitcom ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' in November 2005, and will appear in additional 3 episodes in 2006. ''[[Bug (2006 movie)|Bug]]'', a film directed by [[William Friedkin]], is a psychological thriller filmed in 2005, starring Connick, [[Ashley Judd]], and Michael Shannon. The film will be released in 2006. He is currently starring in the Broadway revival of ''[[The Pajama Game]]'', produced by the Roundabout Theater Company, along with [[Michael McKean]] and [[Kelli O'Hara]], at the ''American Airlines Theatre''. It opened [[February 23]] [[2006]], and is scheduled to run until [[June 18]] [[2006]]. ==Involvement for Hurricane Katrina Victims== ===NBC-sponsored [[benefit concert]]=== On September 2, 2005, Harry Connick, Jr. helped to organize, and appeared in, the [[NBC]]-sponsored live telethon concert, ''[[A Concert for Hurricane Relief]]'', for relief in the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. As a native son of New Orleans, he spent several days touring the city, attempting to draw attention to the plight of citizens stranded at the [[New Orleans Convention Center]] and other places. At the concert he paired with host [[Matt Lauer]] ([[Today Show]]), and entertainers including [[Tim McGraw]], [[Faith Hill]], [[Kanye West]], [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]], and [[John Goodman]]. ===Habitat For Humanity=== 6 September 2005, New Orleans native Harry Connick Jr. is made honorary chair of [[Habitat for Humanity]]’s “[[Habitat for Humanity|Operation Home Delivery]],” a long-term rebuilding plan for families victimized by Hurricane Katrina in the [[Big Easy]] and along the [[Gulf Coast]]. ====Musicians' Village==== Harry Connick Jr. and [[Branford Marsalis]] came up with an initiative to help restore [[New Orleans]]'s musical [[Cultural heritage|heritage]]. Habitat for Humanity and New Orleans Area Habitat for Humanity, working with Harry Connick Jr. and Branford Marsalis announced December 6, 2005, plans for a Musicians' Village in New Orleans. The Musicians' Village will include Habitat-constructed homes, with a ''Ellis Marsalis Center for Music'', as the area's centerpiece. The Habitat-built homes will provide [[musicians]] of modest means the opportunity to buy decent, affordable housing. '''External links''' *[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10995263/ Article, including 2 video clips] at msnbc.msn.com *[https://www.habitat.org/giving/donate.aspx?link=75 Musicians' Village/New Orleans] at habitat.org ===Benefit Albums=== * 2005 ''[[Hurricane Relief: Come Together Now]]'' - track #5 &quot;[[City Beneath The Sea]]&quot; disc.1 ([[RIAA]] will donate 100% of its net proceeds from the sale of this CD in equal parts to the [[American Red Cross]], [[Habitat for Humanity]] and [[MusiCares]] Hurricane Relief 2005) * 2005 ''[[A Celebration of New Orleans Music to benefit the MusiCares Hurricane Relief Fund]]'' - track #3 &quot;Good to Be Home&quot; (All proceeds will go to the [[MusiCares]] Hurricane Relief Fund) ==Discography== ===Albums=== * 2005 ''[[Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2]]'' * 2004 ''[[Only You (Harry Connick Jr)|Only You]]'' * 2003 ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'' * 2003 ''[[Other Hours : Connick on Piano, Volume 1]]'' * 2002 ''[[Thou Shalt Not (musical)#Cast_Recording|Thou Shalt Not]]'' (original [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] cast recording) * 2001 ''[[Songs I Heard]]'' * 2001 ''[[30 (album)|30]]'' * 1999 ''[[Come By Me]]'' * 1997 ''[[To See You]]'' * 1996 ''[[Star Turtle]]'' * 1994 ''[[She (album)|She]]'' * 1993 ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas]]'' * 1992 ''[[25 (album)|25]]'' * 1991 ''[[Blue Light, Red Light]]'' * 1990 ''[[Lofty's Roach Souffle]]'' * 1990 ''[[We Are in Love]]'' * 1989 ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' (soundtrack) * 1988 ''[[20 (album)|20]]'' * 1987 ''[[Harry Connick Jr. (album)|Harry Connick Jr.]]'' * 1978 ''[[11 (Harry Connick Jr. album)|Eleven]]'' * 1977 ''[[Dixieland Plus]]'' ===Soundtrack Appearances=== * 2001 ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' - Various Artists - #9 &quot;Younger Than Springtime&quot;, #14 &quot;You've Got To Be Carefully Taught&quot; and #17 &quot;My Girl Back Home&quot; * 1998 ''[[Kissing a Fool]]'' - Various Artists - &quot;[[To See You|Learn to Love]]&quot; and &quot;[[We Are in Love]]&quot; (appears in the movie, not on the soundtrack) * 1996 ''[[One Fine Day]]'' - Various Artists - #11 &quot;This Guy's In Love With You&quot; * 1994 ''[[The Mask]]'' - Various Artists - #5 &quot;[[She (album)|(I Could Only) Whisper Your Name]]&quot; * 1993 ''[[Sleepless In Seattle]]'' - Various Artists - #8 &quot;A Wink And A Smile&quot; * 1990 ''[[The
uminati'' refers specifically to the ''[[Bavaria|Bavarian]] Illuminati'', perhaps the least secret of all [[Secret society|secret societies]] in the world, described below. Most use refers to an alleged shadowy [[conspiracy theory|conspiratorial]] organization which controls world affairs behind the scenes, usually a modern incarnation or continuation of the Bavarian Illuminati. ''Illuminati'' is sometimes used synonymously with [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]. == Origins == Since ''Illuminati'' literally means 'enlightened ones' in [[Latin]], it is natural that several unrelated historical groups have identified themselves as ''Illuminati''. Often, this was due to claims of possessing [[Gnosticism| gnostic]] texts or other arcane information not generally available. The designation ''illuminati'' was in use from the [[14th century]] by the [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]. In the [[15th century]] the name was adopted by other enthusiasts who claimed that the illuminating light came, not by communication from an authoritative or secret source, but from within, as the result of exalted consciousness, or &quot;[[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]&quot;. === Alumbrados of Spain === To the gnostic class belong the ''alumbrados'' of Spain. The historian [[Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo]] found the name as early as [[1492]] (in the form ''aluminados'', [[1498]]), and traced the group to a Gnostic origin. He thought their views were promoted in [[Spain]] through influences from [[Italy]]. One of their earliest leaders, born in [[Salamanca]], was a labourer's daughter known as [[La Beata de Piedrahita]]. She came to the notice of the [[Spanish inquisition|Inquisition]] in [[1511]], by claiming to hold colloquies with [[Jesus]] and the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]; some high patronage saved her from a rigorous denunciation. (Menéndez Pelayo, ''Los Heterodoxos Españoles'', [[1881]], vol. V.). [[Ignatius Loyola]], while studying at Salamanca in [[1527]], was brought before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the ''alumbrados'', but escaped with an admonition. Others were not so fortunate. In [[1529]] a congregation of naïve adherents at Toledo was subjected to whippings and imprisonment. Greater rigors followed, and for about a century alleged connection with the ''alumbrados'' sent many to the Inquisition, especially at [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. ===Illuminés of France=== The movement (under the name of ''Illuminés'') seems to have reached [[France]] from [[Seville]] in [[1623]], and attained some following in [[Picardy]] when joined ([[1634]]) by [[Pierce Guerin]], curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as [[Gurinet]]s, were suppressed in [[1635]]. A century later, another, more obscure body of ''Illuminés'' came to light in the south of France in [[1722]], and appears to have lingered till [[1794]], having affinities with those known contemporaneously in [[Britain]] as 'French Prophets', an offshoot of the [[Camisards]] === Rosicrucians === Different from the lluminés were the [[Rosicrucians]], who claimed to have originated in [[1407]], but rose to notice in [[1614]] when their main text ''Fama Fraternitatis'' appeared. As a [[secret society]], they claimed to combine the possession of esoteric principles of [[religion]] with the mysteries of [[alchemy]]. Their positions are described in three anonymous treatises from [[1614]] (mentioned in Richard and Giraud, ''Dictionnaire universel des sciences ecclésiastiques'', Paris 1825), as well as in the ''Confessio Fraternitatis'' of 1615. Rosicrucians also claimed heritage from the [[Knights Templar]]. === Martinists === Later, the title '''Illuminati''' was applied to the [[French Martinists]], which had been founded in [[1754]] by [[Martinez Pasqualis]], and to their imitators the [[Russian Martinists]], headed about [[1790]] by Professor Schwartz of [[Moscow]]; both were [[occultist]] [[Kabbalah|cabalists]] and [[allegorists]], absorbing eclectic ideas from [[Jakob Boehme]] and [[Emanuel Swedenborg]]. == The Bavarian Illuminati == === History === A movement of [[freethought|freethinkers]] that were the most radical offshoot of [[The Enlightenment]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; whose adherents were given the name ''Illuminati'' (but who called themselves &quot;Perfectibilists&quot;)&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; was founded on [[May 1]], [[1776]] by Jesuit-taught [[Adam Weishaupt]] (d. [[1830]]), who was the first lay professor of [[canon law]]. The group has also been called the ''Illuminati Order'', the ''Order of the Illuminati'', the ''Ancient Illuminated Seers of Bavaria'', and the ''Bavarian Illuminati''. In the conservative state of [[Bavaria]], where the progressive and enlightened elector [[Maximilian III Joseph]] von [[Wittelsbach]] was succeeded (1777) by his conservative heir [[Karl Theodor]], and which was dominated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[aristocracy]], such an organization did not last long before it was suppressed by the powers of the day. In [[1784]], the Bavarian government banned all [[secret societies]], including the Illuminati and the [[Freemason]]s. The structure of the Illuminati soon collapsed, but while it was in existence many influential intellectuals and progressive politicians counted themselves as members. Its members were supposedly drawn primarily from [[Freemasonry|Masons]] and former Masons, and although some Masons were known to be members there is no evidence that it was supported by Freemasons. The members pledged obedience to their superiors, and were divided into three main classes: the first, known as the ''Nursery'', encompassed the ascending degrees or offices of ''Preparation'', ''Novice'', ''Minerval'' and ''Illuminatus Minor''; the second, known as the ''Masonry'', consisting of the ascending degrees of ''Illuminatus Major'' and ''Illuminatus dirigens'', the latter also sometimes called ''Scotch Knight''; the third, designated the ''Mysteries'', was subdivided into the degrees of the ''Lesser Mysteries'' (''Presbyter'' and ''Regent'') and those of the ''Greater Mysteries'' (''Magus'' and ''Rex''). Relations with Masonic lodges were established at [[Munich]] and [[Freising]] in [[1780]]. The order had its branches in most countries of the European continent; its members were reportedly around 3,000-4,000 members in the span of 10 years. The scheme had its attraction for literary men, such as [[Goethe]] and [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and even for the reigning dukes of [[Gotha (district)|Gotha]] and [[Weimar]]. Internal rupture preceded its downfall, which was effected by an edict of the Bavarian government in [[1785]]. === Cultural effect === The Bavarian Illuminati have cast a long shadow in popular history thanks to the writings of their opponents; the lurid allegations of [[conspiracy]] that have colored the image of the [[Freemasons]] have practically opaqued that of the Illuminati. In 1797, Abbé [[Augustin Barruél]] published ''Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism'' outlining a vivid [[conspiracy theory]] involving the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Rosicrucian]]s, the [[Jacobinism|Jacobins]] and the Illuminati. A [[Scotland|Scottish]] Mason and professor of natural history named [[John Robison]] started to publish ''Proofs of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe'' in 1798. Robison claimed to present evidence of an Illuminati conspiracy striving to replace all religions with [[humanism]] and all nations with a single world government. More recently, [[Antony C. Sutton]] suggested that the secret society [[Skull and Bones]] was founded as the American branch of the Illuminati; others think [[Scroll and Key]] had Illuminati origins, as well. Writer [[Robert Gillette]] claimed that these Illuminati ultimately intend to establish a [[world government]] through [[assassination]], [[bribery]], [[blackmail]], the control of [[bank]]s and other financial powers, the [[infiltration]] of [[government]]s, [[mind control]], and by causing [[war]]s and [[revolution]] to move their own people into higher positions in the [[politics|political]] [[hierarchy]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]], on the other hand, claimed they intended to spread information and the principles of true [[morality]]. He attributed the secrecy of the Illuminati to what he called &quot;the tyranny of a despot and priests&quot;. Both seem to agree that the enemies of the Illuminati were the [[monarch]]s of [[Europe]] and the [[Church]]; Barruél claimed that the [[French revolution]] ([[1789]]) was engineered and controlled by the Illuminati through the [[Jacobinism|Jacobins]], and later conspiracy theorists have also claimed their responsibility for the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] ([[1917]]), although the order was officially shut down in [[1790]]. Few historians give credence to these views; they regard such claims as the products of over-fertile imaginations. Several sources suggest that the Bavarian Illuminati survived, and perhaps even exists today. Conspiracy theorists highlight the link between the Illuminati and Freemasonry. It is also suggested that the United States' founding fathers&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; some being Freemasons&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; were rife with corruption from the Illuminati. Often the symbol of the all-seeing pyramid in the [[Great Seal of the United States]] is cited as an example of the Illuminati's ever-present watchful eye over Americans. Very little reliable evidence can be found to suggest that Weishaupt's group survived into the 19th century. However, several groups have since used the name ''Illuminati'' to found their own rites, claiming to be ''the'' Illuminati. Such groups include the Grand Lodge Rockefeller of David Goldman (USA), Orden Illuminati of Gabriel López de Rojas (Spain), and The Illuminati Order of Solomon Tulbure (USA). In 1995, Gabriel López de Rojas founded Illumin
a Europe Day - [[May 9]]. See [[European symbols#Europe Day|European Symbols]].) To avoid confusion with the [[European Union]], which uses the same flag, the Council often uses a modified version with a stylised lower-case 'e' in the centre of the stars which is referred to as the 'Council of Europe Logo' [http://www.coe.int/02/Logo/Pictures/LogoCoE/LogoCoe.jpg]. == Membership == [[Image:Council of Europe map.png|thumb|300px|'''Council of Europe membership'''&lt;br&gt; {{legend|#008000|ten original members}} {{legend|#00ff00|joined subsequently}} {{legend|#ffff00|observer at the Parliamentary Assembly}} {{legend|#ffc000|observer at the Committee of Ministers}} {{legend|#ff0000|official candidate}}]] Today, there are 46 member states, including nearly every European state. Upon foundation on [[May 5]], [[1949]] there were ten members: *{{BEL}} *{{DNK}} *{{FRA}} *{{IRL}} *{{ITA}} *{{LUX}} *{{NLD}} *{{NOR}} *{{SWE}} *{{UK}} Members with later admission dates (sorted by date of admission) : *{{GRC}} ([[9 August]] [[1949]]) *{{TUR}} ([[9 August]] [[1949]]) *{{ICE}} ([[9 March]] [[1950]]) *{{DEU}} [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[13 July]] [[1950]]) *{{AUT}} ([[16 April]] [[1956]]) *{{CYP}} ([[24 May]] [[1961]]) *{{CHE}} ([[6 May]] [[1963]]) *{{MLT}} ([[29 April]] [[1965]]) *{{PRT}} ([[22 September]] [[1976]]) *{{ESP}} ([[24 November]] [[1977]]) *{{LIE}} ([[23 November]] [[1978]]) *{{SMR}} ([[16 November]] [[1988]]) *{{FIN}} ([[5 May]] [[1989]]) *{{HUN}} ([[6 November]] [[1990]]) *{{POL}} ([[26 November]] [[1991]]) *{{BGR}} ([[7 May]] [[1992]]) *{{EST}} ([[14 May]] [[1993]]) *{{LTU}} ([[14 May]] [[1993]]) *{{SVN}} ([[14 May]] [[1993]]) *{{CZE}} ([[30 June]] [[1993]]) *{{SVK}} ([[30 June]] [[1993]]) *{{ROU}} ([[7 October]] [[1993]]) *{{AND}} ([[10 October]] [[1994]]) *{{LVA}} ([[10 February]] [[1995]]) *{{ALB}} ([[13 July]] [[1995]]) *{{MOL}} ([[13 July]] [[1995]]) *{{MKD}} ([[9 November]] [[1995]]) *{{UKR}} ([[9 November]] [[1995]]) *{{RUS}} ([[28 February]] [[1996]]) *{{HRV}} ([[6 November]] [[1996]]) *{{GEO}} ([[27 April]] [[1999]]) *{{ARM}} ([[25 January]] [[2001]]) *{{AZE}} ([[25 January]] [[2001]]) *{{BiH}} ([[24 April]] [[2002]]) *{{SCG}} ([[3 April]] [[2003]]) *{{MON}} ([[5 October]] [[2004]]) The Parliament of {{BLR}} held special guest status with the Parliamentary Assembly from September 1992 to January 1997, but this has been suspended as a consequence of the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections which the CoE found to be undemocratic, as well as limits on democratic freedoms such as [[freedom of expression]] (cf. [[Belarusian media]]) under the authoritarian regime of President [[Lukashenko]]. The constitution changed by the referendum &quot;does not respect minimum democratic standards and violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law.&quot; [http://press.coe.int/cp/97/11a(97).htm]. Belarus applied for full membership on [[12 March]] [[1993]] (still open). {{KAZ}} applied for observer status at the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly]] in [[1999]]. The official response of PACE was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at [[Council of Europe|CoE]] until their [[democracy]] and [[human rights]] records improved. The {{VAT}} has observer status at the [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]] since [[1970]]. Some non-European states also have observer status at Council of Europe institutions: :{{JPN}} and the {{USA}} have observer status at the [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]]. :{{ISR}} Has observer status at the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly]]. :{{CAN}} and {{MEX}} have observer status at both the [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]] and the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly]]. ==See also== *[[Europe]] *[[European Union]] *[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] *[[Common European Framework of Reference for Languages]] *[[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] ==External links== {{Wikisource|Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities}} *[http://www.coe.int/ Council of Europe] - Official site *[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=001&amp;CM=8&amp;DF=23/01/05&amp;CL=ENG Statute of the Council of Europe] [[Category:Council of Europe| ]] [[Category:European politics]] [[Category:International organizations]] [[Category:Strasbourg]] [[bg:Съвет на Европа]] [[br:Kuzul Europa]] [[ca:Consell d'Europa]] [[cs:Rada Evropy]] [[cy:Cyngor Ewrop]] [[da:Europarådet]] [[de:Europarat]] [[el:Συμβούλιο της Ευρώπης]] [[es:Consejo de Europa]] [[eo:Konsilio de Eŭropo]] [[fr:Conseil de l'Europe]] [[ht:Konsey d Ewòp]] [[is:Evrópuráðið]] [[it:Consiglio d'Europa]] [[lt:Europos taryba]] [[hu:Európa Tanács]] [[nl:Raad van Europa]] [[ja:欧州評議会]] [[no:Europarådet]] [[pl:Rada Europy]] [[pt:Conselho da Europa]] [[ru:Совет Европы]] [[sl:Svet Evrope]] [[fi:Euroopan neuvosto]] [[sv:Europarådet]] [[tr:Avrupa Konseyi]] [[uk:Рада Європи]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Council of the European Union</title> <id>5866</id> <revision> <id>40467506</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:51:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tazmaniacs</username> <id>777928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>actualization</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}} The '''Council of the European Union''' ([[French language|French]]: Le Conseil de l'Union Européenne, [[German language|German]]: Rat der Europäischen Union) forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). The Council of the European Union contains ministers of the governments of each of the [[European Union member states]]. It is sometimes referred to in official European Union documents simply as the Council or the '''Council of Ministers'''. [[Working language]]s of the Council are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]]. The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is a Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is the head of the Council Secretariat, chosen by the member states by unanimity. The Secretary-General also serves as the [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] ([[Common Foreign and Security Policy|CFSP]]). The Council is assisted by [[Committee of Permanent Representatives]] ([[COREPER]]) , which consists of the ambassadors or their deputies from the diplomatic representations of the Member States to the European Communities. COREPER generally prepares the Council agenda, and negotiates minor and non-controversial matters, leaving controversial issues for discussion, and other issues for formal agreement, by the Council. Below COREPER, civil servants from the member states negotiate in Council [[working group]]s, often reaching de facto agreement which is formalised through COREPER and the Council of Ministers. The Council and its preparatory bodies are supported by European career civil servants (approximately three thousand as of July 2005) providing general advice, qualified legal advice, translation services and impartial negotiation assistance. The Council of the European Union should be distinguished from the [[European Council]], which meets four times a year in what is informally known as the 'European Summit' ([[EU summit]]), and is a closely related but separate body, made up with the heads of state and government of the member states, whose mission is to provide guidance and high level policy to the Council. It is also to be distinguished from the [[Council of Europe]] which is a completely separate [[international organization|international organisation]] (at present 46 states), not a European institution. ==Role== The Council of the European Union is the main legislative institution of the EU. According to Article 202 of the [[Maastricht Treaty]]: ''to ensure that the objectives set out in this Treaty are attained the Council shall, in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty:''. *''ensure coordination of the general economic policies of the Member States,'' *''have power to take decisions,'' *''confer on the Commission, in the acts which the Council adopts, powers for the implementation of the rules which the Council lays down. The Council may impose certain requirements in respect of the exercise of these powers. The Council may also reserve the right, in specific cases, to exercise directly implementing powers itself. The procedures referred to above must be consonant with principles and rules to be laid down in advance by the Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after obtaining the opinion of the European Parliament.'' In effect, the Council performs the following functions: *Legislation - the Council passes [[EU law]] on the recommendations of the [[European Commission]] and the [[European Parliament]].&lt;br&gt; *Approval of the EU budget - the Council and the [[European Parliament|Parliament]] must agree on the budget.&lt;br&gt; *Foreign and defence policy - while each member state is free to develop its own foreign and defence policy, the Council seeks to achieve a common foreign and defence policy for the member states.&lt;br&gt; *Economic policy - the Council also seeks to achieve a common economic policy for the member states.&lt;br&gt; *Justice - the Council seeks to co-ordinate the justice system of the member states, especially in areas such as [[terrorism]]. ==Formations== [[image:Justus_Lipsius.jpg|thumb|225px|Th
id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T01:22:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NekoDaemon</username> <id>239574</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Old World Stone Age]] → [[Category:Stone Age]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chambered cairn''' is a burial monument, usually constructed during the [[Neolithic]], consisting of a [[cairn]] of stones inside which a sizeable (usually stone) chamber was constructed. Some chambered cairns are also [[passage grave|passage-graves]]. Typically, the chamber is larger than a [[cist]], and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either [[Excarnation|excarnated]] bones or inhumations (cremations). Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community's &quot;graveyard&quot;. == Chambered cairns in [[Scotland]] == Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns, many of radically different type. Because of the lack of other remains (the only other significant remains we have are [[Hut circles]] and field systems), they are perhaps the most important clue we have to what civilisation in Scotland was like in the Neolithic. Here is a short description of each type as the classification currently stands: ===Clyde-Carlingford=== The Clyde-Carlingford group are to be found in both Scotland and [[Northern Ireland]]. On the Scottish side, they are mainly found in [[Argyll]] and [[Dumfries and Galloway]], both in the south-west of the country (a small outlying group can be found near [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]]). They are not passage-graves since they lack any significant passage and are properly termed [[gallery grave]]s. The burial chamber (although usually blocked after use) is of very basic design and is normally located at one end of the cairn. As a result, it could be immediately accessed from the outside. An open, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance gives them their alternate name of [[Court cairn]]s. They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland, dating from [[4000 BC]] and were probably brought to Scotland from [[Ireland]]. ===Hebridean=== Sharing some features with the Clyde-Carlingford group is the Hebridean group. As their name suggests they are normally found in the [[Hebrides]], and have a crude polygonal chamber and a very short passage to one end of the cairn. ===Orkney-Cromarty=== The Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse. It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle. In general, they all have dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments. The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]]. The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate 'forecourts' protruding from each end, creating what look like small [[Amphitheatres]]. It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland [[Europe]], as they are similar to designs found in [[France]] and [[Spain]]. ===Bookan=== The Bookan type is thought to be the earliest to be found on [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]]. Because of Orkney's archaeological richness, Bookan type tombs are very hard to find. They are extremely unusual, some being double-deckered! They all seem to have features which suggest some early stage in the development of Maeshowe type tombs. ===Maeshowe=== The [[Maeshowe]] group, named after the famous monument on Orkney, is among the most elaborate. Like their counterparts on [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]], they are unlike anything else in Scotland, so it is possible these were the result of local development, or influences from [[Scandinavia]]. They consist of a central chamber from which lead small compartments, into which burials would be placed. ===Shetland=== A final category is the Shetland group, of which little is known. On plan, they do look similar to the Maeshowe group although the whole chamber is cross-shaped and there are no small compartments. [[Category:Death customs]] [[Category:Monument types]] [[Category:Stone Age]] [[de:Cairn (Steingrab)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Currency code</title> <id>7146</id> <revision> <id>15905226</id> <timestamp>2003-05-29T19:41:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mic</username> <id>6273</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Redirect ISO 4217</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[ISO 4217]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canadian whisky</title> <id>7147</id> <revision> <id>33631902</id> <timestamp>2006-01-02T20:23:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.179.16.113</ip> </contributor> <comment>Removed duplicate entry for Crown Royal; changed to reflect Diageo ownership of Seagram brand</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canadian whisky''' is [[whisky]] made in [[Canada]]; by law it must be aged there at least three years in a barrel. Most Canadian whiskies are [[Blended whiskey |blended]] multi-grain [[whisky|whiskies]]. These are often casually called &quot;[[Rye Whisky |rye whisky]]&quot; although they contain proprietary blends of [[maize |corn]] (maize), [[barley]], and [[rye]]. Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports (known as [[bootlegging]]) into the U.S. during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. [[Hiram Walker]] and [[Seagram]]'s have distilleries in [[Windsor, Ontario]] across the [[Detroit River]] from [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled U.S.-Canadian border made [[smuggling]] fairly easy. == Canadian single malt == Since 1991 Glenora, an independent distillery in Glenville, Nova Scotia, on [[Cape Breton Island]], has been producing unblended malt whisky in the [[Scotch whisky |Scottish]] style. Their product, ''Glen Breton Rare'', was [[as of 2003]] the only [[single malt whisky]] produced in Canada, and the oldest of the few produced in the Americas. == List of Canadian whiskies == === Canadian single malt === * [[Glenora Distillery]], Glenville, Nova Scotia (independent) ** [[Glen Breton Rare]] === Canadian blended whisky === * [[Alberta Distillers]], Calgary (independent) ** [[Alberta Premium]] ** Alberta Springs Rye Whisky 10 Years Old ** Tangle Ridge Aged 10 Years * [[Allied Domecq]] ** McGuinness Silk Tassel * [[Barton]] ** Barton's Canadian 36 Months Old ** Canadian Host ** Canadian Supreme ** Corby's Canadian 36 Months Old ** McMaster's ** Northern Lights * [[Canadian Mist Distillers]], Collingwood, Ontario (Brown-Forman) ** Canadian Mist * [[Century Distilling]], Vancouver ** [[Century Reserve]] 8 Year Old ** Century Reserve 13 Year Old ** Century Reserve 15 Year Old ** Century Reserve 21 Year Old * [[Corby Distilleries]], Toronto (Allied) ** Gooderham &amp; Worts Ltd ** Lot No. 40 ** Pike Creek ** Royal Reserve * [[Highwood Distillery]], High River, Alberta ** Centennial 10 Year Old Rye Whisky ** Highwood Canadian Rye Whisky ** Saskatchewan Wheatland Rye Whisky * [[Hiram Walker]] (Allied) ** [[Canadian Club]] Premium ** Canadian Club Sherry Cask Aged Eight Years ** Canadian Club Reserve 10 Years of Age ** Canadian Club Premium Classic Aged 12 Years ** Hiram Walker Special Old Rye Whisky ** [[Wiser's De Luxe]] ** Wiser's De Luxe 10 Years Old ** Wiser's Special Blend ** Rich &amp; Rare * [[Kittling Ridge]] (independent) ** Forty Creek Barrel Select ** Forty Creek Three Grain * [[Maple Leaf Distillers]], Winnipeg ** Canadian Cellars Rye Whisky * [[Schenley]] (Barton) ** Black Velvet DeLuxe ** [[Gibson's Finest]] Aged 12 Years ** Gibson's Finest Rare Aged 18 Years ** Gibson's Finest Sterling Edition ** Schenley Golden Wedding ** [[Schenley OFC]] Aged 8 Years * [[Diageo]] ** [[Crown Royal]] ** Crown Royal Limited Edition ** Crown Royal Special Reserve ** Seagram's 83 Canadian Whisky ** Seagram's Five Star Rye Whisky ** [[Seagram's VO]] == External links == *[http://www.glenoradistillery.com/ Glenora Distillery] *[http://www.thewhiskyguide.com/ The Whisky Guide] == See also == * [[Bourbon whiskey]] * [[Corn whiskey]] * [[Irish whiskey]] * [[Moonshine]] * [[Rye whiskey]] * [[Scotch whisky]] * [[Tennessee whiskey]] * [[Welsh whisky]] * [[Whisky]] [[Category:Canadian whisky]] [[Category:Canadian culture]] [[zh:&amp;#21152;&amp;#25343;&amp;#22823;&amp;#23041;&amp;#22763;&amp;#24524;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Collective noun</title> <id>7148</id> <revision> <id>38894037</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T08:46:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adammathias</username> <id>478268</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Origin */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Collective nouns''' are subject-specific words used to define a grouping of people, animals, objects or concepts. For example, in the phrase &quot;[[The Silver Chair|a parliament of owls]]&quot;, ''parliament'' is a collective noun. == Origin == Most collective nouns encountered in everyday speech (such as &quot;team&quot;) are [[mundane]] and take no particular object. However, many of the oft-discussed examples are fanciful and are the only proper collective for a given noun. This stems from an English [[hunting]] tradition dating back to at least the [[15th century]] of giving poetic names to prey. These were known as &quot;terms of venery&quot; (where &quot;venery&quot; means the hunting of animals). For this reason, there are many collective nouns that refer to animals and many of these original collective nouns are archaic: a &quot;harass of horses&quot; doesn't seem to have been used much since t
ang]] (1844&amp;ndash;1912) **''The Iliad'', Mcmillan (1918) ASIN B000BOG4PK; Peter Smith Publisher Inc (1966) ISBN 0804901155. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3059 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg **''The Odyssey'', with S.H. Butcher (1850-1910), Digireads.com (2005) ISBN 1420922424. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3160 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg. *[[Richmond Lattimore]] (1906&amp;ndash;1984) **''The Iliad of Homer'', University Of Chicago Press (1961) ISBN 0226469409 **''The Odyssey of Homer'', Harper Perennial Modern Classics, reprint edition (1999) ISBN 0060931957 *[[Martin Hammond]] **''The Iliad: A New Prose Translation'', Penguin Classics (1988) ISBN 0140444440 **''Homer: The Odyssey'', Duckworth (2000) ISBN 0715629581 *[[Robert Fitzgerald]] (1910&amp;ndash;1985) **''The Iliad'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0374529051 **''The Odyssey'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0374525749 *W.H.D. Rouse, ''The Odyssey'', Signet Classics (1999) ISBN 0451527364 *[[Robert Fagles]] (b. 1933) **''The Iliad'', Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0140275363 **''The Odyssey'', Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0140268863 *[[Stanley Lombardo]] **''Iliad'', Hackett (1997) ISBN 0872203522 **''Odyssey'', Hackett (2000) ISBN 0872204847 ===General works on Homer=== *I. Morris and B. Powell 1997, ''A New Companion to Homer'', Leiden. ISBN 9004099891 *Robert Fowler (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Homer'', CUP, Cambridge 2004. ISBN 0521012465 *A.J.B. Wace and F.H. Stubbings 1962, ''A Companion to Homer'', London. ISBN 0333071131 ===Influential readings and interpretations=== *E. Auerbach 1953, ''Mimesis'', Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 069111336X *M.W. Edwards 1987, ''Homer, Poet of the Iliad'', Baltimore. ISBN 0801833299 *B. Fenik 1974, ''Studies in the Odyssey'', Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30). *I.J.F. de Jong 1987, ''Narrators and Focalizers'', Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1853996580 *G. Nagy 1979, ''The Best of the Achaeans'', Baltimore. ISBN 0801860156 ===Commentaries=== *''Iliad'': **P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, ''Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations'', London. ISBN 1853996572 **G.S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985-1993, ''The Iliad: A Commentary'' (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0521281717, ISBN 0521281725, ISBN 0521281733, ISBN 0521281741, ISBN 0521312086, ISBN 0521312094 **J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002-, ''Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868-1913)'' (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598743076, ISBN 3598743041 **N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, ''Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Exeter. ISBN 0859896846 **M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, ''A Companion to the Iliad'', Chicago. ISBN 0226898555 *''Odyssey'': **A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990-1993, ''A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey'' (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0198147473, ISBN 0198721447, ISBN 0198149530 **P. Jones (ed.) 1988, ''Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Bristol. ISBN 1853990388 **I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, ''A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey'', Cambridge. ISBN 0521468442 ===Trends in Homeric scholarship=== ====&quot;Classical&quot; analysis==== *A. Heubeck 1974, ''Die homerische Frage'', Darmstadt. ISBN 3534038649 *R. Merkelbach 1969, ''Untersuchungen zur Odyssee'' (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3406032427 *D. Page 1955, ''The Homeric Odyssey'', Oxford. *U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, ''Die Ilias und Homer'', Berlin. *F.A. Wolf 1795, ''Prolegomena ad Homerum'', Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN 0691102473 ====Neoanalysis==== *M.E. Clark 1986, &quot;Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review,&quot; ''Classical World'' 79.6: 379-94. *J. Griffin 1977, &quot;The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer,&quot; ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 97: 39-53. *J.T. Kakridis 1949, ''Homeric Researches'', London. ISBN 0824077571 *W. Kullmann 1960, ''Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis)'', Wiesbaden. ISBN 3515002359 ====Homer and oral tradition==== *E. Bakker 1997, ''Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse'', Ithaca NY. ISBN 0801432952 *J.M. Foley 1999, ''Homer's Traditional Art'', University Park PA. ISBN 0271018704 *G.S. Kirk 1976, ''Homer and the Oral Tradition'', Cambridge. ISBN 0521213096 *A.B. Lord 1960, ''The Singer of Tales'', Cambridge MA. ISBN 0674002830 *M. Parry 1971, ''The Making of Homeric Verse'', Oxford. ISBN 019520560X ===Dating the Homeric poems=== *R. Janko 1982, ''Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns'', Cambridge. ISBN 0521238692 ==See also== * [[Paliki, Homer's Ithaca]] ==External links== {{Commons|Homeros}} {{Wikisource_author}} * [http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/homer.html Collection of Homer-related links] [[Category:Homer|*]] [[Category:Ancient Greek poets]] [[Category:Blind people]] [[Category:Greek literature]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; {{Link FA|fr}} [[ba:Гомер]] [[bg:Омир]] [[bs:Homer]] [[ca:Homer]] [[cs:Homér]] [[da:Homer]] [[de:Homer]] [[el:Όμηρος]] [[es:Homero]] [[eo:Homero]] [[eu:Homeros]] [[fr:Homère]] [[gl:Homero]] [[ko:호메로스]] [[hr:Homer]] [[id:Homerus]] [[it:Omero]] [[he:הומרוס]] [[jv:Homeros]] [[la:Homerus]] [[lt:Homeras]] [[lv:Homērs]] [[li:Homeros]] [[hu:Homérosz]] [[mk:Хомер]] [[ms:Homer]] [[nl:Homerus]] [[ja:ホメロス]] [[ka:ჰომეროსი]] [[no:Homer]] [[pl:Homer]] [[pt:Homero]] [[ru:Гомер]] [[sq:Homeri]] [[simple:Homer]] [[sk:Homér]] [[sl:Homer]] [[sr:Хомер]] [[fi:Homeros]] [[sv:Homeros]] [[th:โฮเมอร์]] [[tr:Homeros]] [[uk:Гомер]] [[zh:荷马]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hunt-the-pixel</title> <id>13634</id> <revision> <id>32470262</id> <timestamp>2005-12-23T10:24:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.132.28.232</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hunt-the-pixel''' (also ''pixel hunt'') is a term used to describe some [[computer game]] interfaces involving [[point and click]] with a [[computer mouse|mouse]]. The term is usually applied to [[adventure game]]s in which the primary difficulty with some portion of the game lies in finding an object on the screen. In some cases, the required object is quite small, and may be only a few [[pixel]]s in size. The player may not have the faintest idea what gizmo to look for, but often the game cannot progress without finding it. Players often apply the term to any game in which the gameplay is hindered by the frustrating task of determining precisely where on the screen to click. Missed objects will not always lead to a dead end, but sometimes will offer just better alternative approaches to future puzzles, being thus something like [[Easter egg (virtual)|easter eggs]]. Some games made by [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra On-Line]], including portions of the [[Space Quest]] and [[King's Quest]] series, have featured interfaces that at times required a hunt-the-pixel approach. One situation in [[LucasArts]]'s [[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]] computer game required the player to locate a particular book among several screens full of bookstacks. However, LucasArts games have the advantage of a status line indicating the object the cursor is currently over. Another remedy was to make essential objects flash, or some other method to make the element more visible against the benign background. This phenomenon is analogous to the &quot;[[guess-the-verb]]&quot; gameplay used in some [[text adventure]]s. ==See also== * [[Where's Waldo?]] [[Category:Computer and video game gameplay]] [[category:Computer and video game culture]] [[Category:Adventure games]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hugo Gernsback</title> <id>13635</id> <revision> <id>39648606</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T22:46:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.163.206.215</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugo Gernsback''' ([[August 16]] [[1884]] - [[August 19]] [[1967]]) was an [[inventor]] and [[magazine publisher]] who also wrote [[science fiction]] and whose publication included the first [[science fiction]] magazine. Born in [[Luxembourg]], Gernsback emigrated to the [[United States]] in [[1905]]. He married three times: to Rose Harvey in [[1906]], Dorothy Kantrowitz in [[1921]], and Mary Hancher in [[1951]]. In [[1925]], Hugo founded radio station WRNY and was involved in the first television broadcasts and is considered a pioneer in amateur radio. He died in [[New York City]]. Gernsback started the modern genre of [[science fiction]] by founding the first magazine dedicated to it, [[Amazing Stories]], in [[1926]]. He said he became interested in the concept after reading a translation of the work of [[Percival Lowell]] as a child. He also played a key role in starting [[Science Fiction Fandom]], by publishing the addresses of people who wrote letters to his magazines. In [[1929]], he lost ownership of his first magazines after a bankruptcy lawsuit. There is some debate about whether this process was genuine, manipulated by publisher [[Bernarr Macfadden]], or was a Gernsback scheme to begin another company. Gernsback wrote some fiction, including the novel ''[[Ralph 124C 41+]]'' in [[1911]]. Though hugely influential at the time, and filled with numerous science fiction ideas, the plot, characters, and writing strike most modern readers as shallow and old fashioned. The Science Fiction Achievement award, given to various works each year by vote of the members of the [[World Science Fiction Society]], is named the &quot;[[Hugo award|Hugo]]&quot; after him. He was one of [[1996]]'s inaugural inductees into the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame]]. Before creating a literary genre, Gernsback was an entrepreneur in the electronics industry, importing radio parts from Europe to the United Sta
]] (125) | Top scorer = [[Bobby Charlton|Sir Bobby Charlton]] (49) | pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1= | leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FFFFFF|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=000099|socks1=FFFFFF | pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2= | leftarm2=FF0000|body2=FF0000|rightarm2=FF0000|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FF0000 | First game = [[Scottish national football team|Scotland]] 0 - 0 England&lt;br /&gt;([[Partick]], [[Scotland]]; [[30 November]], [[1872]]) | Largest win = [[Northern Ireland national football team|Ireland]] 0 - 13 England&lt;br/&gt;([[Belfast]], [[Ireland|Northern Ireland]]; [[18 February]], [[1882]]) | Largest loss = [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] 7 - 1 England&lt;br/&gt;([[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]; [[23 May]], [[1954]]) | World cup apps = 12 | World cup first = 1950 | World cup best = Winners, [[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] | Regional name = [[European Football Championship|European Championship]] | Regional cup apps = 7 | Regional cup first = [[1968 European Football Championship|1968]] | Regional cup best = Third, [[1968 European Football Championship|1968]], Semi-finals, [[1996 European Football Championship|1996]] }} The '''England national football team''' represents [[England]] in international [[football (soccer)|football]] competitions such as the [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] and the [[European Football Championship|European Championships]]. It is controlled by [[The Football Association]], the governing body for football in England. As the founders of the game and sport, England's governing body is the only one to use the acronym FA without a preceding letter signifying national affiliation as the English would believe it redundant. Due to historical precedent, and continuing national sentiment among them, each of the four [[Home Nations]] of the United Kingdom possesses its own separate football association, domestic league and national team. Because the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] does not accept regional representative teams, England, like the other three, do not compete in [[Football at the Summer Olympics|Olympic football]]. England are by far the most successful of the Home Nations, having won the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]] and the [[British Home Championship]] outright thirty-four times, as many as the other three nations have won outright altogether. ==History== ===Early years=== England played in the first ever international football match, against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] at [[Hamilton Crescent]] in [[Partick]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] on [[November 30]], [[1872]]. The result was 0-0; England had to wait until the following year to record their first win, 4-2, over Scotland at the [[Kennington Oval]]. England would only play the other Home Nations (Scotland, [[Wales national football team|Wales]] and what was then [[Northern Ireland national football team|Ireland]]) for nearly 40 years - partly due to the dominance of the UK in international football, as well as the problems of arranging internationals in the days before [[air travel]] was commonplace. England first played Continental opposition in a [[1908]] tour of [[Central Europe]], recording easy wins over [[Austria national football team|Austria]], [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] and [[Czech Republic national football team|Bohemia]]. England's first defeat to a team outside the [[British Isles]] came in [[1929]], when they lost 4-3 to [[Spain national football team|Spain]] in [[Madrid]]. The FA had joined [[FIFA]] in [[1906]], but the relationship between FIFA and the British associations was fraught, and the British nations withdrew from FIFA in [[1928]], in a dispute over payments to [[amateur]] players. This meant that England did not enter the first three [[Football World Cup|World Cup]]s. However many in England declared the team unofficial &quot;World Champions&quot; after they defeated [[Football World Cup|1934 World Cup]] winners [[Italy national football team|Italy]] in the &quot;[[Battle of Highbury]]&quot; in November [[1934]]. ===Post-war=== After the [[World War II|Second World War]], the FA started to modernise their approach; they rejoined [[FIFA]] in [[1946]], the same year they appointed the first dedicated [[#England managers|team manager]], [[Walter Winterbottom]] (before then, the team was picked by a committee). England lost their first match at home to non-British opposition when they were defeated 0-2 by the Republic of Ireland in 1949 at Goodison Park, Liverpool.England's World Cup debut came in [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]]; however, they suffered an infamous [[England v United States (1950)|1-0 loss]] to the [[United States men's national soccer team|United States]] and failed to get beyond the first group stage. England struggled in the [[Football World Cup 1954|1954]] and [[Football World Cup 1958|1958]] tournaments, and all the signs pointed to how far English football had fallen behind the rest of the world. England's tactical inferiority was highlighted on [[November 25]], [[1953]], when [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] came to visit [[Wembley Stadium]]. Hungary, one of the best sides in the world and fielding legendary players such as [[Sándor Kocsis]] and [[Ferenc Puskás]], [[England v Hungary (1953)|outclassed the English 6-3]] - this was England's first ever home loss to Continental opposition. In the return match in [[Budapest]], Hungary won 7-1, which still stands as England's worst ever defeat. By the 1960s English tactics and training had started to improve, and England turned in a respectable performance in the {{Wc|1962}}, losing in the quarter-finals to eventual winners [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. After Winterbottom retired in [[1962]], former captain [[Alf Ramsey]] was appointed; Ramsey boldly predicted that England would win the following tournament, which England were hosting. ===1966 World Cup=== Ramsey's prediction came true, and the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]] was England's finest moment. Captained by [[Bobby Moore]], England's &quot;Wingless Wonders&quot; dispatched [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] and then [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] to set up a final with [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] at Wembley. England won 4-2 after [[extra time]], with three goals from [[Geoff Hurst]] and one from [[Martin Peters]]. The game popularized the British catchphrase &quot;[[They Think It's All Over|They think it's all over... it is now!]]&quot;, which were [[BBC]] [[commentator]] [[Kenneth Wolstenholme]]'s words as Hurst scored his third goal in the 120th minute. ===Decline in the 1970s=== England came third in the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]], and were one of the favourites to win the [[Football World Cup 1970|1970 World Cup]]; however, they fell in the quarter-finals to West Germany 3-2, having been 2-0 up. West Germany also beat England 3-1 on aggregate in the quarter-finals of the [[1972 European Football Championship|1972 European Championships]]. Worse was to come as England failed to qualify for the [[Football World Cup 1974|1974 World Cup]] after only managing a 1-1 draw against [[Poland national football team|Poland]] in a qualifier at Wembley, largely thanks to the heroics of Polish goalkeeper [[Jan Tomaszewski]]. In the aftermath of England's failure to reach the World Cup Finals, the FA sacked Sir Alf Ramsey. Of their 113 matches under Ramsey, England had won 69 and drawn 27. There was widespread distaste that, given his distinguished record, Ramsey had not been given the opportunity to resign. After a brief period where [[Joe Mercer]] was [[caretaker manager]] of the side, the FA appointed [[Don Revie]] as Ramsey's permanent successor. He fared even worse than Ramsey, as England failed to qualify from the group stages of the [[1976 European Football Championship|1976 European Championships]]; Revie resigned halfway through England's unsuccessful bid to qualify for the [[Football World Cup 1978|1978 World Cup]]. At the same time the team were attracting an ever-growing [[hooligan]] element in their support, especially at their matches abroad - at the [[1980 European Football Championship|1980 European Championships]] [[Italy|Italian]] [[police]] deployed [[tear gas]] during a group match with [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]]. England qualified for the [[Football World Cup 1982|1982 World Cup]] but failed to progress from the second group stage despite not losing any of their matches, in another tournament marred by violence. ===Revival under Robson=== Although at the time he was widely derided by the press, [[Bobby Robson]] is now looked upon as one of England's more successful managers. Having failed to make the final stages of the [[1984 European Football Championship|1984 European Championships]] by losing out to [[Denmark]], he took England to the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986 World Cup]]. Following a poor start, in which England lost to [[Portugal]], drew with [[Morocco]] and were without their injured captain [[Bryan Robson]], three goals by [[Gary Lineker]] against [[Poland]] ensured a place in the next round. Having defeated [[Paraguay]] 3-0 in the second round, they were to fall short in controversial circumstances against the eventual winners Argentina in the quarter finals, thanks to two goals from [[Diego Maradona]] - the first the infamous &quot;[[Hand of God goal|Hand of God]]&quot; goal, where Maradona punched the ball into the net, [[Goal of the Century|the second]] after a 50-yard dribble past five England players that is widely regarded as one of the finest goals in history. As a small consolation, [[Gary Lineker]] won the tournament's [[World Cup Golden Boot|Golden Boot]]. England's [[Football World Cup 1990|1990 World Cup]] was their best since 1966; after a slow start in the group stage,
nged to a more aggressive font, and the team's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, &quot;flying&quot; star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team's inception that orange was not part of the team's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired, the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with fans. Off the field, in [[1994]], the Astros hired one of the first [[African American|African-American]] General Managers, former franchise superstar [[Bob Watson]]. Watson would leave the Astros after the [[1995]] season to become general manager of the [[New York Yankees]], helping lead them to a [[1996 World Series|World Championship]] in [[1996]]. He would be replaced by [[Gerry Hunsicker]], who until [[2004]] would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the major leagues. ===2000s=== After years at the outdated Astrodome, the Astros moved into their new stadium in [[2000 in baseball|2000]]. Originally called [[Enron Field]], the stadium was one of the first to feature a functional retractable roof, considered a necessity in Houston. Additonally the ballpark featured more intimate surroundings than the cavernous Astrodome. The ballpark features a train theme, based on its surroundings near an old train station. A train whistle sounds, and a miniature train, circles the outfield after Astro home runs. The ballpark also contains quirks such as &quot;Tal's Hill&quot;, where there is a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stands, all in fair territory. This was modeled after an identical feature that was located in [[Crosley Field]], former home of the [[Cincinnati Reds]]. Perhaps most significantly, with its short left field fence (only slightly longer to left field than [[Fenway Park]]), overall shorter dimensions, and exposure to the elements, including the humid Texas air, Enron Field played like a hitters' park. This was a dramatic difference from the Astrodome, which was considered to be an extreme pitchers' park, and likely contributed to the Astros poor 72-90 record, as the Astros' &quot;fly-ball&quot; pitchers began to give up homeruns. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the cold blue and gold uniforms of the 90's in favor a more &quot;retro&quot; look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. The &quot;shooting star&quot; logo was modified but still retained its definitive look. In [[2001 in baseball|2001]], the Astros won another NL Central title, but were again eliminated from the playoffs in the first round by the Braves. Despite four NL Central division titles in five years, the Astros lost in the first round each year (three times to the Braves) so Dierker was fired and replaced by former [[Boston Red Sox]] manager [[Jimy Williams]]. After the [[Enron]] scandal made headlines across the nation, the stadium's naming rights were eventually resold to [[Coca-Cola]], which dubbed the park &quot;[[Minute Maid Park]]&quot;. After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, at midseason in [[2004 in baseball|2004]] the Astros were floundering. At the All-Star Break they were 44-44 despite the presence of ace pitcher [[Roger Clemens]], who would go on to win the [[Cy Young Award]] that year. After being booed at the [[2004 Major League Baseball All-Star Game|2004 All-Star Game]] as a coach for the National League, Williams was fired and replaced by [[Phil Garner]], who had been a star for the Astros' first division winner. Though many people were highly skeptical of Garner, who had a mediocre track record in his prior managerial stints in [[Milwaukee Brewers|Milwaukeee]] and [[Detroit Tigers|Detroit]], with only one winning season at either stop (in [[1992 in baseball|1992]]), the team responded to Garner, who led the team to a 46-26 record in the second half and the National League's Wild Card. They would go on to win their first playoff series in 8 attempts, beating the [[Atlanta Braves|Braves]] in five games of the [[National League Division Series]] to advance to the [[National League Championship Series]] for the third time (they were previously in the NLCS in [[1980 in baseball|1980]] &amp; [[1986 in baseball|1986]]), However, they would lose to the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in 7 games, most dramatically on a [[walk-off home run]] by [[Jim Edmonds]] in Game 6. The Astros' 2004 success had much to do with the postponed retirement of star pitcher [[Roger Clemens]] (a [[Houston]] resident), who ended 2004 with a record 7th [[Cy Young Award]] (his first in the NL). Clemens had previously announced that he was retiring after the [[2003 in baseball|2003]] season from the [[New York Yankees]]. However, after the Astros signed his former Yankee teammate [[Andy Pettitte]] and offered Clemens a number of perquisites (including the option to stay home with his family for certain road trips when he wasn't scheduled to pitch), Clemens reconsidered and signed a one-year deal with the Astros. Additionally, the mid-season addition of [[Carlos Beltrán]] in a trade with the [[Kansas City Royals]] helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite rumblings in July and August that the Astros might flip him to another contender, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the Astros' hopes, hitting 8 home runs in the post-season. Following the season, after initially asserting a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long term contract with the [[New York Mets]] on [[January 9]], [[2005]]). The Astros and Nolan Ryan would also re-establish their relationship, thanks to Ryan's longtime friendship with Astros owner [[Drayton McLane]]. Ryan's minor league team, the [[Round Rock Express]] (who played outside of [[Austin, TX]]) would become an Astros minor league affiliate, first in the AA [[Texas League]] and eventually in the AAA [[Pacific Coast League]]. Additionally, Ryan was a frequent special guest of the Astros throughout the 2004 and 2005 playoffs and would also drop by Astros camp as a guest instructor. ====2005: A burden lifted==== In [[2005]], the Astros got off to a poor start, dropping to 15 games below .500 (15-30) in late May before becoming nearly unbeatable. From that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42-17 and found themselves in the lead for the NL Wild Card. The hitting, largely absent in April and May, was suddenly there, with even the pitchers contributing. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by future Hall of Famer Roger Clemens (who had a league-low ERA of only 1.87), Andy Pettitte, and [[Roy Oswalt]]. Rookie starter [[Ezequiel Astacio]] and [[Wandy Rodríguez]] were also successful. In July alone, the Astros went 22-7, the best single month record in the club's history. The Astros finished the [[2005 in baseball|2005]] regular season by winning a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, just as they did in 2004, becoming only the second team to come from 15 games under .500 to enter the post season, the other team being the [[1914 in baseball|1914]] Boston Braves, now the [[Atlanta Braves]]. (Those Braves would go on and sweep the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] in the [[1914 World Series|World Series]]. Coincidentally, the Astros beat out the Philadelphia Phillies, their closest rival, for the Wild Card.) The Astros won their National League Division Series against the [[Atlanta Braves]] in four games. The fourth game set a record for a post-season game with most innings (18), most players used by a single team (T-23), most grand slams (2), and longest played time (5 hours and 50 minutes). [[Chris Burke (baseball)|Chris Burke]] hit a home run to win the game by a score of 7-6. After winning in the first round they picked up where they left off in the previous year, facing a rematch against the [[St. Louis Cardinals]]. It is also notable that both the grand slam [[Lance Berkman]] hit in the 8th inning and the solo shot hit by [[Chris Burke]] in the 18th inning to win 3 hours later were caught by the same fan, [[Shaun Dean]], in the left field [[Crawford boxes]]. Dean, a 25-year-old comptroller for a construction company, donated the balls to the Hall of Fame and he and his son were rewarded with gifts from the Astros and the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] as well as playoff tickets behind home plate. The [[2005 National League Championship Series|National League Championship Series (NLCS)]] featured a rematch of the [[2004 National League Championship Series|2004 NLCS]]. The Astros lost the first game in [[St. Louis]], but would win the next three games with one in St. Louis and the next two in Houston. The Astros were poised to close-out the series in Houston, but the Cardinals managed to score three runs in the top of the 9th with a 3-run homerun by [[Albert Pujols]] off Brad Lidge with two outs. This would take the series back to St. Louis, where the Astros won the final game of the NLCS and the final game played at [[Busch Stadium]]. Current honorary [[National League]] President [[William Y. Giles]] presented the Astros the Warren C. Giles Trophy, which is awarded to the National League Champion. It was Warren Giles, father of William and President of the National League from [[1951]] to [[1969]], who in October 1960 awarded the city of Houston the major league franchise that would become the Houston Astros. [[Roy Oswalt]], who went 2-0 and had an ERA of 1.29, won the NLCS MVP. The Astros' opponent in their first and only [[2005 World Series|World Series]] was the [[Chicago White Sox]]. Games 1 and 2 were held at [[U.S. Cellular Field]] in [[Chicago]], while Games 3, 4 were played at [[Minute Maid Park]]. Early conventional wisdom held that the White Sox were a slight favorite, but that [[H
hernet for ''all'' of them. Therefore, the term &quot;Ethernet&quot; can be used to name networks using any of the following standardized media and functions: {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; !Ethernet Standard !Date !Description |- |Experimental Ethernet |1972 (patented 1978) |2.94 [[Mbit/s]] (367 KB/s) over coaxial cable (coax) cable bus |- |Ethernet II (DIX v2.0) |1982 |10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin coax (thinnet) - Frames have a Type field. The [[Internet protocol suite]] use this frame format on any media. |- |IEEE 802.3 |1983 |[[10BASE5]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25MB/s) over thick coax - same as DIX except Type field is replaced by Length and LLC fields |- |802.3a |1985 |[[10BASE2]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin Coax (thinnet or cheapernet) |- |802.3b |1985 |[[10BROAD36]] |- |802.3c |1985 |10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) repeater specs |- |802.3d |1987 |FOIRL (Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link) |- |802.3e |1987 |[[1BASE5]] or StarLAN |- |802.3i |1990 |[[10BASE-T]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over twisted pair |- |802.3j |1993 |[[10BASE-F]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over Fiber-Optic |- |[[IEEE 802.3u|802.3u]] |1995 |[[100BASE-TX]], [[100BASE-T4]], [[100BASE-FX]] Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) w/Auto-Negotiation |- |802.3x |1997 |Full Duplex and flow control; also incorporates DIX framing, so there's no longer a DIX/802.3 split |- |802.3y |1998 |[[100BASE-T2]] 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) over low quality twisted pair |- |802.3z |1998 |[[1000BASE-X]] Gbit/s Ethernet over Fibre-Optic at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s) |- |802.3-1998 |1998 |A revision of base standard incorporating the above admendments and errata |- |802.3ab |1999 |[[1000BASE-T]] Gbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s) |- |802.3ac |1998 |Max frame size extended to 1522 bytes (to allow &quot;Q-tag&quot;) The Q-tag includes 802.1Q [[VLAN]] information and 802.1p priority information. |- |802.3ad |2000 |[[Link aggregation]] for parallel links |- |802.3-2002 |2002 |A revision of base standard incorporating the three prior admendments and errata |- |802.3ae |2003 |10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over fiber; [[10GBASE-SR]], [[10GBASE-LR]], [[10GBASE-ER]], [[10GBASE-SW]], [[10GBASE-LW]], [[10GBASE-EW]] |- |[[IEEE 802.3af|802.3af]] |2003 |[[Power over Ethernet]] |- |802.3ah |2004 |Ethernet in the First Mile |- |802.3ak |2004 |[[10GBASE-CX4]] 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over twin-axial cable |- |802.3-2005 |2005 |A revision of base standard incorporating the four prior admendments and errata. |- |802.3an |in work |[[10GBASE-T]] 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair(UTP) |- |802.3ap |in work |[[Backplane]] Ethernet (1 and 10 Gbit/s (125 and 1,250 MB/s) over [[printed circuit board]]s) |- |802.3aq |in work |[[10GBASE-LRM]] 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over multimode fiber |- |802.3ar |in work |[[Congestion]] management |- |802.3as |in work |Frame expansion |} What is defined in earlier IEEE 802.3 standards is often confused for what is used in practice: almost any network frame you can find on a LAN will be an Ethernet II frame, since the [[Internet protocol suite]] will use this format, with the type field set to the corresponding IETF protocol type. IEEE 802.3x-1997 allows the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a type field or a length field, so that Ethernet II frames are also valid 802.3 frames in 802.3x-1997 and later versions of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard. ==See also== * [[IEEE 802]] * [[IEEE 802.1]], the network architecture * [[IEEE 802.11]], the corresponding set of Wireless Ethernet standards ==References== {{FOLDOC}} ==External links== * http://www.ieee802.org/3/ -- The IEEE 802.3 Working Group * [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.3.html Get IEEE 802.3 LAN/MAN CSMA/CD Access Method] -- Download 802.3 specifications. [[Category:IEEE 802|IEEE 802.03]] [[es:IEEE 802.3]] [[fr:802.3]] [[it:IEEE 802.3]] [[pt:IEEE 802.3]] [[fi:802.3]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ID Software</title> <id>14792</id> <revision> <id>15912325</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Id Software]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Integral data types</title> <id>14793</id> <revision> <id>15912326</id> <timestamp>2003-09-22T21:39:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TakuyaMurata</username> <id>6707</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[integer (computer science)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Integer (computer science)</title> <id>14794</id> <revision> <id>41799812</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:00:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Johnteslade</username> <id>102856</id> </contributor> <comment>wikify tables</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In computer science, the term '''integer''' is used to refer to any [[data type]] which can represent some subset of the mathematical [[integer]]s. These are also known as '''integral data types'''. == Value and representation == The ''value'' of a [[data|datum]] with an integral type is the mathematical integer that it corresponds to. The ''representation'' of this datum is the way the value is stored in the computer&amp;#8217;s memory. Integral types may be ''unsigned'' (capable of representing only non-negative integers) or ''signed'' (capable of representing negative integers as well). The most common representation of a positive integer is a string of [[bit]]s, using the [[binary numeral system]]. The order of the bits varies; see [[Endianness]]. The ''width'' or ''precision'' of an integral type is the number of bits in its representation. An integral type with ''n'' bits can encode 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; numbers; for example an unsigned type typically represents the non-negative values 0 through 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;minus;1. There are three different ways to represent negative numbers in a binary numeral system. The most common is [[two's complement|two&amp;#8217;s complement]], which allows a signed integral type with ''n'' bits to represent numbers from &amp;minus;2&lt;sup&gt;(n&amp;minus;1)&lt;/sup&gt; through 2&lt;sup&gt;(n&amp;minus;1)&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;minus;1. Two&amp;#8217;s complement arithmetic is convenient because there is a perfect [[bijection|one-to-one correspondence]] between representations and values, and because [[addition]] and [[subtraction]] do not need to distinguish between signed and unsigned types. The other possibilities are sign-magnitude and ones' complement. See [[Signed number representations]] for details. Another, rather different, representation for integers is [[binary-coded decimal]], which is still commonly used in [[mainframe]] financial applications and in databases. == Common integral data types == {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- ! Bits ! Name ! Range ! Uses |- | 8 | [[byte]], [[octet (computing)|octet]] | ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;128 to +[[127 (number)|127]]&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +255 | [[ASCII]] characters, C char (minimum), Java byte |- | 16 | halfword, [[word (computer science)|word]] | ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;32,768 to +[[32767 (number)|32,767]]&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +65,535 | [[UCS-2]] characters, C short int (minimum), C int (minimum), Java char, Java short |- | 32 | word, doubleword, longword | ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +4,294,967,295 | [[UCS-4]] characters, [[Truecolor]] with alpha, C int (usual), C long int (minimum), Java int |- | 64 | doubleword, longword, quadword | ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +18,446,744,073,709,551,615 | C long int (on 64-bit machines), C99 long long int (minimum), Java long |- | 128 | &amp;nbsp; | ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,728 to +170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,455 | C int __attribute__ ((mode(TI))) (on 64-bit machines using [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]]) |- | ''n'' | ''n''-bit integer | ''Signed:'' &lt;math&gt;-2^{n-1}&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;2^{n-1} -1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to &lt;math&gt;2^{n}-1&lt;/math&gt; | &amp;nbsp; |} Different [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] support different integral data types. Typically, hardware will support both signed and unsigned types but only a small, fixed set of widths. The table above lists integral type widths that are supported in hardware by common processors. High level programming languages provide more possibilities. It is common to have a &amp;#8216;double width&amp;#8217; integral type that has twice as many bits as the biggest hardware-supported type. Many languages also have ''bit-field'' types (a specified number of bits, usually constrained to be less than the maximum hardware-supported width) and ''range'' types (which can represent only the integers in a specified range). Some languages, such as [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[REXX]] and [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]], support ''arbitrary precision'' integers (also known as ''infinite precision integers'' or ''[[bignum]]s''). Other languages which do not support this concept as a top-level construct may have libraries available to represent very large numbers using arrays of smaller variables, such as Java's [[BigInteger]] class. These use as much of the computer&amp;#8217;s memory as is necessary to store the numbers; however, a computer has only a finite amount of storage, so they too can only represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. These schemes support very large n
lasses without any additional fees, for credits toward their own school's degrees. Over its history, Harvard has graduated many famous alumni, along with a few infamous ones. Among the best-known are political leaders [[John Hancock]], [[John Adams]], and [[John F. Kennedy]]; philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]] and author [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]; poets [[Wallace Stevens]], [[T. S. Eliot]] and [[E. E. Cummings]]; composer [[Leonard Bernstein]]; actor [[Jack Lemmon]]; architect [[Philip Johnson]], and civil rights leader [[W. E. B. Du Bois]]. Among its most famous faculty members are biologists [[James D. Watson]] and [[E. O. Wilson]]. Harvard affiliates' politics are generally [[Liberalism in the United States|liberal]] (center-left): [[Richard Nixon]] famously attacked it as the &quot;[[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] on the [[Charles River|Charles]]&quot;. In [[2004 US presidential election|2004]], the ''[[Harvard Crimson]]'' found that Harvard undergraduates favored [[John Kerry|Kerry]] over [[George W. Bush|Bush]] by 73% to 19%, consistent with Kerry's margin in major eastern cities such as Boston and New York City.{{ref|uselection2004}} At the same time, Harvard has been criticized as the &quot;incubator for an American ruling class&quot; ([[#Douthat|Douthat]]) and &quot;hostile to progressive intellectuals&quot;. ([[#Trumpbour|Trumpbour]]) President [[George W. Bush]], in fact, graduated from the [[Harvard Business School]]. Indeed, there are both prominent conservative and prominent liberal voices among the faculty of the various schools, such as [[Greg Mankiw]] and [[Alan Dershowitz]]. ===Admissions=== Harvard's overall undergraduate acceptance rate for 2005 was 9.1%.{{ref|acceptancerate}}, making it one of the most competitive universities in the country. The 2006 figures from [[US News and World Report]] indicated that the business school admitted 14.3% of its [[college application|applicants]], the engineering division admitted 12.5%, the law school admitted 11.3%, the education school admitted 11.2%, and the medical school admitted 4.9%.{{ref|usnews}} ===Organization=== Harvard is governed by two boards, the [[President and Fellows of Harvard College]], also known as the Harvard Corporation and founded in 1650, and the [[Harvard Board of Overseers]]. The [[President of Harvard University]] is the day-to-day administrator of Harvard and is appointed and to responsible to the Harvard Corporation. Harvard today has nine faculties, listed below in order of foundation: [[Image:HarvardYard.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Harvard Yard with freshman dorms in the background]] *The [[Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences | Faculty of Arts and Sciences]] and its sub-faculty, the [[Harvard Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences|Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences]], which together serve: **[[Harvard College]], the University's undergraduate portion (1636) **The [[Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences|Graduate School of Arts and Sciences]] (organized 1872) **The [[Harvard Division of Continuing Education]], including [[Harvard Extension School]] and [[Harvard Summer School]] *The Faculty of Medicine, including the [[Harvard Medical School|Medical School]] (1782) and the [[Harvard School of Dental Medicine]] (1867). *[[Harvard Divinity School]] (1816) *[[Harvard Law School]] (1817) *[[Harvard Business School]] (1908) *The [[Harvard Graduate School of Design|Graduate School of Design]] (1914) *The [[Harvard Graduate School of Education|Graduate School of Education]] (1920) *The [[Harvard School of Public Health|School of Public Health]] (1922) *The [[Kennedy School of Government|John F. Kennedy School of Government]] (1936) In 1999, the former [[Radcliffe College]] was reorganized as the [[Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study]]. ===Sports and athletic facilities=== [[Image:Harvard Stadium.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Harvard Stadium]]]] Harvard's athletic rivalry with [[Yale University|Yale]] is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax in their annual football meeting, which dates to 1875 and is usually called simply ''[[The Game (college football) | The Game]]''. Harvard has won The Game for the past five years running. While Harvard's [[American football|football]] team is no longer one of the country's best (it won the [[Rose Bowl Game|Rose Bowl]] in 1920) as it often was a century ago during football's early days, it, along with [[Yale University|Yale]], has influenced the way the game is played. In 1903, [[Harvard Stadium]] introduced a new era into football with the first-ever permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country. The sport eventually adopted the forward pass (invented at [[The University of Chicago]]) because of the stadium's structure. Today Harvard does field top teams in several other sports, such as [[ice hockey]] (with a strong rivalry against [[Cornell University|Cornell]]), [[Sport rowing|rowing]], and [[squash (sport)|squash]]. But like other Ivy League universities, [[Harvard]] does not offer athletic scholarships. As of 2006, there were 41 Division I intercollegiate [[Varsity team|varsity]] [[sports]] teams for women and men at Harvard, more than at any other NCAA Division I college in the country. Harvard has several [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~hub/songs/ fight songs], the most played ones, especially at football games, are &quot;Ten Thousand Men of Harvard,&quot; &quot;Fair Harvard,&quot; and &quot;Harvardiana.&quot; Harvard has several athletic facilities, such as the [[Lavietes Pavilion]], a multi-purpose arena and home to the Harvard basketball teams. The Malkin Athletic Center, known as the &quot;MAC,&quot; serves both as the University's primary recreation facility and as a satellite location for several varsity sports. The five story building includes two cardio rooms, an Olympic-size swimming pool, a smaller pool for aquaerobics and other activities, a mezzanine, where all types of classes are held at all hours of the day, and an indoor cycling studio, three weight rooms, and a three-court gym floor to play basketball. The MAC also offers personal trainers and specialty classes. The MAC is also home to Harvard volleyball, fencing, and wrestling. The offices of women's field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, and men's soccer are also in the MAC. Weld Boathouse and Newell Boathouse house the women's and men's rowing teams, respectively. The Bright Hockey Center hosts the Harvard hockey teams, and the Murr Center serves both as a home for Harvard's squash and tennis teams as well as a strength and conditioning center for all athletic sports. ''For more information on Harvard's sports facitilies, go to [http://gocrimson.collegesports.com/facilities/rec_facilities.html Harvard's official athletics site.] ===Library system and museums=== The Harvard University Library System, centered in [[Widener Library]] in [[Harvard Yard]] and comprising over 90 individual libraries and over 15.3 million volumes, is the largest university library system in the world and, after the [[Library of Congress]], the second-largest library system in the United States. Cabot Library in the Science Center, Lamont Library in Harvard Yard, and Widener Library are three of the most popular libraries for undergraduates to use, with easy access and central locations. Houghton Library is the primary repository for Harvard's rare books and manuscripts. America's oldest collection of maps, gazetteers, and atlases both old and new are stored in Pusey Library and is open to the public. Harvard operates several art museums, including the [[Fogg Museum of Art]] (with galleries featuring history of Western art from the Middle Ages to the present, with particular strengths in Italian [[Early Renaissance painting|early Renaissance]], British [[pre-Raphaelite]], and 19th-century French art); the [[Adolph Busch Museum]] (formerly Busch-Reisinger Museum, formerly Germanic Museum) (central and northern European art; and a Flentrop pipe organ, familiar from recordings by [[E. Power Biggs]]); the Sackler Museum (ancient, Asian, Islamic and later Indian art); the Museum of Natural History, which contains the famous Blaschka [[Glass Flowers]] exhibit; the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, specializing in the cultural history and civilizations of the Western Hemisphere; and the Semitic Museum. ===Harvard in fiction and popular culture=== [[Love Story]], by Harvard alumnus (and Yale professor) [[Erich Segal]], the much-beloved and also much-ridiculed tearjerker of the 1970s, concerns a romance between a Harvard student and a Radcliffe student. Much local color is in evidence: Mary F. Rogers{{ref|rogers}} notes that in the first two chapters, the narrator refers to Bach, Mozart, the Beatles, Harvard, Radcliffe, Preppie, Comp. Lit. 105, the Renaissance, the ''Crimson,'' Dartmouth, Philips Exeter, Deerfield, Mem Church, Cambridge, and Nate Pusey. Though Harvard has been featured in many US films, including ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[The Firm (film)|The Firm]]'', ''[[The Paper Chase]]'', ''[[Good Will Hunting]]'', ''[[With Honors]]'', ''[[How High]]'', and ''[[Harvard Man]]'', the University has not allowed any movies to be filmed on its campus since ''[[Love Story]]'' in the 1960s; most films are shot in look-alike cities, such as Toronto, and colleges such as [[Wheaton College|Wheaton]] and [[Bridgewater State College|Bridgewater State]] {{ref|Burr}}. Also set in Harvard is [[Korea]]n hit TV series ''[[Love Story in Harvard]]''{{ref|Catalano}}, filmed at [[University of Southern California]]. Many movies have characters identified as Harvard graduates, including ''[[A Few Good Men]]'', ''[[American Psycho]]'', and ''[[Two Weeks Notice]]''. The novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' has its main character, Robert Langdon, as a Harvard &quot;professor of symbology.&quot; (According to Karen L. King, Harvard professor of Ecclesiastical History, there is no such acade
w]]''). Hamas regards the territory of the present-day [[Israel|State of Israel]] — as well as the Gaza Strip and the West Bank — as an inalienable Islamic [[waqf]] or religious bequest, which can never be surrendered to non-[[Muslim]]s. It asserts that struggle (''[[jihad]]'') to wrest control of the land from Israel is the religious duty of every Muslim (''fard `ain''). This position is more radical than that now held by the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), which in [[1988]] recognized Israel's sovereignty. Hamas does not recognize Israel as a sovereign state and refers to it as the &quot;Zionist entity&quot;, a common hostile term in Arab political rhetoric, and calls for Israel's destruction in its charter. Hamas dropped its call for the destruction of Israel from its electoral manifesto [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1684472,00.html]. However several Hamas candidates insist that the charter is still in force and often called for Israel to be &quot;wiped off the map&quot; in campaign speeches[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060112/wl_nm/mideast_hamas_dc]. On January 25th, 2006, after winning the Palestinian elections, Hamas leader [[Mahmoud Al-Zahhar]] gave an interview to [[Al-Manar TV]] denouncing foreign demands that Hamas recognize Israel's right to exist. [http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1014] Hamas's charter calls for the eventual destruction of the state of Israel and the creation of an Islamic Republic in it's place. [http://www.mideastweb.org/hamas.htm]. Hamas sees this view as an Islamic religious duty and prophesy which comes directly from the Q'uran and as such can not be compromised, how ever the group has not set a specific date for such destruction of Israel, Hamas founder, Sheikh Yassin, has mentioned the year 2027 as the possible date for destruction of Israel[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=317595&amp;contrassID=2&amp;subContrassID=5&amp;sbSubContrassID=0&amp;listSrc=Y]. The group has not issued a clear statement about how it would deal with the current population of Israel, should it succeed in overthrowing Israeli and secular Palestinian government. [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]], one of its co-founders, stated that the movement's goal is &quot;to remove Israel from the map.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=New-look Hamas spends £100k on an image makeover | org=The Guardian | date=January 20, 2006 | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,1690610,00.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; However, on February 13, 2005, Hamas leader [[Khaled Mashal]] declared that Hamas would stop [[armed struggle]] against Israel if it recognized the 1967 borders and withdrew itself from all Palestinian occupied territories (including the West Bank and [[East Jerusalem]] (''[[Hamas#January 2006 - Winning the Legislative Election|See below]]''). According to the [[neo-conservative]] [[Washington Institute for Near East Policy|Washington Institute]], Hamas views the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] as &quot;a religious struggle between [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]] that can only be resolved by the destruction of the State of Israel.&quot; [http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=116] Hamas uses both political activities and violence to pursue its goal of establishing an Islamic [[Palestinian state]] in place of Israel and the secular [[Palestinian Authority]]. Israeli military operations during the [[Al Aqsa Intifada]] in 2002 put pressure on Hamas in the West Bank following several bombings in Israel for which Hamas claimed responsibility. Hamas has also engaged in peaceful political activities, including running candidates in West Bank [[Chamber of Commerce]] elections. The 1988 [[wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Hamas Covenant]] states that the organization's goal is to &quot;raise the banner of [[Allah|God]] over every inch of Palestine,&quot; i.e. to eliminate the State of Israel (and any secular Palestinian state which may be established), and to replace it with an [[Islamic Republic]]. &lt;!-- The goal to conquer Israel is explicitly stated as one of the starting points in its charter: &quot;Israel will rise and will remain erect until Islam eliminates it as it had eliminated its predecessors.&quot; --&gt; The thirty-six articles of the Covenant detail the movement's [[Islamist]] beliefs regarding the primacy of Islam in all aspects of life. The Covenant identifies Hamas as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in Palestine and considers its members to be Muslims who &quot;fear God and raise the banner of Jihad in the face of the oppressors.&quot; Hamas describes resisting and quelling the enemy as the individual duty of every Muslim and prescribes revolutionary roles for all members of society; including men and women, professionals, scientists and students. The slogan of Hamas is &quot;[[God]] is its target, [[Muhammad|the Prophet]] is its model, the [[Qur'an]] its [[constitution]]: Jihad is its path and death for the sake of God is the loftiest of its wishes.&quot; Hamas states that its objective is to support the oppressed and wronged and &quot;to bring about justice and defeat injustice, in word and deed.&quot; Hamas believes that &quot;the land of Palestine is an Islamic [[Waqf]] (trust) consecrated for future Muslim generations until [[Qiyamah|Judgement Day]],&quot; and as such, the land cannot be negotiated away by any political leader. Hamas rejects &quot;so-called peaceful solutions and international conferences&quot; as incapable of realizing justice or restoring rights to the oppressed, believing &quot;there is no solution for the Palestinian question except through [[Jihad]].&quot; During the election campaign the organisation toned down the criticism of Israel in their election manifest and only stated that they are prepared to use &quot;armed resistance to end the occupation&quot;.[http://www.stockholmsfria.nu/artikel/6296] === The Covenant of Hamas === The [[Wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Covenant]] (or Charter) of Hamas was published in 1988. It outlines the organization's position on various issues, including social and economic development and ideological influences, education, as well as its position regarding Israel. Amongst many other things, it reiterates the group's rejection of the coexistence principle of the [[peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]: &lt;blockquote&gt;''Preface:'' &quot;Israel will exist and will continue to exist until Islam will obliterate it, just as it obliterated others before it.&quot; ''(A quote by Imam [[Hassan al-Banna]])''&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 6:'' &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement is a distinguished Palestinian movement, whose allegiance is to Allah, and whose way of life is Islam. It strives to raise the banner of Allah over every inch of Palestine, for under the wing of Islam followers of all religions can coexist in security and safety where their lives, possessions and rights are concerned...&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 11:'' &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement believes that the land of Palestine is an Islamic Waqf consecrated for future Moslem generations until Judgement Day. It, or any part of it, should not be squandered: it, or any part of it, should not be given up.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 13:'' &quot;There is no solution for the Palestinian question except through [[Jihad]]. Initiatives, proposals and international conferences are all a waste of time and vain endeavors. The Palestinian people know better than to consent to having their future, rights and fate toyed with.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 28:'' &quot;The Zionist invasion is a vicious invasion ... It relies greatly in its infiltration and espionage operations on the secret organizations it gave rise to, such as the Freemasons, The Rotary and Lions clubs, and other sabotage groups. All these organizations, whether secret or open, work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ...&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 31:'' &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement is a humanistic movement. It takes care of human rights and is guided by Islamic tolerance when dealing with the followers of other religions. It does not antagonize anyone of them except if it is antagonized by it or stands in its way to hamper its moves and waste its efforts. Under the wing of Islam, it is possible for the followers of the three religions - Islam, Christianity and Judaism - to coexist in peace and quiet with each other.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 32:'' &quot;After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', and their present conduct is the best proof of what we are saying.&quot; [http://www.welt.de/z/plog/blog.php/the_free_west/the_free_wests_weblog/2006/01/26/a_viable_palestinian_state] &lt;/blockquote&gt; Suicide attacks are an element of what the group sees as its [[asymmetric warfare]] against Israel. Since the group considers all Israel to be a &quot;militarized society&quot; (there is mandatory military service for most Jewish men and women) and Israelis to be participants in an illegal occupation of Palestinian land, Hamas does not distinguish between Israeli civilian and military targets. This failure to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants and the group's willingness to target civilian facilities including buses, supermarkets, and restaurants has led to it being labeled a terrorist organization. Hamas' position on other social and political issues: &lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 16 (education):'' It is necessary to follow Islamic orientation in educating the Islamic generations in our region by teaching the religious duties, comprehensive study of t