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in)|Galicia]], [[Spain]]. His father ''Nicolas Franco Salgado-Araujo'' was a [[Navy]] accounting officer. His mother ''Pilar Bahamonde Pardo de Andrade'' also came from a family with naval tradition. He was sibling to [[Nicolás Franco Bahamonde]], navy officer and diplomat, a sister, [[Pilar Franco Bahamonde]], latter a well known socialite, and [[Ramón Franco]] a pioneer aviator and political conspirator.
His hometown was officially known as '''El Ferrol del Caudillo''' from [[1938]] to [[1982]].
As the entry into the Naval Academy was closed from [[1906]] to [[1913]], he entered in [[1907]] the Infantry Academy in [[Toledo, Spain]], where he graduated as 2nd [[lieutenant]] in [[1910]].
Two years later, he obtained a commission to [[Morocco]]. Spanish efforts to physically occupy their new [[African]] [[protectorate]] provoked a long protracted war (from [[1909]] to [[1927]]) with native Moroccans. Tactics at the time resulted in heavy losses among Spanish [[officer (armed forces)|military officers]], but also gave the chance of earning promotion through [[merit]]. This explains the saying that officers would get either ''la caja o la faja'' (a coffin or a general's sash).
Franco soon gained a reputation as a good officer. He joined the newly formed ''[[regulares]]'' [[colonial]] native troops with Spanish officials, which acted as [[shock troops]].
In [[1916]], at the age of 23 and already a [[captain#military|captain]], he was badly wounded in a [[skirmish]] at [[El Biutz]]. This action marked him permanently in the eyes of the native troops as a man of ''[[baraka]]'' (good luck). He was also proposed unsuccessfully for Spain's highest honor for gallantry, the coveted [[Cruz Laureada de San Fernando]]. Instead, he was promoted to [[major]] (''comandante''), becoming the youngest [[staff officer]] in the Spanish Army.
From [[1917]] to [[1920]] he was posted on the Spanish mainland. That last year, Lieutenant Colonel [[José Millán Astray]], a [[histrionic]] but [[charismatic]] officer, founded the ''[[Spanish Foreign Legion|Legión Extranjera]]'', along similar lines to the [[French Foreign Legion]]. Franco became the ''Legión''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s second-in-command and returned to Africa.
In summer [[1921]], the overextended Spanish army suffered ([[July 24]]) a [[Disaster of Annual|crushing defeat]] at [[Annual (Morocco)|Annual]] at the hands of the [[Rif]] tribes led by the [[Abd el-Krim]] brothers. The ''Legión'' symbolically, if not materially, saved the Spanish enclave of [[Melilla]] after a gruelling three-day forced march led by Franco. In [[1923]], already a [[lieutenant colonel]], he was made commander of the Legión.
The same year he married María del [[Carmen Polo|Carmen Polo y Martínez Valdés]] and they had one child, a daughter, [[María del Carmen]], born in [[1926]]. <!--citation for birthdate: http://www.thepeerage.com/p11214.htm#i112139--> As a special mark of honour, his [[best man]] (''padrino'') at the wedding was King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]], a fact which would mark him, during the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republic]] as a monarchical officer.
Promoted to Colonel, Franco led the first wave of troops ashore at [[Alhucemas]] in 1925. This landing in the heartland of Abd el-Krim's tribe, combined with the French invasion from the south, spelled the beginning of the end for the shortlived [[Republic of the Rif]].
Becoming the youngest [[general]] in Spain in [[1926]], Franco was appointed in [[1928]] director of the newly created '''Joint Military Academy''' in [[Zaragoza]], a common college for all Army [[cadet|cadets]].
==During the Second Spanish Republic==
[[Image:Celebracion_de_la_victoria_electoral_del_Frente_Popular_en_Madrid.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Jubilant demonstration in Madrid after the Popular Front victory in the Spanish general elections of 16 February 1936]]
At the fall of the monarchy in [[1931]], in keeping with his prior apolitical record, he did not take any remarkable attitude. But the closing of the Academy in June by then War Minister [[Manuel Azaña]] provoked the first clash: Azaña found Franco's farewell speech to the cadets [http://www.generalisimofranco.com/discurso12.htm] insulting, resulting in Franco being without a post for six months, and under surveillance.
On [[February 5]][[1932]] he was given a command in [[A Coruña]]. Franco avoided being involved in [[Jose Sanjurjo]]'s attempted ''coup'' that year. As a side result of Azaña's military reform, in January [[1933]] Franco was relegated from the first to the 24th in the list of Brigadiers; conversely, the same year ([[February 17]]), he was given the military command of the [[Balearic Islands]]&mdash;a post above his grade.
===The Asturias Uprising===
On October [[1933]], new elections were held, which resulted in a center-right majority. In opposition to this government, a [[Anarchism in Spain#Prelude to Revolution|revolutionary movement]] broke out [[October 5]], [[1934]]. This attempt was rapidly quelled in most of the country, but gained a stronghold in [[Asturias]], with the support of the [[miner]]s' unions. Franco, already general of a Division and assessor to the war minister, was put in command of the operations directed to suppress the insurgency. The forces of the Army in Africa were to carry the brunt of the operations, with General [[Eduardo López Ochoa]] as commander in the field. After two weeks of heavy fighting (and a death toll estimated between 1,200 and 2,000), the rebellion was suppressed.
The uprising and, in general, the events that led over the next two years to the civil war, are still under heavy debate (between, for example, [[Enrique Moradiellos]] and [[Pio Moa]]: see [http://es.wikipedia.org/Revolución_de_1934], [http://www.nodulo.org/ec/2005/n035p02.htm], or [http://www.nodulo.org/ec/polemica.htm#p15]). Nonetheless, it is universally agreed that the insurgency in Asturias sharpened the antagonism between left and right. Franco and Lopez Ochoa&mdash;who up to that moment was seen as a left-leaning officer&mdash;were marked by the left as enemies. Lopez Ochoa was persecuted, jailed, and finally killed at the start of the war.
Some time after these events, Franco was briefly commander-in-chief of the Army of Africa (from [[February 15]][[1935]] onwards), and from [[May 19]][[1935]] on, [[Chief of the General Staff]], the top military post in Spain.
===The government of the Popular Front===
After the centre parties of the ruling coalition collapsed amid corruption scandals (the [[estraperlo]] case), new elections were scheduled. Two wide coalitions formed: the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] on the left, from Republicans to the Communists, and the [[Frente Nacional]], on the right, from the centre [[radicalism|radicals]] to the conservative [[Carlism|Carlists]]). On [[February 16]] [[1936]], the left won by a narrow margin[http://www.guerracivil1936.galeon.com/fpopular.htm]. The days after were marked by near chaotic circumstances. Franco lobbied unsuccessfully to have a state of emergency declared, with the stated purpose to quell the disturbances and allow an orderly vote recount. Instead, Franco was sent ([[February 23]]) as military commander of the [[Canary Islands]], a distant place with few troops under his command.
Meanwhile, the conspiracy led by [[Emilio Mola]] was taking shape, Franco was contacted, although he did not endorse the coup but maintained an ambiguous attitude almost up to July. Yet on [[June 23]] [[1936]], he wrote to the head of the government [[Casares Quiroga]] offering to quell the discontent in the army, but the government answer was never satisfactory to him. In July, after the middle classes and the centre-right joined the rebellion, the situation reached a point of no return and, as presented to Franco by Mola, the coup was unavoidable and he had to choose a side. Once decided to join, he was given the task of commanding the African Army. A private airplane (the Dragon Rapide) was chartered in England [[July 11]] to bring him to Africa.
The assassination of the political opposition leader [[José Calvo Sotelo]] by government police troops triggered the uprising. On [[July 17]] the African Army rebelled, detaining their commanders. On [[July 18]] Franco published a manifesto [http://www.generalisimofranco.com/discurso11.htm] and left for Africa, where he arrived the next day to take command.
A week later, the rebels, who soon came to be known as the Nacionales (literally Nationals, but almost always referred to in English as Nationalists), controlled only a third of Spain, and most [[navy]] units remained under control of the opposition Republican forces, which left Franco isolated. The coup had failed, but the [[Spanish Civil War]] had begun.
==Franco during the War==
[[Image:Italians_leave_Spain_for_home.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Italians leave Spain for home. The Italians marching through the streets of Cadiz (Spain) on their way to the troopships for home. October 1938]]
See also [[Spanish Civil War]]
===The first months===
The first days of the rebellion were marked with the need of securing the control over the [[Protectorate]]. On one side, Franco managed to win the support of the natives and their (nominal) authorities. On the other to insure his control over the army. This led to the execution of some senior officers loyal to the republic (one of them his own first cousin) [http://www.memoriahistorica.org/alojados/periquete/paginas/noticias1.html].
Franco had to face the problem of how to move his troops to the [[Iberian Peninsula]], because most units of the Navy had remained in control of the republic and were blocking the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. From the [[July 20]] onward he was able, with a small group of aeroplanes, to initiate an air bridge to [[Seville]], where his troops helped to insure the rebel control of the city. Through representatives, he started to negotia |
known to occur in the sea or in the [[polar regions]]. They have a major impact on the [[ecosystem]] in three ways: feeding on [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]], breaking down animal and plant debris, and eating other [[invertebrate]]s. Certain species are agricultural pests in some areas, for example the [[Colorado potato beetle]] (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata''), while other species are important controls of agricultural pests, for example the [[ladybird|lady beetles]] (family Coccinellidae) consume [[aphid]]s, [[Tephritidae|fruit flies]], [[thrip]]s, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.
==Anatomy==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Beetle Anatomy.jpg|thumb|400px|Overview of the dorsal anatomy of a Beetle]] -->
Bearing in mind the wide diversity and number of species the [[anatomy]] of beetles is quite uniform. Beetles are generally characterised by a particularly hard [[exoskeleton]], and the hard wing-cases ([[elytra]]) which tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second wings, the [[alae]]. The elytra are not used in [[flight|flying]], but generally must be raised in order to move the hindwings. In some cases the ability to fly has been lost, characteristically in families such as [[Carabidae]] and [[Curculionidae]]. After landing, the hindwings are folded below the elytra.
In a few families, both the ability to fly and the wing-cases have been lost, with the best known example being the "[[glowworm]]s" of the family [[Phengodidae]], in which the females are [[Larviform female|larviform]] throughout their lives.
The bodies of beetles are divided into three sections, the head, the [[thorax]], and the [[abdomen]], and these in themselves may be composed of several further segments.
The eyes are [[compound eye|compound]], and may display some remarkable adabtability, as in the case of the [[Whirligig beetle]]s (family Gyrinidae), in which the eyes are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline. The dorsal appendage aids the beetle in stalking prey.
[[Antenna (biology)|Antennae]] can vary greatly and may be [[filiform]], [[claviform]], [[flabellate]] or [[genticulate]].
[[Oxygen]] is taken in via a [[trachea]]l system: this takes air in through a series of tubes along the body which is then taken into increasingly finer fibres. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Although beetles have [[blood]], it is not used for oxygen transference, although a [[heart]] is present.
==Development==
[[Image:Engerling1.jpg|thumb|300px|Larva of the [[cockchafer]] (''Melolontha melolontha'')]]
Beetles are [[endopterygotes]] with complete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]. The [[larva]] of a beetle is often called a grub and represents the principal feeding stage of the life-cycle.
The eggs of beetles are minute but may be brightly coloured, they are laid in clumps and there may be from several dozen to several thousand eggs laid by a single female.
Once the egg hatches the larvae tend to feed voraciously, whether out in the open such as with Ladybird larvae, or within plants such as with leaf beetle larvae.
As with [[lepidoptera]], beetle larvae pupate for a period, and from the [[pupa]] emerges a fully formed beetle or [[imago]].
In some cases there are several transitory larvae stages and this is known as [[hypermetamorphosis]]; examples include the [[blister beetle]]s (family Meloidae).
==Physiology==
There are few things that a beetle somewhere will not eat, even inorganic matter may be consumed.
Some beetles are highly specialised in their diet; for example, the [[Colorado potato beetle]] (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata'') opts almost entirely to colonize plants of the [[potato]] family ([[Solanaceae]]). Others are generalists, eating both plants and animals. [[Ground beetle]]s (family Carabidae) and [[rove beetle]]s (family Staphylinidae) are entirely carnivorous and will catch and comsume small prey such as [[earthworm]]s and [[snail]]s.
Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species, this can range from dung which is consumed by [[coprophagous]] species such as the [[scarab beetle]]s (family Scarabaeidae), to dead animals which are eaten by [[necrophagous]] species such as the [[carrion beetle]]s (family Silphidae). The beneficial impact to the general ecology of these two activities is huge.
Various techniques are employed by many species for retaining both air and water supplies. [[Predaceous diving beetle]]s (family Dytiscidae) may be the most common example, they employ a technique of retaining air when diving between the abdomen and the elytra.
==Reproduction==
The larval period of beetles varies between species but can be as long as several years. Adults have an extremely variable lifespan, again, from weeks to years.
Beetles may display some extremely intricate behaviour when mating. Smell is thought to play significant importance in the location of a mate.
Conflict can play a part in the mating rituals for example in species such as [[burying beetle]]s (genus ''Nicrophorus'') where localised conflicts between males and females rage until only one of each is left, thus ensuring reproduction by the strongest and fittest. Many beetles are territorial and will fiercly defend their small patch of territory from intruding males.
Pairing is generally short but in some cases will last for several hours. During pairing [[sperm cell]]s are transferred to the female to [[fertilise]] the egg.
==Parental care==
As befitting such a large order, the parental care between species varies widely. It ranges from the simple laying of eggs under a leaf to [[scarab beetle]]s, which construct impressive underground structures complete with a supply of dung to house and feed their young.
There are other notable ways of caring for the eggs and young, such as those employed by [[leaf roller]]s, who bite sections of leaf causing it to curl inwards and then lay the eggs, thus protected, inside.
Generally the number of eggs laid is an indicator of the level of parental care subsequently employed, as they are inversely proportional.
==Predation==
Beetles and larvae have evolved to employ a variety of different strategies for avoiding being eaten.
Many employ simple camoflage to avoid being spotted by predators. These include the [[leaf beetle]]s (family Chysomelidae) that have a green colouring very similair to their habitat on tree leaves.
A number of [[longhorn beetle]]s (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to [[wasp]]s, thus benefitting from a measure of protection. Large [[ground beetle]]s by contrast will tend to go on the attack, using their strong [[mandible]]s to forcibly persuade a predator to seek out easier prey.
Many species, including [[ladybird|lady beetle]]s and [[blister beetle]]s, can secrete poisonous substances to make them unpalatable.
== Evolutionary history and classification ==
Beetles entered the [[fossil record]] during the Lower [[Permian]], about 265 million years ago.
The four extant suborders of beetle are these:
* [[Polyphaga]] is the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, including [[rove beetle]]s (Staphylinidae), [[scarab beetle]]s (Scarabaeidae), [[blister beetle]]s (Meloidae), [[stag beetle]]s (Lucanidae), and [[true weevil]]s (Curculionidae). These beetles can be identified by the cervical [[sclerite]]s (hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in the other suborders.
* [[Adephaga]] contains about 10 families of predatory beetles, includes [[ground beetle]]s (Carabidae), [[predacious diving beetle]]s (Dytiscidae) and [[whirligig beetle]]s (Gyrinidae). In these beetles the [[testes]] are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the [[exoskeleton]]) is divided by the hind [[coxa]]e (the basal joints of the beetle's legs).
* [[Archostemata]] contains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, including [[reticulated beetle]]s (Cupedidae) and [[telephone-pole beetle]]s (Micromalthidae).
* [[Myxophaga]] contains about 100 described species in four families, mostly very small, including [[skiff beetle]]s (Hydroscaphidae) and [[minute bog beetle]]s (Sphaeriusidae).
These suborders diverged in the Permian and [[Triassic]]. Their phylogenetic relationship is uncertain, with the most popular hypothesis being that Polyphaga and Myxophaga are most closely related, with Adephaga an outgroup to those two, and Archostemata an outgroup to the other three.
The extraordinary number of beetle species poses special problems for [[Linnaean taxonomy|classification]], with some families consisting of thousands of species and needing further division into subfamilies and tribes.
See the article [[subgroups of the order Coleoptera]] for a complete list of families and [http://www.fond4beetles.com/families.html] for a complete list of World families and subfamilies.
==Impact on humans==
===Pests===
[[Image:Bonenkever Acanthoscelides obtectus.jpg|thumb|300px|Damage to beans by larvae of the [[common bean weevil]], ''Acanthoscelides obtectus'']]
There are several serious agricultural and household pests represented by the order, these include :
* The [[Colorado potato beetle]] (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata'') is a notorious pest of [[potato]] plants. Adults mate before overwintering deep in the soil, so that when they emerge the following spring, females can lay eggs immediately, once a suitable host plant has been found. As well as potatoes, this can be any one of a number of plants from the potato family ([[Solanaceae]]) such as [[nightshade]], [[tomato]], [[aubergine]] and [[capsicum]]. Crops are destroyed and the beetle can only be treated by employing expensive [[pesticide]]s, many of which it has begun to develop immunity to.
* The [[elm bark beetle]]s, ''Hylurgopinus rufipes'', [[elm leaf beetle]] ''Pyrrhalta luteola'' and ''Scolytus multistriatus'' (in the family [[Bark |
;}}</center>
|-
! [[ferret|ferrets]]
| A fesnying of ferrets
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[fox|foxes]]
| A leash of foxes
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[fox|foxes]]
| A skulk of foxes
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[giraffe|giraffes]]
| A corps of giraffes
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[giraffe|giraffes]]
| A tower of giraffes
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[goat|goats]]
| A tribe of goats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[goat|goats]]
| A trip of goats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[gorilla|gorillas]]
| A band of gorillas
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[gorilla|gorillas]]
| A woop of gorillas
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[guinea pig|guinea pigs]]
| A scream of guinea pigs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hare|hares]]
| A down of hares
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hare|hares]]
| A husk of hares
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hare|hares]]
| A leap of hares
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hare|hares]]
| A trace of hares
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hare|hares]]
| A trip of hares
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hedgehog|hedgehogs]]
| A prickle of hedgehogs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]]
| A bloat of hippopotami
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]]
| A crash of hippopotami
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|hogs]]
| A drift of hogs
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[pig|hogs]]
| A parcel of hogs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|hogs]]
| A passel of hogs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|horses]]
| A harass of horses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|horses]]
| A stable of horses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|horses]]
| A team of horses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[dog|hounds]]
| A cry of hounds
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hound|hounds]]
| A mute of hounds
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hound|hounds]]
| A pack of hounds
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[hyena|hyenas]]
| A clan of hyenas
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[kangaroo|kangaroos]]
| A court of kangaroos
| <center>Spurious (see note)</center>
|-
! [[kangaroo|kangaroos]]
| A mob of kangaroos
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[kangaroo|kangaroos]]
| A troop of kangaroos
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|kittens (cats)]]
| A kindle of kittens (cats)
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rabbit|kittens (rabbits)]]
| A wrack of kittens (rabbits)
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[sheep|lambs]]
| A fall of lambs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[leopard|leopards]]
| A leap of leopards
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[lion|lions]]
| A pride of lions
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[lion|lions]]
| A sault of lions
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[lion|lions]]
| A sowse of lions
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|mares]]
| A stud of mares
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mouse|mice]]
| A mischief of mice
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mouse|mice]]
| A nest of mice
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mole (animal)|moles]]
| A company of moles
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mole (animal)|moles]]
| A labour of moles
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mole (animal)|moles]]
| A movement of moles
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[monkey|monkeys]]
| A mission of monkeys
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[monkey|monkeys]]
| A tribe of monkeys
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mule|mules]]
| A Rake of mules
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[mule|mules]]
| A barren of mules
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[ox|oxen]]
| A span of oxen
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[ox|oxen]]
| A team of oxen
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[ox|oxen]]
| A yoke of oxen
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[panda|pandas]]
| A pandemonium of pandas
| <center>Spurious</center>
|-
! [[pekingese|pekingese]]
| A pomp of pekinese
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|piglets]]
| A farrow of piglets
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|piglets]]
| A litter of piglets
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|pigs]]
| A drove of pigs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|pigs]]
| A herd of pigs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[pig|pigs]]
| A sounder of pigs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[polar bear|polar bears]]
| An aurora of polar bears
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[polecat|polecats]]
| A chine of polecats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|ponies]]
| A string of ponies
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[porpoise|porpoises]]
| A turmoil of porpoises
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[porpoise|porpoises]]
| A pod of porpoises
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[possum|possum]]
| A passel of possum
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[dog|puppies]]
| A litter of puppies
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rabbit|rabbits]]
| A bury of rabbits
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rabbit|rabbits]]
| A colony of rabbits
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rabbit|rabbits]]
| A nest of rabbits
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[raccoon|raccoons]]
| A gaze of raccoons
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|racehorses]]
| A field of racehorses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rat|rats]]
| A colony of rats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rat|rats]]
| A pack of rats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rat|rats]]
| A rabble of rats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rat|rats]]
| A swarm of rats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]]
| A crash of rhinoceroses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[deer|roes]]
| A bevy of roes
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]]
| A colony of seals (on land)
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]]
| A plum of seals
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]]
| A pod of seals
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]]
| A raft of seals (in the water)
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]]
| A spring of seals
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[sheep|sheep]]
| A flock of sheep
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[sheep|sheep]]
| A trip of sheep
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[dog|show dogs]]
| A bench of show dogs
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[squirrel|squirrels]]
| A church of squirrels
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[squirrel|squirrels]]
| A dray of squirrels
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[swine|swine]]
| A drift of swine
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[swine|swine]]
| A sounder of swine
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[tiger|tigers]]
| A streak of tigers
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[tiger|tigers]]
| An ambush of tigers
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[walrus|walruses]]
| A herd of walruses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[walrus|walruses]]
| An ugly of walruses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[weasel|weasels]]
| A sneak of weasels
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[whale|whales]]
| A gam of whales
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[whale|whales]]
| A herd of whales
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[whale|whales]]
| A pod of whales
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[whale|whales]]
| A school of whales
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[wolf|wolves]]
| A pack of wolves
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[wolf|wolves]]
| A rout of wolves
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[zeb |
as "[[He whom God shall make manifest]]". Considered the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]].
*1863 - [[Quantrill's Raiders]] launch a reprisal raid [[Lawrence, Kansas]] in the [[Battle of Lawrence]], killing a number of civilians.
*[[1894]] - [[Norway]] formally adopts the [[Krag-Jørgensen]] rifle as the main arm of its armed forces, a weapon that would remain in service for almost 50 years.
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], on [[April 25]], recognizes that a state of war exists between the [[United States]] and [[Spain]] as of this date.
*[[1912]] - The [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] and [[New York Yankees]] play an exhibition game to benefit survivors of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']].
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|German]] fighter ace [[Manfred von Richthofen]], known as "The Red Baron," is shot down and killed by [[Allies|Allied]] fire over [[Vaux sur Somme]] in [[France]].
*[[1930]] - A fire at a [[Columbus, Ohio]], [[United States|USA]], penitentiary kills 320 people.
*[[1944]] - Women in [[France]] receive the right to vote.
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] forces south of [[Berlin]] at [[Zossen]] attack the German High Command headquarters.
*[[1952]] - Secretaries Day (now [[Administrative Professionals' Day]]) is first celebrated.
*[[1955]] - [[Bob Hope]]'s radio program airs its last segment.
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]]'s song "[[Heartbreak Hotel]]" becomes the "King's" first song to reach the top of the [[Cash Box magazine]] [http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/randypny/cashbox/1956.html] music charts.
*[[1960]] - [[Brasília]], Brazil's capital, is officially inaugurated. At 9:30 am the Three Powers of the Republic are simultaneously transferred from the old capital, [[Rio de Janeiro]].
*1960 - Founding of the Orthodox [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] Faith in [[Washington, DC]].
*[[1965]] - The [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964-1965 New York World's Fair]] opens for its second and final season.
*[[1966]] - [[Rastafari movement]]: [[Haile Selassie of Ethiopia]] visits [[Jamaica]], an event now celebrated as [[Grounation Day]].
*[[1967]] - A few days before the general election in Greece, [[Colonel]] [[George Papadopoulos]] leads a [[coup d'état]], establishing a military regime that lasts for seven years.
*[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: President of [[South Vietnam]] [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] flees [[Saigon]], as [[Xuan Loc]], the last South Vietnamese outpost blocking a direct [[North Vietnam]]ese assault on Saigon, falls.
*[[1985]] - [[Ayrton Senna]] wins the first of 41 [[Formula One]] championship races at the Portuguese [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix]] in [[Estoril]].
*[[1986]] - [[Geraldo Rivera]] opens [[Al Capone|Al Capone's]] vault on live television and finds nothing.
*[[1987]] - The [[Tamil Tigers]] is blamed for a [[car bomb]] that explodes in the [[Sri Lanka]]n capital of [[Colombo]], killing 106 people.
*[[1989]] - [[Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989]]: In [[Beijing]], around 100,000 students gather in [[Tiananmen Square]] to commemorate the late Chinese reform leader [[Hu Yaobang]].
*[[1992]] - [[Capital punishment in the United States|U.S. death penalty]]: After 13 years on [[death row]], convicted murderer [[Robert Alton Harris]] is executed in [[California]]'s [[gas chamber]].
*[[1994]] - The first discoveries of [[extrasolar planet]]s are announced by astronomer [[Alexander Wolszczan]].
*[[2005]] - [[John Negroponte]] becomes the first [[United States Director of National Intelligence]].
==Births==
*[[1555]] - [[Ludovico Carracci]], Italian painter (d. [[1619]])
*[[1651]] - Blessed [[Joseph Vaz]], Apostle of Ceylon (d. [[1711]])
*[[1652]] - [[Michel Rolle]], French mathematician (d. [[1719]])
*[[1671]] - [[John Law (economist)|John Law]], Scottish economist (d. [[1729]])
*[[1713]] - [[Louis, 4th duc de Noailles]], Marshal of France (d. [[1793]])
*[[1729]] - [[Empress]] [[Catherine II of Russia]] (d. [[1796]])
*[[1774]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]], French physicist (d. [[1862]])
*[[1775]] - [[Alexander Anderson (illustrator)|Alexander Anderson]], American wood-engraver and illustrator (d. [[1870]])
*[[1810]] - [[John Putnam Chapin]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1864]])
*[[1811]] - [[Alson Sherman]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1903]])
*[[1814]] - [[Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts]], English philanthropist (d. [[1906]])
*[[1816]] - [[Charlotte Brontë]], English author (d. [[1855]])
*[[1837]] - [[Fredrik Bajer]], Danish politician and pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1922]])
*[[1838]] - [[John Muir]], American environmentalist (d. [[1914]])
*[[1851]] - [[Charles Barrois]], French geologist (d. [[1939]])
*[[1864]] - [[Max Weber]], German economist and sociologist (d. [[1920]])
*[[1879]] - [[Kartini]], Indonesian national heroine (d. [[1904]])
*[[1882]] - [[Percy Williams Bridgman]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1961]])
*[[1889]] - [[Paul Karrer]], Swiss chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1905]] - [[Pat Brown]], American politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1911]] - [[Ivan Combe]], American inventor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1912]] - [[Marcel Camus]], French film director (d. [[1982]])
*[[1915]] - [[Anthony Quinn]], Mexican-born actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1919]] - [[Don Cornell]], American singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1922]] - [[Alistair MacLean]], Scottish author (d. [[1987]])
*[[1923]] - [[John Mortimer]], English barrister and writer
*[[1926]] - Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]
*[[1927]] - [[Gerald Flood]], British actor (d. [[1989]])
*[[1930]] - [[Silvana Mangano]], Italian actress (d. [[1989]])
*[[1932]] - [[Elaine May]], American comedienne, writer, director, and actress
*[[1935]] - [[Charles Grodin]], American actor and journalist
* 1935 - [[Thomas Kean]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1936]] - [[James Dobson]], American evangelist
*[[1939]] - [[Helen Prejean]], American nun and writer
*[[1947]] - [[Iggy Pop]], American musician ([[The Stooges]])
*[[1948]] - [[Gary Condit]], American politician
*[[1949]] - [[Patti Lupone]], American singer and actress
*[[1951]] - [[Tony Danza]], American actor and talk show host
*1951 - [[Michael Hartley Freedman]], American mathematician
*1951 - [[Steve Vickers]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1958]] - [[Andie MacDowell]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[Gene Callahan]], American writer
*1959 - [[Robert Smith (musician)|Robert Smith]], British musician, singer, and songwriter ([[The Cure]])
*[[1960]] - [[Michel Goulet]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1963]] - [[Ken Caminiti]], baseball player (d. [[2004]])
*1963 - [[Roy Dupuis]], Canadian actor
*[[1964]] - [[Ludmila Engquist]], Russian-born Swedish athlete
*[[1965]] - [[Ed Belfour]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1970]] - [[Nicole Sullivan]], American actress, comedienne, and writer
*[[1970]] - [[Rob Riggle]], American comedian
*[[1971]] - [[Eric Mabius]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Jamie Salé]], Canadian figure skater
*[[1978]] - [[Jukka Nevalainen]], drummer of Finnish heavy metal band [[Nightwish]]
*[[1980]] - [[Vincent Lecavalier]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1982]] - [[Carnell Williams|Carnell "Cadillac" Williams]], American football player
==Deaths==
*[[748]] - [[Empress Gensho]] of [[Japan]] (b. [[680]])
*[[1073]] - [[Pope Alexander II]]
*[[1109]] - [[Anselm of Canterbury]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1142]] - [[Pierre Abélard]], French writer (b. [[1079]])
*[[1329]] - [[Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1282]])
*[[1509]] - King [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1457]])
*[[1551]] - [[Oda Nobuhide]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1510]])
*[[1557]] - [[Petrus Apianus]], German mathematician (b. [[1495]])
*[[1574]] - [[Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (b. [[1519]])
*[[1699]] - [[Jean Racine]], French dramatist (b. [[1639]])
*[[1701]] - [[Asano Naganori]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1667]])
*[[1719]] - [[Philippe de la Hire]], French mathematician and historian (b. [[1640]])
*[[1720]] - [[Antoine Hamilton]], French writer (b. [[1646]])
*[[1793]] - [[John Michell]], English seismologist (b. [[1724]])
*[[1815]] - [[Joseph Winston]], U.S. Congressman from North Carolina (b. [[1746]])
*[[1868]] - [[Henry James O'Farrell]], Australian would-be assassin of [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha |Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh]] (Hanged)
*[[1910]] - [[Mark Twain]], American author and humorist (b. [[1835]])
*[[1918]] - [[Manfred von Richthofen]], German pilot (b. [[1892]])
*[[1924]] - [[Eleonora Duse]], Italian actress (b. [[1858]])
*[[1930]] - [[Robert Bridges]], English poet (b. [[1844]])
*[[1938]] - [[Allama Iqbal]], Indian philosopher and poet (b. [[1877]])
*[[1946]] - [[John Maynard Keynes]], English economist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1956]] - [[Charles MacArthur]], American writer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1965]] - [[Edward Victor Appleton]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1892]])
*[[1971]] - [[François Duvalier|François "Papa Doc" Duvalier]], Haitian dictator (b. [[1907]])
*[[1973]] - [[Arthur Fadden]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1894]])
*[[1977]] - [[Gummo Marx]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1892]])
*[[1978]] - [[Sandy Denny]], British vocalist (b. [[1947]])
*1978 - [[Thomas Wyatt Turner]], American civil rights advocate and agricultural engineer
*[[1980]] - [[Aleksandr Oparin]], Russian biochemist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1983]] - [[Walter Slezak]], Austrian actor (b. [[1902]])
*[[1985]] - [[Rudi Gernreich]], Austrian fashion designer (b. [[1922]])
* 1985 - [[Tancredo de Almeida Neves]], Brazil banker and politician (b. [[1910]])
*[[1989]] - Princess [[Her Imperial Highness Princess Duk-hye|Dukhye of Korea]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1990]] - [[Erté]], French artist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1991]] - [[Willi Boskovsky]], Austrian violinist and conductor (b. [[1909]])
*[[1996]] - [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]], Chechen leader (b. [[1944]])
*1996 - [[Jimmy Snyd |
educated at the court of [[Afonso V of Portugal]], and after the death of that monarch seems to have served for some time in [[Africa]]. On his return he was appointed ''estribeiro-mor'' (chief [[equerry]]) to [[John II of Portugal|John II]].
==Expeditions to the East==
===First Expedition, 1503-1504===
In [[1503]] he set out on his first expedition to the East, which was to be the scene of his future triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco he sailed round the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to [[India]], and succeeded in establishing the king of Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining in return for this service permission to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and thus laying the foundation of his country's empire in the East.
===Operations in the Persian Gulf and Malabar, 1504-1508===
Albuquerque returned home in [[July]] [[1504]], and was well received by King [[Manuel I of Portugal]], who entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which sailed for [[India]] in [[1506]] under [[Tristão da Cunha]]. After a series of successful attacks on the [[Arab]] cities on the east coast of Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da Cunha, and sailed with his squadron against the island of [[Ormuz]], in the [[Persian Gulf]], which was then one of the chief centres of commerce in the East. He arrived on [[September 25]], [[1507]], and soon obtained possession of the island, though he was unable long to maintain his position.
With his squadron increased by three vessels, he reached the [[Malabarian Coast|Malabar coast]] at the close of the year [[1508]], and immediately made known the commission he had received from the king empowering him to supersede the governor [[Francisco de Almeida]]. The latter, however, refused to recognize Albuquerque's credentials and cast him into prison, from which he was only released, after three months' confinement, on the arrival of the grand-marshal of Portugal with a large fleet, in November 1509. Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque speedily showed the energy and determination of his character.
===Operations in Goa and Malacca, 1510-1511===
An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut (modern [[Kozhikode]]) in January [[1510]], in which the commander-in-chief received a severe wound, was immediately followed by the investment and capture of [[Old Goa|Goa]]. Albuquerque, finding himself unable to hold the town on his first occupation, abandoned it in [[August]], to return with the reinforcements in [[November]], when he obtained undisputed possession. He next directed his forces against the [[Sultanate of Malacca]], which he subdued [[August 24]]th [[1511]] after a severe struggle. He remained in the town nearly a year in order to strengthen the position of the portuguese crown.
===Various operations, 1512-1515===
In [[1512]] he sailed for the coast of Malabar. On the voyage a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the ''Flor do Mar'', which carried the treasure he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped with his life. In [[September]] of the same year he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque had been for some time under orders from the home government to undertake an expedition to the [[Red Sea]], in order to secure that channel of communication exclusively to Portugal. He accordingly laid siege to [[Aden]] in [[1513]], but was repulsed; and a voyage into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European fleet, led to no substantial results. In order to destroy the power of [[Egypt]], he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the course of the [[Nile River]] and so rendering the whole country barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack upon Ormuz in [[1515]]. The island yielded to him without resistance, and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until [[1622]].
==Political downfall and last years==
Albuquerque's career had a painful and ignominious close. He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who lost no opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions served their end only too well. On his return from Ormuz, at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a vessel from Europe bearing dispatches announcing that he was superseded by his personal enemy [[Lopo Soares de Albergaria]]. The blow was too much for him and he died at sea on December 16, 1515.
Before his death he wrote a letter to the king in dignified and affecting terms, vindicating his conduct and claiming for his son the honours and rewards that were justly due to himself. His body was buried at Goa in the Church of our Lady. The king of Portugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son Brás. The latter published a selection from his father's papers under the title ''Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque''.
The Indians long remembered his benign rule, and used to visit his tomb to pray him to deliver them from the oppression of his successors.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01270c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
[[Category:1453 births|Albuquerque, Alfonso d']]
[[Category:1515 deaths|Albuquerque, Alfonso d']]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[Category:Portuguese admirals|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[Category:Portuguese generals|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[bg:Афонсу де Албукерке]]
[[cs:Afonso de Albuquerque]]
[[de:Afonso de Albuquerque]]
[[fr:Alfonso de Albuquerque]]
[[id:Alfonso de Albuquerque]]
[[nl:Afonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[pl:Alfonso de Albuquerque]]
[[pt:Afonso de Albuquerque]]
[[sv:Afonso de Albuquerque]]
Reduce linking to solitary years and solitary months in accordance with the manual of style</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcaeus (poet)</title>
<id>1577</id>
<revision>
<id>40965892</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T04:03:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Lesbos</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcaeus '''('''Alkaios''')''' of Mitylene''' (ca. [[620s BC|620 BC]]-[[6th century BC]]), [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[lyric]] poet, was an older contemporary and an alleged lover of [[Sappho]], with whom he exchanged poems. He was of the aristocratic governing class of [[Mytilene]], the main city of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], where his life was entangled with its political disputes and internal feuds. He sided with his class against the upstart "[[tyrant]]s" who set themselves up in Mytilene as the voice of the people. He was in consequence obliged to spend a considerable time in exile. He is said to have become reconciled to [[Pittacus]], the ruler set up by the populist party, and to have returned eventually to Lesbos. The date of his death is unknown.
When his poems were edited in [[Hellenistic]] [[Alexandria]], they were reported to have filled ten scrolls. However, the poetry of Alcaeus has survived only in quotations: "Fighting men are the city's fortress" and the like, so judging him, rather than his high reputation in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], is like judging [[Ben Jonson]] through ''[[Bartlett's Familiar Quotations]]''. The subjects of his poems, which were composed in the [[Aeolic Greek]] dialect, were of various kinds: hymns to the gods; martial or political comment, sometimes quite personal; and lastly love-songs and drinking-songs, the kind of poetry that would be read aloud at a [[symposium]]. Alexandrian scholars agreed that Alcaeus was the second greatest lyric poet among the [[Nine lyric poets|canonic nine]]. The considerable number of fragments extant (''see link''), and the imitations of Alcaeus in Latin by [[Horace]], who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, help us to form a fair idea of the character of his poems.
==External links==
*[http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/Images2/cciv243.Alcaeus.html A. M. Miller, ''Greek Lyric'':] Alcaeus, many fragments.
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[de:Alkaios von Lesbos]]
[[es:Alceo de Mitilene]]
[[fr:Alcée de Mytilène]]
[[gl:Alceo de Mitilene]]
[[is:Alkajos]]
[[it:Alceo]]
[[he:אלקאיוס]]
[[hu:Alkaiosz]]
[[nl:Alkaios]]
[[fi:Alkaios]]
[[uk:Алкей (поет)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alcamenes</title>
<id>1578</id>
<revision>
<id>28960214</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T04:39:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jwestbrook</username>
<id>496036</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcamenes''' was a Greek [[Sculpture|sculptor]] of [[Lemnos]] and [[Athens]].
He was a younger contemporary of [[Pheidias]] and noted for the delicacy and finish of his works, among which a [[Hephaestus]] and an [[Aphrodite]] "of the Gardens" were conspicuous.
[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the pediments of the temple of [[Zeus]] at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. At [[Pergamum]] there was discovered in 1903 a copy of the head of the Hermes "Propylaeus" of Alcamenes (''Athenische Mittheilungen'', 1904, p. 180). As, however, the deity is represented in an archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual sty |
age|Romanian]], [[German language|German]], or most [[Slavic languages]])
* strong vs. weak
* augmentative vs. diminutive
Some languages, such as [[japanese language|Japanese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and the [[Tai languages]], have elaborate systems of [[measure word]]s which classify nouns into types based on shape and function, but are only used with counting [[modifiers]]. Because the classes of nouns created by these measure words are not generally distinguished in other contexts, many if not most linguists take the view that they do not create noun classes.
== Manifestations of noun classes ==
=== Agreement ===
The most common way in which noun classes are manifested in a language is through gender agreement. To understand gender agreement, consider the sentences "The man is tall" and "The woman is tall". In [[English language|English]], the only word that differs between them is the noun "man/woman", which has a direct semantic association with sexual identity. In Spanish, however, one says "''El hombre es alto''" and "''La mujer es alta''", respectively. Not only do the words for "man" and "woman" change, (''hombre'' vs. ''mujer''), but so do the article (''el'', ''la'') and the adjective (''alto'', ''alta''). When a noun belongs to a certain class, other parts of speech that refer to that noun must be inflected to be in the same class. This is similar to number agreement, whereby [[parts of speech]] that refer to a noun are inflected to agree with the [[grammatical number]] of that noun.
Agreement in relation to noun classes usually affects [[modifiers]] (such as [[adjectives]]), [[pronouns]], and sometimes [[verbs]].
=== Morphological marking on nouns ===
One way in which noun classes may manifest themselves is through [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] markings on nouns. For example, in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], most nouns that end in ''-o'' are masculine and most nouns that end in ''-a'' are feminine. Thus, ''niño'' means “boy”, and ''niña'' means “girl”. This allows new nouns with a similar meaning to be readily created in a different class, by analogy: given the noun ''empresario'' (businessman), it was straightforward to make the new noun ''empresaria'' for “businesswoman”, when women reached the work market. This kind of class shift can also have more subtle uses, such as making a collective noun like ''fruta'' (group of fruits) from a singular noun like ''fruto'' (fruit).
Not all languages which classify nouns exhibit these markings. In [[german language|German]], for example, ''most'' nouns give no clue as to their gender other than the forms of the article, determiner, and adjectives they must use. Conversely, the [[correlation]] between grammatical gender and noun [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is usually not perfect and may also have exceptions. Although in Spanish the suffix ''-o'' is characteristic of the masculine gender and the suffix ''-a'' is typical of the feminine, ''problema'' (problem) is masculine, and ''radio'' (radio station) is feminine.
=== Other manifestations ===
Languages may also evidence noun classes in other ways. [[Welsh language|Welsh]] provides a good example. On the whole, gender marking has been lost in Welsh, both on the noun, and, often, on the adjective. However, it has one unusual feature, that of [[consonant mutation|initial mutation]], where the first consonant changes to another in certain places. In Welsh, gender can cause mutation, especially the [[soft mutation]]. For instance, the word ''merch'' means girl or daughter. However 'the girl' is ''y ferch''. This only occurs with feminine nouns, masculine nouns remain unchanged after the definite article (for example ''mab'' &mdash; 'son', ''y mab'' &mdash; 'the son'). Gender also affects following adjectives in a similar way, for instance 'the large girl' is ''y ferch fawr'', but 'the large son' is ''y mab mawr''.
== Natural gender and grammatical gender ==
The use of gender-based classification of nouns (as is common in [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]) languages can sometimes be confusing, because the mere fact that a language distinguishes between men and women in some way does not mean it uses gender to grammatically classify nouns. All languages represent ''[[natural gender]]'' - the [[sex|biological distinction]] between men and women - in some way. These distinctions can exist at various levels. e.g., ''male'' and ''female'', ''man'' and ''woman'', ''uncle'' and ''aunt'' Even [[Finnish language|Finnish]], which never had any grammatical gender and has only one third person singular [[pronoun]] ''hän'' (which means both "he" and "she"), uses different nouns for "man" and "woman". Similarly, languages may also differentiate between people of different biological or social gender, , or use different noun endings to distinguish between [[Biology|biologically]] [[male]] and biologically [[female]] individuals.
This does not mean they have genders in the grammatical sense. Languages which classify nouns by grammatical gender distinguish themselves from languages which simply recognize [[natural gender]] principally through the existence of an extra system of gender agreement. In addition, they may also lack perfect correlation between grammatical gender and natural gender. These principles also apply to the variety of gender-describing common names some tribal languages have for [[intersexual]] or [[transgender]] individuals, which do not necessarily reflect grammatical gender or form a noun class.
=== Gender agreement and marking of natural gender ===
Languages that have no grammatical gender can have quite pervasive lexical marking of natural gender. This should '''not''' be confused with grammatical gender. A notable example is the [[Esperanto]] suffix ''-in'', which can be used to change, for example ''patro'', "father" into ''patrino'', "mother." This particular suffix is extremely productive (there is ''no'' atomic term for "mother" in Esperanto), leading some people to the erroneous assumption that it is a grammatical rather than a lexical gender marker.
Similarly, personal [[pronoun|pronouns]] often have different forms based on the natural gender of the reference; this is also not the same concept as grammatical gender. Gendered pronouns and their corresponding inflections vary considerably across languages: there are languages that have different pronouns and inflections in the third person only to differentiate between humans and inanimate objects, like [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. Even this distinction is commonly waived in spoken Finnish. Modern Japanese has particular distinction of verbs between animate and inanimate in [[existential sentence|existential sentences]]; ''aru'' is for inanimate, ''iru'' is for animate. In negative sentences, ''nai'' (adjective) and ''inai'' is used respectively.
The distinction between marking of natural gender and genuine grammatical gender can be illustrated with reference to changes from [[Old English]] to modern English. Curzan illustrates gender agreement in [[Old English]] with a “highly contrived” example:
: ''Seo brade lind wæs tilu and ic hire lufod.''
: (Literal translation:) That broad shield was good and I loved her.
The noun ''lind'' (shield) is grammatically feminine, which forces the pronoun ''seo'' (the, that) and the adjectives ''brade'' (broad) and ''tilu'' (good) to appear in their feminine forms, as well as the pronoun ''hire'' (her), referring back to ''lind'', which adopts the grammatical gender of the referent.
By comparison, in Modern [[English language|English]] the sentence would be:
: ''That broad shield was good and I loved it.''
Here, the ''shield'' is understood as a sexless object, and therefore designated by the neuter pronoun ''it''. Old English had three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, but gender inflections (as well as number inflections) were greatly simplified, and then merged with one another. The only trace of grammatical gender left in modern [[English language|English]] are some pronouns, such as ''he'', ''she'', ''it'', which tend to represent [[natural gender]]. The forms of modifiers used with the nouns, and of verbs, do not change according to gender in modern English: the word '''man''' is naturally masculine, and the word '''girl''' naturally feminine, but the form of the adjective ''tall'' used with both is still '''tall'''. From a linguistic perspective, therefore, English and other similar languages lack grammatical gender.
=== The role of convention ===
A second characteristic that distinguishes grammatical gender from natural gender is that it is largely a matter of [[convention]]. This is very clear when one considers the application of grammatical gender to objects - there is nothing intrinsic in a table that makes it masculine (as in the [[German language|German]] word "Tisch" is) or neuter (as the [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] word "bord" is). However, grammatical gender is equally a matter of [[convention]] even when it concerns human beings, as the overlap between grammatical gender and natural gender is not perfect. Persons who are biologically male or female may be assigned a different grammatical gender in some contexts. The most-often cited example of this is the [[German language|German]] word ''Mädchen'', which means "girl", but grammatically has neuter gender, not feminine. Similarly, the Spanish noun ''miembro'' (member) is always masculine, even if it refers to a woman, but ''persona'' (person) is always feminine, even when it refers to a man.
=== Animals ===
The relationship between natural gender and grammatical gender for animals is often |
ios was no longer accessible. Instead, visitors could only enter a police port-o-cabin, where the message board and chats were still accessible. From there, a small robot called G.R.3.G. could be used to explore the abandoned Kong Studios in a 3-D [[Macromedia Shockwave|shockwave]] environment, though doing so would only grant access to a few games.
Rumors were circulating around this time that Gorillaz were busy preparing a film, but an [[EMI]] interview later revealed that plans for the film were abandoned. In an interview with Haruka Kuroda (the voice of Noodle), Kuroda stated that Jamie Hewlett rejected many scripts before giving up on the movie.
=== Phase Two: Demon Days===
[[Image:Gorillaz_Phase_2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hewlett's art for Gorillaz changed to a darker, more detailed style in Phase Two.]]
On [[December 8]] [[2004]], the website reopened with an exclusive video entitled "Rock It" and the announcement of a new album on the way, which would be produced by [[DJ Danger Mouse]] and contain a guest appearance by [[De La Soul]]. A talent contest entitled '''Search For A Star''' was also announced, allowing fans to send in a minute-long clip of video or audio or an image file. The prize included collaborating with the band by working with them to create the music and video for "[[El Mañana]]", the fourth single for the new album,although it has been anncouned that it will be a double-A side with 'Kids With Guns' as well as getting their own virtual room on the newly rebuilt Kong Studios website.
A second [http://promo.virginrecords.net/artists/gorillaz/flipbook/uk/ promotional booklet] was issued, recapping the previously issued booklet, as well as detailing the failed movie production in Hollywood and the breakup and reforming of Gorillaz. A [[culture jamming]] project named [[Reject False Icons]] was formed criticizing modern pop figures.
The new album was first reported to be released in March 2005, but was later changed to May of the same year. The name of the album was originally reported to be ''We Are Happy Landfill'', but was later changed to ''[[Demon Days]]''. The first release off the album was a white label 12" [[promotional single]] of the song "[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]" featuring [[Bootie Brown]] and the [[Children's Choir San Fernandez]]. "Dirty Harry" was ineligible for the charts due to its status as a [[promotional single]]. The main Synth riff was written by a little known "Hobbyist" producer in line with the Gorillaz free music ethic called ginge, He goes uncredited on the song, mainly due to the cartoon imagery and close ties with the bands writers.
The first proper single from the album was "[[Feel Good Inc.]]", released as an EP in Japan and as a CD single in [[Europe]] and [[Australia]]. The single entered the [[UK Singles Chart]] at #22, several weeks before the CD single was released. This happened because the single was released as a 7" vinyl in April, and new charts regulations included sales at [[online music store]]s, where the song had been available since [[March 22]]. "Feel Good Inc." managed to reach #2 in the UK Singles Chart the week it was released, being the band's highest ever positioned single up to that point in time. The single stayed in the top ten for eight consecutive weeks. In the [[United States]], it peaked at #14. The song would also garner a [[Record of the Year]] nomination at the 2006 [[Grammy Awards]].
The Album, ''Demon Days'', was #1 in the Album Charts on its first week, but fell as low as #29 in just seven weeks. However, as the music video for the second single "[[DARE (song)|DARE]]" started getting played on [[MTV]] and other music channels, ''Demon Days'' rose up to the top 10 again. "DARE" was released on [[August 29]] [[2005]] in the UK, where it debuted at #1. A Japanese EP followed [[September 7]]. "DARE" eventually reached #87 in the [[United States]], also becoming a Top 10 hit on the Modern Rock listings.
The third single off ''Demon Days'' was "[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]", which had already been released as a promotional single earlier that year. It was released in the UK on [[November 21]], [[2005]]. On its first week, it charted at #6. The release of the single raised the album once again back up to the top 10.
On [[6 November]] [[2005]], Gorillaz-Unofficial [http://www.gorillaz-unofficial.com] announced Jamie Hewlett had revealed that the song "[[El Mañana / Kids With Guns|El Mañana]]" would be the fourth single from ''Demon Days'',but it has been confirmed that it will be a [[double A-side]] with "[[El Mañana / Kids With Guns|Kids With Guns]]" , to have a UK release on [[10 April]] [[2006]]. [http://fans.gorillaz.com/news.php link]
On [[December 18]], Demon Days went triple platinum in the UK and would end up racking up over 1,000,000 copies sold in the UK by the end of the year, making it the 5th best selling album of 2005 there. (about 1,400,000 in the US and 5,000,000 worldwide)
[[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] has reported that there will be a Gorillaz movie released in 2007. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0465655/] Some of the voice talents credited for the band members are false and this is the only source to suggest a movie is in production. It is on the whole unconfirmed and only a rumor.
In January 2006, Jamie Hewlett's artwork for Gorillaz was shortlisted for the [[Design Museum]]'s Designer of the Year award.
==Fictional band history==
'''The backstory of the animated band members of Gorillaz, as established by Albarn and Hewlett.'''
The story of Gorillaz begins in 1997. Stuart Tusspot a.k.a. "Stu-Pot" was a mentally deficient [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] enthusiast and star employee at Uncle Norm's Organ Emporium. [[Satanism|Satanist]] hoodlum Murdoc Niccals decided to [[ramraid]] Uncle Norm's Organ Emporium to procure [[synthesizer]] equipment in order to establish a "chart topping" musical group. However, Murdoc ended up driving his [[Vauxhall Astra]] through the building and directly into Stu-Pot, permanently damaging ("fracturing") Stu-Pot's left eye and putting him into a catatonic state. Murdoc was sentenced to "30,000 hours of [[community service]], plus 10 hours every week of caring for the vegetabilised Stu-Pot". Not long after, Murdoc again injured Stu-Pot in an car accident in [[Nottingham]]'s [[Tesco]] parking lot when attempting a 360°, which permanently damaged Stu-Pot's right eye, but revived him from his coma. Murdoc then recruited the newly recovered (albeit still mentally defective) Stu-Pot as the [[keyboardist]] and [[vocalist]] for his group, re-dubbing him ''2D'' for the matching pair of dents in his head from the accidents.
Murdoc then found a [[drummer]] for the group in a [[Soho]] rap record store: [[African-American]] [[expatriate]] Russel Hobbs. Russel was a middle-class [[New York]] native and was deeply troubled as a youth. He was expelled from an expensive private school for suffering from [[demonic possession]]. The trauma of said possession resulted in a four year coma from which Russel was roused only by an elaborately executed [[exorcism]]. After his recovery, Russel began attending [[Brooklyn]] High School, where he quickly cultivated friendships with a group of rappers, DJs, and street musicians. He has said that "[[hip-hop]] saved [his] soul."
This was a short-lived respite, however, as all of Russel's newfound friends were suddenly gunned-down one night in a [[drive-by shooting]]. Russel, the sole survivor, became the unwilling receptacle for the spirits of all of his slain compatriots, most notable of whom was the rhyme dropping blue phantom, Del. With their latent possession of his body, Russel gained incredible musical prowess in [[percussion]], rap, and [[hip hop music|hip-hop]] as well as a disturbing side-effect: his eyes glowed an eerie white. With this new and violent turn of events, Russel's family shipped him off to [[England]] in hopes of helping him recover from his traumas quietly -- not realizing they'd put him directly into the path of Murdoc's aspirations to superstardom, and the excesses that came along with it.
At that point, all the fledgling group needed was a guitarist. Like so many British bands before them, the trio placed an advertisement in ''[[NME]]''. The very day the ad ran, a [[FedEx]] freight container from [[Japan]] was delivered to their doorstep and out jumped a mysterious amnesiac 10-year-old wielding a [[Gibson Les Paul]]. The tiny girl made an incomprehensible introduction in Japanese and tore into a "riff to end all riffs" which ended with an impressive [[karate]] kick to the air. She then spoke a single word in English to the stunned boys, which became her moniker: "Noodle". In the later part of 1998, the Gorillaz played their first show at the Camden Brownhouse which ended prematurely due to a riot during their song "Punk". EMI [[A&R]] man Whiffy Smiffy discharged several rounds from shotgun to disperse the crowd enough to make his way to the stage and quickly signed them to the label. Ten months later they had recorded their self-titled debut LP.
In the winter of 1999 Murdoc acquired the property of Kong Studios, a sprawling haunted studio with a rather shady history, situated atop a hill in the midst of a run-down cemetery and landfill in Districtshire, [[Essex]]. The Gorillaz lived and recorded in Kong Studios up until their 2002 11-month tour of North America. At the end of July of that year, the Gorillaz took a six month break in [[L.A.]]. There they attempted to get a movie project off the ground. Meanwhile, that Halloween, Kong Studios had been shut down tight in its owner's absence by local law enforcement after an unknown man was seen running, naked and in hysteric |
lisbury a huge victory in the original "[[United Kingdom general election, 1900|Khaki election]]". But with Salisbury's retirement in [[1902]] the Conservatives went into decline, and then split over the issue of free trade. In [[1906]] Campbell-Bannerman, rallying the party on a platform of free trade and land reform, led the Liberals to [[united Kingdom general election, 1906|the greatest election victory in their history]] (this was the last time the Liberals won a majority in their own right).
Although he presided over a large majority, [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman|Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] was overshadowed by his ministers, most notably [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] at the Exchequer, [[Edward Grey]] at the Foreign Office, [[Richard Burdon Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane|Richard Burdon Haldane]] at the War Office and [[David Lloyd George]] at the Board of Trade. In [[1908]] Campbell-Bannerman retired due to failing health and he was succeeded by Asquith, who stepped up the government's radicalism. Lloyd George succeeded Asquith at the Exchequer, and was in turn succeeded at the Board of Trade by [[Winston Churchill]], a recent defector from the Conservatives. Between them they provided much of the government's drive.
The Liberals pushed through numerous pioneering social reforms, such as regulation of working hours, national insurance and welfare, as well as the reform of the House of Lords. This latter issue led to a titanic struggle with the Lords, including two general elections in [[1910]], at which the Liberals retained power but lost their overall majority, being left once again dependent on the Irish Nationalists.
As a result Asquith was forced to introduce a new Home Rule bill in [[1912]]. Since the House of Lords no longer had the power to block the bill, the Unionists, led by Sir [[Edward Carson]], launched a campaign of opposition that included the threat of armed resistance in [[Northern Ireland|Ulster]], and by [[1914]] threatened to lead to a mutiny by army officers in Ireland (see [[Curragh Incident]]). In their threats of violent resistance to Home Rule the Ulster Protestants had the full support of the Conservatives, now led by an Ulsterman, [[Andrew Bonar Law]]. The country seemed to be on the brink of civil war when [[World War I]] broke out in August [[1914]].
The war struck at the heart of everything British Liberals believed in. Several Cabinet ministers resigned, and Asquith, the master of domestic politics, proved a poor war leader. Lloyd George and Churchill, however, were zealous supporters of the war, and gradually forced the old pacifist Liberals out. The poor British performance in the early months of the war forced Asquith to invite the Conservatives into a coalition (on [[May 17]], [[1915]]). This marked the end of the last all-Liberal government. This coalition fell apart at the end of [[1916]], when the Conservatives refused to support Asquith any longer and gave their support instead to Lloyd George, who became Prime Minister at the head of a coalition government largely made up of Conservatives. Asquith and his followers moved to the opposition benches in Parliament and the Liberal Party was once again split.
==Liberal decline==
[[Image:Lloyd_george.jpg|thumb|right|David Lloyd George]]
In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1918|1918 general election]] Lloyd George, "the Man who Won the War", led his coalition into another ''[[Khaki Election|khaki election]]'', and won a sweeping victory over the Asquithian Liberals and the newly-emerging [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. Lloyd George and the Conservative leader [[Andrew Bonar Law]] wrote a joint letter of support to candidates to indicate they were considered the official Coalition candidates - this "coupon" as it became known was issued against many sitting Liberal MPs, often to devastating effect, though not against Asquith himself. Asquith and most of his colleagues lost their seats. Lloyd George still claimed to be leading a Liberal government, but he was increasingly a prisoner of the Conservatives. In [[1922]] the Conservative backbenchers rebelled against the continuation of the coalition in general, citing in particular the [[Chanak Crisis]] over [[Turkey]] and Lloyd George's corrupt sale of honours amongst other grievances, and Lloyd George was forced to resign. The Conservatives came back to power under Bonar Law and then [[Stanley Baldwin]].
At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1923|1923]] elections the Liberals won barely a third of the vote and a quarter of the seats in the House of Commons as many radical voters abandoned the divided Liberals and went over to Labour. In [[1922]] Labour became the official opposition. A reunion of the two warring factions took place in [[1923]] when the new Conservative Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]] committed his party to protective tariffs, causing the Liberals to reunite in support of free trade. The party gained ground in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1923|1923 general election]] but ominously made most of its gains from Conservatives whilst losing ground to Labour - a sign of the party's direction for many years to come. The party remained the third largest in the House of Commons but the Conservatives had lost their majority. There was much speculation and fear about the prospect of a Labour government, but comparatively little about a Liberal government, even though it could have plausibly presented an experienced team of ministers compared to Labour's almost complete lack of experience as well as offering a middle ground that could get support from both Conservatives and Labour in crucial Commons divisions. But instead of trying to force the opportunity to form a Liberal government, Asquith decided instead to allow Labour the chance of office in the belief that they would prove incompetent and this would set the stage for a revival of Liberal fortunes at Labour's expenses. It was a fatal error.
Labour was determined to destroy the Liberals and become the sole party of the left. When [[Ramsay MacDonald]] was forced into a [[united Kingdom general election, 1924|snap election in 1924]], and although his government was defeated, he achieved his objective of virtually wiping the Liberals out as many more radical voters now moved to Labour whilst moderate middle-class Liberal voters concerned about socialism moved to the Conservatives. The Liberals were reduced to a mere forty seats in Parliament, only seven of which had been won against candidates from both parties and none of these formed a coherent area of Liberal survival. The party seemed finished and during this period some Liberals, such as Churchill, went over to the Conservatives, while others went over to Labour. (Several Labour ministers of later generations, such as [[Michael Foot]] and [[Tony Benn]], were the sons of Liberal MPs.)
Asquith died in [[1926]] and the enigmatic figure of Lloyd George returned to the leadership and began a drive to produce coherent policies on many key issues of the day. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1929|1929 general election]] he made a final bid to return the Liberals to the political mainstream, with an ambitious programme of state stimulation of the economy called ''We Can Conquer Unemployment!'', largely written for him by the Liberal economist [[John Maynard Keynes]]. The Liberals gained ground, but once again it was at the Conservatives' expense whilst also losing seats to Labour. Indeed the urban areas of the country suffering heavily from unemployment, which might have been expected to respond the most to the radical economic policies of the Liberals instead gave the party its worst results. By contrast most of the party's seats were won either due to the absence of a candidate from one of the other parties or in rural areas on the "[[Celtic fringe]]", where local evidence suggests that economic ideas were at best peripheral to the electorate's concerns. The Liberals now found themselves with 59 members holding the balance of power in a Parliament where Labour was the largest party but lacked an overall majority. Lloyd George offered a degree of support to the Labour government in the hope of winning concessions, including a degree of electoral reform to introduce the [[alternative vote]], but this support was to prove bitterly divisive as the Liberals increasingly divided between those seeking to gain what Liberal goals they could achieve, those who preferred a Conservative government to a Labour one and vice-versa.
In [[1931]] MacDonald's government fell apart under the impact of the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]], and the Liberals agreed to join his National Government, which was dominated by the Conservatives. Lloyd George however was ill and did not join himself. Soon, however, the Liberals faced another divisive crisis when it was proposed to fight the [[United Kingdom general election, 1931|1931 general election]] as a National Government and seek a mandate for tariffs. From outside the government Lloyd George called for the party to abandon the government completely in defence of free trade, but only a few MPs and candidates followed him, most of them related to him. Another group under [[John Simon|Sir John Simon]] emerged who were prepared to continue their support for the government and take the Liberal places in the Cabinet if there were resignations. The third group under [[Herbert Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]] pressed for the parties in government to fight the election on separate platforms. In doing so the bulk of Liberals remained supporting the government, but two distinct Liberal groups had emerged within this bulk - the [[National Liberal Party (UK)|National Liberals]] led by Simon, also known as "Simonites", and the "Samuelites" or "official Liberals" led by Samue |
after the British withdrawal and the declaration of the [[Israel|State of Israel]] on [[May 14]] [[1948]]. The Arabs had rejected the November [[1947 UN Partition Plan]], which proposed the establishment of Arab and Jewish states in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. Arab militias had begun campaigns to control territory inside and outside the designated borders. Joint Jordanian, Egyptian, Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi troops invaded Palestine, which Israel, the [[United States|US]], the [[Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], and [[Trygve Lie|UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie]] called illegal aggression, while [[China]] broadly backed the Arab claims. The Arab states proclaimed their aim of a "United State of Palestine"[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Cablegram_from_the_Secretary-General_of_the_League_of_Arab_States_to_the_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations] in place of Israel and an Arab state. They considered the UN Plan to be invalid because it was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and claimed that the British withdrawal led to an absence of legal authority, making it necessary for them to protect Arab lives and property.[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/d442111e70e417e3802564740045a309?OpenDocument] About two thirds of Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the territories which came under Jewish control (see [[Palestinian exodus]]); practically all of the much smaller number of Jews in the territories captured by the Arabs, for example the Old City of Jerusalem, also fled or were expelled. About 700,000 Arabs (estimates vary from 520,000 to 957,000 [http://www.arts.mcgill.ca/MEPP/PRRN/proverview.html]) became refugees during the fighting.
The fighting ended with signing of the [[Rhodes Armistice]], which formalized Israeli control of the area allotted to the Jewish state plus just over half of the [[Proposals for a Palestinian state|area allotted to the Arab state]]. The [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt]] and the [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|West Bank by Jordan]] until June 1967 when they were seized by Israel during the [[Six-Day War]].
===Aftermath of the 1948 war===
[[Image:1947-UN-Partition-Plan-1949-Armistice-Comparison.png|right|185px|thumb|Comparison between partition plan and armistice lines]]
The Palestinians who fled or were expelled from the areas that became Israel were not allowed to return to their homes, and took up residence in refugee camps in surrounding countries, including [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Syria]], and the area that was later to be known as the [[Gaza Strip]]. The [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] was established to alleviate their condition.
Over several years after the 1948 war ended, approximately 900,000 [http://www.jimena-justice.org] Jews fled the Arab countries they were living in, in many cases owing to anti-Jewish sentiment, expulsion (in the case of Egypt), or, in the case of Iraq, legal oppression (see [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]); of these 900,000, two thirds ended up in [[ma'abarot|refugee camps]] in Israel, while the remainder migrated to France, the United States and other Western or Latin American countries. Since that time, Israel has maintained that an [[population transfer|exchange of population]] had occurred, and that the Jews fleeing Arab countries constitute refugees equivalent in status to the estimated 750,000 Palestinian refugees forced to live in refugee camps in the [[Middle Eastern]] countries. Furthermore, Israel has charged that [[Palestinian refugees]] were neglected by most Arab nations, whereas Jewish refugees were integrated into Israeli society, and that this neglect is the true cause of the poverty and misery experienced by the residents of those camps, not their flight or expulsion from Israel as the Palestinians believe.
For the nineteen years from the end of the Mandate until the [[Six-Day War]], [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|Jordan controlled the West Bank]] and [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip]]. In 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank, but this annexation was recognized only by the [[United Kingdom]]. Both territories were conquered (but not [[annexation|annexed]]) from Jordan and Egypt by Israel in the Six-Day War. Neither Jordan or Egypt allowed the creation of a Palestinian state in these territories.
===War of 1956===
The [[1956 Suez War]] was a joint Israeli-British-French operation, in which Israel invaded the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and British and French forces landed at the port of [[Suez]], ostensibly to separate the warring parties, though the real motivation of the United Kingdom and [[France]] was to protect the interests of investors in those countries who were affected by Egyptian President [[Gamel Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s decision to [[nationalize]] the [[Suez Canal]]. Israel justified its invasion of Egypt as an attempt to stop attacks (see the [[Fedayeen]]) upon Israeli civilians, and to restore Israeli shipping rights through the [[Straits of Tiran]], which Egypt claimed was within its territorial waters. The invading forces agreed to withdraw under U.S. and international pressure, and Israel withdrew from the [[Sinai]] as well, in return for the installation of [[UNEF|U.N. separation forces]] and guarantees of Israeli freedom of shipment. The canal was left in Egyptian (rather than British and French) hands.
[[Image:Al-Farida,_Lebanon_pre-1967_war.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Pre-1967 war cartoon showing President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] of Egypt, backed by Arab states, kicks Israel into the Gulf of Aqaba. [[Al-Jarida]] newspaper, Lebanon (Oren, 2002)]]
===Between 1956 and 1967===
This period saw the rise of [[Nasserism]]; the founding of the [[United Arab Republic]] in 1958 and its collapse in 1961; disputes between Israel and Syria over water and border areas; continued [[fedayeen]] raids, mostly from Syria and Jordan, and Israeli reprisals; and the increasing alignment of the Arab states with the [[Soviet Union]], who became their largest arms supplier.
In the early 1960s, the [[PLO]] was established by Arab states. The Article 24 of the [[Palestinian National Charter]] of 1964 [http://www.palestine-un.org/plo/pna_two.html] stated: "This Organization does not exercise any territorial sovereignty over the [[West Bank]] in the [[Jordan|Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]], on the [[Gaza Strip]] or in the Himmah Area."
===War of 1967===
The [[Six-Day War]], 1967 began as a strike by Israel, which Israel and its supporters consider [[pre-emptive war|preemptive]], against Egypt and Syria following the Egyptian closure of the [[Straits of Tiran]] (a [[casus belli]], according to a possible interpretation of international law), a build up of troops along the Syrian border, expulsion of U.N. peacekeepers from the Sinai, stationing some 100,000 Egyptian troops at the peninsula, and a public announcement by Nasser that he intended to destroy Israel [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1947-1974/7%20Statement%20by%20President%20Nasser%20to%20Arab%20Trade%20Unio]. (In fact Nasser had said this would be an objective only if Israel "embarks on an aggression against Syria or Egypt"). Surprise Israeli air strikes destroyed the entire Egyptian air force while still on the ground. A subsequent ground invasion into Egyptian territory led to Israel's conquest of the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. In spite of Israel's request to Jordan to desist from attacking it, both Jordan and Syria began to shell Israeli targets; Israel responded by capturing the [[West Bank]] from Jordan on [[June 7]], and the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria on [[June 9]].
===War of 1968-1970===
The [[War of Attrition]] was a limited war fought between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]] from 1968 to 1970. It was initiated by Egypt as a way to recapture the [[Sinai]] from Israel which had occupied it since the [[Six-Day War]]. The war ended with a [[cease-fire]] signed between the countries in 1970 with frontiers at the same place as when the war started.
===War of 1973===
[[Image:Jom kippur war.jpg|right|thumb|250px|When the cease fire came into effect, Israel had lost territory on the east side of the Suez Canal to Egypt (show in red) but gained territory west of the canal and in the Golan Heights (shown in green)]]
The 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] began when [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] launched a surprise joint attack, on the Jewish day of fasting, in the [[Sinai]] and [[Golan Heights]]. The Egyptians and Syrians advanced during the first 24&ndash;48 hours, after which momentum began to swing in Israel's favor. By the second week of the war, the Syrians had been pushed entirely out of the Golan Heights. In the Sinai to the south, the Israelis had struck at the "hinge" between two invading Egyptian armies, crossed the [[Suez Canal]] (where the old [[cease-fire]] line had been), and cut off an entire Egyptian army just as a [[United Nations]] cease-fire came into effect. Israeli troops eventually withdrew from the west of the Canal and the Egyptians kept their positions on a narrow strip on the east allowing them to re-open the Suez Canal and claim victory.
===War of 1978===
[[Operation Litani]] was the official name of [[Israel]]'s 1978 invasion of [[Lebanon]] up to the [[Litani]] river. The invasion was a military success, as [[PLO]] forces were pushed north of the river. However, international outcry led to the creation of the [[UNIFIL]] peacekeeping force and a partial Israeli retreat.
===War of 1982===
The [[1982 Lebanon War]] began when Israel attacked Lebanon, justified by Israel as an attempt to remove the [[Fatah]] militants led by [[Yasser Arafat]] from Southern Lebanon (where they had established, during the country's civil war, a semi-independent enclave used t |
tradition, around 520, during the period of the [[Southern_dynasties|Southern Dynasties]], Bodhidharma was invited to an audience with [[Emperor_Wu_of_Liang_China|Emperor Wudi]] of the [[Liang Dynasty]].
When the Emperor asked him how much merit he had accumulated through building temples and endowing monasteries, Bodhidharma replied, "None at all."
Perplexed, the Emperor then asked, "Well, what is the fundamental
teaching of [[Buddhism]]?"
"Vast emptiness, nothing sacred," was the bewildering reply.
"Listen," said the Emperor, now losing all patience,
"just who do you think you are?"
"I have no idea," Bodhidharma replied.
With this, Bodhidharma was banished from the Court, and is said to
have sat in [[meditation]] for the next nine years "listening to the
ants scream".
===Nine years of gazing at a wall===
Bodhidharma traveled to northern China, to the recently constructed [[Shaolin]] Monastery, where the monks refused him admission.
Bodhidharma sat meditating facing a wall for the next 9 years, boring holes into it with his stare.
Having earned the monks' respect, Bodhidharma was finally permitted to enter the monastery.
There, he found the monks so out of shape from lives spent hunched over scrolls that he introduced a regimen of exercises which later became the foundation of [[Shaolin (martial arts)|Shaolin kung fu]], from which many schools of [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese martial art]] claim descent.
Historically, it is unlikely that Bodhidharma invented [[kung fu]].
There are martial arts manuals that date back to at least the [[Han_dynasty|Han Dynasty]] ([[202 BCE]]&ndash;[[220]] CE), predating both Bodhidharma and the Shaolin Temple.
The codification of the martial arts by monks most likely began with military personnel who retired to monasteries or sought [[sanctuary]] there.
Within the refuge of the monastery, unlike on an unforgiving battlefield, such individuals could, confident in their safety, exchange expertise and perfect their techniques.
===Bringing tea to China===
Japanese legends credit Bodhidharma with bringing [[tea]] to China.
Supposedly, he cut off his eyelids while meditating, to keep from
falling asleep. Tea bushes sprung from the spot where his eyelids
hit the ground. It is said that this is the reason for tea being
so important for meditation and why it helps the meditator to not fall asleep.
This legend is unlikely as tea use in China predates Chan Buddhism in China.
According to Chinese mythology, in 2737 BC the Chinese Emperor, Shennong, scholar and herbalist, was sitting beneath a tree while his servant boiled drinking water.
A leaf from the tree dropped into the water and Shennong decided to try the brew.
The tree was a wild tea tree.
There is an early mention of tea being prepared by servants in a Chinese text of 50 B.C. The first detailed description of tea-drinking is found in an ancient Chinese dictionary, noted by Kuo P'o in A.D. 350.
===Daruma dolls===
{{main|Daruma doll}}
It is also reported that after years of meditation, Bodhidharma lost the usage of his legs. This legend is still alive in Japan, where legless [[Daruma]] dolls represent Bodhidharma, and are used to make wishes.
===Bodhidharma and Huike===
Bodhidharma was the first Zen [[patriarch]] of China.
All later Chinese and Japanese Zen masters trace their master-disciple lineage to him.
[[Huike]], who was to become the second patriach, was first ignored when he tried to approach him, and left outside in the snow, until he cut his own arm and offered it to the Master. (This is supposedly the origin of the famous 'one hand salute' of the monks who came after him).
Bodhidharma later transmitted to him the insignia of the patriarchs: the robe, the Buddha's begging bowl, and a copy of the Lankavatara Sutra.
The legend of Huike's self-dismemberment is likely apocryphal. According to Daoxuan, wandering bandits cut off Huike's arm.
==The lineage of Bodhidharma and his disciples==
Although Bodhidharma is commonly said to have had two primary disciples (the monks Daoyu and Huike), a common voice in the "Records" of the ''Long Scroll'' is that of a Yuan, possibly identified with the nun Dharani who was said to have received Bodhidharma's flesh &mdash; his bones having been received by Daoyu, and his marrow received by Huike.
A list of Bodhidharma's early students follows.
* Bodhidharma
** [[Daoyu]]
** [[Yuan (disambiguation)|Yuan]] ([[Yuan-chi]]?)
*** [[Tao-chih]]
** [[Huike]]
*** [[Huineng]]
*** [[Layman Hsiang]]
*** [[Hua-kung]]
*** [[Yen-kung]]
*** [[Tanlin]]
*** [[Dhyana Master Na]]
*** [[Dhyana Master Ho]]
**** [[Hsuan-ching]]
***** [[Hsuan-chueh]]
**** [[Ching-ai]]
***** [[T'an-yen]]
***** [[Tao-an]]
***** [[Tao-p'an]]
***** [[Chih-tsang]]
***** [[Seng-chao]]
***** [[P'u-an]]
****** [[Ching-yuan]]
== Works attributed to Bodhidharma ==
* ''The Bloodstream Sermon''
* ''The Breakthrough Sermon''
* ''The Outline of Practice''
* ''Two Entrances''
* ''The Wake-Up Sermon''
== See also ==
* [[Buddhism in China]]
* [[Culture hero]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.bodhidharma.com.br Bodhidharma's martial art tradition]
* [http://www.aboutshaolin.com Learn everything about Bodhidharma in the Official English Songshan Shaolinsi Temple Portal]
* [http://tekct.hit.bg/judo/Zen-And-The-Martial-Arts.pdf Zen and the Martial Arts by Ming Zheng Shakya (PDF)]
* [http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/daruma.shtml Bodhidharma]
* [http://darumasan.blogspot.com/ Bodhidharma Museum Japan] Gabi Greve
* [http://www.i-bodhidharma.com.br International Philosofical Martial Arts Institute]
== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Broughton, Jeffrey L. | title=The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen | publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0520219724}}
* Tom Lowenstein, ''The Vision of the Buddha''. Duncan Baird Publishers, London. ISBN 1903296919
* Red Pine, translator; ''The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma''. North Point Press, New York. (1987)
* Alan Watts, ''The Way of Zen''. ISBN 0375705104
* Paul Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations''. ISBN 0415025370
* Andy Ferguson, ''Zen's Chinese Heritage''. ISBN 0861711637 contains a translation of ''The Outline of Practice''
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=Buddhist Patriach|before=[[Prajnatara]]|after=Title Extinct|years=}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=Chinese Ch'an Patriarch|before=New Creation|after=[[Huike|Hui Ke]]|years=}}
{{end box}}
{{Buddhism2}}
[[Category:Zen Patriarchs]]
[[Category:Indian philosophers]]
[[ca:Bodhidharma]]
[[pt:Bodhidharma]]
[[cs:Bódhidharma]]
[[de:Bodhidharma]]
[[es:Bodhidharma]]
[[eo:Bodhidharmo]]
[[fr:Bodhidharma]]
[[ko:달마]]
[[it:Bodhidharma]]
[[he:בודהידהרמה]]
[[nl:Bodhidharma]]
[[ja:達磨]]
[[pl:Bodhidharma]]
[[ru:Бодхидхарма]]
[[sk:Bódhidharma]]
[[th:พระโพธิธรรม]]
[[vi:Bồ-đề-đạt-ma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biconditional introduction</title>
<id>4286</id>
<revision>
<id>15902566</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-12T20:06:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sketchee</username>
<id>140933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category: Logic]] [[Category: Mathematical terminology]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Biconditional introduction''' is the inference that, if B follows from A, and A follows from B, then A [[if and only if]] B.
For example: if I'm breathing, then I'm alive; also, if I'm alive, then I'm breathing. Therefore, I'm breathing if and only if I'm alive.
Formally:
( A &rarr; B )
<u>( B &rarr; A )&nbsp;&nbsp;</u>
&there4; ( A &harr; B )
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biconditional elimination</title>
<id>4287</id>
<revision>
<id>15902567</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-26T20:46:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GregorB</username>
<id>179697</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Category:Logic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Biconditional elimination''' allows one to infer a conditional from a biconditional: if ( A <small>&harr;</small> B ) is true, then one may infer one direction of the biconditional, either ( A <small>&rarr;</small> B ) or ( B <small>&rarr;</small> A ).
For example, if it's true that I'm breathing [[if and only if]] I'm alive, then it's true that if I'm breathing, I'm alive; likewise, it's true that if I'm alive, I'm breathing.
Formally:
<u>( A &harr; B )&nbsp;&nbsp;</u>
&there4; ( A &rarr; B )
also
<u>( A &harr; B )&nbsp;&nbsp;</u>
&there4; ( B &rarr; A )
[[Category:Logic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buddhist</title>
<id>4290</id>
<revision>
<id>28000221</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T06:03:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TenOfAllTrades</username>
<id>142435</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.213.64.189|207.213.64.189]] to last version by 68.42.89.159</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Buddhists</title>
<id>4291</id>
<revision>
<id>40292098</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T16:02:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Localzuk</username>
<id>687650</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The adherents of '''[[Buddhism]]''', monks and laypeople alike are known as '''Buddhists'''. |
'''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SUPER '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Super 7 '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date<br>
superclass '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
supercombinators '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
supercompilation '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
supercomputer '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
superhighway '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SuperJanet '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date<br>
SUPERMAC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Super Pascal '''DONE''' - merged into Pascal<br>
superpipelined '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
superprogrammer '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
superscalar '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
super source quench '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SuperTalk '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
superuser '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Super VGA '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Super Video Graphics Adapter '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Super Video Graphics Adaptor '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Super Video Graphics Array '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
supervisor mode<br>
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
support '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
supremum '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sure '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
surfing<br>
SURGE '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
surjection '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
surjective '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
surrogate key '''DONE'''<br>
suspension '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Suzie COBOL '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sv '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SVC '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SVG '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SVGA '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SVGA monitor '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SVID '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
S-Video '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SVR4 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SVRC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SVS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
swab '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SWAG '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
swap<br>
swap file<br>
swapped in<br>
swapped out<br>
swapping <br>
swap space '''DONE'''<br>
SweetLambda '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SWI-Prolog '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
switch '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Switched Multimegabit Data Service '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
switching hub '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
switch statement '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
swizzle '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
swung dash '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sy '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sybase, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SYDEL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SYGMA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SYLK '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sylvan '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Symantec '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SYMBAL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SymbMath '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SYMBOLANG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Symbolic Assembler Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SYMBOLIC ASSEMBLY '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Symbolic Automatic INTegrator '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
symbolic inference<br>
Symbolic Link '''DONE''' merged into existing article<br>
symbolic link '''DONE''' merged into existing article<br>
symbolic logic '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Symbolic Mathematical Laboratory '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
symbolic mathematics - '''DONE'''<br>
Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Symbolics, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Symbol Manipulation Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
symlink '''DONE''' - merged with symbolic link<br>
symmetric '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Symmetry)<br>
symmetric key cryptography '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Symmetric LISP '''DONE''' - Merged into LISP<br>
symmetric multiprocessing '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
symmetric multiprocessor '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Symphony '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date<br>
SYMPL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SYN '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sync '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language '''DONE''' - merged into SMIL<br>
synchronous '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Synchronous Data Link Control '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Synchronous optical networking)<br>
Synchronous DRAM<br>
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory<br>
Synchronous Graphics RAM<br>
Synchronous Graphics Random Access Memory<br>
Synchronous idle '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
synchronous key encryption '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (PGP)<br>
Synchronous Optical NETwork '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
syncronous '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
synflood '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
synonym ring '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
syntactic salt '''DONE''' - (syntactic sugar)<br>
syntactic sugar '''DONE'''<br>
syntax '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Syntax-Case<br>
syntax directed translation<br>
Syntax/Semantic Language<br>
syntax tree '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
synthesis '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Synthesizer Specification Language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SyQuest Technology, Inc. '''DONE'''<br>
sysadmin '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sysape '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Sysdeco Mimer AB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sys-frog '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SYSKEY '''DONE'''<br>
SYSLISP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sysop '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Sysplex '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date<br>
sysprog '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
system<br>
System/360 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
System 5 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
System 7.5 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (MacOS)<br>
System Account Manager<br>
system administration '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
system administrator '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
system analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
system analyst '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
system board'''DONE''' - (motherboard)<br>
system call<br>
system catalog<br>
System F '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
system management '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
System Management Bus '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date<br>
System Management Mode '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date<br>
System Management Server<br>
system manager '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
system mangler '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
system operator '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
System Product Interpreter '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
system programming language '''DONE'''<br>
System R '''DONE''' - but needs expansion<br>
Systems Administrators Guild '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
systems analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Systems Analysis Definition '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
systems analyst '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Systems Application Architecture '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
Systems Development Life Cycle '''DONE'''<br>
systems jock '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Systems Network Architecture '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
system software '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
systems operator '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
systems programmer '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
systems programming '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
system unit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
System V '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
System V Interface Definition '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
systolic array '''DONE'''<br>
SysVile '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sz '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/C - D</title>
<id>11337</id>
<revision>
<id>24229067</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-28T12:37:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orderud</username>
<id>151262</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>updated c++ link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- '''C - D''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]
== C ==
[[C programming language|C]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
(c)<br>
C*<br>
[[C plus plus|C++]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
C+-<br>
C+@<br>
C-10<br>
C1 security<br>
c2man<br>
C2 security<br>
c386<br>
C5<br>
C64<br>
c68<br>
CA<br>
ca<br>
cable modem<br>
[[cache]]<br>
[[cache block]]<br>
[[cache coherency]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[cache conflict]] ''redirect to [[cache coherency]]''<br>
[[cache consist |
]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Cork]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Dundalk]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Galway]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Letterkenny]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Limerick]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Sligo]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Tallaght]]
#[[Regis College]]
#[[Reitaku University]]
#[[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Reutlingen University]]
#[[Reykjavík University]]
#[[Rhode Island College]]
#[[Rhode Island School of Design]]
#[[Rhodes College]]
#[[Rhodes University]]
#[[Rice University]] ([[Houston, Texas]])
#[[Richard Huish College]]
#[[Richard Stockton University]]
#[[Richland College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[Ricks College]]
#[[Rider University]]
#[[Riga Technical University]]
#[[Rio Salado Community College]]
#[[Ripon College]]
#[[Ritsumeikan University]]
#[[Riverside Community College]]
#[[Roanoke Bible College]]
#[[Roanoke College]]
#[[Robert Gordon University]]
#[[Rochester Institute of Technology]]
#[[Rockefeller University]]
#[[Rockford College]]
#[[Rockhurst College]]
#[[Rocky Mountain College]]
#[[Rollins College]]
#[[Rollins School of Public Health]]
#[[Roosevelt University]]
#[[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]] ([[Terre Haute, Indiana]])
#[[Roskilde University]]
#[[Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine]]
#[[Ross University School of Medicine]]
#[[Rostov State University]]
#[[Rowan College of New Jersey]]
#[[Royal College of Surgeons]]
#[[Royal Danish School of Educational Studies]]
#[[Royal Danish School of Pharmacy]]
#[[Royal Holloway, University of London]]
#[[Royal Institute of Technology]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]]
#[[Royal Military Academy of Belgium]]
#[[Royal Military College of Canada]]
#[[Royal Postgraduate Medical School]]
#[[Royal Roads University]]
#[[Royal University of Bhutan]]
#[[Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University]]
#[[Royal Veterinary College, London]]
#[[Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama]]
#[[Rudolf Steiner College]]
#[[Ruhr-Universität Bochum]]
#[[Russell Sage College]]
#[[Russian Academy of Sciences]]
#[[Rutgers University - Campus at Newark]]
#[[Rutgers University, Camden]]
#[[Rutgers University]]
#[[RWTH Aachen|Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH)]]
#[[Ryerson Polytechnic University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|R]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with S</title>
<id>6492</id>
<revision>
<id>40624382</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:27:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pjb007</username>
<id>957380</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Shrewsbury's Colleges</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- '''S''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Sor-Trondelag College (HiST)]]
#[[Sabanci University]]
#[[Sacramento City College]]
#[[California State University, Sacramento|Sacramento State University]]
#[[Sacred Heart University]]
#[[Saddleback College]]
#[[Saga University]]
#[[Sage Colleges]]
#[[Sage Evening College]]
#[[Sage Graduate School]]
#[[Sage Junior College of Albany]]
#[[Saginaw Valley State University]]
#[[Saint Ambrose University]]
#[[Saint Andrews Presbyterian College]]
#[[Saint Anselm College]]
#[[College of Saint Benedict / Saint John's University | Saint John's University]] (College of Saint Benedict | Saint John's University)
#[[Saint Joseph College]]
#[[Saint Joseph's College]]
#[[Saint Joseph's College of Maine]]
#[[Saint Joseph's University]]
#[[Saint Leo College]]
#[[Saint Louis Christian College]]
#[[Saint Louis University]]
#[[Saint Mary's College of California]]
#[[Saint Mary's College of Meycauayan]]
#[[Saint Mary's University]] ([[Halifax, Nova Scotia]])
#[[Saint Mary's University of San Antonio]]
#[[Saint Mary's University of Minnesota]]
#[[Saint Michael's College]]
#[[Saint Michael's College]]
#[[Saint Petersburg Junior College]]
#[[Saint Petersburg State University]] ([[Russia]])
#[[Saint Regis University]]
#[[Saint Thomas University]]
#[[Saint Thomas University of Miami]]
#[[Saint Vincent College]]
#[[Saint Xavier University]]
#[[Salem College]]
#[[Salem International University]]
#[[Salem State College]]
#[[Salisbury University]]
#[[Salt Lake City Community College]]
#[[Sam Houston State University]]
#[[Samara State University]]
#[[Samford University]]
#[[San Diego City College]]
#[[San Diego Mesa College]]
#[[San Diego State University]]
#[[San Francisco Conservatory of Music]]
#[[San Francisco State University]]
#[[San Jacinto College District]]
#[[San Joaquin Delta College]]
#[[San Jose State University]]
#[[Santa Barbara City College]]
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#[[Satakunta Polytechnic]]
#[[Sauk Valley Community College]]
#[[Sault College]]
#[[Savannah College of Art and Design]]
#[[Savonia University of Applied Sciences]]
#[[Scarborough College, University of Toronto]]
#[[Schiller International University]][http://www.schiller.edu/]
#[[Scholl College of Podiatric Medicine]]
#[[School of Business Administration Turiba]]
#[[School of Engineering Cantone Ticino]]
#[[School of Engineering of Bern HTL]]
#[[School of Engineering of Brugg-Windisch HTL]]
#[[School of Engineering of Burgdorf HTL]]
#[[School of Islamic and Social Sciences (SISS)]]
#[[School of Management, University of Bath]]
#[[School of Mines and Industries Ballarat]]
#[[School of Oriental and African Studies]]
#[[School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]
#[[School of the Visual Arts]]
#[[Science University of Tokyo]]
#[[Scott Community College]]
#[[Scottish Church College, Calcutta]]
#[[Scottsdale Community College]]
#[[Scuola Galileiana di Studi Superiori]]
#[[Scuola Normale Superiore]]
#[[Scuola Superiore di Studi Universitari e di Perfezionamento Sant'Anna]]
#[[Seattle Central Community College]]
#[[Seattle Community College District]]
#[[Seattle Pacific University]]
#[[Seattle University]]
#[[Sejong University]]
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#[[Sendai National College of Technology]]
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#[[Seoul National University]]
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#[[Simpson College]]
#[[Singapore Institute of Management]]
#[[Singapore Management University]]
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#[[Sir Sandford Fleming College]]
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#[[Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology|Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology (SIIT), Thammasat University]]
#[[Skidmore College]]
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#[[South Dakota School of Mines and Technology]]
#[[South Dakota State University]]
#[[South East European University|South East European (SEE) University]]
#[[S |
for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in [[educational research]].
== Hallmarks of science ==
The main distinguishing characteristics of [[scientific research]] are [[purpose|purposiveness]], [[rigor]], [[test|testability]], [[replicate|replicability]], [[precision]] and [[confidence]], [[Wiktionary:objective|objectivity]], [[general|generalizability]], and [[parsimony]].
== See also ==
* [[Empirical method]]
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Research]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/empirical-research.html Some Key Concepts for the Design and Review of Empirical Research]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-5/based.htm Scientifically Based Research]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Empiricism|Research]]
[[nl:Empirisch onderzoek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Engineering statistics</title>
<id>9546</id>
<revision>
<id>15907424</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-17T07:09:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Engineering statistics''' is a branch of [[statistics]] that has two subtopics which are particular to [[engineering]]:
# [[Quality control]] and [[process control]] use statistics as a tool to manage conformance to specifications of manufacturing processes and their products.
# [[Time and methods engineering]] use statistics to study repetitive operations in manufacturing in order to set standards and find optimum (in some sense) manufacturing procedures.
[[Category:Engineering]][[Category:Statistics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eclectic probability</title>
<id>9547</id>
<revision>
<id>15907425</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-16T16:48:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Probability theory]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Many [[statistician]]s adopt an '''eclectic''' view of the debate between proponents of the [[frequency probability|frequency interpretation]] of [[probability]] and proponents of [[personal probability]]. These eclectics say in essence, "if it walks like a duck...". They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the [[probability axioms|axioms of probability theory]] as a reasonable interpretation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use [[Bayesian]] methods.
Some [[philosophers]] of probability support eclectic probability as a principled, rather than pragmatic, view. They argue that different interpretations of probability are independent of one another, applying in different contexts. For example, one might accept a frequency interpretation of probability for repeatable experiments, a logical interpretation of probability for a single-case event with highly specific prior information, and a personal interpretation of probability for dealing with epistemic uncertainty, all without committing an inconsistency.
[[Category:Probability theory]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Edgar Allen Poe</title>
<id>9548</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edgar Allan Poe]]
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<page>
<title>Edgar Allan Poe</title>
<id>9549</id>
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<id>42112604</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:43Z</timestamp>
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<username>Nareek</username>
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<minor />
<comment>rv to last version by Rpab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Edgar_Allan_Poe_2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This [[daguerreotype]] of Poe was taken less than a year before his death at the age of 40.]]
'''Edgar Allan Poe''' ([[January 19]], [[1809]] &ndash; [[October 7]], [[1849]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[List of English language poets|poet]], [[short story]] writer, [[editor]] and [[critic]] and one of the leaders of the American [[Romanticism|Romantics]]. He is best known for his tales of the [[macabre]] and his poems, as well as being one of the early practitioners of the short story and a progenitor of [[detective fiction]], as well as [[crime fiction]] in the United States. He is also often credited with inventing the gothic fiction story. Poe died at the age of 40, the cause of his death a final mystery. His exact burial location is also a source of controversy.
==The life of Edgar Allan Poe==
[[Image:Edgar Allan Poe bust.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This bust of Edgar Allan Poe is found at the [[University of Virginia]], where he dropped out in [[1826]] due to gambling away his tuition funds.]]
Edgar Allan Poe was born to a [[Scots-Irish]] family in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], the son of actress [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=4074 Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe] and actor David Poe, Jr. His father abandoned the family in July [[1811]], and his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] when he was only two, so Poe was taken into the home of John Allan, a successful [[tobacco]] merchant in [[Richmond, Virginia]]. Although his middle name is often misspelled as "Allen," it is actually "Allan," after this family.
After attending the Misses Duborg boarding school in [[London, England]] and Manor School in [[Stoke Newington]], London, Poe moved back to the Allans in Richmond in [[1820]]. After serving an apprenticeship in [[Pawtucket]], Poe registered at the [[University of Virginia]] in [[1826]], but only stayed there for one year. He became estranged from his foster father over [[gambling]] debts Poe had acquired while trying to get more spending money, and so Poe enlisted in the [[United States Army]] as a private, using the name Edgar A. Perry, on [[May 26]], [[1827]]. That same year, he released his first book, ''Tamerlane and Other Poems''. After serving for two years and attaining the rank of sergeant major, Poe was [[military discharge|discharged]].
In [[1829]], Poe's foster mother Frances Allan died, and he published his second book, ''Al Aaraf''. As per his foster mother's dying wish, Poe reconciled with his foster father, who coordinated an appointment for him to the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point. At West Point, however, Poe supposedly deliberately disobeyed orders and was dismissed. After that, Poe and his foster father disowned each other until the latter's death on [[March 6]], [[1831]].
Poe next moved to [[Baltimore, Maryland]] with his widowed aunt, Maria Clemm, and her daughter, Poe's first cousin, [[Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe|Virginia Eliza]]. Poe wrote fiction to support himself, and in [[December]] [[1835]], began editing the ''Southern Literary Messenger'' for Thomas W. White in Richmond. In [[1836]], he married Virginia, then 13.
== Career ==
''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym'' was published and widely reviewed in [[1838]]. In the summer of [[1839]], he became assistant editor of ''Burton's Gentleman's Magazine''. He published a large number of articles, stories, and reviews, enhancing the reputation as a trenchant critic that he had established at the ''Southern Literary Messenger''. Also in 1839, the collection ''Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque'' was published in two volumes. Though not a financial success, it was a milestone in the history of American literature, collecting such classic Poe tales as "[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]", "[[MS. Found in a Bottle]]", "[[Berenice (short story)|Berenice]]", "[[Ligeia]]" and "[[William Wilson (short story)|William Wilson]]". Poe left ''Burton's'' after about a year and found a position as assistant editor at ''Graham's Magazine''.
One day in [[1842]] while Virginia (who reportedly had a lovely voice) was singing for Poe, she coughed and a tiny drop of blood appeared on her lip. It was the first sign of the [[tuberculosis]] that would make her an invalid and eventually take her life. Poe began to drink more heavily under the stress of Virginia's illness. He left ''Graham's'' and attempted to find a new position, for a time angling for a government post. He returned to New York, where he worked briefly at the ''Evening Mirror'' before becoming editor of the ''Broadway Journal''. There he became involved in a noisy public feud with [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]. On [[January 29]], [[1845]], his poem "[[The Raven]]" appeared in the ''Evening Mirror'' and became a popular sensation.
The ''Broadway Journal'' failed in [[1846]]. Poe moved to a cottage in the Fordham section of [[The Bronx, New York]]. He loved the [[Jesuits]] at [[Fordham University]] and frequently strolled about its campus conversing with both students and faculty. [[Fordham University]]'s bell tower even inspired him to write "[[The Bells]]." The Poe Cottage is on the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge Road, and is open to the public. Virginia died there in 1847. Increasingly unstable after his wife's death, Poe attempted to court the poet Sarah Helen Whitman. Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior; however there is also strong evidence that Miss Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail their relationship. According to Poe's own account, he attempted suicide during this period by overdosing on [[laudanum]]. He then returned to Richmond and resumed a relationship with a childhood sweetheart, Sarah Elmira Royster, who, by that time, was a |
nd as powders or liquids. Glide waxes are applied outside the kick zone of classic skis, or to the full length of skate skis. They are the only type of wax used on skating skis.
=== Kick wax ===
The purpose of kick wax is to provide grip on snow when weight is transferred on a ski; they are used on classic skis only. Kick waxes are applied in the ''kick zone'' of classic skis if the ski is not a fish-scale, waxless ski.
Kick waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow. Using a wax that is too hard will not give sufficient grip, while wax that is too soft will cause the formation of an [[ice]] [[sole]] that slows the skier down. It is not uncommon to apply a new layer of wax if the weather changes, or when moving in altitude.
Difficulty of choosing correct kick waxes to different conditions is nowadays greatly reduced by grip wax tapes, which have a wide temperature range, and are easily applied to the ski bottom. Although these are not used by competitors, who prefer the optimum waxing, they have proven to be quite suitable for fitness and recreational purposes. Many high-level competitive teams have '''ski tuners''' whose job is to apply the ideal wax combinations for the conditions.
Kick waxes generate grip by penetrating into the snowflakes when the skier puts his weight on the ski. Colder snowflakes are harder, and so is newly fallen snow. The most appropriate wax is the one that is soft enough to generate grip, but also hard enough not to accumulate snow and create a sole.
Waxes are usually colour-coded by usage temperature: the most common are red for above 0˚C, and blue for below. There are many other colours for more specific temperature ranges, for instance violet for around 0˚C, green for below -10˚C, and white for below -15˚C. The snow-temperature range given by the producer must be taken with a grain of salt, since new snow will require a harder wax.
Guessing the right hardness can be quite difficult, and the varying condition of the snow can make the right choice wrong after a few hundred metres. Furthermore, the snow in the beaten track is usually much different from the one immediately surrounding it, and works best with a softer wax. If skis are poorly tuned, sometimes the skier can solve thin snow soles caused by a soft wax by beating the ski on the track after kicking; the opposite problem may be handled by skating.
=== Klister ===
As the snow becomes older and snow flakes lose their sharpness, in case of re-freezing or of water, kick wax cannot provide any more grip, and it becomes useless. One must therefore resort to ''klister'', which is basically a glue-like paste ("klister" actually means "glue" across all the three [[Scandinavia]]n countries). Klister is discouraging for amateurs, as it is very sticky, it is easy to apply but very difficult to remove.
Professionals often maintain that klister is best applied with the palm of the hand, the hand can be cleaned by placing it in a glove and waiting while the klister is mysteriously removed; amateurs often resort to some object of the appropriate size. Since klister is an organic chemical, a non-polar [[solvent]] (such as [[gasoline]]) or a [[soap]] is necessary to remove it. Stores often sell purpose-made solvent to clean skis. These should be used with care, as they are both [[flame|flammable]] and [[toxicity|toxic]] if inhaled.
Klister is also colour-coded, with red klister for wet snow and blue klister for icy snow.
=== Waxless skis ===
In recent years, waxless skies have carved a niche in the market among casual skiers. Waxless skis have a [[fish]] [[scale (zoology)|scale]], cross-hatched or ridged pattern in the kick zone to provide grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require the sometimes time-consuming and sometimes costly selection and application of kick wax or klister. However, they do require a [http://www.snocountry.com/article.php/20041227133240622 glide wax] to keep them sliding smoothly and protecting the surface from dirt and ice build-up. There are specialty liquid wax products on the market manufactured for this purpose; standard wax should never be applied to waxless skis due to extreme difficulty in later removing it from the grooved or notched kick zone.
Waxless skis are better suited to recreational skiers who simply want to get out on the trail with minimal time spent on maintenance, as they generally produce too much drag for competitive skiers.
==Styles==
There are three main styles used in cross-country skiing. Specially adapted equipment is available to suit each.
The Classic style was the first technique that was used and although not the fastest (in the same way as the breaststroke swimming technique) it is still used today by many, especially beginners, as it tends to be the easiest to learn. However, this technique takes many years to perfect.
The skating style, developed as a result of racing and is harder to learn but once mastered the skiers can travel much faster. Skating can also be mastered faster than classic.
Telemarking is a style used to go down hill on cross country skis, generally while [[backcountry skiing]]. Usually the skiers will use the classic style for going up the hill and telemarking to ski down steep downhills.
===Classic===
The classic style is often used on prepared trails (pistes) that have pairs of parallel grooves cut into the snow.
Skis have [[camber]] and should leave the centre section of the ski clear of the snow when the skiers weight is evenly distributed between the pair. The centre section of a classic ski will either have "fish scales", or [[ski wax]] that will stick to the snow (called the "kick zone" or "grip zone" of the ski). When full weight is transferred to a single ski the kick zone comes into contact with the snow. Glide wax is used on the tails and tips of the skis.
Long, narrow and light skis are usually used. When skiing away from prepared trails, a much wider ski is usually used. In flat regions, such as parts of [[Finland]], skis exceeding 3 or 4 m in length are sometimes used.
There are four core techniques: herringbone, diagonal stride, double pole with kick, and double pole.
* ''Herringbone:'' This technique is used for climbing steep hills. A walking or running action with splayed skis and without any glide. The poles are planted alternately behind the skis. A distinctive herringbone pattern is left in the snow.
* ''Diagonal stride:'' An exaggerated running action with parallel skis and a glide on each stride. The poles are planted alternately on the opposite side to the kick. For experienced skiers this technique is used uphill. Less experienced skiers also employ the diagonal stride on the flat.
* ''Double pole with kick:'' Both poles are planted simultaneously to give a powerful thrust. As the poles swing forwards again a single leg kick is made. This technique is used when the skier is still moving too quickly to diagonal stride, but is having difficulty double poling (typically on slight uphills or at the bottom of a long hill, just before switching to diagonal stride).
* ''Double pole:'' As above but without the kick. During some long races, in reasonably flat terrain, competitors double pole for the majority of the course (an example of this is the Swedish [[Vasaloppet]]).
On downhill slopes a tucked position (''hocke'', from the German word) is assumed, in a similar manner to [[downhill skiing]].
===Free/Skating===
[[Image:Skipcxc.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Skiing by free technique/skating.]]
Skate skiing{{ref|freestyle}} involves the skier pushing one ski outward with the [[ski]] angled, so that the inner edge of the ski is driven against the snow, much like an [[ice skating|ice skater]]. As in classic skiing, transfering weight completely from one ski to the next is essential to learning to skate. Those who have learned to ice skate or rollerblade may find ski skating technique easier to learn than classic skiing.
Skate skiing can be done either with skis specifically designed for skating or 'combi' skis for both skating and classic. Similarily, specialized skating boots or combi boots can be used. Skate skis tend to be shorter and stiffer than those used in classical technique, and poles longer. Neither fish scale skis nor grip wax are used.
Like gears on a bicycle, skating has different techniques for different terrain and speeds. Confusingly there is no internationally accepted naming convention for these techniques:
* ''Gear 1'' (aka Diagonal V, Single-poling or Coaches Skate): Similar to the classic herringbone but with a short glide on each ski. Used for climbing steep hills.
* ''Gear 2'' (V1, Offset Skate): Slightly off-set double-pole on every other leg. Used for hill climbing.
* ''Gear 3'' (V2, 1-skate): Double-pole on every leg. Used on the flat or uphill.
* ''Gear 4'' (V2 alternate, Open Field Skate, 2-skate): Double-pole on every other leg. Used on the flat or downhill.
* ''Gear 5'' (V Skating): Skating without using the poles. Used downhill.
Skating technique is only really suitable for use on prepared trails (pistes) or firm, smooth snow. It can also be done on snow crust and frozen snow-covered lakes or rivers.
Skating is faster and a more intense exercise than classic skiing, except in extremely cold conditions where classic skiing may approach skating in speed. Adoption of the skating technique varies from country to country. In some countries the majority of non-professional racers now skate, although top skiers continue to learn and train in both styles.
The distinction between classic technique and free technique is made in competition i.e. a race will be designated as classic or free.{{ref|double-pursuit}} In the case of the former only those propulsion techniques that are considered 'classic' are allowed whereas in the latter the competitors a |
on.tripod.com/ Circuncisión en Español] Circumcision discussion (in Spanish and English)
* [http://www.circinfo.com/ International Circumcision Information Reference Centre]
* [http://www.circlist.com Circlist] an Internet-based circumcision discussion group
* [http://www.circs.org/ Circumcision Independent Reference and Commentary Service]
==References==
<references/>
<!-- The following references should be moved into cite tags as in [[#Risks of circumcision]], above. -->
* Billy Ray Boyd. ''Circumcision Exposed: Rethinking a Medical and Cultural Tradition.'' Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press, 1998. (ISBN 0-89594-939-3)
* Anne Briggs. ''Circumcision: What Every Parent Should Know.'' Charlottesville, VA: Birth &amp; Parenting Publications, 1985. (ISBN 0-9615484-0-1)
* Robert Darby. A surgical temptation: The demonization of the foreskin and the rise of circumcision in Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. (ISBN 0-226-13645-0)
* Aaron J. Fink, M.D. ''Circumcision: A Parent's Decision for Life''. Kavanah Publishing Company, Inc., 1988. (ISBN 0-962-13470-8)
* Paul M. Fleiss, M.D. and Frederick Hodges, D. Phil. ''What Your Doctor May'' Not ''Tell You About Circumcision.'' New York: Warner Books, 2002. (ISBN 0-446-67880-5)
* Leonard B. Glick. Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. (ISBN 0-19-517674-X)
* David L. Gollaher. ''Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery.'' New York: Basic Books, 2000. (ISBN 0-456-04397-6)
* Ronald Goldman, Ph.D. ''Circumcision: The Hidden Trauma.'' Boston: Vanguard, 1996. (ISBN 0-964-44895-3-8)
* Brian J. Morris, Ph.D., D.Sc. ''In Favour of Circumcision.'' Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999. (ISBN 0-86840-537-X)
* Rosemary Romberg. ''Circumcision: The Painful Dilemma.'' South Hadley, MA Bergan &amp; Garvey, 1985. (ISBN 0-897-89073-6)
* Edgar J Schoen, M.D. ''Ed Schoen, MD on Circumcision.'' Berkeley, CA: RDR Books, 2005. (ISBN 1-57143-123-3)
* Edward Wallerstein. ''Circumcision: An American Heath Fallacy.'' New York: Springer, 1980 (ISBN 0-826-13240-5)
* Gerald N. Weiss M.D. and Andrea W Harter. ''Circumcision: Frankly Speaking.'' Wiser Publications, 1998. (ISBN 0-966-72190-X)
<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:Circumcision]]
[[Category:Circumcision debate]]
[[Category:Body modification]]
[[Category:Penis]]
<!-- Localization -->
[[bg:Обрязване]]
[[bm:Bolo koli]]
[[ca:Circumcisió]]
[[da:Omskæring]]
[[de:Zirkumzision]]
[[es:Circuncisión]]
[[fr:circoncision]]
[[he:מילה]]
[[ja:割礼]]
[[mk:Машко обрежување]]
[[ms:khatan]]
[[nl:Besnijdenis]]
[[pl:Obrzezanie]]
[[ru:Обрезание]]{{Link FA|ru}}
[[fi:Ympärileikkaus]]
[[sv:Manlig omskärelse]]
[[zh:割包皮]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Citizenship</title>
<id>6784</id>
<revision>
<id>42037706</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:46:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>88.201.128.130</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
:''For other uses, see [[citizen (disambiguation)]].''
'''Citizenship''' is membership in a political community (originally a [[city]] but now usually a [[state (law)|state]]) and carries with it [[rights]] to political participation; a person having such membership is a '''citizen'''. It is largely coterminous with [[nationality]], although it is possible to have a nationality without being a citizen (i.e., be legally [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] to a state and entitled to its protection without having rights of political participation in it); it is also possible to have political rights without being a national of a state; for example, a citizen of a [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] country resident in the [[United Kingdom]] is entitled to full political rights.
See [[nationality]] for further discussion of the properties of national citizenship and how it can be acquired.
''Citizenship'' often also implies working towards the betterment of one's [[community]] through participation, volunteer work, and efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, [[school]]s in [[England]] provide lessons in citizenship; in Wales the model used is [[Personal and Social Education]].
==Subnational citizenship==
Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region.
Citizenship as explained above is the political rights of an individual within a society. Thus, you can have a citizenship from one country and be a national of another country. One example might be as follows: A Cuban-American might be considered a national of Cuba due to his being born there, but he could also become an American citizen through naturalization. Some countries like Cuba and the United States of America forbid dual citizenship in the other country because of political tensions between the two nations. Nationality most often derives from place of birth (i.e. ''[[jus soli]]'') and, in some cases, ethnicity (i.e. ''[[jus sanguinis]]''). Citizenship derives from a legal relationship with a state. Nationality can be lost, as in [[denaturalization]], and gained, as in [[naturalization]].
==Supranational citizenship==
In recent years, some [[intergovernmental organisation]]s have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Two examples are given below, of citizenship in the European Union, and also of citizenship within the Commonwealth of Nations. As of 2005, citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with a weaker status than national citizenship.
The ultimate version of supranational citizenship would be some sort of global citizenship; the United Nations does not represent this concept directly, however, being more of an international forum than a structure for expressing individual rights and responsibilities.
===European Union (EU) citizenship===
The [[Maastricht Treaty]] introduced the concept of [[citizenship of the European Union]]. This citizenship flows from national citizenship &mdash; one holds the nationality of an [[Member states of the EU|EU member state]] and as a result becomes a "citizen of the Union" in addition.
EU citizenship offers certain rights and privileges within the EU; in many areas EU citizens have the same or similar rights as native citizens in member states. Such rights granted to EU citizens ([http://europa.eu.int/youreurope/nav/en/citizens/factsheets/eu/eucitizenship/eucitizenship/en.html]) include:
*freedom of movement and the [[right of abode|right of residence]] within the territory of the Member States;
*[[right to vote]] and stand as a candidate at elections to the European Parliament and at municipal elections in the Member State of residence;
*right to diplomatic and consular protection;
*right of petition to the European Parliament; and
*right to refer to the Ombudsman.
The right of residence connotes not only the right of abode, but also the right to apply to work in any position (including national [[civil service]]s with the exception of sensitive positions such as defence).
EU member states also use a common [[passport]] design, burgundy coloured, with the name of the member state, national seal, and the title "European Union" (or its translation).
Union citizenship continues to gain in status and the [[European Court of Justice]] has stated that Union citizenship will be the "fundamental status of nationals of Member States" (see Case C-184/99 Rudy Grzelczyk v Centre Public d'Aide Sociale d'Ottignes-Louvain-la-Neuve, [2001] ECR I-6193, para 31). The [[European Commission]] has affirmed that Union citizenship should be the fundamental status of EU nationals, but this is not accepted by many of the member states of the European Union.
===Commonwealth citizenship===
The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since the establishment of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries:
*Some such countries do not require tourist [[visa (document)|visas]] of citizens of other Commonwealth countries.
*In some Commonwealth countries [[permanent resident|resident]] citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the [[right to vote]] in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election.
*In some instances the right to work in any position (including the [[civil service]]) is granted, except for certain specific positions (e.g. defence, [[Governor-General]] or [[President]], [[Prime Minister]]).
Whilst Commonwealth citizenship is sometimes enshrined in the written [[constitution]]s (where applicable) of Commonwealth states and is considered by some to be a form of [[dual citizenship]], there have never been, nor are there any plans for a common [[passport]].
Although the [[Republic of Ireland]] left the Commonwealth in [[1949]], it is often treated as if it were a member, with references being made in legal documents to 'the Commonwealth and the Republic of Ireland', and its citizens are not classified as foreign nationals, particularly in the [[United Kingdom]].
Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921 (Nationals Act 1921 (Canada)), in a attempt to prevent non-Canadians (especially |
ides by this constitution or charter limitation. In modern constitutions, there is usually a sense of the constitution's legitimacy being derived from wide consensus, whether the constitution in question is a constitution of government or just the constitution of a private club. The Latin term ''[[ultra vires]]'' describes activities that fall outside an organisation's or [[legislative]] body's legal or constitutional authority. For example, a [[students' union]] may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities these activities are considered ''ultra vires'' of the union's charter. An example from the constitutional law of nation-states would be a provincial government in a federal state trying to legislate in an area exclusively enumerated to the federal government in the constitution. For example, in the United States, any attempt by a state legislature to ratify a treaty with a foreign nation would be considered ''ultra vires'' of Congress' constitutional authority, being contrary to the constitution. In both cases, "ultra vires" gives a legal justification for the forced cessation of such action, which would be enforced by the [[judiciary]] in government.
== Governmental constitutions ==
Most commonly, the term ''constitution'' refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a [[civil service]]/bureaucracy. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of an area from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some areas it is in fact called "[[Basic Law]]".
===Key features===
The following are features of democratic constitutions which have been identified by political scientists to exist, in one form or another, in virtually all national constitutions.
====Codification====
A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. The classic example of this is the [[Constitution of the United States]]. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten. The [[Constitution of Australia]] is an example of a constitution in which constitutional law mainly derives from a single written document, but other written documents are also considered part of the constitution. The [[Constitution of the United Kingdom]] is an example of an uncodified constitution which consists of both written and unwritten sources and has no single written fundamental document.
The term ''written constitution'' is used to describe a constitution that is entirely written, which by definition includes every codified constitution. However, some constitutions are entirely written but, strictly speaking, not entirely codified. For example, in the [[Constitution of Australia]], most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the [[Statute of Westminster]], as adopted by the Commonwealth in the [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942]], and the [[Australia Act]] means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document.
The term ''written constitution'' is often used interchangeably with ''codified constitution'', and similarly ''unwritten constitution'' is used interchangeably with ''uncodified constitution''. As shown above, this usage with respect to written and codified constitutions can be inaccurate. Strictly speaking, ''unwritten constitution'' is never an accurate synonym for ''uncodified constitution'', because all modern democratic constitutions consist of some written sources, even if they have no different technical status than ordinary statutes. Another term used is ''formal (written) constitution'', for example in the following context: "The United Kingdom has no formal constitution". This usage is correct, but it should be construed to mean that the United Kingdom does not have a written constitution, not that the UK has no constitution of any kind, which would not be correct.
===== Codified constitution =====
Most states in the world have a codified constitution. Codified constitutions, unlike uncodified constitutions are not the product of an "evolution" of laws and conventions over centuries, they are usually the product of dramatic political change, such as a [[revolution]]. For example, the US constitution was written and subsequently ratified less than 25 years after the [[American Revolution]]. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. When one compares the elaborate convention method adopted in the United States with the Macarthur inspired post war constitution foisted on Japan, this becomes evident. Arguably the legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions are tied to the process by which they are initially adopted.
The most obvious advantage of a codified constitution is the coherent and easily understood body of rules. A codified constitution at the least is simple to read, being a single document. The US constitution, for example, is only about 7,000 words long, and can be bought in most bookshops in the United States, whereas an uncodified constitution such as that of the UK is often ambiguous and difficult to interpret.
Although (entrenched) codified constitutions are relatively rigid, codified constitutions still yield a potentially wide range of interpretations by constitutional courts. For example, the US Supreme Court declared racial segregation to be constitutional in [[Plessy v. Ferguson]] ([[1896]]), declaring an interpretation of "separate but equal". However, in the [[1954]] [[Brown v. Board of Education]] case, the Supreme Court declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal", starting a period of federal government action that removed all de-jure racial segregation and discrimination. Sometimes, the nature of the wide range of interpretations that seem possible from constitutional courts are controversial. In the US, those who support judicial decisions being made solely on the original text of the constitution, without considering "implied" principles, are called "[[Strict constructionism|strict constructionists]]".
States that have codified constitutions normally give them supremacy over ordinary [[statute]] law. That is, if there is a conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared [[ultra vires]] by a court and struck down as [[unconstitutional]]. Secondly, an extraordinary procedure is required for [[constitutional amendment]]s that may involve obtaining 2/3 majorities in the national legislature, the consent of regional legislatures, a [[referendum]] process or some other procedure that makes obtaining a constitutional amendment more difficult than passing a simple law.
===== Uncodified constitution =====
By contrast, in the [[Westminster System|Westminster]] tradition which originated in [[England]], the uncodified constitution includes written sources but also unwritten [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]s, observation of [[precedent]]s, [[royal prerogative]]s and [[custom]]; together these constitute the [[British constitutional law]]. In the days of the [[British Empire]], the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] acted as the constitutional court for many of the British colonies such as [[Canada]] and [[Australia]] which had federal constitutions.
In states using uncodified constitutions, the difference between constitutional law and [[Statute|statutory]] law (i.e. law applying to any area of governance) in legal terms is nil. Both can be altered or repealed by a simple majority in Parliament. In practice, democratic governments do not use this opportunity to abolish all civil rights, which in theory they could do, but the distinction between regular and constitutional law is still somewhat arbitrary, usually depending on the traditional devotion of popular opinion to historical principles embodied in important past legislation. For example, several [[Acts of Parliament]] such as the [[English Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], [[Human Rights Act 1998|Human Rights Act]] and, prior to the creation of Parliament, [[Magna Carta]] are regarded as granting fundamental rights and principles which are treated as almost constitutional.
====Entrenchment====
The presence or lack of entrenchment is a fundamental feature of constitutions. Entrenchment refers to whether the constitution is legally protected from modification without a procedure of [[constitutional amendment]]. Entrenchment is an inherent feature in most written constitutions. The US constitution is an example of an entrenched constitution, and the UK constitution is an example of a constitution that is not entrenched.
Modification of an entrenched constitution will require more than the amen |
ter marrying fellow scientist [[Ann Druyan]], performing acts of [[civil disobedience]] at [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]] sites during the [[Nuclear freeze]] era. He spoke out against President [[Ronald_Reagan|Ronald Reagan]]'s [[Strategic_Defense_Initiative|Strategic Defense Initiative]], or the "Star Wars" program, which he felt was technically impossible to build and perfect, far more expensive to create than for an enemy to defeat through decoys and other means, and destabilizing to Cold War nuclear weapons disarmament progress.
Carl Sagan was an avid user of [[Cannabis (drug)|marijuana]], although he never publicly admitted it during his life. Under the [[pseudonym]] "Mr. X," he wrote an essay concerning cannabis smoking in the 1971 book ''Marihuana Reconsidered''<!-- That's the spelling (with an "H") used by the US version of Amazon, BTW -->, whose editor was [[Lester Grinspoon]]{{ref|marijuana}}. In his essay, Sagan commented that marijuana encouraged some of his works and enhanced experiences{{ref label|marijuana|4|a}}. After Sagan's death, Grinspoon disclosed this to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson{{ref|Davidson}}. When the biography, entitled ''Carl Sagan: A Life'', was published in 1999, the marijuana exposure stirred some media attention{{ref|drugnews}}.
==Popularization of science==
[[Image:Sagan Viking.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sagan with a model of the [[Viking Lander]] probes which would land on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]].]]
Sagan's capability to convey his ideas allowed many people to better understand the cosmos. He delivered the 1977/1978 [[Royal Institution Christmas Lectures|Christmas Lectures for Young People]] at the [[Royal Institution]]. He narrated and, with Ann Druyan, co-wrote and co-produced the highly popular thirteen part [[PBS]] television series: [[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'']] (modeled on [[Jacob Bronowski]]'s ''[[The Ascent of Man]]'')
''Cosmos'' covered a wide range of scientific subjects including the origin of life and a perspective of our place in the universe. The series was first broadcast by the [[Public Broadcasting Service]] in [[1980]]. It won an [[Emmy Award|Emmy]] and a [[Peabody Award]]; according to the [[NASA]] Office of Space Science, it has been since broadcast in 60 countries and seen by more than 600 million people.
Sagan also wrote books to popularize science, such as ''Cosmos'', which reflected and expanded upon some of the themes of ''A Personal Voyage'', ''[[The Dragons of Eden|The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence]]'', which won a [[Pulitzer Prize]], and ''[[Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science]]''. Sagan also wrote the best-selling [[science fiction]] novel [[Contact (novel)|''Contact'']], but never lived to see the book's 1997 [[Contact (film)|motion picture adaptation]], which starred [[Jodie Foster]] and won the 1998 [[Hugo Award]].
From ''Cosmos'' and his frequent appearances on ''[[The Tonight Show]]'', Sagan became associated with the [[catch phrase]], "billions and billions." (He never actually used that phrase in ''Cosmos'', but his distinctive delivery and frequent use of ''billions'' made this a favorite phrase of [[Johnny Carson]] and others, doing the many affectionate impressions of him. Sagan took this in good humor, and his final book was entitled ''[[Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium|Billions and Billions]]'' - see below.) The humorous unit of the [[Sagan]] has now been coined to stand for any count of at least 4,000,000,000.
He wrote a sequel to ''Cosmos'', [[Pale Blue Dot|''Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space'']], which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by ''[[The New York Times]]''. Carl Sagan also wrote an introduction for the bestselling book by [[Stephen Hawking]], ''[[A Brief History of Time]]''.
Sagan presents a speculation concerning the origin of the [[swastika]] symbol in his book, ''Comet''. Sagan hypothesized that a [[comet]] approached so close to Earth in antiquity that the jets of gas streaming out of it were visible, bent by the comet's rotation. The book ''Comet'' reproduces an ancient [[China|Chinese]] manuscript that shows comet tail varieties; most are variations on simple comet tails, but the last shows the comet nucleus with four bent arms extending from it, showing a swastika.
Sagan caused mixed reactions among other professional scientists. On the one hand, there was general support for his popularization of science, his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public, and his positions in favor of [[scientific skepticism]] and against [[pseudoscience]]; most notably his thorough [[Debunker|debunking]] of the book [[Worlds In Collision]] by [[Immanuel Velikovsky]]. On the other hand, there was some unease that the public would misunderstand some of the personal positions and interests that Sagan took as being part of the scientific consensus, rather than his own personal views, and there was some unease, which some believe to have been motivated in part by professional jealousy, that scientific views contrary to those that Sagan took (such as on the severity of [[nuclear winter]]) were not being sufficiently presented to the public.
Sagan's arguments against Velikovsky's catastrophism have been criticized by some of his colleagues. Dr. [[Robert Jastrow]] of NASA's Goddard Institute of Space Studies wrote: "Professor Sagan's calculations, in effect, ignore the law of gravity. Here, Dr. Velikovsky was the better astronomer." His comments on the [[Kuwaiti oil fires|Kuwait oil well fires]] during the first Gulf War were shown later to be in error; Sagan himself acknowledged his error in print.
Late in his life, Sagan's books developed his skeptical, naturalistic view of the world. In ''[[The Demon-Haunted World|The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark]]'', he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating wide use of the [[scientific method]]. The compilation, ''Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium'', published after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on [[abortion]], and Ann Druyan's account of his death as a non-believer.
==Personality==
In 1966, Sagan was asked to contribute an interview about the possibility of extraterrestrials to a proposed introduction to the film ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. According to an uncited anecdote in ''The Independent'', Sagan "responded by saying that he wanted editorial control and a percentage of the film's takings, which was rejected."{{ref|2001ASO}}
In [[1994]], [[Apple Computer]] began developing the [[Power Macintosh 7100]]. They chose the internal code name "Carl Sagan," in honor of the astronomer{{ref|apple}}. Though the project name was strictly internal and never used in public marketing, when Sagan learned of this internal usage, he sued Apple Computer to use a different project name — other projects had names like "[[Cold fusion]]" and "[[Piltdown Man]]", and he was displeased at being associated with what he considered [[pseudoscience]]. Though Sagan lost the suit, Apple engineers complied with his demands anyway, renaming the project "BHA" (Butthead Astronomer). Sagan sued Apple for libel over the new name, claiming that it subjected him to contempt and ridicule. Sagan lost this lawsuit as well; still, the 7100 saw another name change: it was lastly called "LAW" (Lawyers Are Wimps).
Sagan is regarded by most as an [[atheism|atheist]], [[agnosticism|agnostic]], or [[pantheist]] observing statements such as: "The idea that [[God]] is an oversized white male with a flowing beard, who sits in the sky and tallies the fall of every sparrow is ludicrous. But if by 'God,' one means the set of [[physical laws]] that govern the universe, then clearly there is such a God. This God is emotionally unsatisfying... it does not make much sense to [[prayer|pray]] to the law of [[gravity]]."{{ref|God}}
Sagan married three times; the famous biologist, [[Lynn Margulis]] (mother of [[Dorion Sagan]] and [[Jeremy Sagan]]) in 1957, artist [[Linda_Salzman_Sagan|Linda Salzman]] (mother of [[Nick Sagan]]) in 1968, and author [[Ann Druyan]] (mother of Sasha and Sam) in 1981, to whom he remained married until his death.
==Sagan and UFOs==
Sagan had some interest in [[UFO]] reports from at least 1964, when he had several conversations on the subject with [[Jacques Vallee]]. (Westrum, p37) Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought that science should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports.
Dr. [[Stuart Appelle]] notes that Sagan "wrote frequently on what he perceived as the [[logic]]al and [[empiricism|empirical]] [[fallacy|fallacies]] regarding UFOs and the [[abduction phenomenon|abduction experience]]. Sagan rejected an [[extraterrestrial hypothesis|extraterrestrial explanation]] for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and [[pedagogical]] benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study." (Appelle, p 22)
In 1966, Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review [[Project Blue Book]]. The committee concluded that the U.S. Air Force's [[Project Blue Book]] had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny. The [[Condon Committee]] (1966-1968), lead by physicist Dr. [[Edward Condon]], and their still-controversial final report, formally concluded that there was nothing anomalous about UFO reports.
Dr. [[Ron Westrum]] writes that "The high point of |
stration of "Albert Einstein" as a [[trademark]].
[[Image:Einstongue.jpg|thumb|right|222px|The photo (detail from the original) of this humorous expression was taken during Einstein's [[birthday]] on [[March 14]], [[1951]], [[United Press International|UPI]].]]
===Entertainment===
Albert Einstein has become the subject of a number of novels, [[film]]s and plays, including [[Jean-Claude Carrier]]'s 2005 French novel, Einstein S'il Vous Plait (Please Mr Einstein), [[Nicolas Roeg]]'s film ''[[Insignificance (film)|Insignificance]]'', [[Fred Schepisi]]'s film ''[[I.Q. (film)|I.Q.]]'', [[Alan Lightman]]'s novel ''Einstein's Dreams'', and [[Steve Martin]]'s comedic play "[[Picasso at the Lapin Agile]]". He was the subject of [[Philip Glass]]'s groundbreaking 1976 [[opera]] ''[[Einstein on the Beach]]''. His humorous side is also the subject of [[Ed Metzger]]'s one-man play ''[[Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian]]''.
He is often used as a model for depictions of [[mad scientists|eccentric scientist]]s in works of fiction; his own character and distinctive hairstyle suggest eccentricity, or even lunacy and are widely copied or exaggerated. [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] magazine writer Frederic Golden referred to Einstein as "a cartoonist's dream come true."
On Einstein's 72nd birthday in 1951, the [[UPI]] photographer Arthur Sasse was trying to coax him into smiling for the camera. Having done this for the photographer many times that day, Einstein stuck out his tongue instead.{{rf|20|www.mentalfloss.com.386}} The image has become an icon in pop culture for its contrast of the genius scientist displaying a moment of levity. [[Yahoo Serious]], an Australian film maker, used the photo as an inspiration for the intentionally anachronistic movie ''[[Young Einstein]]''.
===Licensing===
Einstein bequeathed his estate, as well as the use of his image (see [[personality rights]]), to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]].{{rf|21|aip.org.387}} Einstein actively supported the university during his life and this support continues with the [[royalties]] received from licensing activities. [[The Roger Richman Agency]] [[licence|licences]] the commercial use of the name "Albert Einstein" and associated imagery and likenesses of Einstein, as [[agent (law)|agent]] for the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. As head licensee the agency can control commercial usage of Einstein's name which does not comply with certain standards (e.g., when Einstein's name is used as a [[trademark]], the ™ symbol must be used){{rf|22|refbot.388}}. As of May, 2005, the Roger Richman Agency was acquired by [[Corbis]].
===Honors===
[[Image:Einstein TIME Person of the Century.jpg|thumb|right|159px|Einstein on the cover of ''TIME'' as Person of the Century.]]
Einstein has received a number of posthumous honors. For example:
*In 1992, he was ranked #10 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
*In 1999, he was named ''Person of the Century'' by [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] magazine.
*Also in 1999, [[Gallup]] recorded him as the fourth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person of the 20th century.
*The year 2005 was designated as the "[[World Year of Physics]]" by [[UNESCO]] for its coinciding with the centennial of the "[[Annus Mirabilis Papers|Annus Mirabilis]]" papers, celebrated at the [[Einstein Symposium]].
Among Einstein's many namesakes are:
*a unit used in [[photochemistry]], the ''[[einstein (unit)|einstein]]''.
*the [[chemical element]] 99, [[einsteinium]].
*the [[asteroid]] [[2001 Einstein]].
*the [[Albert Einstein Peace Prize]].
*the Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University{{rf|23|refbot.389}} was named after Einstein upon his death in 1955.
*the Albert Einstein Medical Center{{rf|24|www.einstein.edu.390}} in [[Philadelphia]], PA.
==See also==
* [[Special relativity]]
* [[General relativity]]
* [[History of special relativity]]
* [[History of general relativity]]
* [[Henri Poincaré]]
* [[David Hilbert]]
* [[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]]
==Works by Albert Einstein==
[[Image:A clay portrait of Einstein by the sculptor Moshe Ziffer.jpg|thumb|right|155px|Clay portrait of Einstein by the sculptor [[Moshe Ziffer]].]]
*''[http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields]''. (PDF)
*''Ideas & Opinions'' ISBN 0517003937
*''The World As I See It'' ISBN 080650711X (translation of "Mein Weltbild")
*''[[wikisource:Relativity: The Special and General Theory|Relativity: The Special and General Theory]].'' ISBN 0517884410 ([http://www.gutenberg.net/browse/BIBREC/BR5001.HTM Project Gutenberg E-text])
* "[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies]" ''[[Annalen der Physik]].'' [[June 30]], [[1905]]
* "[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/E_mc2/www/ Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?]" ''[[Annalen der Physik]].'' [[September 27]], 1905.
* "[http://alberteinstein.info/gallery/pdf/CP6Doc3_English_pp16-18.pdf Inaugural Lecture to the Prussian Academy of Sciences]." 1914. [PDF]
* "[http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Works/Einstein.htm The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ]." ''[[Annalen der Physik]],'' 49. 1916.
* "[[wikisource:Nobel_Lecture_Physics_1921|Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity]]." ''1921 Nobel Lecture in Physics.'' Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, [[11 July]] [[1923]].
* Einstein A., Lorenz H. A., Weyl H. and Minkowski H. ''The Principle of Relativity.'' Trans. W. Perrett and [[George Barker Jeffery|G. B. Jeffery]]. New York: Dover Publications, 1923.
* "[http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm Why Socialism?]" ''[[Monthly Review]].'' May 1949 ([http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/global/popups/socialism.php original manuscript]).
* ''[http://www.alberteinstein.info/db/ViewImage.do?DocumentID=34170&Page=1 On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation]''. April, 1950.
==References==
* {{cite book | author = [[Edmund Blair Bolles | Bolles, Edmund Blair]] | year = 2004 | month = April | title = Einstein Defiant: Genius versus Genius in the Quantum Revolution | publisher = National Academy Press | id = ISBN 0309089980 }}
* {{cite web | author = Butcher, Sandra Ionno | date = March 2005 | url = http://www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/phslist.htm | title = The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto }}
* {{cite book | first = Alice | last = Calaprice | title = The new quotable Einstein | pages = p. 173 | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-691-12075-7 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Ronald W. Clark | Clark, Ronald W.]] | year = 1971 | title = Einstein: The Life and Times | publisher = Avon | id = ISBN 0-380-44123-3 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Galison, Peter | authorlink = Peter Galison | title = Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time | journal = Critical Inquiry | year = Winter 2000 | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 355&ndash;389 }}
[[IMAGE:Einstein Memorial.jpg | thumb | right | 215px | The [[Albert Einstein Memorial, Washington DC]] at the [[National Academy of Sciences]] in [[Washington, DC]].]]
* {{cite book | author = Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul | title = The Private Lives of Albert Einstein | publisher = Faber and Faber, London, Boston | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-571-17170-2 (US ed. ISBN 0312110472) }}
* {{cite journal | author = Macrossan, Michael | title = A note on relativity before Einstein | journal = British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | year = 1986 | volume = 37 | pages = 232-234 }} [http://eprint.uq.edu.au/archive/00002307 Abstract and link to full text].
* {{cite web | author = Martínez, Alberto A. | year = April 2004 | url = http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | title = Arguing about Einstein's wife | publisher = Physics World | accessdate = 2005-11-23 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Abraham Pais | Pais, Abraham]] | year = 1982 | title = Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0-19-520438-7 }} This is the definitive scientific biography.
* {{cite book | author = [[Abraham Pais | Pais, Abraham]] | year = 1994 | title = Einstein Lived Here | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198539940 }} This book discusses non-science aspects of Einstein; marriages, affairs, illegitimate daughter, public image.
* {{cite book | author = [[Clifford A. Pickover | Pickover, Clifford A.]] | date = [[2005-09-09]] | title = Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves: Sushi, Psychedelics, Parallel Universes, and the Quest for Transcendence | publisher = Smart Publications | id = ISBN 1890572179 }} Discusses the final disposition of Einstein's brain, hair, and eyes as well as the importance of Einstein and his work in the shaping of science and culture.
* {{cite book | author = [[John Stachel | Stachel, John]] | date = 1998-03-30 | title = Einstein's Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics | publisher = Princeton University Press | id = ISBN 0691059381 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Peter D. Smith | Smith, Peter D.]] | year = 2000 | title = Einstein (Life & Times Series) | publisher = Haus Publishing | id = ISBN 1904341152 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Kip Thorne | last = Thorne | first = Kip | year = 1995 | title = [[Black Holes and Time Warps | Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy]] | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | edition = Reprint edition | date = [[January 1]] [[1995]] | id = ISBN 0393312763 }}
* {{cite web | author = Levenson, Thomas | year = June 2005 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ | title = Genius Among Geniuses | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }}
* {{cite web | |
dipyramid.wrl <7>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octagonal_dipyramid.wrl <8>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/enneagonal_dipyramid.wrl <9>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_dipyramid.wrl <10>]
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<ip>157.140.11.77</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Beast of Bodmin''' is a [[Phantom cat|phantom wild cat]] (or possibly a number of them) which ranges in [[Cornwall]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Bodmin Moor]] became a centre of these sightings with occasional reports of mutilated slain livestock: the alleged leopard-like cats of the same region came to be popularly and alliteratively known as the Beast of Bodmin Moor. Eventually the [[Ministry_for_Agriculture,_Fisheries_and_Food|Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food]] decided to conduct an official investigation in [[1995]]. The study's findings decided there was "no verifiable evidence" of exotic felines loose in Britain, and that the mauled farm animals could have been attacked by common indigenous species. The report did accept that "the investigation could not prove that a 'big cat' is not present."
Less than a week after the government report, a boy was walking by the [[River Fowey]] when he discovered a large cat skull. Measuring about four inches wide and seven inches long (10 &times; 18 cm), the skull was minus its lower jaw but possessed two sharp, prominent incisors that suggested that it might have been a leopard. The story hit the national press at about the same time of the official denial of alien big cat evidence on Bodmin Moor.
The skull was sent to the [[Natural History Museum]] in [[London]] for verification. They determined that it was a genuine skull from a young male leopard, but also found that the cat had not died in Britain and that the skull had been imported as part of a leopard-skin rug. The back of the skull was cleanly cut off in a way that is commonly used to mount the head on a rug. There was an egg case inside the skull that had been laid by a tropical cockroach that could not possibly be found in Britain. There were also cut marks on the skull indicating the flesh had been scraped off with a knife, and the skull had begun to decompose only after a recent submersion in water.
Sightings of the Beast of Bodmin Moor still continue. In October 1997, officials from [[Newquay]] Zoo claimed to identify pawprints left in mud to the south of Bodmin Moor as the tracks of a [[puma]]. Soon after that discovery, an alleged photograph of the Bodmin Beast materialised, purporting to show an adult female puma. The authenticity of this piece of evidence remains unconfirmed.
==References in Popular Culture==
The Beast of Bodmin Moor was briefly mentioned in the [[cult film]] [[Dog Soldiers]].
==See also==
*[[Cryptozoology]]
*[[Beast of Exmoor]]
==External links==
* [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/mammals/beast-of-bodmin-moor/ Beast of Bodmin Moor page at the Natural History Museum, London]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Borda count</title>
<id>4155</id>
<revision>
<id>41802174</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:17:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MarkusSchulze</username>
<id>76045</id>
</contributor>
<comment>AfD is still running</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Borda count''' is a [[voting system]] used for [[election]]s. Each voter is given a [[preferential voting|preferential ballot]] where they rank order the candidates. The Borda count can be used as a system for finding a rank-order for every candidate, allowing it to be used as both a simple single-winner election method by selecting the highest ranked candidate and as a multiple-winner method by selecting a larger number of top-ranked candidates.
The Borda count was devised by [[Jean-Charles de Borda]] in June of [[1770]]. It was first published in [[1781]] as ''Mémoire sur les élections au scrutin'' in the Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris. This method was devised by Borda to fairly elect members to the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and was used by the Academy beginning in [[1784]] until being quashed by [[Napoleon]] in [[1800]].
The Borda count is classified as a [[positional voting system]] because each rank on the ballot is worth a certain number of points. Other positional methods include [[first-past-the-post]] (plurality) voting, and minor methods such as "vote for any two" or "vote for any three".
==Procedures==
Each voter rank-orders all the candidates on their ballot. If there are <var>n</var> candidates in the election, then the first-place candidate on a ballot receives <var>n</var>&minus;1 points as a multiplier, the second-place candidate receives <var>n</var>&minus;2, and in general the candidate in <var>i</var>th place receives <var>n</var>&minus;<var>i</var> points. The candidate ranked last on the ballot therefore receives zero points as a multiplier.
The points are multiplied by the number of votes and added up across all the ballots, and the candidate with the most points is the winner.
==An example of an election==
{{Tenn_voting_example}}
<div class="floatright">
{| class="wikitable"
!City||First||Second||Third||Fourth||Points
|-
!Memphis
|42||0||0||58||126
|-
!Nashville
|26||42||32||0||194
|-
!Chattanooga
|15||43||42||0||173
|-
!Knoxville
|17||15||26||42||107
|}
</div>
Nashville is the winner in this election, as it has the most points, 194, computed as (26*3)+(42*2)+(32*1)+(0*0). Nashville also happens to be the [[Condorcet winner]] in this case. While the Borda count does not always select the Condorcet winner as the Borda Count winner, it always ranks the Condorcet winner above the Condorcet loser. No other positional method can guarantee such a relationship.
==Potential for tactical voting==
Like most voting methods, The Borda count is vulnerable to [[tactical voting|compromising]]. That is, voters can help avoid the election of a less-preferred candidate by insincerely raising the position of a more-preferred candidate on their ballot.
The Borda count is also vulnerable to [[tactical voting|burying]]. That is, voters can help a more-preferred candidate by insincerely lowering the position of a less-preferred candidate on their ballot.
If many voters employ such strategies, then the result will no longer reflect the sincere preferences of the electorate.
In response to the issue of strategic manipulation in the Borda count, M. de Borda said "My scheme is only intended for honest men."
Using the above example, if polls suggest a toss-up between Nashville and Chattanooga, citizens of Knoxville might change their ranking to
# Chattanooga (compromising their sincere first choice Knoxville)
# Knoxville
# Memphis (burying their sincere third choice Nashville)
# Nashville
However, the effect is not very strong. In order for Chattanooga to win, 62% of all Knoxville voters would have to employ this tactical voting.
==Effect on factions and candidates==
The Borda count is vulnerable to [[Strategic nomination|teaming]]: when more candidates run with similar ideologies, the probability of one of those candidates winning increases. Therefore, under the Borda count, it is to a faction's advantage to run as many candidates in that faction as they can, creating the opposite of the [[spoiler effect]]. The teaming or "clone" effect is significant where restrictions are placed on the candidate set.
On the other hand, in 1980, [[William Gehrlein]] and [[Peter Fishburn]] investigated the likelihood of a positional method to choose the same candidate when one modified the set of candidates by eliminating one losing candidate from a three-candidate election and two losing candidates from a four candidate election. They found that the Borda count was the positional rule which maximizes the probability of electing the same candidate after this modification of the choice set.
==Criteria passed and failed==
Voting systems are often compared using mathematically-defined criteria. See [[voting system criterion]] for a list of such criteria.
The Borda count satisfies the [[monotonicity criterion]], the [[summability criterion]], the [[consistency criterion]], the [[participation criterion]], the [[Plurality criterion]] (trivially), [[Reversal symmetry]], and the [[Condorcet loser criterion]].
It does not satisfy the [[Condorcet criterion]], the [[Independence of irrelevant alternatives]] criterion, or the [[Strategic nomination|Independence of Clones criterion]].
The Borda count also does not satisfy the [[majority criterion]], i.e. if a majority of voters rank one candidate in first place, that candidate is not guaranteed to win. This could be considered a disadvantage for Borda count in political elections, but it also could be considered an advantage if the favorite of a slight majority is strongly disliked by most voters outside the majority, in which case the Borda winner could have a higher overall utility than the majority winner.
[[Donald G. Saari]] created a mathematical framework for evaluating positional methods in which he showed that Borda count has fewer opportunities for strategic voting than other positional methods, such as [[plurality voting]] or [[anti-plurality voting]], e.g.; "vote for two", "vote for three", etc.
==Variants==
* The |
ditions in Kashmir having little relation to that in the extreme south. In addition to this, the varied topography of the land sees many regions having their own [[microclimate]]s. Climate in India ranges from [[tropical]] in the south to a temperate climate in the north. Parts of India in the Himalayas have a [[polar climate]].
Meteorologists divide the year into four main seasons for most of the country: monsoon, summer, winter and withdrawal of the monsoons. Parts of India that lie in the Himalayan region see five seasons: spring, summer, monsoons, autumn and winter. Sustained snowfalls occur only in the elevated sections.
[[Image:Indiatemperaturetemp.png|thumb|240px|Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.]]
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures exceed 40&nbsp;&deg;C (104&nbsp;&deg;F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30&nbsp;&deg;C (86&nbsp;&deg;F) coupled with high levels of [[humidity]]. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45&nbsp;&deg;C (113&nbsp;&deg;F).
Summer is followed by the southwest [[monsoon]] rains that provide most of India its rainfall. The rain-bearing clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The official date for the arrival of the monsoon is [[1 June]], when the monsoon crosses the Kerala coast. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves north-wards crossing northeast India in early June. It then progresses eastwards, crossing Delhi by [[June 29]]. The Arabian Sea arm moves north-wards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. By early July, most of India receives rain from the monsoons.
The monsoons start retreating by August from northern India and by October from Kerala. This short period after the retreat is known as the '''retreat of the monsoons''' and is characterised by still weather. By November, winter starts setting in the northern areas.
Winters start in November in northern India and late December in southern India. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by [[fog]] during this season.
The highest temperature recoded in India was 50.6&nbsp;&deg;C (123.08&nbsp;&deg;F) in [[Alwar]] in [[1955]]. The lowest was &minus;45&nbsp;&deg;C (&minus;49&nbsp;&deg;F) in Kashmir. Recent claims of temperatures touching 55&nbsp;&deg;C (131&nbsp;&deg;F) in Orissa have been met with some scepticism by the [[India Meteorological Department|Indian Meteorological Department]], largely on the method of recording of such data.
{{See also|Climatic Regions of India}}
== Geology ==
{{main|Geology of India}}
[[image:India-geology-map.png|thumb|240px|Geological regions of India]]
India has a varied geology spanning the entire spectrum of the geological time period. India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.
The Pre-[[Cambrian]] period formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.
The [[Paleozoic]] Era formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
The [[Mesozoic]] Era [[Deccan Traps]] formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan. Geologists believe that the Deccan Traps were the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System, Triassic and Jurassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is also seen in Rajasthan.
[[Tertiary Period]] imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, parts of Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains. The Gondowana system is also seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and in Assam.
The [[Pleistocene]] system is found over central India. It is rich in minerals such as lignite, iron ore, manganese and aluminium. The Andaman and Nicobar Island groups are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. {{inote|Manorama pg 521-522|man-521}}
The Himalayas are a result of the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1&nbsp;cm each year.
== Natural disasters==
[[Image:India-naturalhazards-map.png|thumb|240px|Disaster prone regions in India]]
India is prone to several [[natural disasters]], responsible for huge losses in life and property. Natural disasters in India include droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive flooding from monsoonal rains; severe cyclones; and earthquakes.
[[Flood]]s are the most common natural disaster in India. During the monsoon season, heavy rainfall may cause rivers to distend their banks, often flooding the surrounding areas. The Brahmaputra River is prone to perennial flooding during the monsoon season. Floods are responsible for a number of deaths and property loss in many parts of India. With the exception of a few states, almost all of India is prone to flooding.
Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons results in water deficiency in the region causing extensive crop losses. Drought prone regions include south Maharashtra, north Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. In the past, failure of monsoons has led to famines causing great damage.
Tectonic plates beneath the earth's surface are responsible for yearly earthquakes along the Himalayan belt and in northeast India. This region is classified as a Zone V, indicating that it is a very high-risk area. Parts of western India, around the [[Kutch]] region in Gujarat and [[Koyna]] in Maharashtra, are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk). Other areas have a moderate to low risk chance of an earthquake occurring. {{inote|Manorama pg 196|man-196}}
Cyclones are another natural disaster, affecting thousands living in the coastal regions. Cyclones are severe and bring with them heavy rains that cut off supplies and relief to the affected areas. On [[2004-12-26]], a [[tsunami]] caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] struck the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and India's east coast resulting in the loss of over ten thousand individuals. Until then India was thought to have negligible activity related to tsunamis, though there is historical anecdotal evidence of its occurrence in the past.
India has one [[active volcano]]: the [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]] volcano which last erupted in May 2005. There is also a [[dormant volcano]] called the [[Narcondum]] and a [[Mud volcano]] at [[Baratang]]. All these volcanoes lie in the [[Andaman Islands]].
[[Landslide]]s are common in the Lower Himalaya owing to labile rock formations due to the young age of the hills. Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low intensity landslides. [[Avalanche]]s occur in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
During the summer months, dust storms cause immense property damage in northern India. These storms bring with it large amounts of dust from arid regions. [[Hailstones]] are common in parts of India, and cause severe damage to the standing crops.
== Natural resources ==
India is particularly rich in a variety of natural resources. Along with 56% arable land, it has significant sources of [[Coal]] (fourth-largest reserves in the world), [[Iron]] ore, [[Manganese]], [[Mica]], [[Bauxite]], [[Titanium]] ore, [[Chromite]], [[Natural gas]], [[Diamond]]s, [[Petroleum]], [[Limestone]], [[Thorium]] (world's largest along [[Kerala]]'s shores).
Petroleum is found off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat and in Assam, but meets only 40% of India's demand. Increasing amounts of natural gas are being discovering regularly especially off the coast of Andhra Pradesh. [[Uranium]] is mined in Andhra Pradesh and [[gold]] in the [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in Karnataka.
== International agreements ==
India is a party to several International agreements related to environment and climate, the most prominent among them are:
{| width="100%" bgcolor="#fff4f4"
!align="center" colspan="2"|Treaties and Agreements
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"| Specific Regions and [[Sea]]s
|align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[Government of Antarctica|The Antarctic Treaty]], [[Law of the Sea]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling|Whaling]]</small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"| [[Earth's atmosphere|Atmosphere]] and [[Climate]]
|align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Montreal Protocol|Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Partial Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]]</small>
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"| [[Biodiversity]], [[Natural environment|Environment]] and [[Forest]]s
|align="left" valign="top"|<small>[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], [[Convention on the Prohibition of Milita |
is nominal chief. The best known of these cases was the [[Maynooth grant]] in [[1845]] and the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] in [[1846]]. The end of 1845 and the first months of 1846 were dominated by the battle in parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and [[Lord George Bentinck]]. An alliance of pro-Peel Conservatives, Radicals, and [[Whigs]] carried repeal, but the Conservative Party split in half. Peel and his followers, known as [[Peelites]], moved towards the Whigs, while a new Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley]] (later '''Lord Derby''').
===In Office===
====The First Derby government====
{{main|Who? Who? Ministry}}
The first opportunity for Disraeli, Stanley, and the protectionist Tories to take office had come in 1851, when [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]]'s [[First Russell Ministry|government]] had been defeated in the House of Commons over the [[Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851]]. Disraeli was to have been [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]], with Stanley (who became the Earl of Derby later that year) as Prime Minister. The [[Peelites]], however, refused to serve under Stanley or with Disraeli, and attempts to create a purely protectionist government failed. {{ref|blake.disraeli.301-305}}
Russell resumed office, but resigned again in early 1852 when a combination of the protectionists and [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] defeated him on a Militia Bill. This time [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]] (as he had become) took office, and appointed Disraeli [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]. A combination of bad timing and a lack of experience led to the failure of Disraeli's first Budget and the fall of the government in December of that year. [[Image:14th Earl of Derby.jpg|left|thumb|caption|'''The Earl of Derby'''<br><small>Prime Minister 1852, 1858-59, 1866-68]]His duel, nonetheless, with [[William Ewart Gladstone]] over the Budget marked the beginning of over twenty years of parliamentary hostility.
====The Second Derby government====
{{main|Second Derby Ministry}}
In 1858, Derby returned to the office of the Prime Minister and again appointed Disraeli his Chancellor of the Exchequer and government leader of the House of Commons (as the Prime Minister sat in the [[House of Lords]]) with responsibilities to introduce reforms to parliament but his reforms would have disenfranchised some voters in the towns and were opposed by the Liberals and defeated. The ministry fell in 1859 and Disraeli returned to the [[opposition bench]] until 1866 when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer and government leader in the House of Commons.
After engineering the defeat of a Liberal Reform Bill introduced by Gladstone in 1866, Disraeli and Derby introduced their own measure in 1867. [[Image:Gladstone.jpg|right|thumb|'''William Ewart Gladstone'''<br><small>Four-time Prime Minister</small>]]This was primarily a political strategy designed to give Conservatives control of the reform process and thereby long term benefits in the Commons, similar to those derived by the Whigs after the 1832 Reform Act. The [[Reform Act of 1867]] extended the franchise by 1,500,000 by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least 10 pounds for rooms and eliminating [[rotten borough]]s with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants and granting constituencies to fifteen unrepresented towns and extra representation in parliament to larger towns such as Liverpool and Manchester, which had previously been underrepresented in [[Parliament]]. This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Cranborne]] (later the '''Marquess of Salisbury'''), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill. Cranborne, however, was unable to lead a rebellion similar to that which Disraeli had led against Peel twenty years earlier.
Disraeli's involvement in the passing of the Second Reform Act 1867 is largely seen as a cyncial example of political opportunism. {{ref|second.reform.opportunistic}}
===Prime Minister===
{{main|First Disraeli ministry}}
Derby's health had been declining for some time and he finally resigned as Prime Minister in late February of 1868; he would live for another twenty months. Disraeli's efforts over the past two years had dispelled, for the time being, any doubts about him succeeding Derby as leader of the Conservative Party and therefore Prime Minister. As Disraeli remarked, "I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole." {{ref|blake.disraeli.485-487}} [[Image:3rd Marquess of Salisbury.jpg|left|thumb|'''The Marquess of Salisbury'''<br><small>Three-time Prime Minister</small>]]
However, the Conservatives were still a minority in the House of Commons, and the enaction of the Reform Bill required the calling of new election once the new voting register had been compiled. Disraeli's term as Prime Minister would therefore be fairly short, unless the Conservatives won the general election. He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced [[Frederic Thesiger, 1st Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] as [[Lord Chancellor]] with [[Hugh Cairns, 1st Earl Cairns|Lord Cairns]], and brought in [[George Ward Hunt]] as [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. Disraeli and Chelmsford had never gotten along particularly well, and Cairns, in Disraeli's view, was a far stronger minister. {{ref|blake.disraeli.487-489}}
Disraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the [[Established Church|established]] [[Church of Ireland]]. Although [[Ireland]] was (and remains) overwhelmingly [[Roman Catholic]], the [[Protestant]] Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation. An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with [[Henry Edward Cardinal Manning|Cardinal Manning]] the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in [[Dublin]] foundered in mid-March when [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]] moved resolutions to dis-establish the Irish Church altogether. The proposal divided the Conservative Party while reuniting the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberals]] under Gladstone's leadership. While Disraeli's government survived until the [[United Kingdom general election, 1868|December general election]], the initiative had passed away.{{ref|blake.disraeli.496-502}}
====Second administration====
{{main|Second Disraeli ministry}}
However, in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1868|election]] that followed, William Gladstone and the Liberals were returned to power with a majority of 170. After six years in opposition, Disraeli and the Conservative Party won the [[United Kingdom general election, 1874|election]] giving the party its first absolute [[majority government|majority]] in the House of Commons since the 1840s. Disraeli's government introduced various reforms such as the Artisans Dwellings Act (1875), the Public Health Act (1875), the Pure Food and Drugs Act (1875), the Climbing Boys Act (1875), the Education Act (1876). His government also introduced a new [[Factory Act]] meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act (1875) to allow peaceful picketing and the Employers and Workmen Act (1878) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts.
[[Image:old_disraeli.jpg|right|thumb|Disraeli and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].]]
Disraeli was a staunch British [[imperialism|imperialist]] and helped strengthen the [[British Empire]] with his support for the construction of the [[Suez Canal]]. He also achieved a diplomatic success at the [[Congress of Berlin]] in 1878 in limiting the growing influence of [[Russia]] in the [[Balkan]]s and breaking up the [[League of the Three Emperors]]. However, difficulties in South Africa and Afghanistan weakened his government and likely led to his party's defeat in the 1880 election.
He was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876 when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] made him [[Earl of Beaconsfield]]. He remained Prime Minister until 1880 when the Conservatives were defeated by [[William Gladstone]]'s Liberals in that year's general election. Disraeli became ill soon after and died in April 1881. His [[literary executor]] and for all intents and purposes his heir was his private secretary, [[Montagu Corry, 1st Baron Rowton|Lord Rowton]].
==Disraeli's governments==
*[[First Disraeli Ministry]] (February&ndash;December 1868)
*[[Second Disraeli Ministry]] (February 1874&ndash;April 1880)
==Works by Disraeli==
[[Image:Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield - Project Gutenberg eText 13619.jpg|thumb|Line drawing of Disraeli]]
====Fiction====
*''[[Vivian Grey]]'' (1826; {{gutenberg|no=9840|name=Vivian Grey}})
*''[[Popanilla]]'' (1828; {{gutenberg|no=7816|name=Popanilla}})
*''[[The Young Duke]]'' (1831)
*''[[Contarini Fleming]]'' (1832)
*''[[Alroy]]'' (1833)
*''[[The Infernal Marriage]]'' (1834)
*''[[Ixion in Heaven]]'' (1834)
*''[[The Revolutionary Epick]]'' (1834)
*''[[The Rise of Iskander]]'' (1834; {{gutenberg|no=7842|name=The Rise of Iskander}})
*''[[Henrietta Temple]]'' (1837)
*''[[Venetia (novel)|Venetia]]'' (1837; {{gutenberg|no=11869|name=Venetia}})
*''[[The Tragedy of Count Alarcos]]'' (1839); {{gutenberg|no=7487|name=The Tragedy of Count Alarcos}})
*''[[Coningsby (novel)|Coningsby]], or the New Generation'' (1844; {{gutenberg|no=7412|name=Coningsby}})
*''[[Sybil (novel)]], or The Two Nations'' (1845; {{gutenberg|no=3760|name=Sybil or, The Two Nations}})
*''[[Tancred (novel)|Tancred]], or the New Crusade'' (1847)
*''[[Lothair (novel)|Lothair]]'' (1870; {{gutenberg|n |
tenberg author| id=Hudson+Bay+Company | name=Hudson's Bay Company}}
[[Category:Hudson's Bay Company| ]]
[[Category:Department stores|Hudson's Bay Company]]
[[da:Hudson's Bay Company]]
[[de:Hudsonbai-Gesellschaft]]
[[es:Compañía de la Bahía de Hudson]]
[[fr:Compagnie de la Baie d'Hudson]]
[[ja:ハドソン湾会社]]
[[pt:Companhia da Baía de Hudson]]
[[sv:Hudson bay-kompaniet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hoplite</title>
<id>13298</id>
<revision>
<id>41275747</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:52:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.13.43.98</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greek hoplite.png|right|thumb|250px|A hoplite armed with a spear.]]
Warfare in [[Ancient Greece]] centered mainly around heavy infantrymen called '''hoplites'''. The word ''hoplite'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&#8001;&pi;&lambda;&#8055;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf;}}, hoplit&#275;s) derives from hoplon ({{polytonic|&#8005;&pi;&lambda;&omicron;&nu;}}, plural hopla, {{polytonic|&#8005;&pi;&lambda;&alpha;}}) meaning an item of armor or equipment and consequently the entire equipment of the hoplite (but not specifically the circular shield, which is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a hoplon, though it was in fact called an ''aspis''). These soldiers probably first appeared in the late 8th century BC. These were a citizen-[[militia]], and so were armed as [[spear]]men, which are relatively easy to equip and maintain; mainly they represented the [[middle class]], who could afford the cost of the armaments. Almost all the famous men of ancient Greece, even the philosophers and playwrights, fought as hoplites at some point in their lives.
Since the hoplites were a militia force and did not receive permanent wages, campaigns were short and mainly confined to the summer. Armies marched directly to their target. There the defenders could hide behind [[city wall]]s, in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the countryside as [[siege]]craft was undeveloped, or meet them on the field. Battles were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Both forces lined up on a level field, usually in a rough [[phalanx formation]] around eight ranks deep (though this varied). Other troops were less important; [[cavalry]] generally protected the flanks, when present at all, and both light infantry and missile troops were negligible.
Hoplites generally armed themselves immediately before battle, since the equipment was so heavy. Each man provided his own gear so it was fairly non-uniform, and often friendly troops would fail to recognise one another. A hoplite typically had a breastplate, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as [[greaves]] and other armor, plus a bowl-shaped wooden [[shield]] called an [[aspis]] which was around 1&nbsp;[[metre]] across. The primary weapon was a spear, around 2.7&nbsp;metres in length; as this frequently broke upon charging and was unwieldy for close combat, hoplites also carried a smaller 60&nbsp;cm thrusting sword called a [[xiphos]]. The total cost of the hoplon was roughly equivalent to a middle-sized car in our time.
By contrast, other contemporary infantry tended to wear relatively light armor, and were armed with shorter spears, [[javelin]]s, or [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]s. Shields were usually smaller, or else were large enough to cover the full body and rested on the ground. The middle-sized shield of the hoplite was made possible in part by the shape, which allowed it to be supported on the shoulder. In formation the shields were locked together so that each defended the left side of the soldier carrying it and the right side of his neighbor. While the general assumption is that the [[spear]] was gripped overhand, others have argued that it was held underarm. [http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/nikolas.lloyd/weapons/spear.html]
The strength of hoplites was in shock combat. The two armies would literally run into each other in hopes of breaking or encircling the enemy line. Failing that, things degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in back trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy. Battles rarely lasted more than an hour or so. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally drop their equipment and flee from the field, usually without being pursued. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side, but the slain often included the most influential citizens and generals who led from the front. Thus the whole war was usually decided by a single field battle; victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the "custom of the Greeks".
The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the [[city-state]]. During the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian War]]s, hoplites were forced to run at archers, and during the [[Peloponnesian War]] light troops such as [[peltast]]s became increasingly common. As a result, they began wearing less armor, carrying shorter swords, and in general adapting for greater mobility. However, hoplite warfare was in decline; there were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War, and none proved decisive. Instead there was increased reliance on [[navy|navies]], skirmishers, [[mercenary|mercenaries]], city walls, [[siege engine]]s, and non-set piece tactics. These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the casualties of battle. Many of them were combined by the brilliant general [[Epaminondas]], whose tactics formed the basis for the [[Macedonian phalanx]] of [[Philip II of Macedon]], used as a back-up to his cavalry. These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)]], after which Greece became part of the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]n empire.
Hoplite-style warfare was also practiced around the [[Mediterranean]] basin. Of particular note, the [[Etruscans]] usually fought with such militias, a practice they adopted from the [[Greek colonies]]. From this sort of warfare developed the [[Roman legion]] that was to dominate western [[military history]] for hundreds of years.
==External links==
*[[Perseus Digital Library]] database:
**[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Vase&field=Keyword&keyclass=Generic%20People&keyword=hoplite vases]
**[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Sculpture&field=Keyword&keyclass=Generic%20People&keyword=hoplite statues]
**[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Coin&field=Keyword&keyclass=Generic%20People&keyword=hoplite coins]
[http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~sparta/topics/articles/enthusiast/panoply.htm Sparta Pages: My PANOPLY, or How I Saved Western Civilization with my Bare Knees] -- web page describing how an enthusiast can get his own hoplite armor.
[http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~sparta/index.html Sparta Pages] -- web page on Sparta and the Hoplite.
[[Category:Ancient Greek titles]]
[[Category:Ancient warfare]]
[[Category:Ancient military unit types]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek military equipment]]
[[Category:Infantry]]
[[da:Hoplit]]
[[de:Hoplit]]
[[es:Hoplita]]
[[fr:Hoplite]]
[[it:Oplita]]
[[he:הופליט]]
[[nl:Hopliet]]
[[ja:重装歩兵]]
[[no:Hoplitt]]
[[pl:Hoplici]]
[[pt:Hoplita]]
[[sl:Hoplit]]
[[fi:Hopliitti]]
[[sv:Hoplit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Spain</title>
<id>13299</id>
<revision>
<id>41547868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:03:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.49.196.39</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Spain under the Habsburgs (16th-17th centuries) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[history]] of [[Spain]]''' is part of the [[history of Europe]] and of the [[history of present-day nations and states|present-day nations and states]].
It is traditional (at least, since the [[19th century]]) to start the history of modern Spain with the [[Visigoth]] kingdom. Although it is debatable whether there is continuity between it and the Kingdom of Castilla and Aragon after the [[15th century]], a discussion of modern Spain would be incomplete without a mention of the Visigoth Kingdom. Accordingly, both it and [[Al Andalus]] have their own sections in this article.
{{History of Spain|
image=|
caption=}}
==Early history==
{{main|Prehistoric Spain}}
The earliest history of the [[Iberian peninsula]] is discussed as part of [[prehistoric Europe]]. Before the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was never politically unified, see [[Preroman Iberia]] for a discussion of the indigenous [[Celtiberian]] groups and the trading ports established by the Greek, [[Tyre|Tyrian]] ([[Phoenicia]]n), and later [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] along the Mediterranean coast.
[[Roman Iberia]] is discussed under [[Hispania]] and in entries keyed to the Roman provinces into which it was divided: [[Hispania Ulterior]] and [[Hispania Citerior]] during the late [[Roman Republic]]; and, during the [[Roman Empire]], [[Hispania Taraconensis]] in the northeast, [[Hispania Baetica]] in the south (roughly corresponding to [[Andalucia]]), and [[Lusitania]] in the southwest (corresponding to modern [[Portugal]]).
==Visigothic Hispania (5th-8th centuries) ==
{{main articles|[[Visigoth]] and [[Visigothic Hispania]]}}
After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], [[Germanic tribes]] invaded the former empire, several turned sedentary and created successor-kingdoms to the Romans in various parts of [[Europe]]. [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] was taken over by the [[Visigoths]] after [[410]].
In the Iberian peninsula, as elsewhere, the Empire fell not with a bang but with a whimper. Rather than there being any convenient date for the "fall of the Roman Empire" there was a progressive |
ppearance in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]].
*[[1961]] - [[Judy Garland]] appears in her celebrated concert at [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York]].
*[[1967]] - A group of young radicals are expelled from the [[Nicaraguan Socialist Party]] (PSN). This group goes on to found the [[Communist Party of Nicaragua|Socialist Workers Party]] (POS).
*[[1968]] - The [[United Kingdom]] produces its first decimalised coins, a 5p and a 10p coin.
*1968 - [[Vietnam War]]: Student protesters at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]] take over administration buildings and shut down the university.
*[[1974]] - A [[Pan American World Airways]] [[Boeing]] 707 crashes in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], killing 107.
*[[1979]] - Fighting in London between the [[Anti-Nazi League]] and the [[Metropolitan Police]]'s [[Special Patrol Group]] results in the death of protestor [[Blair Peach]].
*[[1981]] - [[Stefano Bontade]], [[Mafia]] boss in [[Sicily]], is murdered in [[Palermo]], the opening shot in a Mob War orchestrated by [[Salvatore Riina]].
*[[1985]] - [[New Coke]], a [[list of major flops|marketing disaster]] is introduced.
*[[1990]] - [[Namibia]] becomes the 160th member of the [[United Nations]] and the 50th member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
*[[1993]] - [[Eritrea]]ns vote overwhelmingly for independence from [[Ethiopia]] in a [[United Nations]]-monitored referendum.
*[[1994]] - [[physics|Physicists]] discover the [[top quark]] [[subatomic particle]].
*[[1995]] - [[Association of Autonomous Astronauts]] founded.
*[[1997]] - [[Omaria massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 42 villagers killed.
*[[2001]] - [[Intel]] introduces the [[Pentium 4]] Processor.
*[[2003]] - [[Beijing]] closes all schools for two weeks due to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] virus.
==Births==
*[[1185]] - King [[Afonso II of Portugal]] (d. [[1223]])
*[[1484]] - [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]], Italian philosopher (d. [[1558]])
*[[1500]] - [[Alexander Ales]], Scottish theologian (d. [[1565]])
*[[1516]] - [[Georg Fabricius]], German poet, historian, and archaeologist (d. [[1571]])
*[[1564]] - [[William Shakespeare]], English poet and playwright [uncertain] (d. [[1616]])
*[[1598]] - [[Maarten Tromp]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1653]])
*[[1628]] - [[Johann van Waveren Hudde]], Dutch mathematician (d. [[1704]])
*[[1676]] - King [[Frederick I of Sweden]] (d. [[1751]])
*[[1720]] - [[Vilna Gaon]], Lithuanian rabbi (d. [[1797]])
*[[1725]] - [[Saint Gerard Majella]], [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] [[saint]]
*[[1775]] - [[William Turner]], English ornithologist (d. [[1851]])
*[[1791]] - [[James Buchanan]], 15th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1868]])
*[[1792]] - [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]], Irish astronomer and physicist (d. [[1882]])
*[[1805]] - [[Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz]], German philosopher (d. [[1879]])
*[[1813]] - [[Stephen A. Douglas]], U.S. Senator from Illinois and Presidential candidate (d. [[1861]])
*[[1823]] - [[Abd-ul-Mejid]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1861]])
*[[1858]] - [[Max Planck]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1947]])
*[[1861]] - [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby]], British general (d. [[1936]])
*[[1867]] - [[Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger]], Danish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1928]])
*[[1876]] - [[Arthur Moeller van den Bruck]], German historian (d. [[1925]])
*[[1880]] - [[Michel Fokine]], Russian choreographer and dancer (d. [[1942]])
*[[1882]] - [[Albert Coates]], British composer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1889]] - [[Karel Doorman]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1942]])
*[[1893]] - [[Frank Borzage]], American film director (d. [[1952]])
*1893 - [[Allen Dulles]], American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. [[1969]])
*[[1895]] - [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand writer (d. [[1982]])
*[[1897]] - [[Lucius Clay]], American general (d. [[1978]])
*1897 - [[Lester B. Pearson]], fourteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1972]])
*[[1899]] - Dame [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand author (d. [[1982]])
*1899 - [[Bertil Ohlin]], Swedish economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[Joseph Green]], Polish-born actor and director (d. [[1996]])
*[[1901]] - [[Edmund Brisco Ford|E.B. Ford]], British ecological geneticist (d. [[1988]])
*[[1902]] - [[Halldór Laxness]], Icelandic writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1998]])
*[[1904]] - [[Duncan Renaldo]], Spanish-American actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1907]] - [[Fritz Wotruba]], Austrian sculptor
*[[1910]] - [[Simone Simon]], French actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1918]] - [[Maurice Druon]], French author
*[[1921]] - [[Warren Spahn]], baseball player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1923]] - [[Dolph Briscoe]], Governor of Texas
*1923 - [[Avram Davidson]], American writer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1928]] - [[Shirley Temple]], American actress and politician
*[[1932]] - [[Jim Fixx]], American athlete and writer (d. [[1984]])
*1932 - [[Halston]], American fashion designer (d. [[1990]])
*1932 - [[Estelle Harris]], American actress
*[[1935]] - [[Bunky Green]], American musician
*1935 - [[Ray Peterson]], American singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1936]] - [[Roy Orbison]], American singer and musician (d. [[1988]])
*[[1939]] - [[Lee Majors]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Jacqueline Boyer]], French singer
*1941 - [[Paavo Lipponen]], [[Prime Minister of Finland]]
*[[1942]] - [[Sandra Dee]], American actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1943]] - [[Tony Esposito]], Canadian hockey player
*1943 - [[Frans Koppelaar]], Dutch painter
*1943 - [[Hervé Villechaize]], French actor (d. [[1993]])
*[[1947]] - [[Bernadette Devlin]], Irish politician
*[[1948]] - [[Pascal Quignard]], French author
*[[1949]] - [[Joyce DeWitt]], American actress
*[[1954]] - [[Michael Moore]], American filmmaker
*[[1955]] - [[Judy Davis]], Australian actress
*1955 - [[Tony Miles]], English chess player (d. [[2001]])
*[[1958]] - [[Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson]], music composer, art director and ''allsherjargoði'' (chief [[goði]]) of the [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]] (Icelandic Ásatrú Association)
*1958 - [[Tove Jensen]], Swedish porn actress
*1958 - [[Ryan Walter]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1960]] - [[Valerie Bertinelli]], American actress
*1960 - [[Steve Clark]], English guitarist ([[Def Leppard]]) (d. [[1991]])
*[[1961]] - [[George Lopez]], American actor and comedian
*[[1967]] - [[Melina Kanakaredes]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[Timothy McVeigh]], American terrorist (d. [[2001]])
*[[1972]] - [[Patricia Manterola]], Mexican singer
*[[1975]] - [[Jón Þór Birgisson]], Guitar player and lead singer of the Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós
*[[1977]] - [[John Cena]], American professional wrestler and rapper
*[[1978]] - [http://www.decalhaven.com John Cummings], Great American entripenuer
*[[1979]] - [[Jaime King]], American actress
*[[1983]] - [[Daniela Hantuchová]], Slovakian tennis player
*[[1986]] - [[Jessica Stam]], Canadian supermodel
*[[1989]] - [[Nicole Vaidišová]], Czech tennis player
==Deaths==
*[[303]] - [[Saint George]], Roman soldier and Christian martyr
*[[725]] - [[Wihtred]], [[King of Kent]]
*[[871]] - [[Ethelred of Wessex]]
*[[1014]] - [[Brian Boru]], [[High King of Ireland]] (killed in battle)
*[[1016]] - [[Ethelred II of England]]
*[[1124]] - King [[Alexander I of Scotland]] (b. [[1078]])
*[[1151]] - Queen [[Adeliza]] of England (b. [[1103]])
*[[1217]] - King [[Inge II of Norway]] (b. [[1185]])
*[[1407]] - [[Olivier de Clisson]], French soldier (b. [[1326]])
*[[1616]] - [[Miguel Cervantes]], Spanish author (b. [[1547]])
*1616 - [[William Shakespeare]], English writer and actor (b. [[1564]])
*[[1625]] - [[Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange]] (b. [[1567]])
*[[1702]] - [[Margaret Fell]], English Quaker leader (b. [[1614]])
*[[1740]] - [[Thomas Tickell]], English writer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1781]] - [[James Abercrombie (general)|James Abercrombie]], British general (b. [[1706]])
*[[1792]] - [[Karl Friedrich Bahrdt]], German theologian and adventurer (b. [[1741]])
*[[1794]] - [[Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes]], French statesman (executed) (b. [[1721]])
*[[1850]] - [[William Wordsworth]], English poet (b. [[1770]])
*[[1889]] - [[Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly]], French writer (b. [[1808]])
*[[1895]] - [[Carl Ludwig]], German physician (b. [[1815]])
*[[1936]] - [[Teresa de la Parra]], Venezuelan writer (b. [[1889]])
*[[1951]] - [[Charles G. Dawes]], [[Vice President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1865]])
*[[1952]] - [[Julius Freed]], American inventor and banker (b. [[1887]])
*[[1975]] - [[William Hartnell]], English actor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1979]] - [[Blair Peach]], New Zealand-born anti-fascist (b. [[1946]])
*[[1983]] - [[Buster Crabbe]], American swimmer and actor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1984]] - [[Red Garland]], American jazz pianist (b. [[1923]])
*[[1985]] - [[Sam Ervin]], American politician (b. [[1896]])
*[[1986]] - [[Harold Arlen]], American composer (b. [[1905]])
*1986 - [[Jim Laker]], English cricketer (b. [[1922]])
*1986 - [[Otto Preminger]], Austrian-born film director (b. [[1906]])
*[[1990]] - [[Paulette Goddard]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*[[1991]] - [[Johnny Thunders]], American musician (b. [[1952]])
*[[1992]] - [[Satyajit Ray]], Indian filmmaker (b. [[1921]])
*[[1993]] - [[César Chávez]], American labor activist (b. [[1927]])
*[[1995]] - [[Howard Cosell]], American sports journalist (b. [[1918]])
*1995 - [[John C. Stennis]], U.S. Senator from Mississippi (b. [[1904]])
*[[1996]] - [[P. L. Travers]], Australian author (b. [[1899]])
*[[1997]] - [[Denis Compton]], English cricketer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1998]] - [[James Earl Ray]], American assassin (b. [[1928]])
*[[2002]] - [[Linda Lovelace]], American actress (b. [[1949]])
*[[2003]] - [[James H. Critchfield]], American Central Intelligence agent (b. [[1917]])
*2003 - [[Fernand Fonssagrives]], French photographer (b. [[1910]])
*[[2005]] - Sir [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], Premier of |
ature.html A Salon article on Netscape and Raymond; also mentions that he suffers from cerebral palsy]
*[http://geekz.co.uk/ Everybody loves Eric Raymond] Online comic, critical of ESR and his blog entries
*[http://esr.1accesshost.com/ The Emperor Has No Clothes] &mdash; Criticism of ESR
==References==
# {{note|dancingwithgods}} {{cite web
| first = Eric S.
| last = Raymond
| title = Dancing With The Gods
| work = Eric's Home Page
| publisher = Individual
| year = 1995-07-25
| url = http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/dancing.html
| accessdate = September 14
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* [[Revolution OS]], Linux Documentary with Eric S. Raymond on VHS/DVD
[[Category:1957 births|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:Living people|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:American bloggers|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:American hackers|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:Free software|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[ca:Eric S. Raymond]]
[[de:Eric Steven Raymond]]
[[es:Eric S. Raymond]]
[[fi:Eric S. Raymond]]
[[fr:Eric Raymond]]
[[he:אריק ס. ריימונד]]
[[it:Eric Steven Raymond]]
[[ja:エリック・レイモンド]]
[[ko:에릭 레이먼드]]
[[nl:Eric Raymond]]
[[nn:Eric Steven Raymond]]
[[pl:Eric Raymond]]
[[pt:Eric S. Raymond]]
[[sk:Eric Raymond]]
[[zh:埃里克·斯蒂芬·雷蒙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Telecommunications Standards Institute</title>
<id>9470</id>
<revision>
<id>40363086</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Telecommunications Standards Institute''' ('''ETSI''') is an independent, non-profit, [[standardization]] organization of the [[telecommunication]]s industry (equipment makers and network operators) in [[Europe]], with worldwide projection. ETSI has been successful in standardizing the [[GSM]] cell phone system and the [[Terrestrial Trunked Radio|TETRA]] professional mobile radio system.
Significant ETSI standardisation bodies are [[3GPP]] (for [[UMTS]] networks) or [[TISPAN]] (for fixed networks and [[Internet]] convergence).
ETSI was created by [[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations|CEPT]] in [[1988]] and is officially recognized by the [[European Commission]] and the [[EFTA]] secretariat. Based in [[Sophia Antipolis]] ([[France]]), ETSI is officially responsible for standardization of [[Information and Communication Technologies]] (ICT) within Europe. These technologies include telecommunications, broadcasting and related areas such as intelligent transportation and medical electronics. ETSI has 688 members from 55 countries inside and outside Europe, including manufacturers, network operators, administrations, service providers, research bodies and users - in fact, all the key players in the ICT arena.
In 2005, ETSI budget exceeded 20 million Euros, with contributions coming from members, commercial activities like sale of documents, plugtests and fora hosting, contract work and partner funding. Of this about 40% goes towards operating expenses and the remaining 60% is utilized towards work programs including competency centers and special projects.
==See also==
* [[KASUMI]]
* [[HIPERMAN]]
* [[HIPERLAN]]
==External links==
*[http://www.etsi.org/ Official web site]
{{Org-stub}}
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:1988 establishments]]
[[de:Europäisches Institut für Telekommunikationsnormen]]
[[es:European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]
[[fr:European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]
[[it:European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]
[[nl:Europees Telecommunicatie en Standaardisatie Instituut]]
[[no:ETSI]]
[[pl:European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]
[[fi:ETSI]]
[[sv:ETSI]]
[[zh:欧洲电信标准协会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Externalization</title>
<id>9471</id>
<revision>
<id>28747426</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-19T12:32:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.226.143.162</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about social philosophy. For externalization (of cost), in the context of economics, see [[externality]].
'''Externalization''' means to put something outside of its original borders, especially to put a human function outside of the human body. The opposite of externalization is [[internalization]].
In a concrete sense, by taking notes, we can externalize the function of [[memory]] which normally belongs in the [[brain]].
In a more abstract sense, by inventing [[excuse]]s, we can externalize the [[guilt]] associated with our actions.
In [[Freud]]ian psychology, '''externalization''' is an [[unconscious mind|unconscious]] [[defence mechanism|defense mechanism]], where an individual "[[psychological projection|projects]]" his own internal characteristics onto the outside world, particularly onto other people. For example, a patient who is overly argumentative might instead perceive others as argumentative and himself as blameless.
Like other defense mechanisms, externalization is a protection against [[anxiety]] and is, therefore, part of a normal, healthily-functioning mind. However, if taken to excess it can lead to the development of a [[neurosis]].
[[Category:Sociology]][[Category:Social philosophy]]
==Externalized Cognition==
The concept of "externalized cognition" stands for the phenomenological manifestation of "communicative signs, behavior or material artifacts" (Kuchka 2001:60), and it includes the entire spectrum of human arts and actions and even emotions at a more latent and subconscious level or explicitly. It is at the core of the modern anthropological pursuit, an emergent property of human activity in this planet, past and present. We are within it and depend on it to communicate and organize. It is composed of incredibly complex textual, visual, auditory, sensual, tactile, olfactory, mental and spiritual informational substances and it is tremendously variable in form and substance; involving the existence of direct continuities and breaks between traditions overtime and also possible broader relations and similarities, cross-culturally and throughout history and back into prehistory and what are strictly archaeological and paleoanthropological types of information sets. A cognition can be externalized and captured by archaeologists with such unusual techniques as 'palynology': The differences in frequencies of domestic versus wild pollens overtime can be extracted using cores in ancient silt deposits under the bottoms of lakes, reflecting relatively accurately the degree of human occupation in the particular area in question.
The process of “externalization of cognition” brings to the world and to the scrutiny of human reason “aspects of thinking” that facilitate “multidimensional manipulation[s]” in the organizational sphere of human phenomena, including most strikingly “special speech genres” (Gumperz and Levinson 1991:614) e.g., politics, propaganda, journalism, theatrical performances, lectures, etc. The process for the recognition of different externalizations is gradual and is absolutely interactive, involving inevitably some kind of mental action on the part of the being phenomenally involved with the externalization, a relation that, for humans, demands the direct choice of certain interpretive or hermeneutic devices to the exclusion of others in a very complex chain of cybernetic connections. Thus it is conceivable that “there is a very special kind domain of discursive practice and externalized cognition that lies in some sense between the inner life of the mind and the outer world of objects and behavior, partaking of both”(Gumperz and Levinson 1991:614). It is through the systematic analysis and comparison of systems of externalized cognition that anthropologists “celebrate cultural difference”, sometimes even admitedly exaggerating it to provide some kind of “antidote to tendencies in cognitive science, where culture and often language are treated as invisible, not as mediators between the mind and the world” (Gumperz and Levinson 1991:622).
The concept of externalized cognition could be also understood as directly connected and somehow controlled by 'intelligence' which can be defined as “the faculty of relating one point of space to another, one material object to another, [which] applies to all things, but remains outside them” (Bergson 1998[1911]:175). This 'intelligence', however, is also analogous to the cybernetic idea of 'mind' as “an aggregate of interacting parts or components”, and these parts and interactions are “triggered by difference [...], a nonsubstantial phenomenon not located in space or time” (Bateson 2002[1978]:85). The constant interactive flow of between these differences have effects in mental processes that “are to be regarded as transforms (i.e., coded versions) of events which preceded them” (Bateson 2002[1978]:86).
It must logically follow that any kind of externalized cognition can be contextualized and interpreted, however indefinetly and variably, as being systemically connected to larger sets of environmental relationships with other beings and objects. The laptop I am using to write this text could not have been pieced together without the informational collaboration of several sets of knowledge in differential relationships, organized and directed by humans for its current purpose. This computer also represents technological and intellectual traditions stretching and spreading back in time; humans have become able to select, gather and filter the right set of information and knowledge in such a way that the externalization envisioned and produced is a laptop computer – a conductor and retainer of |
nd gave the bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes. Private banks which had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside [[London]] and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued. A few English banks continued to issue their own notes until the last of them was taken over in the [[1930s]]. The Scottish and Northern Irish private banks still have that right. Britain remained on the [[gold standard]] until [[1931]] when the gold and foreign exchange reserves were transferred to the [[HM Treasury|Treasury]]. But their management was still handled by the Bank. In [[1870]] the bank was given responsibility for interest rate policy.
During the governorship of [[Montagu Norman]], which lasted from [[1920]] to [[1944]], the Bank made deliberate efforts to move away from [[commercial bank]]ing and become a central bank. In [[1946]], shortly after the end of Norman's tenure, the bank was nationalised.
In 1997 the bank's Monetary Policy Committee was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's stated [[inflation]] target of 2.5%. This decision was taken by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, [[Gordon Brown]] in consultation with Tony Blair prior to the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 general election]] though the announcement was made the day after the election. Should inflation overshoot or undershoot the target by more than 1%, the Governor will have to write a letter to the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation. This was considered an astute move for several reasons:
* It removed the politically controversial responsibility from the government.
* It was very popular with the [[City of London]], showing a sign of the new government's desire for a strong economy.
** Following the announcement the [[FTSE 100 Index]] leapt rapidly.
** The [[Pound Sterling|pound]] reached its highest level against the [[Deutsche mark]] since Sterling's exit from the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism|ERM]].
The target has now changed to 2% since the replacement of [[Retail price index|RPI]] (Retail Price Index) with [[Consumer price index|CPI]] (Consumer Price Index) as the treasury's inflation index. RPI / CPI figures are produced in Britain by the [[Office for National Statistics]], whose independence from direct political control and interference was announced in 2005, also by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, [[Gordon Brown]]. He modelled this move on his decision affecting the Bank of England.
A Conservative MP [[Nicholas Budgen]] had proposed this as a [[Private Member's Bill]] in 1996, but the bill failed as it had neither the support of the government nor the opposition.
In 2006 a sum in excess of £25 million in banknotes belonging to the bank was stolen from a depot in [[Tonbridge]], see [[Securitas depot robbery]].
==Banknote issues==
{{main|British banknotes}}
The Bank of England has issued banknotes since 1694. Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from [[1725]] onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone. Notes were fully printed from [[1855]], no doubt to the relief of the bank's workers. Until [[1928]] all notes were "White Notes", printed in black and with a blank reverse. During the 20th century White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000, but in the 18th and 19th centuries there were White Notes for £1 and £2. In the twentieth century, the Bank issued notes for ten [[shilling]]s and one pound for the first time on [[22 November]] [[1928]] when the Bank took over responsibility for these denominations from the Treasury which had issued notes of these denominations three days after the declaration of [[World War I|war]] in [[1914]] in order to remove gold [[coin]]s from circulation.
During the [[World War II|Second World War]] the German [[Operation Bernhard]] attempted to counterfeit various denominations between £5 and £50 producing 500,000 notes each month in [[1943]]. The original plan was to parachute the money on Britain in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe -- although most fell into [[Allies|Allied]] hands at the end of the war, forgeries were frequently appearing for years afterward, so all denominations of banknote above £5 were subsequently removed from circulation.
All old Bank of England notes remain exchangeable for current notes forever. Forgeries however will be retained and destroyed by the Bank (including Bernhard notes), and it is not therefore advisable to send notes to the Bank in order to confirm whether or not they are forgeries. Notes can either be taken in person to the Bank in London during normal business hours, or sent by post at the sender's risk to:
:Exchanges,
:Custodial Services,
:Threadneedle Street,
:London EC2R 8AH
===10/-===
The Bank of England's first ever ten shilling note was issued on [[22 November]] [[1928]]. This note featured a vignette of [[Britannia]], a feature of the Bank's notes since 1694. The predominant colour was red-brown. Unlike previous notes it, and the contemporaneous £1 note, were not dated but are instead identified by the signature of the Chief Cashier of the time. In 1940 a [[metal]] [[security thread]] was introduced for the first time, and the colour of the note was changed to mauve for the duration of the war. The original design of the note was replaced by the "Series C" design in 1960, when [[Queen (monarch)|Queen]] Elizabeth agreed to allow the use of her portrait on the notes. The ten shilling note was withdrawn following the introduction in 1969 of the [[British coin Fifty Pence|fifty pence]] coin.
===£1===
The Bank of England's first one pound note since 1845 was issued on [[22 November]] [[1928]]. This note featured a vignette of [[Britannia]], a feature of the Bank's notes since 1694. The predominant colour was green. Unlike previous notes it, and the contemporaneous ten shilling note, were not dated but are instead identified by the signature of the Chief Cashier of the time. In 1940 a metal security thread was introduced for the first time, and the colour of the note was changed to pink for the duration of the war. The original design of the note was replaced by the "Series C" design in 1960, when Queen Elizabeth agreed to allow the use of her portrait on the notes.
In 1977 the "Series D" design (''known as the "Pictorial Series"'') featuring Sir [[Isaac Newton]] on the reverse was issued, but following the introduction in 1983 of the [[British coin One Pound|One Pound]] coin, the note was withdrawn from circulation in Summer 1988.
===£5===
The first Bank of England £5 note was issued in 1793 in response to the need for smaller denomination banknotes to replace gold coin during the French Revolutionary Wars (previously the smallest note issued had been £10). The 1793 design, latterly known as the "White Fiver" (black printing on white paper), remained in circulation essentially unchanged until 1957 when the multicoloured (although predominantly dark blue) "Series B" note, depicting the helmeted [[Britannia]] was introduced. This note was replaced in turn in 1963 by the "Series C" £5 note which for the first time introduced the portrait of the monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, to the £5 note (the Queen's portrait having first appeared on the Series C ten shilling and one pound notes issued in 1960). In 1971 the "Series D" pictorial £5 note was issued, showing a slightly older portrait of the Queen and a battle scene featuring the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] on the reverse. On [[7 June]] [[1990]] the "Series E" £5 note, by now the smallest denomination issued by the Bank, was issued. The Series E note (''known as the "Historical Series"'') changed the colour of the denomination to a turquoise blue, and incorporated design elements to make photocopying and computer reproduction of the notes more difficult. Initially the reverse of the Series E £5 note featured the railway engineer [[George Stephenson]], but on [[21 May]] [[2002]] a new Series E note was produced featuring the prison reformer [[Elizabeth Fry]]. The initial printing of several million Stephenson notes was destroyed when it was noticed that the wrong year for his death had been printed. The original issue of the Fry banknote was withdrawn after it was found the ink on the serial number could be rubbed off the surface of the note. The Stephenson £5 note was withdrawn as legal tender from [[21 October]] [[2003]], at which time it formed around 54 million of the 211 million £5 notes in circulation.
===£10===
[[Image:Bank_Of_England10.gif|right|250px|thumb|A &pound;10 Bank of England note.]]
The first ten pound note was issued in 1759, when the Seven Years War caused severe gold shortages. Following the withdrawal of the denomination after the Second World War, it was not reintroduced until the Series C design of the mid 1960s produced the brown ten pound note. The Series D pictorial note appeared in the early 1970s, featuring nurse [[Florence Nightingale]] (1820-1910) on the reverse, plus a scene showing her work at the army hospital in [[Scutari]] during the [[Crimean War]]. This note was subsequently replaced in the early 1990s by the Series E note, where the predominant colour was changed from brown to orange. The reverse of the first Series E £10 featured [[Charles Dickens]] and a scene from the ''[[Pickwick Papers]]'' (this note was withdrawn from circulation in July 2003), while a second Series E note was issued in 2000 featuring [[Charles Darwin]], the ''[[HMS Beagle]]'', a hummingbird, and flowers under a magnifying glass, illustrating the ''[[Origin of Species]]''.
|
eo is the worried father of the rebellious Siona. During their conversation about her, we discover that Siona is in some way vital to Leto's plans.
We have, however, not seen the end of Duncan Idaho. The Tleilaxu were aware of Duncan's plans and send along a new Idaho before the previous version has even died. The latest Duncan is met by two members of Leto's personal guard (called [[Fish Speakers]]). They, being used to the arrival of Duncan, tell him as much as he needs to know and as little as Leto wants him to know, to best prepare him for his meeting with the God Emperor. Duncan is unsettled, not only be the fact he learns he has been brought back into a world three thousand years after his own, but also by the Fish Speakers. The fact they are female military offends Duncan's sensibilities, but in addition he can see that they have been heavily conditioned to obey without question, which is opposed to the original Atreides ideal.
The rebels on [[Arrakis]] give the encrypted diaries of Leto to the Ixian ambassador in a secret meeting. The Ixian ambassador mocks Siona for her disguise, asking why she bothers when it is well known she is the leader of the rebels. He goes on to mock her 'rebellion' by asking her when she intends to join the God Emperor, since one generation after another the young Atreides have 'played' at being rebels before being called into the loyal service of Leto. But Siona turns the tables on him by threatening blackmail. Also at the end of the meeting Siona unmasks a spy, sending him back to Leto with a message. Ironically, however, the spy is actually her father's, and it is Siona's closest companion, [[Nayla]], who is Leto's true spy.
Moneo and Leto meet again and we learn that the new Duncan is untainted by the [[Bene Tleilax]]. In the past, the Bene Tleilax had attempted genetic tampering; to which Leto had responded with violent sanctions. Moneo and Leto discuss Leto's human breeding programme, which he had taken from the [[Bene Gesserit]], much to their disquiet. We also learn that Duncan Idaho has played an important role in this programme and that, in Leto's own words, he rather strangely sees himself as a predator on humanity, a concept that Moneo fails to understand, much to Leto's disappointment. Moneo also raises his fears about his daughter, which Leto sympathises with, but says that she must be tested and that Moneo should trust in his daughter's capabilities.
Later, Leto meets Nayla Nycalliste, his spy in Siona's camp. This is a very disquieting meeting, because we discover that Nayla is a complete fanatic, and utterly devoted to Leto, taking his title of God Emperor utterly literally. He orders her, for unknown reasons, to obey every command of Siona. During their conversation we learn from Nayla that Siona is ready for testing, a fact Leto was unsure of, because she isn't always visible to his prophetic dreams. We do learn, in Leto's favour, that he is not proud of his accomplishment with Nayla, and regrets the necessity of such religious conditioning.
Leto initially meets Duncan in a darkened room so Duncan can gradually become adjusted to him. Leto begins the conversation using Paul Atreides' voice, in order to calm Duncan down. He first tells Duncan that it was a face dancer pretending to be Paul who triggered Duncan's memories, rather than a ghola version. Leto then goes on to confirm the things that the Tleilaxu had told Duncan were true &mdash; that he was turning into a worm, that it was three thousand years later, that Leto has brought Duncan back many times, etc. Once he calms Duncan's near hysteria, he changes over to his real voice, and switches on the light so Duncan can see him as he really is. He explains why he has done what he has done; he then reveals that he needs Duncan to command his army. Duncan then gets sidetracked by his chauvinism into asking why Leto has an all female army; Leto gives the short answer that they minimize the level of violence. After having his doubts about the religious mantle Leto has taken on mollified, Duncan swears into Leto's service with the caveat that if he is worse than [[Baron Vladimir Harkonnen]] then he will turn against him. It is disquieting to discover that Leto is amused that the Baron is Duncan's measure of true evil.
The next day Moneo and Duncan talk. Duncan returns to the subject of his doubts &mdash; the female army and the religion Leto has created. They first discuss Leto's ideas about the value of a female army, that basically unless really well disciplined the male army is essentially rapist and a threat to its own population. Duncan is forced to reluctantly accept these arguments when he examines his own personal experience. During the conversation Duncan learns that Moneo is an Atreides and also a descendant of previous Duncan Idaho gholas, that Leto had taken over the Bene Gesserit breeding programme. Duncan also questions Moneo about the 'god business' and is shocked and pleased that Moneo makes no attempt to defend it and says in point of fact that Leto himself calls it a 'Holy Obscenity.'
We are then introduced to [[Anteac]] and Luyseyal, [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mothers]], who have come to Arrakis to represent the [[Bene Gesserit]]; they are disquieted by their poor accommodation, and thus, lack of favour in the eye of the God Emperor. They learn that the Ixian embassy has been overtaken by face dancers and that an attack is planned on the God Emperor that day and try to warn Leto.
However, the Bene Gesserit do not reach the God Emperor in time and so while the God Emperor is traveling between cities, the Emperor's convoy is attacked by Face Dancers who try to confuse the Fish Speaker guards by imitating Duncan Idaho. Duncan, however, foils their plan by stripping himself of his clothes and the unprepared Face Dancers are unable to copy him, allowing the Fish Speakers to easily slaughter them. The God Emperor tells his guards to hide all evidence of the battle, so the Tleilaxu will think that their attack didn't even inflict a single casualty.
The Ixians send [[Hwi Noree]] as their new ambassador to Leto, and he is immediately attracted to her. She is a highly empathic and intelligent woman, who has greatly admired Leto from afar and almost immediately understands him. She is exactly the kind of woman that Leto would have wanted as a mate if he were still truly human. He is aware that she quite obviously is some kind of Ixian trap, since obviously someone must have deliberately created and trained her to be such a perfect fit for him, but he cannot resist the pleasure of her company even so. As such, she is a kind of delicious agony for him because his sexual organs have long since disappeared. Furthermore, he possessed no foreknowledge of her, which meant that somehow the Ixians had managed to hide her existence from his prophetic dreams.
The Bene Gesserit are in the God Emperor's good graces for attempting to warn him of the attack on his convoy and retain his good`will even though they bring concentrated spice essence with them in the hope of triggering his transition to a worm. In fact, this attempt on his life amuses him because it is so unusual; and so he treats this attack as a gift, offering himself as an oracle as a reward. Of the two Bene Gesserit, Leto is insulted at the naivety of Luylesal but is impressed by the abilities of the other, Anteac, and, semi-jokingly, offers her a job working for him.
Leto decides that Siona has been left independent for long enough and so sends his Fish Speakers to induct her into his service. She does not enter his service willingly and is in fact guarded at all times. Leto intends to breed Siona with Duncan Idaho, and so he arranges for them to go on a trip together expecting that things will happen naturally sooner or later. Siona, angered by this, decides to take Duncan to Goygoa village. This is a cruel decision by Siona, because Duncan is stared at as soon as he arrives in the village and is unpleasantly surprised to be confronted by a young boy, who he learns was fathered by the previous Duncan Idaho. Unable to resist the temptation, he identifies the mother of the child, and immediately see her resemblance to [[Jessica Atreides]]. Roomed together by the Fish Speakers, Siona and Duncan swap insults in their irritation at Leto's breeding plans for them both; but decline any further intimacy.
When he returns Duncan is introduced to the [[Siaynoq]], the major religious ceremony of the Fish Speakers during which they celebrate their unique relationship with the God Emperor. Duncan witnesses it firsthand and is stunned by the power of it. During the ceremony Duncan reswears his allegiance to the Atreides, though not directly to Leto. The whole experience does little to ease Duncan's doubts.
Hwi Noree and Leto meet for the second time. Hwi Noree is hurriedly called to audience with Leto. When she arrives, she learns that her embassy had been overrun by face dancers and the only reason she had survived was because they needed the time to perfect their mimicking of her in order to fool the God Emperor. Shocked by this, she wonders why the God Emperor hadn't wiped out the Face Dancers. He answers that they have their uses and that the only political group Leto had ever actually considered destroying were the Bene Gesserit; because they are so near to what they should be, yet so far. Finally he asks her to his bride, though he 'reassures' her that he is incapable of being her physical lover; he tells her that she can have children with a discreet lover of his choosing if she so wishes.
Duncan and Leto talk again; Duncan is still filled with doubts and confusion, and he doesn't understand the shape of Leto's empire. Leto laughs at this, and says that realising one doesn't know something is the first step to understanding. Leto then explains more about his Empire; he tells Duncan that he has no prisons because bre |
Def Jam]] record producer [[Rick Rubin]] entered the picture and the Beastie Boys changed from a [[punk rock]] outfit to a three-man [[hip hop music|hip hop]] crew. The band released the 12" single ''[[Rock Hard]]'' in [[1984]], the second record released by [[Def Jam]] that credited Rubin as producer. Kate Schellenbach soon developed creative differences concerning the band's new musical direction. After Rubin purchased matching track suits for each of the boys but failed to buy one for Schellenbach, she left the band. She would go on to join [[Luscious Jackson]] in 1991.
In 1985, the band supported [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] on her North American ''Virgin'' tour. Later in the year, the group was on the ''Raising Hell'' tour with [[Run DMC]], [[Whodini]], [[LL Cool J]] and the [[Timex Social Club]]. With their exposure on this tour, the track ''"Hold It Now, Hit It"'' made Billboard's national R&B and Dance charts. The track ''"She's on It"'' from the ''[[Krush Groove]]'' soundtrack continued in a rap/metal vein while a double A-side 12" ''"[[Paul Revere]]/The New Style"'' was released at the end of the year and became another R&B/dance hit.
The band recorded ''[[Licensed to Ill]]'' in [[1986]] and released the album at the end of the year. It was a smash success, becoming the best selling rap album of the 1980s and the first rap album to go #1 on the Billboard album chart, where it stayed for five weeks. It also reached #2 on the Urban album charts. It was [[Columbia Records]]' fastest selling debut record to date and sold over five million copies. The first single from the album, ''"[[(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (to Party)]]"'', reached #7 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]].
The band took the ''Licensed to Ill'' tour around the world the following year. This tour was controversial, featuring female members of the crowd dancing in cages and a giant motorized inflatable [[penis]] similar to one used by [[The Rolling Stones]] in the 1970s. The tour was troubled by lawsuits and arrests, with the band accused of provoking the crowd. In the [[UK]], alleged insults supposedly aimed at [[leukemia]] victims almost resulted in the band being kicked out of the country, although the Beastie Boys maintain that the incident was an exaggeration of actual events resulting when the band politely declined to sign an autograph.
British comedian [[Tony Hawks]] recorded the song "Stutter Rap" under the pseudonym of "[[Morris Minor and the Majors]]" as a send up of the Beastie Boys' then image. It became a major hit in the UK reaching #4 and #1 in [[Australia]].
==''[[Paul's Boutique]]'' / ''[[Check Your Head]]'' - 1988-1992==
The group matured with their second album, ''[[Paul's Boutique]]''. Produced mainly by the [[Dust Brothers]] and recorded in 1988, this extremely [[sampling (music)|sample]]-heavy oeuvre is still considered one of the best hip hop albums ever and the Beastie Boys' best work [http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-s-boutique].
The album was released in 1989 by [[Capitol Records]] and failed to match the sales of ''Licensed to Ill,'' reaching #14 on the Billboard 200 and #10 on the Billboard R&B charts. The lead single ''"Hey Ladies"'' reached #36 on the Billboard 100 and #10 on the R&B charts.''[[Rolling Stone]]'' would describe the album as "the ''[[Pet Sounds]]'' / ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'' of hip hop." ''Paul's Boutique'' would eventually sell a million albums.
The follow-up album, ''[[Check Your Head]]'', was recorded in the band's own "G-Son" studio in [[Atwater Village, California]] and released on its [[Grand Royal]] record label. The band played the instruments on this album, with Mike D on drums, Yauch on bass, Horovitz on guitar and Mark Ramos Nishita ("[[Money Mark|Keyboard Money Mark]]") on keyboards. Mario Caldato Jr. ("Mario C") produced, and would become a longtime collaborator.
''Check Your Head'' was released in 1992 and went double platinum in the US, reaching a peak of #10 on the Billboard 200. The first single ''"So What'cha Want"'' reached #43 on the Billboard 100 and made both the urban and modern rock charts. ''"Pass the Mic"'' became a hit in dance clubs. The album also introduced a more experimental direction, with funk and jazz inspired songs, including ''"Lighten Up"'' and ''"Something's Got To Give."'' Hardcore punk even made its reappearance with ''"Time For Livin'."''
Beastie Boys signed an eclectic roster of artists to the Grand Royal label including [[Luscious Jackson]], [[Sean Lennon]], promising Australian artist [[Ben Lee]], and the Japanese duo [[Cibo Matto]]. Beastie Boys owned Grand Royal Records until 2001 when it was then sold for financial reasons. Grand Royal's first independent release was Luscious Jackson's album ''[[In Search Of Manny]]'' in 1993.
Beastie Boys also published Grand Royal Magazine, with the first edition in 1993 featuring a cover story on [[Bruce Lee]], artwork by [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], and interviews with [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] and [[A Tribe Called Quest]] MC [[Q-Tip (rapper)|Q-Tip]]. The 1995 issue of the magazine contained the first print reference of the expression "[[Mullet (haircut)|mullet]]" to describe the hairstyle.
==''[[Ill Communication]]'' - 1993-1995==
''Ill Communication'', released in 1994, saw the Beastie Boys' return to the top of the charts when the album peaked at #2 on the R&B/ hip hop album chart. The single ''"[[Sabotage (Beastie Boys)|Sabotage]]"'' became a hit on the modern rock charts and the music video, directed by [[Spike Jonze]], received extensive play on [[MTV]]. ''"Get It Together"'' reached Top Ten of the Billboard dance charts and also became an urban hit while ''"Sure Shot"'' was a dance hit. ''Some Old Bullshit'', featuring the band's early independent material, made #50 on the Billboard independent charts.
Beastie Boys headlined at [[Lollapalooza]] in 1994 together with the [[Smashing Pumpkins]]. In addition, the band performed three concerts in [[Los Angeles]], [[New York City]], and [[Washington D.C.]] to raise money for the [[Milarepa Fund]] and dedicated the [[royalties]] from ''"Shambala"'' and ''"Bodhisattva Vow"'' from the ''Ill Communication'' album to the cause. The Milarepa Fund aims to raise awareness of [[Tibet]]an [[human rights]] issues and the exile of [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|the Dalai Lama]]. In 1996, Yauch organized the [[Tibetan Freedom Concert]], a two-day festival at [[Golden Gate Park]] in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], that attracted 100,000 people.
In 1995, the popularity of the Beastie Boys was underlined when tickets for an arena tour went on sale in the US and sold out within a few minutes. One dollar from each ticket sold went to local charities. Beastie Boys toured South America and Southeast Asia for the first time. The band also released ''Aglio e Olio'', a collection of eight songs lasting for just eleven minutes harking back to their punk roots, in 1995. ''The In Sound From Way Out!'', a collection of [[jazz]]/[[funk]] instrumentals, was released on Grand Royal in 1996 with the title and artwork the same as a groundbreaking album by electronic music pioneers [[Perrey and Kingsley]].
==''[[Hello Nasty]]'' - 1998-2001==
Beastie Boys returned to New York City in 1997 to produce and record the album ''Hello Nasty''. The album displayed a substantial shift in musical feel, with the departure of [[DJ Hurricane]]. He was replaced by [[Mix Master Mike]], who added to the Beasties' sound with his kinetic DJ style. Released [[14 July]], [[1998 in music|1998]], ''Hello Nasty'' clocked first week sales of nearly 700,000 in the U.S. and went straight to #1 in the US, the UK, Germany, Australia, Holland, New Zealand, and Sweden. The album achieved #2 rank in the charts in Canada and Japan, and was in the Top Ten in Austria, Switzerland, Ireland, Belgium, Finland, France, and Israel.
Beastie Boys won two [[Grammy Awards of 1999|Grammy Awards in 1999]]. The band received the [[Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album]] for ''Hello Nasty'', as well as the [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group]] for ''"Intergalactic"''. This was the first, and as of 2005, the only time that a band has won awards in both rap and alternative categories.
Beastie Boys started an arena tour in 1998. Through [[Ian C. Rogers]] the band made live downloads of their performances available for their fans but were temporarily thwarted when Capitol Records removed them from its website. Beastie Boys were one of the first bands who made mp3 downloads available on their website. Therefore they got a high level of response and public awareness. ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' published an article on the band's efforts.
The 1999 Tibetan Freedom Concerts featured concerts at [[East Troy, Wisconsin]], [[Sydney]], [[Tokyo]] and [[Amsterdam]]. On [[28 September]] [[1999]], the Beastie Boys joined [[Elvis Costello]] to play ''"Radio, Radio"'' on the 25th anniversary of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
Beastie Boys released ''The Sounds of Science'', a two-CD Anthology of their works in 1999. This album reached #19 on the Billboard 200, #18 in Canada, #6 on the Internet sales charts, and #14 on the R&B/Hip Hop charts. The one new song, the single ''"Alive,"'' reached #11 on the Modern Rock charts.
In 2000, the Beastie Boys had planned to headline the "Rhyme and Reason" tour with [[Rage Against the Machine]], but the tour was cancelled when drummer Mike D suffered a serious injury due to a bicycle accident. The official diagnosis was 5th degree [[acromioclavicular joint]] dislocation, meaning he needed surgery and extensive rehabilitation. By th |
ood]] actor [[Brian Cox]], a native of the city, is its most famous [[alumnus]]. [[Dundee Repertory Theatre]] ("The Rep"), built in [[1982]], is also the base for [[Scottish Dance Theatre]]. Dundee's principal [[concert]] [[auditorium]], the [[Caird Hall]] (named for its benefactor, the jute baron [[James Caird]]), regularly plays host to the [[Royal Scottish National Orchestra]]. A number of smaller venues also host local and international musicians during Dundee's annual [[Jazz]], [[Guitar]] and [[Blues]] Festivals. [[Dundee Contemporary Arts]] &mdash; hub of the city's cultural quarter &mdash; was opened in [[1999]].
===Football===
Dundee has two professional [[soccer|football]] teams ([[Dundee F.C.]], and [[Dundee United F.C.]]). Their stadia ([[Dens Park]] and [[Tannadice Park]]) are closer together than any other senior pair in world football, making them a frequent subject of football trivia quizzes. Another interesting fact is that Dundee is also one of only three British cities to have produced two [[European Cup]] semi-finalists, the others being [[Glasgow]] and [[London]]. [[Dundee United]] are in the unsual position of having an unbeaten record against [[FC Barcelona]], defeating the Spanish side home and away in both 1966 and 1987. Dundee F.C were relegated to the [[First Division]] in season 2004/05 leaving Dundee United F.C as the city's only [[SPL]] team.
Dundee itself and surrounding small towns are home to a number of [[junior football]] teams. In May 2005 two local teams [[Tayport]] and [[Lochee|Lochee United]] made it to the final of the [[Scottish Junior Cup]] Final held at [[Tannadice Park]] where [[Tayport]] came out the victors.
<includeonly></includeonly>
===Ice Hockey===
Dundee is home to the [[Dundee Texol Stars]] [[ice hockey]] team which play at the city's [[Dundee Ice Arena]]. The team participates in the [[Scottish National League]] (SNL) along with the [[Dundee Tigers]] and the [[Northern League (ice hockey)|Northern League]] (NL) as well as in various cup competitions.
===Rugby===
Dundee is represented at rugby by [[Dundee High School Former Pupils]] (DHSFP) (Est. 1880). The 2005/2006 season celebrates the club's 125th anniversary.
===Pop music===
Dundee has a true claim to pop fame, having produced one of the defining [[soul-funk]] bands of the [[1970s]] &mdash; the [[Average White Band]]. [[1980s]] pop outfits [[The Associates]] and [[Danny Wilson]] were also Dundonian. [[Ricky Ross]] of [[Deacon Blue]] attended the [[High School of Dundee]], trained at Dundee College of Education and taught briefly at a [[high school]] in the city. Current pop festival-headliners and [[Mercury Music Prize]] nominees [[Snow Patrol]] are [[Ireland|Irish]] but have been adopted by the city because they were formed at the University of Dundee. The Dundee band [[Spare Snare]] were recently voted one of the fifty best Scottish bands of all time in a recent poll for ''[[The List]]'' magazine. [[KT Tunstall]] attended the [[High School of Dundee]] for a large portion of her education, as well as [[Madras School]] in nearby St. Andrews.
It was announced on February 8, 2006 that the [[One Big Weekend]] music festival put on by [[BBC Radio 1]] would be coming to Dundee's [[Camperdown Park]]. The dates for the 2006 festival are May 13 and 14.
===Twinning===
Dundee maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with six [[twin town|twin cities]]:
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Orleans]], [[France]] (1946)
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]], [[Virginia]], [[USA]] (1974)
* {{flagicon|Palestine}} - [[Nablus]], [[West Bank]] (1980)
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Croatia}} - [[Zadar]], [[Croatia]] (1959)
* {{flagicon|United Arab Emirates}} - [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]] (????)
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Würzburg]], [[Germany]] (1962)
|}
*The [[Diocese of Brechin]] (centred on [[St Paul’s Cathedral, Dundee|St Paul’s Cathedral]] in Dundee) is twinned with the diocese of [[Iowa]], [[USA]] and with the diocese of [[Swaziland]].
==City of Discovery==
===Electric street-lighting===
Dundee was the first city in the world to have electric [[street lights]], employing [[bulb]]s designed by [[James Bowman Lindsay]].
===The postage stamp===
[[James Chalmers]] is recognised as having invented the modern [[postage stamp]] in Dundee. His tombstone, in the Howff burial ground, reads: ''"Originator of the adhesive postage stamp which saved the [[penny postage]] scheme of 1840 from collapse rendering it an unquallified (''sic'') success and which has since been adopted throughout the postal systems of the world."''
===The ATM===
A series of innovations by [[NCR Corporation]] (including the development of magnetic-strip readers for cash registers) culminated in the production of the first [[Automatic Teller Machine|ATM]], or 'hole in the wall' cash machine, at its Dundee plant in the late [[1960s]].
===Computing===
The first [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[home computers]] were produced at the [[Timex]] factory in Dundee in the early [[1980s]]. The [[computer games]] firm [[Rockstar North]] &mdash; developer of the extraordinarily successful ''[[Lemmings]]'' and the ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' series &mdash; was founded in Dundee as DMA Design. For a small city thousands of miles from [[Silicon Valley]], Dundee's impact on the computing industry has been extraordinary.
===Aspirin===
It is known that Dr [[Thomas John MacLagan]] first developed [[aspirin]] in 1876 whilst working at the old [[Dundee Royal Infirmary]]. Today aspirin and its derivatives are used worldwide for the treatment of [[fever]] and [[pain]] and more recently have been shown to be helpful in reducing the risk of having a [[heart attack]].
==Education==
===High School of Dundee===
The [[High School of Dundee]] (known locally as "Dundee High") is one of [[Scotland]]'s leading [[independent schools]]. It has its origins in the [[Grammar School]] founded by the Abbot and Monks of [[Lindores]] after they were granted a [[charter]] by Gilbert, [[Bishop of Brechin]], in the early 1220s to "plant schools wherever they please in the burgh": their rights were confirmed by a [[Papal Bull]] conferred upon them by Pope [[Gregory IX]] on [[14 February]] [[1239]]. It is from this Bull that the School's motto "Prestante Domino", translated as "Under the Leadership of God", is taken.
Early scholars included [[William Wallace]], Scottish patriot, [[Guardian of Scotland]] during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]], [[Hector Boece]], historian and first Principal of the [[University of Aberdeen]], and [[James, John and Robert Wedderburn]], authors of ''[[The Gude and Godlie Ballatis]]'', one of the most important literary works of the [[Scots Reformation]], and [[Stuart Beat]], [[Richard McLean]] and [[Amos Elias]]; famous Dundonian [[revolutionaries]] and [[idealists]]. The School itself was the earliest [[Reformed]] school in Scotland, having adopted the new religion in 1554.
The School has continued its traditions of education and service to this day, with famous former pupils including [[BBC]] political journalist [[Andrew Marr]], and singer/songwriter KT Tunstall.
==See also==
*[[Broughty Ferry]]
*[[Desperate Dan]]
*[[Lochee]]
==Reference==
*'''Smith, W.J. ed.''' (1980): ''A History of Dundee'' [Dundee, David Winter & Son]
==External links==
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/ Dundee City Council]
{{oscoor gbx|NO404303}}
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/photodb/ Dundee City Council Photo Archive]
*[http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ University of Dundee]
*[http://www.abertay.ac.uk/ The University of Abertay Dundee]
*[http://www.dundeecoll.ac.uk/ Dundee College]
*[http://www.dca.org.uk/ Dundee Contemporary Arts (DCA)]
*[http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/dundee.htm Dundee Dialect]
*[http://www.dundeerep.co.uk/ Dundee Rep Theatre]
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/mills/ Mills Observatory]
*[http://dundeehotels.todaytravel.co.uk/ Dundee Hotels]
*[http://www.rrsdiscovery.com/ RRS Discovery & Verdant Works]
*[http://www.frigateunicorn.org/ Frigate Unicorn]
*[http://www.sensation-dundee.com/ Sensation Science Centre]
*[http://www.geocities.com/standrewscathedral/ St. Andrew's Cathedral (Catholic)]
*[http://www.dundeestmarys.co.uk/ Dundee Parish Church - St Mary's (Church of Scotland)]
*[http://www.stpaulscathedraldundee.org/ St. Paul's Cathedral (Scottish Episcopal)]
*[http://www.thesteeplechurch.org.uk/ The Steeple Church (Church of Scotland)]
*[http://www.dundee-howff.info/ Tombs of the Dundee Howff]
*[http://www.altdundee.net alt.dundee club night listings]
*[http://www.camperdownpark.com/wildlife.htm Camperdown Park Wildlife Centre]
*[http://www.dundeeflowerandfoodfestival.com/welcome.htm Annual Flower and Food Festival]
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/airport/main.htm Dundee Airport Website]
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/broughtycastle/main.htm Broughty Ferry Castle]
*[http://www.tayfm.co.uk/ Local Radio Station Tay FM]
*[http://www.tayam.co.uk/ Local Radio Station Tay AM]
*[http://www.wave102.co.uk/ Local Radio Station Wave 102]
*[http://www.traveldundee.co.uk/ Travel Dundee]
*[http://www.onthestrathtaybuses.info/ Strathtay Buses]
*[http://www.overgate.co.uk/ Overgate Shopping Centre]
*[http://www.wellgatedundee.co.uk/ Wellgate Shopping Centre]
*[http://www.city-of-dundee.info/restaurants.html Guide to Dundee]
*[http://www.factoryskatepark.co.uk/ Factory Skatepark]
*[http://www.dundeebotanicgarden.co.uk/ Dundee University Botanical Garden]
*[http://www.whitehalldundee.co.uk/index2.html Whitehall Theatre]
*[http://www.cairdhall.co.uk/Site/Frameset/2/core.htm Caird Hall]
*[http://www.dundeehsfprugby.org.uk/ DHSFP Rugby Club Homepage]
*[http://www.dundeestars.com/home.asp Dundee Texol Stars Ice Hockey Team Website]
*[http://www.dundeeconcrete.com/ Free out |
g Exchange]]'' program on WEWS, which defined the morning show format, and served as the inspiration for ''[[Good Morning America]]''.
===Sports===
[[Image:Jacobs field scoreboard.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Jacobs Field]], home of the [[Cleveland Indians]], features the largest scoreboard in North America.]]
Cleveland's [[professional sports]] teams include the [[Cleveland Indians]] ([[Major League Baseball]]), [[Cleveland Browns]] ([[National Football League]]), [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] ([[National Basketball Association]]), and [[Cleveland Barons]] ([[American Hockey League]]). Annual sporting events held in Cleveland include the [[Champ Car]] [[Grand Prix of Cleveland]], the [[Cleveland Marathon]], and the [[Ohio Classic]] [[college football]] game. The city hosted the [[Gravity Games]], an [[extreme sport]]s series, from 2002 to 2004. Local sporting facilities include [[Jacobs Field]], [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]], [[Quicken Loans Arena]], and the [[Wolstein Center]].
Cleveland has long been known as a "[[American football|football]] town", and the Browns dominated the NFL from [[1950 NFL season|1950]] to [[1955 NFL season|1955]]. The city's franchise is one of the most storied in football, though it last won an [[List of NFL champions|NFL championship]] in [[1964 NFL season|1964]] and has never appeared in the [[Super Bowl]]. The Cleveland Indians last reached the [[World Series]] in [[1995 World Series|1995]] and [[1997 World Series|1997]], though they lost to the [[Atlanta Braves]] and [[Florida Marlins]], respectively, and have not won the series since [[1948 World Series|1948]]. Between 1995 and 2001, Jacobs Field sold out for 455 consecutive games, a Major League Baseball record. The Cleveland Cavaliers are experiencing a renaissance with Cleveland fans due to [[LeBron James]], a native of nearby Akron and the number one overall [[2003 NBA Draft|draft pick of 2003]]. The city's recent lack of success in sports have earned it a reputation of being a cursed sports city, which [[ESPN]] validated by proclaiming Cleveland as its "most tortured sports city" in 2004.{{ref|espn}}
At the 2005 [[Major League Soccer]] [[Major League Soccer All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], MLS commissioner [[Don Garber]] announced that Cleveland was one of several top areas in contention for an [[expansion team]] in 2007. Cleveland fielded an [[National Hockey League|NHL]] team, the [[Cleveland Barons (NHL)|Cleveland Barons]], from [[1976-77 NHL season|1976]] to [[1977-78 NHL season|1978]], which was later merged into the [[Minnesota North Stars]]. The city remains without major-league hockey to the present, although today's Cleveland Barons, the AHL affiliate of the [[San Jose Sharks]], maintains a tradition of professional hockey in Cleveland [[Cleveland Barons (1937-1972)|stretching back to 1937]].{{ref|barons}} The Barons will move to [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] after the 2005-2006 season. However, Cavaliers owner [[Dan Gilbert]] has announced his intention to return hockey to Quicken Loans Arena.
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Club !! Sport !! Founded !! League !! Venue !! Logo
|-
| [[Cleveland Indians]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[1901]]
| [[Major League Baseball]]''':''' [[American League|AL]]
| [[Jacobs Field]]
| [[Image:Indians logo.gif|40px|Cleveland Indians Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Browns]]
| [[Football]]
| [[1946]]
| [[National Football League]]''':''' [[American Football Conference|AFC]]
| [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]]
| [[Image:Cleveland_Browns_helmet_rightface.png|40px|Cleveland Browns Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Cavaliers]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[1970]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[Quicken Loans Arena]]
| [[Image:ClevelandCavaliersMainLogo.gif|40px|Cleveland Cavaliers Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Barons]]
| [[Ice Hockey]]
| [[2001]]
| [[American Hockey League]]
| [[Quicken Loans Arena]]
| [[Image:Cleveland barons 200x200.png|40px|Cleveland Barons Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Fusion]]
| [[Football]]
| [[2002]]
| [[National Women's Football Association]]
| [[Bedford High School]]
| [[Image:LogoFusion.gif|40px|Cleveland Fusion Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Lions]]
| [[Football]]
| [[1976]]
| [[Mid Continental Football League]]
| N/A
| [[Image:ClevelandLions4.PNG|40px|Cleveland Lions Logo]]
|-
|}
==Transportation==
[[Image:Cuyahoga river and downtown cleveland.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A collection of bridges crossing the Cuyahoga River in downtown Cleveland. The low-level bridges are [[drawbridge|drawbridges]], while the high-level bridge in the background is fixed.]]
The city is home to two [[airport]]s. Cleveland [[Hopkins International Airport]] is the city's major facility and a large [[international airport]] that serves as one of three main [[airline hub|hub]]s for [[Continental Airlines]]. It holds the distinction of having the first airport-to-downtown rapid transit connection, established in 1968. In 1930, the airport was the site of the first airfield lighting system and the first air traffic [[control tower]]. In addition to Hopkins, Cleveland is served by [[Burke Lakefront Airport]], on the north shore of downtown between Lake Erie and the [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway|Shoreway]]. Burke is primarily a commuter and business airport.
Cleveland currently has a [[bus]] and [[urban rail transit|rail]] [[public transport|mass transit]] system operated by the [[Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority]], also known as "RTA". The rail portion is officially called the [[Cleveland Rapid Transit]], but is better known as ''The Rapid''. It consists of two [[rapid transit|light rail]] lines, known as the Green and Blue Lines, and a [[heavy rail]] line, the Red Line. RTA is currently installing a [[bus rapid transit]] line, coined the "Silver Line", which will run along [[Euclid Avenue]] from downtown to University Circle.{{ref|rta}}
Three two-digit [[Interstate highway]]s serve Cleveland directly. [[Interstate 71]] begins just southwest of downtown and is the major route from downtown Cleveland to the airport. I-71 runs through the southwestern [[suburb]]s and eventually connects Cleveland with [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]]. [[Interstate 77]] begins in downtown Cleveland and runs almost due south through the southern suburbs. I-77 sees the least traffic of the three interstates, although it does connect Cleveland to [[Akron, Ohio|Akron]]. [[Interstate 90]] connects the two sides of Cleveland, and is the northern terminus for both I-71 and I-77. Running due east/west through the west side suburbs, I-90 turns northeast at the junction with I-71 and I-490, and is known as the Innerbelt through downtown. At the junction with the Shoreway, I-90 makes a 90-degree turn known in the area as [[Dead Man's Curve]], then continues northeast, entering [[Lake County, Ohio|Lake County]] near the eastern split with Ohio 2. Cleveland is also served by two three-digit interstates, [[Interstate 480 (Ohio)|Interstate 480]], which enters Cleveland briefly at a few points and [[Interstate 490 (Ohio)|Interstate 490]], which connects I-77 with the junction of I-90 and I-71 just south of downtown. <!-- Please do not add I-271 here, since it does not run through the City of Cleveland. Instead, please include any relevant information in the Greater Cleveland article. -->
Two other limited-access highways serve Cleveland. The [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway]] carries [[Ohio State Highway 2|Ohio 2]] along its length, and at varying points also carries [[U.S. Highway 6|US 6]], [[U.S. Highway 20|US 20]] and I-90. The Jennings Freeway ([[Ohio State Highway 176|Ohio 176]]) connects I-71 just south of I-90 to I-480 near the suburbs of [[Parma, Ohio|Parma]] and [[Brooklyn Heights, Ohio|Brooklyn Heights]]. A third highway, the Berea Freeway ([[Ohio State Highway 237|Ohio 237]] in part), connects I-71 to the airport, and forms part of the boundary between Cleveland and [[Brook Park, Ohio|Brook Park]].
==See also==
* [[Cleveland East Ohio Gas Explosion]]
* [[Cleveland Torso Murderer]] (Kingsbury Run murders)
==References==
#{{note|livable}} [http://store.eiu.com/index.asp?layout=pr_story&press_id=660001866&ref=pr_list "Vancouver tops liveability ranking according to a new survey by the Economist Intelligence Unit"]. Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|meetings}} Copestake, Jon. [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/business/displayStory.cfm?story_id=5149435 "Where business is a pleasure"], [[The Economist]]. ([[December 23]], [[2005]])
#{{note|clevehistory}} [http://ech.cwru.edu/ The Encyclopedia Of Cleveland History (2002)]. ''Case Western Reserve University''.
#{{note|clevehistory}} Ibid.
#{{note|census}} [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=&geo_id=16000US3916000&_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US39%7C16000US3916000&_street=&_county=cleveland&_cityTown=cleveland&_state=04000US39&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=160 Cleveland, Ohio Fact Sheet] ([[United States Census Bureau]]). Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|clevehistory}} Encyclopedia of Cleveland History.
#{{note|neighborhoods}}[http://www.nhlink.net/neighborhoodtour/nt.php Neighborhood Link]. Accessed [[October 14]] [[2005]].
#{{note|gentrification}} Kennedy, Maureen and Leonard, Paul. [http://www.brookings.edu/es/urban/gentrification/gentrificationexsum.htm Dealing with Neighborhood Change: A Primer on Gentrification and Policy Choices]. [[Brookings Institution]] (April 2001).
#{{note|zoning}} Gill, Michael. [http://www.freetimes.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=471 "Can the Creative Class Save Cleveland?"]. [[Free Times]] ([[October 29]], [[2003]])
#{{note|snowfall}} [http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cle/climate/cle/records/cletop10snow.html Cleveland Snowfalle (sic) Statistics] ([[National Weather Service]]). Acce |
esting. The standard simply provides a shorthand way of claiming that certain specifications are met, while encouraging manufacturers to adhere to a common method for such a specification.
The '''Kite Mark''' can be used to indicate certification by the BSI, but only where a Kite Mark scheme has been set up around a particular standard. It is mainly applicable to safety and quality management standards. There is a common misunderstanding that Kite Marks are necessary to prove compliance with any BS standard, but in general it is neither desirable nor possible that every standard be 'policed' in this way.
British Standards began in [[1901]] as the ''Engineering Standards Committee'', led by [[James Mansergh]], to standardise the number and type of [[steel]] sections, in order to make [[United Kingdom|British]] manufacturers more efficient and competitive.
Over time the standards developed to cover many aspects of tangible engineering, and then engineering methodologies including quality systems, safety and security.
Another key activity carried out by '''British Standards''' is the CE Marking of Medical Devices. The CE 0086 marking can be issued to devices that are found to comply with the Medical Device Directive.
==Frequently used BS standards==
*[[BS 1363]] for mains power plugs and sockets
*[[BS 5750]] for quality management, the source for [[ISO 9000]]
*[[BS 5950]] for structural steel
*[[BS 6312]] for telephone plugs and sockets
*[[BS 6879]] for British geocodes, a superset of [[ISO 3166-2:GB]]
*[[BS 7799]] for information security, the source for [[ISO 17799]]
*[[BS 8110]] for structural concrete
==External links==
* [http://www.bsi-global.com/ Official website]
* [http://www.standardsdirect.org BSI Online Shop]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Certification_marks]]
[[fr:BSI Group]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Building society</title>
<id>4776</id>
<revision>
<id>40361312</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Building society''' is the name given in [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]] for working men's [[co-operative]] savings groups: by pooling savings, members could buy or build their own homes.
==Origins==
The original Building Society was formed in [[Birmingham]] in 1774. Most of the original societies were fully ''terminating'', where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them was wound up in 1980. In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the ''Permanent Building Society'', where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases. The main legislative framework for the Building Society was the ''Building Society Act'' of 1874, with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see [[Coney Hall]]), and 1960.
In their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town. Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process: most of the existing larger building societies are the end result of the mergers of many smaller societies.
==1980s==
In the [[1980s]], British banking laws were changed to allow building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal [[bank]]s. Building societies, in the classic form, were [[mutual organisation]]s, jointly owned by those saving and borrowing. From the 1980s onwards, a number of societies, under pressure from members, `[[demutualise]]d' to become commercial enterprises with [[shares]] of [[stock]] like any other company: members of the society would get a cash `windfall' - usually several hundred pounds, sometimes more - as their share of the assets of the society. This happened to a number of the larger societies, several of which were bought out by [[bank]]s after their [[demutualisation]].
A movement arose whereby investors would open a savings account with a [[mutual organisation|mutual]] building society, thereby getting voting rights in the society, and pressurise for a vote on [[demutualisation]], with the intent of getting a windfall payment as a result. A number of societies' members and managers were very unhappy about such investors, who were termed ''[[carpetbaggers]]'', maintaining that as mutual societies, they could supply better and cheaper home loans than the banks and demutualised societies, as they only had to make a profit to cover their operational costs, and had no need to generate an additional profit to return to shareholders.
In the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the remaining societies modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s. The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation. With the chance of a quick profit removed, the demutualisations have slowed considerably, [[As of 2001|as of December 2001]].
==Remaining building societies==
The 10 largest of the remaining building societies are listed below.
(Total Group assets in [[sterling]], as of June 2005.)
<ol>
<li>[[Nationwide Building Society|Nationwide]] £111,592m</li>
<li>[[Britannia Building Society|Britannia]] £23,298m</li>
<li>[[Portman Building Society|Portman]] £15,505m</li>
<li>[[Yorkshire Building Society|Yorkshire]] £15,034m</li>
<li>[[Coventry Building Society|Coventry]] £10,500m</li>
<li>[[Chelsea Building Society|Chelsea]] £8,868m</li>
<li>[[Skipton Building Society|Skipton]] £8,137m</li>
<li>[[Leeds Building Society|Leeds]] £6,129m (name changed from ''Leeds & Holbeck'' mid-2005)</li>
<li>[[West Bromwich Building Society|West Bromwich]] £5,044m</li>
<li>[[Derbyshire Building Society|Derbyshire]] £4,407m</li>
</ol>
Source: [[Building Societies Association]]
==Australia==
In [[Australia]], building societies evolved along British lines. Because of strict regulations on [[bank]]s, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the [[1980s]]. Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as [[St. George Bank|St. George]]) officially attained the status of banks.
==USA==
In the [[United States]], the [[savings and loan association]]s have a similar organization and purpose.
==See also==
*[[Mutual organisation]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Demutualisation]]
==External links==
[http://www.co-opstudies.org/Journal/May_98/Andy_love_May_98.htm Notes on legislation]
[[Category:Financial services companies]]
[[Category:Cooperatives]]
[[de:Bausparkasse]]
[[ru:Строительная сберегательная касса]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Steel missile</title>
<id>4777</id>
<revision>
<id>39074912</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:17:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 2|Feb 2]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE-->
{{weapon-missile|
|image=
|caption=
|name=Blue Steel
|type=nuclear stand-off missile
|nation=UK
|era=Cold War
|platform=Aircraft
|target=
|builder=[[Avro]]
|date=
|prod_date=
|serv_date=1963-1969
|operators=UK [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]
|wars=none
|spec_type=
|diameter=0.71 m (28 in)
|wingspan=4 m (13 ft)
|length= 10.7 m (35 ft)
|weight= 7,270 kg (16,000 lb)
|velocity=Mach 3
|range=240 km (150 miles)
|ceiling= 21,500 m (70,500 ft)
|warhead=W-28 [[thermonuclear]] (1.1 MT)
|propulsion=liquid fuel rocket
|steering=
|guidance=inertial
|variant=
|num_built=
|}}
'''Blue Steel''' was a [[United Kingdom]] air-launched, rocket-propelled [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] stand-off [[missile]], built to arm the [[V bomber]] force.
==Development==
Blue Steel was the result of a [[Ministry of Supply (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Supply]] memorandum from [[5 November]] [[1954 in aviation|1954]] that predicted that by [[1960]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] air defenses would make it prohibitively dangerous for V bombers to attack with nuclear gravity bombs. The answer was for a [[rocket engine|rocket-powered]], [[supersonic]] missile capable of carrying a large nuclear (or projected [[thermonuclear]]) [[warhead]] with a range of at least 50 miles (90 km). This would keep the bombers out of range of Soviet ground-based defenses installed around the target area, allowing the warhead to "dash" in at high speed.
The weapon (officially termed a ''Stand-off bomb'') was developed primarily by [[Avro]], with guidance electronics by [[Elliots]]. Its design period was protracted, with various development problems exacerbated by the fact that designers had no way of knowing the actual size or weight of the still-hypothetical warhead. The missile was fitted with a, at the time, state-of-the-art [[inertial navigation]] unit. This inertial nav system allowed the missile to strike within 100 metres of its designated target. In addition, the pilots of the carrying Vulcan or Victor bombers could tie their systems into those of the missile and make use of the guidance system to help plot their own flight plan, since the unit in the missile was more advanced that that in the aircraft.
Blue Steel emerged as a pilotless, winged aircraft roughly the size of the experimen |
of hydrogen<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of Chemical Elements'', page 261 -->. Helium's [[index of refraction]] is closer to unity than any other gas. This gas has a negative [[Joule-Thomson coefficient]] at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its [[Joule-Thomson inversion temperature]] (of about 40 [[Kelvin|K]] at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion. Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.
[[Image:HeTube.jpg|thumb|left|Helium discharge tube shaped like the element's atomic symbol]]
Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions due to its [[valence]] of zero. It is an electrical insulator unless [[ion]]ized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable [[energy level]]s that allow it to remain ionized in an [[electricity| electrical]] discharge with a [[voltage]] below its [[ionization potential]]. Helium can form unstable [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s with [[tungsten]], [[iodine]], [[fluorine]], [[sulfur]] and [[phosphorus]] when it is subjected to an [[electric glow discharge]], through electron bombardment or is otherwise a [[Plasma physics|plasma]]. HeNe, HgHe<sub>10</sub>, WHe<sub>2</sub> and the molecular ions He<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>, He<sub>2</sub><sup>++</sup>, HeH<sup>+</sup>, and HeD<sup>+</sup> have been created this way. This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule He<sub>2</sub>, which has a large number of [[band system]]s, and HgHe, which is apparently only held together by polarization forces <!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 261 -->. Theoretically, other compounds, like helium fluorohydride (HHeF), may also be possible.
Throughout the Universe, helium is found mostly in a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] state whose properties are quite different to molecular helium. As a plasma, helium's electrons and protons are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the [[solar wind]] together with ionized hydrogen, they interact with the Earth's [[magnetosphere]] giving rise to [[Birkeland current]]s and the [[aurora]].
=== Solid and liquid phases ===
Helium solidifies only under great pressure. The resulting colorless almost invisible [[solid]] is highly [[compressible]]; applying pressure in the laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.<!-- ref: LANL.gov --> With a [[bulk modulus]] on the order of 5×10<sup>7</sup> [[Pascal|Pa]] [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/105558571/ABSTRACT] it is 50 times more compressible than water. Unlike any other element, helium will fail to solidify and remain a liquid down to [[absolute zero]] at normal pressures. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1&ndash;1.5&nbsp;K and about 26 standard atmospheres (2.6 MPa) of pressure<!-- ref: ''Natures Building Blocks'', page 178 -->. It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the [[refractive index]] of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp [[melting point]] and has a [[crystal]]line structure.
==== Helium I state ====
Below its [[boiling point]] of 4.21 [[kelvin]]s and above the [[lambda point]] of 2.1768 kelvins, the [[isotope]] helium-4 exists in a normal colorless [[liquid]] state, called ''helium I''. Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when heat is added to it. It also contracts when its temperature is lowered until it reaches the [[lambda point]], when it stops boiling and suddenly expands. The rate of expansion decreases below the lambda point until about 1 K is reached; at which point expansion completely stops and helium I starts to contract again.
Helium I has a gas-like [[index of refraction]] of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of [[Styrofoam]] are often used to show where the surface is<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 262 -->. This colorless liquid has a very low [[viscosity]] and a [[density]] 1/8th that of [[water]], which is only 1/4th the value expected from [[classical physics]]<!-- ref: ibid -->. [[Quantum mechanics]] is needed to explain this property and thus both types of liquid helium are called ''quantum fluids'', meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This is probably due to its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, which prevents random molecular motion ([[heat]]) from masking the atomic properties<!-- ref: ibid -->.
==== Helium II state ====
Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state called ''helium II''. Boiling of helium II is not possible due to its high [[thermal conductivity]]; heat input instead causes [[evaporation]] of the liquid directly to gas. The isotope helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about such properties in the isotope helium-3.
[[Image:helium-II-creep.png|frame|right|Helium II will "creep" along surfaces in order to find its own level - after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The [[Rollin film]] also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.]]
Helium II is a [[superfluidity| superfluid]], a quantum-mechanical state of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through even capillaries of 10<sup>-7</sup> to 10<sup>-8</sup> m width it has no measurable [[viscosity]]. However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the ''two-fluid model'' for Helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a [[ground state]], which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid<!--http://www.yutopian.com/Yuan/TFM.html-->.
Helium II also exhibits a "creeping" effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, seemingly against the force of [[gravity]]. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 [[nanometre|nm]] thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a [[Rollin film]] and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, [[B. V. Rollin]]<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 263 --><!--http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i8/p1209_1-->. As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate.
In the ''fountain effect'', a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a [[sintered]] disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container<!--http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html-->.
The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of [[copper]]. This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum-mechanical mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a [[valence band]] of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The [[heat transfer|flow of heat]] is governed by [[equation]]s that are similar to the [[wave equation]] used to characterize [[sound]] propagation in air. So when heat is introduced, it will move at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon called ''second sound''<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 263 -->.
== Electron energy levels ==
Depending on the spin orientation of the two electrons in the helium atom, one speaks of [[parahelium]] for two anti-parallel spins (S=0) and of [[orthohelium]] for two parallel spins (S=1). For the orthohelium one of the electrons does not sit in the ground orbital (1s). [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/helium.html]
== Applications ==
[[Image:USGS Blimp1.jpg|thumb|right|Because of its low density, helium is the gas of choice to fill [[airship]]s such as the USGS blimp.]]
Pressurized helium is commercially available. Helium is used for many purposes that require one or more of its unique properties; low [[boiling point]], low [[density]], low [[solubility]], high [[thermal conductivity]], or its [[inert]]ness.
[[Airship]]s and [[balloon]]s ([[toy balloon|toy]], [[weather balloon|weather]], and [[research balloon|research]]) are inflated with helium because it is [[lighter than air]] (1&nbsp;m³ of helium will lift 1&nbsp;kg). Helium is currently preferred to [[hydrogen]] in airships because, while it is more expensive, it is not flammable and has 92.64% of the lifting power of hydrogen.
''[[Heliox]]'', a mixture of helium and [[oxygen]], is |
(>^_^(>O.o)> || sexual intercourse, normally used to depict rape and/or ######## (extensible)
|-
| align="center" | ( ~^_^)~ || dancing
|-
| align="center" | (9ò_ó)-o || fighting, throwing a punch
|-
| align="center" | /¯\_/°^_^°\_/¯\ || [[Sailor Moon]] (extensible)
|-
| align="center" | w-('u')-w || [[Kilroy was here]] (extensible)
|-
| align="center" | p(^o^)q || good luck
|-
| align="center" | (b~_^)b || thumbs-up
|-
| align="center" | (p-_-)p || thumbs-down
|-
| align="center" | t(-_-t) or ,,l,(>.<),l,, || flipping off
|-
| align="center" | (^^ .)\\// || giving the [[V-sign]]
|-
| align="center" | m <(~_~)> m || kitten
|-
| align="center" | ~~(=_=)~~ || [[Breakdancing|breakdance]]
|-
| align="center" | \m/>_<\m/ || rockin' out
|-
| align="center" | ¯\(º_o)/¯ || AIIIRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
|-
| align="center" | \0-0/ || wearing glasses (nerd)
|}
==Graphic emoticons==
Graphical emoticons (small images that often automatically replaced typed text) commonly are used instead of the older text variants, especially on [[Internet forum]]s and [[instant messenger]] programs.
===Examples===
[[Image:cry-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:confused-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:sad-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:shocked-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:smile-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:misc-tpvgames.gif]]
==See also==
* [[Internet slang]]
* [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]
* [[HTML Comic]]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Smilies}}
===History===
* 1976: [http://www.platopeople.com/emoticons.html PLATO emoticons] — advanced emoticons using [[PLATO]] and overstriking techniques
* 1982: [http://research.microsoft.com/~mbj/Smiley/Smiley.html The First Smiley :-)] Evidence of one of the first smiley emoticons from 1982
* 1982: [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm Smiley Lore :-)] by Scott E. Fahlman, who is widely credited as being the first person to use a sideways smiley face in an electronic medium.
* 1998: [http://tarr.uspto.gov/servlet/tarr?regser=serial&entry=75502288 U.S. Trademark Serial No. 75502288, Registration No. 2347676] — Evidence of the frowny-face emoticon being trademarked by [[Despair, Inc.]]
* 2001: [http://web.archive.org/web/20010202140900/www.despair.com/demotivators/frownonthis.html Press release from Depair, Inc. regarding their emoticon trademark] — A tongue-in-cheek press release regarding their trademark registration of the :-( emoticon. (Note: While the press release may be humorous, the registration is legitimate.)
===Examples===
* [http://www.traviscarden.com/emoticons Travis Carden's Dictionary of Emoticons]
* [http://messenger.msn.com/Resource/Emoticons.aspx List of MSN messenger emoticons]
* [http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/messenger/win/im/im-12.html List of Yahoo messenger emoticons]
* [http://www.aim.com/emoticons.adp?aolp= List of AOL messenger emoticons]
* [https://mail.google.com/support/bin/answer.py?answer=34056 List of Gmail chat emoticons]
===Japanese emoticons===
* [http://www.anikaos.com Anikaos Japanese Anime emoticons]
* [http://maestro.hiya-host.com/maestrosync/emoticons.php Japanese/Anime Emoticons List]
* [http://indo.to/english/rie/08.htm The Art of Emoticons]
* [http://www.pacificovertures.com/Jemoticon.html Japanese e-mail emoticons]
* [http://www.kevinshen.com/emoticons Archive of Animated Emoticons]
* [http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci212056,00.html Japanese emoticons (a whatis definition)]
* [http://cs.nyu.edu/ms_students/cera7013/class/japan.htm Japanese Emoticons (''New York Times'' article)]
* [http://club.pep.ne.jp/%7ehiroette/en/facemarks/body.html Japanese Smileys]
* [http://www-scf.usc.edu/~placenci/Anime/J_Emoticons.html Japanese Smilies]
* [http://kozou.run.buttobi.net/ AA(Japanese ASCII art) underground thread @ hiding place (English version)]
[[Category:ASCII art]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:On-line chat]]
===[[Prescriptive grammar]]s of extra-emoticon [[syntax]]===
* [http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~benjamin/misterpenguin/2005/10/text-message-era-grammar-question-and.html Proposed Standard for Parenthesized Emoticons]
* [http://tpvgames.co.uk/includes/articles/emoticon-grammer.php Emoticon grammar standards]
[[cs:Emotikon]]
[[da:Emoticon]]
[[de:Emoticon]]
[[es:Emoticono]]
[[eo:Miensimbolo]]
[[fr:Emoticon]]
[[ko:이모티콘]]
[[ia:Emoticone]]
[[it:Emoticon]]
[[he:רגשונים]]
[[lt:Šypsenėlė]]
[[hu:Emotikon]]
[[nl:Emoticon]]
[[ja:顔文字]]
[[pl:Emotikon]]
[[pt:Emoticon]]
[[ru:Смайлик]]
[[fi:Hymiö]]
[[sv:Uttryckssymbol]]
[[th:อีโมติคอน]]
[[zh:表情符号]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epoch</title>
<id>9740</id>
<revision>
<id>40621068</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:01:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.13.28.145</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|epoch}}
Depending on context, '''epoch''' can refer to:
A period of time:
* a distinctive [[historical period]] or [[era]]
* a unit of the [[geologic time scale]], less than a period and greater than an age
* a phase in the [[Timeline of the Big Bang|development of the universe]] with distinctive properties
A moment in time:
* an instant of origin chosen as the [[epoch (reference date)]] from which time is measured in a [[calendar era]] or in a computer system.
* an [[epoch (astronomy)]], a moment in time for which celestial coordinates or orbital elements are specified.
* a step in the training process of an [[artificial neural network]]
'''Epoch''' as a proper noun:
* The [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer]], an early handheld game console
* [[Epoch (Chrono Trigger)]], a flying time machine in role-playing game ''Chrono Trigger''
* [[Epoch (comics)]], a supervillain in DC comics, also known as the Lord of Time
* [[The Epoch Times]], a Chinese newspaper
{{disambig}}
[[de:Epoche]]
[[es:Época]]
[[eo:Epoko]]
[[it:Epoca]]
[[pl:Epoka]]
[[pt:Época]]
[[sv:Tidsepok]]
[[sv:Epok]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E.B. White</title>
<id>9741</id>
<revision>
<id>15907612</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[E. B. White]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erdős number</title>
<id>9742</id>
<revision>
<id>42074141</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sixtus</username>
<id>175651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nl:Erdősgetal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Erd&#337;s number''', honouring the late [[Hungary|Hungarian]] mathematician [[Paul Erd&#337;s]], one of the most prolific writers of mathematical papers, is a way of describing the "collaborative distance", in regard to mathematical papers, between an author and Erd&#337;s.
An author's Erd&#337;s number is defined [[mathematical induction|inductively]] as follows:
*Paul Erd&#337;s has an Erd&#337;s number of zero.
*The Erd&#337;s number of author ''M'' is one plus the minimum among the Erd&#337;s numbers of all the authors with whom ''M'' coauthored a mathematical paper.
Erd&#337;s wrote around 1500 mathematical articles in his lifetime, mostly co-authored. He had 509 direct collaborators; these are the people with Erd&#337;s number 1. The people who have collaborated with them (but not with Erd&#337;s himself) have an Erd&#337;s number of 2 (6,984 people), those who have collaborated with people who have an Erd&#337;s number of 2 (but not with Erd&#337;s or anyone with an Erd&#337;s number of 1) have an Erd&#337;s number of 3, and so forth.
Erd&#337;s numbers have been a part of the folklore of mathematicians throughout the world for many years. Amongst all working mathematicians at the turn of the millennium, the numbers range up to 15, but the average is less than 5, and almost everyone with a finite Erd&#337;s number has a number less than 8. Due to the increasing amount of interdisciplinary collaboration that
crosses subdisciplines, it is possible that a substantial fraction of all working scientists
who have published many papers with collaborators have finite Erd&#337;s numbers -- even
in fields that may seem very distant from [[pure mathematics]]. For instance, if a [[statistics|statistician]]
who has a finite Erd&#337;s number collaborates with some pharmacologists in the analysis
of a clinical trial, now all these pharmacologists will have finite Erd&#337;s numbers,
as will by extension all who collaborated with them on other publications.
According to Alex Lopez-Ortiz, all the [[Fields Medal|Fields]] and [[Nevanlinna Prize|Nevanlinna]] prize winners during the three cycles in 1986 to 1994 have Erd&#337;s number at most 9.
The [[Bacon number]] (as in the [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]]) is an application of the same idea to the movie industry, connecting actors that appeared in a film together to the actor [[Kevin Bacon]].
[[Jerry Grossman]], [[Marc Lipman]], and Eddie Cheng have been looking at some questions in pure [[graph theory]] motivated by these collaboration graphs.
Also, [[Michael Barr]] suggests "rational Erd&#337;s numbers", generalizing the idea that a person who has written p joint papers with Erd&#337;s should be assigned Erd&#337;s number 1/p. From the collaboration multigraph of the second kind (although he also has a way to deal with the case of the first kind) -- with one edge between two mathematicians for ''each'' joint paper they have produced -- form an electrical network with a one-ohm resistor on each edge. The total resistance between two nodes te |
sourcing
CMMI is the designated successor of the three source models. The SEI has released a policy to [[sunset]] the Software CMM. The same can be said for the SECM and the IPD-CMM. These models are expected to be succeeded by CMMI.
=== Future direction ===
Suggestions for improving CMMI are welcomed by the SEI. For information on how to provide feedback, see the [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/models/change-requests.html CMMI Web site].
== Levels of the CMM ==
:(See chapter 2 of ([http://www.sei.cmu.edu/pub/documents/02.reports/pdf/02tr012.pdf March 2002 edition of CMMI<sup>SM</sup> from SEI]), page 11.)
There are five levels of the CMM. According to the SEI,
:''"Predictability, effectiveness, and control of an organization's software processes are believed to improve as the organization moves up these five levels. While not rigorous, the empirical evidence to date supports this belief."''
=== Level 1 - Initial ===
At maturity level 1, processes are usually ad hoc and the organization usually does not provide a stable environment. Success in these organizations depends on the competence and heroics of the people in the organization and not on the use of proven processes. In spite of this ad hoc, chaotic environment, maturity level 1 organizations often produce products and services that work; however, they frequently exceed the budget and schedule of their projects.
Maturity level 1 organizations are characterized by a tendency to over commit, abandon processes in the time of crisis, and not be able to repeat their past successes again.
=== Level 2 - Repeatable ===
At maturity level 2, Software development successes are repeatable. The organization may use some basic [[project management]] to track cost and schedule.
Process discipline helps ensure that existing practices are retained during times of stress. When these practices are in place, projects are performed and managed according to their documented plans.
Project status and the delivery of services are visible to management at defined points (for example, at major milestones and at the completion of major tasks).
Basic project management processes are established to track cost, schedule, and functionality. The necessary process discipline is in place to repeat earlier successes on projects with similar applications.
=== Level 3 - Defined ===
At maturity level 3, processes are well characterized and understood, and are described in standards, procedures, tools, and methods.
The organization’s set of standard processes, which is the basis for level 3, is established and improved over time. These standard processes are used to establish consistency across the organization. Projects establish their defined processes by the organization’s set of standard processes according to tailoring guidelines.
The organization’s management establishes process objectives based on the organization’s set of standard processes and ensures that these objectives are appropriately addressed.
A critical distinction between level 2 and level 3 is the scope of standards, process descriptions, and procedures. At level 2, the standards, process descriptions, and procedures may be quite different in each specific instance of the process (for example, on a particular project). At level 3, the standards, process descriptions, and procedures for a project are tailored from the organization’s set of standard processes to suit a particular project or organizational unit.
=== Level 4 - Managed ===
Using precise '''measurements''', '''management''' can effectively control the software development effort. In particular, management can identify ways to adjust and adapt the process to particular projects without measurable losses of quality or deviations from specifications.
Subprocesses are selected that significantly contribute to overall process performance. These selected subprocesses are controlled using statistical and other quantitative techniques.
A critical distinction between maturity level 3 and maturity level 4 is the predictability of process performance. At maturity level 4, the performance of processes is controlled using statistical and other quantitative techniques, and is quantitatively predictable. At maturity level 3, processes are only qualitatively predictable.
=== Level 5 - Optimizing ===
Maturity level 5 focuses on continually improving process performance through both incremental and innovative technological improvements. Quantitative process-improvement objectives for the organization are established, continually revised to reflect changing business objectives, and used as criteria in managing process improvement. The effects of deployed process improvements are measured and evaluated against the quantitative process-improvement objectives. Both the defined processes and the organization’s set of standard processes are targets of measurable improvement activities.
Process improvements to address common causes of process variation and measurably improve the organization’s processes are identified, evaluated, and deployed.
Optimizing processes that are agile and innovative depends on the participation of an empowered workforce aligned with the business values and objectives of the organization. The organization’s ability to rapidly respond to changes and opportunities is enhanced by finding ways to accelerate and share learning.
A critical distinction between maturity level 4 and maturity level 5 is the type of process variation addressed. At maturity level 4, processes are concerned with addressing special causes of process variation and providing statistical predictability of the results. Though processes may produce predictable results, the results may be insufficient to achieve the established objectives. At maturity level 5, processes are concerned with addressing common causes of process variation and changing the process (that is, shifting the mean of the process performance) to improve process performance (while maintaining statistical probability) to achieve the established quantitative process-improvement objectives.
=== Extensions ===
Recent versions of CMMI from SEI indicate a "level 0", characterized as "Incomplete". Many observers leave this level out as redundant or unimportant, but Pressman and others make note of it. See page 18 of the [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/pub/documents/02.reports/pdf/02tr011.pdf August 2002 edition of CMMI from SEI] (Note: PDF file).
Anthony Finkelstein[http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/A.Finkelstein/papers/immaturity.pdf] extrapolated that negative levels are necessary to represent environments that are not only indifferent, but actively counterproductive, and this was refined by Tom Schorsch[http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/1996/11/xt96d11h.asp] as the ''[[CIMM|Capability Immaturity Model]]'':
* CMM level 0 (''negligent'')
* CMM level -1 (''obstructive'')
* CMM level -2 (''contemptuous'')
* CMM level -3 (''undermining'')
== Process areas ==
{{details|Process area (CMMI)}}
The CMMI contains several [[Process area (CMMI)|key process areas]] indicating the aspects of product development that are to be covered by company processes.
{|
|+ Key Process Areas of the Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)
! Abbreviation || Name || Area || Maturity Level
|-
| CAR || Causal Analysis and Resolution || Support || 5
|-
| CM || Configuration Management || Support || 2
|-
| DAR || Decision Analysis and Resolution || Support || 3
|-
| IPM || Integrated Project Management || Project Management || 3
|-
| ISM || Integrated Supplier Management || Project Management || 3
|-
| IT || Integrated Teaming || Project Management || 3
|-
| MA || Measurement and Analysis || Support || 3
|-
| OEI || Organizational Environment for Integration || Support || 3
|-
| OID || Organizational Innovation and Deployment || Process Management || 5
|-
| OPD || Organizational Process Definition || Process Management || 3
|-
| OPF || Organizational Process Focus || Process Management || 3
|-
| OPP || Organizational Process Performance || Process Management || 4
|-
| OT || Organizational Training || Process Management || 3
|-
| PI || Product Integration || Engineering || 3
|-
| PMC || Project Monitoring and Control || Project Management || 2
|-
| PP || Project Planning || Project Management || 2
|-
| PPQA || Process and Product Quality Assurance || Support || 2
|-
| QPM || Quantitative Project Management || Project Management || 4
|-
| RD || Requirements Development || Engineering || 3
|-
| REQM || Requirements Management || Engineering || 2
|-
| RSKM || Risk Management || Project Management || 3
|-
| SAM || Supplier Agreement Management || Project Management || 2
|-
| TS || Technical Solution || Engineering || 3
|-
| VAL || Validation || Engineering || 3
|-
| VER || Verification || Engineering || 3
|}
== Controversial aspects ==
The [[software industry]] is diverse and volatile. All methodologies for creating software have supporters and critics, and the CMM is no exception.
=== Praise ===
* The CMM was developed to give Defense organizations a yardstick to assess and describe the capability of software contractors to provide software on time, within budget, and to acceptable standards. It has arguably been successful in this role, even reputedly causing some software salespeople to clamour for their organizations' software engineers/developers to "implement CMM."
* The CMM is intended to enable an assessment of an organization's maturity for software development. It is an important tool for outsourcing and exporting software development work. Economic development agencies in India, Ireland, Egypt, and elsewhere have praised the CMM for enabling them to be able to compete for US outsourcing contracts on an even footing.
* The CMM provides a good framework for organizational improvement. It allows companies to prioritize their process improvement initiatives.
|
ccurs most frequently in the winter. Because the season's lower temperatures damage olive trees and citrus fruits, groves and orchards are restricted to sheltered places with southern and western exposures, even in areas with high average winter temperatures.
Lowland rainfall averages from 1,000 millimeters to more than 1,500 millimeters annually, with the higher levels in the north. Nearly 95% of the rain falls in the winter.
Rainfall in the upland mountain ranges is heavier. Adequate records are not available, and estimates vary widely, but annual averages are probably about 1,800 millimeters and are as high as 2,550 millimeters in some northern areas. The seasonal variation is not quite as great in the coastal area.
The higher inland mountains receive less precipitation than the intermediate uplands. Terrain differences cause wide local variations, but the seasonal distribution is the most consistent of any area.
==Terrain==
[[image:Albania relief large.jpg|thumb|200px|Shaded relief map of Albania.]]
The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible. The remainder, an alluvial plain, receives precipitation seasonally, is poorly drained, and is alternately arid or flooded. Much of the plain's soil is of poor quality. Far from offering a relief from the difficult interior terrain, the alluvial plain is often as inhospitable as the mountains. Good soil and dependable precipitation, however, are found in intermontane river basins, in the lake district along the eastern frontier, and in a narrow band of slightly elevated land between the coastal plains and the interior mountains.
In the far north, the mountains are an extension of the [[Dinaric Alps]] and, more specifically, the [[Montenegrin limestone plateau]]. Albania's northern mountains are more folded and rugged, however, than most of the plateau. The rivers have deep valleys with steep sides and arable valley floors. Generally unnavigable, the rivers obstruct rather than encourage movement within the alpine region. Roads are few and poor. Lacking internal communications and external contacts, a tribal society flourished in this area for centuries. Only after [[World War II]] were serious efforts made to incorporate the people of the region into Albanian national life. A low coastal belt extends from the northern boundary southward to the vicinity of [[Vlorë]]. On average, it extends less than sixteen kilometers inland, but widens to about fifty kilometers in the [[Elbasan]] area in central Albania. In its natural state, the coastal belt is characterized by low scrub vegetation, varying from barren to dense. There are large areas of marshlands and other areas of bare, eroded badlands. Where elevations rise slightly and precipitation is regular--in the foothills of the central uplands, for example--the land is highly arable. Marginal land is reclaimed wherever irrigation is possible.
Just east of the lowlands, the central uplands, called [[Çermenikë]] by Albanians, are an area of generally moderate elevations, between 305 and 915 meters, with a few points reaching above 1,520 meters. Shifting along the faultline that roughly defines the western edge of the central uplands causes frequent, and occasionally severe, [[earthquake]]s.
[[image:Mount Çikë.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mount Çikë in the south]]
Although rugged terrain and points of high elevation mark the central uplands, the first major mountain range inland from the Adriatic is an area of predominantly serpentine rock (which derives its name from its dull green color and often spotted appearance), extending nearly the length of the country, from the North Albanian Alps to the Greek border south of [[Korçë]]. Within this zone, there are many areas in which sharp limestone and sandstone outcroppings predominate, although the ranges as a whole are characterized by rounded mountains.
The mountains east of the serpentine zone are the highest in Albania, exceeding 2,754 meters in the [[Mount Korab]] (''Mali Korabit'') range at Korabi's Peak (''Maja e Korabit''). Together with the North Albanian Alps and the serpentine zone, the eastern highlands are the most rugged and inaccessible of any terrain on the Balkan Peninsula.
The three lakes of easternmost Albania, [[Lake Ohrid]] (''Liqeni Ohrit''), [[Big Prespa Lake]] (''Prespa e Madhe''), and [[Small Prespa Lake]] (''Prespa e Vogël''), are remote and picturesque. Much of the terrain in their vicinity is not overly steep, and it supports a larger population than any other inland portion of the country. Albania's eastern border passes through Lake Ohrid; all but a small tip of Prespa e Vogël is in Greece; and the point at which the boundaries of three states meet is in Lake Prespa. Each of the two larger lakes has a total surface areas of about 260 square kilometers, and Prespa e Vogël is about one-fifth as large. The surface elevation is about 695 meters for Lake Ohrid and 855 meters for the other two lakes.
The southern mountain ranges are more accessible than the serpentine zone, the eastern highlands, or the North Albanian Alps. The transition to the lowlands is less abrupt, and the arable valley floors are wider. Limestone, the predominant mineral, is responsible for the cliffs and clear water of the coastline southeast of Vlorë. [[Erosion]] of a blend of softer rocks has provided the sediment that has caused wider valleys to form in the southern mountain area than those characteristic of the remainder of the country. This terrain encouraged the development of larger landholding, thus influencing the social structure of southern Albania.
* [[List of Albanian islands|Islands]]
* [[List of Albanian lakes|Lakes]]
* [[List of Albanian mountains|Mountains]]
* [[List of Albanian rivers|Rivers]]
* [[List of Albanian seas|Seas]]
==Drainage==
[[image:River in Albania.jpg|thumb|200px|River in the south]]
Nearly all of the precipitation that falls on Albania drains into the [[river]]s and reaches the coast without even leaving the country. In the north, only one small stream escapes Albania. In the south, an even smaller rivulet drains into Greece. Because the topographical divide is east of the Albanian border with its neighbors, a considerable amount of water from other countries drains through Albania. An extensive portion of the basin of the [[Drini i Bardhë River]] (''White Drini''), called Beli Drim by Serbs, basin is in the [[Metohia]] area, across Albania's northeastern border. The three eastern lakes that Albania shares with its neighboring countries, as well as the streams that flow into them, drain into the [[Drini i Zi River]] (''Black Drini''). The watershed divide in the south also dips nearly seventyfive kilometers into Greece at one point. Several tributaries of the [[Vjosa River]] rise in that area.
With the exception of the Drini i Zi River, which flows northward and drains nearly the entire eastern border region before it turns westward to the sea, most of the rivers in northern and central Albania flow fairly directly westward to the sea. In the process, they cut through the ridges rather than flow around them. This apparent geological impossibility occurs because the highlands originally were lifted without much folding. The streams came into existence at that time. The compression and folding of the plateau into ridges occurred later. The folding process was rapid enough in many instances to dam the rivers temporarily. The resulting lakes existed until their downstream channels became wide enough to drain them. This sequence created the many interior basins that are typically a part of the Albanian landform. During the lifetime of the temporary [[lake]]s, enough sediment was deposited in them to form the basis for fertile soils. Folding was rarely rapid enough to force the streams into radically different channels.
The precipitous fall from higher elevations and the highly irregular seasonal flow patterns that are characteristic of nearly all streams in the country reduce the economic value of the [[stream]]s. They erode the mountains and deposit the [[sediment]] that created the [[lowland]]s and continues to augment them, but the rivers flood when there is local rainfall. When the lands are parched and need irrigation, the rivers usually are dry. Their violence when they are full makes them difficult to control, and they are unnavigable. The Buna River is an exception. It is dredged between [[Shkodër]] and the [[Adriatic Sea]] and can be negotiated by small ships. In contrast to their history of holding fast to their courses in the mountains, the rivers constantly change channels on the lower plains, making waste of much of the land they create.
The [[Drin River]] is the largest and most constant stream. Fed by melting snows from the northern and eastern mountains and by the more evenly distributed seasonal precipitation of that area, its flow does not have the extreme variations characteristic of nearly all other rivers in the country. Its normal flow varies seasonally by only about one-third. Along its length of about 282 kilometers, it drains nearly 5,957 square kilometers within Albania. As it also collects from the Adriatic portion of Kosovo's watersheds and the three border lakes (Big [[Lake Prespa]] drains to [[Lake Ohrid]] via an underground stream), its total basin encompasses about 15,540 square kilometers.
The [[Semani River|Semani]] and [[Vjosa River|Vjosa]] are the only other rivers that are more than 160 kilometers long and have basins larger than 2,600 square kilometers. These rivers drain the southern regions and, reflecting the seasonal distribution of rainfall, are torrents in winter and nearly dry in the summer, in spite of their length. This variable nature also characterizes the many shorter streams. In the summer, most of them carry less than a tenth of their winter averages, if they are not altogether dry.
Although the sediment carried by the mountain torrents conti |
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[[Category:Educational psychology| ]]
[[Category:Applied psychology]]
[[Category:Education|Psychology]]
[[Category:Human behavior]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
[[da:Pædagogisk psykologi]]
[[de:Schulpsychologie]]
[[he:פסיכולוגיה חינוכית]]
[[ja:教育心理学]]
[[pt:Psicologia educacional]]
[[sl:Pedagoška psihologija]]
[[zh:教育心理学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EFTPOS</title>
<id>10333</id>
<revision>
<id>40757373</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T20:50:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink; wikilink with unneeded pipe</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''EFTPOS''' (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale) is a device by which sales transactions can be directly debited to the customer's bank account at the point of sale, through the use of a [[debit card]] (generally the same card used with [[Automatic Teller Machine]]s). Merchants using EFTPOS can also offer cashout facilities to customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase. EFTPOS are sometime also called '''POS Terminal''' or '''Payment Terminal''' and must not be confused with traditional [[Point of sale]].
The customer's card is swiped through a card reader or inserted into chip reader and the merchant usually enters the amount of the transaction before the customer enters their account and [[Personal identification number|PIN]]. There is usually a short delay while the EFTPOS terminal contacts the server (over a phone line or mobile connection) before a message of Accepted or Declined is returned. Often, at peak shopping times (for example the last shopping day before Christmas), the system can become overloaded and the delay will become extended or even time out.
==Ubiquity in some countries==
EFTPOS could be seen a major driver of a cashless society in these countries. EFTPOS is so wide-spread and so commonly used that it is necessary to advertise "cash only - no EFTPOS" for events or locations where it is not available. Mobile EFTPOS is now used by certain taxi companies, pizza delivery outlets and stall holders at festivals, allowing EFTPOS transactions to be carried over the mobile network.
==EFTPOS in particular countries==
In some countries, banks tend to levy a small fee of around 25 to 50 cents per debit card transaction. Although bank accounts without these fees are becoming more common, these charges mean it is wise to limit EFTPOS usage. There are, however, many people in New Zealand and Australia who routinely use EFTPOS for all transactions, no matter how small. This has resulted in some retailers refusing to accept EFTPOS as payment for small transactions, where paying the transaction fee would absorb the [[profit margin]] on the sale, making the transaction uneconomic for the retailer.
===UK===
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] integrated EFTPOS (usually referred to as [[debit card]]s) are an established part of the retail market. Cards commonly in circulation include [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] (previously [[Switch (debit card)|Switch]]), [[Solo (debit card)|Solo]], [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] [[Visa Delta|Delta]] and Visa [[Visa Electron|Electron]]. Banks d |
m problems in neighboring countries and an economic recovery in the European Union.
The [[manufacturing]] sector accounts for about 13% of GDP. The [[food]] industry is one of the most profitable and fastest-growing areas of manufacturing, with significant export potential. High-technology equipment production, especially for [[telecommunications]], is also a fast-growing sector. Other important areas include textiles, building materials, machinery, transport equipment, and electrical appliances.
Greece is traditionally a seafaring nation and has built an impressive shipping industry based on its geographic location and the entrepreneurial ability of its ship owners. The Greek-owned fleet (all flags), one of the three largest worldwide, totalled 3,358 ships (134 million DWT) in 1998.
Construction activity (about 10% of GDP) has increased due to infrastructure projects partially financed by European Union structural funds and the public investment for the Olympic Games in Athens. Up to 1999, about $20 billion has gone to projects to modernize and develop Greece's transportation network. The centerpiece of this effort was the construction of the new international airport El. Venizelos near Athens and the new ring road "Attiki Odos" to connect it with the city and the south of the country. In addition, the Athens [[metro|metro]] system is being greatly expanded, and construction or expansion of roads, railway lines, and bridges is either underway or planned.
== EU membership ==
Greece must realign its economy as part of an extended transition to full EU membership that began in 1981. Greek businesses are adjusting to competition from EU firms and the government has had to liberalize its economic and commercial regulations and practices. However, Greece has been granted waivers from certain aspects of the EU's 1992 single market program.
Historically, Greece has been a net beneficiary of the EU budget. Net payments to Greece totaled $4.9 billion in 1998, representing 4.2% of GDP. Net inflows were estimated at about $5 billion in 1998. These funds contribute significantly to Greece's current accounts balance and reduce the state budget deficit.
Greece is receiving additional substantial support from the EU through the [[Delors II]] package. In July 1994, the Greek government and the EU agreed on a final plan which provided Greece 16.6 billion [[European Currency Unit|ECU]] for the period 1994-1998, of which 14 billion ECU was from the Community Support Framework and 2.6 billion ECU was from the Cohesion Fund. This level of assistance was continued in 1999 and finances major public works and economic development projects, upgrades competitiveness and human resources, improves living conditions, and addresses disparities between poorer and more developed regions of the country
==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/greece/ OECD's Greece country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/greece/ OECD Economic Survey of Greece]
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Greece]]
*[[Agriculture in Greece]]
{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
Layla is the worst ever in the world and so is Ben! Not Natalie!economies]]
[[el:Οικονομία της Ελλάδας]]
[[es:Economía de Grecia]]
[[fr:Économie de la Grèce]]
[[pt:Economia da Grécia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Greece</title>
<id>12114</id>
<revision>
<id>41503931</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:33:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.171.226.246</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
[[OTE]] is the main player in fixed-line telephony. There are also some smaller companies as Vivodi and Q-telecom.
[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use: 5.431 million (1997).
Telephone system:
*modern networks reach all areas; microwave radio relay carries most traffic; extensive open-wire network; submarine cables to off-shore islands
*domestic: 100% digital; microwave radio relay, open wire, and submarine cable
*international: 100% digital; tropospheric scatter; 8 submarine cables; [[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 1 [[Indian Ocean]]), 1 [[Eutelsat]], and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region)
===Mobile Telecommunications===
Greece has four mobile telecom companies; Cosmote, Vodafone, TIM and [[Q-Telecom]].
Number of active lines: 10,876,544 (Sept 2003), which means more than 100% market penetration.
===Satellite Telecommunications===
Greece owns one Telecommunications Satellite, named Hellasat, witch provides telecommunication services in a major part of Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
===Internet===
[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs): 23 (1999). Internet penetration: 33.9% (2005).
[[Country code]] (Top-level domain): .gr
==Mass Media==
[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:
The state [[radio]] and [[television]] [[broadcasting]] agency is [[Elliniki Radiophonia Tileorassi|ERT]] (Elliniki Radiofonia kai Tileorasi - Greek Radio & Television). The station owns 3 national television stations, [[ET-1]], [[New Hellenic Television|NET]] (Nea Elliniki Tileorasi) and [[ET-3]] which is based out of [[Thessaloniki]]. In January 2006, ERT launched Digital Terrestrial Television with 3 channels. By March 2006, at least 65% of the Greek population will be able to view Digital TV for free with the use of set-top boxes. ERT also operates 7 national radio stations, including [[ERA 5]], the [[Voice of Greece]], which broadcasts internationally via shortwave. ERT is based in Athens.
The first non-[[pirate]] private radio station to broadcast in Greece was [[Athena 9,84 FM]], in 1987. Private television began in November, 1989 when [[Mega Channel]] began operating. Today, over 1,000 radio stations and approximately 150 television stations broadcast in Greece. Digital satellite broadcasting began in 1999 by a company called Nova.
Radios:
5.02 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:64 (plus about 1,000 low-power repeaters); also two stations in the US Armed Forces Network (1999)
Televisions: 2.54 million (1997)
==Post==
ELTA is the state-owned postal service provider of Greece.
:''See also :'' [[Greece]] [[OTE]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Greece]]
[[Category:Communications in Greece]]
[[el:Τηλεπικοινωνίες στην Ελλάδα]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Greece</title>
<id>12115</id>
<revision>
<id>39351985</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T16:06:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.157.203.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Merchant marine: */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">===Railways:===
<br>total:2,548 km
<br>standard gauge:1,565 km
1.435-m gauge (36 km electrified; 23 km double track)
<br>narrow gauge: 961 km 1.000-m gauge; 22 km 0.750-m gauge (a rack type railway for steep grades)
City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Athens]]
===Highways:===
<br>total: 117,000 km
<br>paved: 107,406 km (including 1030 km of expressways - early 2006 estimation)
<br>unpaved: 9,594 km (1996 est.)
===Waterways:===
80 km; system consists of three coastal canals; including the Corinth Canal (6 km) which crosses the Isthmus of Corinth connecting the Gulf of Corinth with the Saronic Gulf and shortens the sea voyage from the Adriatic to Peiraiefs (Piraeus) by 325 km; and three unconnected rivers
===Pipelines:===
crude oil 26 km; petroleum products 547 km
===Ports and harbors:===
Alexandroupolis, Elefsis, Irakleion (Crete), Kavala, Kerkyra, Chalkis, Igoumenitsa, Lavrion, Patrai, Peiraiefs (Piraeus), Thessaloniki, Volos, Rhodes
*[http://www.ferryto.co.uk/greece.html] Greece and Greek Islands Ferries
===Merchant marine:===
<br>total: 3338 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 109,377,819GRT/182,540,868DWT[http://www.nee.gr/htm/greekowned.htm]
<br>ships by type: bulk 273, cargo 60, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 5, combination ore/oil 8, container 43, liquified gas 5, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 12, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 245, refrigerated cargo 3, roll-on/roll-off 19, short-sea passenger 75, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
===Airports:===
Total: 80 (1999 est.)
'''With paved runways:'''
<br>''total:'' 64
<br>''over 3,047 m:'' 6
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 15
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 18
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:'' 17
<br>''under 914 m:'' 8 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:'' 16
<br>''over 3,047 m:'' 1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1
<br>''under 914 m:'' 12 (1999 est.)
'''Heliports:''' 2 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Greece]]
[[Category:Transportation in Greece|*]]
[[bg:&#1058;&#1088;&#1072;&#1085;&#1089;&#1087;&#1086;&#1088;&#1090; &#1074; &#1043;&#1098;&#1088;&#1094;&#1080;&#1103;]]
[[fr:Transport en Grèce]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Greece</title>
<id>12116</id>
<revision>
<id>40326781</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T21:07:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
<id>135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#CC3333
| age=18 years of age
| availability=2,668,872 (2002 est.)
| service=2,034,192 (2002 est.)
| reaching age=7,976 (2002 est.)
| active=58,399
| amount=$6.12 billion (FY99/00 est.)
| percent GDP=4.91% (FY99/00 est.)
}}
The '''[[armed forces]]''' of [[Greece]] consist of the
*[[Hellenic Army]]
*[[Hellenic Navy]]
*[[Hellenic Air Force]]
*[[Hellenic Coast Guard]]
The civilian authority for the Greek military is the [[Hellenic Republic Ministry of National Defence|Ministry of National Defence]].
Greece currently has universal compulsory military service for males; however, this system is likel |
years to have its first heavyweight champion since Bob Fitzsimmons lost his title in 1899. [[Lennox Lewis]] became undisputed champion in 1999, having first gained the W.B.C. title in 1993. Frank Bruno held the W.B.C. world heavyweight title from 1995 and 1996, after beating the man who beat Lewis, Oliver McCall. He lost it to Mike Tyson in a rematch of their 1989 title bout.
Sue Atkins (alias Sue Catkins) helped to pioneer women's boxing in the United Kingdom in the 1980s, but without any official recognition. The first British woman to be issued with a license was Jane Couch from Fleetwood, who won the Women's International Boxing Federation (W.I.B.F.) welterweight title in 1996.
[[Floyd Mayweather Jr.]] is the current dominant figure in boxing.
== Youth Golden Gloves Champs (Brief) ==
There have been a select few recent young up and coming Golden Glove Champions on their way to the top, and capable of making careers out of their current statis. These include: #1 ranked JaCan Mitchels, of the heavyweight division, #13 ranked Jerome Fields, of the Welterweight division, and young future prospect Aubray Reedus ranked #17, of the Middleweight division. All of which have won several youth titles in their name.
== International Boxing Hall of Fame ==
For many years, the sport of boxing did not have a hall of fame. The inspiration for the boxing hall of fame evolved from a tribute the town of [[Canastota, New York]] held for two local heroes in 1982. The tribute was for [[Carmen Basilio]], who was world welterweight and middleweight champion in the 1950s, and his nephew, [[Billy Backus]], who was world welterweight champion in the early 1970s. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute, which was so success that some started to look into the idea of creating the sport's first hall of fame and museum. The [[International Boxing Hall of Fame]] opened in Canastota in 1989. In 1990, the first group of legends were inducted, which included [[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]], [[Benny Leonard]], [[Jack Dempsey]], [[Henry Armstrong]], [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], [[Archie Moore]], and [[Muhammad Ali]]. The Hall of Fame holds it's induction ceremony every June as part of a four day event.
==List of articles on boxing history==
For more information on the timeline of boxing history see
*[[Boxing in the 1920s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1930s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1940s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1950s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1960s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1970s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1980s]]
== Medical concerns ==
In 1983, The Journal of the [[American Medical Association]] called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society." Since the AMA called for abolition of boxing, the British, Canadian, Australian and World Medical Association have also called for the sport's abolition, as have the American Neurological Association and the American Academy of Neurology.
Many who disagree with the AMA point out that boxing is far from being the most dangerous of sports. To put the risks in perspective, here are some [[United States|US]] figures on sports fatalities:
Fatality rates per 100,000 participants
#Horse racing: 128
#Sky diving: 123
#Hang gliding: 56
#Mountaineering: 51
#Scuba diving: 11
#Motorcycle racing: 7
#College football: 3
#Boxing: 1.3
(This table was compiled by R.J. McCunney and P.K. Russo, authors of an article entitled ''Brain Injuries in Boxing'', which was published in 1984.)
In response to such statistics, Lundberg has said, "It's not the deaths but the chronic brain damage that is so frequent." the AMA says about three out of four boxers who have twenty or more professional fights show some brain deterioration.
Many who support the ban proposal consider its main reason is not the fact that boxing is a dangerous sport, but the fact that the goal of the sport is to cause injury to the opponent. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the [[British Medical Association]], has said in support of the BMA's proposed ban on boxing, "It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/87267.stm]
==Impact of boxing on the English language==
Numerous metaphors common to everyday speech derive from the sport of boxing. Some of these include:
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! '''Metaphor''' || '''Definition'''
|-
| he was rocked by that one || a fighter was hit by a punch with enough force to be dazed
|-
| not up to scratch || subpar, not able to do the task at hand (in the old days of boxing, boxers started the round by stepping over a scratch made in the ring, but if a boxer could not do this to keep the round going, he was said to be "not up to scratch")
|-
| saved by the bell || rescued from defeat by dint of time running out, an unexpected turn of events, etc.
|-
| on (or against) the ropes || on the verge of being defeated
|-
| throw in the towel || to quit, give up (traditionally, a boxers manager or trainer will throw a towel into the ring if he feels that his fighter cannot win and is endangering himself.
|-
| come out swinging || to throw oneself into an activity or competition
|-
| in one's corner || on someone's side, to help or cheer him on
|-
| down for the count || knocked out, defeated
|-
| sucker punch || hitting an opponent who is off his guard, unfairly taking advantage of a vulnerability
|-
| hitting below the belt || a grossly unfair attack (in everyday life, usually of a verbal nature)
|-
| punch drunk || dazed or incoherent (originally, from being repeatedly struck, can refer to dazes generally)
|-
| pull one's punches || to hold back, withhold full force or attack
|-
| in the arena || to be participating, engaged
|-
| keep your guard up || to remain alert, on the defensive
|-
| punch above one's weight || to compete against a more powerful opponent; to perform better than expected
|}
==Boxing in popular culture==
*''[[Battling Butler]]'' (1926 film) Starring [[Buster Keaton]]
*''[[The Champ]] (1931 film)
*''[[Two-Fisted]]'' (1935 film) Comedy
*''[[Kid Galahad (1937 film)]]'' Starring [[Edward G. Robinson]]
*''[[Golden Boy]]'' (1937 stageplay) written by [[Clifford Odets]]
*''[[Golden Boy]]'' (1939 film) Starring [[William Holden]] and [[Barbara Stanwyck]]
*''[[Gentleman Jim]]'' (1942 film) Starring [[Errol Flynn]]
*''[[Body and Soul]]'' (1947 film) Starring [[John Garfield]]
*''[[Champion (1949 film)]]'' Starring [[Kirk Douglas]]
*''[[The Set-Up (1949 film)]]'' Starring [[Robert Ryan]]
*''[[Day of the Fight]] (1951 short subject) first film directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]]
*''[[On the Waterfront]]'' (1954 film) Starring [[Marlon Brando]]
*''[[The Harder They Fall]]'' (1956 film) Starring [[Humphrey Bogart]]
*''[[Somebody Up There Likes Me]]'' (1956 film) Starring [[Paul Newman]]
*''[[Requiem for a Heavyweight]]'' (1956 TV play) Starring [[Jack Palance]], written by [[Rod Serling]]
*''[[Requiem for a Heavyweight]]'' (1962 film) Starring [[Anthony Quinn]], [[Jackie Gleason]] and [[Mickey Rooney]]
*''[[Kid Galahad ]]'' (1962 film) Musical starring [[Elvis Presley]]
*''[[Golden Boy]]'' (1964 musical stageplay)
*''[[The Great White Hope]]'' (1970 film) Starring [[James Earl Jones]] and [[Jane Alexander]]
*''[[Fat City]]'' (1972 film) Starring [[Stacey Keach]] and [[Jeff Bridges]]
*''[[Rocky]]'' Oscar winning movie in 1976 and its sequels, starring [[Sylvester Stallone]] (also scriptwriter)
*''[[The Main Event (1979 film)|The Main Event]]'' (1979 film) Starring [[Barbra Streisand]] and [[Ryan O'Neal]]
*''[[The Champ]]'' (1979 film) Starring [[Jon Voight]], [[Faye Dunaway]], and [[Rick Schroeder]]; remake of 1931 film
*''[[The Prize Fighter]]'' (1979 film), starring [[Don Knotts]] and [[Tim Conway]]
*''[[Raging Bull]]'' (1980 film) A classic boxing movie, starring [[Robert De Niro]] and [[Joe Pesci]]
*''[[Spike of Bensonhurst]]'' (1988 film)
*''[[The Great White Hype]]'' (1996 film) Starring [[Samuel L Jackson]] and [[Jeff Goldblum]]
*''[[When We Were Kings]]'' (1997 film) The story of [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[George Foreman]] and [[The Rumble in the Jungle]]
*''[[24 7: Twenty Four Seven]]'' (1997 film) Starring [[Bob Hoskins]]
*''[[Don King: Only in America]]'' (TV movie) Starring [[Ving Rhames]]
*''[[The Hurricane (1999 film)]]'' Starring [[Denzel Washington]] as middleweight [[Rubin Carter]]
*''[[Billy Elliot]]'', about a young dancer whose father and brother wanted to become a boxer, like [[Ken Buchanan]]
*''[[Girlfight]]'' (2000 film)
*''[[Ali (film)|Ali]]'' (2001 film) Starring [[Will Smith]]
*''[[Champion (2002 film)]] South Korean film about Duk Koo Kim, a South Korean boxer who died after a bout against [[Ray Mancini]]
*''[[Undefeated]]'' (2003 TV movie) Starring [[John Leguizamo]]
*''[[Million Dollar Baby]]'' (2004 film) Multiple Oscar winner about a female boxer directed by [[Clint Eastwood]]
*''[[Against the Ropes]]'' (2004 film) Starring Meg Ryan as [[Jackie Kallen]] famous female boxing promoter
*''[[Black Cloud]]'' Directed by and starring [[Rick Schroder]]
*''[[The Calcium Kid]]'' (2004 film)
*''[[Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson]]'' (2004 film) Documentary directed by [[Ken Burns]]
*''[[Cinderella Man]]'' (2005 film) Based on the true story of [[Jim Braddock]] starring [[Russell Crowe]].
*''[[The Contender (television series)|The Contender]]'' 2005 Reality TV series
*''[[Hajime no Ippo]]'' A [[manga]]/[[anime]] about a young featherweight boxer
*''[[Activision Boxing]]'', one of the first console games about boxing
*''[[Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!!]]'' A [[Nintendo]] game. Later adapted to [[SNES]] as ''[[Super Punch-Out!! (video game)|Super Punch-Out!!]]''
*[[EA Sports]] ''fight night 2004'' and ''[[Fight Night: Round 2]]'' (formerly ''[[Knockout Kings]]'').
==See also==
*[[Boxin |
[[George Stephenson College]], founded in 2001 on the [[University of Durham]]'s Queen's Campus in [[Stockton-on-Tees]], is named after him. Also named after him and his son is the [[Stephenson Railway Museum]] in [[North Shields]].
As a tribute to the life and works of the engineer, a bronze statue of George Stephenson was unveiled at [[Chesterfield Railway Station]] (which is overlooked by [[Tapton House]], where Stephenson spent the last ten years of his life) on [[28 October]] 2005, which marked the completion of improvements to the station. At the event, a full size working replica of ''Rocket'' was on show, which then spent two days on public display at the Chesterfield Market Festival.
== See also ==
* [[History of Science and Technology]]
* [[Industrial revolution]]
* [[Railway]]
* [[Steam engine]]
* [[Train]]
[[Category:1781 births|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:1848 deaths|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:English inventors|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:English engineers|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:English civil engineers|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Locomotive engineers|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Tyne and Wear|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Natives of Northumberland|Stephenson, George]]
[[cs:George Stephenson]]
[[cy:George Stephenson]]
[[da:George Stephenson]]
[[de:George Stephenson]]
[[es:George Stephenson]]
[[eo:George STEPHENSON]]
[[fr:George Stephenson]]
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[[it:george Stephenson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grapheme</title>
<id>12579</id>
<revision>
<id>38667708</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T21:32:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>168.209.98.35</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Interwiki link af:Grafeem</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''grapheme''' designates the atomic unit in [[writing systems|written language]]. Graphemes include [[letter (alphabet)|letters]], Chinese [[ideogram]]s, [[numeral]]s, [[punctuation]] marks, and other symbols.
In a [[phonology|phonological]] [[orthography]] a grapheme corresponds to one [[phoneme]]. In spelling systems that are non-phonemic &mdash; such as the spellings used most widely for written [[English language|English]] &mdash; multiple graphemes may represent a single phoneme. These are called [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (two graphemes for a single phoneme) and [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s (three graphemes). For example, the word ''ship'' contains four graphemes (''s'', ''h'', ''i'', and ''p'') but only three phonemes, because ''sh'' is a digraph. An example of a trigraph is the ''tch'' in ''itch''.
Different [[glyph]]s can represent the same grapheme, meaning they are [[allography|allographs]]. For example, the [[minuscule]] letter ''[[a]]'' can be seen in two variants, with a hook at the top, and without. Not all glyphs are graphemes; for example the [[logogram]] [[ampersand]] (''&amp;'') represents the Latin word ''et'' (English word ''and''), which contains two phonemes.
==See also==
*[[Digraph (orthography)]]
*[[Trigraph (orthography)]]
*[[Allograph (orthography)]]
*[[Tilde]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[af:Grafeem]]
[[bg:&#1041;&#1091;&#1082;&#1074;&#1072;]]
[[de:Graphem]]
[[als:Buchstabe]]
[[fr:Graphème]]
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[[it:Grafema]]
[[pl:Grafem]]
[[pt:Grafema]]
[[ru:&#1041;&#1091;&#1082;&#1074;&#1072;]]
[[sl:grafem]]
[[sv:Grafem]]
[[zh-min-nan:Grapheme]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glass</title>
<id>12581</id>
<revision>
<id>42110320</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:09:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.132.2.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Glass art */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''This article refers to the material. For other uses, see [[Glass (disambiguation)]].''
{{TOCright}}
The materials definition of a '''glass''' is a uniform [[amorphous solid]] material, usually produced when a suitably viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its [[glass transition temperature]], thereby not giving enough time for a regular [[crystal]] lattice to form. A simple example is when [[Sucrose|table sugar]] is melted and cooled rapidly by dumping the liquid sugar onto a cold surface. The resulting solid is amorphous, not crystalline like the sugar was originally, which can be seen in its [[conchoidal]] fracture.
{{wiktionarypar|glass}}
The word ''glass'' comes from [[Latin]] ''glacies'' (ice) and corresponds to [[German language|German]] ''Glas,'' [[Middle English|M.E.]] ''glas,'' [[Old English language|A.S.]] ''glaes''. Germanic tribes used the word ''glaes'' to describe [[amber]], recorded by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historians as ''glaesum.'' Anglo-Saxons used the word ''glaer'' for amber.
The term [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]] is used to describe glass fused as a decorative or functional coating on metal.
The remainder of this article will be concerned with a specific type of glass&mdash;the [[silica]]-based glasses in common use as a building, container or decorative material.
----
In its pure form, '''glass''' is a [[transparency (optics)|transparent]], relatively [[strength of materials|strong]], hard-wearing, essentially [[inert]], and [[biology|biologically]] inactive material which can be formed with very smooth and impervious surfaces. These desirable properties lead to a great many uses of glass. Glass is, however, brittle and will break into sharp shards. These properties can be modified, or even changed entirely, with the addition of other compounds or [[heat treatment]].
Common glass contains about 70% [[amorphous]] [[silicon dioxide]] ([[Silicon|Si]][[Oxygen|O]]<sub>2</sub>), which is the same chemical compound found in [[quartz]], and its polycrystalline form, [[sand]].
==Properties and uses==
[[Image:Glass-Ball.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colours as shown in this ball from the [[Verrerie of Brehat]] in [[Brittany]].]]
An obvious characteristic of ordinary glass is that it is transparent to visible light (not all glassy materials are). The transparency is due to an absence of electronic [[transition state]]s in the range of visible [[light]], and because ordinary glass is homogeneous on all length scales greater than about a wavelength of visible light. (Heterogeneities cause light to be scattered, breaking up any coherent image transmission). Ordinary glass does not pass light with a wavelength of lower than 400 [[nanometre|nm]], also known as [[ultraviolet]] light or UV. This is due to the addition of compounds such as [[soda ash]] (sodium carbonate).
Pure SiO<sub>2</sub> glass (also called [[fused quartz]]) does not absorb UV light and is used for applications that require transparency in this region, although it is more expensive. This type of glass can be made so pure that, when made into [[fibre optic]] cables, hundreds of kilometres of glass are transparent at [[infrared]] wavelengths. Individual fibres are given an equally transparent core of SiO<sub>2</sub>/{{Germanium}}O<sub>2</sub> glass, which has only slightly different optical properties (the germanium contributing to a higher [[index of refraction]]). Undersea cables have sections doped with [[erbium]], which [[Fiber_amplifier|amplify]] transmitted signals by [[laser]] emission from within the glass itself. Amorphous SiO<sub>2</sub> is also used as a [[dielectric]] material in [[integrated circuit]]s, due to the smooth and electrically neutral interface it forms with [[silicon]].
Glasses used for making [[optics|optical]] devices are commonly categorized using a six-digit [[glass code]], or alternatively a letter-number code from the [[Schott Glass]] catalogue. For example, ''BK7'' is a low-[[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] [[borosilicate glass|borosilicate]] [[crown glass (optics)|crown glass]], and ''SF10'' is a high-dispersion dense [[flint glass]]. The glasses are arranged by composition, refractive index, and [[Abbe number]].
Glass is sometimes created naturally from volcanic [[magma]]. This glass is called [[obsidian]], and is usually black with impurities. Obsidian is a raw material for [[flint knapper]]s, who have used it to make extremely sharp knives since the [[stone age]]. Collecting [[obsidian]] from national parks and some places may be prohibited by law in some countries, but the same toolmaking techniques can be applied to industrially-made glass.
==Glass ingredients==
Pure [[silica]] (SiO<sub>2</sub>) has a [[melting point]] of about 2000 [[Celsius|°C]] (3600 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]), and while it can be made into glass for special applications (see [[fused quartz]]), two other substances are always added to common glass to simplify processing. One is soda ([[sodium carbonate]] Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>), or [[potash]], the equivalent [[potassium carbonate|potassium]] compound, which lowers the melting point to about 1000 °C (1800 °F). However, the soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is obviously undesirable, so lime ([[calcium oxide]], CaO) is the third component, added to restore insolubility. The resulting glass contains about 70% silica and is called a '''soda-lime glass'''. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.
As well as soda and lime, most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties. [[Lead]] glass, such as [[lead crystal]] or [[flint glass]], is more 'brilliant' because the increased [[refractive index]] causes noticeably more "sparkles", while [[boron]] may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, as |
lfaro]] reduced the power of the [[clergy]] and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military [[coup d'etat|coup]] in [[1925]]. The [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] were marked by populist politicians, such as five-time president [[Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra]]. In January [[1942]], Ecuador signed the Rio Protocol to end the [[Ecuadorian-Peruvian War]] with Peru the year before. Ecuador agreed to a border that conceded to [[Peru]] much territory Ecuador previously had claimed in the [[Amazon basin]].
==After WWII==
After [[World War II]], a recovery in the market for agricultural commodities and the growth of the [[banana]] industry helped restore prosperity and political peace. From [[1948]]-[[1960|60]], three presidents - beginning with Galo Plaza Lasso - were freely elected and completed their terms.
Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the [[1960s]], while with the discovery of [[petroleum|oil]] in the [[1970s]] foreign companies started to develop oil resources in the Ecuadorean Amazon. In [[1972]], a nationalist military regime overthrew [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] for the last time and used the new oil wealth and foreign borrowing to pay for a program of [[industrialization]], land reform, and subsidies for urban consumers. With the oil boom fading, Ecuador returned to [[democracy]] in [[1979]], under the first Ecuadorean president of the 1979 [[constitution]], [[Jaime Roldós Aguilera]] who, with his Popular Forces' Concentration (CFP) party, won a decisive victory against [[Sixto Durán Ballén]] of the Social Christian Party (PSC). After a leadership disagreement with [[Asaad Bucaram]], the then leader of the CFP, Roldós left the above-mentioned party to found his own along with his wife. This Roldós-founded party, called "People, Change and Democracy" (PCD), would become an unimportant third-runner in Ecuadorean politics when [[Abdalá Bucaram Ortiz]]'s [[Guayaquil]]-based Ecuadorean Roldosísta Party (PRE) was founded in [[1982]]. In January [[1981]], the country went through yet another episode in its long-standing border dispute with [[Peru]] (see [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]], during the so-called [[Paquisha Incident]], which saw Peruvian troops expelling Ecuadorian soldies from three outposts located in the disputed and undemarcated zone.
By the end of the year 1981, Vice President [[Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea]], member of the Popular Democracy Party, (DP) succeeded Roldós after the President died in a plane crash. Due to the economic pressure of war and over-reliance in commodity (particularly oil) exporting for its economic needs, the government of Osvaldo Hurtado faced a chronic economic crisis in [[1982]], including [[inflation]], budget deficits, a falling currency, mounting debt service, and uncompetitive industries.
The [[1984]] presidential elections were narrowly won by [[León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneira]], of the Social Christian Party (PSC). During the first years of his administration, Febres-Cordero introduced free-market economic policies, took a strong stand against [[drug-trafficking]] and [[terrorism]], and pursued close relations with the [[United States]]. His tenure was marred by bitter wrangling with other branches of Government and his own brief kidnapping by elements of the military. A devastating [[earthquake]] in March [[1987]] interrupted oil exports and worsened the country's economic problems.
[[Rodrigo Borja Cevallos]] of the Democratic Left (ID) party won the presidency in [[1988]], running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram of the PRE. His government was committed to improving [[human rights]] protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!") named after [[Eloy Alfaro]]. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in [[1990]].
In [[1992]], Sixto Durán Ballén won in his third run for the presidency. His tough [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] adjustment measures were unpopular, but he succeeded in pushing a limited number of modernization initiatives through Congress. Durán Ballén's vice president, Alberto Dahík, was the architect of the administration's economic policies, but in [[1995]], Dahík fled the country to avoid prosecution on [[political corruption|corruption]] charges following a heated political battle with the opposition. A war with Peru (named [[Cenepa War|the Cenepa War]], after a river located in the area) erupted in January-February 1995 in a small, remote region, where the boundary prescribed by the 1942 Río Protocol was in dispute.
==Recent times==
[[Abdalá Bucaram]], from the PRE, won the presidency in [[1996]] on a platform that promised populist economic and [[social reform]]s and the breaking of what Bucaram referred to as the power of the nation's [[oligarchy]]. During his short term of office, Bucaram's administration drew criticism for corruption. Bucaram was deposed by the Congress in February [[1997]] on grounds of alleged mental incompetence. In his place, Congress named interim President [[Fabián Alarcón]], who had been President of Congress and head of the small Radical Alfarista Front (FRA) party. Alarcón's interim presidency was endorsed by a May 1997 popular referendum. During Alarcón's presidency, a new constitution was drafted. The 1979 constitution would be replaced by this new constitution without coming into effect on [[June 5]], [[1998]].
Congressional and first-round presidential elections were held on [[May 31]], 1998. No presidential candidate obtained a majority, so a run-off election between the top two candidates - Quito Mayor [[Jamil Mahuad]] of the DP and Social Christian Álvaro Noboa Pontón - was held on [[July 12]], 1998. Mahuad won by a narrow margin. He took office on [[August 10]], 1998. On the same day, Ecuador's new constitution came into effect.
Mahuad concluded a well-received peace with [[Peru]] on [[October 26]], 1998, but increasing economic, fiscal, and financial difficulties drove his popularity steadily lower. However, the coup de grace for Mahuad's administration was Mahuad's decision to make the indigenous currency, the [[sucre]] (named after a Venezuelan hero of the revolutionary war against Spain), obsolete and replace it with the [[U.S. dollar]] (a policy called [[dollarization]]). This caused massive unrest as the lower classes struggled to convert their now useless sucres to U.S. dollars and lost wealth, while the upper classes (whose members already had their wealth invested in U.S. dollars) gained wealth in turn.
On [[January 21]], [[2000]], during demonstrations in Quito by indigenous groups, the military and police refused to enforce public order. Demonstrators entered the National Assembly building and declared, in a move that resembled the [[coup d'etat|coups d'etat]] endemic to Ecuadorean history, a three-person "[[junta]]" in charge of the country. Field-grade military officers declared their support for the concept. During a night of confusion and failed negotiations President Mahuad was forced to flee the presidential palace for his own safety. Vice President [[Gustavo Noboa]] took charge by vice-presidential decree; Mahuad went on national television in the morning to endorse Noboa as his successor. The military triumvirate that was effectively running the country also endorsed Noboa. The Ecuadorean Congress then met in an emergency session in [[Guayaquil]] on the same day, [[January 22]], and ratified Noboa as President of the Republic in constitutional succession to Mahuad. Although [[Ecuador]] began to improve economically, the government of Noboa came under heavy fire for the continuation of the [[dollarization]] policy, its disregard for social problems and other important issues in Ecuadorean politics.
On [[January 15]], [[2003]], retired Colonel [[Lucio Gutiérrez]], a member of the military junta that overthrew president Jamil Mahuad in [[2000]], assumed the presidency of Ecuador. He campaigned against corruption. Gutierrez's [[Social Patriotic Party]] had a small fraction of the seats in Congress and therefore depended on the support of other parties in Congress to pass legislation. In April [[2005]], President [[Lucio Gutiérrez]] was overthrown following weeks of public protests resulting from his unconstitutional dissolution and appointment of new judges to the Supreme Court in December [[2004]]. This move was generally seen as a kickback to deposed ex-President Bucarám whose political party (the PRE) had sided with Gutiérrez and helped derail attempts to impeach him in late 2004. The new Supreme Court dropped charges of corruption pending against the exiled Bucarám, who soon returned to the politically unstable country. The [[political corruption|corruption]] evident in these maneuvers finally led the populace to seek the ouster of Gutiérrez in April. Vice President Palacio assumed the Presidency and vowed to complete the term of office and hold elections in [[2006]]. Palacio has promised to select a new Supreme Court through a transparent process.
==See also==
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[History of South America]]
* [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]]
The information in Pre-Columbian Times and Colonization is translated from Cronología de la Historia Resumida del Ecuador By Alfredo Tinajero Cevallos and Amparo Barba González. This is available at http://users.erols.com/tinajero/
==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35761.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Ecuador]
{{South America in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History of Ecuador]]
[[Category: |
ert declaration, ''e.g.'' "I would like to have sex with you" is more likely than not to be rebuffed. From early childhood, strategies for successful communication are learned and honed through practice. Much of this communication is [[Nonverbal communication|nonverbal]]. By adulthood, the subtleties of [[Eye contact|meeting the eyes]] of another, [[Smile|smiling]], [[laugh]]ing and [[flirt]]ing have been practiced and learned.
Once a person has taken advantage of opportunities to enter into communication with a potential sex partner, then the likelihood and speed with which that communication will lead to sexual intercourse depend on a combination of cultural norms, the person's desire for a relationship, and the person's skill at [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal communication]]. A successful communication is one that goes two ways. Listening well, including picking up on non-verbal cues, is a crucial skill. [[Active listening]], in which the listener responds to indicate understanding, is a direct route to successful communication.
====The decision to have sex ====
The decision to have sex is a highly personal one, and in most societies, forcing another to engage in a sexual activity without mutual agreement ("[[consent]]") is a serious [[crime]]. Sexual behavior is a [[continuum]], with affectionate behavior at one end, and full sexual activity at the other. Different cultures and individuals may have different criteria to judge when different forms of sex are appropriate.
Common criteria for full sexual activity can include:
* ''No prerequisites''<br>This is known as [[casual sex]]. A person is asked if he or she wants to have sex, or intent is signaled through non-verbal cues. Contrary to its name, casual sex need not be casual. Rather, it implies that a formal enduring partnership bond is not perceived as a necessity for two people to enjoy each others company as physical as well as emotional friends.
* ''Blood tests required''<br>This is when one requires that his or her potential sexual partners be tested for [[sexually transmitted infections]] before deciding whether or not to have sex with them. The most reliable approach is to contact the clinic or lab directly for the test results (which requires the person who was tested accompany you or give you written permission).
* ''Steady dating or steady bond''<br>Many people follow the rule "no sex on the first date", implying that you must have more than one date in order to have sex with them. What this actually means is that they want to get to know you first, and sex is only going to happen if it forms part of a progression when they like you well enough (or fall in love).
* ''Agreement that the couple are "in love"''<br>Many people prefer to have sex only with someone whom they are in love with. This may be a result of personal preference, or a result of negative past experiences with [[casual sex]].
* ''Formally commited partnership (marriage)''<br>Some people believe in not having sex until they are married. Many [[religion]]s require that one wait until he or she is married before having sex. Contrary to popular belief, the most popular reason, either directly or indirectly, is not because of the belief that their sexuality is "bad", but contrarily that it is the most sacred act a couple can share, and thus worthy of being shared with one person and one person only.
The chosen criteria for other forms of sexual activity, such as [[safer sex]], [[fondling]], [[cuddling]], [[frottage]], and [[oral sex]] are even more varied both between cultures and amongst individuals.
===Common variations on partner selection===
==== Same sex====
====Different sex====
====Other====
=== Potential problems ===
==== The fear of rejection ====
The fear of [[Rejection (emotion)|rejection]] is common when trying to befriend a potential partner. If the participants are both [[Sensitivity (human)|sensitive]] to the other's signals, then they can detect quickly whether their sexual objectives are mutual. If they discover soon enough that their objectives are at odds with one another, then a conversation can end before either one [[Embarrassment|loses face]], and then each person can seek others with whom to communicate. On the other hand, if the communication results in an escalating sense of [[Emotional intimacy|intimacy]] for both participants, then a degree of [[trust]] is established that mitigates the fear of rejection.
== Sexual activity==
===Common sexual activity===
=== Variations with same v. opposite gender===
====Different-gender sexual practices====
Different-gender sexual practices are sexual activities between two or more individuals of more than one [[gender]], usually one [[man]] and one [[woman]]. People who engage exclusively in different-gender sexual practices do not necessarily identify themselves as straight or [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]], though (unlike homosexual for same-gender sexual practices) most definitions of "heterosexual" would include them despite varying levels of activity, frequency, and interest. In fact, they may identify themselves as straight or heterosexual, [[bisexuality|bisexual]], or not at all. Likewise, an individual who practices both same and different sex sexual behaviour may identify himself or herself as [[gay]], [[lesbian]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]], [[heterosexuality|straight]], or not at all.
Many situations, like [[Secondary education|public high school]], and cultural factors, such as [[anti-gay bias]] and [[anti-gay harassment|harassment]], [[heterosexism]] and [[heteronormativity]], may cause or encourage people who ordinarily would not have sexual relationships with people of a different gender to do so, but once gay people are away from such situations, they will usually return to same-sex sexual activity. In other cases, people may experiment with different (and/or same) gender sexual activity before settling on a [[sexual identity]], if ever.
Though often associated with [[gay]] men, [[anal sex]] is a common different-gender sexual practice. The anus is "tighter" than the vagina and thus may be preferable to the male during penetration; additionally, many people enjoy flouting cultural sexual [[taboo]]s. Anal sex is not advisable as [[birth control]] as it is still possible, though unlikely, for semen to enter the vagina. Different-gender anal sex is also often practiced where the woman penetrates the man with a [[strap-on dildo]], known as [[pegging (sexual practice)|pegging]].
Different-sex sexual practices are limited by laws in America and many other places. In America marriage laws may serve the purpose of encouraging people to only have sex (and children) within marriage. [[Sodomy]] laws may be seen as encouraging different-sex sexual practices. Laws also ban adults from committing [[sexual abuse]], committing sexual activities with anyone under an [[age of consent]], performing sexual activities in public, and engaging in sexual activities for money ([[prostitution]]), though these laws all cover same-sex sexual activities they may differ with regards punishment and may more frequently or only be enforced on same-sex sexual activities. Laws also control the making and viewing of [[pornography]], including different-sex sexual activities.
[[Courting]], or dating, is the process through which people choose potential sexual and/or marital partners. Among straight (presumably [[middle-class]]) teenagers and adolescents in the mid-[[20th century]] in America, ''dating'' was something one could do with multiple people before choosing to "go steady" with only one, the eventual goal being either sex, marriage, or both. More recently ''dating'' has become what ''going steady'' was and the latter term has fallen into disuse.
Different-sex sexual practices may be [[monogamy|monogamous]], serially monogamous, or [[polyamorous]], and, depending on the definition of sexual practice, [[abstinence|abstinent]] or [[autoerotic]] (including [[masturbation]]).
Different moral and political movements have waged for changes in different-sex sexual practices including courting and marriage, though changes are usually made only slowly in all countries. Especially in the [[USA]], campaigns have often sparked and been fueled by [[moral panic]]. There, movements to discourage same-sex sexual practices often claim to be strengthening different-sex sexual practices within marriage, such as [[Defense of Marriage Act]] and the proposed [[Federal Marriage Amendment]].
====Same-gender sexual practices====
Same-gender sexual practices are sexual activities involving two or more individuals of the same gender. It is possible for homosexual acts to be committed by those who self-identify as heterosexual; e.g., mutual masturbation in the context of what may be considered "normal" heterosexual teen development. Homosexual males who pretend to lead a life of heterosexuality are often referred to as living "closeted" lives, that is, they hide their sexuality in the "closet". The term "closet case" is a derogatory term used by homosexuals to refer to another homosexual that pretends to be heterosexual.
Despite stereotypes and common misconceptions, there are no forms of sexual activity exclusive to same-gender sexual behavior that can not also be found in opposite-gender sexual behavior, save those involving contact of the same sex genitalia. (see [[tribadism]], [[frot]])
Certain situations, like [[incarceration]] or single-sex schools and other sex-segregated environments, may often lead people who would not ordinarily seek sex with others of their own gender to this kind of sexual behavior.
In other cases, some people may experiment or explore their sexuality with same (and/or different) gender sexual activity before defining their [[sexual identi |
have instituted programs to supply [[sterile]] needles to people who inject illegal drugs in order to reduce some of these contingent risks. While [[Needle-exchange programme|needle exchange]]s have demonstrated an immediate [[public health]] benefit, some see such programs as tacit acceptance of illicit drug use. The [[United States]] does not support needle exchanges federally by law, though some of its state and local governments do.
A heroin [[overdose]] is usually treated with an opioid [[Receptor antagonist|antagonist]], such as [[naloxone]] ([[Narcan]]) or [[naltrexone]], which have a high affinity for [[opioid receptors]] but do not activate them. This blocks heroin and other opioid agonists and causes an immediate return of consciousness and start of withdrawal symptoms when administered intraveneously. The [[half-life]] of these antagonists is usually much shorter than that of the opiate drugs they are used to block, so the antagonist usually has to be re-administered multiple times until the opiate has been metabolized by the body.
Contrary to popular belief, a heroin overdose is not fast-acting. Stories about people who "OD with the needle still in their arm" and the like are not attributable to heroin overdoses, but rather they are very often the result of a fatal reaction with the adulterant. [[Quinine]] is notorious for causing such deaths. In the case of an actual heroin overdose, it very often takes many hours to die.
Heroin overdoses are more rare than one might first expect. As noted above, an overdose is immediately reversible with an [[opioid antagonist]] injection. The overwhelmingly vast majority of reported heroin overdoses are actually adulterant poisonings or fatal interactions with alcohol or methadone. True overdoses are rare because the [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] for a person already addicted is prohibitively high, to the point that there is no general medical consensus on where to place it. Several studies done in the 1920s gave addicts doses of 1,600&ndash;1,800&nbsp;mg of heroin in one sitting, and no adverse effects were reported. This is approximately 160&ndash;180 times a normal recreational dose. Even for a non-addict, the LD<sub>50</sub> can be credibly placed above 350&nbsp;mg.
It should be noted, however, that street heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity. This means that an addict may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended. Also, relapsing addicts after a period of abstinence have tolerances below what they were during active addiction. If a dose comparable to their previous use is taken an overdose often results.
==Withdrawal==
[[Image:Heroin black tar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Black tar heroin]]]]
The withdrawal syndrome from heroin (or any other short-acting opioid) can begin within 6 hours of discontinuation of sustained use of the drug: [[sweating]], [[malaise]], [[anxiety]], [[clinical depression|depression]], persistent and intense penile erection in males ([[priapism]]), general feeling of heaviness, cramp-like pains in the limbs, yawning and [[lacrimation]], sleep difficulties, cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches not precipitated by any physical trauma, [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]], gooseflesh (hence, the term "[[cold turkey]]"), [[cramps]], and [[fever]] occur. Many addicts also complain of a painful condition, the so-called "itchy blood", which often results in compulsive scratching that causes bruises and sometimes ruptures the skin leaving scabs. Abrupt termination of heroin use causes muscle spasms in the legs of the user ([[restless leg syndrome]]), hence the term "[[kicking the habit]]". However, it must be noted that each person's symptoms can be unique. Users seeking to take the "[[cold turkey]]" (without any preparation or accompaniments) approach are generally more likely to experience the negative effects of withdrawal in a more pronounced manner.
Two general approaches are available to ease opioid withdrawal. The first is to substitute a longer-acting opioid such as [[methadone]] or [[buprenorphine]] for heroin or another short-acting opioid and then slowly taper the dose. The other approach, which can be used alone or in combination, is to relieve withdrawal symptoms with non-opioid medications.
In the second approach, [[benzodiazepine|benzodiazepines]] such as [[diazepam]] (Valium) ease the often extreme anxiety of opioid withdrawal. The most common [[benzodiazepine]] employed as part of the detox protocol in these situations is [[oxazepam]] ([[Serax]]). However, it is important to note that benzodiazepine use may also lead to a dependence, and many opiate addicts also abuse other central nervous system [[depressants]] including [[benzodiazepines]] and [[barbituates]]. Also, though unpleasant, opiate withdrawal seldom has potential to become fatal, whereas complications related to withdrawal from [[benzodiazepines]], [[barbiturates]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]] (such as [[seizures]], [[cardiac arrest]], and [[delirium tremens]]) can prove hazardous and potentially fatal. Many symptoms of opioid withdrawal are due to rebound hyperactivity of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], and this can be suppressed with [[clonidine]] (Catapres), a centrally-acting alpha-2 [[agonist]] primarily used to treat [[hypertension]].
[[Buprenorphine]] is one of the most recent opioid agonist/antagonist used for treating addiction. It develops tolerance much slower than heroin or methadone. It also has a withdrawal many times softer than heroin and other opioids. It can be admnistered up to every 24-48 hrs. By itself buprenorphine has low overdose dangers. Buprenorphine is a kappa-opioid receptor antagonist. This gives the drug an anti-depressant effect, increasing physical and intellectual activity.
[[Methadone]] is another &#956;-opioid agonist often used to substitute for heroin in treatment for heroin addiction. Compared to heroin, methadone is well (but slowly) absorbed orally and has a much longer duration of action. Thus [[methadone maintenance]] avoids the rapid cycling between [[intoxication]] and [[withdrawal]] associated with heroin addiction. In this way, methadone has shown some success as a "less harmful substitute"; despite being much more addictive than heroin, and is recommended for those who have repeatedly failed to complete detoxification. As of [[2005]], the &#956;-opioid agonist [[buprenorphine]] is also being used to manage heroin addiction, being a superior, though still imperfect and not yet widely known alternative to methadone. Note that methadone, since it is longer-acting, produces withdrawal symptoms that are usually less severe and that appear later than with heroin, but may last longer.
Researchers have discovered two other opioid [[antagonists]]: [[naloxone]] and the longer-acting [[naltrexone]]. These two medications block the effects of heroin, as well as the other opioids at the receptor site. Recent studies have suggested that the addition of naloxone and naltrixone may improve the success rate in treatment programs when combined with the traditional therapy.
The [[University of Chicago]] undertook preliminary development of a heroin vaccine in [[monkeys]] during the [[1970s]], but it was abandoned. There were two main reasons for this. Firstly, when immunised monkeys had an increase in dose of x16, their [[antibodies]] became [[saturation (chemistry) | saturated]] and the monkey had the same effect from heroin as non-immunised monkeys. Secondly, until they reached the x16 point immunised monkeys would substitute other drugs to get a heroin-like effect. These factors suggested that immunised human addicts would simply either take massive quantities of heroin, or switch to other hard drugs, which is known as [[cross-tolerance]].
There also is a controversial treatment for heroin addiction based on an African
drug, [[ibogaine]]. Many people travel abroad for ibogaine treatments that
generally stop the addiction for 3 months or more.
==Drug interactions==
Opiates are strong [[central nervous system]] [[depressants]], but regular users develop [[physiological tolerance]] allowing gradually increased dosages. In combination with other central nervous system depressants, heroin may still kill experienced users.
[[Toxicology]] studies of heroin-related deaths reveal frequent involvement of other central nervous system depressants, including [[alcohol]], [[benzodiazepines]] such as [[diazepam]] ([[valium]]), and occasionally [[methadone]]. Ironically, benzodiazepines and methadone are often used in the treatment of heroin addiction.
[[Cocaine]] also proves to be often fatal when used in combination with heroin. Though "[[speedballs]]" (when injected) or "[[moonrocks]]" (when smoked) are a popular mix of the two drugs used among addicts, combinations of [[stimulants]] and [[depressants]] can have unpredictable and sometimes fatal results.
==Culture==
{{main|Heroin in popular culture}}
Heroin has inspired countless writers, musicians and other artists over the past century of use.
==See also==
{{wikinewspar| 2005 Afghan opium harvest begins}}
* [[Black Tar Heroin]]
* [[Hillbilly heroin|Hillbilly Heroin]]
* [[China white|China White]]
* [[Methadone]]
* [[Recreational drug use]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
* [[Scag]]
* [[List of people known to be addicted to opiates]]
*[[List of famous drug smugglers]]
*[[Opium]]
*[[Poppy]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Heroin}}
* [http://www.heroin-detox.com Forum about opiate addiction]
* [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia, especially opium and heroin production and trafficking in and around Afghanistan and Burma (Articles and maps and French and English)]
* [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/heroin/index.htm The Good Drugs Guide - Heroin]
* [htt |
l industrial company headquartered in [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]. The company describes itself as composed of a number of primary business units or "businesses." Each "business" is itself a vast enterprise, any of which would, even as a standalone company, rank in the [[Fortune 500]]. The list of GE businesses varies over time as the result of [[acquisitions]], [[divestiture]]s and [[reorganization]]s.
==GE subsidiaries==
:''Main article: [[List of assets owned by General Electric]]''
* [[Access Distribution]]
* [[GE Advanced Materials]]
* [[GE Capital IT Solutions]]
* [[GE Capital Rail Services]]
* [[GE Commercial Aviation Services|GECAS]] <!-- More commonly known by the acronym -->
* [[GE Commercial Finance]]
* [[GE Consumer & Industrial]]
* [[GE Consumer Finance]]
* [[GE Energy]]
* [[GE Engine Services, Inc.]]
* [[GE Equipment Services]]
* [[GE Fanuc Automation North America, Inc.]]
* [[GE Financial Assurance Holdings, Inc.]]
* [[GE Franchise Finance Corporation]]
* [[GE Global Research]]
* [[GE Healthcare]]
* [[GE Infrastructure]]
* [[GE Inspection Technologies]]
* [[GE Insurance]]
* [[GE Money]]
* [[GE Osmonics]]
* [[GE SeaCo SRL]]
* [[GE Security]]
* [[GE Small Business Finance Corporation]]
* [[GE Supply]]
* [[GE Transportation]]
* [[Global Nuclear Fuel - Japan Co., Ltd.]]
* [[HPSC, Inc.]]
* [[Instrumentarium|Instrumentarium Corporation]]
* [[MRA Systems, Inc.]]
* [[NBC Universal|NBC Universal, Inc.]]
* [[Transport International Pool Inc.]]
* [[WMC Mortgage Corp.]]
Through these businesses, GE participates in a wide variety of markets including the generation, transmission and distribution of [[electricity]], [[lighting]], industrial [[automation]], [[medical imaging]] equipment, [[motor]]s, [[railway]] [[locomotive]]s, [[aircraft]] [[jet engine]], [[aviation]] services and materials such as [[plastic]]s, [[silicone]]s and [[abrasive]]s. It was co-founder and is 80% owner (with Vivendi Universal) of [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC Universal]], the National Broadcasting Company. Through GE Commercial Finance, GE Consumer Finance, GE Equipment Services, and GE Insurance it offers a range of financial services as well. It has a presence in over 100 countries.
Interestingly, over half of GE's revenue is derived from [[financial services]], ostensibly making it a financial company with a manufacturing arm. It is also one of the largest lenders in countries other than the United States, such as [[Japan]]. Even though the first wave of conglomerates (such as [[ITT]], [[Ling-Temco-Vought]], [[Tenneco]], etc) fell by the wayside by the mid-[[1980s]], in the late [[1990s]], another wave (consisting of [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]], [[Tyco International|Tyco]], and others) tried and failed to emulate GE's success.
==GE's Brand==
General Electric has one of, if not the, most valuable corporate brand in the world. CEO [[Jeffrey Immelt]] had the new [[brand]] commissioned in [[2004]], after he took the reigns as chairman, in order to unify all the diversified businesses of GE. The brand included a change of the corporate color palette, small modifications to the [[GE Logo]], a new customized font, called [[GE Inspira]], and a new slogan, "imagination at work". The new brand requires many headlines to be lowercased and adds visual "white space" to their documents and advertising to promote an open and approachable company. The new brand was designed by [[Wolff Olins]] and can be seen on GE's corporate website. GE BrandCentral[http://www.gebrandcentral.com] is a website dedicated to managing the brand and requests for font and logo usage. Unfortunately, it is closed to the public.
==Jack Welch==
The [[CEO]] from [[1981]]-[[2001]] was [[Jack Welch]], who many regard as one of the premier business [[managers]] of his era. Nicknamed "Neutron Jack", he presided over a 28-fold increase in [[earnings]] (on a 5-fold increase in [[revenue]]) with his policy (referred to by detractors as "[[rank and yank]]") of sacking the worst performing 10% of his staff every year. In running GE's many diverse businesses he maintained a policy of only keeping those businesses which were #1 or #2 within their respective industries. In [[1987]], GE was the United States' second largest [[nuclear power]] company and third largest producer of [[nuclear weapons systems]]. Jack Welch introduced the use of the [[six sigma]] [[quality system]], originally developed at [[Motorola]], within GE.
==Corporate information==
The company's [[market capitalization]] ([http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=GE]) is almost $100 billion higher than that of [[Microsoft]] ([http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=msft]). In [[2004]], GE was named number one company for employers and employees on the [[Forbes]] 500 Global Player list.
Jeffrey Immelt succeeded Jack Welch as CEO of General Electric and holds that office today. Current members of the [[board of directors]] of General Electric are: [[James Cash, Jr.]], Sir [[William Castell]] (Deputy Chairman, and Executive Officer), [[Dennis Dammerman]], [[Ann Fudge]], [[Claudio Gonzalez]], [[Jeffrey Immelt]], [[Andrea Jung]], [[A.G. Lafley]], [[Robert Lane (businessman)|Robert Lane]], [[Ralph Larsen]], [[Rochelle Lazarus]], [[Sam Nunn]], [[Roger Penske]], [[Robert Swieringa]], [[Douglas Warner]], and [[Bob Wright]].
== Superfund Sites ==
General Electric has agreed to pay the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] $110 million dollars in order to clean up three [[superfund]] sites contaminated with [[polychlorinated biphenyls]] (PCBs). The three superfund sites are composed of a 200 mile stretch along the [[Hudson River]], a section of the [[Housatonic River]] in [[Pittsfield]], MA and a transformer facility near [[Rome]], GA. General Electric had initially spent $120 million between 1990 and 2005 with public relations and lobbying firms in order to fight responsibility for cleanup costs.[http://www.odwyerpr.com/members/0111ge.htm]
==Analyst coverage==
See [http://finance.yahoo.com/q/sa?s=GE Yahoo! analyst converage]
*Germanotta, Jeffrey ([[William Blair & Company]], L.L.C.)
*Cornell, Robert ([[Lehman Brothers]])
*Parent, Nicole ([[Credit Suisse First Boston]])
*Dray, Deane ([[Goldman Sachs]])
==Financials==
*[http://www.sec.gov/cgi-bin/browse-edgar?action=getcompany&CIK=0000040545&owner=exclude SEC filings including 10-k]
==See also==
* [[Borazon]]
* [[Lexan]]
* [[List of assets owned by General Electric]]
* [[MOOSE]]
*[[Rank and yank]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ge.com/ General Electric's website]
*[http://www.toaster.org/hotpoint.html Hotpoint - A Brief Independence]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10634.html Yahoo! - General Electric Company Company Profile]
* [http://www.universalstudioshollywood.com/ General Electric's Universal Studios theme park in Los Angeles, CA]
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</page>
<page>
<title>George Harrison</title>
<id>12731</id>
<revision>
<id>42028008</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:32:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.157.252.11</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>misspelled word "hieght" corrected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about songwriter and musician George Harrison. For the early twentieth century singer, see [[Clinton Ford (singer)|Clinton Ford]]. For Nintendo's Senior VP of Marketing and Corporate Communication, see [[George Harrison (Executive)]].''
{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name=George Harrison |
image_name= GHarrison.JPG |
image_caption= |
dead=dead |
date_of_birth=[[February 24]], [[1943]] |
place_of_birth=[[Liverpool]], [[England]] |
date_of_death=[[November 29]], [[2001]] |
place_of_death=[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[USA]]
}}
'''George Harrison''', [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] ([[February 24]], [[1943]] &ndash; [[November 29]], [[2001]]) was a popular [[United Kingdom|British]] [[guitarist]], [[singer]], [[songwriter]], [[record producer]], and [[film producer]], best known as a member of [[The Beatles]].
Harrison was the [[lead guitar]]ist of The Beatles. During the band’s extremely successful career, [[John Lennon]] and [[Paul McCartney]] were its main songwriters. However, Harrison usually wrote and sang lead on one or two songs per album, including the popular "[[If I Needed Someone]]", "[[Taxman]]", "[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]", "[[Here Comes the Sun]]", and "[[Something (song)|Something]]".
During the era of the Beatles, Harrison also became attracted to [[Music of India|Indian music]] and [[Hinduism]], sparking unprecedented interest in them in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Both would subsequently play a prominent role in Harrison’s life and music.
Harrison also had an uneven but sometimes very successful solo career after the break-up of The Beatles, scoring major hits with "[[My Sweet Lord]]" (1970), "[[Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)]]" (1973), "[[All Those Years Ago]]" (1981), and "[[Got My Mind Set on You]]" (1987). He also organized the first large-scale charity concert, ''[[The Concert For Bangladesh]]'', which took place on [[August 1]], [[1971]]. Harrison was induct |
e stage for a series of wars between the [[Greek Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] and [[Serbian Empire|Serbian]] Empires.
By the end of the [[16th century]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] became the controlling force in the region, although it was centered around Anatolia. In the past 550 years, because of the frequent [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] fought in and around the Balkans, and the comparative Ottoman isolation from the mainstream of economic advance (reflecting the shift of Europe's commercial and political centre of gravity towards the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]), the Balkans has been the least developed part of Europe.
The Balkan nations began to regain their independence in the [[19th century]](Greece), and in [[1912]]-[[1913]] a [[Balkan League]] reduced Turkey's territory to its present extent in the [[Balkan Wars]]. The [[World War I|First World War]] was sparked in [[1914]] by the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] (the capital of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]) of the [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]].
After the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[Soviet Union]] and [[communism]] played a very important role in the Balkans. During the [[Cold War]], most of the countries in the Balkans were ruled by Soviet-supported communist governments.
However, despite being under communist governments, [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] ([[1948]]) and [[Albania]] ([[1961]]) fell out with the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia, led by marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] ([[1892]]&#8211;[[1980]]), first propped up then rejected the idea of merging with [[Bulgaria]], and instead sought closer relations with the [[Western World|West]], later even joining many [[third world]] countries in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Albania on the other hand gravitated toward [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]], later adopting an [[Isolationism|isolationist]] position.
The only non-communist countries were [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]], which were (and still are) part of [[NATO]].
In the [[1990s]], the region was gravely affected by [[Yugoslav wars|armed conflict in the former Yugoslav republics]], resulting in [[intervention]] by [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] forces in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Kosovo]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]]. The status of [[Kosovo]] and [[Albanians|ethnic Albanian]]s in general is still mostly unresolved.
Balkan countries control the direct [[European route|land routes]] between [[Western Europe]] and South West [[Asia]] ([[Asia Minor]] and the [[Middle East]]). Since [[2000]], all Balkan countries are friendly towards the [[EU]] and the [[United States|USA]].
[[Greece]] has been a member of the [[European Union]] since [[1981]]; [[Slovenia]] and [[Cyprus]] since [[2004]]. [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] are set to become members in [[2007]]. In [[2005]] [[Croatia]], [[Turkey]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] were accepted as candidates for the European Union membership and the accession negotiations could begin. As of 2004, [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]] and [[Slovenia]] are also members of [[NATO]].
All other countries have expressed a desire to join the EU but at some date in the future.
== Population composition by nationality and religion ==
The region's principal nationalities include [[Turkish people|Turks]] (12.3 million, 11 million of them inhabiting Turkish [[Thrace]]), [[Greeks]] (10.5 million, with about 10 million of them being in Greece), [[Serbs]] (8.5 million), [[Bulgarians]] (7.5 million), [[Albanians]] (6 million, with about 3.3 millions of them being in [[Albania]]), [[Croats]] (4.5 million), [[Bosniaks]] (2.4 million), [[Macedonian Slavs]] (1.4 million) and [[Montenegrins]] (0.265 million). If Romania and Slovenia are included, then also [[Romanians]] (26 million) and [[Slovenians]] (2 million). Practically all Balkan countries have a smaller or larger [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (Gypsy) minority. Other much smaller stateless minorities include the [[Gagauz]], the [[Gorani (Kosovo)|Gorani]], the [[Karakachans]], the [[Arvanites]] and the [[Aromanians]].
The region's principal religions are ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Catholicism|Catholic]]) [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. A variety of different traditions of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church.
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] is the principal religion in the following countries:
*Bulgaria
*Greece
*Romania
*Serbia and Montenegro
*Macedonia
[[Catholicism]] is the principal religion in the following countries:
*Croatia
*Slovenia
[[Islam]] is the principal religion in the following countries:
*Albania
*Turkey
Following countries have many religious groups which exceed 10% of the total population:
*Albania: Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism.
*Bosnia and Herzegovina: Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism.
*Bulgaria: Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam.
*Republic of Macedonia: Slavic population is mostly Eastern Orthodox, Albanian population is mostly Muslim.
*Serbia and Montenegro: Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam.
For more detailed information and a precise ethnic breakdown see articles about particular states:
* [[Albania]], [[Demographics of Albania]]
* [[Croatia]], [[Demographics of Croatia]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[Bulgaria]], [[Demographics of Bulgaria]]
* [[Greece]], [[Demographics of Greece]]
* [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Demographics of the Republic of Macedonia]]
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Demographics of Serbia and Montenegro]]
* [[Turkey]], [[Demographics of Turkey]]
== See also ==
*[[History of the Balkans]]
**[[Historical regions of the Balkan Peninsula]]
**[[Balkan wars]]
*[[Balkan languages]]
**[[Balkan linguistic union]]
*[[Balkanization]]
*[[Orient Express]]
*[[Music of Southeastern Europe]]
*[[Serbian Genealogical Society]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Balkans}}
* [http://www.balkanforums.com/ Balkan Forums]- Online Balkan Community
* [http://www.burek.co.yu Burek Forum] The Biggest forum in region
* [http://www.boeckler.de/cps/rde/xchg/SID-3D0AB75D-EE15F528/hbs/hs.xsl/179.html South-East Europe Review]
* [http://www.balkanalysis.com/ Balkanalysis.com]
* [http://www.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/ Balkan History by Steven W. Sowards]
* [http://www.civilitasresearch.org/ Civilitas Research]
* [http://www.rferl.org/balkan-report/ Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Balkan Weekly Report]
* [http://www.seeurope.net/ SEEurope.net] - news coverage on Southeastern Europe
* [http://www.balkantimes.com/ Southeast European Times]
* [http://www.csees.net/ The Centre for South East European Studies]
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/balkans.html Balkans region: Oil and Gas Fact Sheet] - [[United States Department of Energy]] Analysis Brief
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4397497.stm Balkans urged to curb trafficking - BBC]
* [http://www.balkanbaby.blogspot.com/ Balkan Baby: English Language blog about a students real experiences in the Balkans]
{{Region}}
[[Category:Balkans| ]]
[[Category:Balkan cuisine| ]]
[[ar:بلقان]]
[[ast:Balcanes]]
[[bg:Балкански полуостров]]
[[bs:Balkan]]
[[ca:Balcans]]
[[cs:Balkán]]
[[da:Balkan]]
[[de:Balkanhalbinsel]]
[[et:Balkani poolsaar]]
[[el:Βαλκάνια]]
[[es:Península Balcánica]]
[[eo:Balkana Duoninsulo]]
[[fa:بالکان]]
[[fr:Balkans]]
[[gl:Balcáns]]
[[ko:발칸 반도]]
[[hr:Balkan]]
[[id:Balkan]]
[[is:Balkanskaginn]]
[[it:Penisola balcanica]]
[[he:חבל הבלקן]]
[[la:Balcania]]
[[lt:Balkanai]]
[[hu:Balkán]]
[[mk:Балкански Полуостров]]
[[nl:Balkan (schiereiland)]]
[[ja:バルカン半島]]
[[no:Balkan]]
[[pl:Półwysep Bałkański]]
[[pt:Bálcãs]]
[[ro:Balcani]]
[[ru:Балканский полуостров]]
[[simple:Balkans]]
[[sk:Balkánsky polostrov]]
[[sl:Balkan]]
[[sr:Балкан]]
[[fi:Balkan]]
[[sv:Balkanhalvön]]
[[th:คาบสมุทรบอลข่าน]]
[[zh:巴尔干半岛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bohr Model</title>
<id>4830</id>
<revision>
<id>15903082</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bohr model]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bohr model</title>
<id>4831</id>
<revision>
<id>40293025</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T16:11:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Localzuk</username>
<id>687650</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bohratommodel.png|thumb|307px|The Bohr model of the atom]] In [[atomic physics]], the '''Bohr model''' depicts the [[atom]] as a small, positively charged [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] surrounded by [[electron]]s in orbit - similar in structure to the [[solar system]], but with [[electrostatic force]]s providing attraction, rather than [[gravity]]. Its key success was in explaining the [[Rydberg formula]] for the spectral [[emission line]]s of atomic [[hydrogen]]; while the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical underpinning until the Bohr model was introduced. The Bohr model is not a complete model of the atom, and fails to explain many of the finer structures seen in atoms. As a theory, it has been replaced by [[quantum mechanics]], and thus may be considered to be an [[obsolete scientific theory]]. However, because of its simplicity, the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics.
==History==
In the early part of the 20th century, experiments by [[Ernest Rutherford]] and others had established that [[atom|atoms]] consisted of a diffuse cloud of negatively charged [[electron|electrons]] surrounding a small, dense, positively charged nucleus. Given this experimental data, it is quite natural to consider a planet |
TER"
| [[Periodic table group|'''Group''']]
| [[Alkali metal|'''1''']]
| [[Alkaline earth|'''2''']]
| [[Group 3 element|'''3''']]
| [[Group 4 element|'''4''']]
| [[Group 5 element|'''5''']]
| [[Group 6 element|'''6''']]
| [[Group 7 element|'''7''']]
| [[Group 8 element|'''8''']]
| [[Group 9 element|'''9''']]
| [[Group 10 element|'''10''']]
| [[Coinage metal|'''11''']]
| [[Group 12 element|'''12''']]
| [[Boron group|'''13''']]
| [[Carbon group|'''14''']]
| [[Pnictogen|'''15''']]
| [[Chalcogen|'''16''']]
| [[Halogen|'''17''']]
| [[Noble gas|'''18''']]
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Periodic table period|'''Period''']]
| colspan=19 |
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Period 1 element|'''1''']]
| bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[Hydrogen|H]]<br/>2.20
| colspan=16 |
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Helium|He]]<br/>&nbsp;
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Period 2 element|'''2''']]
| bgcolor="#ffe900" | [[Lithium|Li]]<br/>0.98
| bgcolor="#ffbb00" | [[Beryllium|Be]]<br/>1.57
| colspan=10 |
| bgcolor="#ff9700" | [[Boron|B]]<br/>2.04
| bgcolor="#ff6f00" | [[Carbon|C]]<br/>2.55
| bgcolor="#ff4900" | [[Nitrogen|N]]<br/>3.04
| bgcolor="#ff2a00" | [[Oxygen|O]]<br/>3.44
| bgcolor="#ff0000" | [[Fluorine|F]]<br/>3.98
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Neon|Ne]]<br/>&nbsp;
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Period 3 element|'''3''']]
| bgcolor="#ffed00" | [[Sodium|Na]]<br/>0.93
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Magnesium|Mg]]<br/>1.31
| colspan=10 |
| bgcolor="#ffb800" | [[Aluminium|Al]]<br/>1.61
| bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[Silicon|Si]]<br/>1.90
| bgcolor="#ff8b00" | [[Phosphorus|P]]<br/>2.19
| bgcolor="#ff6d00" | [[Sulfur|S]]<br/>2.58
| bgcolor="#ff4000" | [[Chlorine|Cl]]<br/>3.16
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Argon|Ar]]<br/>&nbsp;
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Period 4 element|'''4''']]
| bgcolor="#fff600" | [[Potassium|K]]<br/>0.82
| bgcolor="#ffe800" | [[Calcium|Ca]]<br/>1.00
| bgcolor="#ffcc00" | [[Scandium|Sc]]<br/>1.36
| bgcolor="#ffbe00" | [[Titanium|Ti]]<br/>1.54
| bgcolor="#ffb700" | [[Vanadium|V]]<br/>1.63
| bgcolor="#ffb400" | [[Chromium|Cr]]<br/>1.66
| bgcolor="#ffbd00" | [[Manganese|Mn]]<br/>1.55
| bgcolor="#ffa700" | [[Iron|Fe]]<br/>1.83
| bgcolor="#ffa300" | [[Cobalt|Co]]<br/>1.88
| bgcolor="#ffa100" | [[Nickel|Ni]]<br/>1.91
| bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[Copper|Cu]]<br/>1.90
| bgcolor="#ffb500" | [[Zinc|Zn]]<br/>1.65
| bgcolor="#ffa900" | [[Gallium|Ga]]<br/>1.81
| bgcolor="#ff9900" | [[Germanium|Ge]]<br/>2.01
| bgcolor="#ff8c00" | [[Arsenic|As]]<br/>2.18
| bgcolor="#ff6f00" | [[Selenium|Se]]<br/>2.55
| bgcolor="#ff4f00" | [[Bromine|Br]]<br/>2.96
| bgcolor="#ff4c00" | [[Krypton|Kr]]<br/>3.00
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Period 5 element|'''5''']]
| bgcolor="#fff600" | [[Rubidium|Rb]]<br/>0.82
| bgcolor="#ffec00" | [[Strontium|Sr]]<br/>0.95
| bgcolor="#ffd700" | [[Yttrium|Y]]<br/>1.22
| bgcolor="#ffce00" | [[Zirconium|Zr]]<br/>1.33
| bgcolor="#ffb900" | [[Niobium|Nb]]<br/>1.6
| bgcolor="#ff8d00" | [[Molybdenum|Mo]]<br/>2.16
| bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[Technetium|Tc]]<br/>1.9
| bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[Ruthenium|Ru]]<br/>2.2
| bgcolor="#ff8400" | [[Rhodium|Rh]]<br/>2.28
| bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[Palladium|Pd]]<br/>2.20
| bgcolor="#ff9f00" | [[Silver|Ag]]<br/>1.93
| bgcolor="#ffb200" | [[Cadmium|Cd]]<br/>1.69
| bgcolor="#ffab00" | [[Indium|In]]<br/>1.78
| bgcolor="#ff9d00" | [[Tin|Sn]]<br/>1.96
| bgcolor="#ff9600" | [[Antimony|Sb]]<br/>2.05
| bgcolor="#ff9200" | [[Tellurium|Te]]<br/>2.1
| bgcolor="#ff6700" | [[Iodine|I]]<br/>2.66
| bgcolor="#ff6b00" | [[Xenon|Xe]]<br/>2.6
|- align="CENTER"
| [[Period 6 element|'''6''']]
| bgcolor="#fff800" | [[Caesium|Cs]]<br/>0.79
| bgcolor="#fff000" | [[Barium|Ba]]<br/>0.89
| *<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Hafnium|Hf]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffc100" | [[Tantalum|Ta]]<br/>1.5
| bgcolor="#ff7e00" | [[Tungsten|W]]<br/>2.36
| bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[Rhenium|Re]]<br/>1.9
| bgcolor="#ff8a20" | [[Osmium|Os]]<br/>2.2
| bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[Iridium|Ir]]<br/>2.20
| bgcolor="#ff8400" | [[Platinum|Pt]]<br/>2.28
| bgcolor="#ff7000" | [[Gold|Au]]<br/>2.54
| bgcolor="#ff9a00" | [[Mercury (element)|Hg]]<br/>2.00
| bgcolor="#ffb700" | [[Thallium|Tl]]<br/>1.62
| bgcolor="#ff8000" | [[Lead|Pb]]<br/>2.33
| bgcolor="#ff9800" | [[Bismuth|Bi]]<br/>2.02
| bgcolor="#ff9a00" | [[Polonium|Po]]<br/>2.0
| bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[Astatine|At]]<br/>2.2
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Radon|Rn]]<br/>&nbsp;
|- align=CENTER
| [[Period 7 element|'''7''']]
| bgcolor="#ffff00" | [[Francium|Fr]]<br/>0.7
| bgcolor="#ffef00" | [[Radium|Ra]]<br/>0.9
| **<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Rutherfordium|Rf]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Dubnium|Db]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Seaborgium|Sg]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Bohrium|Bh]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Hassium|Hs]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Meitnerium|Mt]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Darmstadtium|Ds]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Roentgenium|Rg]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununbium|Uub]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununtrium|Uut]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununquadium|Uuq]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununpentium|Uup]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununhexium|Uuh]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununseptium|Uus]]<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Ununoctium|Uuo]]<br/>&nbsp;
|- align=CENTER
|
|- align=CENTER
| [[Lanthanides]]
| *<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[Lanthanum|La]]<br/>1.1
| bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[Cerium|Ce]]<br/>1.12
| bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[Praseodymium|Pr]]<br/>1.13
| bgcolor="#ffdd00" | [[Neodymium|Nd]]<br/>1.14
| bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[Promethium|Pm]]<br/>1.13
| bgcolor="#ffda00" | [[Samarium|Sm]]<br/>1.17
| bgcolor="#ffd800" | [[Europium|Eu]]<br/>1.2
| bgcolor="#ffd800" | [[Gadolinium|Gd]]<br/>1.2
| bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[Terbium|Tb]]<br/>1.1
| bgcolor="#ffd700" | [[Dysprosium|Dy]]<br/>1.22
| bgcolor="#ffd600" | [[Holmium|Ho]]<br/>1.23
| bgcolor="#ffd500" | [[Erbium|Er]]<br/>1.24
| bgcolor="#ffd400" | [[Thulium|Tm]]<br/>1.25
| bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[Ytterbium|Yb]]<br/>1.1
| bgcolor="#ffd300" | [[Lutetium|Lu]]<br/>1.27
|- align=CENTER
| [[Actinides]]
| **<br/>&nbsp;
| bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[Actinium|Ac]]<br/>1.1
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Thorium|Th]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffc100" | [[Protactinium|Pa]]<br/>1.5
| bgcolor="#ffca00" | [[Uranium|U]]<br/>1.38
| bgcolor="#ffcc00" | [[Neptunium|Np]]<br/>1.36
| bgcolor="#ffd200" | [[Plutonium|Pu]]<br/>1.28
| bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[Americium|Am]]<br/>1.13
| bgcolor="#ffd200" | [[Curium|Cm]]<br/>1.28
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Berkelium|Bk]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Californium|Cf]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Einsteinium|Es]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Fermium|Fm]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Mendelevium|Md]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[Nobelium|No]]<br/>1.3
| bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[Lawrencium|Lr]]<br/>&nbsp;
|- align="CENTER"
| colspan=20 |
|}</center>
<center>[[Periodic table]] of electronegativity using the [[Pauling scale]]</center>
<center>See also [[Periodic table]]</center>
[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[af:Elektronegatiwiteit]]
[[ca:Electronegativitat]]
[[cs:Elektronegativita]]
[[da:Elektronegativitet]]
[[de:Elektronegativität]]
[[es:Electronegatividad]]
[[fr:Électronégativité]]
[[ko:전기 음성도]]
[[it:Elettronegatività]]
[[he:אלקטרושליליות]]
[[mk:Електронегативност]]
[[nl:Elektronegativiteit]]
[[ja:電気陰性度]]
[[no:Elektronegativitet]]
[[nn:Elektronegativitet]]
[[pl:Elektroujemność]]
[[pt:Eletronegatividade]]
[[ro:Electronegativitate]]
[[ru:Электроотрицательность]]
[[sr:Електронегативност]]
[[fi:Elektronegatiivisuus]]
[[sv:Elektronegativitet]]
[[th:อิเล็กโตรเนกาทิวิตี]]
[[tr:Elektronegatiflik]]
[[uk:Електровід'ємність]]
[[zh:鲍林标度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</title>
<id>9708</id>
<revision>
<id>41701034</id>
|
reassert control, but were unable to act at the time. Braitain supported France's efforts to reassert its control of Cambodia, but were unable to act. Britain supported Frence's attempts to reassert its influence in Cambodia. On [[October 8]], [[1945]], the British arrived in [[Phnom Penh]] with a detachment of [[Nepal]]i [[Gurkhas]]. Thanh was arrested; and the government was overthrown, with the French put back in charge.
Later, anticolonial militants retreated into the countryside and formed armed groups known as the ''[[Khmer Issarak]]'' ("Khmer Independence"). They operated initially along the border with [[Thailand]] and were assisted by the Thai government. In the countryside, French forces fought the Khmer Issarak. However, the French were not able to fully regain their control of Cambodia. On [[April 17]], [[1950]] the first national conference of the Khmer resistance was held and the [[United Issarak Front]] was created, with [[Son Ngoc Minh]] at the head. Sihanouk demanded sovereignty from the French and on [[November 9]], [[1953]], Cambodia was granted independence.
Meanwile, in Vietnam, the French's war against the Vietminh regime, begun in 1946, continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at [[Dien Bien Phu]] in [[1954]], which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. Paris was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the [[Geneva Conference]], which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
=====Postcolonialism and the Vietnam War=====
{{sect-stub}}
As France washed its hands of Indochina, the U.S. moved into France's old role in supporting the pro-Western Saigon regime.
=====Postcolonialism and war in Cambodia=====
The U.S. also became involved in Cambodia's domestic politics. The U.S. became increasingly unhappy with Sihanouk because of his [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]] stance in the [[Cold War]] and the war between the Saigon and Hanoi regimes in Vietnam.
The U.S. supported a coup by [[Lon Nol]] against Sihanouk in [[1970]]. U.S. armed forces then entered Cambodia from the Vietnam-Cambodia border. However, massive protest by students and workers in the U.S. forced the US to withdraw its land forces from Cambodia. Sihanouk declared Lon Nol's government illegitimate and formed a government-in-exile in [[Beijing]] known as the [[Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea]] (GRUNK) and a political coalition in Cambodia known as the [[National United Front of Kampuchea]] (FUNK), which in turn was aligned with the [[Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces]] (CPNLAF). The U.S. Air Force attacked the base of the CPNLAF, the Cambodian countryside, dropping hundreds of thousands of tons of bombs, killing many people. By [[1975]], the CPNLAF had defeated Lon Nol's army and on [[April 17]], 1975 the CPNLAF entered Phnom Penh and ousted Lon Nol's regime. However, the loose coalition behind CPNLAF proved unable to establish itself as a stable postcolonial regime; the ensuring [[Cambodian Civil War]] resulted in decades of politcal turmoil and the emergence of the [[Khmer Rouge]], making Cambodia the stage to one of the bloodiest conflicts in the [[20th century]].
==List of European colonial acquisitions in Asia==
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
*[[India]] - French, Dutch and British before British expanded control in [[1757]].
*[[Sri Lanka]]- conquered by [[Portugal]] ([[1505]]), The [[Netherlands]] (1644), and then [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] ([[1796]]). It had [[tea]] and [[rubber]].
*[[Macau]] - Portuguese colony, first European colony in China ([[1557]]-[[1999]]).
*[[Taiwan]]- Portuguese, Dutch (1624 - 1662).
*[[Hong Kong]] - British colony from [[1841]] to [[1997]].
*[[Malaya]]- Portuguese, then Dutch (1644-1824), then British; rich in tin and rubber.
*[[Singapore]] - British since [[1819]].
*[[Burma]] - merged with [[India]] by the British from 1886 to 1937. In 1880, the French built a railroad from [[Tonkin]] to [[Mandalay]]: fearing a French conquest, the British went to war with Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent to India during the war.
*[[Indonesia]] Dutch colony from 1602 - 1949. (Netherlands New Guinea; 1962)
*[[Indo-China]] - French; including [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Vietnam]]; successive revolts were "pacified". Granted independence in 1954.
*[[Thailand]] - nominally independent, but subject to British and French influence.
*[[Philippines]] - Spanish until revolt of 1896, then acquired by the U.S. after the [[Spanish-American War]] of 1898 for $20 million.
*[[Korea]] - Subject to Russian influence until [[1905]] (See Russo-Japanese War).
==See also==
* [[Imperialism]]
* [[New Imperialism]]
* [[Colonialism]]
==References and further reading==
* Erik Ringmar, [http://ringmar.net/europeanfury/ ''Fury of the Europeans: Liberal Barbarism and the Destruction of the Emperor's Summer Palace'']
[[Category:History of Asia]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยมในเอเชีย]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information entropy</title>
<id>15445</id>
<revision>
<id>41665107</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:53:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.19.47.168</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Basic concept */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Binary entropy plot.png|thumbnail|right|200px|Entropy of a [[Bernoulli trial]] as a function of success probability.]]
'''Entropy''' is a concept in [[thermodynamics]] (see [[thermodynamic entropy]]), [[statistical mechanics]] and [[information theory]]. The concepts of information and entropy have deep links with one another, although it took many years for the development of the theories of [[statistical mechanics]] and [[information theory]] to make this apparent. This article is about '''information entropy''', the information-theoretic formulation of [[entropy]]. Information entropy is occasionally called '''Shannon's entropy''' in honor of [[Claude E. Shannon]].
==Basic concept==
The basic concept of entropy in [[information theory]] has to do with how much [[randomness]] (or, alternatively, 'uncertainty') there is in a signal or random event. An alternative way to look at this is to talk about how much information is carried by the signal.
As an example consider some [[English language|English]] text, encoded as a string of [[letter (alphabet)|letters]], spaces, and [[punctuation]] (so our signal is a string of characters). Since some characters are not very likely (e.g. 'z') while others are very common (e.g. 'e') the string of characters is not really as random as it might be. On the other hand, since we cannot predict what the next character will be: it is, to some degree, 'random'. Entropy is a measure of this randomness, suggested by Shannon in his [[1948]] paper [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html A Mathematical Theory of Communication].
Shannon offers a definition of entropy which satisfies the assumptions that:
* The measure should be proportional (continuous) - i.e. changing the value of one of the probabilities by a very small amount should only change the entropy by a small amount.
* If all the outcomes (letters in the example above) are equally likely then increasing the number of letters should always increase the entropy.
* We should be able to make the choice (in our example of a letter) in two steps, in which case the entropy of the final result should be a weighted sum of the entropies of the two steps.
(Note: Shannon/Weaver make reference to [[Tolman]] ([[1938]]) who in turn credits [[Pauli]] ([[1933]]) with the definition of entropy that is used by Shannon. Elsewhere in statistical mechanics, the literature includes references to [[von Neumann]] as having derived the same form of entropy in [[1927]], so it was that von Neumann favoured the use of the existing term 'entropy'. )
==Formal definitions==
[[Claude E. Shannon]] defines entropy in terms of a discrete random event ''x'', with possible states (or outcomes) 1..''n'' as:
::<math>H(x)=\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log_2 \left(\frac{1}{p(i)}\right)=-\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log_2 p(i).\,\!</math>
That is, the entropy of the event ''x'' is the sum, over all possible outcomes ''i'' of ''x'', of the product of the probability of outcome ''i'' times the log of the inverse of the probability of ''i'' (which is also called ''i'''s ''[[surprisal]]'' - the entropy of ''x'' is the expected value of its outcome's surprisal). We can also apply this to a general [[probability distribution]], rather than a discrete-valued event.
Shannon shows that any definition of entropy satisfying his assumptions will be of the form:
::<math>-K\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log p(i).\,\!</math>
where ''K'' is a constant (and is really just a choice of measurement units).
Shannon defined a measure of entropy (''H'' = &minus; ''p<sub>1</sub>'' log<sub>2</sub> ''p<sub>1</sub>'' &minus; &hellip; &minus; ''p<sub>n</sub>'' log<sub>2</sub> ''p<sub>n</sub>'') that, when applied to an information source, could determine the minimum channel capacity required to reliably transmit the source as encoded binary digits. The formula can be derived by calculating the mathematical expectation of the ''amount of information'' contained in a digit from the information source. Shannon's entropy measure came to be taken as a measure of the uncertainty about the realization of a random variable. It thus served as a proxy capturing the concept of information contained in a message as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures. For example, redundancy in language structure or statistical prop |
es and [[Wattle and daub|wattle]]. The interior surface was then built up, first with wooden logs, then with branches and rocks, [[clay]], [[peat]], and other earthen materials. At the center a large stone hearth was built with large flat stones, and a wooden home was constructed around it. Sometimes multiple homes were built on a single crannog.
This prehistoric [[fortification]] was occupied by a family or [[tribe]], and access was often achieved by means of dugout canoe. However, many were connected to shore by timber or stone [[Causeway|causeways]], sometimes lying just beneath the surface of the water concealing them from potentially hostile intruders. The bones of [[cattle]], [[deer]], and [[Pig|swine]] have been found in excavated crannogs.
== References ==
* {{cite book
| last = Burnett | first = George
| title = The Family of Burnett of Leys
| editor = J. Allardyce (ed)
| publisher = New Spalding Club
| location = Aberdeen
| year = 1901
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Ian | last = Armit
| title=Scotland's Hidden History
| publisher=Tempus Publishing, Limited
| year = 2000
| id = ISBN 0752414003
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Nicholas | last = Dixon
| title = The Crannogs of Scotland: An underwater archaeology
| publisher = Tempus Publishing, Limited
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 075243151X
}}
* Morrison, I. 1985 ''Landscape with Lake Dwellings'' Edinburgh University Press
* Crone, A. 2000 ''The History of a Scottish Lowland Crannog: excavations at Buiston'' AOC/STAR Monograph 4, Edinburgh
* Cavers, M.G. and Henderson, J.C 2005 ''Underwater Excavation at Ederline Crannog, Loch Awe, Argyll, Scotland'' International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol.34.2, pp.278-94
* O'Sullivan, A. 1998 ''The Archaeology of Lake Settlement in Ireland'' Discovery Programme, Dublin
* Fredengrem C. 2002 ''Crannogs'' Wordwell, Bray
== External links ==
*[http://www.crannog.co.uk/ The Scottish Crannog Centre] Reconstruction of a crannog.
*[http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/snapshot_crannogs.html Channel 4 Time Team on Crannogs] The Channel 4 Time Team on Crannogs.
*[http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/2004_migdale.html Channel 4 Time Team at Loch Migdale] The Channel 4 Time Team excavation at Loch Migdale, January 2004.
*[http://www.rcahms.gov.uk Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland] A searchable database of archaeological sites in Scotland, including crannogs.
[[Category:Fortification]]
[[Category:Irish archaeology]]
[[Category:Scottish archaeology]]
[[Category:Stone Age]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calendar date</title>
<id>7123</id>
<revision>
<id>42146799</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:11:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R. S. Shaw</username>
<id>102175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv test</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''date''' in a calendar is a reference to a particular day by means of a [[calendar]] system. The calendar date allows the particular day to be identified. A person can often determine how many days a particular date comes after another date. For example, "[[19 February]], [[2003]]", is ten days after "[[9 February]], [[2003]]", in the [[Gregorian calendar]].
In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the ''day of month'', ''month'', and the ''year''. There may also be additional parts, such as the ''day of week''. Years are usually counted from a particular starting point, usually called the [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]], with [[era]] referring to the particular period of time. Note the different use in [[geology]].
A date without the year part may also be referred to as a ''date'' or ''calendar date'' (such as "[[9 February]]" rather than "[[9 February]] [[2003]]"). As such, it defines the days of an annual festival, such as a birthday or Christmas on [[25 December]].
==Date format==
Related to the classification of a day as a specific calendar date is the format used to express that date. The differing formats of dates are an example of [[endianness]].
Even for any specific calendar system, different formats are used. For example, the following formats all express the same date in the [[Gregorian calendar]]:
===Little endian forms, starting with the day===
This sequence is common to the vast majority of the world's countries, and is used as the accepted international date usage.
* 16/11/2003, 16.11.2003, 16-11-2003 or 16-11-03
* 16th&nbsp;of November 2003
* 16th&nbsp;November 2003
* 16&nbsp;November 2003
* 16&nbsp;Nov 2003
===Big endian forms, starting with the year===
This form is consistent with the endianness of the western decimal numbering system, progressing from the highest to the lowest order magnitude.
* 2003 November&nbsp;16
* 2003-11-16: the [[ISO 8601]] [[International standard|International formal standard]] ordering for dates, often formatted to be especially easily read and sorted by computers. It's used with [[UTC]] in the '''Internet date/time format''' (see the [[#external links|external link below]]). This format is also favoured in certain [[Asia|Asian]] countries, mainly the [[East Asia]].
===Middle endian forms, starting with the month===
This sequence is common to a smaller number of countries.
* November&nbsp;16, 2003
* Nov.&nbsp;16, 2003
* 11/16/2003, 11-16-2003, 11.16.2003 or 11.16.03
This order is used in the [[United States]] and countries with U.S. influence (but the U.S. federal government sometimes uses day, month, year). England originally used day, month, year, then for a while used month, day, year, and finally the original form (day, month, year) was revived around 1900. [[Canada]] officially uses the big endian convention, but all three conventions are used in practice.
===Usage issues===
The many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits.
When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used. This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, "Feb" instead of "02". Many Internet sites use year/month/day, and those using other conventions often write out the month (9-MAY-2001, MAY 09 2001, etc.) so there is no ambiguity. The [[ISO 8601]] date order, with four-digit years, is specifically chosen to be unambiguous.
The [[ISO 8601]] standard also has the advantage of being language independent and therefore is useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired (expiration dating on export products, for example). Another advantage is that a plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by [[Word processor|word processors]], [[spreadsheet|spreadsheets]] and other software tools with built-in sorting functions.
At least in the [[United States]], dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing.
Mixed units, for example feet and inches, or pounds and ounces, are normally written with the largest unit first, in decreasing order. Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of 2006 indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade. The only date order that is consistent with these well established conventions is year-month-day.
An early U.S. [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] recommended 2-digit years.
This is now widely recognized as a [[year 2000 problem|bad idea]]. Even some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4 digit years [http://www.nyecounty.net/iso8601.html][http://www.iprocessmart.com/techsmart/iso-time.htm].
When transitioning from one date notation to another,
people often write both [[Old Style and New Style dates]].
====d/m/y (day, month, year) is used by:====
* [[Albania]]
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Australia]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Belgium]]
* [[Bolivia]]
* [[Brazil]]
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Canada]]
* [[Chile]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Denmark]] (often in the fraction form <SUP>d</SUP>/<SUB>m</SUB>-y)
* [[Dominican Republic]]
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[Estonia]]
* [[Finland]]
* [[France]]
* [[Germany]] (d.m.y)
* [[Greece]]
* [[Guyana]]
* [[Hong Kong]] (in English)
* [[Ireland]]
* [[India]]
* [[Israel]]
* [[Italy]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Mexico]]
* [[Netherlands]]
* [[New Zealand]]
* [[Norway]] (d.m.y; the fraction form <SUP>d</SUP>/<SUB>m</SUB>-y is common, but incorrect)
* [[Paraguay]]
* [[Peru]]
* [[Poland]]
* [[Portugal]]
* [[Romania]]
* [[Russia]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Spain]]
* [[Singapore]]
* [[Sweden]] (in the fraction form <SUP>d</SUP>/<SUB>m</SUB>-y, otherwise yyyy-mm-dd)
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Thailand]] (with [[Thai solar calendar|Buddhist Era]] instead of [[Common Era]])
* [[Turkey]]
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Uruguay]]
* [[Venezuela]]
Although '9/11' refers to [[Berlin_Wall#The_fall_of_the_Wall|'The fall of the Berlin Wall']] on [[9 November]] [[1989]], '9/11' and sometimes '11/9' is also used to refer to the [[11 September]] [[2001]] [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks on the World Trade Centre]] in the USA.
====yyyy-mm-dd (year, month, day), the [[ISO 8601]] [[standardization|standard]], is used by:====
* [[Canada]] (yyyy-mm-dd) (All 3 main types are used in Canada- in French and in English)
* [[China]]
* [[Hong Kong]] (Chinese)
* [[Hungary]] (yyyy.mm.dd)
* [[Japan]] (but often in the form yyyy年mm月dd日, or as yy年mm月dd日 when using [[Japanese era name|Japanese era year]])
* [[Korea]]
* [[Latvia]]
* [[Norway]] (yyyy-mm-dd)
* [[South Africa]] (English)
* [[ |
s [[volleyball]].
* [[1900]] - [[Davis Cup]] competition is established.
* [[1920]] - By the terms of the [[Svalbard Treaty]], international diplomacy recognizes [[Norway|Norwegian]] sovereignty over arctic archipelago [[Svalbard]], and designates it as [[demilitarized]].
* [[1922]] - [[Brazil]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: Top [[United States]] military leaders hold their first formal meeting to discuss [[United States|American]] military strategy in the war.
* 1942 - [[Daylight saving time]] goes into effect in the [[United States]].
* [[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]: After forcing the remaining [[Japanese people|Japanese]] to be evacuated the night before, [[United States|American]] authorities declared [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] secure.
* [[1950]] - [[Red scare]]: [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Joseph McCarthy]] accuses the [[United States Department of State|United States State Department]] of being filled with [[communism|Communists]].
* [[1960]] - [[Joanne Woodward]] receives the first star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].
* [[1962]] - [[Jamaica]] becomes independent nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
* [[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] make their first appearance on [[The Ed Sullivan Show]].
* [[1965]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The first [[United States]] combat troops are sent to [[South Vietnam]].
* [[1969]] - First test flight of the [[Boeing 747]].
* [[1971]] - The 6.4 on the [[Richter Scale]] [[Sylmar earthquake]] hits the [[San Fernando Valley]] area of [[California]].
* 1971 - [[Satchel Paige]] becomes the first [[Negro League baseball|Negro League]] player to become voted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]].
* 1971 - [[Apollo program]]: [[Apollo 14]] returns to [[Earth]] after the third manned [[moon]] landing.
* [[1973]] - [[Biju Patnaik]] of the [[Pragati Legislature Party]] elected leader of opposition in the state assembly in [[Orissa]], [[India]].
* [[1975]] - The [[Soyuz 17]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[spacecraft]] returns to [[Earth]].
* [[1986]] - [[Comet Halley]] reaches [[perihelion]], its closest approach to the [[sun]], during its second visit to the [[solar system]] in the [[20th century]].
* [[1991]] - Voters in [[Lithuania]] vote for independence.
* [[1994]] - Peace plan for [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] announced (so called [[Vance-Owen]] peace plan).
* [[1996]] - The [[Irish Republican Army]] declares the end of its 18 month [[ceasefire]] shortly followed by a large bomb in [[London]]'s [[Canary Wharf]].
* [[2001]] - The [[United States|American]] submarine [[USS]] ''[[USS Greeneville|Greeneville]]'' accidentally strikes and sinks the ''[[Ehime-Maru]]'', a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] training vessel operated by the [[Uwajima Fishery High School]].
* [[2005]] - The quiz show [[Jeopardy!]] begins its 76-day Ultimate Tournament of Champions. 144 former champions return for an elimination tournament to see which two people would square off against [[Ken Jennings]] in the finals for $2,000,000.
==Births==
*[[1404]] - [[Constantine XI]], last [[Byzantine Emperor]] (d. [[1453]])
*[[1533]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihisa]], Japanese warlord and samurai (d. [[1611]])
*[[1666]] - [[George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney]], British soldier (d. [[1737]])
*[[1748]] - [[Luther Martin]], American patriot (d. [[1826]])
*[[1773]] - [[William Henry Harrison]], [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1841]])
*[[1783]] - [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Russian poet (d. [[1852]])
*[[1800]] - [[Hyrum Smith]], American religious leader (d. [[1844]])
*[[1830]] - [[Abd-ul-Aziz]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1876]])
*[[1834]] - [[Felix Dahn]], German author (d. [[1912]])
*[[1846]] - [[Wilhelm Maybach]], German automotive designer and industrialist (d. [[1929]])
*[[1865]] - [[Mrs. Patrick Campbell]], British actress (d. [[1940]])
*[[1874]] - [[Amy Lowell]], American poet (d. [[1925]])
*[[1885]] - [[Alban Berg]], Austrian composer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1891]] - [[Ronald Colman]], English actor (d. [[1958]])
*[[1892]] - [[Peggy Wood]], American actress (d. [[1978]])
*[[1895]] - [[Hermann Brill]], German politician (d. [[1959]])
*[[1897]] - [[Charles Kingsford Smith|Sir Charles Kingsford-Smith]], Australian pilot (d. [[1935]])
*[[1901]] - [[Brian Donlevy]], Irish actor (d. [[1972]])
*1901 - [[James Murray (actor)|James Murray]], American actor (d. [[1936]])
*[[1902]] - [[Gertrud Scholtz-Klink]], German women's leader (d. [[1999]])
*[[1909]] - [[Heather Angel]], British actress (d. [[1986]])
*1909 - [[Carmen Miranda]], Portuguese actress and singer (d. [[1955]])
*1909 - [[Dean Rusk]], [[United States Secretary of State]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1910]] - [[Jacques Monod]], French biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]])
*[[1914]] - [[Gypsy Rose Lee]], American dancer and actress (d. [[1970]])
*1914 - [[Ernest Tubb]], American singer (d. [[1984]])
*1914 - [[Bill Veeck]], baseball executive (d. [[1986]])
*[[1916]] - [[Tex Hughson]], baseball player (d. [[1993]])
*[[1922]] - [[Kathryn Grayson]], American actress
*[[1923]] - [[Brendan Behan]], Irish author (d. [[1964]])
*[[1925]] - [[Burkhard Heim]], German physicist (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Garret FitzGerald]], seventh [[Taoiseach]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]
*[[1928]] - [[Frank Frazetta]], American illustrator
*1928 - [[Roger Mudd]], American journalist
*[[1930]] - [[Garner Ted Armstrong]], American evangelist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1932]] - [[Gerhard Richter]], German painter and graphic artist
*[[1936]] - [[Clive Swift]], British actor
*[[1939]] - [[Barry Mann]], American singer and songwriter
*1939 - [[Janet Suzman]], South African actress
*[[1940]] - [[J. M. Coetzee]], South African author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1941]] - [[Sheila Kuehl]], American actress and politician
*[[1942]] - [[Carole King]], American singer and composer
*[[1943]] - [[Joe Pesci]], American actor
*1943 - [[Joseph E. Stiglitz]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1944]] - [[Alice Walker]], American writer
*1944 - [[Derryn Hinch]], Australian media personality
*[[1945]] - [[Mia Farrow]], American actress
*[[1946]] - [[Séan Neeson]], Northern Irish politician
*[[1947]] - [[Carla Del Ponte]], UN prosecutor
*[[1949]] - [[Judith Light]], American actress
*1949 - [[Jim Sheridan]], Irish film director
*[[1952]] - [[Mookie Wilson]], baseball player
*[[1953]] - [[Ciarán Hinds]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1955]] - [[JM J. Bullock]], American actor
*1955 - [[Charles Shaughnessy]], British actor
*[[1960]] - [[Holly Johnson]], British singer ([[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]])
*[[1961]] - [[John Kruk]], baseball player and commentator
*[[1963]] - [[Brian Greene]], American physicist
*1963 - [[Travis Tritt]], American singer
*[[1966]] - [[Ellen van Langen]], Dutch athlete
*[[1967]] - [[Todd Pratt]], American baseball player
*[[1970]] - [[Glenn McGrath]], Australian cricketer
*[[1971]] - [[Sharon Case]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Vladimir Guerrero]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1979]] - [[David Gray (snooker player)|David Gray]], English snooker player
*1979 - [[Mena Suvari]], American actress
*1979 - [[Zhang Ziyi]], Chinese actress
*[[1981]] - [[John Walker Lindh]], American Taliban fighter
*[[1982]] - [[Ami Suzuki]], Japanese singer
*[[1985]] - [[David Gallagher]], American actor
*[[1989]] - [[Jon Zamora]], First Filipino, American Child Actor
*[[1996]] - [[Jimmy Bennett]], American actor
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1199]] - [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1147]])
*[[1450]] - [[Agnès Sorel]], mistress of King [[Charles VII of France]] (b. [[1421]])
*[[1555]] - [[Rowland Taylor]], English pastor (executed) (b. [[1510]])
*[[1619]] - [[Lucilio Vanini]], Italian philosopher (b. [[1585]])
*[[1640]] - [[Murad IV]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1612]])
*[[1675]] - [[Gerhard Douw]], Dutch painter (b. [[1613]])
*[[1709]] - [[François Louis, Prince of Conti]], French general (b. [[1664]])
*[[1751]] - [[Henri François d'Aguesseau]], Chancellor of France (b. [[1668]])
*[[1752]] - [[Fredric Hasselquist]], Swedish naturalist (b. [[1722]])
*[[1777]] - [[Seth Pomeroy]], American gunsmith and soldier (b. [[1706]])
*[[1782]] - [[Joseph Aloysius Assemani]], Syrian orientalist (b. [[1710]])
*[[1803]] - [[Jean François de Saint-Lambert]], French poet (b. [[1716]])
*[[1881]] - [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], Russian novelist (b. [[1821]])
*[[1891]] - [[Johan Jongkind]], Dutch painter (b. [[1819]])
*[[1906]] - [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], American poet (b. [[1872]])
*[[1940]] - [[Eugene Bleuler]], Swiss psychiatrist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1951]] - [[Eddy Duchin]], American musician (b. [[1910]])
*[[1955]] - [[Albert Einstein]], American, Swiss physicist, (b. [[1879]])
*[[1957]] - [[Miklós Horthy]], Hungarian admiral and regent (b. [[1868]])
*[[1960]] - [[Alexandre Benois]], Russian artist (b. [[1870]])
*[[1966]] - [[Sophie Tucker]], Russian-born actress and singer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1969]] - [[Gabby Hayes]], American actor (b. [[1885]])
*[[1976]] - [[Percy Faith]], Canadian musician and composer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1979]] - [[Dennis Gabor]], Hungarian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1981]] - [[Bill Haley]], American musician ([[Bill Haley and the Comets]]) (b. [[1925]])
*[[1984]] - [[Yuri Andropov]], General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (b. [[1914]])
*[[1989]] - [[Osamu Tezuka]], the godfather of [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[manga]] (b. [[1928]])
*[[1994]] - [[Howard Martin Temin]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1934]])
*[[1995]] - [[J. William Fulbright]], U.S. Senator (b. [[ |
xample, the language of group theory consists of one constant (the identity element), one function of valence 1 (the inverse) one function of valence 2 (the product), and one relation of valence 2 (equality), which would be omitted by authors who include equality in the underlying logic.
==Formation rules==
The '''formation rules''' define the terms, formulas, and the free variables in them as follows.
The set of '''terms''' is recursively defined by the following rules:
# Any constant is a term (with no free variables).
# Any variable is a term (whose only free variable is itself).
# Any expression ''f''(''t''<sub>1</sub>,...,''t''<sub>''n''</sub>) of ''n''&ge;1 arguments (where each argument ''t''<sub>''i''</sub> is a term and ''f'' is a function symbol of valence ''n'') is a term. Its free variables are the free variables of any of the terms ''t''<sub>''i''</sub>.
# '''Closure clause:''' Nothing else is a term.
The set of [[well-formed formula]]s (usually called '''wff'''s or just '''[[formula (mathematical logic)|formulas]]''') is recursively defined by the following rules:
# '''Simple and complex predicates''' If P is a relation of valence ''n''&ge; 1 and the ''a''<sub>''i''</sub> are terms then <math>Pa_1,...,a_n</math> is well-formed. Its free variables are the free variables of any of the terms ''a''<sub>''i''</sub>. If equality is considered part of logic, then (''a''<sub>1</sub> = ''a''<sub>2</sub>) is well formed. All such formulas are said to be ''atomic''.
# '''Inductive Clause I:''' If &phi; is a ''wff'', then ¬ &phi; is a ''wff''. Its free variables are the free variables of &phi;.
# '''Inductive Clause II:''' If &phi; and &psi; are ''wff''s, then <math>(\phi \wedge \psi)</math>, <math>(\phi \vee \psi)</math>, (&phi; &rarr; &psi;), (&phi; &harr; &psi;) are ''wff''s. Its free variables are the free variables of &phi; or &psi;.
# '''Inductive Clause III:''' If &phi; is a ''wff'', then <math> \forall x \, \varphi </math> and <math> \exists x \, \varphi </math> are ''wff''s (and similarly for any other variable in place of ''x''). Its free variables are the free variables of &phi; or &psi; other than ''x''. (Any instance of ''x'' (or other variable replacing ''x'' in this construction) is said to be [[binding|bound]] &mdash; not free &mdash; in <math> \forall x \, \varphi </math> and <math> \exists x \, \varphi </math>.)
# '''Closure Clause:''' Nothing else is a ''wff''.
In practice, if ''P'' is a relation of valence 2, we often write "''a P b''" instead of "''P a b''"; for example,
we write 1&lt;2 instead of &lt;1 2. Similarly if ''f'' is a function of valence 2, we sometimes write "''a f b''" instead of "''f(a b)''"; for example,
we write 1+2 instead of +(1 2). It is also common to omit some parentheses if this does not lead to ambiguity.
'''Substitution''': If ''t'' is a term and &phi;(''x'') is a formula possibly containing ''x'' as a free variable, then
&phi;(''t'') is defined to be the result of replacing all free instances of ''x'' by ''t'', '''provided that no free variable of ''t'' becomes bound in this process'''. If some free variable of ''t'' becomes bound, then to substitute ''t'' for ''x'' it is first necessary to change the names of bound variables of &phi; to something other than the free variables of ''t''. To see why this condition is necessary, consider the formula &phi;(''x'') given by &forall;''y'' ''y''&le;''x'' ("''x'' is maximal"). If ''t'' is a term without ''y'' as a free variable, then &phi;(''t'') just means ''t'' is maximal. However if ''t'' is ''y'' the formula &phi;(''y'') is &forall;''y'' ''y''&le;''y'' which does '''not''' say that ''y'' is maximal. The problem is that the free variable
''y'' of ''t'' (=''y'') became bound when we substituted ''y'' for ''x'' in &phi;(''x''). So to form &phi;(''y'') we must first change the bound variable ''y'' of &phi; to something else, say ''z'', so that &phi;(''y'') is then &forall;''z'' ''z''&le;''y''. Forgetting this condition is a notorious cause of errors.
'''Examples''': The language of ordered abelian groups has one constant 0, one unary function &minus;, one binary function +, and one binary relation &le;. So
*0, ''x'', ''y'' are '''atomic terms'''
*+(''x'', ''y''), +(''x'' +(''y'' &minus;(''z''))) are '''terms''', usually written as ''x'' + ''y'', ''x'' + (''y'' + &minus;''z'')
*+(''x'', ''y'') = 0, &le; +(''x'' +(''y'' &minus;(''z''))) +(''x'', ''y'') are '''atomic formulas''', usually written as ''x'' + ''y'' = 0, ''x'' + ''y''&minus;''z'' &le; ''x'' + ''y'',
*(&forall;''x'' &exist;''y'' &le; +(''x'' ''y'') ''z'' &and; &exist;''x'' +(''x'', ''y'') = 0) is a '''formula''', usually written as (&forall;''x'' &exist;''y'' ''x'' + ''y'' &le; ''z'') &and; (&exist;''x'' ''x'' + ''y'' = 0).
==Equality==
There are several different conventions for using equality (or identity) in first order logic. This section summarizes the main ones. The various conventions all give essentially the same results with about the same amount of work, and differ mainly in terminology.
*The most common convention for equality is to include the equality symbol as a primitive logical symbol, and add the axioms for equality to the axioms for first order logic. The equality axioms are
::''x'' = ''x''
::''x'' = ''y'' &rarr; ''f''(...,''x'',...) = ''f''(...,''y'',...) for any function ''f''
::''x'' = ''y'' &rarr; (''P''(...,''x'',...) &rarr; ''P''(...,''y'',...)) for any relation ''P''
*The next most common convention is to include the equality symbol as one of the relations of a theory, and add the equality axioms to the axioms of the theory. In practice this is almost indistinguishable from the previous convention, except in the unusual case of theories with no notion of equality. The axioms are the same, and the only difference is whether one calls some of them logical axioms or axioms of the theory.
*In theories with no functions and a finite number of relations, it is possible to define equality in terms of the relations, by defining the two terms ''s'' and ''t'' to be equal if any relation is unchanged by changing ''s'' to ''t'' in any argument. For example, in set theory with one relation &isin;, we would define ''s''=''t'' to be an abbreviation for &forall;x(s&isin;x &harr; t&isin;x) &and; &forall;x(x&isin;s &harr; x&isin;t). This definition of equality then automatically satisfies the axioms for equality.
*In some theories it is possible to give ''ad hoc'' definitions of equality. For example, in a theory of partial orders with one relation &le; we could define ''s''=''t'' to be an abbreviation for ''s''&le;''t'' &and; ''t''&le;''s''.
* It is also sometimes useful to discuss "''P(x)'' holds for exactly one ''x''", which can be expressed as:
::{| cellpadding="5"
|-
| || <math>\exists x \bullet (P(x) \land \forall y \bullet (P(y) \Rightarrow (x=y)))</math>
|-
| or: || <math>\exists !x \bullet P(x)</math>
|}
==Inference rules ==
The inference rule [[modus ponens]] is the only one required from [[propositional logic]] for the formalization given here. It states that if &phi; and &phi;&rarr;&psi; are both proved, then one can deduce &psi;.
The inference rule called [[Generalization (logic)|Universal Generalization]] is characteristic of the predicate calculus. It can be stated as
: <math>\mathrm{if} \vdash \phi, \mathrm{then} \vdash \forall x \phi</math>
where <math>\phi</math> is supposed to stand for an already-proven theorem of predicate calculus.
Notice that Generalization is analogous to the Necessitation Rule of [[modal logic]], which is
:<math>\mathrm{if} \vdash P, \mathrm{then} \vdash \Box P.</math>
==Quantifier axioms==
The following four logical axioms characterize a predicate calculus:
* PRED-1: <math> \forall x Z(x) \rightarrow Z(y) </math>
* PRED-2: <math> Z(y) \rightarrow \exists x Z(x) </math>
* PRED-3: <math> \forall x (W \rightarrow Z(x)) \rightarrow (W \rightarrow \forall x Z(x)) </math>
* PRED-4: <math> \forall x (Z(x) \rightarrow W) \rightarrow (\exists x Z(x) \rightarrow W) </math>
These are actually [[axiom schema|axiom schemata]]: the expression ''W'' stands for any wff in which x is not free, and
the expression ''Z(x)'' stands for any wff with the additional convention that ''Z(y)'' stands for the same wff with ''y'' replacing all free occurrences of ''x''.
==The predicate calculus==
The predicate calculus is an extension of the [[propositional calculus]] that defines which statements of first order logic are provable. If the propositional calculus is defined with a suitable set of axioms and the single rule of inference [[modus ponens]] (this can be done in many different ways), then the predicate calculus can be defined by appending some additional axioms and the additional inference rule "universal generalization". More precisely, as axioms for the predicate calculus we take:
*All tautologies from the propositional calculus (with the proposition variables replaced by formulas).
*The axioms for quantifiers, given above.
*The axioms for equality given above, if equality is regarded as a logical concept.
A sentence is defined to be '''provable in first order logic''' if it can be obtained by starting with the axioms of the predicate calculus and repeatedly applying the inference rules "modus ponens" and "universal g |
e and without a proper plan, such as [[run-on sentence]]s and an unsystematic succession of thought. Ignatius is the first known Christian writer to put great stress on loyality to a single [[bishop]] in each city, who is assisted by both [[presbyter]]s ([[priest]]s) and [[deacon]]s. Earlier writings only mention ''either'' bishops ''or'' presbyters, and give the impression that there was usually more than one bishop per congregation.
:''"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself"'' [IEph6:1] ''"your godly bishop"'' ''"the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ"'' ''"Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters."'' ''"Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit."'' [IMag2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2] ''"In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church."'' [ITr3:1] ''"follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment"'' ''"He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil"'' [ISmy8:1,9:1], [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] translation
Ignatius stressed the value of the [[eucharist]], calling it "a medicine to immortality". The very strong desire for bloody martyrdom in the arena, which Ignatius expresses rather graphically in places, may seem quite odd to the modern reader, but an examination of his theology of [[soteriology]] shows that he regarded salvation as being from the power and fear of death. So, for him, to try to escape his martyrdom would be to fear death and place himself back under its power.
Ignatius is claimed to be the first known Christian writer to advocate replacing the [[Sabbath]] with the [[Lord's Day]]:
:''"If then those who had walked in ancient practices attained unto newness of hope, no longer observing Sabbaths but fashioning their lives after the Lord's day, on which our life also arose through Him and through His death which some men deny -- a mystery whereby we attained unto belief, and for this cause we endure patiently, that we may be found disciples of Jesus Christ our only teacher"'' &mdash; Ignatius to the Magnesians 9.1, [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] translation.
He is also responsible for the first known use of the word "Catholic" to describe the church, saying
:''"Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude[of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."'' (Epistle to the Smyrmaeans, Chapter VIII)
==External links==
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ignatius.html Early Christian writings]: on-line texts of Ignatius' letters
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] St Ignatius of Antioch; the manuscript traditions and the controversy over authenticity
* [http://www.cogwriter.com/ignatius.htm Another Look at Ignatius and the Sabbath] This includes a translation and discussion of other portions of Ignatius' Letters and the Didache
* [http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.11.en.the_ecclesiology_of_st._ignatius_of_antioch.01.htm The Ecclesiology of St. Ignatius of Antioch] by Fr. John S. Romanides
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Saint Evodius|Evodius]]|
title=[[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]]|
years=[[68]]—[[107]]|
after=[[Saint Heron]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Christian martyrs]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Antioch]] [[Category:100s deaths]]
[[cs:Ignác z Antiochie]]
[[de:Ignatius von Antiochien]]
[[fi:Ignatios]]
[[fr:Ignace d'Antioche]]
[[hu:Antiochiai Szent Ignác]]
[[it:Sant'Ignazio di Antiochia]]
[[nl:Ignatius van Antiochië]]
[[no:Ignatius av Antiokia]]
[[pl:Ignacy Antiocheński]]
[[sk:Ignác Antiochijský]]
[[sv:Ignatios av Antiochia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ITU prefix</title>
<id>15437</id>
<revision>
<id>40381721</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T04:24:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NinjaStrider</username>
<id>961119</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] allocates [[call sign]] [[prefix]]es for [[radio station|radio]] and [[television station|television]] stations of all types. These prefixes are agreed upon internationally, and are a form of [[country code]]. A call sign can be any number of letters and numerals but each country must only use call signs that begin with the characters allocated for use in that country.
A few countries do not fully comply with these rules. Australia drops the VL prefix for broadcast stations, and Canada uses Chile's CB for its own [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] stations.
With regard to the second and/or third letters in the prefixes in the list below, if the country in question is allocated all callsigns with A to Z in that position, then that country can also use call signs with the digits 0 to 9 in that position. For example, the [[United States]] is assigned KA&ndash;KZ, and therefore can also use prefixes like KA1 or K5.
Many large countries in turn have internal rules on how and where specific subsets of their callsigns can be used (such as Mexico's XE for AM and XH for FM broadcasting), which are not covered here.
==Fictional call signs==
The following ranges of call signs are not used, so can be used as examples and as call signs of [[fictional country|fictional countries]]. <small>Note: List not complete.</small>
*A0&ndash;A1
*C0&ndash;C1
*D0&ndash;D1
*E0&ndash;E1
*H0&ndash;H1
*H5
*E6&ndash;E9
*Q[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[Q]]''' are used&mdash;they get confused with [[Q Codes]])
*O0&ndash;O9
*J0&ndash;J1
*L0&ndash;L1
*P0&ndash;P1
*J9
*0[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[zero|0]]''' are used)
*S0&ndash;S1
*T0&ndash;T1
*V0&ndash;V1
*Y0&ndash;Y1
*Z0&ndash;Z1
*X0&ndash;X9
*Z4&ndash;Z9
*1[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[one|1]]''' are used)
*30&ndash;39
*40&ndash;49
*50&ndash;59
*60&ndash;69
*70&ndash;79
*80&ndash;89
*90&ndash;99
==Table of Allocation of International Call Sign Series==
[[ITU prefix/Grid chart|View as grid chart]]
{| class="wikitable"
| '''Call Sign Series'''
| '''Allocated to'''
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|A
|-
| AA&ndash;AL
| [[United States|United States of America]]
|-
| AM&ndash;AO
| [[Spain]]
|-
| AP&ndash;AS
| [[Pakistan]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| AT&ndash;AW
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| AX
| [[Australia]]
|-
| AY&ndash;AZ
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
| A2
| [[Botswana]] (Republic of)
|-
| A3
| [[Tonga]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| A4
| [[Oman]] (Sultanate of)
|-
| A5
| [[Bhutan]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| A6
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
|-
| A7
| [[Qatar]] (State of)
|-
| A8
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| A9
| [[Bahrain]] (State of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|B
|-
| '''B'''
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|C
|-
| CA&ndash;CE
| [[Chile]] (See note 5)
|-
| CF&ndash;CK
| [[Canada]]
|-|
| CL&ndash;CM
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| CN
| [[Morocco]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| CO
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| CP
| [[Bolivia]] (Republic of)
|-
| CQ&ndash;CU
| [[Portugal]]
|-
| CV&ndash;CX
| [[Uruguay]] (Eastern Republic of)
|-
| CY&ndash;CZ
| [[Canada]]
|-
| C2
| [[Nauru]] (Republic of)
|-
| C3
| [[Andorra]] (Principality of)
|-
| C4
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| C5
| [[The Gambia]] (Republic of)
|-
| C6
| [[Bahamas]] (Commonwealth of the)
|-
| C7
| ''[[World Meteorological Organization]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| C8&ndash;C9
| [[Mozambique]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|D
|-
| DA&ndash;DR
| [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
| DS&ndash;DT
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| DU&ndash;DZ
| [[Philippines]] (Republic of the)
|-
| D2&ndash;D3
| [[Angola]] (Republic of)
|-
| D4
| [[Cape Verde]] (Republic of)
|-
| D5
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| D6
| [[Comoros]] (Islamic Federal Republic of the)
|-
| D7&ndash;D9
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|E
|-
| EA&ndash;EH
| [[Spain]]
|-
| EI&ndash;EJ
| [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] (Republic of)
|-
| EK
| [[Armenia]] (Republic of)
|-
| EL
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| EM&ndash;EO
| [[Ukraine]]
|-
| EP&ndash;EQ
| [[Iran]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| ER
| [[Moldova]] (Republic of)
|-
| ES
| [[Estonia]] (Republic of)
|-
| ET
| [[Ethiopia]] (Federal Democratic Republic of)
|-
| EU&ndash;EW
| [[Belarus]] (Republic of)
|-
| EX
| [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz Republic]]
|-
| EY
| [[Tajikistan]] (Republic of)
|-
| EZ
| [[Turkmenistan]]
|-
| E2
| [[Thailand]]
|-
| E3
| [[Eritrea]]
|-
| E4
| [[Palestinian Authority]] (See note 2)
|-
| E5
| [[Cook Islands]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|F
|-
| '''F'''
| [[France]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|G
|-
| '''G'''
|[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!"#CCCCCC" colspan="2"|H
|-
| HA
| |
random mixed capitalization (as in ''"MiXeD CaPitALiZaTioN"'') as popularly used in [[leet|online culture]].
Other synonyms include:
*'''BumpyCaps'''
*'''BumpyCase'''
*'''camelBase Case'''
*'''CamelCaps'''
*'''CamelHumpedWord'''
*'''CapWords''' in [[Python programming language|Python]] [http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0008.html (reference)]
*'''mixedCase''' (for lowerCamelCase) in [[Python programming language|Python]] [http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0008.html (reference)]
*'''ClCl''' (Capital-lower Capital-lower) and sometimes '''ClC'''
*'''HumpBackNotation'''
*'''InterCaps'''
*'''InternalCapitalization'''
*'''NerdCaps'''
*'''WordMixing'''
*'''WordsStrungTogether'' or ''WordsRunTogether'''
The name ''CamelCase'' is not related to the "Camel book" (''[[Programming Perl]]''), which uses all-lowercase identifiers with underscores in its sample code.
==Coding standards==
Internal capitalization is recommended or enforced by many computer systems, and mandated by the [[coding standard]]s of many programming languages &mdash; such as [[Mesa programming language|Mesa]], the [[systems programming language]] of the [[Xerox Alto]] (late 1970s), or the modern language [[Java programming language|Java]]. It is also the official convention for file names in Java and of the [[Amiga]] personal computers.<!--Are these upper or lower CamelCase?-->
Coding standards often distinguish between UpperCamelCase and lowerCamelCase, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s, [[field (computer science)|record fields]], [[method (computer science)|method]]s, [[procedure (computer science)|procedures]], [[type (computer science)|types]], etc..
For instance, the Java coding style dictates that UpperCamelCase be used for [[class (computer science)|classes]], and lowerCamelCase be used for [[instance (computer science)|instances]] and [[member (computer science)|members]]. The original [[Hungarian notation]] for programming specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the "usage type" (not data type) should be prefixed on all variable names, with the remainder of the name in UpperCamelCase; as such it is a form of lowerCamelCase.
[[NIEM]] standards require that XML Data Elements use UpperCamelCase and XML Attributes use lowerCamelCase.
Some [[wiki]]s, especially the earlier ones, use CamelCase to mark words that should be automatically linked. In many modern wikis (such [[Wikipedia]] and other [[MediaWiki]]-based wikis) this convention was abandoned in favor of explicit link markup, e.g. with <nowiki>[[…]]</nowiki>.
==History==
===Early uses===
CamelCase has been sporadically used since ancient times, for example as a traditional spelling style for certain surnames, such as the [[Scotland|Scottish]] name ''McLean'' ("son of Gilian") or the [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] ''deJong'' or ''DeJong'' ("of/from Jong"). In the early 20th century, it was used occasionally for [[trademark]]ing corporations and products, such as the [[CinemaScope]] [[film|movie]] projection system introduced in the [[1950s]]. CamelCase also occurred sometimes in [[acronym]]s like [[Department of Defense|DoD]], or technical codes and formulas like [[HeLa]] ([[1983]]) and [[sodium chloride|NaCl]].
CamelCase has been used in languages other than [[English language|English]] for a variety or purposes, such as the transcription of [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] names like ''rLobsang'', or names of [[Bantu languages]] like ''[[Swahili language|kiSwahili]]'' or ''[[Zulu language|isiZulu]]''. In [[French language|French]], abbreviations such as [[Oulipo|OuLiPo]] ([[1960]]) were favored for a time as alternatives to acronyms.
However, the use of CamelCase became widespread only in the [[1970s]] or [[1980s]], when it was adopted as a standard or alternative [[identifier naming convention|naming convention]] for multi-word [[identifier]]s in several [[programming language]]s. There are various possible origins, and it may have developed independently from multiple sources. Two of these theories are exposed below.
===Background: multi-word identifiers===
In programs of any significant size, there is a need for descriptive (hence multi-word) [[identifier]]s, like "<tt>previous balance</tt>" or "<tt>end of file</tt>". Writing the words together as in "<tt>endoffile</tt>" is not satisfactory because the names often become unreadable. Therefore, the pioneer programming language [[COBOL]] allowed a [[hyphen]] ("<tt>-</tt>") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in "<tt>END-OF-FILE</tt>". The contemporary "algebraic" language [[Fortran]] reserved the hyphen as the minus operator, but allowed spaces to be arbitrarily embedded into identifiers, so that "<tt>TOTAMP</tt>" could be written "<tt>TOT AMP</tt>" (or "<tt>TO TAMP</tt>"). (This feature was of little use, however, because most Fortran compilers did not allow identifiers longer than six letters.)
The common [[punched card]] character sets of the time had no lower-case letters and no special character that would be adequate as a word separator in identifiers. However, by the late [[1960]]s the [[ASCII]] character set standard had been established, allowing the designers of the C language to adopt the [[underscore]] character "<tt>_</tt>" as a word joiner. Underscore-separated compounds like "<tt>end_of_file</tt>" are still prevalent in C programs and libraries.
===The "Lazy Programmer" origin===
One explanation of the origins of CamelCase in [[computing]] claims that the style originated within the culture of [[C programming language|C programmers]] and [[hacker culture|hackers]], who found it more convenient than the standard underscore-based style.
On most keyboards, the underscore key is inconveniently placed. Additionally, in some fonts the underscore character can be confused with a minus sign; it can be overlooked because it falls below the string of characters, or it can be lost entirely when displayed or printed underlined, or when printed on a [[dot-matrix printer]] with a defective pin or misaligned ribbon. Moreover, compiler limits on identifier length and the small [[computer display]]s available in the [[1970s]] worked together to encourage brevity. So many programmers chose to use CamelCase instead, because it yielded legible compound names with fewer keystrokes and fewer characters.
===The "Alto Keyboard" origin===
Another explanation is that CamelCase started at [[Xerox PARC]] around 1978, with the [[Mesa programming language]] developed for the [[Xerox Alto]] computer. This machine lacked an underscore key, and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving CamelCase as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names. The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for Upper- and lowerCamelCase which was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system.
The [[Smalltalk]] language, which was developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early [[1980s]], may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. CamelCase was also used in the [[PostScript]] graphics language, another very popular PARC invention. Further boost was provided by [[Niklaus Wirth]] &mdash; the inventor of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] &mdash; who acquired a taste for CamelCase during a sabbatical at PARC, and used it in [[Modula]], his next programming language.
===Spread to mainstream usage===
During the same period in which personal computers exposed [[hacker culture]] to a more mainstream audience in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], CamelCase became [[fashion]]able for corporate [[trade name]]s, first in computer-related fields but later expanding further into the mainstream. During the [[dot-com boom]] of in the late [[1990s]], in particular, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for "[[electronics|electronic]]") and "i" (for "[[Internet]]", "[[information]]", or perhaps "[[intelligent]]") became quite common. Here are some examples ranging from the [[1960s]] to the [[2000s]], sorted by year:
*[[ShopKo Stores, Inc.|ShopKo]] ([[1962]])
*[[AstroTurf]] ([[1967]]) <!-- Trademark serial number 72286166 -->
*[[CompuServe]] ([[1969]])
*[[ConAgra Foods, Inc.|ConAgra]] ([[1971]]) (formerly Consolidated Mills)
*MicroSoft (now [[Microsoft]]) ([[1975]])
*[[VisiCalc]] ([[1979]])
*[[EchoStar Communications Corporation|EchoStar]] ([[1980]])
*[[WordPerfect]] ([[1982]])
*[[Novell NetWare|NetWare]] ([[1983]])
*[[BellSouth]] ([[1984]])
*[[MacWorks]] (1984)
*[[Adobe PageMaker|PageMaker]] ([[1985]])
*[[ClarisWorks]] ([[1987]])
*[[HarperCollins Publishers|HarperCollins]] ([[1990]])
*[[QuickTime]] ([[1991]])
*[[SuperAmerica]] ([[1991]])
*[[OutKast]] hip hop band (1992)
*[[ThinkPad]] ([[1992]])
*[[EarthLink]] ([[1994]])
*[[PlayStation]] (1994)
*[[easyJet]] ([[1995]])
*[[eBay]] (spelled "ebaY" in their [[logo]]) (1995)
*WorldCom (now [[MCI]]) ([[1995]])
*[[RadioShack]] (formerly Radio Shack) ([[1996]])
*[[TiVo]] ([[1997]])
*[[AppleWorks]] ([[1997]])
*[[Borland|VisiBroker]] (1997)
*[[DaimlerChrysler]] ([[1998]])
*[[iMac]] (1998)
*[[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (1998) [http://www.pwcglobal.com/images/topnav/pwc.gif logo]
*[[StarCraft]] (1998)
*[[UnitedHealth Group|UnitedHealth]] (formerly United HealthCare) (1998)
*[[BlackBerry]] ([[1999]])
*[[CloneCD]] (1999)
*[[ExxonMobil]] (1999)
*[[SpongeBob SquarePants]] (1999)
*[[FedEx Corporation|FedEx]] (formerly Federal Express) ([[2000]])
*[[GlaxoSmithKline]] (2000)
*[[Apple iPod | iPod]] (2000)
*[[ |
for young adults. Most notable is his variant version of Elizabethan England in the first volume, although given the different (magical) laws of nature there could be no credible point of departure, nor does Pullman attempt to provide one.
A fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children's writer [[Diana Wynne Jones]] in her [[Chrestomanci]] quartet (1977-1988), with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents. Among the novels in this series, ''[[Witch Week]]'' stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of Chrestomanci's own world rather than our own (and yet with a specific POD that turned it away from the "normal" history of most worlds visited by the wizard).
Although [[J.K. Rowling]] does not deal explicitly with cross-time or alternate history themes in her [[Harry Potter]] books (outside of the "time turner" used in book three), her world of wizards who coexist quasi-invisibly with the [[Muggles]] can be seen as an eccentric variant in which two subuniverses/subhistories co-exist as subsets of a larger universe/history (or one can regard [[Hogwarts]] and other magical locales as merely being pocket universes within a primary Muggles universe). Of course, if Rowling were to spell this out it would spoil much of the charm of her fictional world.
== Elements of Alternate History ==
There are certain elements which are common to all alternate histories, whether they deal with history on the micro-level (personal alternate histories) or the macro-level (world-changing events). These elements include:
*A point of change from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing;
*A change which would alter history as it is known; and
*An examination of the ramifications of that change.
Alternate histories do not:
*Need to be set in the past;
*Need to spell out the point of divergence;
*Need to deal with world changing events; or
*Need to include famous people.
== The boundaries of alternate history ==
This leads to readers encountering stories which read ''as though'' they were alternate history, but which are not. An example would be [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''[[The Man Who Sold the Moon]]''. Written in the 1940s, it posits that the first moon launch is run by a private organization rather than a government agency in the 1960s. New readers encountering the book may well presume that this is alternate history since it is clearly a counter-factual depiction of the first moon launch, now almost 40 years in the past. However, ''when written'', the first moon launch was nearly 30 years in the ''future''. Thus, ''The Man Who Sold the Moon'' is [[science fiction]], not alternate history. The point of divergence happened after the time at which the author was writing.
Also one should not confuse the AH subgenre with [[secret history]], which gives an account of history at odds with our general understanding &mdash; presenting its own account as having been concealed or suppressed by an elite.
AH also should not be mistaken for mythical history--a history which supposedly has been forgotten through the passage of time, not through conspiratorial suppression. The works of [[Robert Howard]] and [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] are excellent examples of fiction based on a lost-history framing, but they do not and cannot specify a point of departure from our own history, since there is no historical, archaeological or paleontological record on which such a POD could be based. Given the lack of any continuity with our world (and the lack of any kind of multiverse framing) such worlds are merely fantasy worlds and cannot be regarded as alternate history even in a borderline sense.
It is also possible to have novels that explore Points of Divergence (the key concept in alternate history) without actually being works of alternate history themselves. One good example is [[Marge Piercy]]'s critically acclaimed ''Woman on the Edge of Time'' (1976) in which a patient in a mental hospital is able to travel into two alternate futures--one an ecotopia run by reformed Weather Underground types and the other a fascist dystopia run by people-hating robots. Decisions she must make to resist an insidious new type of brain operation will determine which future wins. This is a time travel story, a cross-time story, a Christopher Priest style delusional alternate reality story and a POD story all rolled into one but it is <i>not</i> alternate history because the POD occurs in the present (or perhaps the near future) not in the past.
Less obvious is the difference between alternate history and "what if" stories. The latter subgenre extrapolates, from the present, a concrete near-future possibility that is often an expression of current public fears (hence the alternate term "cautionary tale" used by Sackville-West, see below). For instance, beginning in the 1870s the British reading public was treated to a number of what-if books about a German or French invasion of an unready British Isles. During the [[Great Depression]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] wrote of a [[fascism | fascist]] takeover in the United State in his classic ''[[It Can't Happen Here]]'' ([[1935]]). During the early years of [[World War II]], [[Vita Sackville-West]] penned the science fantasy ''Grand Canyon'' ([[1942]]) in which the Germans invade a woefully unprepared United States. One could define such tales as borderline alternate history, since they are usually set in a time that is only shortly after the time of writing and the events described could not have occurred without a branching of history before, if only slightly before, the book was written.
The boundary, like many in literature, is a broad line with grey edges (not unlike the fog around the alternate universe portals in science-fiction stories of fifty years ago). Would a 2005 author writing a story set in [[1970]] in Heinlein's universe, or [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Captain Nemo]]'' universe be writing SF or AH? Opinions differ.
== Alternate history in other media ==
Several films have been made that exploit the concepts of alternate history, most notably [[Kevin Brownlow]]'s ''[[It Happened Here]]''. Another such film is ''[[2009 Lost Memories]]'', a Korean film supposing that [[Hirobumi Ito]] was not assassinated by [[An Jung-geun]] in Harbin, China, in [[1909]].
A few movies about alternate pasts, however, focus on individuals rather than historical events and some students of AH would say these are '''not''' alternate histories (e.g., [[Frank Capra]]&#8217;s ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', and more recently the films ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' and ''[[The Butterfly Effect]]''). However, in the Capra film the angel shows [[Jimmy Stewart]] an alternate history in which he was never born--the changes in his home town are serious and far-reaching, creating a much darker reality for his neighbors. Thus if one posits, as Capra does, that changes in personal lives create a ripple effect in the larger history, then such stories do qualify as a type of alternate history (one could call them "alternative local history" or "alternative interpersonal history"). Such worlds with relatively small (and sometimes almost undiscernable) changes in personal lives were given the name "cognate universes" by [[Jack Vance]] in the novelette "Rumfuddle" (1973).
The [[science fiction]] [[television show]] ''[[Sliders]]'' presented alternate histories under the science-inspired guise of quantum-navigating the [[multiverse]]. The alternate Americas in most episodes are nasty [[dystopias]], although sometimes this is not evident at first. Another such television show, a South Korean drama, [[Gung]] presents an point of divergence where the Korean monarchy is restored after the Independance from the Japanese Empire even up to the 21st Century.[http://www.imbc.com/broad/tv/drama/gung/index.html] (Note: This website is in Korean)
The dramatic possibilities of alternate history provide a diverse genre for exploration in [[role-playing game]]s. [[List of role-playing games#Period_Adventure.2FAlternate_History_Genres|Many games]] use an alternate historical background for their campaigns. In particular, [[GURPS]] uses a setting containing multiple different alternate histories as its default campaign setting.
==Points of divergence==
The key change between our history and the alternate history is known as the "[[Point of divergence]]" (POD). In [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[The Man in the High Castle]]'', the POD is the attempted assassination of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[Miami]] in [[1933]]. In reality, this attempt failed. Another alternate history with a point of divergence connected to Roosevelt is the backdrop to [[Philip Roth]]'s novel [[The Plot Against America]], in which Roosevelt is defeated in the [[1940]] [[United States presidential election, 1940|US presidential election]] by the isolationist [[Charles Lindbergh]], who reaches an accommodation with the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]] and keeps the [[United States]] out of the war. In Robert Harris's [[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]], the POD occurs when a German attack into the [[Caucasus]] succeeds in the Nazis seizing vital oil and cutting off supplies to the [[Red Army]]. This forces the USSR to surrender, enabling the Axis Powers to bring the remaining Allies to the peace table, one by one. Some variants of the theory of the [[multiverse]] posit that PODs occur every instant, springing off [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s for each instance. Even mainstream [[science fiction]] stories are known to have points of divergence - the ''[[Star Trek]]'' franchise, for example, diverts from ours in that several key [[space disaster]]s never occurred, resulting in a much faster and smoother development of rocketry than in our timeline.
==Counterfactual and virtual histo |
[1437]]) by [[Ulugh Beg]]. Later, [[Edmond Halley|Halley]] would use his star catalogue to discover proper motions as well.
The system of celestial coordinates used in Hipparchus's star catalog is not known. Since Ptolemy's copy in the [[Almagest]] is given in [[ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptical coordinates]], that system would seem the most likely; although there is evidence that both ecliptic coordinates and [[equatorial coordinate system|equatorial coordinates]] were used in the original observations.
=== [[Celestial body|Celestial bodies]] ===
Hipparchus in [[130 BC]] wrote about an [[open cluster]], the [[Messier object|M44]] [[Praesepe]] ([[NGC 2632]]) as a "Little [[Cloud]]" or "Cloudy Star". Before him the object was known to [[Aratus]] ca. [[260 BC]], who wrote about it as a "Little [[Mist]]". Hipparchus also included this object in his famous star catalogue. The cluster was also known to [[China|Chinese]] astronomers. [Moore 1994], [10]
: ...''to be extended ...''
=== [[Celestial coordinate system]]s ===
Delambre in his ''Histoire de l'Astronomie Ancienne'' ([[1817]]) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used a real (celestial) [[equatorial coordinate system]], directly with the [[right ascension]] and [[declination]] (or with its complement, [[polar distance (astronomy)|polar distance]]). Later [[Otto Neugebauer]] in his ''A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy'' ([[1975]]) rejected Delambre's claims.
=== Brightness of stars ===
Hipparchus had in [[134 BC]] ranked stars in six magnitude classes according to their brightness: he assigned the value of 1 to the twenty brightest stars, to weaker ones a value of 2, and so forth to the stars with a class of 6, which can be barely seen with the naked eye. This scheme was later adopted by [[Ptolemy]] and a similar system is still in use today. (See [[Apparent magnitude]]).
== Precession of the equinoxes ([[146 BC]]-[[130 BC]])==
Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for having been the first to measure the [[precession]] of the [[equinox]]es. There is some suggestion that the Babylonians may have known about precession, but it appears that Hipparchus was the first to really understand it and measure it. According to [[Albategnius|al-Battani]], Chaldean astronomers had distinguished the [[tropical year|tropical]] and [[sidereal year]]. He stated that they had, around [[330 BC]], an estimation for the length of the sidereal year to be S<sub>K</sub> = 365&nbsp;days 6&nbsp;hours 11&nbsp;min (= 365.258&nbsp;days) with an error of (about) 2&nbsp;min. This phenomenon was probably also known to [[Kidinnu]] around [[314 BC]]. [[Yu Xi]] ([[fourth century]]) was the first Chinese astronomer to mention precession.
Hipparchus and his predecessors mostly used simple instruments for astronomical calculations, such as the [[gnomon]], [[astrolabe]], [[armillary sphere]], etc.
Additionally, as the first in history to correctly explain this with [[retrograde motion|retrogradical]] movement of [[vernal point]] γ over the [[ecliptic]] for about 45", 46" or 47" (36" or 3/4' according to Ptolemy) per annum (today's value is 50.29"), he showed the Earth's [[axis of rotation|axis]] is not fixed in space. By comparing his own measurements of the position of the equinoxes to the star [[Spica]] during a lunar eclipse at the time of equinox with those of [[Euclid]]'s contemporaries ([[Timocharis]] of Alexandria (ca. [[320 BC]]&ndash;[[260 BC]]), [[Aristillus]] 150 years earlier, the records of Chaldean astronomers (especially Kidinnu's records), he still later observed that the equinox had moved 2° relative to Spica. He also noticed this motion in other stars. He obtained a value of not less than 1° in a century. The modern value is 1° in 72 years.
After him many Greek and Arab astronomers had confirmed this phenomenon. Ptolemy compared his catalogue with those of Aristillus, Timocharis, Hipparchus and the observations of [[Agrippa]] and [[Menelaus]] of Alexandria from the early [[1st century]] and he finally confirmed Hipparchus' empirical fact that the poles of the celestial equator in one [[Platonic year]] (approximately 25,777 sidereal years) encircle the [[ecliptical pole]]. The diameter of this circle is equal to the inclination of ecliptic relative to the [[celestial equator]]. The equinoctial points in this time traverse the whole ecliptic and they move 1° in a century. This velocity is equal to that calculated by Hipparchus. Because of these accordances, Delambre, P. Tannery and other French historians of astronomy had wrongly jumped to conclusions that Ptolemy recorded his star catalogue from Hipparchus' with an ordinary extrapolation. It was not known until [[1898]] when [[Marcel Boll]] and others had found that Ptolemy's catalogue differs from Hipparchus' not only in the number of stars but in other respects.
This phenomenon was named by Ptolemy just because the [[vernal point]] γ leads the Sun. In [[Latin]] ''praecesse'' means "to overtake" or "to outpass", and today also means to twist or to turn. Its own name shows this phenomenon was discovered before its theoretical explanation, otherwise it would have been given a better term. Many later astronomers, physicists and mathematicians had occupied themselves with this problem, practically and theoretically. The phenomenon itself had opened many new promising solutions in several branches of [[celestial mechanics]]: [[Thabit ibn Qurra]]'s theory of [[trepidation (physics)|trepidation]] and [[oscillation]] of equinoctial points, [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[gravitation|general gravitational law]] (which had explained it in full), [[Leonhard Euler]]'s kinematic equations and [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Joseph Lagrange's]] [[Lagrangian mechanics|equations of motion]], [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert|Jean d'Alembert's]] dynamical theory of the movement of a rigid body, some algebraic solutions for special cases of precession, [[John Flamsteed]]'s and [[James Bradley]]'s difficulties in the making of precise telescopic star catalogues, [[Friedrich Bessel]]'s and [[Simon Newcomb]]'s measurements of precession, and finally the precession of [[perihelion]] in [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]].
== Hipparchus and astrology ==
In addition to his other writings dealing with [[astronomical]] topics, the work of Hipparchus dealing with the calculation and prediction of celestial positions would have been very useful to those engaged in [[astrology]]. Astrology developed in the [[Greco-Roman]] world during the [[Hellenistic]] period, borrowing many elements from [[Babylonian]] astronomy; some historians have suggested that Hipparchus played a key role in this. Remarks made by [[Pliny the Elder]] (who died [[79]] [[Anno Domini|AD]] during the eruption of the [[volcano]] [[Mount Vesuvius]]), in his ''Natural History'' Book 2.24, suggest that some [[ancient]] authors did regard Hipparchus as an important figure in the [[history of astrology]]. Pliny claimed that Hipparchus "can never be sufficiently praised, no one having done more to prove that man is related to the stars and that our souls are a part of heaven."
== Named after Hipparchus ==
The [[European Space Agency|ESA]]'s [[Hipparcos|Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission]] was named after him, as are the [[Hipparchus (lunar crater)|Hipparchus lunar crater]] and the [[asteroid]] [[4000 Hipparchus]].
== See also ==
*[[Apparent magnitude]]
*[[Astrometry]]
*[[History of astrology]]
*[[Geminus]] (of Rhodes) ([[10 BC]] - circa [[60]])
*[[Mira]]
*[[Mithraism]]
*[[Star catalogue]]s
== Literature ==
*Edition and translation: Karl Manitius: ''In Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena'', Leipzig, 1894.
*G.J. Toomer (1967): ''The Size of the Lunar Epicycle According to Hipparchus''. Centaurus '''12'''(3), 145..150.
*N.M. Swerdlow (1969): ''Hipparchus on the distance of the sun''. Centaurus '''14''', 287..305.
*G.J. Toomer (1973): ''The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek Trigonometry''. Centaurus '''18''', 6..28.
*G.J. Toomer (1974): ''Hipparchus on the Distances of the Sun and Moon''. Arch.Hist.Exact Sci. ''14'', 126..142.
*G.J. Toomer (1978): ''Hipparchus'' in "Dictionary of Scientific Biography" '''15''', 207..224.
*G.J. Toomer (1980): ''Hipparchus' Empirical Basis for his Lunar Mean Motions'', Centaurus '''24''', 97..109.
*G.J. Toomer (1981?): ''Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy'', (?)
*Patrick Moore (1994): ''Atlas of the Universe'', Octopus Publishing Group LTD (Slovene translation and completion by Tomaž Zwitter and Savina Zwitter (1999): ''Atlas vesolja''), 225.
*A. Jones: ''Hipparchus'' in "Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics", Nature Publishing Group, 2001.
*J. Chapront, M. Chapront Touze, G. Francou (2002): ''A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant, and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements''. Astron.Astrophys. '''387''', 700..709.
*B.E. Schaefer (2005): ''The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalogue''. J.Hist.Astron. '''xxxvi''', 1..29.
== External links ==
=== General ===
* [1] [http://www.hkupasteur.hku.hk/hkuip/causeries/Antiquity.html Hipparchus mentioned as Hipparchos in a history of mankind]
* [3] [http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_639.asp A lot of original Wikipedian articles (upto 2002-09-20) were transposed here]
* [4] [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html Biographical page at the] [[University of St. Andrews]]
* [5] [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/hipparchus.html Biographical page at the] [[University of Cambridge]]
* [6] [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/hipppoem.html University of Cambridge's Page about Hipparchus' sole surviving work]
* [7] [http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/hipparchus.html Biographical page at the] [[University of Ore |
perties
==External links==
* [http://www.grokfood.com/ Database of food additives and regulations governing their use]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sfp/flav_index_en.html EU legislation on food additives]
* [http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm CSPI's guide to food additives]
[[Category:Food science]]
[[Category:Food additives]]
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[[ru:Пищевые добавки]]
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<page>
<title>Foot-and-mouth disease</title>
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<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Foot-and-mouth disease |
ICD10 = B08.8 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|078.4}} |
}}
'''Foot-and-mouth disease''' (FMD, ''Aphtae epizooticae'' in [[Latin]]), sometimes called '''hoof-and-mouth disease''', is a [[infectious disease|highly contagious]] and sometimes fatal [[virus (biology)|viral]] [[disease]] of [[cattle]] and [[pig]]s. It can also infect [[deer]], [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], and other animals with cloven hooves, as well as [[elephant]]s, [[rat]]s, and [[hedgehog]]s. [[Horse]]s are not susceptible to FMD. Humans are affected only very rarely. The cause of FMD was first shown to be viral in [[1897]] by [[Friedrich Loeffler]]. He passed the [[blood]] of an infected animal through a fine porcelain-glass filter and found that the fluid that was collected could still cause the disease in healthy animals.
{{Taxobox_begin | color = violet | name = Picornaviruses}}
{{Taxobox_begin_placement_virus}}
{{Taxobox_group_iv_entry}}
{{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = ''[[Picornaviridae]]''}}
{{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Aphthovirus]]''}}
{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''Foot-and-mouth disease virus'''''}}
{{Taxobox_end_placement}}
{{Taxobox_end}}
FMD occurs throughout much of the world, including parts of [[Europe]], [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[South America]]. While currently (July 2001) some countries, including [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] have been free of FMD for some time, eradicated from the U.S. in 1929, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. There was an outbreak of FMD in [[Great Britain|Britain]] in [[2001]] which resulted in the slaughter of many animals. Many sporting events and leisure activities like [[Ten Tors]] were cancelled. (see [[2001 UK foot and mouth crisis]] for details).
Foot-and-mouth disease, after World War II, was widely distributed throughout the world. In 1996, endemic areas were Asia, Africa, and parts of South America. In South America, Chile is free, and Uruguay and Argentina have not had an outbreak since April 1994. Most European countries have been recognized as free. Countries belonging to the European Union have stopped FMD vaccination. North and Central America, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan have been free of FMD for many years. A serious breakout occurred in 2001 covering all of the United Kingdom and parts of Europe. Due to strict government policies on sale of livestock, disinfection of all persons leaving and entering farms and the cancellation of large events likely to be attended by farmers, a potentially economically disastrous epidemic was avoided in the [[Republic of Ireland]], with just 1 case recorded in Proleek, [[Co. Louth]].
There are seven different FMD serotypes - O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3 and Asia-1. These serotypes show some regionality, and the O serotype is most common.
== Symptoms ==
Foot-and-mouth disease is characterized by high [[fever]] that declines rapidly after two or three days; blisters inside the mouth that lead to excessive secretion of stringy or foamy saliva and to drooling; and blisters on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness. Adult animals may suffer weight loss from which they do not recover for several months as well as swelling in the testicles of mature males, and in cows, [[milk]] production can decline significantly. Though most animals eventually recover from FMD, the disease can lead to [[myocarditis]] (inflammation of the heart muscle) and death, especially in newborn animals. Some infected animals remain asymptomatic, that is, they do not suffer from or show signs of the disease; but they are [[Asymptomatic carrier|carrier]]s of FMD and can transmit it to others.
Infection with foot-and-mouth disease tends to occur locally, that is, the virus is passed on to susceptible animals through direct contact with infected animals or with contaminated pens or vehicles used to transport livestock. The clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, and uncooked food scraps and feed supplements containing infected animal products can harbor the virus as well. Cows can also catch FMD from the semen of infected bulls. Control measures include quarantine and destruction of infected livestock, and export bans for meat and other animal products to countries not infected with the disease.
Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by an [[Aphthovirus]] of the viral family [[Picornaviridae]]. The members of this family are small (25-30 nm), nonenveloped [[icosahedral]] viruses that contain single-stranded [[RNA]] (ribonucleic acid, the viral genetic material). When such a virus comes in contact with a host cell, it binds to a receptor site and triggers a folding-in of the cell membrane. Once the virus is inside the host cell, its protein coat dissolves. New viral RNA and components of the protein coat are then synthesized in large quantities and assembled to form new viruses. After assembly, the host cell lyses (bursts) and releases the new viruses.
Humans can be infected with foot-and-mouth disease through contact with infected animals, but this is extremely rare. Because the virus that causes FMD is sensitive to stomach acid, it cannot spread to humans via consumption of infected meat. In the UK, the last confirmed human case occurred in [[1967]], and only a few other cases have been recorded in countries of [[continental Europe]], Africa, and South America. Symptoms of FMD in humans include malaise, fever, vomiting, red ulcerative lesions (surface-eroding damaged spots) of the oral tissues, and sometimes vesicular lesions (small blisters) of the skin.
There is another viral disease with similar symptoms, commonly referred to as &ldquo;[[hand, foot, and mouth disease]],&rdquo; that occurs more frequently in humans, especially in young children; this disease is caused by a different virus of the family Picornaviridae, namely, an Enterovirus called [[Coxsackie A]].
Because FMD rarely infects humans but spreads rapidly among animals, it is a much greater threat to the agriculture industry than to human health. Farmers around the world can lose billions of dollars a year during a foot-and-mouth epidemic, when large numbers of animals are destroyed and revenues from milk and meat production go down.
== Vaccination ==
One of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between and even within serotypes. There is no cross-protection between [[serotype|serotypes]] (meaning that a vaccine for one serotype won't protect against any others) and in addition, two [[strain (biology)|strains]] within a given serotype may have [[DNA|nucleotide]] sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a given gene. This means that FMD [[vaccine|vaccines]] must be highly specific to the strain involved. Vaccination only provides temporary [[immune system|immunity]] that lasts from months to years.
Currently, the [[OIE]] recognizes countries to be in one of three disease states with regards to FMD - FMD present with or without vaccination, FMD free with vaccination, and FMD free without vaccination. Countries that are designated FMD free without vaccination have the greatest access to export markets, so many developed nations, including Canada, the United States, and the UK, currently have FMD free without vaccination status.
Many early [[vaccine]]s used dead samples of FMD virus to inoculate animals. However, those early vaccines sometimes caused real outbreaks. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that a vaccine could be made using only a single key [[protein]] from the virus. The task was to produce such quantities of the protein that could be used in the vaccination. On [[June 18]], [[1981]], the U.S. government announced the creation of vaccine targeted against FMD, which was the world's first [[Genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] vaccine. More than two decades later, FMD is still around.
The North American FMD Vaccine Bank is housed at the Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (FADDL) at Plum Island Animal Disease Center. The Center, located 1.5 miles off the coast of Long Island, NY, is the only place in the United States where scientists can conduct research and diagnostic work on highly contagious exotic animal diseases such as FMD.
== Further reading ==
*Levy, Jay A., Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, and Robert A. Owens. "Picornaviridae." Chap. 2, section 2.2 in Virology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.
*''A Manufactured Plague: The History Of Foot-and-mouth Disease In Britain'' (2004, ISBN 1844070808) by [[Abigail Wood]], a veterinary researcher at the [[University of Manchester]].[http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/articles/awoodfmd.html]
*The Lab-On-Site Project has more information in [http://www.labonsite.com/background.php?id=1 |
d $43.1 billion in enforcement revenue. This is $5.5 billion or a 15 percent increase from fiscal 2003.
Recently, the IRS has altered its policies. The current Service plus Enforcement equals Compliance motto has led to more investigations of abusive tax schemes.
The current Commissioner of Internal Revenue is [[Mark W. Everson]], who was confirmed by the U. S. Senate on May 1, 2003.
==See also==
* [[Taxation in the United States]]
* [[Non-profit corporation]]
* [[United States of America non-profit laws]]
* [[501(c)(3)]]
* [[527 group]]
==Further reading==
*Davis, Shelley L., and Mary Matalin. ''Unbridled Power: Inside the Secret Culture of the IRS''. New York: Harper Collins, (ISBN 0887308295)
*[[David Cay Johnston|Johnston, David Cay]]. ''[[Perfectly Legal]]: The Covert Campaign to Rig Our Tax System to Benefit the Super Rich - and Cheat Everybody Else''. New York: Portfolio, 2003. (ISBN 1591840198)
*Rossotti, Charles O. ''Many Unhappy Returns: One Man's Quest To Turn Around The Most Unpopular Organization In America''. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press, 2005. (ISBN 1591394414)
*[[William Roth|Roth, William V., Jr.]], and William H. Nixon. ''The Power to Destroy''. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999. (ISBN 0871137488)
==External links==
*[http://www.irs.gov/ Internal Revenue Service] Official website
*[http://www.neo-tech.com/irs-class-action/ IRS Abuse Reports] Claimed accounts of abuses against U.S. citizens by the IRS
*[http://evans-legal.com/dan/tpfaq.html Tax Protester FAQ] by Dan Evans rebuts claims of the illegitimacy of the income tax and the IRS
*[http://www.fairtax.org/ Americans for Fair Tax] argues for the replacement of the income tax with a consumption tax
*[http://tswrobel-law.com/nonprofit_resources/nonprofit_services.htm/ Helpful Resources on Tax Exempt Status - Links, Information, and Assistance]
[[Category:Internal Revenue Service| ]]
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[[ja:IRS]]
[[sv:Internal Revenue Service]]</text>
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<title>Islas Malvinas</title>
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<title>Isotopic Tracer</title>
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<title>Intrauterine device</title>
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<comment>/* Common misconceptions about IUDs */ «":" → "*: ", "eggicidal" → "ovicidal", ":" → "*: ", ":" → "*: ", ":" → "*: "» list syntax</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''intrauterine device''' (''intra'' meaning within, and ''uterine'' meaning of the [[uterus]]) is a [[birth control]] device also known as an '''IUD''' or a '''coil''' (this colloquialism is based on the coil-shaped design of early IUDs). It is a device placed in the uterus and is the world's most widely used and inexpensive method of reversible birth control. The device has to be fitted inside or removed from the uterus by a doctor or qualified medical practitioner. It remains in place the entire time contraception is desired. Depending on the type, IUDs can usually remain effective for 2, 5 or 10 years.
==Types of IUDs==
There are many types of IUDs worldwide, but only two types currently available in the United States: the copper-T intrauterine device (IUD) and the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG IUS).
[[Image:IUDCPCopperT380A.gif|thumb|left|Photo of copper-T IUD]]
The copper-T IUD is marketed as ParaGard T 380A by [[FEI Women’s Health LLC]]. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1984 and became available for use in 1988. The device consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame that is wound with copper wire around the vertical stem and has copper bands on the lateral arms. The ParaGard T 380A is approved for up to 10 years of use, although limited data support its effectiveness for at least 12 years.
[[Image:IUDCPMirena.gif|thumb|Photo of LNG IUS]]
The LNG IUS, marketed by [[Berlex Laboratories]] as Mirena, consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame with a reservoir around the vertical stem that contains [[levonorgestrel]]. It was approved for use by the FDA in 2000. Initially the LNG IUS releases levonorgestrel at a rate of 20 µg per day.[http://www.mirena-us.com/physician/whatis.html] This rate decreases to approximately half that rate by five years. It is indicated for up to five years of use, although limited data support its effectiveness for at least seven years.
==Effectiveness==
The hormonal IUD is as effective as the [[contraceptive pill]] at preventing pregnancy; and the copper IUDs effectiveness ranges from 98% to over 99% depending on the brand. IUDs can not protect from [[STDs]], and if an infection is caught whilst using an IUD it may be more likely to spread to the [[uterus]].
==Side-effects==
Copper IUDs may make [[menstrual periods]] heavier or more painful in some women, especially for the first few months after they are inserted, but modern types such as the [[GyneFix]] have been designed so that they usually do not affect periods (compare with [[IUS]]).
IUDs have remained unpopular in the USA since the [[Dalkon Shield]] IUD (which had a multi-filiment string) was banned after being linked to several deaths (the thick woven string hosted bacteria, which could spread to cause reproductive tract infections and occasionally fatalities). IUDs with monofiliment strings (including all modern IUDs) are much safer and complications are very rare<!-- how rare? -->.
It is commonly believed IUDs cause a greater risk of an [[ectopic pregnancy]]. However, recent studies have shown that women with IUDs actually have fewer ectopic pregnancies than women using no contraception. However, in the rare cases that a pregnancy occurs with an IUD in place that is not removed, it is more likely to be ectopic.
IUDs are not recommended for women who are suffering from a [[pelvic inflammatory disease]].
== Common misconceptions about IUDs ==
{{citation needed}}
* Primary method of pregnancy prevention is abortifacient
*: IUDs work by prompting the release of leukocytes and prostaglandins by the [[endometrium]]. These substances are hostile to both sperm and eggs; the presence of copper increases this spermicidal effect. Although the only experimentally demonstrated effect is spermicidal/ovicidal, it is possible the IUD may rarely prevent the development of embryos{{ref|FHI-report}}{{ref|FHI-report2}}.
* Causes [[ectopic pregnancy|ectopic pregnancies]]
*: The risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using an IUD is lower than the risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using no form of birth control. Of the tiny number of pregnancies that do occur, a higher than expected percentage is ectopic.
* Causes [[pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID)
*: PID is primarily caused by certain [[sexually transmitted disease]]s (STDs). While IUDs do not protect against STDs like barrier methods do, they also do not cause the infections. In women who have STDs, however, use of an IUD increases the risk the infection will progress to PID.
* Needs to be removed for PID treatment
* Causes [[infertility]]
*: As mentioned previously, certain women may increase their risk of PID or ectopic pregnancy by choosing to use an IUD. PID and ectopic pregnancy may adversely affect a woman's fertility. However, women not at risk of PID will not increase their risk of infertility by using an IUD.
* Cannot be used in nulliparous women
* Needs to be removed if actinomyces-like organisms are seen on Pap test
==Use as emergency contraception==
Intrauterine devices can be used as [[emergency contraception]] to prevent pregnancy up to 5 days after unprotected [[sexual intercourse]], or sexual intercourse during which the primary contraception is believed to have failed (e.g. a [[condom]] was used, but it broke). Insertion of a copper-T IUD as emergency contraception is more than 99% effective, making it more effective than [[morning-after pill|Emergency contraceptive pill]]s ('''ECP''' or 'morning-after pill').
IUDs may also be used where ECPs are less appropriate:
*ECP are contraindicated in those with severe [[liver]] disease or the very rare condition of [[porphyria]].
*ECP are currently licensed for only 3 days (72 hours) after coitus
*ECP will be ineffective if currently suffering from diarrhea or vomiting
*The effectiveness of ECP may be reduced by the herbal preparation [[St John's wort]] and enzyme-inducing drugs (e.g. [[antiepileptics]] or [[rifampicin]]).
== See also ==
* [[Vas-occlusive contraception]]
== References ==
#{{note|FHI-report}} [http://www.ghi.org Family Health International] "Mechanisms of the Contraceptive Action of Hormonal Methods and Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)" [http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/factsheets/mechact.htm Report]
#{{note|FHI-report2}} [http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v16_2/nt1623.htm IUDs Block Fertilization]. Family Health International. Network: Winter 1996, Vol. 16, No. 2.
== External links ==
* [http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/contraceptionresources/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals Contraception Resource Center]
* [https://www.ar |
ni]
* [http://www.infoage.org] Information about Marconi Wireless Station construction, with photos and personal accounts of daily life.
===Priority of invention===
* [http://www.wsone.com/fecha/electra.htm Who started the electronic era?]
* [[PBS]]: [http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_whoradio.html Marconi and Tesla: Who invented radio?]
* The Guglielmo Marconi Case [http://www.mercury.gr/tesla/marcen.html Who is the True Inventor of Radio]
* U.S. Supreme Court, "''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=320&invol=1 Marconi Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States]''". 320 U.S. 1. Nos. 369, 373. Argued April 9-12, 1943. Decided June 21, 1943.
* 21st Century Books: Priority in the Invention of Radio &mdash; [http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/431pir.htm Tesla vs. Marconi]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/historyhunters/locations/pages/3_1_flatholm.shtml BBC Reference to his first transmission over water]
* [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/physicalscience/story/0,9836,616927,00.html Faking the Waves, 1901]
[[Category:1874 births|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:1937 deaths|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Natives of Bologna|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Italian inventors|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Radio pioneers|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Marconi]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:History of radio|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[ar:غوليلمو ماركوني]]
[[ca:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[cs:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[de:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[es:Guillermo Marconi]]
[[fa:گولیلمو مارکونی]]
[[fr:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[ga:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[ko:굴리엘모 마르코니]]
[[hr:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[id:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[it:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[he:גוליילמו מרקוני]]
[[nl:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[ja:グリエルモ・マルコーニ]]
[[no:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[nn:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[pl:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[pt:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[sk:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[sl:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[fi:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[sv:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[th:กูกลีเอลโม มาร์โคนี]]
[[zh:古列尔莫·马可尼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gulf</title>
<id>12105</id>
<revision>
<id>39609071</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T17:12:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mushroom</username>
<id>34467</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.7.107.26|209.7.107.26]] ([[User talk:209.7.107.26|talk]]) to last version by Mikkalai</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*A '''gulf''' or [[bay (aquatic)|bay]] is a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides. See [[headlands and bays]] for more on this.
*''[[Gulf (Heinlein)|Gulf]]'' is also a novella by [[Robert A. Heinlein]].
* A company, see [[Gulf Oil]]
'''The Gulf''' can mean:
*The [[Gulf of Mexico]];
*The [[Persian Gulf]];
*The regions in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] south of the [[Gulf of Carpentaria]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Göta älv</title>
<id>12106</id>
<revision>
<id>41981415</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:53:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jbergquist</username>
<id>707756</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Nordre älv on Kungälv map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Trollhattefallen.jpg|thumb|Waterfalls in [[Trollhättan]]/Göta älv]]
'''[[Göta]] älv''' is a [[river]] that drains lake [[Vänern]] into [[Kattegat]], and the [[North Sea]], at the city of [[Gothenburg]] on the western coast of [[Sweden]]. The river is located in [[Götaland]], the river itself being a site of early [[Geats|Geatish]] settlement. The [[Bohus Fortress]] is located by the river at [[Kungälv]]. Here the river splits into two, with the northern part being the Nordre älv river and the southern part keeping the name Göta älv.
At [[Trollhättan]] there is a [[dam]], [[canal lock]]s and a [[hydropower]] station in the river. The locks make the river navigable, even for large cargo vessels, and the river is part of a mostly inland waterway all the way to [[Stockholm]].
The power station supplied electric power to the heavy [[steel industry]] concentrated around Trollhättan, contributing to its [[industrial revolution]]. In the summer months the spillway of the dam is opened for a few minutes daily and [[tourist]]s gather to see the water rushing down the river (picture).
[[Category:Rivers of Sweden]]
[[Category:Gothenburg]]
[[Category:Trollhättan]]
[[Category:Vänersborg]]
[[de:Göta älv]]
[[fr:Göta älv]]
[[nl:Göta älv]]
[[sv:Göta älv]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gustaf VI Adolf</title>
<id>12107</id>
<revision>
<id>36026026</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T00:24:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JonRoma</username>
<id>382783</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>update wiki link to [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greece</title>
<id>12108</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42124491</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
<id>30706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Prefecture]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">----
'''''Hellas''' [[Wikipedia:Redirects|redirects]] here. For other uses, please see [[Hellas (disambiguation)]]; for other uses of the word '''Greece''', please see [[Greece (disambiguation)]]''.
{{Greece infobox}}
'''Greece''', ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ελλάδα ''Elládha'' or Ελλάς ''Hellás''), officially the '''Hellenic Republic''' (Greek: Ελληνική [[wikt: δημοκρατία|Δημοκρατία]] ''Ellinikí Dhimokratía''), is a country in [[southern Europe|southern]] [[Europe]] on the tip of the [[Balkan peninsula]]. It has land boundaries with [[Bulgaria]], the [[Republic of Macedonia|Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Albania]] to the north, and with [[Turkey]] to the east. The waters of the [[Aegean Sea]] border Greece to the east, and those of the [[Ionian Sea|Ionian]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west and south. Regarded by many as the cradle of [[Western world|Western civilization]] and the birthplace of [[democracy]], Greece has a long and rich history during which its culture has proven especially influential in [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Middle East]].
==Name==
{{main|Names of the Greeks}}
The historical name of Greece in Greek is {{Polytonic|Ἑλλάς}} ''Ellás'' {{IPA|/ɛˈlas/}}<!--Please note: IPA accent is written *before* the accented syllable, not after the accented vowel-->. This name is also written as ''Hellas'' in English, following the [[ancient Greek|ancient]] [[Greek language|Greek]] pronunciation {{IPA|/hɛˈl:as/}}. In [[Modern Greek]], it is called more commonly Ελλάδα ''Elládha'' {{IPA|/ɛˈlaða/}}.
In most European languages, however, the name of Greece comes from the ancient root {{Polytonic|Γραικός}} ''Graikós'' (<i>via</i> Latin ''[[Graecus]]''): [[English language|English]] ''Greece'', [[French language|French]] ''Grèce'', [[German language|German]] ''Griechenland'', ''etc.'' In most Middle Eastern and Eastern languages, it comes from the root {{Polytonic|Ἰωνία}} ''[[Ionia|Iōnía]]'': ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Yunanistan'', [[Arabic]] and [[Urdu]]: يونان (Yawnan), [[Malay language|Malay]]: Yunani). In only a few languages is the "Hellas" root the basis of the local name —- [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: Hellas, [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 希臘 (Xīlà), and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Hy Lạp.
Some Greeks prefer the name ''Hellas'' for the country and ''Hellenes'' for the people even in English.
--[[User:194.154.22.55|194.154.22.55]] 13:47, 3 March 2006 (UTC)<math>Insert formula here</math>--[[User:194.154.22.55|194.154.22.55]] 13:47, 3 March 2006 (UTC)
== History ==
{{main|History of Greece}}
=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
The shores of Greece's [[Aegean Sea]] saw the emergence of the first civilizations in Europe, namely the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] and the [[Mycenae|Mycenaean]]. After this, a Dark Age followed until around [[800 BC]], when a new era of Greek [[polis|city-states]] emerged, establishing colonies along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], and a [[Greek alphabet|new alphabet]] was introduced.[http://www.mfa.gr/english/greece/living/read_greek/alphabet.html]. [[Plato]] described how the Greeks live round the Aegean Archipelago "like frogs around a pond"; their name has always been associated with the sea.
=== Roman rule and Middle Ages ===
Militarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] conquered the land ([[168 BC]] onwards), though, in many ways, Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Greece became a province of the [[Roman Empire]], but Greek culture continued to dominate the eastern Mediterranean. When the Roman Empire finally split in two, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], known as the Byzantine Empire, centered around [[Constantinople]] (known in ancient times as [[Byzantium]]), remained Greek in nature, encompassing Greece itself. From the [[4th century]] to the [[15th century]], the Byzantine Empire survived eleven centuries of attacks from the north, west and east until [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople fell]] o |
[[Hezekiah]] ([[700s BC]]). Probably the book was written in [[Jerusalem]], where he witnessed the invasion of [[Sennacherib]] and the destruction of his host ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 19:35).
The subject of this prophecy is the approaching complete and final destruction of [[Nineveh]], the capital of the great and at that time flourishing [[Assyria|Assyrian empire]]. [[Assur-bani-pal]] was at the height of his glory. Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was then the center of the civilization and commerce of the world, a "bloody city all full of lies and robbery" ([[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] 3:1), for it had robbed and plundered all the neighboring nations. It was strongly fortified on every side, bidding defiance to every enemy.
[[Jonah]] had already uttered his message of warning, and Nahum was followed by [[Zephaniah]], who also predicted ([[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] 2:4-15) the destruction of the city, predictions which were remarkably fulfilled ([[625 BC]]) when Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an event which changed the face of Asia.
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15764 Nachum - Nahum (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/34_nahum.htm Nahum at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Nahum}}
----
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Nevi'im|Nahum, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Nahum]]
[[cs:Kniha Nahum]]
[[de:Nahum (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Nahum]]
[[ko:나훔 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Nahum]]
[[it:Naum]]
[[he:נחום]]
[[jv:Nahum]]
[[nl:Nahum]]
[[pl:Księga Nahuma]]
[[fi:Nahumin kirja]]
[[sv:Nahum]]
[[zh:那鴻書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Haggai</title>
<id>4454</id>
<revision>
<id>38376840</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T22:58:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kthejoker</username>
<id>215352</id>
</contributor>
<comment>matched tenses</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Haggai''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]) and of the [[Old Testament]], written by the prophet [[Haggai]].
It consists of two brief, comprehensive chapters. The object of the prophet is generally urging the people to proceed with the rebuilding of the [[Second Temple|second Jerusalem temple]] in [[520 BCE]] after the return of the deportees. Haggai attributes a recent drought to the peoples' refusal to rebuild the temple, which he sees as key to [[Jerusalem]]&#8217;s glory. The book ends with the prediction of the downfall of kingdoms, with one [[Zerubbabel]], governor of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], as the Lord&#8217;s chosen leader. The language here is not as finely wrought as in some other books of the [[minor prophets]], yet the intent seems straightforward.
The first chapter first contains the first address (2-11) and its effects (12-15). The second chapter contains:
#The second prophecy (1-9), which was delivered a month after the first.
#The third prophecy (10-19), delivered two months and three days after the second; and
#The fourth prophecy (20-23), delivered on the same day as the third.
These discourses are referred to in [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 5:1; 6:14;(Compare Haggai 2:7, 8, 22.)
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15767 Chaggai - Haggai (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at [http://www.chabad.org chabad.org]
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/37_haggai.htm ''Haggai'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Haggai}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Haggai ''Haggai'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
-----
''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''
[[Category:Nevi'im|Haggai, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Haggai]]
[[de:Haggai (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre d'Aggée]]
[[ko:하깨 (구약성서)]]
[[he:ספר חגי]]
[[nl:Haggai]]
[[pl:Księga Aggeusza]]
[[fi:Haggain kirja]]
[[sv:Haggai]]
[[zh:哈該書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Malachi</title>
<id>4455</id>
<revision>
<id>37984390</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T10:59:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fred Bradstadt</username>
<id>222638</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Themes */ wikitables</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
'''Malachi''' (or Malachias, מַלְאָכִי, Malʾaḫi, Mál'akhî) is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]], written by the prophet [[Malachi]]. Possibly this is not the name of the author, since ''Malachi'' means 'my messenger' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].
==The author==
The last of the twelve [[minor prophets]] (canonically) and the final book of the Christian [[Old Testament]] is commonly attributed to a prophet by the name of Malachi. Although the appellation Malachi has frequently been understood as a proper name, its [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] meaning is simply "my [i.e., god's] messenger" (or 'his messenger' in the [[Septuagint]]). This sobriquet occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and in 3:1, although it is highly unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both of these references. Thus, there is substantial debate regarding the identity of the author of the biblical book of Malachi. The Jewish [[Targum]] identifies [[Ezra]] (or Esdras) as the author of Malachi. [[Jerome|St. Jerome]] suggests this may be due to the fact that [[Ezra]] is seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the 'great synagogue'. There is, however, no historical evidence to support this claim. Some scholars note affinities between [[Zechariah]] 9-14 and the book of Malachi". Zechariah 9, Zechariah 12, and Malachi 1 are all introduced as "Oracle, the word of Yahweh." Many scholars argue that this collection originally consisted of three independent and anonymous prophecies. Two were subsequently appended to the book of [[Book of Zecariah|Zechariah]] (as what scholars refer to as Deutero-Zechariah) and the third became the book of Malachi. As a result, most scholars consider the book of Malachi to be the work of a single author who may or may not have been identified by the title Malachi. The present division of the oracles results in a total of twelve books of minor prophets – a number parallelling the sons of [[Jacob]] who became the heads of the twelve [[Israelite|tribes of Israel]]. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] asserts that "We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name Mál'akhîyah, that is 'Messenger of Yah.'".
Nothing is known of the biography of the author of the book of Malachi although is has been suggested that he may have been Levitical.
==Period==
There are very few historical details in the book of Malachi. The greatest clue as to its dating may lie in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor (pehâ) is used in 1:8. This points to a post-exilic date of composition both because of the use of the Persian period term and because [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had a king before the exile. Since, in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BCE. Malachi was apparently known to the author of [[Sirach|Ecclesiasticus]] early in the Second Century BCE. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position between [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] and [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]], slightly before [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] came to [[Jerusalem]] in 445 BCE.
==Location==
The book of Malachi deals directly with abuses in the restored cultic [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] system -- apparently from first hand experience. Thus, the book was almost certainly written in [[Jerusalem]].
==Aim==
The book of Malachi was written to correct the lax religious and social behaviour of the [[Israelite|Israelites]] &#8211; particularly the priests &#8211; in post-exilic [[Jerusalem]]. Although the prophets urged the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Israel]] to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with [[Yahweh]], it was not long after they had been restored to the land and to [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] worship that the people&#8217;s commitment to their God began, once again, to wane. It was in this context that the prophet commonly referred to as Malachi delivered his prophecy.
In 1:2, Malachi has the people of Israel question God&#8217;s love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation which Malachi addresses. The graveness of the situation is also indicated by the dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi proceeds to accuse his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way in which this disrespect is made manifest is through the substandard sacrifices which Malachi claims are being offered by the priests. While [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] demands animals that are &#8220;without blemish&#8221; ([[Leviticus]] 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were &#8220;to determine whether the animal was acceptable&#8221; (Mason 143), were offering blind, lame and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.
In 2:10, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem (&#8220;Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?&#8221; 2:10) and as a religious problem (&#8220;Judah ... has married the daughter of a foreign god&#8221; 2:11). In contrast to |
rch, Raleigh, NC (L to R): priest (Fr. Nicholas Sorensen), two deacons, bishop]]
Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as ''episkopoi'' (overseers, plural of ''episkopos'', overseer &mdash; Gr. {{polytonic|ἐπίσκοπος}}), which became "[[bishop]]" in English. The other [[Holy Orders|ordained]] roles are ''presbyter'' (Gr. {{polytonic|πρεσβύτερος}}, elder), which became "prester" and then "[[priest]]" in English, and ''diakonos'' (Gr. {{polytonic|διάκονος}}, servant), which became "[[deacon]]" in English (see also [[subdeacon]]). There are numerous administrative positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called Metropolitan, while the lead bishop in Greece is the Archbishop. Priests can be archpriests, archimandrites, or protopresbyters. Deacons can be archdeacons or protodeacons as well. The position of deacon is often occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.
The Orthodox Church has always allowed married priests and deacons, provided the marriage takes place before [[ordination]]. In general, parish priests are to be married as they live in normal society (that is, "in the world" and not a monastery) where Orthodoxy sees marriage as the normative state. Unmarried priests usually live in monasteries since it is there that the unmarried state is the norm, although it sometimes happens that an unmarried priest is assigned to a parish. Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry, and it is common for such a member of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see [[clerical celibacy]]). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who often do not remarry and may become nuns if their children are grown. Bishops are always [[clerical celibacy|celibate]]. Although Orthodox consider men and women equal before God ([[Epistle to Galatians|Gal.]] 3:28), only men who are qualified and have no canonical impediments may be ordained bishops, priests, or deacons.[[Image:Bishops March for Life.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Orthodox bishops and faithful at the 2005 [[Pro-Life|March for Life]] in [[Washington, DC]]]]
===Anointing with Holy Oil===
Anointing, or Holy Unction, is one of the many mysteries administered by the Orthodox Church. The Mystery is far more common in the Orthodox Church than in the Roman Catholic as it is not reserved for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing. In addition to it being given annually on [[Holy Wednesday|Great Wednesday]] to all believers, it is often distributed on major feast days, or any time the cleargy feel it necessary for the spiritual wellfare of its congregation.
According to Orthodox teaching Holy Unction is based on [[Epistle of James|James]] 5:14-15:
<blockquote>''Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.''</blockquote>
==History==
===The early Church===
[[Christianity]] first spread in the predominantly [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking eastern half of the [[Roman Empire]]. [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] traveled extensively throughout the Empire, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first Churches appearing in [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]], and then the two political centres of [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]]. Orthodox believe an [[Apostolic Succession]] was established; this played a key role in the Church's view of itself as the preserver of the Christian community. Systematic persecution of Christians stopped in [[313]] when [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] proclaimed the [[Edict of Milan]]. From that time forward, the [[Byzantine Emperor]] exerted various degrees of influence over the church (see [[Caesaropapism]]). This included the calling of the [[Ecumenical Council]]s to resolve disputes and establish church [[dogma]] on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes [[Patriarch]]s (often of [[Constantinople]]) were deposed by the emperor; at one point emperors sided with the [[iconoclasm|iconoclasts]] in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Several [[Ecumenical Council]]s were held between [[325]] (the [[First Council of Nicaea]]) and [[787]] (the [[Second Council of Nicaea]]), which to Orthodox constitute the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma. Orthodox thinking differs on whether the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople|Fourth]] and [[Fifth Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] Councils of Constantinople were properly Ecumenical Councils, but the majority view is that they were merely influential, and not bindingly dogmatic.
Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of [[Byzantine Empire]] and continued to flourish in [[Russia]], after the [[fall of Constantinople]]. Numerous [[autocephalous]] jurisdictions were established in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] areas.
The Orthodox jurisdictions with the largest number of adherents in modern times are the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian]] and the [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian]] Orthodox churches. The most ancient of the Orthodox churches of today are the Churches of [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgia]], [[Antiochian Orthodox Church|Antioch]], and [[Orthodox Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]].
===The Roman/Byzantine Empire===
Several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards led to the calling of [[Ecumenical council]]s. The Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of [[Jesus]]. Eventually this led to each group having its own Patriarch (Pope). Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite Catholics]] of Antioch], and are today known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, until recently led by [[Pope Petros VII]]. Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, led by [[Pope Shenouda III]]. There was a similar split in [[Syria]]. Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "[[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]]" to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "[[monophysite]]s", "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians", although today the Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term "[[miaphysite]]", to denote the "joined" nature of Jesus. Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church and the other fallen into heresy, although over the last several decades there has been some reconciliation.
In the 530s the [[Hagia Sophia|Church of the Holy Wisdom]] (Hagia Sophia) was built in [[Constantinople]] under emperor [[Justinian I]].
===The seven ecumenical councils===
Eastern Orthodox Christianity recognizes only these seven [[ecumenical council|ecumenical councils]].
#The [[First Ecumenical Council|first]] of the Seven Ecumenical Councils was that convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicea in 325, condemining the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.
#The [[Second Ecumenical Council]] was held at Constantinople in 381, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.
#The [[Third Ecumenical Council]] is that of Ephesus in 431, which affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (''[[Theotokos]]''), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.
#The [[Fourth Ecumenical Council]] is that of Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.
#The [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]] is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship ot the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.
#The [[Sixth Ecumenical Council]] is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.
#The [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]] was called under the Empress Regent Irene in 787, known as the second of Nicea. It affirmed the making and veneration of [[icon]]s, while also forbidding the worship of icons and the making of three-dimensional statuary. It reversed the declaration of an earlier council that had called itself the Seventh Ecumenical Council and also nullified its status (see separate article on [[Iconoclasm]]). That earlier council had been held under the iconoclast Emperor [[Constantine V]]. It met with more than 340 bishops at Constantinople and Hieria in 754, declaring the making of icons of Jesus or the saints an error, mainly for Christological reasons.
===The Oriental Orthodox===
As noted above, Eastern Orthodoxy strives to keep the faith of the aforementioned seven [[ecumenical council|Ecumenical Councils]]. In contrast, the term "[[Oriental Orthodoxy]]" refers to the |
o make proper strokes and get accustomed to the curvature of the blade, as well as to practice the ''[[Kata (martial arts)|kata]]'' (forms). More than a few ''kata'' take advantage of the curvature of the blade and the presence of the ''[[tsuba]]'' to block the opponent's sword. This is not possible with the straight "blade" of the ''[[shinai]]''.
==Construction==
The quality of the bokken is derived from several factors. The type of wood used, along with the quality of the wood itself, and the skill of the craftsman, are all critical factors in the manufacture of a good quality bokken.
First, and most importantly, is the selection of the wood used to make the bokken. Almost all mass produced inexpensive bokken are made from porous, loose-grained South East Asian wood. These bokken are easily broken when used in even light to medium contact drills, and are best left to work in kata only. Furthermore, the wood is often so porous, that if the [[varnish]] is stripped off the inexpensive bokken, one can see the use of wood fillers to fill the holes.
While most species of [[North American]] [[red oak]] are pretty much unsuitable for any serious work with a bokken, there are some [[Asia]]n species of red oak that have a significantly tighter [[grain]], and will last longer.
Some of the bokken that are a step up from the red oak ones, will use superior woods. Japanese [[white oak]], also known as ''[[Kashi]]'', has been a proven staple, having a tighter grain than any red oak wood, and [[hickory]] wood seems to have a very good blend of the factors that contribute to a wood's suitability (toughness, impact resistance, hardness, etc), while still having a relatively low cost.
The use of [[exotic hardwood]]s is not unusual, when looking at some of the more expensive bokken. Some wooden swords are made from [[Brazil]]ian cherrywood ([[Jatoba]]), others from [[purpleheart]], and some very expensive ones made from [[Lignum Vitae]]. Tropical woods are often quite heavy, a feature often sought in bokken but a common drawback of these heavy and hard materials is the tendency towards brittleness. Many of the exotics are suitable for suburi (solo practice) but not paired practice where there is hard contact with other wooden swords or sticks.
The most important caveat when making generalizations on wood quality is that there are differences between individuals within a species and a bokken made of any particular wood type might be quite a bit different from another of the same wood type.
A '''suburito''' is a bokken designed for ''[[suburi]]''. ''Suburi'', literally "bare cutting," are solo cutting exercises. Suburito are thicker and heavier than normal bokken. One wielding a suburito has to develop both good technique and strong [[muscle]]s to wield one. Their weight does, however, tend to make them poorly balanced; consequently, they are not used for paired practice.
==History==
Historically, ''bokken'' are as old as Japanese blades, and were used for the training of warriors. [[Miyamoto Musashi]], a legendary [[kenjutsu]] master, was infamous for fighting fully armed foes with only one or two bokken. He defeated several master swordsmen in this way, including [[Sasaki Kojiro]]. Sasaki was armed with a deadly [[Nodachi]] great sword, but Musashi slew him with a bokken made from an [[oar]].
== Media depiction ==
The suburito has been popularised in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s [[cyberpunk]] novel ''[[Snow Crash]]'' as the "[[redneck]] katana". It is described as "a one-[[metre]]-long piece of heavy [[rebar]] with [[Adhesive tape|tape]] wrapped around one end to make a handle. The rebar approximates a katana, but it is very much heavier."
In the [[anime]] series ''[[Outlaw Star]]'' the assassin Twilight Sazuka uses a bokken as her weapon of choice. It is stated that the reason for this is in order to prevent detection from metal detectors.
In ''[[Usagi Yojimbo]]'', the main character and his son, [[Jotaro]] were allowed to wield a bokken in their youth.
In ''[[Rurouni Kenshin]]'', Kamiya Kaoru uses a bokken, as her family's Kamiya Kasshin Ryu forbids lethal swords. Her students Myōjin Yahiko and Tsukayama Yūtarō wield [[shinai]].
Bokken were also used extensively in the film [[The Last Samurai]], starring [[Tom Cruise]].
In the Manga and Anime Samurai Girl: Real Bout High School the main character Ryoko Mitsurugi used a Bokken exclusively as her weapon of choice.
In the Manga and Animé Shaman King there is a character called Bokuto no Ryu or as he is known in English 'Wooden sword' Ryu. the Bokken/Bokuto is his signature weapon.
==See also==
*[[Iaido]]
*[[Kendo]]
*[[Kenjutsu]]
*[[List of Japanese swords]]
==External links==
* [http://www.aikiweb.com/weapons/goedkoop1.html A discussion of different woods with regard to bokken design, focusing particularly on durability]
* [http://www.uoguelph.ca/~kataylor/bokuto.htm Information about making or selecting a Bokken]
[[Category:Japanese swords]]
[[ca:Bokken]]
[[de:Bokutō]]
[[es:Bokken]]
[[fr:Bokken]]
[[hr:Bokken]]
[[ja:木刀]]
[[pl:Bokken]]
[[ru:Боккэн]]
[[fi:Bokken]]
[[sv:Bokken]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BMI</title>
<id>4957</id>
<revision>
<id>40056756</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:43:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RoboDick</username>
<id>815650</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BMI''' may stand for:
== Concepts ==
* [[Body mass index]], a measurement of ideal weight range.
* [[Brain-computer interface]], a information transfer connection that links a brain and a machine (usually a computer).
* [[Big Mac index]], a measurement and test of purchasing power parity across different countries, made popular by ''The Economist''.
== Organizations ==
* [[Bank Melli Iran]], a public bank in Iran.
* [[Best Motoring International]], a Japanese magazine & video series for automobiles and racing.
* [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]], a [[United Kingdom|UK]] airline.
* [[Broadcast_Music_Incorporated|Broadcast Music Incorporated]], one of the three performing rights organizations in the U.S. See also [[ASCAP]] and [[SESAC]].
== Places ==
* The IATA code for [[Central Illinois Regional Airport]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[cs:BMI]]
[[de:BMI]]
[[nl:Bmi]]
[[ja:BMI]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bijlmer disaster</title>
<id>4958</id>
<revision>
<id>41656364</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:08:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.98.30.159</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cargo concerns */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bijlmerramp''' (in English: '''Bijlmer disaster''') was an [[airplane]] crash. On [[October 4]], [[1992]], '''El Al Flight 1862''', a [[Boeing 747]] cargo plane of the [[Israel]]i [[El Al]] airline crashed into the Groeneveen and Klein-Kruitberg flats in the [[Bijlmer]] neighbourhood (part of '[[Amsterdam Zuidoost]]') of [[Amsterdam]], the capital of the [[Netherlands]]. A total of 43 people were killed, including the plane's crew of three and an unidentified "nonrevenue passenger". Many more were injured.
The plane, a cargo jet belonging to the Israeli carrier [[El Al]], departed at 18h10 from [[Schiphol]] airport for [[Tel Aviv]]. Above the [[Gooimeer]], two of the plane's engines broke off the right wing: A [[fuse pin]] on engine 3 sheared inappropriately due to [[corrosion]], leaving the pod to tilt up and right due to gyroscopic forces, knocking engine 4 off the wing too. A China Airlines 747-200F freighter was brought down by the same causes in December [[1991]].
The crew remained unaware of the extent of the damage, being unable to see the wing. After circling twice the plane returned to the airport and attempted to land. During the approach the flaps were extended, which apparently rendered the plane uncontrollable. At 18h35 the heavily loaded plane crashed into a row of high-rise apartments called ''Groeneveen''. The building caught fire and partially collapsed, destroying dozens of apartments.
The number of casualties was relatively low (43 compared to the 200 or more expected), as the plane did not carry passengers and most residents of the building were not at home at the time of the crash. Some people believe that the number of casualties was higher than 43, as many illegal residents were suspected to have lived in the building.
==Cargo concerns==
The plane's cargo included, amongst other things: bullets, spare parts for [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles, spare parts for [[Patriot missile|Patriot missiles]] and 190 [[litre]]s of [[dimethyl methylphosphonate]].
Dimethyl methylphosphonate is not classified as ''toxic'', but is ''harmful'' if inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through the skin; it is a [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] [[List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)|schedule 2 chemical]] used in the synthesis of [[Sarin]] nerve gas. The shipment was from a U.S. chemical plant to the [[Israel Institute for Biological Research]] under a [[U.S. Department of Commerce]] licence.
After the disaster, there were rumours that the [[Israeli secret service]] had tried to recover some of the cargo. The plane, like all Boeing 747s at that time, also contained about 400 kg of [[depleted uranium]] as trim weight in the tail, a fact unknown during the recovery effort.
"“Boeing has never used DU on either the 757 or the 767, and we no longer use it on the 747,” Leslie M. Nichols, product spokesperson for Boeing’s 767, told AFP. “Sometime ago, we switched to tungsten, because it is heavier, more readily available and more cost effective.”
==External links==
*[http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Aircraft/el-al.htm Corrosion Doctors]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents in the aviation sector]]
[[Category:1992]]
[[Category:History of Amsterdam]]
[[es:Desastre de Bijlmer]]
[[ |
largest eugenics movement was in the [[United States]]. Beginning with [[Connecticut]] in [[1896]] many states enacted marriage laws with eugenic criteria, prohibiting anyone who was "epileptic, imbecile or [[feeble-minded]]" from marrying. In 1898 [[Charles Benedict Davenport|Charles B. Davenport]], a prominent American [[biology|biologist]] began as director of a biological research station based in [[Cold Spring Harbor]] where he experimented with evolution in plants and animals. In 1904 Davenport received funds from the [[Carnegie Institution]] to found the Station for Experimental Evolution. The [[Eugenics Record Office]] opened in [[1910]] while Davenport and [[Harry H. Laughlin]] began to promote eugenics.
[[Image:Kallikaks chart1.jpg|200px|right|thumb|A [[pedigree]] chart from ''[[The Kallikak Family]]'' meant to show how one "illicit tryst" could lead to an entire generation of "imbeciles".]]
In years to come the ERO collected a mass of family pedigrees and concluded that those who were unfit came from economically and socially poor backgrounds. Eugenicists such as Davenport, the [[psychology|psychologist]] [[Henry H. Goddard]] and the conservationist [[Madison Grant]] (all well respected in their time) began to lobby for various solutions to the problem of the "unfit" (Davenport favored immigration restriction and sterilization as primary methods, Goddard favored segregation in his ''[[The Kallikak Family]]'', Grant favored all of the above and more, even entertaining the idea of extermination). Though their methodology and research methods are now understood as highly flawed, at the time this was seen as legitimate scientific research. It did, however, have scientific detractors (notably [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]]).
In [[1924]], the [[Immigration Act of 1924]] was passed, with eugenicists for the first time playing a central role in the Congressional debate as expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from Eastern and Southern Europe. [http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/topics_fs.pl?theme=10&search=1113&matches=1113] This reduced the number of immigrants from abroad to fifteen percent from previous years, to control the number of "unfit" individuals entering the country. The new Act strengthened existing laws prohibiting race mixing in an attempt to maintain the gene pool. Eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of [[incest]] laws in much of the USA and were used to justify many [[miscegenation|anti-miscegenation]] laws.
Some states sterilized "imbeciles" for much of the [[20th century]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled in the [[1927]] ''[[Buck v. Bell]]'' case that the state of [[Virginia]] could sterilize those they thought unfit. The most significant era of [[compulsory sterilization|eugenic sterilization]] was between 1907 and 1963 when over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States. A favorable report on the results of the sterilizations in [[California]], by far the most sterilizing state, was published in book form by the biologist [[Paul Popenoe]] and was widely cited by the Nazi government as evidence that wide-reaching sterilization programs were feasible and humane. When Nazi administrators went on trial for [[war crimes]] in [[Nuremberg]] after [[World War II]] they justified the mass-sterilizations (over 450,000 in less than a decade) by citing the United States as their inspiration.
Almost all non-Catholic western nations adopted some eugenics legislation. In July [[1933]] [[Germany]] passed a law allowing for the involuntary sterilization of "hereditary and incurable drunkards, sexual criminals, lunatics, and those suffering from an incurable disease which would be passed on to their offspring..." [http://century.guardian.co.uk/1930-1939/Story/0,6051,126942,00.html] [[Sweden]] forcibly sterilized 62,000 "unfits" as part of a eugenics program over a forty year period. Similar incidents occurred in [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[Norway]], [[Finland]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Iceland]] for people the government declared to be mentally deficient. [[Singapore]] practiced a limited form of "positive" eugenics which involved encouraging marriage between [[college]] graduates in the hope they would produce better children.
Various authors, notably [[Stephen Jay Gould]], have repeatedly asserted that restrictions on [[immigration]] passed in the United States during the [[1920s]] (and overhauled in [[1965]]) were motivated by the goals of eugenics, in particular a desire to exclude "inferior" races from the national gene pool. During the early twentieth century the United States and Canada began to receive far higher numbers of southern and eastern European immigrants. Influential eugenicists like [[Lothrop Stoddard]] and [[Harry Laughlin]] (who was appointed as an expert witness for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in [[1920]]) presented arguments that these were inferior races who would pollute the national gene pool if their numbers went unrestricted. It has been argued that this stirred both Canada and the United States into passing laws creating a hierarchy of nationalities, rating them from the most desirable [[Anglo-Saxon]] and [[Nordic race|Nordic]] peoples to the Chinese and Japanese immigrants who were almost completely banned from entering the country. However several people, in particular [[Franz Samelson]], [[Mark Snyderman]] and [[Richard Herrnstein]], have argued that, based on their examination of the records of the Congressional debates over immigration policy, Congress gave virtually no consideration to these factors. According to these authors, the restrictions were motivated primarily by a desire to maintain the country's [[culture|cultural]] integrity against a heavy influx of foreigners. This interpretation is not, however, accepted by most historians of eugenics.
Some who disagree with the idea of eugenics in general contend that eugenics legislation still had benefits. [[Margaret Sanger]] (founder of [[Planned Parenthood of America]]) found it a useful tool to urge the legalization of [[contraception]]. In its time, eugenics was seen by many as scientific and progressive, the natural application of knowledge about breeding to the arena of human life. Before the death camps of [[World War II]], the idea that eugenics could lead to [[genocide]] was not taken seriously.
=== Stigmatization of eugenics in the post-Nazi years ===
After the experience of [[Nazi Germany]] many ideas about "racial hygiene" and "unfit" members of society were publicly renounced by politicians and members of the scientific community. The [[Nuremberg Trials]] against former Nazi leaders revealed to the world many of the regime's genocidal practices and resulted in formalized policies of medical ethics and the 1950 [[UNESCO]] statement on race. Many scientific societies released their own similar "race statements" over the years and the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], developed in response to abuses during the second World War, was adopted by the [[United Nations]] in [[1948]] and affirmed "Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family." [http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm] In continuation the 1978 [[UNESCO]] declaration on race and racial prejudice states that the fundamental equality of all human beings is the ideal toward which ethics and science should converge. [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_prejud.htm]
In reaction to Nazi abuses, eugenics became almost universally reviled in many of the nations where it had once been popular (however some eugenics programs, including sterilization, continued quietly for decades). Many pre-war eugenicists engaged in what they later labeled "crypto-eugenics," purposefully taking their eugenic beliefs "underground" and becoming respected anthropologists, biologists and geneticists in the post-war world (including [[Robert Yerkes]] in the USA and [[Otmar von Verschuer]] in Germany). Californian eugenicist [[Paul Popenoe]] founded [[marriage counseling]] during the [[1950]]s, a career change which grew from his eugenic interests in promoting "healthy marriages" between "fit" couples.
High school and college textbooks from the 1920s through the 40s often had chapters touting the scientific progress to be had from applying eugenic principles to the population. Many early scientific journals devoted to heredity in general were run by eugenicists and featured eugenics articles alongside studies of heredity in non-human organisms. After eugenics fell out of scientific favor, most references to eugenics were removed from textbooks and subsequent editions of relevant journals. Even the names of some journals changed to reflect new attitudes. For example, "Eugenics Quarterly" became "Social Biology" in 1969 (the journal still existed in 2005 though it looked little like its predecessor). Notable members of the [[American Eugenics Society]] ([[1922]]-[[1994]]) during the second half of the 20th Century included [[Joseph Fletcher]] (originator of [[Situational ethics]]), Dr. [[Clarence Gamble]] of the [[Procter & Gamble]] fortune and [[Garrett Hardin]], a [[population control]] advocate and author of ''[[tragedy of the commons|The Tragedy of the Commons]]''.
Despite the changed post-war attitude towards eugenics in the US and some European countries, a few nations, notably [[Canada]] and [[Sweden]], maintained large-scale eugenics programs, including forced sterilization of mentally handicapped individuals, as well as other practices, until the [[1970s]]. In the United St |
t;TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>1</STRONG></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<STRONG>Total</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>19,767,316</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>14,079,906</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>9,619,302</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>9,738,091</STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Reported by region and/or country</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,959,158</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,192,563</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,303,570</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,678,201</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,350,403</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,149,572</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,740,891</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,256,311</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Northern and Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,058,853</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,384,257</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,629,200</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,334,971</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Northern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">968,271</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,083,499</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,271,591</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,694,430</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;British Isles</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">809,972</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">866,966</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">937,474</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,171,777</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;United Kingdom</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">640,145</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">669,149</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">686,099</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">833,055</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Great Britain</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">623,614</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">649,318</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">645,262</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">764,893</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;England</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">405,588</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">442,499</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">458,114</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">528,205</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Scotland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">104,168</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">142,001</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">170,134</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">213,219</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Wales</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,638</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,528</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17,014</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23,469</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Great Britain n.e.c.</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,220</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">51,290</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Northern Ireland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16,531</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19,831</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">40,837</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68,162</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Ireland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">169,827</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">197,817</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">251,375</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">338,722</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Scandinavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">158,299</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">216,533</TD>
<TD>< |
rth – if you choose to use it) on the neighbouring strings below the second finger. The fingertips placed on the strings should loosely form a straight line parallel to the soundboard of the harp.
As you play each finger, the aim is to roll the string over the end of your finger as you release it rather than pulling the string into your hand. This should require very little finger action to produce a warm and well rounded sound. Each finger produces a subtly different tone articulation. When playing scales down the harp, after playing the thumb it passes just over the second finger onto the string below, with the second finger falling onto the string below the thumb after releasing its note. Otherwise, as with thumb under technique, all scales are played alternating strong and weak fingerings.
==Other harps around the world==
In [[South America]], there are [[Mexico|Mexican]], [[Andes|Andean]], [[Venezuela|Venezuelan]], and [[Paraguay|Paraguayan]] harps. They are derived from the [[Baroque]] harps that were brought from [[Spain]] during the colonial period: wide on the bottom and narrow at the top, with perfect balance when being played but unable to stand independently for lack of a base. The Paraguayan harp is the most popular, and is Paraguay's national instrument. It has about 36 strings with narrower spacing and lighter tension than other harps, and so has a slightly (four to five notes) lower pitch. It does not necessarily have the same string coloration as the other harps. For example, some Paraguayan harps may have red B's and blue E's instead of red C's and blue F's. This harp is also played mostly with the fingernails.
All of Africa's harps are open harps because they lack the forepillar. With the exception of [[Mauritania]]'s [[ardin]], which is a true harp, most West African harps, such as the [[Kora (instrument)|kora]], are technically classified as [[harp-lute]]s because of their two rows of strings which are strung parallel to each other but perpendicular to the soundboard.
In [[Asia]], there are very few harps today, though the instrument was popular in ancient times; in that continent, [[zither]]s such as [[Japan]]'s [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]] predominate. However, a few harps exist, the most notable being [[Burma]]'s [[Saung|saung-gauk]], which is considered the national instrument in that country. The Chinese [[konghou]], which died out, is being revived in a modernized form. [[Turkey]] had a harp called the [[çeng]] that has also fallen out of use.
There are no harps indigenous to [[Oceania]] or the [[Americas]].
== The harp in music ==
The harp is used sparingly in most classical music, usually for special effects such as the [[glissando]], [[arpeggio]]s, and [[bisbigliando]]. Italian and German [[opera]] uses harp for romantic arias and dances, an example of which is Musetta's Waltz from ''[[La bohème]].'' French composers such as [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel]] composed harp concertos and chamber music widely played today. In the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the French composer and harpist [[Nicolas-Charles Bochsa]] composed hundreds of pieces of all kinds (opera transcriptions, chamber music, concertos, operas, harp methods). [[Henriette Renié]] and [[Marcel Grandjany]] have composed many lesser-known solo pieces and chamber music. Modern composers utilize the harp frequently because the pedals on a concert harp allow many sorts of non-diatonic scales and strange accidentals to be played (although some modern pieces call for impractical pedal manipulations).
See [[List of compositions for harp]] for the names of some notable pieces from the classical repertoire.
There have been a few harpists active in [[jazz]] and [[free improvisation]], including:
*[http://www.edmarcastaneda.com/ Edmar Castañeda]
*[http://members.aol.com/ishorst/love/alice.html/ Alice Coltrane]
*[http://www.jazzharp.com/ Park Stickney]
*[[Zeena Parkins]]
*[http://hipharp.com/ Deborah Henson-Conant]
In current pop music, however, the harp appears very rarely. [[Joanna Newsom]] and [[Dee Carstensen]] have separately established images as harp-playing singer-songwriters with signature harp and vocal sounds.
== Recommendations for beginning harpists ==
Harp is a rewarding instrument to learn because every note sounds good. However, there are several things to consider: picking a teacher, picking the harp, cost, tuning, and repairs.
A student should pick a teacher who teaches the type of music that he or she wants to play. A classical teacher will not necessarily be the best to teach Paraguayan sambas or Celtic dances. There are teach-yourself books and videos for the Celtic harp.
The harp should be one recommended by a teacher or a knowledgeable harp player.
Harps are one of the most expensive orchestral instruments. Used 3/4 size pedal harps (the cheapest orchestral harp) regularly sell for US$8,000 or more, while new pedal harps can cost as much as a new car. One way to reduce this cost is to rent something smaller than a pedal harp, for example a lever harp with at least a three octave range, for about US$50 per month. Inexpensive lap harps that stay in tune are available for less than US$400, although a case and accessories can add to the cost.
Beginners often use an electronic tuner to tune a harp. Later, one learns to tune by ear. Most harpists carry a tuning wrench and pitch pipe or electronic tuner with their harps.
New harps or harps moved to a different climate often have to be retuned as much as several times per day for a week before they settle into a reliable tuning. This is normal, even for a good harp. If, after a couple weeks, the harp does not remain in tune at least for a day of light or no use, then it is probably defective.
Broken strings are minor damage, easily repaired by a harpist. Harpists often carry a spare set of strings in the harp's case. However, different harps use different strings, and the wrong strings can damage a harp.
Loose tuning pegs or broken levers are minor but require professional repairs. The most common serious damage to a harp is a cracked sound board or a failed glue seam. These can usually be fixed by the manufacturer of the harp or an experienced luthier.
Like all fine wooden instruments, harps are susceptible to both heat and changes in humidity. The glue in most harps melts above 60 °C (140 °F), so it is dangerous to leave a harp in a hot car on a sunny day. Sound boards in particular are susceptible to changes in humidity, and occasionally crack when the harp is fully strung and the humidity and temperature rapidly change. Ideally, a harp should be shipped with loose strings, and then left in its packing materials with the door open a crack to slowly accommodate the harp to the temperature and humidity of its resting place. Only after a few hours should the harp be set up and tuned.
==As a symbol==
===Political===
[[Image:Ireland_coa.png|frame|left|The Coat of Arms of the [[Republic of Ireland]]]]
[[Image:2e_ire.png|frame|right|The [[Irish euro coins|Irish € 2.00 coin]]]]
<!-- <div style="float:right; width:160px; padding:8px; margin-left: 1em; text-align:center">[[Image:Ireland_coa.png]]<br>'''The Coat of Arms of the [[Republic of Ireland]]'''</div> -->
The harp has been used as a political symbol of [[Ireland]] for centuries. It was used to symbolise Ireland in the [[Royal Standard]] of King [[James I of England|James VI/I]] of Scotland, England and Ireland in [[1603]] and had continued to feature on all [[England|English]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] and [[United Kingdom]] Royal Standards ever since, though the style of harp used differed on some Royal Standards. It was also used on the [[Commonwealth Jack]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]], issued in [[1649]] and on the [[Protectorate Jack]] issued in [[1658]] as well as on the [[Lord Protector's Standard]] issued on the succession of [[Richard Cromwell]] in [[1658]]. The harp is also traditionally used on the flag of [[Leinster]].
Independent Ireland continued to use the harp as its state symbol on the [[Great Seal of the Irish Free State]], featuring it both on the [[coat of arms]] and on the [[President of Ireland|Presidential]] [[flag|Standard]] and [[Official Seal of the President of Ireland|Presidential Seal]] - as well as on various other official seals and documents. The harp also appears on [[Irish coinage]] from the [[Middle Ages]] to the current [[Irish euro coins]].
:''See also: [[Coat of Arms of the Republic of Ireland]]''
[[South Asia|South Asian]] version of harp known in tamil as 'yaal', is the symbol of [[Jaffna|City of Jaffna]], [[Sri Lanka]], which's legendary root originates from a harp player.
===Corporate===
The harp is also used extensively as a [[corporate logo]] - both [[Private company|private]] and [[government]] organisations. For instance; Ireland's most famous drink, [[Guinness]], also uses a harp, but in reverse and also less detailed than the state arms - [[Harp Lager]] is also produced by Guinness and uses the harp.
Relatively new organisations also use the harp, but often modified to reflect a [[motif (art)|theme]] relevant to their organisation, for instance; [[Ryanair]] uses a modified harp, somewhat in the form of an [[angel]] taking flight, and the [[State Examinations Commission]] uses it with an [[educational]] theme.
Other organisations in Ireland use the harp, but not always prominently; these include the [[National University of Ireland]] and the associated [[University College Dublin]], and the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]]. In [[Northern Ireland]] the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] and [[Queen's University of Belfast]] use the harp as part of their identity.
==External links==
*[http://www.tns.lcs.mit.edu/harp/ The Harp Page] - a directory of harp-related links
*[http://www.harpspectrum.org/ Harp Spectrum] - general information about the harp
*[h |
hat share parents are called '''siblings'''.
If a path exists from node p to node q, then p is an '''ancestor''' of q and q is a '''descendant''' of p.
The '''size''' of a node is the number of descendants it has including itself.
==Types of binary trees==
A '''binary tree''' is a '''rooted''' [[Tree data structure|tree]] in which every node has at most two children.
A '''full binary tree''' is a tree in which every node has zero or two children.
A '''perfect binary tree''' is a complete binary tree in which all '''leaves''' (vertices with zero children) are at the same '''depth''' (distance from the '''root''', also called '''height''').
Sometimes the '''perfect binary tree''' is called the '''complete binary tree'''. Some others define a '''complete binary tree''' to be a full binary tree in which all leaves are at depth ''n'' or ''n-1'' for some ''n''. In order for a tree to be a complete binary tree, all the children on the last level must occupy the leftmost spots consecutively, with no spot left unoccupied in between any 2. For example, if 2 nodes on the bottomost level each occupy a spot with an empty spot between the 2 of them, but the rest of the children nodes are tightly wedged together with no spots in between, then the whole tree CANNOT be a binary tree due to the empty spot.
An '''almost complete binary tree''' is a tree in which for a right child, there is always a left child, but for a left child there may not be a right child.
==Definition in graph theory==
[[Graph theory|Graph theorists]] typically use the following definition: A binary tree is a [[connected graph|connected]] [[acyclic graph]] such that the degree of each [[vertex]] is no more than 3. It can be shown that in any binary tree, there are exactly two more nodes of degree one than there are of degree three, but there can be any number of nodes of degree two. A '''rooted binary tree''' is such a graph that has one of its vertices of degree no more than 2 singled out as the root.
With the root thus chosen, each vertex will have a uniquely defined parent, and up to two children; however, so far there is insufficient information to distinguish a left or right child. If we drop the connectedness requirement, allowing multiple [[connected component (graph theory)|connected component]]s in the graph, we call such a structure a forest.
Another way of defining binary trees is a recursive definition on directed graphs. A binary tree is either:
* A single vertex.
* A graph formed by taking two binary trees, adding a vertex, and adding an edge directed from the new vertex to the root of each binary tree.
This also does not establish the order of children, but does fix a specific root node.
== Methods for storing binary trees ==
Binary trees can be constructed from [[programming language]] primitives in several ways. In a language with [[record (computer science)|record]]s and [[reference]]s, binary trees are typically constructed by having a tree node structure which contains some data and references to its left child and its right child. Sometimes it also contains a reference to its unique parent. If a node has fewer than two children, some of the child pointers may be set to a special null value, or to a special [[sentinel (computer science)|sentinel]] node.
Binary trees can also be stored as an [[implicit data structure]] in [[array]]s, and if the tree is a complete binary tree, this method wastes no space. In this compact arrangement, if a node has an index ''i'', its children are found at indices 2''i''+1 and 2''i''+2, while its parent (if any) is found at index ''floor((i-1)/2)'' (assuming the root has index zero). This method benefits from more compact storage and better [[locality of reference]], particularly during a preorder traversal. However, it requires contiguous memory, is expensive to grow, and wastes space proportional to 2<sup>''h''</sup> - ''n'' for a tree of height ''h'' with ''n'' nodes.
<center>[[Image:Binary_tree_in_array.svg|300px|A small complete binary tree stored in an array]]</center>
In languages with [[tagged union]]s such as [[ML programming language|ML]], a tree node is often a tagged union of two types of nodes, one of which is a 3-tuple of data, left child, and right child, and the other of which is a "leaf" node, which contains no data and functions much like the null value in a language with pointers.
== Methods of iterating over binary trees ==
Often, one wishes to visit each of the nodes in a tree and examine the value there. There are several common orders in which the nodes can be visited, and each has useful properties that are exploited in algorithms based on binary trees.
=== Pre-order, in-order, and post-order traversal ===
''Main article: [[Tree traversal]].''
Pre-order, in-order, and post-order traversal visit each node in a tree by recursively visiting each node in the left and right subtrees of the root. If the root node is visited before its subtrees, this is preorder; if after, postorder; if between, in-order. In-order traversal is useful in [[binary search tree]]s, where this traversal visits the nodes in increasing order.
=== Depth-first order ===
In depth-first order, we always attempt to visit the node farthest from the root that we can, but with the caveat that it must be a child of a node we have already visited. Unlike a depth-first search on graphs, there is no need to remember all the nodes we have visited, because a tree cannot contain cycles. Preorder, in-order, and postorder traversal are all special cases of this. See [[depth-first search]] for more information.
=== Breadth-first order ===
Contrasting with depth-first order is breadth-first order, which always attempts to visit the node closest to the root that it has not already visited. See [[Breadth-first search]] for more information.
== Encodings ==
=== Succinct encodings ===
A [[succinct data structure]] is one which takes the absolute minimum possible space, as established by [[information theory|information theoretical]] lower bounds. The number of different binary trees on <math>n</math> nodes is <math>\mathrm{C}_{n}</math>, the <math>n</math>th [[Catalan number]] (assuming we view trees with identical ''structure'' as identical). For large <math>n</math>, this is about <math>4^{n}</math>; thus we need at least about <math>\log_{2}4^{n} = 2n</math> bits to encode it. A succinct binary tree therefore would occupy only 2 bits per node.
One simple representation which meets this bound is to visit the nodes of the tree in preorder, outputting "1" for an internal node and "0" for a leaf (here, by a leaf, we mean the kind that contains no data). [http://theory.csail.mit.edu/classes/6.897/spring03/scribe_notes/L12/lecture12.pdf] If the tree contains data, we can simply simultaneously store it in a consecutive array in preorder. This function accomplishes this:
'''function''' EncodeSuccinct(''node'' n, ''bitstring'' structure, ''array'' data) {
'''if''' n = ''nil'' '''then'''
append 0 to structure
'''else'''
append 1 to structure
append n.data to data
EncodeSuccinct(n.left, structure, data)
EncodeSuccinct(n.right, structure, data)
}
The string ''structure'' has only <math>2n + 1</math> bits in the end, where <math>n</math> is the number of (internal) nodes; we don't even have to store its length. To show that no information is lost, we can convert the output back to the original tree like this:
'''function''' DecodeSuccinct(''bitstring'' structure, ''array'' data) {
remove first bit of ''structure'' and put it in ''b''
'''if''' b = 1 '''then'''
create a new node ''n''
remove first element of data and put it in n.data
n.left = DecodeSuccinct(structure, data)
n.right = DecodeSuccinct(structure, data)
'''return''' n
'''else'''
'''return''' nil
}
More sophisticated succinct representations allow not only compact storage of trees but even useful operations on those trees directly while they're still in their succinct form.
=== Encoding n-ary trees as binary trees ===
There is a one-to-one mapping between general ordered trees and binary trees, which in particular is used by [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] to represent general ordered trees as binary trees. Each node ''N'' in the ordered tree corresponds to a node ''N' '' in the binary tree; the ''left'' child of ''N' '' is the node corresponding to the first child of ''N'', and the ''right'' child of ''N' '' is the node corresponding to ''N'' 's next sibling --- that is, the next node in order among the children of the parent of ''N''
One way of thinking about this is that each node's children are in a [[linked list]], chained together with their ''right'' fields, and the node only has a pointer to the beginning or head of this list, through its ''left'' field.
For example, in the tree on the left, A has the 6 children {B,C,D,E,F,G}. It can be converted into the binary tree on the right.
<center>
[[Image:nary_to_binary_tree_conversion.png|An example of converting an n-ary tree to a binary tree]]
</center>
The binary tree can be thought of as the original tree tilted sideways, with the black left edges representing ''first child'' and the blue right edges representing ''next sibling''. The leaves of the tree on the left would be written in Lisp as:
:(((M N) H I) C D ((O) (P)) F (L))
which would be implemented in memory as the binary tree on the right, without any letters on those nodes that have a left child.
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.3, especially subsections 2.3.1&ndash;2.3.2 (pp.318&ndash;348).
== See also ==
* [[AVL tre |
scription and with permission of ''Atlantic Monthly'')
*[http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CC/365/mark/material/notes/Chap1/VBushArticle/ Another permitted copy of the article]
[[Category:Essays]]
[[da:As We May Think]]
[[fr:As We May Think]]
[[pl:As We May Think]]
[[pt:As We May Think]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>American shot</title>
<id>966</id>
<revision>
<id>38701577</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T01:40:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.200.116.195|207.200.116.195]] to last version by Jahsonic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">"'''American shot'''" is a translation of a phrase from [[France|French]] [[film criticism]], "''plan Americain''" and refers to a medium-long ("knee") [[Shot (film)|film shot]] of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex [[dialogue]] scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot.
The French critics thought it was characteristic of [[Cinema of the United States|American film]]s of the [[1930s]] or [[1940s]]; however, it was mostly characteristic of ''cheaper'' American movies, such as [[Charlie Chan]] mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago.
[[Category:Film techniques]]
[[de:Einstellungsgröße]]
[[fr:Plan américain]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis</title>
<id>967</id>
<revision>
<id>41970338</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:25:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Acute disseminated encephalitis |
ICD10 = G04.0 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|323}} |
}}
'''Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis''' ('''ADEM''') is an immune mediated [[disease]] of [[human brain|brain]]. It usually occurs following a [[virus (biology)|viral]] [[infection]] or [[vaccination]], but it may also appear spontaneously.
There are multiple inflammatory cell deposits in the brain, particularly in the section
called [[white matter]]. Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and [[Adolescence|adolescents]].
It has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begins 1-3 weeks after infection or vaccination. Major symptoms are [[fever]], [[headache]], drowsiness, [[seizure]]s and [[coma]]. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, later in the course of the disease patients may even die, if they are not treated properly. Some patients recover completely, while others have permanent neurological impairments.
The first treatment is usually [[steroid]]s and [[intensive care]] is often required.
== External links ==
* [http://www.myelitis.org/adem.htm Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM)]
[[Category:Autoimmune diseases]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[de:Akute disseminierte Enzephalomyelitis]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Adrenoleukodistrophy</title>
<id>968</id>
<revision>
<id>15899478</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T15:56:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.109.159.253</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adrenoleukodystrophy]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ataxia</title>
<id>969</id>
<revision>
<id>39430487</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:12:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robotico</username>
<id>367893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Ataxia''' (from [[Greek (language)|Greek]] ''ataxiā'', meaning failure to put in order) is unsteady and clumsy motion of the [[limb]]s or [[torso|trunk]] due to a failure of the gross coordination of [[muscle]] movements.
Ataxia often occurs when parts of the nervous system that control movement are damaged. People with ataxia experience a failure of muscle control in their arms and legs, resulting in a lack of balance and coordination or a disturbance of gait. While the term ataxia is primarily used to describe this set of symptoms, it is sometimes also used to refer to a family of disorders. It is not, however, a specific diagnosis.
Most disorders that result in ataxia cause cells in the part of the brain called the [[cerebellum]] to degenerate, or atrophy. Sometimes the spine is also affected. The phrases ''cerebellar degeneration'' and ''spinocerebellar degeneration'' are used to describe changes that have taken place in a person’s nervous system; neither term constitutes a specific diagnosis. Cerebellar and spinocerebellar degeneration have many different causes. The age of onset of the resulting ataxia varies depending on the underlying cause of the degeneration.
Many ataxias are hereditary and are classified by chromosomal location and pattern of inheritance: autosomal dominant, in which the affected person inherits a normal gene from one parent and a faulty gene from the other parent; and autosomal recessive, in which both parents pass on a copy of the faulty gene. Among the more common inherited ataxias are [[Friedreich's ataxia]] and Machado-Joseph disease. Sporadic ataxias can also occur in families with no prior history.
Ataxia can also be acquired. Conditions that can cause acquired ataxia include [[stroke]], [[multiple sclerosis]], tumors, [[lesion]]s of the [[central nervous system]] or spinal cord, alcoholism, peripheral neuropathy, metabolic disorders, and vitamin deficiencies.
[[Dysdiadochokinesia]] is a sign of cerebellar ataxia.
[[University of Minnesota]] researchers suggested in 2006 that [[Abraham Lincoln]] may have suffered from spinocerebellar ataxia type 5, thus accounting for his clumsy gait.[http://www.startribune.com/1244/story/198437.html][http://www.breitbart.com/news/2006/01/27/D8FD29HG0.html]
== See also ==
* [[Spinocerebellar ataxia]]
* [[Sensory ataxia]]
* [[Gait abnormality]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/ataxia/ataxia.htm National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)]
* [http://www.ataxia.org National Ataxia Foundation]
* [http://www.ataxia.org.uk Ataxia UK]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Symptoms]]
[[de:Ataxie]]
[[es:Ataxia]]
[[fr:Ataxie]]
[[it:Atassia]]
[[hu:Ataxia]]
[[nl:Ataxie]]
[[pl:Ataksja]]
[[fi:Ataksia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AmbientCalculusOnline</title>
<id>970</id>
<revision>
<id>15899480</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:55:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdul Alhazred</title>
<id>972</id>
<revision>
<id>41651630</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:30:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fouad Bey</username>
<id>346146</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abdul Alhazred''', or the '''Mad Arab''', is a [[fictional character]] created by the horror writer [[H. P. Lovecraft]]. The term "Mad Arab" in reference to Alhazred is always capitalised and used in the manner of an official title such as another person would be called "Prince" or "Sir" and the term can actually be used in lieu of Alhazred's name as a synonym.
''Abdul Alhazred'' is not a real [[Arabic name]], and seems to contain the Arabic definite article morpheme twice in a row (rather anomalous in terms of Arabic grammar). The more proper Arabic form might be ''Abd-el-Hazred'' or simply ''Abdul Hazred'' (with a single definite article), although these are still anomalous, as ''Hazred'' is not one of the [[99 Names of God]]. In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, his name has appeared as ''Abdullah Alḥaẓred'' (عبدالله الحظرد). While this Arabic-alphabet spelling of ''Alhazred'' has no real meaning in the Arabic language, it is reminiscent of the verb [[triliteral|root]] ح ظ ر meaning "to forbid."
According to Lovecraft's "History of the [[Necronomicon]]" (written [[1927]], first published [[1938]]), Alhazred was:
:[A] mad poet of [[Sanaá]], in [[Yemen]], who is said to have flourished during the period of the [[Umayyad | Ommiade]] caliphs, circa [[700]] A.D. He visited the ruins of [[Babylon]] and the subterranean secrets of [[Memphis, Egypt |Memphis]] and spent ten years alone in the great southern desert of [[Arabia]] &mdash; the [[Rub' al Khali|Roba el Khaliyeh]] or "Empty Space" of the ancients &mdash; and "Dahna" or "Crimson" desert of the modern Arabs, which is held to be inhabited by protective evil spirits and monsters of death. Of this desert many strange and unbelievable marvels are told by those who pretend to have penetrated it. In his last years Alhazred dwelt in [[Damascus]].
In [[730]], while still living in Damascus, Alhazred supposedly authored in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] a book of ultimate evil, ''al Azif'', which would later become known as the ''[[Necronomicon]]''.
{{spoiler}}
Th |
the [[Tests of general relativity]] article.
== Status ==
The status of general relativity is decidedly mixed. On the one hand, it is a highly successful model of gravitation and cosmology which has passed every unambiguous test that it has been subjected to so far, both observationally and experimentally. It is therefore almost universally accepted by the scientific community.
On the other hand, general relativity is inconsistent with quantum mechanics, and the singularities of black holes also raise some disconcerting issues. So at the same time as it is accepted, there is also a sense that there may well be something beyond Einstein's theory still yet to be found.
Currently, better tests of general relativity are needed. Even the most recent binary pulsar discoveries only test general relativity to the first order of deviation from Newtonian projections in the post-Newtonian parameterizations. Some way of testing second and higher order terms is needed, and may shed light on how reality differs from Einstein's theory (if it does).
==Quotes==
:''Spacetime grips mass, telling it how to move, and mass grips spacetime, telling it how to curve'' &mdash; [[John Archibald Wheeler]].
:''The theory appeared to me then, and still does, the greatest feat of human thinking about nature, the most amazing combination of philosophical penetration, physical intuition, and mathematical skill. But its connections with experience were slender. It appealed to me like a great work of art, to be enjoyed and admired from a distance.'' &mdash; [[Max Born]]
== Notes ==
<div id=note_1>[[#ref 1|<sup>[1]</sup>]] In general relativity, the term "gravitation" (meaning the tendency of massive objects to accelerate towards each other) is used instead of "[[gravity]]" since gravity is by definition the force which causes gravitation.</div>
==See also==
{{wikibooks}}
{{Wikisourcepar|Relativity: The Special and General Theory}}
*[[Classical theories of gravitation]]
*[[David Hilbert]]
*[[Einstein-Hilbert action]]
*[[General relativity resources]], an annotated reading list giving bibliographic information on some of the most cited resources.
*[[History of general relativity]]
<div class="noprint" style="clear: right"></div>
==References==
* {{cite book | last = Einstein | first = A. | title = Relativity: The Special and General Theory | location = New York | publisher = Crown | year = 1961 | id = ISBN 0-517-029618 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5001 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ohanian | first = Hans C. | coauthors = Ruffini, Remo | title = Gravitation and Spacetime | location = New York | publisher = W. W. Norton | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0-393-96501-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Wald | first = Robert M. | title = General Relativity | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-226-87033-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Misner | first = Charles | coauthors = Thorne, Kip S. & Wheeler, John Archibald | title = Gravitation | location = San Francisco | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 1973 | id = ISBN 0-7167-0344-0 }}
* [http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/09/general_relativ.html General Relativity, Very Plainly] Short article by S. Abbas Raza of [http://3quarksdaily.com ''3 Quarks Daily'']
* [http://www.alberteinstein.info/gallery/gtext3.html The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity], A. Einstein originally published in Annalen der Physik (1916).
{{Physics-footer}}
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[[eo:Fizika relativeco]]
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[[fr:Relativité générale]]
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[[hu:Általános relativitáselmélet]]
[[id:Teori relativitas umum]]
[[it:Relatività generale]]
[[ja:一般相対性理論]]
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[[zh:廣義相對論]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Genealogy</title>
<id>12025</id>
<revision>
<id>41612143</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:36:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kittybrewster</username>
<id>640429</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* United Kingdom */ spelling error</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Genealogy''' is the study and tracing of [[family]] [[pedigree chart|pedigrees]]. This involves collecting the names of relatives, both living and deceased, and establishing the relationships between them based on primary, secondary and/or [[circumstantial evidence]] or [[documentation]], thus building up a cohesive [[family tree]]. Genealogy is sometimes also referred to as '''family history''', although these terms may be used distinctly: the former being the basic study of who is related to whom; the latter involving more "fleshing out" of the life and [[Family history|family histories]] of the individuals involved.
One way to find the family lineage is with the use of the genealogical method. It is a well-established ethnographic technique. The early ethnographers developed symbols that covered the issue of kinship, descent, and marriage. Studying one's genealogy is important in terms of social organization, especially where people live and work with their kin everyday. It plays a very important role in understanding the current social relations and reconstructing the history. Marriage is also looked at because it is important in creating alliances amongst tribes, clans and villages.
In this article, the terms genealogist, researcher, and family historian refer to every participant, from the inexperienced hobbyist to the professional.
{{wiktionarypar|genealogy}}
{{wikibooks}}
==Overview==
Genealogists search written records, collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists also attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyle, biography, and motivations. This often requires &mdash; or leads to &mdash; knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions.
Genealogists and family historians often join a [[Family History Society]] where novices can learn from more experienced researchers, and everyone benefits from shared knowledge.
Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history. The search for living relatives often leads to [[Wiktionary:Family reunion|family reunions]], both of distant [[Wiktionary:Cousin|cousins]] and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by [[war]], [[immigration]], [[foster home]]s and [[adoption]]. The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive or reveal family secrets.
In its original form, genealogy was mainly concerned with the [[kinship and descent|ancestry]] of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with [[heraldry]], in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in the quarterings of their [[coat of arms]]. Many of the claimed ancestries are considered by modern scholars to be fabrications, especially the claims of kings and emperors who trace their ancestry to gods or the founders of their civilization. For example, the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] chroniclers traced the ancestry of several English kings back to the [[god]] [[Woden]] (the English version of the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] god [[Odin]]).{{ref|Woden}} If these descents were true, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] would be a descendant of Woden, via the kings of [[Wessex]]. (see [[euhemerism]]).
In fiction, it is common to give a character a complicated [[fictional genealogy]] to make his or her background more interesting. A picturesque one is the genealogy for [[Godwulf of Asgard]].
==Modern research==
Genealogy, an extremely popular hobby, received a big boost in the late [[1970s]] with the premiere of the television adaptation of [[Alex Haley]]'s fictionalized account of his family line, ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family]]''. With the advent of the internet, the number of resources available to genealogists has vastly increased.
In addition to particular historical events and places, research efforts can focus on other types of relationships between people such as kinship to a particular group of people, e.g. a [[Scottish clan]]; to a particular surname such as in a one-name study (see [http://www.one-name.org/ Guild of One-Name Studies]), or to a particular person such as [[Winston Churchill]] or [[Jesse James]].
===LDS collections===
Theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ([[Mormon]]s) includes the practice of [[baptism for the dead]], an [[ordinance]] where [[baptism]] is performed by living people for and on behalf of those who have died. Mormons believe that this practice enables the living to assist their deceased relatives' |
lo-flores</username>
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<comment>preparing for move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Irresistible Force''' is the production identity for UK [[ambient]] DJ [[Mixmaster Morris]].
The first release under this name was the single ''I Want To'' in 1988, but success came with the first album, ''[[Flying High (album)|Flying High]]'', released in 1992 on [[Rising High Records]]. 1994 saw the second album ''[[Global Chillage]]'' with its distinctive hologram sleeve, which got a US release on [[Astralwerks]]. There followed a period of legal [[limbo]] before the third album ''[[It's Tomorrow Already]]''.
A fourth album is expected to be released by Ninja Tune in 2004.</text>
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<page>
<title>Irish language</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:23:59Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Irish in education */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Irish
|nativename=Gaeilge
|pronunciation=ˈgeːlʲgʲə
|states=[[Ireland]], [[Canada]] (mainly in [[Newfoundland]]), and [[USA]].
|region=[[Gaeltacht|Gaeltachtaí]]
|speakers=est. 100,000 to 2 million (see [[#Irish language today|below]])
|script=[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] ([[Irish orthography|Irish variant]])
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|fam4=[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
|nation=[[Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]] (as of [[May 23]], 1998), [[European Union]] (as of [[January 1]], 2007)
|agency=[[Foras na Gaeilge]]
|iso1=ga
|iso2=gle
|iso3=gle
}}
'''Irish''' (''Gaeilge''), a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]] spoken in the [[Republic of Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], is [[Constitution of Ireland|constitutionally]] recognized as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland. On [[13 June]], 2005, EU foreign ministers unanimously decided to make Irish an official [[Languages of the European Union|working language]] of the [[European Union]]. The new arrangements will come into effect on [[January 1]], 2007.
According to statistics released by the [[Government of Ireland]] in 2004, there are approximately 1.6 million speakers of Irish in the Republic. Of these, 350,000 use Irish every day, 155,000 weekly, 585,000 less often, 460,000 never, and 30,000 didn't state how often. However, these statistics are often disputed by Irish language activists and their opponents. 80,000 people has been quoted as the number of people in the [[Gaeltacht]] who use the language as their first, daily language<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>. Other data state that 165,000 can speak Irish in [[Northern Ireland]] and 25,000 in the United States.
For Irish English, see [[Hiberno-English]].
==Names of the language==
===In English===
The language is sometimes referred to in [[English language|English]] as '''Gaelic''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈgeɪlɪk/}}), or '''Irish Gaelic.''' This has generally been the common name for the language in the Irish diaspora. Within Ireland proper, it has inevitably acquired political significance. Referring to the language as "Gaelic" suggests that the language is as distant and unrelated to modern Irish life as the civilization of the ancient Gaels. Calling it ''Irish,'' on the other hand, indicates that it is and should be the proper national language of the Irish people, and this is the generally accepted term among scholars and in the Irish Constitution. Some [[Unionists]] insist that Gaelic is the correct term as dialects of the language are also spoken in parts of Scotland and insist that the term ''Irish Language'' is an invention by Irish [[nationalists]] to justify [[separatist]] claims from the rest of the [[British Isles]]
Use of the term ''Irish'' also avoids confusion with [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] (''Gàidhlig''), and [[Manx Gaelic]] (''Gaelg''), the closely related languages spoken in [[Scotland]] and the [[Isle of Man]] and often referred to in English as simply ''Gaelic'' (IPA: {{IPA|/ˈgeɪlɪk/}} or {{IPA|/ˈgæːlɪk/}}). The archaic term '''[[Erse]]''', originally a [[Scots language|Scots]] form of the word ''Irish'', is no longer used and in most contexts is also considered derogatory.
It is a fact, however, that as late as the early part of the 18th century, the Scottish Highlanders still referred to their native language as "Irish", as witnessed by a letter dated 21 July 1713 from a young Campbell, John, Lord Glenorchy at Christ Church, Oxford, to his grandfather, John, Earl of Breadalbane at Taymouth: "I still take care about my Irish and some times meet with Sir Donald Macdonald's son, who is here, and another gentleman, when we talk nothing but Irish." -- quoted in "A Bit of Breadalbane", by Alastair Duncan Millar, The Pentland Press Ltd, 1995.
===In Irish===
In the ''Caighdeán Oifigiúil'' (the official written standard) the name of the language is '''Gaeilge''', which reflects the southern [[Connacht]] pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈgeːlʲgʲə/}}. Before the spelling reform of [[1948]], this form was spelled '''Gaedhilge'''; originally this was the [[genitive case|genitive]] of '''Gaedhealg''', the form used in classical Modern Irish. Older spellings of this include '''Gaoidhealg''' in Middle Irish and '''Goídelc''' in [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]].
Other forms of the name found in the various modern Irish dialects, in addition to south Connacht ''Gaeilge'' mentioned above, include '''Gaedhilic'''/'''Gaeilic'''/'''Gaeilig''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːlʲəkʲ/}}) in [[County Donegal]] and parts of [[County Mayo]], '''Gaedhealaing'''/'''Gaoluinn'''/'''Gaelainn''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːləŋʲ/}}) in [[Munster]], and '''Gaedhlag''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːləg/}}) in [[Omeath]], [[County Louth]].
==Official status==
Irish is given recognition by the [[Constitution of Ireland]] as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland (with [[English language|English]] being a second official language), despite the limited distribution of fluency among the population of that country. Since the State was founded in the 1920s as the [[Irish Free State]] (see also ''[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]''), the [[Irish Government]] required a degree of proficiency in Irish for all [[Civil service of the Republic of Ireland|civil service]] positions (including postal workers, tax officials, agricultural inspectors, etc.), as well as for employees of state companies (e.g. [[Aer Lingus]], [[RTE]], [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]], etc). Proficiency in Irish for entrance to the public service ceased to be a compulsory requirement in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organizations like the [[Language Freedom Movement]]. While the requirement was also dropped for wider public service jobs, such as teaching, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money (see also ''[[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]''). The need for a pass in [[Leaving Certificate]] Irish for entry to the [[Gardaí]] (police) was dropped in September 2005, although applicants are given lessons in the language during the two years of training. Most official documents of the Irish Government are published in both Irish and English.
The [[National University of Ireland, Galway]] is required to appoint a person who is competent in the Irish language, as long as they meet all other respects of the vacancy they are appointed to. This requirement is laid down by the [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3)] and recently was subject of a [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] case on the matter[http://www.galwayindependent.com/news/3905.html] - it is expected that the requirement may be repealed in due course[http://www.education.ie/home/home.jsp?maincat=10861&pcategory=10861&ecategory=10876&sectionpage=13637&language=EN&link=link001&page=1&doc=29800].
As a [[Languages of the European Union|treaty language of the European Union]], the highest-level documents of the EU are translated into Irish; in addition, the language has also recently received a degree of [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|formal recognition in Northern Ireland]] from the [[United Kingdom]], under the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]].
Furthermore, Irish will become an official working language of the European Union beginning [[January 1]], [[2007]].
==Gaeltacht==
There are pockets of Ireland where Irish is spoken as a traditional, [[native language]]. These regions are known as the [[Gaeltacht]]. These are in [[County Galway]] (''Contae na Gaillimhe''), including [[Connemara]] (''Conamara'') and the [[Aran Islands]] (''na hOileáin Árann''); on the west coast of [[County Donegal]] (''Contae Dhún na nGall''; in the part which is known as ''Tyrconnell''/''Tír Chonaill''); and ''Corca Dhuibhne'' on the [[Dingle peninsula]] in [[County Kerry]] (''Contae Chiarraí''). Smaller ones also exist in [[County Mayo|Mayo]] (''Contae Mhaigh Eo''), [[County Meath|Meath]] (''Contae na Mí''), [[County Waterford|Waterford]] (''Contae Phort Láirge''), and [[County Cork|Cork]] (''Contae Chorcaí''). However, even within the Gaeltacht areas, the Irish-speaking populations have declined since the Gaeltacht boundaries were drawn up.
The numerically and socially strongest ''Gaeltacht'' areas are those of South ''Conamara'', the extreme west of ''Corca Dhuibhne'' and in and North West''Tír Chonaill'', in which a significant proportion of residents use Irish as a community language and in which children often speak the language amon |
fourth Assessment Report|IPCC AR4]], saying:
:"I personally cannot in good faith continue to contribute to a process that I view as both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound. As the IPCC leadership has seen no wrong in [[Kevin E. Trenberth|Dr. Trenberth]]'s actions and have retained him as a Lead Author for the AR4, I have decided to no longer participate in the IPCC AR4" [http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/prometheus/archives/science_policy_general/000318chris_landsea_leaves.html].
=== IPCC processes ===
* "The IPCC is monolithic and complacent, and it is conceivable that they are exaggerating the speed of change" ([[John Maddox]], a former editor of the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', quoted by David Adam in The Guardian, [[28 January]] [[2005]]).
* UK House of Lords Science and Economic Analysis and Report on IPCC for the G-8 Summit, July 2005: "We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations. There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCC’s emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios. The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach. There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change. The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits. Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags." [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldeconaf/12/12i.pdf]
== See also ==
* [[Global warming]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ipcc.ch/ The IPCC web site]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/bureau.htm IPCC organisation]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf IPCC Principles]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sa(E).pdf Second Assessment Synthesis Report (pdf)]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sarsum1.htm Second Assessment Summary for Policymakers] from the Working Group 1 (Science) Report.
** [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm Third Assessment Report]
* [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipcccont.html The IPCC Controversy] - from the [[SEPP]]
* [http://www.manicore.com/anglais/documentation_a/greenhouse/IPCC.html climate change - What is the IPCC] by Jean-Marc Jancovici
[[Category:International environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:NGO reports]]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]]
[[Category:1988 establishments]]
[[de:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
[[es:Panel Intergubernamental del Cambio Climático]]
[[fr:Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat]]
[[he:IPCC]]
[[nl:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
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<page>
<title>IPCC</title>
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<timestamp>2005-08-19T19:49:23Z</timestamp>
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<comment>redirect again, adding HTML comment</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]</text>
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<page>
<title>IBM PC</title>
<id>15032</id>
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<id>42089438</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:30:45Z</timestamp>
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<ip>70.89.207.230</ip>
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<comment>/* Electronics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:IBM PC 5150.jpg|right|thumb|300px|IBM PC (IBM 5150) with keyboard and green screen monochrome monitor (IBM 5151).]]
The '''IBM PC™''' ('''''P'''ersonal '''C'''omputer''), was the original version and progenitor of the [[IBM PC compatible]] hardware [[platform (computing)|platform]]. It was introduced on [[August 11]], [[1981]]. The original model was designated the '''IBM 5150'''. It was created by a team of 12 engineers and designers under the direction of [[Don Estridge]] of the IBM Entry Systems Division in [[Boca Raton, Florida]].
The phrase "personal computer" was common currency before 1981, and was used as early as 1972 to characterize [[Xerox PARC]]'s [[Xerox Alto|Alto]]. However, due to the success of the IBM PC, what had been a generic term came to mean specifically a [[microcomputer]] compatible with IBM's specification.
During the second quarter of [[2005]], the [[China|Chinese]] [[Lenovo Group]] secured the rights to produce IBM branded personal computers. This move reflects IBM's present lack of interest in the personal computer in favor of the [[server]]/[[IBM mainframe|mainframe]] markets, as well as providing [[business consulting]] and [[IT services]] markets.
''Note the following distinctions within the general subject of personal computers'' :
*For details on "PC compatible" computers (aka "PC clones" or just "PC"s, and making up the majority of today's computers), see ''[[IBM PC compatible]]''
*For a discussion of generic "personal computers", see ''[[personal computer]]''
*For details of the second generation of microcomputers, which largely died out with the Personal Computer revolution, see ''[[home computer]]''
== The IBM PC concept ==
The original ''PC'' was an [[IBM]] attempt to get into the home computer market then dominated by the [[Apple II]] and a host of [[CP/M]] machines.
Rather than going through the usual IBM design process, which had already failed to design an affordable microcomputer (for example the failed [[IBM 5100]]), a special team was assembled with authorization to bypass normal company restrictions and get something to market rapidly. This project was given the code name ''Project Chess''.
The team consisted of just 12 people headed by [[William Lowe]]. They succeeded — development of the PC took about a year. To achieve this they first decided to build the machine with "off-the-shelf" parts from a variety of different [[original equipment manufacturer]]s (OEMs) and countries. Previously IBM had developed their own components. Second they decided on an open [[Computer architecture|architecture]] so that other manufacturers could produce and sell compatible machines — the [[IBM PC compatible]]s, so the specification of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[BIOS]] was published. IBM hoped to maintain their position in the market by royalties from licensing the BIOS, and by keeping ahead of the competition.
Unfortunately for IBM, other manufacturers rapidly [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]] the BIOS to produce their own royalty-free versions. [[Compaq |Compaq Computer Corporation]] announced the first cloned [[IBM PC compatible]] in November [[1982]] (it did not ship until March [[1983]]) — the ''[[Compaq Portable]]''. Not only was it the first ''[[IBM-PC compatible]]'' computer not manufactured by [[IBM]], it was also the first ever ''[[IBM-PC compatible]]'' [[portable computer]].
<!-- According to [[IBM_PC_compatible#Origins]], Columbia Data Products produced an earlier PC compatible computer - the ''MPC'' (Multi Personal Computer). Could someone please check if this came before the ''Compaq portable''? -->
Once the ''IBM PC'' became a commercial success the ''PC'' came back under the usual IBM management control, with the result that competitors had little trouble taking the lead from them. (In this regard, IBM's tradition of "rationalizing" their product lines—deliberately restricting the performance of lower-priced models in order to prevent them from "cannibalizing" profits from higher-priced models—worked against them).
== Commercial success ==
The first ''IBM PC'' was released on [[August 11]] [[1981]]. Although not cheap, at a base price of $1,565 it was affordable for businesses — and it was business that purchased the PC. However it was not the corporate "computer department" that was responsible for this, for the PC was not seen as a 'proper' computer. It was generally well educated middle managers that saw the potential — once the revolutionary [[VisiCalc]] spreadsheet, the "[[killer app]]", had been ported to the PC. Reassured by the IBM name, they began buying the machines on their own budgets to help do the calculations they had learned at business school.
== IBM PC models ==
The models of IBM's first-generation Personal Computer (PC) series have names:
* The original PC had a version of [[Microsoft BASIC]] —[[IBM Cassette BASIC]]— in [[read-only memory|ROM]]. The [[Color Graphics Adapter|CGA]] (Color Graphics Adapter) video card could use a standard [[Television|TV]] for display. The standard storage device was [[compact audio cassette|cassette tape]]. A [[floppy disk]] drive was an optional extra; no [[hard disk]] was available. It had only five expansion slots; maximum memory using IBM parts was 256 [[kilobyte|kB]], 64 kB on the main board and three 64 kB expansion cards. The processor was an [[Intel 8088]] (second-sourced [[AMD]]s were used after [[1983]]) running at 4.77 [[megahertz|MHz]]. IBM sold it in configurations with 16 kB and 64 kB of [[random-access memory|RAM]] preinstalled.
* The original PC failed miserably in the home market, but was widely used in business. The "[[IBM Personal Computer XT]]" was an enhanced machine designed for business use. It had 8 expansion slots and a 10 [[megabyte]] hard disk. It could take 256 kB of memory on the main board; later models were expandable to 640 kB, which combined with the ROM made up the full megabyte of |
christian hate speech from abolitionists. By the 1830s there was a widespread ideological defense of the "peculiar institution" everywhere in the South.
As [[United States territorial acquisitions|territorial expansion]] forced the nation to confront the question of whether new territories were to become "slave" or "free," and as multiplying free states became a majority in the Union, the [[Slave Power]] in national politics waned.
===Economics===
The North and South did have different economies but they were complementary and not in competition. The South made money by exporting cotton (and other unique crops like tobacco). The North made money by exporting food and manufactured items. Many northern business interests were closely tied to the Southern economy and pleaded for union and compromise. Some Southerners thought they paid too much in tariffs--but they themselves had written and voted for the tariff laws in effect.
The cotton-growing export business or "[[King Cotton]]," as it was touted, was so important to the world economy, southerners argued, that they could stand alone. Indeed, being tied to the North was a hindrance and an economic burden. The South would do better by trading directly with Europe and avoiding extortionate Yankee middlemen.
===Ideologies===
In the view of many northern Republicans, the [[Slave Power]] ruled the South, not democracy. This "Slave Power" was a small group of very wealthy slave owners, especially cotton planters, who dominated the politics and society of the South. However, historians more recently have emphasized that the South was much more democratic than the Republicans of North believed.
Both North and South believed strongly to republican values of democracy and civic virtue. But their conceptualizations were diverging. Each side though the other was aggressive, and was violating both the Constitution and the core values of American republicanism. Nationalism was the dominant force in Europe in the 19th century and likewise in America. The South was much more explicit in defining nationalism as a regional characteristic. The North paid less attention to nationalism before 1860, but then focused its mind on it and stressed the whole country, North and South, was the unit of nationalism.
This economic differentiation had social and political consequences beyond the issue of slavery itself; for instance, Pennsylvania politicians pushed for a protective tariff to help the iron industry, while the cotton-exporting South wanted to keep the existing policy of nearly free trade.
At a deeper level industrialization in the Northeast and farming in the Midwest depended on free labor, which could not exist alongside slave labor, as Lincoln kept emphasizing. The nation had to be all free or all slave, said Lincoln.
(Historians [[Charles Beard|Charles and Mary Beard]] went so far as to argue in 1928 that this sectional conflict was a "Second American Revolution"&mdash;a revolutionary watershed in the rise of modern industrial society in the United States.)
===States Rights===
The States' rights debate cut across the issues. Southern politicians argued that the federal government had no power to prevent slaves from being carried into new territories, but they also demanded federal jurisdiction over slaves who escaped into the North; Northern politicians took reversed, though equally contradictory, stances on these issues.
===Slavery in the Territories===
The specific political crisis that culminated in secession and civil war stemmed from a dispute over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The reason was that Congress had power over slavery in the territories, but not in the states. With new territories being formed--especially Kansas--the issue of slaver had to be confronted. This argument grew out of the acquisition of vast new lands during the [[Mexican War]] (1846&ndash;48). Free-state politicians such as David Wilmot, who personally had no sympathy for abolitionism, feared that slaves would provide too much competition for free labor, and thus effectively keep free-state migrants out of newly opened territories. Slaveholders felt that any ban on slaves in the territories was a discrimination against their peculiar form of property, and would undercut both the financial value of slaves and the institution itself. (Slaves comprised the second most valuable form of property in the South, after real estate.) In Congress, the end of the Mexican War was overshadowed by a fight over the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a provision that Wilmot tried (and failed) to enact to bar slavery from all lands acquired in the conflict.
The dispute led to open warfare after the [[Kansas]] Territory was organized in the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854. This act repealed the prohibition on slavery there under the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and put the fate of slavery in the hands of the territory's settlers, a process known as "popular sovereignty." Proslavery Missourians expected that Kansas, due west of their state, would naturally become a slave state, and were alarmed by an organized migration of antislavery New Englanders. Soon heavily armed "border ruffians" from Missouri battled antislavery forces under [[John Brown]], among other leaders. Hundreds were killed or wounded. Southern congressmen, perceiving a Northern conspiracy to keep slavery out of Kansas, insisted that it be admitted as a slave state. Northerners, pointing to the large and growing majority of antislavery voters there, denounced this effort. By 1860, sectional divisions had grown deep and bitter.
[[Image:Lincolnhead.jpg|frame|left|'''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'''<br>16th President (1861&ndash;1865)]]
===Southern fears of Modernity===
Southern secession was triggered by the election of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]] because it was feared that he would make good on his promise to stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. If not Lincoln, then sooner or later another Yankee, many Southerners said; it was time to quit the Union. The slave states had lost the balance of power in the Electoral College and the Senate, and were facing a future as a perpetual minority. In a broader sense the North was rapidly modernizing its economy and its world view; slavery had no role in modern America. Historian James McPherson (1983 p 283) explains:
{{Quotation|When secessionists protested in 1861 that they were acting to preserve traditional rights and values, they were correct. They fought to preserve their constitutional liberties against the perceived Northern threat to overthrow them. The South's concept of republicanism had not changed in three-quarters of a century; the North's had. ... The ascension to power of the Republican Party, with its ideology of competitive, egalitarian free-labor capitalism, was a signal to the South that the Northern majority had turned irrevocably towards this frightening, revolutionary future.|James McPherson|"Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question," Civil War History 29 (Sept. 1983)}}
===Secession===
Before Lincoln took office, seven states seceded from the Union, and established an independent Southern government, the [[Confederate States of America]] on [[February 9]], [[1861]]. They took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries, with little resistance from President Buchanan. By seceding, the rebel states gave up any claim to the Western territories that were in dispute, canceled any obligation for the North to return fugitive slaves to the Confederacy, and assured easy passage in Congress of many bills and amendments they had long opposed.
The Civil War began when, under orders from [[President of the Confederate States | Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]], Confederate General [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] opened fire upon [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], on [[April 12]], [[1861]]. There were no casualties from enemy fire in this battle.
==Division of the country==
===The Union States ===
{{main|Union (American Civil War)}}
There were 23 Union States: [[California]], [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maine]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Oregon]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]], and [[Wisconsin]]. The Union counted [[Virginia]] as well, and added [[Nevada]] and [[West Virginia]]. It added [[Tennessee]], [[Louisiana]], and other rebel states as soon as they were reconquered.
The territories of [[Colorado Territory|Colorado]], [[Dakota Territory|Dakota]], [[Nebraska Territory|Nebraska]], [[Nevada Territory|Nevada]], [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]], [[Utah Territory|Utah]], and [[Washington Territory|Washington]] also fought on the Union side. There was a civil war inside the [[Oklahoma territory]].
===The Confederacy===
{{main|Confederate States of America}}
Seven states seceded by March 1861:
*[[South Carolina]] ([[December 21]] [[1860]]),
*[[Mississippi]] ([[January 9]] [[1861]]),
*[[Florida]] ([[January 10]] [[1861]]),
*[[Alabama]] ([[January 11]] [[1861]]),
*[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ([[January 19]] [[1861]]),
*[[Louisiana]] ([[January 26]] [[1861]]),
*[[Texas]] ([[February 1]] [[1861]]).
These states of the [[Deep South]], where [[slavery]] and [[cotton]] were most dominant, formed the Confederate States of America ([[February 4]] [[1861]]), with [[Jefferson Davis]] as president, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the [[U.S. Constitution]] ''(see also: [[Confederate States Constitution]])''.
[[Image:Civilwarmap2.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Map of the division of the states during the Civil War. Blue represents Union states; light blue, Union states that pe |
ramäisch"] — recordings of modern Aramaic (text in German)
* [http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/index.html Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon] — at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aramaic/ Aramaic Language Yahoo! Group]
* [http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic]
*[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1113445107861 Jerusalem Post article on Aramaic use in Israel]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Aramaic languages]]
[[Category:Jewish languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Asia]]
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[[ar:آرامية (لغة)]]
[[br:Yezhoù aramaek]]
[[ca:Arameu]]
[[cs:Aramejština]]
[[de:Aramäische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma arameo]]
[[eo:Aramea lingvo]]
[[fr:Araméen]]
[[ga:Aramais]]
[[ko:아람어]]
[[id:Bahasa Aram]]
[[it:Lingua aramaica]]
[[he:ארמית]]
[[la:Lingua Aramaica]]
[[nl:Aramees]]
[[ja:アラム語]]
[[no:Arameisk]]
[[nn:Arameisk språk]]
[[pl:Język aramejski]]
[[pt:Aramaico]]
[[ru:Арамейский язык]]
[[simple:Aramaic]]
[[sk:Aramejčina]]
[[sl:Aramejščina]]
[[fi:Aramean kieli]]
[[sv:Arameiska]]
[[tr:Aramice]]
[[zh:亚拉姆语]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Apostle Titus</title>
<id>2304</id>
<revision>
<id>38404461</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T02:42:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.128.30.40</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[New Testament]], '''Titus''', (a common Roman name, meaning ''honourable'') was a companion of [[Paul of Tarsus]], mentioned in several of [[Epistle|Paul's Epistles]]. Titus was with Paul and [[Barnabas]] at [[Antioch]] and accompanied them to the [[Council of Jerusalem]] ([[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] 2:1-3; Acts 15:2), although his name nowhere occurs in the ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]''.
He appears to have been a [[Gentile]]&mdash; for Paul sternly refused to have him [[History_of_male_circumcision#Male_Circumcision_in_the_Greco-Roman_World|circumcised]], perhaps because Paul possibly believed his gospel freed believers from the requirements of the [[Mosaic Law]]&mdash; and to have been chiefly engaged in ministering to Gentiles.
At a later period, Paul's Epistles place him with Paul and [[Timothy]] at [[Ephesus]], whence he was sent by Paul to [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]] for the purpose of getting the contributions of the church there in behalf of the poor Christians at Jerusalem sent forward ([[2 Corinthians]] 8:6; 12:18).
He rejoined the apostle when he was in [[Macedon]]ia, and cheered him with the tidings he brought from Corinth (7:6-15). After this his name is not mentioned till after Paul's first imprisonment, when we find him engaged in the organization of the church in [[Crete]], where the apostle had left him for this purpose (Paul's ''[[Epistle to Titus|Titus]]'' 1:5).
The last notice of him is in [[2 Timothy]] 4:10, where we find him with Paul at Rome during his second imprisonment. From Rome he was sent into [[Dalmatia]], no doubt on some important missionary errand. The New Testament does not record his death.
According to church tradition, Paul ordained Titus Bishop of [[Gortyn]] in Crete. He died in AD [[107]] at about 95 years of age.
==External links==
*[ ''Eaton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] Titus
*[ ''Catholic Encyclopædia'' http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14727b.htm:] "Epistles to Timothy and Titus" (there is no entry for "Apostle Titus"
[[de:Titus (Bibel)]]
[[fr:Tite]]
[[ja: テトス]]
[[Category:Saints|Titus]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Americanization</title>
<id>2305</id>
<revision>
<id>41960014</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:11:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{split}}
'''Americanization''' (or '''Americanisation''') is the term used for the influence the [[United States|United States of America]] has on the culture of other [[country|countries]], substituting their [[culture]] with [[American culture]]. When encountered unwillingly or perforce, it has a negative connotation; when sought voluntarily, it has a positive connotation.
Americanization can also refer to the process of [[Immigration|immigrants]] to the United States becoming [[Assimilation (sociology)#Immigration|assimilated]] into American society. This process often involves learning [[American English]] and adjusting to American culture, customs, and dress.
==Media==
In American media, the term is used negatively to describe the [[censoring]] and [[editing]] of a foreign show or movie that is brought over to U.S. stations. This editing is done to make the work more understandable to American audiences. The changes are often so drastic that very little - if any - evidence of the media's true origin remains.
In [[Hollywood]], many foreign film productions (most of them from [[Europe]] and [[Far East]]) were remade into U.S.-produced versions for American viewers, readapting the story according to the American culture. Most of the Americanized versions were filmed in American places, and with English speaking actors. Examples include ''[[Godzilla]]'', ''[[The Assassin]]'' (aka ''[[Nikita]]'') and ''[[The Ring]]''.
The song [[Amerika (single)|Amerika]] by the German rock band [[Rammstein]] is often seen as a [[satire]] of Americanization. It has received mixed reviews: some perceive it as anti-American, others as being opposed to [[globalization]]. The band views it as a satirical commentary on "[[cocacolonization]]".
===Anime===
Companies that deal with Japanese [[Anime]] may Americanize the animation in order to appeal to a larger audience beyond the established fanbases made via importation of DVD's, obtaining bootlegs, or downloading [[fansubs]] from the internet. American Cartoon companies like [[4Kids Entertainment]], [[Nelvana]], [[FUNimation]], and [[TOKYOPOP]], are the more notorious examples of companies that undertake edits. In these cases, Americanization due to translation of Japanese [[Anime]] may be minor or may result in a complete change to the piece.
Examples of minor Americanization include simple name changes (Riceballs turned into Cookies and Doughnuts, or the name of the character Itsuki changed to Iggy). Extreme edits include dismantling entire episodes for content and time constraints; for example, ''[[One Piece]]'' has undergone changes in the theme song and entire re-writes of story arcs.
In many cases, Anime is Americanized because the content, which would be considered acceptable for Japanese children to view, would not be allowed for children in the USA under [[FCC]] rules.
==Trivia==
In [[Sweden]], there is a humourous expression stating that it is the most Americanized country in the world, and the USA is number two.
[[Arthur Koestler]] described Americanization as "[[cocacolonization]]" in his book ''[[The Lotus and the Robot]]'', referring to [[Coca-Cola]], a symbol of American culture.
==See also==
===Expansion of American culture===
*[[American culture]]
*[[Anti-Americanism]]
*[[Cultural imperialism]]
===Assimilation of immigrants===
*[[Immigration to the United States of America]]
*[[Melting pot]]
*[[Salad bowl (cultural idea)]]
[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Types of words]]
[[Category:Word coinage]]
[[Category:Transliteration]]
[[Category:Censorship]]
[[cs:Amerikanizace]]
[[de:Amerikanisierung]]
[[fr:Américanisation]]
[[vi:Mỹ hoá]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AT and T</title>
<id>2306</id>
<revision>
<id>15900736</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-23T14:12:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldie</username>
<id>901</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix AT&T link, wasn't getting through to main article.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AT&T]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Actinide</title>
<id>2308</id>
<revision>
<id>40274636</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T12:15:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Geraki</username>
<id>20551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+el</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| BORDER="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|- style="background:#FF99CC;"
! [[Atomic number|Atomic No.]]
! [[Chemical element|Name]]
! [[Chemical symbol|Symbol]]
|-
| 89 || [[Actinium]] || Ac
|-
| 90 || [[Thorium]] || Th
|-
| 91 || [[Protactinium]] || Pa
|-
| 92 || [[Uranium]] || U
|-
| 93 || [[Neptunium]] || Np
|-
| 94 || [[Plutonium]] || Pu
|-
| 95 || [[Americium]] || Am
|-
| 96 || [[Curium]] || Cm
|-
| 97 || [[Berkelium]] || Bk
|-
| 98 || [[Californium]] || Cf
|-
| 99 || [[Einsteinium]] || Es
|-
| 100 || [[Fermium]] || Fm
|-
| 101 || [[Mendelevium]] || Md
|-
| 102 || [[Nobelium]] || No
|-
| 103 || [[Lawrencium]] || Lr
|}
The '''actinide''' series encompasses the 15 [[chemical element]]s that lie between [[actinium]] and [[lawrencium]] on the [[periodic table]] with [[atomic number]]s 89 - 103. The actinide series is named after actinium. All actinides are [[f-block]] elements except lawrencium. There are also alternative arrangements which do not include either actinium or lawrencium in the actinide series.
The actinides display less similarity in their chemical properties than the [[lanthanide]] series, for instance exhibiting a wider range of oxidation states, which initially led to confusion as to whether actinium, thorium and uranium should be |
on/coolidge-3.html 3rd State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-4.html 4th State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-5.html 5th State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-6.html 6th State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.calvin-coolidge.org/ Calvin Coolige Memorial Foundation]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/coolhtml/coolhome.html Prosperity and Thrift: The Coolidge Era] at the Library of Congress
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/coolidge-links.html Calvin Coolidge Links]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Calvin+Coolidge | name=Calvin Coolidge}}
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6551998 Find-A-Grave profile for Calvin Coolidge]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Governors of Massachusetts|Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts]]|before=[[Samuel W. McCall]]|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]|years=1916 &ndash; 1918}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Governors of Massachusetts|Governor of Massachusetts]]|before=[[Samuel W. McCall]]|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]|years=1919 &ndash; 1921}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|candidate]]|before=[[Charles W. Fairbanks]]|after=[[Charles G. Dawes]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1920|1920]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|before=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]|after=[[Charles Dawes]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1921]] &ndash; [[August 2]], [[1923]]<sup>(a)</sup>}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Warren G. Harding]]|after=[[Herbert Hoover]]|years=[[August 2]], [[1923]]<sup>(b)</sup> &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1929]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->|}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] [[President of the United States|Presidential]] [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|candidate]]|before=[[Warren G. Harding]]|after=[[Herbert Hoover]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1924|1924]] (won)}}
{{succession footnote| marker=<sup>(a)</sup>| footnote=President Harding died on August 2.}}
{{succession footnote| marker=<sup>(b)</sup>| footnote=Coolidge took the oath of office on August 3.}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{USpresidents | before=[[Warren G. Harding|Harding]] | after=[[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]]| years=[[1923]]&ndash;[[1929]]}}
{{end box}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}
{{MAGovernors}}
[[Category:1872 births|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:1933 deaths|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Congregationalists|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Governors of Massachusetts|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Lieutenant Governors of Massachusetts|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Phi Gamma Delta brothers|Coolidge, Calvin]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Coolidge, Calvin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Coolidge, John Calvin Jr.
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=30th U.S. President
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 4]], [[1872]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Plymouth, Vermont]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[January 5]], [[1933]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Northampton, Massachusetts]], [[United States of America]]
}}
[[da:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[de:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[eo:Calvin COOLIDGE]]
[[es:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[fi:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[fr:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[ga:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[gl:John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.]]
[[he:קלווין קולידג']]
[[id:Calvin Coolidge]]
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[[ja:カルビン・クーリッジ]]
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[[zh:卡尔文·柯立芝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clanking Replicator</title>
<id>6196</id>
<revision>
<id>15904354</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clanking replicator]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clanking replicator</title>
<id>6197</id>
<revision>
<id>39917516</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T20:38:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Newsmare</username>
<id>696425</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Other notable works containing clanking replicators */ removed Deus Ex, as that focuses on nanotech.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''clanking replicator''' is an artificial [[self-replication|self-replicating]] system that relies on conventional large-scale technology and automation. The term evolved to distinguish such systems from the microscopic "[[assembler (nanotechnology)|assembler]]s" that [[nanotechnology]] may make possible (in the event that nanomachines endlessly replicated themselves, it would be called [[grey goo]]). They are also sometimes called "Auxons", from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''auxein'' which means "to grow", or "[[von Neumann machine]]s" after [[John von Neumann]], who first rigorously studied the idea. This last term ("von Neumann machine") is less specific and also refers to a completely unrelated computer architecture proposed by von Neumann, so its use is discouraged where accuracy is important. Von Neumann himself used the term [[Universal Constructor]].
==Basic concept==
A [[self-replicating machine]] would need to have the capacity to gather energy and [[raw material]]s, process the raw materials into finished components, and then assemble them into a copy of itself. It is unlikely that this would all be contained within a single [[monolithic]] structure, but would rather be a group of cooperating machines or an automated factory that is capable of manufacturing all of the machines that make it up.
The factory could produce mining [[robot|robots]] to collect raw materials, construction robots to put new machines together, and repair robots to maintain itself against wear and tear, all without human intervention or direction. The advantage of such a system lies in its ability to expand its own capacity rapidly and without additional human effort; in essence, the initial investment required to construct the first clanking replicator would have an arbitrarily large payoff with no additional labor cost.
Such a [[machine]] violates no [[physical law]]s, and we already possess the basic technologies necessary for some of the more detailed proposed designs.
Noting another proof that self-replicating machines are possible is the simple fact that all living organisms are self replicating by definition.
==History of the concept==
The idea of non-biological self-replicating systems was first seriously suggested by mathematician [[John von Neumann]] in the late [[1940s]] when he proposed a [[kinematic]] self-reproducing automaton model as a [[thought experiment]]. See von Neumann, J., [[1966]], ''The Theory of Self-reproducing Automata'', A. Burks, ed., Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.
===Advanced Automation for Space Missions===
In [[1980]], [[NASA]] conducted a summer study entitled
''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions Advanced Automation for Space Missions]'', edited by [[Robert Freitas]], to produce a detailed proposal for self-replicating factories to develop [[Moon|lunar]] resources without requiring additional launches or human workers on-site. The proposed system would have been capable of [[exponential growth|exponentially increasing]] productive capacity. The design could be modified to build [[Von Neumann probe]]s to explore the galaxy.
The reference design specified small computer-controlled electric carts running on rails. Each cart could have a simple hand or a small bull-dozer shovel, forming a basic [[robot]].
Power would be provided by a "canopy" of solar cells supported on pillars. The other machinery could run under the canopy.
A "[[casting]] [[robot]]" would use a robotic arm with a few sculpting tools to make [[plaster]] [[molding_(process)|mold]]s. Plaster molds are easy to make, and can make precise parts with good surface finishes. The robot would then cast most of the parts either from nonconductive molten rock ([[basalt]]) or purified metals. An [[electricity|electric]] [[oven]] would melt the materials. A carbon dioxide laser cutting and welding system was also included.
A more speculative, more complex "chip factory" was specified to produce the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were "vitamins."
Much of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing the ores, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in lunar [[regolith]]. The element that most limited the growth rate was [[chlorine]], needed to process regolith for [[aluminium]]. Chlorine is very rare in lunar regolith, so the design recycled it.
===Other references===
* [[Freeman Dyson]] expanded upon Neumann's automata theories, and advanced a biotechnology-inspir |
[2005 in baseball|2005]] All-Star Game in [[Detroit Michigan|Detroit]], where fans loudly booed him. On [[July 22]], [[2005]], Selig heard Rogers' appeal of his suspension; on [[July 27]], Selig upheld the suspension.
In [[August 2005]], Selig came under fire by [[Boston Red Sox]] pitcher [[David Wells]]. Wells lashed out at Selig after losing an appeal of a six-game suspension, saying the that Selig "isn't doing a thing" about steroids. Wells, who called Selig an "idiot" in a spring training interview with the Hartford Courant, accused Selig of retaliating for his past comments in handing out the latest suspension. Wells has since apologized to Selig.[http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/articles/2005/08/31/wells_apologizes_to_selig/]
While he remains a controversial figure among fans, Selig has found more defenders in the press of late, particularly in regard to interleague play, the [[Wild_card_%28sports%29#Major_League_Baseball|wild card]] and the new steroids] testing policy.
== External links ==
*{{nndb name|id=226/000025151/|name=Bud Selig}}
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2118114/ "Bud Selig: A baseball hero. Really."] - Nicholas Thompson, [[Slate.com]], May 5, 2005
*[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/articles/bud_selig_biography.shtml Baseball Almanac bio]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=poll_bud2003_results What has been Bud Selig's worst act as commissioner?]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=apc_goodbud What Bud Selig Is Doing Right]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=mjp_openletter An open letter to Bud Selig]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=apc_budselig The Call for the Removal of Bud Selig as Commissioner of Baseball]
*[http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brew/thu/selig70998.stm Selig elected Commissioner in unanimous vote]
*[http://synapticflatulence.blogspot.com/2004/09/epitaph-for-montreal-expos-i-never.html Selig's role in the deliberate destruction of the Montreal Expos]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Fay Vincent]]| title=[[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]] | years=1992- | after=Incumbent}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1934 births|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Living people|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Baseball commissioners|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Milwaukeeans|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Milwaukee Brewers|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Jewish-American businesspeople|Selig, Bud]]
[[ja:&#12496;&#12489;&#12539;&#12475;&#12522;&#12464;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bison</title>
<id>4583</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:44:30Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Slight cleanup, fix redirect wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Bison''
| image = Зубр.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Wisent|European Bison]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = '''''Bison'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
''[[Bison antiquus|B. antiquus]]''<br>
''[[American Bison|B. bison]]''<br>
''[[Wisent |B. bonasus]]''<br>
''[[Bison latifrons|B. latifrons]]''<br>
''[[Bison occidentalis|B. occidentalis]]''<br>
''[[Steppe Wisent|B. priscus]]''<br>
}}
'''Bison''' is a taxonomic genus containing six species of large [[even-toed ungulate]]s within the subfamily [[Bovinae]]. Only two species are still extant&mdash;the [[American Bison|American]] and [[Wisent|European]] bisons.
==Species==
* [[Long-horned Bison]] - ''Bison latifrons'' - extinct
* [[Ancient Bison]] - ''Bison antiquus'' - extinct
* [[Asian Bison]] - ''Bison occidentalis'' - extinct
* Steppe Bison or [[Steppe Wisent]] - ''Bison priscus'' - extinct
* [[American Bison]] - ''Bison bison''
** [[Plains Bison|Plains (Prairie) Bison]] - ''Bison bison bison''
** [[Wood Bison]] - ''Bison bison athabascae''
* European Bison or [[Wisent]] - ''Bison bonasus''
** [[Lowland Bison]] - ''Bison bonasus bonasus''
** [[Caucasus Bison]] - ''Bison bonasus caucasicus'' - extinct
** [[Hungarian Bison|Hungarian (Carpathian) Bison]] - ''Bison bonasus hungarorum'' - extinct
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A North American bison]]
==See also==
* [[Bovid hybrid]]s
{{Mammal-stub}}
[[Category:Bovines]]
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[[th:กระทิง]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Baryon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Octeto bariônico.png|thumb|right|300px|The octet of light spin-1/2 baryons.]]
In [[particle physics]], the '''baryons''' are a family of [[subatomic particle]]s including the [[proton]] and the [[neutron]] (collectively called [[nucleon]]s), as well as a number of unstable, heavier particles (called [[hyperon]]s). The term "baryon" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''barys'', meaning "heavy," as they are heavier than the other main groups of particles.
Baryons are strongly interacting [[fermion]]s &mdash; that is, they experience the [[strong nuclear force]] and are described by [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]], which apply to all particles obeying the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. This is in contrast to the [[boson]]s, which do not obey the Exclusion principle.
Baryons, along with [[meson]]s, belong to the family of particles known as [[hadron]]s, meaning they are composed of [[quark]]s. Baryons are fermions composed of three quarks, while mesons are bosons composed of a quark and an antiquark. The [[quark model]] classification of baryons is based on this construction.
In addition to the nucleons (protons and neutrons), other members of the baryon family include the [[Delta (letter)|&Delta;]], [[Lambda|&Lambda;]], [[Sigma (letter)|&Sigma;]], [[Xi|&Xi;]] and [[Omega|&Omega;]] particles.
Delta baryons (&Delta;<sup>++</sup>, &Delta;<sup>+</sup>, &Delta;<sup>0</sup>, &Delta;<sup>&minus;</sup>) are composed of a combination of up and down quarks such that the total spin is 3/2. They primarily decay into a [[pion]] and either a [[proton]] or [[neutron]].
Lambda baryons (&Lambda;<sup>0</sup>) are composed of one up, one down, and one strange quark, with the up and down quarks in an [[isospin]] 0 (flavor-antisymmetric) state. The neutral lambda provided the first observational evidence of the strange quark.
Sigma baryons (&Sigma;<sup>+</sup>, &Sigma;<sup>0</sup>, &Sigma;<sup>&minus;</sup>), are also composed of one strange quark and a combination of up and down quarks, but arranged in an isospin 1 state. The neutral sigma has the same quark composition as the neutral lambda (up, down, strange), and so decays much faster than either &Sigma;<sup>+</sup> (up, up, strange) or &Sigma;<sup>&minus;</sup> (down, down, strange).
Xi baryons, (&Xi;<sup>0</sup>, &Xi;<sup>&minus;</sup>), are composed of two strange quarks and either an up or down quark. The neutral xi, &Xi;<sup>0</sup>, composed of an up and two strange quarks, decays into a neutral lambda and a neutral pion, which itself rapidly decays into two [[photon]]s.
The omega minus baryon (&Omega;<sup>&minus;</sup>) is composed of three strange quarks. Its discovery was a great triumph in the study of quark processes, since it was found only after its existence, mass, and decay products had already been predicted.
There are additional baryon states which contain heavy quarks. These are denoted by the Greek letter corresponding to their light (up/down/strange) flavor content with a subscript indicating that a strange quark should be replaced by a heavier quark. For example, the &Lambda;<sup>+</sup><sub>c</sub> has quark content (charm, up, down) instead of (strange, up, down).
==Baryonic matter==
'''Baryonic [[matter]]''' is matter composed mostly of baryons (by mass), which includes [[atom]]s of any sort (and thus includes nearly all matter that we may encounter or [[experience]] in everyday life, including our bodies). '''Non-baryonic matter''' is the fundamental [[antithesis]] of such matter, being any sort of matter that is not primarily composed of baryons. This might include such ordinary matter as [[neutrino]]s, photons or free [[electron]]s; however, it may also include exotic species of non-baryonic [[dark matter]], such as [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric particles]], [[axion]]s or [[black hole]]s. The distinction between baryonic and non-baryonic matter is important in [[cosmology]], because [[Big Bang]] [[nucleosynthesis]] models set tight constraints on the amount of baryonic matter present in the early [[universe]].
The very existence of baryons is also a significant problem in cosmology, since we have assumed that the Big Bang produced a state with equal amounts of baryons and anti-baryons. The process by which baryons come to outnumber their antiparticles is called [[baryogenesis]] (in contrast to a process by which leptons account for the predominance of matter over antimatter, [[leptogenesis (physics)|leptogenesis]]).
==See als |
Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]]. Numerous hotels, shops, and nightlife opportunities are located along Kalākaua and Kuhio Avenues. World-famous '''Waikīkī Beach''' attracts millions of visitors a year. Just west of Waikīkī is [[Ala Moana Center]], the world's largest open-air shopping center. A majority of the hotel rooms on O{{okina}}ahu are located in Waikīkī.
[[Image:DwntwnfmCapitol.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Downtown Honolulu as seen from the Capitol District]]
* '''[[Manoa|Mānoa]]''' and '''[[Makiki]]''' are residential neighborhoods located in adjacent valleys just inland of downtown and Waikīkī. Mānoa Valley is home to the main campus of the [[University of Hawaii|University of Hawai{{okina}}i]].
* '''Nu{{okina}}uanu''' and '''Pauoa''' are middle-class to upper-middle-class residential districts located inland of downtown Honolulu. The [[National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific]] is located in [[Punchbowl Crater]] fronting Pauoa Valley.
* '''Palolo''' and '''Kaimukī''' are neighborhoods east of Mānoa and Makiki, inland from Diamond Head. Palolo Valley parallels Mānoa and is a residential neighborhood. Kaimukī is primarily a residential neighborhood with a commercial strip centered on Wai{{okina}}alae Avenue running behind Diamond Head. Chaminade University is located in Kaimukī.
* '''Wai{{okina}}alae''' and '''Kāhala''' are the upper-class districts of Honolulu located directly east of Diamond Head, where there are many high-priced homes. Also found in these neighborhoods are the [[Waialae Country Club|Wai{{okina}}alae Country Club]] and the [[Kahala Mandarin Oriental Hotel|Kāhala Mandarin Oriental Hotel]].
* '''East Honolulu''' includes the residential communities of '''{{okina}}Āina Haina''', '''Niu Valley''', and '''[[Hawaii Kai, Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i Kai]]'''. These are considered upper-middle-class neighborhoods.
* '''[[Kalihi|Kalihi and Pālama]]''' are working-class neighborhoods with a number of government housing developments. Lower Kalihi, toward the ocean, is a light-industrial district.
* '''[[Salt Lake, Hawaii|Salt Lake]]''' and Āliamanu are (mostly) residential areas built in extinct [[volcanic cone|tuff cones]] along the western end of the Honolulu District, not far from the [[Honolulu International Airport]].
* '''[[Moanalua]]''' is two neighborhoods and a valley at the western end of Honolulu, and home to [[Tripler Army Medical Center]].
==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[United States 2000 census|2000]], there were 371,657 people, 140,337 households, and 87,429 families residing in the CDP. The [[population density]] was 1,674.4/km&sup2; (4,336.6/mi&sup2;). There were 158,663 housing units at an average density of 714.8/km&sup2; (1,851.3/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the CDP was 19.67% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.62% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.19% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 55.85%[[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 6.85% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.89% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 14.93% from two or more races. 4.37% of the population were [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
Of the 140,337 households, 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.7% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size is 3.23.
In Honolulu in 2000 the population was spread out with 19.2% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city proper was $45,112, and the median income for a family was $56,311. Males had a median income of $36,631 versus $29,930 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the CDP was $24,191. 11.8% of the population and 7.9% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 14.6% of those under the age of 18 and 8.5% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
==Notable Citizens==
{{further|[[List of famous people from Hawaii]]}}
==Transportation==
Located on the western end of Honolulu proper, [[Honolulu International Airport]] (HNL) is the principal aviation gateway to the state of Hawai{{okina}}i.
Two [[freeway]]s serve Honolulu:
* '''[[Interstate H-1]]''', which, coming into the city from the west, passes [[Hickam Air Force Base]] and Honolulu International Airport, runs just north of Downtown and continues eastward through Makiki and Kaimukī, ending at Wai{{okina}}alae/Kāhala. West of the city proper, H-1 connects to '''[[Interstate H-2]]''' from [[Wahiawa|Wahiawā]] and '''[[Interstate H-3]]''' from [[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]].
* '''[[Interstate H-201]]'''&mdash;also known as the '''Moanalua Freeway''' and formerly numbered Hawai{{okina}}i State Rte. 78&mdash;connects two points along H-1: at [[Aloha Stadium]] and [[Fort Shafter]]. Close to H-1 and Aloha Stadium, H-201 has an exchange with the western terminus of '''[[Interstate H-3]]''' to the windward side of O{{okina}}ahu ([[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]]). This complex of connecting ramps, some directly between H-1 and H-3, is in [[Halawa, Hawaii|Hālawa]].
Other major highways that link Honolulu proper with other parts of the Island of O{{okina}}ahu are:
* '''Pali Highway''', State Rte. 61, crosses north over the Ko{{okina}}olau range via the Pali Tunnels to connect to [[Kailua, Hawaii|Kailua]] and [[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]] on the windward side of the Island.
* '''Likelike Highway''', State Rte. 63, also crosses the Ko{{okina}}olau to Kāne{{okina}}ohe via the Wilson Tunnels.
* '''Kalanianaole Highway''', State Rte. 72, runs eastward from Wai{{okina}}alae/Kāhala to [[Hawaii Kai, Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i Kai]] and around the east end of the island to [[Waimanalo Beach, Hawaii|Waimānalo Beach]].
* '''Kamehameha Highway''', State Rte. 99, runs westward from near [[Hickam Air Force Base]] to [[Aiea, Hawaii|{{okina}}Aiea]] and beyond, paralleling the H-1.
Like most major American cities, the Honolulu metropolitan area experiences heavy traffic congestion during rush hours, especially to and from the western suburbs of Kapolei, {{okina}}Ewa, [[Aiea|{{okina}}Aiea]], [[Pearl City]], [[Waipahu]], and [[Mililani]]. Land for expanding road capacity is at a premium everywhere on O{{okina}}ahu.
Established by former Mayor [[Frank F. Fasi]], Honolulu's [[public transit]] system has been twice honored by the [[American Public Transportation Association]] bestowing the title of "America's Best Transit System" for 1994-1995 and 2000-2001. O{{okina}}ahu Transit Services' "[[TheBus]]" operates 93 routes with a fleet of 525 buses.
Currently, there is no fixed-rail mass transit system in Honolulu. However, in 2004, the City & County of Honolulu and the State of Hawai&lsquo;i approved development of an action plan for a fixed rail mass transit system to be built in several phases. The initial line could link Kapolei in West O{{okina}}ahu to Iwilei near Downtown Honolulu (port area). Several attempts had been made since the 1980s and 1990s to construct a fixed rail mass transit system but stalled during Honolulu City Council hearings.
Also in 2004, construction had started on a [[bus rapid transit]] (BRT) system using dedicated rights-of-way for buses. The system, proposed by former Mayor [[Jeremy Harris]], was expected to link the Iwilei neighborhood with [[Waikiki|Waikīkī]]. However, current Mayor [[Mufi Hannemann]] has largely dismantled the BRT system and deployed its buses along other express bus routes.
==Cultural institutions==
===Performing arts===
Established in 1900, the [[Honolulu Symphony]] is the oldest US symphony orchestra west of the Rocky Mountains. Other classical music ensembles include the [[Hawaii Opera Theatre|Hawai{{okina}}i Opera Theatre]]. Honolulu is also a center for [[Hawaiian music]]. The main music venues include the [[Neal Blaisdell Center]] Concert Hall, the [[Waikiki Shell|Waikīkī Shell]], and the [[Hawaii Theatre|Hawai{{okina}}i Theatre]].
Honolulu also includes several venues for live [[theatre]], including the [[Diamond Head Theatre]] and the [[Manoa Valley Theatre]].
===Visual arts===
Located near [[downtown Honolulu]], the premier venue for visual arts in Hawai{{okina}}i is the [[Honolulu Academy of Arts]]. The Honolulu Academy of Arts features the largest collection of Western and Asian art in Hawai{{okina}}i and also hosts a year-round film and video program dedicated to the presentation of arthouse and world cinema in the museum's [[Doris Duke]] Theatre. The [[Contemporary Museum]] in [[Makiki]] is the main museum of contemporary art in the state.
===Other museums, aquariums, zoos, and cultural centers===
* The [[Bishop Museum]] is the largest museum in the State of Hawai{{okina}}i and houses thousands of natural history specimens and cultural artifacts relating to Hawai{{okina}}i and the Pacific.
* The [[Waikiki Aquarium|Waikīkī Aquarium]] and the [[Honolulu Zoo]] are both located at the eastern end of Waikīkī in [[Kapiolani Park|Kapi{{okina}}olani Park]].
* The Hawaii State Art Museum (HISAM) ([http://www.state.hi.us/sfca/ official site]) is located in the downtown district in the old YMCA building and features local artists. Blessed with both a great collection and a competent house staff.
===Sports===
Currently, Honolulu has no professional sports teams. However, Honolulu hosts the [[National Football League|NFL]]'s annual [[Pro Bowl]] ea |
ng the [[Irish General Election, 1997]] Fianna Fáil formed a government with the [[Progressive Democrats]] in which Bertie Ahern was Taoiseach.
The election of [[Tony Blair]] in Britain gave renewed hope of an agreement for peace in [[Northern Ireland]], an issue that has traditionally always been an aspiration of Irish Governments. The work of Ahern and his government, as well as that of the relievent power bases in the UK/US, culminated in the [[Good Friday Agreement]]. This agreement was signed by politicians from the Republic, supported by the opposition and politicians in Britain and Northern Ireland and ratified by the electorate on both sides of the Irish border.
During Ahern's term Fianna Fáil faced increased criticism over corruption. [[Ray Burke]] was forced to resign as Minister for Foreign Affairs due to corruption and [[Liam Lawlor]] was and is being investigated over payments he received. Both were eventually jailed. Also, details of former leader [[Charles Haughey]]'s illegal financial dealings came to light during Ahern's tenure as Taoiseach.
If the results of the [[Irish General Election, 2002]] are anything to go by these scandals did little - at that stage - to dampen the popularity of Ahern and Fianna Fáil. Fianna Fáil were just pipped of an overall majority. Instead of leading a minority government Fianna Fáil continued in coalition with the [[Progressive Democrats]]. It was the first time since [[1969]] that a government had been re-elected.
Since the election Ahern has stated that he has no intention of stepping down as leader. The two favourites to succeed him, [[Brian Cowen]] and [[Micheál Martin]] are reluctant to comment on their leadership ambitions. Following his period as Minster for Health, Martin has lost ground in the race for heir apparent of theparty. For the time being, the question is moot as it appears from Ahern's statements that he intends to lead Fianna Fáil into a third general election. Also, the political cycle in Ireland is such that a change of leader at this stage would hugely damage the chances of Fianna Fail.
In the [[Local government|local election]]s in 2004 the Fianna Fáil vote plummeted to its lowest level since the 1920s, mainly due to some bad financial decisions during the present government, and the percieved failure of the government to fulfil many of its election pledges.
In response to this, some shifts in policy and a cabinet reshuffle took place in September 2004. However, the ask of shaking of the tag of arrogance has not been helped by out of touch comments from senior Ministers on government waste.
Recently the party has established a [[cumann]] (branch) in [[Derry]], its first in [[Northern Ireland]].
==Fianna Fáil presidents==
Of Ireland's eight presidents, six either were in Fianna Fáil governments or nominated by Fianna Fáil. Only [[Douglas Hyde]] (1938-1945) and [[Mary Robinson]] (1990-1997) had no connection with Fianna Fáil. Hyde, though appointed to Seanad Éireann by de Valera in 1938 was originally a nominee proposed by [[Fine Gael]] (but immediately enthusiastically endorsed by Fianna Fáil) while Robinson was a [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]] nominee who defeated a Fianna Fáil candidate, [[Brian Lenihan]], who became embroiled in a scandal midway through the campaign.
==Fianna Fáil corruption==
The party, along with its coalition partners, was comfortably reelected in the 2002 general election. It has however been hit by numerous scandals. (Founding father [[Frank Aiken]] refused to run in the 1973 general election because the party had Haughey as a candidate while first leader [[Eamon de Valera]] told a senior minister in 1970 that "Haughey will ruin the party.") While Fine Gael have not proved themselves immune to graft, Fianna Fáil has been the object of a greater number of allegations. Fianna Fáil has been accused by [[Fine Gael]] and Labour of being "the most corrupt party ever to enter Dáil Eireann".
Another former minister, [[Ray Burke]], whom the current leader appointed to cabinet for a short time in 1997, was recently explicitly described by retired [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] judge, [[Fergus Flood]] in a tribunal of inquiry as "corrupt", and was jailed in January 2005 for tax offences. The privileged treatment accorded to Burke in prison was subsequently widely criticised, especially by Fine Gael.
Former Fianna Fáil Government Press Secretary [[Frank Dunlop]] is currently giving evidence to a tribunal of inquiry in relation to his allegations that long-serving Fianna Fáil senator took bribes to arrange for planning permissions to be granted to particular property developers. Other councillors (past and present) from a number of parties, but predominantly from Fianna Fáil, are expected to be named. However the tribunal has yet to judge the credibility or otherwise of Dunlop and his evidence.
Former Fianna Fáil TD, [[Liam Lawlor]] was also accused of corrupt practices in relation to planning and development. He was jailed repeatedly for refusal to cooperate with the tribunal. He did not resign his [[Lucan, Dublin|Lucan]] seat and continued to attend the [[Dáil]], returning to [[Mountjoy Prison]] after the sessions, where he enjoyed most of the same privileges as Mr. Burke. Another TD, [[Beverly Cooper-Flynn]] of [[Mayo]], was forced to resign from the party when it was revealed that she had advised people on how to illegally evade tax while working as a financial adviser for [[National Irish Bank]]. She was readmitted when she threatened to run as an Independent candidate, but was expelled again after she lost a libel action against [[RTÉ]].
==Ógra Fianna Fáil==
Fianna Fáil have an active youth wing called [[Ógra Fianna Fáil]]. They were formed in the mid [[1970s]] and play an active role in party matters.
==Further reading==
*Bruce Arnold, ''Jack Lynch: Hero in Crisis'' (ISBN 1903582067)
*Tim Pat Coogan, ''Eamon de Valera'' (ISBN 009175030X)
*Joe Joyce and Peter Murtagh, ''The Boss: Charles J. Haughey in Government'' (ISBN 0905169697)
*FSL Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine''
*Dorothy McCardle, ''The Irish Republic''
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''Nice Fellow: A Biography of Jack Lynch'' (ISBN 1856353680)
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''Short Fellow: A Biography of Charles J. Haughey'' (ISBN 1860231004)
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''Fallen Idol: Haughey's Controversial Career'' (ISBN 1856352021)
* Raymond Smith, ''Haughey and O'Malley: The Quest for Power'' (ISBN 1870138007)
*Tim Ryan, ''Albert Reynolds - The Longford Leader: The Unauthorised Biography'' (ISBN 0861215494)
*Dick Walsh, ''The Party'' (ISBN 0717114465)
For constant reporting of the Flood Tribunal, check ''The Irish Times'', ''Irish Independent'', and ''Irish Examiner'' on the web.
==See also==
*[[List of Fianna Fáil TDs]]
*[[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1966]]
*[[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1979]]
*[[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1992]]
{{Political parties in Ireland}}
==External links==
*[http://www.fiannafail.ie/ Official site]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]]
[[Category:1926 establishments]]
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<minor />
<comment>practially--->practically</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fujiwara family''' (藤原氏 ''Fujiwara-shi'') was a family of regents who had sort of monopoly to the ''Sekkan'' positions, [[Sessho and Kampaku|''Sesshō and Kampaku'']]. The founder [[Fujiwara no Kamatari|Nakatomi no Kamatari]] (614-669) was given the surname Fujiwara by [[Emperor Tenji]]. They dominated the Japanese politics of [[Heian period|Heian]] period. In subsequent eras, they were influential.
==Asuka/Nara period==
The Fujiwara clan's political influence was initiated during the [[Asuka period]]. Nakatomi no Kamatari, a member of the lower-nobility [[Nakatomi]] family led a coup against the Soga in 645 and initiated a series of sweeping government reforms (the [[Taika Reform]]). In 669 Emperor Tenji (reigned 661-671), bestowed the ''[[kabane]]'' Fujiwara no Ason on Kamatari. The surname passed to the descendants of [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]] (659-720), the second son and heir of Kamatari, who was prominent at the court of several emperors and empresses during the early [[Nara period]]. He made his daughter Miyako a concubine of [[Emperor Mommu]]. Her son, Prince Obito became [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]]. Fuhito succeeded in making another of his daughters, Kōmyōshi, the empress consort of Emperor Shōmu. She was the first empress consort of Japan who wasn't a daughter of the imperial family itself. Fuhito had four sons and each of those four founded a family. Among them, the Hokke (the northern family |
the electrical charge in 1 [[mole]] of [[electrons]], it has been measured experimentally and is equivalent to 96 485.3 [[coulombs]].
Cell's emf measured is the maximum voltage produced, this value is used to calculate the maximum electrical energy which is obtained from a [[chemical reaction]], this energy is referred to as [[electrical work]] and is expressed on the following equation,
:<math>\mbox{W}_{max}=\mbox{W}_{electrical}\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{W}_{max}=-\mbox{nFE}_{cell}\,</math>
,thus [[free energy]] is the amount of mechanical (or other) work that can be extracted from a system, replacing this value on previous equation with <math>\Delta G\,</math>gives the relation between spontaneity and electrochemical cells.
:<math>\Delta G=-\mbox{nFE}_{cell}\,</math>
The relation between [[Gibbs free energy]] and maximum electrical work may predict (at standard temperature and pressure conditions) whether cell's redox system is a spontaneous process or not.
A [[spontaneous]] electrochemical reaction can be used to generate an
electrical [[current (electricity)|current]], in [[electrochemical cell]]s. This is the basis of all [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] and [[fuel cell]]s. For example, gaseous oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) and
hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) can be combined in a fuel cell to form water and
energy (a combination of heat and [[electrical energy]], typically).
Conversely, non-spontaneous electrochemical reactions can be driven forward by the application of a current at sufficient [[voltage]]. The [[electrolysis]] of water into gaseous oxygen and hydrogen is a typical example.
The relation between [[equilibrium constant]] and spontaneity based on [[gibbs free energy]] terms on electrochemical cells is expressed as follows:
:<math>\Delta G^{o}=\mbox{-RT ln K}\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{-nFE}^{o}_{cell}=\mbox{-RT ln K}\,</math>
Solving both equations express cell's mathematical relation between standard potential, and equilibrium constant.
:<math>\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}={\mbox{RT} \over \mbox{nF}} \mbox{ln K}\,</math>
Previous equation can use [[Briggsian logarithm]] as shown below:
:<math>\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}={0.0592 \mbox{V} \over \mbox{n}} \mbox{log K}\,</math>
==Cell emf dependency on changes on concentration==
===Nernst Equation===
{{Main|Nernst Equation}}
Calculating cell's potential is not always plausible at standard temperature and pressure conditions. However in [[1900s]] German [[chemist]] [[Walther Hermann Nernst]] proposed a mathematical model to determine electrochemical cell potential where standard conditions cant be reached.
On mid [[1800s]] [[Willard Gibbs]] formulated an equation for spontaneous process at any conditions,
:<math>\Delta G=\Delta G^{o}+\mbox{RT ln Q}\,</math> ,
Willard stated Q's dependency over reactants and products activity and designated it as their respective [[Activity (chemistry)|chemical activity]].
Walther based on Willard Gibbs work during the mid [[19th century]], formulated a new equation where replaced <math>\Delta G\,</math>'s value with cell's respective maximum electrical work, on Gibbs equation.
:<math>\mbox{-nFE}=\mbox{-nFE}^{o}+\mbox{RT ln Q}\,</math>
Finally he replaced <math>\mbox{-nFE}\,</math>'s value with electrochemical cell potential, thus formulating a new equation which now bears his name.
:<math>\mbox{E}=\mbox{E}^{o}- {\mbox{RT} \over \mbox{nF}} \mbox{ln Q}\,</math>
Assuming standard conditions (<math>Temperature = 298 K , 25 C\,</math>) and [[Universal gas constant|R]] = <math>8.3145 {J \over K mol}</math> the equation above can be expressed on [[Common logarithm|Base—10 logarithm]] as shown below:
:<math>\mbox{E}=\mbox{E}^{o}- {\mbox{0.0592 V} \over \mbox{n}} \mbox{log Q}\,</math>
===Concentration cells===
{{Main|Concentration cell}}
[[Image:Cell-membrane-electrochemical.PNG|thumb|250px|Calculating [[membrane potential]] is good example where concentration cells are used in biology to understanding cell's [[metabolism]] such as [[Na-K pump|Na<sup>+</sup>(red) K<sup>+</sup>(blue) pump]].]]
A concentration cell is an electrochemical cell whose electrodes are from the same material differing on ionic concentrations on both half-cells.
For example an electrochemical cell, where two copper electrodes are submerged on [[blue vitriol|blue vitriol's]] solution, whose concentrations are 0.05 [[Molar concentration|M]] and 2.0 [[Molar concentration|M]] , while connected through wire and saline bridge.
:<math>Cu^{2+}(aq)+2e^{-}\rightarrow \mbox{Cu}(s)</math>
[[Le Chatelier's principle]] indicates reaction is favourable to reduction as concentration of <math>Cu^{2+}\,</math> ions increases. Reduction will take place in cell's compartment where concentration is higher and oxidation will occur on the diluted side.
The following cell diagram describes the cell mentioned above:
:<math>Cu(s)|Cu^{2+}(0.05 M)||Cu^{2+}(2.0 M)|Cu(s)\,</math>
Where both half cell reactions for oxidation and reduction are:
:<math>Oxidation: Cu(s)\rightarrow \mbox{Cu}^{2+} (0.05 M) + 2e^{-}\,</math>
:<math>Reduction: Cu^{2+} (2.0 M) +2e^{-} \rightarrow \mbox{Cu} (s)\,</math>
:<math>Overall reaction: Cu^{2+} (2.0 M) \rightarrow \mbox{Cu}^{2+} (0.05 M)\,</math>
Where cell's emf is calculated through Nernst equation as follows:
:<math>E = E^{o}- {0.0257 V \over 2} ln {[Cu^{2+}]_{diluted}\over [Cu^{2+}]_{concentrated}}\,</math>
<math>E^{o}\,</math>'s value of this kind of cell is zero, as electrodes and ions are the same in both half-cells.
After replacing values from case mentioned is possible to calculate cell's potential:
:<math>E = 0- {0.0257 V \over 2} ln {0.05\over 2.0}\,</math>
:<math>E = 0.0474 V\,</math>
Concentration cell's are often a significant biologist's matter of investigation hence they are present on biological cells where [[membrane potential]] is responsible of [[Synapses|nerve synapses]] and [[Cardiac cycle|cardiac beat]].
==Battery==
{{Main|Battery (electricity)}}
A battery is an electrochemical cell or a group of them, where if combined together, may produce [[direct current]] at a constant [[voltage]]. Electrochemical principles which made batteries work are the same as on electrochemical cells, however a battery doesn't need auxiliary components such as saline bridge on Daniell cells.
===Dry cell===
{{Main|Dry cell}}
[[Image:Zincbattery.png|thumb|250px|Zinc carbon battery diagram.]]
Dry cells don't have a [[fluid]] electrolyte instead they use a moist electrolyte paste. [[Zinc-carbon battery|Leclanché's cell]] is a good example of this, where cell's [[anode]] is a [[zinc]] [[container]] surrounded by a thin layer of [[manganese dioxide]] and a moist electrolyte paste of [[ammonium chloride]] and [[zinc chloride]] mixed with [[starch]] to have a pale and flabby consistency and avoiding flees. Cell's cathode is represented by a carbon bar inserted on cell's electrolyte, usually placed in the middle.
[[Georges Leclanché|Leclanché's]] simplified half reactions are shown below:
:<math>Anode: Zn(s) \rightarrow Zn^{2+} (aq) + 2e^{-}\,</math>
:<math>Cathode: 2NH^{+}_{4}(aq)+ 2MnO_{2}(s) + 2e^{-}\rightarrow Mn_{2}O_{3}(s) + 2NH_{3} (aq) + H_{2}O (l)\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{Overall reaction:}\,</math>
:<math>Zn(s) + 2NH^{+}_{4}(aq)+ 2MnO_{2}(s) \rightarrow Zn^{2+}(aq) + Mn_{2}O_{3}(s) + 2NH_{3} (aq) + H_{2}O (l)\,</math>
The voltage obtained from the [[zinc-carbon battery]] is 1.5 [[Volt|V]] approximately.
===Mercury battery===
{{Main|Mercury battery}}
[[Image:Mercurybattery2.PNG|thumb|200px|Cutaway view of a Mercury battery diagram.]]
Mercury battery has many applications on [[medicine]] and [[electronics]]. The battery consists on a [[steel]]—made container with the shape of a cylinder acting as the cathode, where an [[amalgam|amalgamated]] anode of mercury and zinc is surrounded by a stronger alkaline electrolyte and a paste of [[Zinc oxide]] and [[Mercury(II) oxide]] .
Mercury battery half reactions are shown below:
:<math>Anode: Zn(Hg) + 2OH^{-} (aq) \rightarrow ZnO(s) + H_{2}O (l) + 2e^{-}\,</math>
:<math>Cathode: HgO(s) + H_{2}O(l) + 2e^{-}\rightarrow Hg(l) + 2OH^{-} (aq)\,</math>
:<math>\mbox{Overall reaction:}\,</math>
:<math>Zn(Hg) + HgO(s) \rightarrow ZnO(s) + Hg(l)\,</math>
There are not changes on electrolyte's composition when cell works. Mercurium battery provides 1.35 V of [[direct current]].
===Lead-acid battery===
[[Image:Lead acid cell.jpg|thumb|100px|A sealed Lead acid battery.]]
{{Main|Lead-acid battery}}
The Lead-acid battery used on [[automobiles]], consists on a series of six identical cells in line assembled, each cell has a [[lead]] anode and a cathode made from [[lead dioxide]] packed in a [[metal]] plaque. Cathode and anode are submerged in a solution of [[sulfuric acid]] acting as the electrolyte.
Lead-acid battery half cell reactions are shown below:
:<math>Anode: Pb(s) + SO^{2-}_{4}(aq) \rightarrow PbSO_{4}(s) + 2e^{-}\,</math>
:<math>Cathode: PbO_{2}(s) + 4H^{+}(aq) + SO^{2-}_{4}(aq) + 2e^{-} \rightarrow PbSO_{4}(s) + 2H_{2}O(l)\,</math>
<math>\mbox{Overall reaction:} Pb(s) + PbO_{2}(s) + 4H^{+}(aq)+2SO^{2-}_{4}(aq) \rightarrow 2PbSO_{4}(s) + 2H_{2}O(l)</math>
At standard conditions, each cell may produce a [[direct current]] of 2 [[Volts|V]], hence overall voltage produced is 12 V. Lead-acid batteries, differing from Mercury and Zinc-carbon batteries, are [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable]]. If an external voltage is supplied to the battery it will produce an [[electrolysis]] of the products in the overall reaction (discharge), |
t;/td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Bromine]]</td>
<td>[[1826]]</td>
<td>[[Antoine Jérôme Balard]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Thorium]]</td>
<td>[[1828]]</td>
<td>[[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Beryllium]]</td>
<td>[[1828]]</td>
<td>[[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]]. Independently discovered by [[A.A.B. Bussy]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
The next element was discovered when Mosander showed that the cerium isolated in [[1803]] by Berzelius was actually a mixture of cerium, lanthanum and so-called didymium (which was not actually one element, and was resolved into two in [[1885]]).
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Lanthanum]]</td>
<td>[[1839]]-41</td>
<td>[[Carl Gustaf Mosander]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Terbium]]</td>
<td>[[1843]]</td>
<td>[[Carl Gustaf Mosander]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Erbium]]</td>
<td>[[1843]]</td>
<td>[[Carl Gustaf Mosander]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ruthenium]]</td>
<td>[[1844]]</td>
<td>[[Karl Klaus]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
==Spectroscopic discoveries==
A number of elements were first identified by their spectroscopic
[[emission line]]s: caesium and rubidium were discovered by [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] analysing the spectrum of alkali salts. The unknown element with blue emission lines was named caesium; in purifying the salts of this new element, another element was discovered with a red emission line; this was called rubidium. They were shortly afterwards prepared as the pure salts by Bunsen. The bright green line of thallium caused it to be named from the Greek ''thallos'', meaning a green shoot, and the indigo-blue line from certain
specimens of zinc-blende gave the name indium to the new element so discovered:
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Caesium]]</td>
<td>[[1860]]</td>
<td>[[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchoff]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Rubidium]]</td>
<td>[[1860]]</td>
<td>[[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchoff]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Thallium]]</td>
<td>[[1861]]</td>
<td>[[Sir William Crookes]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Indium]]</td>
<td>[[1863]]</td>
<td>[[Ferdinand Reich]] and [[Hieronymous Theodor Richter|Theodor Richter]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
Another spectroscopic discovery, helium was found by astronomers as an emission line in the spectrum of the sun, hence its name from the Greek ''helios'' meaning sun. It was at first thought to be an unknown metallic element, and so the name was given the ending -ium to signify a metal. By the time it had been found on Earth and discovered to be the lightest of the noble gases, the name was fixed; by analogy with the other noble gases, the name should have ended in -on.
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Helium]]</td>
<td>[[1868]]</td>
<td>Independently by [[Pierre Jules César Janssen|Pierre Jansen]] and [[Joseph Norman Lockyer|Norman Lockyer]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
==The Periodic table and the prediction of new elements==
In [[1871]], [[Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev|Mendeleev]] predicted, from the gaps in his newly-devised [[periodic table]], that there should be three as yet undiscovered elements, which he named eka-boron, eka-aluminium, and eka-silicon. With Mendeleev's prediction of their existence and approximate chemical properties, the missing elements were found by French, Scandinavian, and German chemists, and named for their countries of discovery, as gallium,
scandium, and germanium:
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Gallium]]</td>
<td>[[1875]]</td>
<td>[[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Ytterbium]]</td>
<td>[[1878]]</td>
<td>[[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Thulium]]</td>
<td>[[1879]]</td>
<td>[[Per Teodor Cleve]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Scandium]]</td>
<td>[[1879]]</td>
<td>[[Lars Fredrik Nilson]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Holmium]]</td>
<td>[[1879]]</td>
<td>[[Marc Delafontaine]], [[Jacques-Louis Soret]] and [[Per Teodor Cleve]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Samarium]]</td>
<td>[[1879]]</td>
<td>[[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Gadolinium]]</td>
<td>[[1880]]</td>
<td>[[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
The 'didymium' isolated by Mosander in [[1839]] was shown to
actually be two separate elements, praseodymium and neodymium:
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Praseodymium]]</td>
<td>[[1885]]</td>
<td>[[Carl Auer von Welsbach]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Neodymium]]</td>
<td>[[1885]]</td>
<td>[[Carl Auer von Welsbach]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Dysprosium]]</td>
<td>[[1886]]</td>
<td>[[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Germanium]]</td>
<td>[[1886]]</td>
<td>[[Clemens Winkler]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Fluorine]]</td>
<td>[[1886]]</td>
<td> [[Joseph Henri Moissan]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
[[Refrigeration]] technology advanced considerably during the [[19th century]], to the point where it was possible to liquefy atmospheric
gases. A curious observation was made: Nitrogen prepared by
chemical means from its compounds had a slightly lower molecular
weight than nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air. This was
attributed as being due to the presence of a previously unsuspected
gas, christened argon. This gas was the first representative found
of a previously unsuspected new group in the periodic table, first
known as the inert gases, now more commonly known as the [[noble gas|noble gases]].
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Argon]]</td>
<td>[[1894]]</td>
<td>[[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Lord Rayleigh]] &amp; [[Sir William Ramsay]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
Once liquid argon could be prepared in quantity from air, small
amounts of a further three noble gases could be separated from it
by differences in boiling point. These new elements were named from
the Greek words for, respectively, 'new', 'hidden', and 'foreign'.
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Neon]]</td>
<td>[[1898]]</td>
<td>Sir [[William Ramsay]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Krypton]]</td>
<td>[[1898]]</td>
<td>Sir [[William Ramsay]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Xenon]]</td>
<td>[[1898]]</td>
<td>Sir [[William Ramsay]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
With the discovery of [[radioactivity]], we have the classic work
by the Curies that isolated a number of previously unknown
elements:
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Radium]]</td>
<td>[[1898]]</td>
<td>[[Pierre Curie]] and [[Marie Curie]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Polonium]]</td>
<td>[[1898]]</td>
<td>[[Pierre Curie]] and [[Marie Curie]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
Another of the noble gases, radon |
UK, since the word indicates the buttocks in the U.S. but the vagina in the UK. Speakers of Commonwealth English should be cautious when asking for a ''[[fag]]'' (cigarette) in America, as it is a derogatory term referring to a homosexual in the U.S., although nowadays these alternate meanings are understood in the UK as their U.S. version, dependent on context. Residents of [[North Carolina|North]] and [[South Carolina]] beaches should be wary of inviting their British guests to "go out [[Carolina shag|shagging]]," (a type of dance), for the term in British English refers to sexual intercourse. This meaning has become commonly known in the U.S., however, owing to its repeated usage in the popular [[Austin Powers]] films, so many or most Americans are not likely to approach with such an offer unless that is what is in mind. Similarly, avoid telling Australians or New Zealanders what team you ''root'' for, as the slang meaning of "root" in these countries is sexual intercourse.
===General trends===
While the use of American expressions in British English is often noted in the UK, movement in the opposite direction is less common. But recent examples exist, including the idiom "to go missing," which had been a distinctively British expression but is used increasingly in American English, at least in journalism. The noun "queue" also seems to be making inroads in the U.S. as well. (The usual American equivalents of "to go missing" and "queue" are "to disappear" and "line", respectively.) Also, the spelling of 'travelling' and 'traveller' and 'judgement' through observations appear to be creeping into American English.
===Words mainly used in British English===
:''See also: [[List of words mainly used in British English]]''
Speakers of American English are likely to be aware of some British English terms, such as ''lorry'', ''biscuit'', ''chap'', and ''shag'' although they would not generally use them, or may be confused as to whether one means the American or British meaning of some (such as ''biscuit''). They will be able to guess approximately what is meant by some others, such as ''driving licence''. However, use of many other British words, such as ''naff'' (unstylish) or ''busk'' (to play a musical instrument in public with the hope of getting donations from passers-by), risks rendering a sentence incomprehensible to most Americans.
===Words mainly used in American English===
: ''See also: [[List of words mainly used in American English]]''
Speakers of British English are likely to be aware of some American English terms, such as ''sidewalk'', ''gas'', ''cookie'', ''elevator'' although they would not generally use them. They will be able to guess approximately what is meant by some others, such as ''cotton candy''. However, use of some other American words risks rendering a sentence incomprehensible to most British people.
Note that, largely through the influence of [[Hollywood]], the chance of a given Americanism being understood by a British person is significantly greater than in the reverse case. However, Americans who watch [[britcom|britcoms]] and other imported BBC programs and British news re-broadcasts on American public television ([[PBS]]) are more likely to be familiar with British usages than those who do not.
* ''Fitted'' is used in both conventions as an adjective ("fitted sheets" are the same size as the mattress) and as the past tense of ''fit'' ("to suffer epilepsy", for example, "Leavitt fitted" in ''[[The Andromeda Strain]]''); however ''fit'' and ''fitting'' do not denote [[epileptic seizure]] in ordinary British use (though that usage is common within medical circles), as the same effect is achieved by ''to have a fit'' or ''to throw a fit''.
===Words with differing meanings===
: ''See: [[List of words having different meanings in British and American English]]''
===Words which have become archaic in one dialect===
* In Southern Britain the word ''whilst'' is used almost interchangeably with ''while'' and ''whilst'' is the more common term. ''Whilst'' is more often used in instruction manuals, legal documents, etc. To Americans the word ''whilst'', in any context, seems very archaic or pretentious or both. The words ''amidst'' (as opposed to ''amid''), and to a lesser extent ''amongst'' (as opposed to ''among'') are also rarer in American English. ("In the midst" is a standard idiom in both).
* In the UK generally the term "fall" used in the context of the seasons became obsolete and was replaced by the word "Autumn". Although archaic, found often in [[Elizabethan]] and [[Charles Dickens|Dickensian]] literature, understanding of the word is usually ascribed to its continued use in America.
*In the UK the term "period" for a "full stop" is now obsolete, even when used as a phrase, such as "Don't do that. Period." This in itself, though, is likely to be an American import. The phrase "Don't do that. Full stop." is often preferred to "period", as shown by the [[NSPCC]] Full Stop campaign.
===Numbers===
:''See also: [[Names of numbers in English]]''
When saying or writing out numbers, the British will insert an "and" before the tens and units, as in "one hundred and sixty-two" and "two thousand and three", whereas Americans will typically drop the "and" as in "two thousand three"; however, "two thousand and three" is also common. The same rule applies when saying numbers in their thousands or millions: "four hundred and thirteen thousand" would be said by a British speaker, whereas the simpler "four hundred thirteen thousand" by an American speaker.
Some American schools teach that "and" indicates the [[decimal point]]: thus, numbers preceding "and" are [[integers]], while the numbers following "and" are [[fraction|fractional]] (e.g. five hundred thirteen and seven tenths for 513.7). Americans are more likely than the British to read numbers like 1,234 as "twelve thirty-four", instead of "one thousand, two hundred and thirty-four" unless discussing the year 1234, when "twelve thirty-four" would be the norm on both sides of the Atlantic (note that British speakers do not say "and" before the tens or units when talking about a year, except for years "two thousand and ..."). The year 2000 and beyond are read as "two thousand" rather than "twenty hundred" by both British and American speakers, but years beyond 2100 may be read as "twenty-one hundred" or "two thousand one hundred".
Similarly, for the house number (or bus number, etc) "272" British people would tend to say "two seven two" while Americans would tend to say "two seventy-two". Between 1100 and 1900 the British commonly read numbers ending in round hundreds as, for instance, "sixteen hundred" instead of "one thousand six hundred", but from 2000 upwards usage like "thirty-two hundred" would be replaced by "three thousand two hundred".
There was also a historical difference between [[billion]]s, [[trillion]]s, and so forth. Americans use "billion" to mean one thousand million (1,000,000,000), whereas in the UK, until the latter part of the 20th century, it was almost exclusively used to mean one million million (1,000,000,000,000), with one thousand million sometimes described as a "[[milliard]]", the definition adopted by most other European languages. However, the "American English" version has since been adopted for all published writing, and the word "milliard" is obsolete in English, as are billiard (but not [[billiards]]), trilliard and so on.
Nevertheless, the majority of people have no direct experience with manipulating numbers this large, so a significant proportion of international readers will interpret "billion" as 10<sup>12</sup>, even if they are young enough to have been taught otherwise at school. For this reason, defining the word may be advisable when writing for the general public. However, all major British publications and broadcasters, including the [[BBC]], which long used "thousand million" to avoid ambiguity, now use "billion" to mean thousand million.
See [[long and short scales]] for a more detailed discussion of the evolution of these terms in English and other languages.
Finally, when referring to the numeral [[0 (number)|0]], British people would use "zero", "nought", or "oh" normally, or "nil" in instances such as sports scores and voting results. Americans use the term "zero" most frequently; "oh" is also often used, and occasionally slang terms such as "zilch" or "zip". Phrases such as "the team won two-zip" or "the team leads the series, two-nothing" are heard when reporting sports scores. The digit 0, for example, when reading a phone or account number aloud, is nearly always pronounced "oh" in both languages for the sake of convenience.
When reading numbers in a sequence, such as a telephone or serial number, British people will use the terms ''double'' or ''triple/treble''. Hence 007 is "double oh seven". Exceptions are the emergency telephone number [[9-9-9|999]], which is always "nine nine nine" and the apocalyptic "[[Number of the Beast]]" which is always "six six six". The [[directory enquiries]] prefix 118 is also "one one eight" due to its extensive advertising campaign with the slogan read out as "One one eight, what's your number?". In the US, [[9-1-1|911]] (the US e |
]] in their anachronistic uniforms, and other officers of the court such as the [[Lord Chamberlain]].
Since the bombing of the palace chapel in World War II, royal christenings have sometimes taken place in the Music Room. The Queen's first three children were all baptised here, in a special gold font. [[Prince William of Wales|Prince William]] was christened in the Music room; however, his brother, Prince Harry, was christened at [[St George's Chapel, Windsor]].
The largest functions of the year are the garden parties, when up to 9,000 people attend, taking tea and sandwiches in a series of marquees. The guests first assemble, then as a military band plays the [[National Anthem]], the Queen emerges from the Bow Room, and slowly walks through the guests, greeting those previously selected for the honour, to her own more private tea tent. If the guests at these functions do not actually have the opportunity to meet the Queen, they at least have the consolation of being able to admire the gardens.
==Security==
[[Image:buck.palace.soldiers.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Foot Guards|Guards]] march out of Buckingham Palace at the end of the daily [[Changing of the Guard]] ceremony]]
Royal security is high, but is better known for a series of high-profile intrusions, both at the Palace and elsewhere. No modern, fully detailed plan of the palace is available as a security measure. The famous armed [[sentry|sentries]] on [[Queen's Guard|guard]] at the front of the palace are commonly thought to be ceremonial, but they have always had a security role. The palace also contains its own [[police station]], and the Royal Family have their own protection officers at all times. Other security measures are not revealed. The [[Foot Guards]] [[battalion]] at [[Wellington Barracks, London|Wellington Barracks]] is only 300 yards (275 m) away. The units at [[Chelsea Barracks]] ([[Foot Guards]]) and [[Hyde Park Barracks, London|Hyde Park Barracks]] ([[Household Cavalry]]) are both three-quarters of a mile away.
In the [[World War II|Second World War]] a bomb shelter was improvised in a housemaids' room, and more recently a dedicated bunker was reportedly constructed in response to heightened security concerns due to the threat of extremist Islamic terrorism. Rumour maintained that a link existed to the [[Victoria Line]] of the London Underground, which passed beneath the Palace, thus allowing the evacuation of the Royal Family in the event of nuclear attack. However this is unsubstantiated and is unlikely to be true.
The most notorious incident was the [[Michael Fagan incident]], he gained access to the Queen's bedroom while she was asleep in 1982. In 2003 a reporter for the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'', [[Ryan Parry]], spent two months working as a [[footman]] inside Buckingham Palace. One of the references he supplied was fake, and it appears this was not checked properly. The incident coincided with a visit to the UK by [[George W. Bush]], who stayed at the Palace, and photographs of Bush's bedroom, along with the Queen's breakfast table and the [[Andrew, Duke of York|Duke of York]]'s room. In themselves the photographs revealed nothing more interesting than that the Queen's two younger sons had a conventional, almost bourgeois, taste in bedroom furnishings, and that the Queen kept her breakfast muesli in a [[tupperware]] container. The Palace took the ''Mirror'' to court for invasion of privacy, and the newspaper handed over its materials, and paid some of the Queen's costs in an [[out-of-court settlement]] in November 2003.
Most lapses of security have been outside the palace: In 1974, [[Ian Ball]] attempted to kidnap [[Anne, Princess Royal|the Princess Royal]] at gunpoint in [[the Mall (London)|the Mall]] while she was returning to the palace, wounding several people in the process. In 1981, three [[Germany|German]] tourists camped in the [[Buckingham Palace Gardens|gardens of the palace]], after climbing over the heavily barbwired wall, purportedly believing the area to be [[Hyde Park]]. In 1993, anti-nuclear protestors also scaled the palace walls and held a sit down protest on the palace lawn. Most notably, in 1994, a naked [[paraglider]] landed on the roof of the building. In 1995 a student, [[John Gillard]], was able to deliberately ram the gates of the palace, knocking one of the great [[wrought iron]] gates weighing 3,300 pounds (1.5 tonnes) off its hinges. In 1997, an absconded mentally ill patient was found wandering the palace grounds, which ordered another security review.
Most recently, in [[2004]], [[Fathers 4 Justice Buckingham Palace protest#Buckingham Palace protest|a protester]] advocating the legal rights of [[Fathers 4 Justice|single fathers]], received wide press coverage when he climbed onto a ledge near the ceremonial balcony on the east front dressed as [[Batman]]. In the same incident, a second protester, dressed as [[Robin]], was apprehended before he managed to climb onto the building; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4035987.stm he returned] the following November dressed as [[Father Christmas]] to chain himself to a lamp on one of the main gateposts.
Historically, there have been many other lapses. Probably the most incredible but true was in 1837, when a 12-year-old boy known to history as [[The boy Cotton]] managed to live for a year undetected inside the palace. Hiding in chimneys and blackening the beds he slept in, he was finally apprehended in December 1838, causing questions on royal security to be asked in Parliament. "The Mudlark", a 1949 novel by American writer [[Theodore Bonnet]], was loosely based on his story. In 1950 a romanticised film, starring Irene Dunne, Alec Guinness and Anthony Steel, was made of the novel. Of the eight [[assassination]] attempts made on Queen Victoria, at least three occurred in the vicinity of the palace gates. In the early 20th century the front of the palace became a favoured venue for [[suffragettes]], who would chain themselves to the gilded iron railings. Over the years numerous intruders have been apprehended in the palace grounds, including one who wished to propose marriage to Princess Anne, and who was declared insane. However, as the Queen is officially a non-political figure, demonstrations and protests tend to rally at the [[Palace of Westminster]] or [[Trafalgar Square]], rather than Buckingham Palace.
==Use and public access==
[[Image:Bpalacejack.700px.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Buckingham Palace with the [[Union Flag]] projected onto it for [[Christmas Eve]] 2003]]
In addition to being the weekday home of the Queen and the [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Duke of Edinburgh]], the palace is the work place of 450 people. Every year some 50,000 people are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences, and banquets. Buckingham Palace is also the venue for the daily ceremony of the [[Changing of the Guard]], a major tourist attraction. In June 2003 on the occasion of the Queen's golden [[jubilee]] thousands of Britons were invited to apply for tickets to a [[pop concert]], preceded the previous evening by a [[European classical music|classical concert]] in the grounds of the palace. These concerts, where the guests were given [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]] and a [[picnic]], were the first occasions when ordinary [[subjects]] and members of the public had been invited onto the premises for entertainment, without having to first distinguish themselves. The guests at the regular garden parties, while numerous and from all stations in life, are usually those who hold a public position, or are in some way of national interest.
The Summer Opening of the Palace [[State Room]]s to the public was a huge change to tradition in the 1990s. The money raised in entry fees was originally used towards the rebuilding of [[Windsor Castle]] after the fire that destroyed many of its State Rooms. Each Summer, in the months of August and September, the West Wing of the Palace is opened to the general public. A staff of around 200, mainly students, is employed to run the Opening. These are employed in a number of different areas around the Palace - 'Queue', 'Visitor Entrance', 'Security', 'Baggage', 'State Rooms', 'Access' and 'Garden'. The visitor route for 2006 onwards is currently being updated for reasons of presentation and security.
Contrary to popular belief, the palace is not the private property of the Queen; Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace and their art collections belong to the nation.
[[Image:AdmiraltyArchLondon.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Admiralty Arch]], the beginning of the ceremonial approach to Buckingham Palace, was designed by Sir [[Aston Webb]] and completed in 1911 as part of a grand memorial to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], which culminated in a vast statue of Victoria sculpted by Sir [[Thomas Brock]] in front of Webb's newly refaced Buckingham Palace. The arch today provides apartments for high-ranking [[civil servant]]s and [[Minister of State|Ministers of State]].]]
The priceless furnishings, paintings, fittings and other artefacts, many by [[Peter Carl Fabergé|Fabergé]], from Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle are known collectively as the [[Royal Collection]]; owned by the [[nation]], they can be viewed by the public when the palace and castle are open to the public at various times of the year. The [[Queen's Gallery]] near the [[Royal Mews]] is open all year and displays a changing selection of items from the collection. The rooms containing the Queen's Gallery are on the site of the former chapel, which was severely damaged by one of the seven bombs which fell on the palace during [[World War II]].
[[The Mall (London)|The Mall]], the ceremonial approach road to the palace, extends from [[Admiralty Arch]], up the Mall, around the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]] to the Palace [[forecourt]]. The tarmac's reddish colour recalls the red carpets of former times. |
rs later as [[Charles City County, Virginia]].
==Style and arms==
The official [[style (manner of address)|style]] of Charles I was "Charles, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[List of Monarchs of Scotland|Scotland]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]], etc." (The claim to [[France]] was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant, however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It only referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England".
Whilst he was King, Charles I's [[heraldry|arms]] were: ''Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland)''.
==Issue==
[[Image:The children of Charles I of England-painting by Sir Anthony van Dyck in 1637.jpg|thumb|300px|Painting of Charles I's children. The future [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] is depicted at centre, stroking the dog.]]
Charles was father to a total of 9 legitimate children, two of whom would eventually succeed him as king. Several other children died in childhood.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|Charles James, Duke of Cornwall||[[13 March]] [[1629]]||[[13 March]] [[1629]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Charles II of England|HM King Charles II]]||[[29 May]] [[1630]]||[[6 February]] [[1685]]||married 1662, [[Catherine of Braganza]]; no issue
|-
|[[James II of England|HM King James VII and II]]||[[14 October]] [[1633]]||[[16 September]] [[1701]]||(1) married 1659, [[Lady Anne Hyde|The Lady Anne Hyde]]; had issue; wife died 1671<br>(2) married 1673, [[Mary of Modena]]; had issue
|-
|[[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry, Duke of Gloucester]]||[[8 July]] [[1640]]||[[18 September]] [[1660]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary, Princess Royal]]||[[4 November]] [[1631]]||[[24 December]] [[1660]]||married 1648, [[William II of Orange|William II, Prince of Orange]]; had issue
|-
|Elizabeth||[[29 December]] [[1635]]||[[8 September]] [[1650]]||&nbsp;
|-
|Anne||[[17 March]] [[1637]]||[[8 December]] [[1640]]||died of natural causes at age three
|-
|Catherine||[[29 January]] [[1639]]||[[29 January]] [[1639]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Henrietta Anne Stuart|Henrietta Anne]]||[[16 June]] [[1644]]||[[30 June]] [[1670]]||married 1661, [[Philip I, Duke of Orléans]]; had issue
|}
==In modern culture==
The television special ''[[Blackadder|Blackadder: The Cavalier Years]]'' features a surreal version of the events leading to his execution. Charles's life has often been treated seriously in [[novel]]s and plays as well as on film.
==See also==
*[[List of regicides of Charles I]]
*[[Society of King Charles the Martyr]]
==References==
*''Ellis's Historical Inquiries''
*Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, ed. (1906). ''The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625&ndash;1660,'' 3rd revised ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*Williamson, D. (1998). ''The Kings and Queens of England''. New York: National Portrait Gallery.
*Robertson, Geoffrey (2005). ''The Tyrannicide Brief: The Man Who Sent Charles I to the Scaffold''. Chatto & Windus ISBN: 0701176024
==External links==
*[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page76.asp The Royal Household. (2004). "Charles I." Official Web Site of the British Monarchy]
*[http://www.skcm.org The Society of King Charles the Martyr]
{{start box}}
{{succession box three to three |
before=[[James I of England|James I/VI]] |
title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]] |
title3=[[King of Ireland]] |
title2=[[List of British monarchs|King of Scots]] |
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years2=1625&ndash;1649 |
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{{start box}}
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{{succession box|before=[[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales]]|after=[[Charles II of England]]|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=}}
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{{featured article}}
[[Category:1600 births|Charles I of England]]
[[Category:1649 deaths|Charles I of England]]
[[Category:British executions|Charles I of England]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of Scotland]]
[[Category:English Civil War]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Executed royalty members]]
[[Category:House of Stuart]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Natives of Fife]]
[[Category:English saints]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[cy:Siarl I o Loegr a'r Alban]]
[[da:Karl 1. af England]]
[[de:Karl I. (England)]]
[[es:Carlos I de Inglaterra]]
[[fi:Englannin Kaarle I]]
[[fr:Charles Ier d'Angleterre]]
[[he:&#1510;'&#1488;&#1512;&#1500;&#1505; &#1492;&#1512;&#1488;&#1513;&#1493;&#1503; &#1502;&#1500;&#1498; &#1488;&#1504;&#1490;&#1500;&#1497;&#1492;]]
[[it:Carlo I d'Inghilterra]]
[[ja:&#12481;&#12515;&#12540;&#12523;&#12474;1&#19990; (&#12452;&#12531;&#12464;&#12521;&#12531;&#12489;&#29579;)]]
[[kw:Charlys I a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Carolus I (rex Anglicus)]]
[[nl:Karel I van Engeland]]
[[nn:Karl I av England]]
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[[pt:Carlos I de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Карл I Стюарт]]
[[sv:Karl I av England]]
[[zh:&#26597;&#29702;&#19968;&#19990; (&#33521;&#22283;)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Characterization</title>
<id>7427</id>
<revision>
<id>38673113</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T22:09:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsca.bot</username>
<id>601940</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot modifying: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the legal concept, see [[characterisation (conflict)]].''
:''For the mathematical concept, see [[characterization (mathematics)]].''
'''Characterization''' is the process of creating [[fictional character|characters]] in [[fiction]], often those who are different from and have different beliefs than the [[author]]. A [[writer]] can assume the point of view of a child, an older person, a member of the opposite gender, someone of another race or culture, or anyone who isn't like them in personality or otherwise.
Thorough characterization makes characters well-rounded and complex even though the writer may not be like the character or share his or her attitudes and beliefs. This allows for a sense of [[realism (arts)|realism]]. For example, according to [[F.R. Leavis]], [[Leo Tolstoy]] was the creator of some of the most complex and psychologically believable characters in fiction.
Characterization can involve developing a variety of aspects of a character, such as appearance, age, gender, educational level, vocation or occupation, financial status, marital status, social status, hobbies, religious beliefs, ambitions, motivations, etc. According to the Shreklisch Onion Layer Model, the psychological makeup of a fully developed storybook character involves fears, emotions, backstory, issues, beliefs, practices, desires, and intentions. Often these can be shown through the actions and language of the character, rather than by telling the reader directly.
In [[fan fiction]], thorough characterization is not usually necessary since a writer is using characters already familiar to the reader. An exception is in stories set in [[Alternative universe (fan fiction)|alternative universes]], which may significantly change the personalities of characters established by others, and directly revealing details may be necessary to avoid reader confusion or to warn the reader of settings he or she may not like.
In essays or novels, characterization is character development, which helps to establish themes.
Characterization can be presented either directly or indirectly. Direct characterization takes place when the author literally tells the audience what a character is like. In indirect characterization, the audience must deduce for themselves what the character is like through the character's thoughts, actions, speech, looks and interaction with other characters.
[[Category:Narratology]]
[[pl:Charakteryzacja (termin literacki)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cuzco</title>
<id>7428</id>
<revision>
<id>15905496</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-11T02:00:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Huhsunqu</username>
<id>177625</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cusco]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Castiglione</title>
<id>7429</id>
<revision>
<id>37545981</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T18:21:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Castiglione''' is the name of several geographical locations (mostly in [[Italy]]), as well as the [[surname]] of several famous people.
<br><br>
'''People'''
*'''[[Baldassare Castiglione]]''': famed [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]] [[writer]] and [[diplomat]]
*'''[[Giuseppe Castiglione]],''' [[Jesuit|SJ]]: [[Jesuit]] [[painter]] and [[Jesuit China missions|missionary to China]]
<br>
'''Places' |
of continuing from where Raymond Benson ended in 2002, the new series featured James Bond as a thirteen-year-old boy attending [[Eton College]]. Written by [[Charlie Higson]] (''[[The Fast Show]]'') the series is intended to align faithfully with the adult Bond's back-story established by Fleming and Fleming only. Since the concept was announced the series has taken heavy criticism for being aimed at the "[[Harry Potter]] audience" and has been seen by some as a desperate attempt to find a new audience for Bond. Regardless, the first novel became a bestseller in the United Kingdom and was released to good reviews. A second novel was released in the UK in January 2006. The series is currently planned out for five novels according to Charlie Higson.
{|class="wikitable"
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[[2005 in literature|2005]] ''[[SilverFin]]''
*[[2006 in literature|2006]] ''[[Blood Fever]]''
*2007 ''[[Young Bond Book 3]]''
*2008 ''[[Young Bond Book 4]]''
*2009 ''[[Young Bond Book 5]]''
|}
The ''Young Bond'' series is expected to add [[graphic novel]]s in 2006. It is currently unknown whether these will be adaptations of Higson's books.
===The Moneypenny Diaries===
{{main|The Moneypenny Diaries}}
A new trilogy of novels "edited" by [[Samantha Weinberg]] under the pseudonym [[Kate Westbrook]] entitled ''[[The Moneypenny Diaries]]'' was released by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]] publishers that centres on the character of [[Miss Moneypenny]], [[M (James Bond)|M]]'s personal secretary. The first installment of the trilogy, subtitled ''Guardian Angel'', was released on [[October 10]], [[2005]]. Weinberg is the first woman to write officially licensed Bond-related literature (although [[Johanna Harwood]] had previously co-written the screenplay for ''Dr. No'').
The novels had originally been touted as the secret journal of a "real" Miss Moneypenny and that James Bond was a possible pseudonym for a genuine intelligence officer, an idea shared by John Pearson's earlier biography, ''James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007''. John Murray admitted on [[August 28]], [[2005]] that the books were a spoof after an investigation by ''The Sunday Times'' of London. Ian Fleming Publications, who had previously refused to comment as to whether the book was authorised, officially confirmed the book was and always had been a project by them on the day of the book's publication.
A second volume has been tentatively scheduled for publication in October 2006.[http://commanderbond.net/Public/Stories/2999-1.shtml]
===Other Bond-related fiction===
In [[1967]], Glidrose authorised publication of ''[[003½: The Adventures of James Bond Junior]]'' written by [[Arthur Calder-Marshall]] under the pseudonym R D Mascott. This book is for young-adult readers, and chronicles the adventures of 007's nephew (despite the inaccurate title).
In 1991 an animated television series, ''[[James Bond Jr]]'', ran for 65 episodes. The series was mildly successful and spawned six novelisations published in 1992 by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]] writing as John Vincent, a 12 issue comic book series by [[Marvel Comics]] published in 1992, as well as a [[video game]] [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Eurocom]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] and the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] in 1991.
[[Russia|Russians]] were often the villains in Fleming's [[Cold War]]-era novels in at least some form. In [[1968]], they hit back with a spy novel of their own called ''[[The Zakhov Mission|Avakoum Zahov vs. 07]]'' by [[Andrei Guliashki]], in which a [[communism|communist]] hero finally and forcefully defeats 007.
In addition to numerous [[fan fiction]] pieces written since the character was created, there have been two stories written by well-known authors claiming to have been contracted by Glidrose. The first in 1966, was ''[[Per Fine Ounce]]'' by [[Geoffrey Jenkins]], a friend of Ian Fleming who claimed to have developed with Fleming a diamond-smuggling storyline similar to ''Diamonds Are Forever'' as early as the 1950s. According to the book ''The Bond Files'' by [[Andy Lane]] and [[Paul Simpson]], soon after Ian Fleming died, Glidrose Productions commissioned Jenkins to write a James Bond novel. The novel was never published. Some sources have suggested that Jenkins novel was to be published under the Markham pseudonym. The second story, 1985's ''[[The Killing Zone]]'' by [[James Hatfield|Jim Hatfield]] goes so far as to have been privately published as well as claim on the cover that it was published by Glidrose; however it is highly unlikely that Glidrose contacted Hatfield to write a novel since at the time John Gardner was the official author. The text of ''The Killing Zone'' is available on the [[Internet]] and can be found [http://www.universalexports.net/Books/killingzone.shtml here].
In [[1997]], the British publisher [[B.T. Batsford]] produced ''[[Your Deal, Mr. Bond]]'', a collection of [[bridge (card game)|bridge]]-related short stories by [[Phillip King (writer)| Phillip King]] and [[Robert King]]. The title story features James Bond, M, and other characters and features an epic bridge game between Bond and the villain, Saladin. No credit is given to Ian Fleming Publications, suggesting this rare story may have been unauthorised; a photo of Sean Connery as Bond is featured on the cover of the book.
In Clive Cussler's novel, "Night Probe", there is a character named Brian Shaw, whom the hero, Dirk Pitt suspects to be James Bond. Brian Shaw's choice of pistol, a .25 caliber, echoes that of James Bond's preference for the .25 caliber Beretta. Shaw's old office was located in Regent Park, and he was supposed to have been on SMERSH's hit list.
==Films==
===Official===
The James Bond film series has its own traditions, many of which date back to the very first movie in 1962.
Since ''Dr. No'', every official James Bond film begins with what is known as the [[James Bond gun barrel sequence]], which introduces agent 007. The gun barrel is seen from the assassin's perspective&mdash;looking down at a walking James Bond, who quickly turns and shoots; the scene reddens (signifying the spilling of the would-be assassin's blood), the gun barrel dissolves to a white circle, and the film begins.
[[Image:Kleinman gunbarrel.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Pierce Brosnan as James Bond in the gun barrel sequence]]
After the gun barrel sequence, every film starting with ''From Russia with Love'' (1963), would start with a pre-credits teaser, also popularly known as the "opening [[gambit]]." Usually the scene features 007 finishing up a previous case before taking on the case from the film, and does not always relate to his main mission. Some of the teasers tie in with the plot of the film (as in ''Live and Let Die''). Since ''The Spy Who Loved Me'' in 1977, they have often involved attention-grabbing action sequences, which have tended to become larger and more elaborate with each successive film. The [[1999]] film ''The World Is Not Enough'' currently holds the record as the longest Bond teaser ever, running more than 15 minutes; most teasers run for less than five.
[[Image:Kleinman titlecredits.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Title credits from ''GoldenEye'' representing the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]]]]
When the teaser sequence is finished, the opening credits begin during which an arty display of scantily clad and even (discreetly) naked females can be seen doing a variety of activities from dancing, jumping on a trampoline, to shooting weapons. This sequence is a trademark and a staple of the James Bond films. The best known of the Bond title designers is [[Maurice Binder]], who created these sequences for fourteen 007 films from 1962 to 1989. Since Binder's death in 1991, [[Daniel Kleinman]] has designed the credits and has introduced CG elements not present during Binder's era. While the credits run, the main theme of the film is usually sung by a popular artist of the time. For the most part, the credits are unrelated to the plot of the film, although the design may reflect an overall theme (for example, ''You Only Live Twice'' uses a [[Japan|Japanese]] motif as well as images of a [[volcano]], both of which are elements of the movie itself). ''Goldfinger'' uses short glimpses of the film projected onto women's bodies. ''For Your Eyes Only'' begins with [[Sheena Easton]] singing the title song on-screen. ''[[Die Another Day]]'' was unusual in that the images shown in that film's opening credits advance the storyline by depicting Bond's torture following his capture by the North Koreans. The credits for ''GoldenEye'' depict the fall of the Soviet Union and thus provide a transition from the pre-fall era of the opening sequence to the post-fall setting of the rest of the narrative. The Bond films are unusual in retaining full opening and closing credits; since the late 1970s it has become common for most films to save detailed credits for the end, with only principal actors and crew listed at the beginning.
[[Image:James bond world locations.PNG|thumb|[[James Bond locations|Countries James Bond visited]]]]
Agent 007's famous introduction, "Bond. James Bond" became a [[catch phrase]] after it was first muttered (with a cigarette in the corner of his mouth) by Sean Connery in ''Dr. No''. Since then, the phrase has entered the [[lexicon]] of Western [[popular culture]] as the epitome of polished, understated machismo. On [[June 21]], [[2005]] the catch phrase was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the [[American Film Institute]] as part of their [[100 Years Series]] {{ref|AFI}}. The catch phrase, "a martini. [[Shaken, not stirred]]," which was first uttered by Bond in ''Goldfinger'' (although it is actually first said on screen by the villain in ''Dr. No'') was also honoured as # |
ases, the pilot will be controlling the aircraft primarily by outside visual references, as with VFR. Under VMC in some types of airspace, ATC will not provide separation between IFR and VFR aircraft (in fact, in areas with limited radar coverage, ATC may not know the location of VFR aircraft), so pilots are responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic just as they would be under VFR.
The pilot will usually navigate by using electronic navigation equipment and, in areas of radar coverage, by receiving ''vectors'' (compass headings assigned by ATC). While weather conditions can be worse than those allowed for VFR flight, there are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off or land. These will vary according to the type of electronic navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, and according to qualifications of the crew and aircraft.
==Procedures==
There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. For each stage, there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in the case of lost communications with ATC (''lost-comms''), with default altitudes and headings for every stage.
Departures are described by simple [[departure procedure]]s (DP), normally providing an initial heading and altitude, or (for busier airports) by [[standard instrument departure]]s (SID) providing more detailed instructions, often accompanied by diagrams or charts. En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called ''[[Airway (aviation)|airways]]'' with minimum safe altitudes for each segment. Approaches are described by ''terminal procedures'' (often called [[approach plate]]s), describing a series of steps and segments to make the transition from en route flight to a position where the aircraft can complete a landing visually (often from a low altitude and close to the airport). All instrument approaches have minimum altitudes: if it is not possible to complete a landing visually from the specified altitude (''decision height'') and location, the pilot must commence a ''missed approach'' and return to en route flight. Busy airports may also have [[standard terminal arrivals]] (STARS) providing an additional connection between en route flight and the final approach.
==Qualifications==
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an [[instrument rating]], and must meet recency of experience requirements. In the United States, these recency of experience requirements include six [[instrument approach]]es, [[navaid]] intercepting and tracking, and [[hold (aviation)|holding]] procedures in the past six months. The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight.
The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S. In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met. The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace. The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules.
== See also ==
* [[Visual flight rules]] (VFR)
* [[VHF omnidirectional range|VHF Omni-directional Range]] (VOR)
* [[Instrument Landing System]] (ILS)
* [[Non-directional beacon|Non-Directional Beacon]] (NDB)
* [[Distance Measuring Equipment]] (DME)
* [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS)
[[Category:Aviation]]
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[[pt:IFR]]</text>
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<page>
<title>In Vitro Fertilisation</title>
<id>15243</id>
<revision>
<id>15912727</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-17T23:13:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[In vitro fertilisation]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>In Vitro Fertilization</title>
<id>15244</id>
<revision>
<id>15912728</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T11:25:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing indirect redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[In vitro fertilisation]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ismail Khan</title>
<id>15245</id>
<revision>
<id>40364461</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ismail Khan''' (b. [[1946]]) was the governor of [[Herat province]] in [[Afghanistan]]. During the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] of [[1979]], Khan was an officer in the [[Afghanistan]] army. He rose to the rank of a [[Mujahedin]] commander during his tenure in the army. He has been described as "shrewd, short, and with an elfin smile." His human rights record as governor is said to be decent when compared to other governors, although his record is reportedly still questionable. However, after the airing in January [[2004]] on television of women singing, Khan sided with the [[Afghan Supreme Court]] opinion that such broadcasts should be banned.
After becoming governor of Herat the first time, he was forced to flee to [[Iran]] after the [[Taliban]] took over authority in [[1996]]. Two years later, while organising opposition to the Taliban, he was handed over to the Taliban by old adversaries. Then in March [[2000]] he escaped and worked as a low-profile member of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]].
During the [[Afghan Transitional Administration]], Khan was military commander of western Afghanistan, until [[August 13]], [[2003]] when President [[Hamid Karzai]] decreed that officials could no longer hold both military and civil posts. In [[September 2004]] he was also removed from the post of governor for Herat province; although Khan was offered the post of minister of mines and industry in the central government, he declined. Several people were reportedly killed during protests against his removal.
He boasts a provincial army of 25,000 men.
On [[March 21]], [[2004]], an assassination attempt against Khan, allegedly ordered by General [[Abdul Zaher Nayebzadah]], was reported to have failed. Shortly thereafter, [[Mirwais Sadeq]] &mdash; Khan's son and Afghanistan's civil aviation minister &mdash; was killed by Nayebzadah's forces, and severe fighting broke out between the two factions in Herat. After hours of fighting in which about 100 people were reported killed, Khan's forces claimed to be once again in control of the city.
Khan is one of the most religiously conservative warlords. He was slower than other leaders in lifting the restrictions imposed by the Taliban, and has retained many of them. Some of his men have been known to carry out "virginity tests", in Herat's public areas, on women found walking alone. He is widely suspected of withholding much of the customs duties collected at the Iranian border from the central government. Khan maintains close ties with the [[Iranian government]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2535261.stm Profile: Ismail Khan]; BBC
* ISBN 0586087060
[[Category:1946 births|Khan, Ismail]]
[[Category:Living people|Khan, Ismail]]
[[fa:&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1740;&#1604;&#8204;&#1582;&#1575;&#1606;]]
[[ja:イスマーイール・ハーン]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Improvisational theater</title>
<id>15247</id>
<revision>
<id>15912730</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Improvisational theatre]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Information</title>
<id>15248</id>
<revision>
<id>42022919</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:27:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjb</username>
<id>2843</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ +[[Abstraction]], which should probably be worked into the 'Information is not data' prose, but can be a See Also for now, no?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''"Info" redirects here; for other uses, see [[.info]], [[NFO]] and [[Dagbladet Information]].''
----
'''Information''' as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of [[communication]], [[constraint]], [[control system|control]], [[data]], [[form]], [[instruction]], [[knowledge]], [[meaning]], [[stimulation|mental stimulus]], [[pattern]], [[perception]], and [[knowledge representation|representation]].
Many people speak about the [[Information Age]] as the advent of the [[Knowledge Age]] or [[knowledge society]], the [[information society]], and [[Information technology|information technologies]], and even though [[information science]] and [[computer science]] are often in the spotlight, the word "information" |
ommanders'', Louisiana State University Press, 1959, ISBN 0-8071-0823-5
===Soldiers===
* Frank, Joseph Allan and George A. Reaves. ''Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh'' (1989)
* Hess, Earl J. ''The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat'' (1997)
* McPherson, James. ''What They Fought For, 1861-1865'' (Louisiana State University Press, 1994)
* McPherson, James. ''For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War '' (1998)
* Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy'' (1962) (ISBN: 0807104752)
* Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union'' (1952) (ISBN: 0807104760)
===Primary sources===
* U.S. War Dept., [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/moa/browse.monographs/waro.html ''The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies''], U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880&ndash;1901. 70 very large volumes of letters and reports written by both armies. Online at [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/moa/browse.monographs/waro.html]
*Bedwell, Randall, ''War is All Hell: A Collection of Civil War Quotations'', Cumberland House Publishing, 1999, ISBN 1-58182-419-X
* Commager, Henry Steele (ed.). ''The Blue and the Gray. The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants.'' (1950), often reprinted
* Eisenschiml, Otto; Ralph Newman; eds. ''The American Iliad: The Epic Story of the Civil War as Narrated by Eyewitnesses and Contemporaries'' (1947)
* Hesseltine, William B. ed.; ''The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (1962)
*Woodword, C. Vann, Ed., ''Mary Chesnut's Civil War'', Yale University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-300-02979-9 Pulitzer Prize
===Novels about the war===
*[[Stephen Crane|Crane, Stephen]], ''[[The Red Badge of Courage]]''
*[[E.L. Doctorow|Doctorow, E.L.]], ''[[The March]]''
*[[Charles Frazier|Frazier, Charles]], ''[[Cold Mountain]]''
*[[Margaret Mitchell|Mitchell, Margaret]], ''[[Gone with the Wind]]''
*[[Ishmael Reed|Reed, Ishmael]], ''Flight to Canada''
*[[Jeffrey Shaara|Shaara, Jeffrey]], ''[[Gods and Generals]]''
*[[Jeffrey Shaara|Shaara, Jeffrey]], ''[[The Last Full Measure]]''
*[[Michael Shaara|Shaara, Michael]], ''[[The Killer Angels]]''
*[[James Street|Street, James]], ''By Valour and Arms''
*[[Jules Verne|Verne, Jules]], ''[[Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South]]'' (''Nord Contre Sud'')
*[[Gore Vidal|Vidal, Gore]], ''Lincoln''
===Films about the war===
*''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' ([[1915]])
*''[[Gone With the Wind]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[The Blue and the Gray]]''([[1982]])
*''[[Glory (film)|Glory]]'' ([[1989]])
*''[[Gettysburg (movie)|Gettysburg]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[Gods and Generals]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Cold Mountain]]'' ([[2003]])
===Documentaries about the war===
*''[[The Civil War (documentary)|The Civil War]]'', directed by [[Ken Burns]]
==See also==
*[[African Americans in the Civil War]]
*[[California and the Civil War]]
*[[Canada and the American Civil War]]
*[[Casualties of the American Civil War]]
*[[Illinois in the Civil War]]
*[[Military history of the Confederate States]]
*[[Military history of the United States]]
*[[National Civil War Museum]]
*[[Naming the American Civil War]]
*[[List of American Civil War topics]]
*[[List of people associated with the American Civil War]]
*[[Official Records of the American Civil War]]
*[[Origins of the American Civil War]]
*[[Photography and photographers of the American Civil War]]
*[[Rail transport in the American Civil War]]
*[[U.S. Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]]
*[[Union Army Balloon Corps]]
*[[Union blockade]]
==External links==
{{commonscat|American Civil War}}
*[http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/ The American Civil War Homepage]
*[http://www.archives.gov/research_room/research_topics/civil_war/civil_war_photos.html Civil War photos] at the [[National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives]]
* [http://www.virginia.org/site/features.asp?FeatureID=198 Civil War in Virginia]
*Civil War Research & Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/ Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1500+ Links And 400+ Articles.
*[http://www.civilwar-pictures.com Civil War Pictures Database]
*[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/books-title.htm Online texts of Civil War books] at the [[National Park Service]]
*[http://www.brucegourley.com/civilwar/gourleyhistor1.htm Religion and the American Civil War]
*[http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/generals.html University of Tennessee: U.S. Civil War Generals]
*[http://www.civilwarhome.com Shotgun's Home of the American Civil War]
*[http://www.us-civilwar.com American Civil War]
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/chron/civilwar.html American Civil War Detailed Chronology]
*[http://www.pbs.org/civilwar ''The Civil War''], a [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary by [[Ken Burns]]
* Individual state's contributions to the Civil War: [http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.html California], [http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/FloridaCivilWar/index.cfm Florida], [http://www.illinoiscivilwar.org/ Illinois #1], [http://www.rootsweb.com/~ilcivilw/ Illinois #2], [http://www.ohiocivilwar.com/ Ohio], [http://www.pacivilwar.com/ Pennsylvania]
*State declarations of the causes of secession: [http://www.civilwar.com/decms.htm Mississippi], [http://www.civilwar.com/decga.htm Georgia], [http://www.civilwar.com/dectx.htm Texas], [http://www.civilwar.com/decsc.htm South Carolina]
*[http://members.aol.com/jfepperson/ordnces.html Ordinances of Secession for all CSA states]
*[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76 Alexander Hamilton Stephens' Cornerstone Speech]
* [http://www.civilwartrails.org/ Civil War Trails] &mdash; A project to map out sites related to the Civil War in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina
*[http://www.learnoutloud.com/Content/Topic-Pages/Experience-the-Civil-War-with-Your-Ears/21 Civil War Audio Resources]
*[http://www.hoardmuseum.org/ Hoard Historical Museum] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]]
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/CC/qdc2.html ''The Handbook of Texas Online:'' Civil War]
*[http://www.brotherswar.com The Brothers War]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/MillsSpColl.BandBooks Civil War Band Collection: 1st Brigade Band of Brodhead, Wisconsin] A digital collection of first person narrative accounts from Wisconsin soldiers and citizens, documenting their wartime experiences.
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.WIWar Wisconsin Goes to War: Our Civil War Experience]
*[http://www.worldbook.com/wc/popup?path=features/civilwar&page=html/index.html&direct=yes "A Divided Nation"]. One of ''World Book Encyclopedia'''s monthly features, this one on the American Civil War.
{{UShistoryFooter}}
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[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the United States]]
[[Category:Wars of the United States]]
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[[ast:Guerra de Secesión]]
[[bs:Američki građanski rat]]
[[ca:Guerra civil dels Estats Units]]
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[[da:Den amerikanske borgerkrig]]
[[de:Sezessionskrieg]]
[[es:Guerra de Secesión]]
[[eo:Usona Enlanda Milito]]
[[fr:Guerre de Sécession]]
[[ko:남북 전쟁]]
[[hr:Američki građanski rat]]
[[ia:Guerra civil american]]
[[it:Guerra civile americana]]
[[he:מלחמת האזרחים האמריקנית]]
[[hu:Amerikai polgárháború]]
[[mr:अमेरिकन गृहयुद्ध]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse burgeroorlog]]
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[[nn:Borgarkrigen i USA]]
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[[pt:Guerra Civil Americana]]
[[ru:Гражданская война в США]]
[[sh:Američki građanski rat]]
[[simple:American Civil War]]
[[sk:Americká občianska vojna]]
[[sl:Ameriška državljanska vojna]]
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[[zh:南北战争]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Andy Warhol</title>
<id>864</id>
<revision>
<id>42140817</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:16:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.239.31.24|220.239.31.24]] ([[User talk:220.239.31.24|talk]]) to last version by Sylvea</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Helmut Newton- Andy Warhol.jpg|thumb|250PX|Andy Warhol, photographed by [[Helmut Newton]].]]
'''Andy Warhol''' ([[August 6]], [[1928]] – [[February 22]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] painter, filmmaker, publisher, actor, and a major figure in the [[Pop Art]] movement.
== Biography ==
Warhol was born as '''Andrew Warhola''' in [[Forest City, Pennsylvania]]. His parents, Ondrej (Andrew) Warhola and Julia Zavacky, were working class immigrants of [[Rusyns|Ruthenian ethnicity]] from [[Mikova]], in northeast [[Slovakia]]; his father worked in the coal mines of [[Pennsylvania]]. The family was [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] but Warhol's mother had a [[Jewish]] grandmother.[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0815410085/qid=1141095641/sr=1-33/ref=sr_1_33/104-6359540-7548710?s=books&v=glance&n=283155]
Warhol showed early artistic talent and studied [[commercial art]] at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]]. In 1949 he moved to [[New York City]] and began a successful career in [[magazine]] illustration and [[advertising]]. He became well-known mainly for his whimsical ink drawings of shoes done in a loose, blotted style.
In the 1960s, Warhol began to make paintings of famous American products such as [[Campbell Soup Company|Campbell's soup]] cans and [[Coca-Cola]]. He switched to [[silkscreen]] prints, seeking not only to make art of mass produced items, but to mass produce the art itself. He said that he wanted to be like a robot. |
: [[War in Defense of the Constitution]]
; [[1793]] : [[Second Partition of Poland]]
; [[1794]] : [[Kościuszko Uprising]]
; 1794 : [[Greater Poland Uprising of 1794|Greater Poland Uprising]]
; [[1795]] : [[Third Partition of Poland]]
; 1795 [[November 25]] : Abdication of Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
==19th century==
; [[1806]] : [[Greater Poland Uprising 1806|Greater Poland Uprising]]
; [[1807]] [[July 9]] : Signing of the second [[Treaties of Tilsit|Treaty of Tilsit]]
; [[1809]] [[October 14]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]]
; [[1813]] : Poland is occupied by Russian troops, bringing the Duchy to an end
; [[1815]] [[June 9]] : [[Congress of Vienna]] concludes
; 1815 [[October 18]] : [[Free City of Kraków]] proclaimed
; [[1830]] [[November 29]] : [[November Uprising]] begins
; [[1832]] [[February 26]] : Russian-occupied Poland is stripped of its separate administration
; [[1846]] [[February 19]] : [[Kraków Uprising]] begins
; 1846 [[March 4]] : Kraków Uprising ends
; 1846 [[November 16]] : Free City of Kraków incorporated into the [[Austrian Empire]]
; [[1848]] : [[Greater Poland Uprising of 1848|Greater Poland Uprising]]
; [[1863]] [[January 22]] : [[January Uprising]] begins
==20th century==
; [[1916]] [[November 5]] : Signing of the [[Act of November 5th]]
; [[1918]] [[March 3]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]
; 1918 [[November 11]] : Poland regains independence
; 1918 [[December 27]] : [[Greater Poland Uprising]] begins
; [[1919]] [[February 14]] : [[Polish-Bolshevik War]] begins
; 1919 [[August 16]] : [[First Silesian Uprising]] begins
; [[1920]] [[February 10]] : [[Poland's Betrothal with the Sea]]
; 1920 [[August 19]] : [[Second Silesian Uprising]] begins
; 1920 [[August 25]] : Victory at the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]]
; [[1921]] [[March 17]] : Adoption of [[March Constitution of Poland|March Constitution]]
; 1921 [[March 18]] : Signing of the [[Peace of Riga]] concludes the Polish-Bolshevik War
; 1921 [[May 2]] : [[Third Silesian Uprising]] begins
; [[1922]] [[December 9]] : [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] becomes the first President
; 1922 [[December 16]] : Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz
; [[1925]] [[December 1]] : Signing of the [[Locarno Treaties]]
; [[1926]] [[May 14]] : [[May Coup]] concludes
; [[1935]] [[April 23]] : Adoption of [[Polish Constitution of 1935|April Constitution]]
; 1935 [[May 12]] : Death of Józef Piłsudski
; [[1939]] [[August 23]] : Signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]
; 1939 [[September 1]] : Beginning of [[World War II]] with the German invasion of Poland
; 1939 [[September 17]] : Invasion of Poland by the Soviet Union
; 1939 [[September 18]] : [[Orzeł incident]]
; [[1940]] [[March 5]] : Authorization of [[Katyń massacre]]
; 1940 [[May 16]] : Authorization of [[AB Action]]
; [[1941]] [[August 17]] : Signing of the [[Sikorski-Mayski Agreement]]
; [[1943]] [[July 4]] : Death of [[Władysław Sikorski]]
; 1943 [[December 1]] : [[Tehran Conference]] concludes
; 1943 [[April 19]] : [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] begins
; 1943 [[May 16]] : Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends
; [[1944]] [[January 29]] : [[Koniuchy massacre]]
; 1944 [[July 22]] : Proclamation of the [[PKWN Manifesto]]
; 1944 [[August 1]] : [[Warsaw Uprising]] begins
; 1944 [[October 2]] : Warsaw Uprising ends
; [[1945]] [[February 11]] : [[Yalta Conference]] concludes
; 1945 [[August 2]] : [[Potsdam Conference]] concludes
; [[1946]] [[June 30]] : [[Polish people's referendum, 1946|Polish people's referendum]]
; [[1955]] [[May 14]] : Signing of the [[Warsaw Pact]]
; [[1956]] [[June 28]] : [[Poznań 1956 protests]] begin
; [[1968]] [[August 20]] : End of [[Prague Spring]] with the invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]]
; [[1970]] [[December 7]] : Signing of [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Treaty of Warsaw]]
; 1970 [[December 14]] : [[Polish 1970 protests|1970 protests]] begin
; [[1978]] [[October 16]] : [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] becomes the first Polish pope
; [[1981]] [[December 13]] : Introduction of [[Martial law in Poland|martial law]]
; [[1983]] [[July 22]] : Lifting of martial law
; [[1989]] [[April 4]] : Signing of the [[Polish Round Table Agreement|Round Table Agreement]]
; 1989 [[June 4]] : Victory of Solidarity in [[Polish parliamentary election, 1989|parliamentary election]]
; 1989 [[July 19]] : [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] becomes President
; 1989 [[December 31]] : The [[People's Republic of Poland]] becomes the [[Republic of Poland]]
; [[1990]] [[December 22]] : [[Lech Wałęsa]] becomes President
; [[1991]] [[July 1]] : Dissolution of Warsaw Pact
; [[1995]] [[December 23]] : [[Aleksander Kwaśniewski]] becomes President
; [[1997]] [[April 2]] : Adoption of [[Constitution of Poland|Constitution]]
; [[1999]] [[March 12]] : Accession of Poland to [[NATO]]
==21st century==
; [[2003]] [[April 16]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Accession 2003|Treaty of Accession]]
; [[2004]] [[May 1]] : Accession of Poland to the [[European Union]]
; [[2005]] [[April 2]] : Death of John Paul II
; 2005 [[December 23]] : [[Lech Kaczyński]] becomes President
==See also==
* [[List of timelines]]
[[Category:History of Poland| ]]
[[Category:Nation timelines|Poland]]
[[fr:Histoire chronologique de la Pologne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hamitic languages</title>
<id>14163</id>
<revision>
<id>15911736</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H-R diagram</title>
<id>14167</id>
<revision>
<id>15911740</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-21T13:18:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
<id>135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Himalia</title>
<id>14168</id>
<revision>
<id>28912657</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-21T15:49:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Himalia''' can refer to:
*[[Himalia (moon)|Himalia]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''Himalia''' was a [[nymph]] from [[Cyprus]] who had three sons with [[Zeus]]. They included [[Cronius]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heracleidae</title>
<id>14169</id>
<revision>
<id>31869031</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T18:33:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.240.150.124</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heracleidae''', the general name for the numerous descendants of [[Heracles]] (Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of [[Hyllus]], the eldest of his four sons by [[Deianira]], the conquerors of [[Peloponnesus]]. Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as a son of [[Melite]] with Heracles.
Heracles, whom [[Zeus]] had originally intended to be ruler of [[Argos]], [[Lacedaemon]] and Messenian [[Pylos]], had been supplanted by the cunning of [[Hera]], and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of [[Eurystheus]], king of [[Mycenae]]. After the death of [[Heracles]], his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from [[Eurystheus]] at [[Athens, Greece|Athens]]. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew to [[Thessaly]], where [[Aegimius]], the mythical ancestor of the [[Dorians]], whom Heracles had assisted in war against the [[Lapiths|Lapithae]], adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After the death of [[Aegimius]], his two sons, [[Pamphilus (mythology)|Pamphilus]] and [[Dymas]], voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Donian tradition in [[Herodotus]] V. 72, really an [[Achaea|Achaean]]), who thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three heroes. Being desirous of reconquening his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the [[Delphi|Delphic oracle]], which told him to wait for "the third fruit," and then enter Peloponnesus by "a narrow passage by sea."
Accordingly, after three years, [[Hyllus]] marched across the [[isthmus]] of [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]] to attack [[Atreus]], the successor of [[Eurystheus]], but was slain in single combat by [[Echemus]], king of [[Tegea]]. This second attempt was followed by a third under [[Cleodaeus]] and a fourth under [[Aristomachus]], both of which were equally unsuccessful. At last, [[Temenus]], [[Cresphontes]] and [[Aristodemus]], the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They received the answer that by the "third fruit" the "third generation" was meant, and that the "narrow passage" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of [[Rhium]]. They accordingly built a fleet at [[Naupactus]], but before they set sail, [[Aristodemus]] was struck by lightning (or shot by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heracl |
ty]]. Health campaigns and officials often seek to target self-identified "straight" or [[bisexuality|bisexual]] "Men who have Sex with Men" or "Men who like Sex with Men" (MSM) as opposed to self-identified "gay" or ''homosexual'' men.
People who engage exclusively in same-sex sexual practices do not necessarily identify themselves as "[[gay]]" or "[[lesbian]]", and different definitions of ''homosexual'' may include or exclude people with varying levels of activity, frequency, or interest.
Among some sectors of African-American homosexual sub-culture (called "men on the DL" or "[[down-low]]"), same-sex sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the "down-low" may engage in regular (though often covert) sex acts with other men while continuing sexual and romantic relationships with women. These men often shun the more commonly-known "gay" as a term applying to stereotypically flamboyant and effeminate men of European ancestry there, a group from which some may wish to distance themselves.
Some sociologists and researchers in [[queer studies]] have suggested that this mostly African-American subculture may have come about because of stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, and, due to more widespread poverty, greater dependence on possibly homophobic family networks for support.
''See also:'' [[cottaging]], [[cruising for sex]], [[gay bathhouse]], [[men who have sex with men]].
=== Variations between cultures ===
==Safety and ancillary issues==
There are four main areas of risk in sexual activity, namely:
* The risk of choosing to trust a person who is physically a risk
* The risk of [[sexually transmitted disease]]
* The risk of unwanted [[pregnancy]]
* The risk of seeking or engaging in an activity which is legally or culturally disapproved.
A final risk factor is any condition (temporary or permanent) which impairs one's judgement, such as excess [[alcohol]] or [[drugs]], or emotional states such as [[loneliness]], [[depression]] or [[euphoria]] (eg new students at college), because these may raise the risk of any of the above. Carefully considered activity can greatly reduce all of these issues.
=== Sexually transmitted disease ===
Sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person entail some risk of transmission of [[sexually transmitted infections]], which is why [[safer sex]] techniques are recommended. These techniques are generally seen as less necessary for those in committed monogamous relationships with persons who have been demonstrated to be free of disease; see [[fluid bonding]].
Due to [[health]] concerns arising from [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], [[chlamydia]], [[syphilis]], [[gonorrhea]] and other [[sexually-transmitted infections]], some people may want potential [[sex]] partners be tested for [[Sexually-transmitted infection|STI]]s before engaging in [[sex]].
===Unwanted pregnancy===
Sexual behaviors that involve the contact of [[semen]] with the [[vagina]] or [[vulva]] may result in [[pregnancy]]. To prevent pregnancy, many people employ a variety of [[birth control]] measures. The most popular methods of prevention are condoms, spermicides, and the birth control pill.
=== Judgement impairment ===
[[Recreational drug use|Recreational drugs]] are often used in social settings in the belief that they enhance interpersonal communication. Some common recreational drugs are [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[caffeine]] and [[nicotine]].
* [[Alcoholic beverage|Alcohol]] is sometimes called a "social lubricant" because it reduces [[Social_Inhibition|inhibitions]], including those caused by the fear of rejection. At the same time, though, alcohol impairs judgment, making a person less receptive to subtle signals, which can result in less effective communication. More importantly, this judgement impairment can lead to poor decision-making regarding sex, such as engaging in [[unsafe sex]].
* [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] can induce increased appreciation for [[humour]] and [[art]], which might improve communication. But at the same time, it can cause one to become [[Introspection|introspective]], and thus less inclined to communicate.
* [[Caffeine]] and [[nicotine]] are [[stimulant]]s. Others include [[amphetamine]]s and [[cocaine]]. Stimulants can increase alertness and improve [[attention]], both of which can improve one's ability to communicate effectively. However, stimulants also have adverse health effects when used in large amounts.
Use of recreational drugs is frequently cited as a risk factor for health problems including [[sexually transmitted diseases]], [[addiction]], [[birth defects]], [[heart disease]], [[cancer]] and [[liver disease]], among others.[http://dancesafe.org/documents/druginfo/risk.php]
==Legal issues related to sexual behavior==
===Sodomy and same sex laws===
Various forms of same-gender sexual activity have been prohibited under law in many areas at different times in history. In 2003, the [[Lawrence v Texas]] United States Supreme Court decision overturned all such laws in the US.
Usually, though not always, such laws are termed [[sodomy law]]s, but also include issues such as [[age of consent]] laws, "decency" laws, and so forth. Laws prohibiting same-gender sexuality have varied widely throughout history, varying by culture, religious and social taboos and customs, etc. Often such laws are targeted or applied differently based on gender as well. For example, laws against same-gender sexual behavior in [[England]] during the reign of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], sodomy or "buggery" laws were aimed specifically at male same-gender sexual activity and did not target or even address female same-gender sexual activity. A well known example of such laws applied in modern times can be found in [[Alan Turing]].
== List of sex acts and practices ==
:''There are many variations of sexual activities, and often multiple names for any given practice. For more detail see the comprehensive ''[[list of sex positions]]'' and ''[[list of sexual slang]].''
===General===
*[[Ageplay]]
*[[Anal sex]]
**[[Fisting|Handballing]]
**[[Pegging (sexual practice)|Pegging]]
*[[Autoeroticism]]
*[[Casual sex]]
*[[Cross dressing]]
*[[Dirty talk]]
*[[Fisting]]
*[[Foreplay]] (aka "petting")
**[[Lingerie]] (erotic clothing)
**[[Cross dressing]]
*[[Group sex]]
**[[Swinging]]
**[[Gangbang]]ing
**[[Orgies]]
**[[Ménage à trois]] (threesomes)
*[[Hogging]]
*[[Masturbation]]
**[[Anal masturbation]]
**[[Sex toys]], using
**[[Fisting|Handballing]]
*[[Oral sex]]
**[[Cunnilingus]]
**[[Fellatio]]
**[[Rimming]]
**[[Felching]]
**[[Tea bagging]]
**[[Snowballing (sexual practice)|Snowballing]]
*[[Outercourse]]
*[[Play piercing]]
*[[Pornography]]
*[[Premarital sex]]
*[[Sexual roleplaying|Roleplay]]
*[[Safe sex]]
*[[Seduction]]
*[[Sensual massage]]
*[[List of sex positions|Sex positions]]
*[[Sex toys]], using
**[[Vibrator]]s
**[[Dildo]]s
**[[Strap-on dildo]]s
**[[Sybian]]s
**[[Butt-plug]]s
**[[Sexual lubricant]]s
**[[Sex dolls]]
**[[Nipple clamp]]s
**[[Thumb clamps]] and [[Toe clamps]]
**[[Anal beads]]
**[[Sex games]]
**[[Artificial vagina|Pocket pussies]] or [[Artificial vagina|Masturbation sleeve]]s
**[[Fleshlight]]s
**[[Cock-ring]]s
**[[Penis sleeve]]s
**[[Penis extension]]s
**[[Ben wah balls]]
**[[Kegel exerciser]]s
*[[Sexual fetishism]]
*[[Sexual intercourse]]
*[[Sexual intercourse|Vaginal sex]]
*[[Sexual roleplaying]]
*[[Wax play]]
===Specialized BDSM and paraphilia related===
Generally less common, but still widespread, are the various [[Paraphilia|paraphilias]]. Some of the more common ones are:
* [[BDSM]]
**[[List of BDSM organizations]]
**[[List of BDSM equipment]]
**[[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]]
**[[List of bondage positions]]
**[[Sadism and Masochism|S&amp;M]]
*** [[Sexual masochism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior of wanting to be humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer.
*** [[Sexual sadism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior involving acts in which the pain or humiliation of the victim is sexually exciting.
**[[Discipline]]
***[[Domination and submission]]
**[[Impact play]]
***[[Erotic Spanking]]
***[[Flogging]]
***[[Paddle (spanking)|Paddling]]
***[[Caning]]
* [[Exhibitionism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior to expose one's genitals to an unsuspecting person.
* [[Sexual fetish|Fetishism]] is the use of non-sexual or nonliving objects to gain sexual excitement.
**[[Foot fetishism]]
**[[Leather fetishism]]
**[[Rubber fetishism]]
**[[erotic spanking|Spanking]]
**[[Transvestic fetishism]] is [[cross-dressing|wearing clothes of another gender]] for sexual reasons.
* [[Pedophilia|Pedophilia]] is the sexual attraction to prepubescent children.
* [[Perversion]]
* [[Polyamory]]
* [[Statuephilia]] (Pygmalionism)
* [[Frotteurism]] is the recurrent urges or behavior of touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person.
* [[Tribadism]]
* [[Voyeurism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior to observe an unsuspecting person who is naked, disrobing or engaging in sexual activities.
* [[Zoophilia]], the attraction to other species as partners.
===Specialized verbal or visual activities===
Some forms of sexual activity involve someone else, but not touching the other:
* [[Dirty talk]]
**[[Phone sex]]
**[[Cybersex]]
* [[Exhibitionism]]
* [[Voyeurism]]
===Specialized Other===
Other special forms of human sexual behaviour:
* [[Prostitution]]
* [[Orgy|Orgies]]
* [[Sexual roleplaying|Role-playing]]
==See also==
{{commonscat|sex}}
* [[Sex]]
* [[Human sexuality]]
* [[History of sex]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sex education]]
* [[Sexual slang]]
* [[List of sex positions]]
* [[List of sexology topics]]
* [[Men who have sex with men]]
* [[Homosexuality]]
* [[Queer]]
* [[Gay]]
== External links |
ed with sweets and feasting. In contrast, Iranian Muslims are typically circumcised in the hospital at birth without much ado. Urban [[Egypt]]ians, as with many [[Industrialisation|industrialized]] countries such as the USA, perform the procedure at a hospital. Kamyar ''et al'' describe it as an 'obligatory custom', and note that it is not necessary for the circumciser to be a Muslim. Recently, world opinion, including Islamic opinion [http://www.islamonline.org/English/News/2005-11/23/article05.shtml], has become increasingly critical of the practice of [[female circumcision]], which is also widespread in Islamic cultures. [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/108/4/965]
===[[Judaism]]===
{{main|Brit milah}}
Circumcision is a religious practice traditionally required by Judaism, usually performed in a ceremony called a [[Brit milah|Brit]] (or [[Brit milah|Bris) milah]] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for "Covenant of circumcision"). A [[mohel]] performs the ceremony on the eighth day after birth unless health reasons force a delay. According to the [[Torah]] ([[Genesis]], chapter 17 verses 9-14), [[God]] commanded [[Abraham]] to circumcise himself, his offspring and his slaves as part of an everlasting covenant. According to [[halakha|Jewish law]], failure to follow the commandment carries the penalty of ''karet'', or being cut off from the community by God. Brit milah is so important that should the eighth day fall on [[Shabbat]], actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise. ''See also [[Circumcision in the Bible]]''.
===[[Tribal]] [[traditions]]===
Circumcision is part of the [[initiation rite]] in a number of African and Australian Aboriginal [[tribal]] [[traditions]]. Among some West African animist groups, such as the [[Dogon]] and [[Dowayo]], it is taken to represent a removal of "feminine" aspects of the male, turning boys into fully masculine males. Among [[Nilotic]] peoples, such as the [[Nandi]], circumcision is a rite of passage observed collectively by a number of boys every few years, and boys circumcised at the same time are taken to be members of a single [[age set]]. Aboriginal circumcision ceremonies, which also constitute a rite of passage, are noted for their painful nature, including [[subincision]] for some tribes.
==Ethical Issues==
{{main|Bioethics of neonatal circumcision}}
Circumcising infants as a public health measure is controversial. In cultures such as the [[USA]], lay people may regard infant circumcision as a routine medical practice but medical organizations in Australia, Canada, and America do not recommend routine infant circumcision [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html]. While the risks of circumcision-related complications are very low [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/01/000111074855.htm], the possible catastrophic complications of a poorly carried out circumcision, or of post-operative bleeding or infection, are not to be taken lightly. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommend that parents should be informed about the benefits and risks of the procedure.[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] [[Circumcision advocacy|Circumcision advocates]] argue that circumcision is a significant public health measure, preventing infections, and possibly slowing down the spread of [[AIDS]], while the [[genital integrity]] movement asserts that infant circumcision is a [[human rights violation]] and a [[sexual assault]], and that the practice of circumcising infants or children should be discouraged or banned.
===Consent===
Debate often focuses on what limits, if any, should be placed on a caregiver's ability to make a decision for a boy about a procedure with disputed immediate medical value and that may be unwanted and mostly irreversible later in life. Some question the apparent inconsistency of allowing male circumcision but prohibiting [[female genital cutting]] [http://www.fgmnetwork.org/intro/mgmfgm.html]. It has been suggested that circumcision may cause emotional scarring later in life, and claim that the procedure should be left until a man is mature enough to make the choice for himself. Those in favour believe that the procedure is less traumatic when performed in infancy and do not wish to disturb the traditional and religious rights of parents to make decisions on behalf of their child.
===Emotional consequences===
Much attention has been given to the emotional impact of [[female genital cutting]]. For no clear reasoning the emotional impact of male circumcision has traditionally been ignored. Issues about the rights of the child are often overlooked, as is the possibility that circumcision causes emotional and physical harm to some males.
In the [[USA]], most neonatal circumcisions are performed without anaesthesia.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/101/6/e5] It is now known that circumcised infants do not forget the pain during circumcision easily, as a correlation between circumcision with ineffective anaesthesia and intensity of pain response during [[vaccination]] months later could be established.[http://www.cirp.org/library/pain/taddio2/]
===Legality===
{{main|Circumcision and law}}
The mainstream medical organizations do not consider circumcision to be a legal issue as long as the decision for circumcision was made by the legal guardians, and that they have given their informed consent.
===Religious circumcision of minors===
{{main|Religious circumcision}}
In some parts and cultures of the world, it is customary or obligatory for minors of both sexes to be circumcised for [[religious]] reasons. Many believe that this practice is protected by the principle of [[freedom of religion]]. Others disagree, arguing that no right has precedence over the rights of bodily integrity of a child. Still others contend that freedom of religion only applies to belief, not action involving others. [[Female circumcision]] is prohibited in most western countries, and [[Sweden]] has restricted religious male infant circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/news/bbc10-01-01/]
==Medical Aspects==
{{main|Medical analysis of circumcision}}
Recently there has been increasing [[Medical analysis of circumcision#Costs and Benefits|cost-benefit analysis]] of the medical aspects of neonatal circumcision. Largely these have compared the average cost of neonatal circumcision, to the expected reduction in lifetime health costs, both financial and longevity, associated with reduced incidence of disease.
These studies have been conflicting but have formed the basis of public health policies. The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) said the medical benfits of circumcision are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision, but that it should be the decision of informed parents.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/103/3/686]
===Risks of circumcision===
{{sectstub}}
Circumcision is a [[Surgery|surgical]] procedure, and there is a risk of complications. The AAP, AMA, and AAFP state that the rate is between 0.2% and 0.6%, based upon large series. The CPS acknowledge these series, but additionally cite a review which suggested that a rate of 2% to 10% would be more realistic. The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] states the rate of complications of infant circumcision as "between 0.2% and 0.6% to 2%-10%" in one section, and "1% to 5%" in another. They suggest that the variation in reported rates depends upon the situation in which circumcision is performed and the definition of complication used.
The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] and the [[American Medical Association]] criticise neonatal circumcision without [[anaesthetics]] because of the pain involved in the procedure [http://www.racp.edu.au/hpu/paed/circumcision/legal.htm] [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html]. The American Academy of Pediatrics explicitly recommends that if the procedure is to be performed, anaesthetics are to be used [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686]. [[blood loss|Bleeding]] and [[infection]] are the most common complications, according to the AMA. Other complications are known, including [[sepsis|infections]], urinary fistulas, meatal stenosis, ulceration of the glans, removal of too much tissue, and secondary [[phimosis]]. Infant circumcision may cause problems such as [[skin bridges]], when the foreskin does not just heal back together but instead attaches to the [[glans penis]] [http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/naimer2/]. Loss of the penis itself has been [[David Reimer|documented]]. The RACP states that the penis is lost in 1 in 1,000,000 circumcisions.
Gairdner's [[1949]] study [http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/] reported that 16 children per year died in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] during the 1940s, a rate of 1.8 in 10,000 [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/QLRC/08.html]. At that time, deaths attributed to phimosis and circumcision were grouped together, but Gairdner stated that the deaths were probably due to circumcision. Gairdner stated that most deaths had occurred suddenly under anaesthesia, and couldn't be explained further, but haemorrhage and infection had also proven fatal.
The American Academy of Family Physicians states that death is rare, and cites an estimated death rate with circumcisions of infants of 1 in 500,000 [http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml].
===[[HIV]]===
The March 2005 Cochrane review concluded that while individual studies are of variable quality, there are clear indicators that circumcision can significantly reduce the chances of female-to-male [[HIV]] infection in an African population, when compared against a non-circumcised control group.[http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473309905013095/ |
D), merged with the West-German [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]] after reunification
The Volkskammer also included representatives from the ''mass organisations'' like the [[Free German Youth]] (''Freie Deutsche Jugend'' or ''FDJ''), or the [[Free German Trade Union Federation]]. In an attempt to include women in the political life in East Germany, there was even a [[Democratic Women's Federation of Germany]] with seats in the Volkskammer.
Non-parliamentary mass organisations which nevertheless played a key role in East German society included the German Gymnastics and Sports Association (''Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund'' or ''DTSB'') and People's Solidarity (''Volkssolidarität'', an organisation for the elderly). Another society of note (and very popular during the late 1980s) was the [[Society for German-Soviet Friendship]].
===Persons of note in East Germany===
[[Image:Honecker2.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Erich Honecker]]
====Political Representatives====
{{main|Leaders of East Germany}}
*[[Hermann Axen]], editor-in-chief of the SED paper "Neues Deutschland" 1956-1978, SED secretary for international relations 1966-1989
*[[Johannes R. Becher]], first minister for culture 1954-1958, wrote the lyrics of the national anthem
*[[Hilde Benjamin]], vice president of the supreme court 1949-1953, minister for justice 1953-1967, dubbed "red guillotine" for her relentless persecution of political opponents
*[[Otto Grotewohl]], Chairman of the East German [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] 1945-1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946-54; Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1949-64
*[[Erich Honecker]], General Secretary of the SED 1971-89; Chairman of the Council of State, 1976-89
*[[Margot Honecker]] née Feist, minister for education 1963-1989
*[[Heinz Keßler]], minister for defence 1985-1989 (deputy minister since 1957)
*[[Egon Krenz]], General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and chairman of Council of State October - December 1989, he was Honnecker's deputy and "crown prince" since 1983
*[[Erich Mielke]], [[Stasi]] Minister 1957-1989
*[[Günter Mittag]], SED secretary for economics 1962-1973, 1976-1989
*[[Hans Modrow]], SED district secretary for Dresden 1973-1989, last SED prime minister November 1989 - March 1990
*[[Wilhelm Pieck]], Chairman of the East German [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]] 1945-1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946-54; State President 1949-60
*[[Günter Schabowski]], SED district secretary for Berlin 1985-1989; as party spokesperson he caused the fall of the [[Berlin wall]]
*[[Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski]], head of the department of "commercial coordination" in the ministry of foreign trade.
*[[Karl Schirdewan]], SED secretary 1953-1958, dismissed for "faction building"
*[[Horst Sindermann]], Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1973-1976; president of parliament 1976-1989
*[[Karl-Eduard von Schnitzler]], telecaster on East German television, "famous" for his propaganda programme "[[Der schwarze Kanal]]"
*[[Willi Stoph]], Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1964-73, 1976-89; Chairman of the Council of State, 1973-76
*[[Harry Tisch]], head of the [[Free German Trade Union Federation]] 1975-1989
*[[Walter Ulbricht]], General Secretary of the SED 1950-71; Chairman of the Council of State, 1960-73)
*[[Markus Wolf|Markus "Mischa" Wolf]], head of the GDR's intelligence department 1952-1989
====Artists and Otherwise Important Persons====
*[[Manfred von Ardenne]], physicist and inventor
*[[Rudolf Bahro]], jornalist and poltician
*[[Jurek Becker]], writer (''"[[Jacob the Liar]]"'')
*[[Benno Besson]], dramitist, actor and director, pupil of Bertolt Brecht and one of the most important directors of German language of this time
*[[Frank Beyer]], film director
*[[Wolf Biermann]], singer/songwriter and dissident, citizenship withdrawn in 1976 when he was on tour in West Germany
*[[Ibrahim Böhme]], first chairman of the East German [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] in 1989-1990, resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer
*[[Bärbel Bohley]], painter
*[[Thomas Brasch]], writer, poet and dramatist
*[[Bertolt Brecht]], dramitist, poet and director, reopened the "Berliner Ensemble" in 1949, important person of Communistic Exil and Resistance
*[[Rainer Eppelmann]], Protestant pastor, minister for defence and disarmament March - October 1990
*[[Klaus Fuchs]], physicist
*[[Erwin Geschonneck]], actor
*[[Gregor Gysi]], lawyer to artists, chairman of the SED/PDS November 1989 - 1998
*[[Nina Hagen]], punk singer
*[[Peter Hacks]], dramitist
*[[Wolfgang Harich]], intellectual sentenced to prison for counterrevolutionary activities
*[[Robert Havemann]], chemist and intellectual critic of government, communistic resistance fighter in World War 2
*[[John Heartfield|Johnny Heartfield]], photographer
*[[Bernhard Heisig]], painter ("[[Leipzig school (art)|Leipziger Schule]]")
*[[Henry Hübchen]], actor
*[[Walter Janka]], publisher, sentenced to prison in 1957 for "counterrevolutionary activities", communistic resistance fighter in World War 2
*[[Gustav Just]], journalist
*[[Manfred Krug]], actor and jazz singer
*[[Lothar de Maiziere]], first (and only) freely elected prime minister April - October [[1990]]
*[[Wolfgang Mattheuer]], painter ("[[Leipzig school (art)|Leipziger Schule]]")
*[[Markus Meckel]], Protestant pastor, deputy chairman of the East German Social Democrats 1989-1990, GDR foreign minister April - August 1990
*[[Armin Mueller-Stahl]], actor
*[[Heiner Müller]], writer and dramatist, worked with the director [[Benno Besson]] at [[Volksbühne]]
*[[Wolfgang Schnur]], lawyer to dissidents, opposition politician ([[Democratic Awakening]] in 1990 but resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer
*[[Erwin Strittmatter]], writer ("[[Der Laden]]")
*[[Werner Tübke]], painter ("[[Leipzig school (art)|Leipziger Schule]]")
*[[Katarina Witt]], figure skater
*[[Christa Wolf]], writer ("[[Kassandra]]")
==Subdivisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of East Germany}}
In 1952, the ''[[States of Germany|Länder]]'' of East Germany were abolished, and East Germany was divided into fifteen ''Bezirke'' (districts), each named after the largest city: [[Rostock]]; [[Schwerin]]; [[Neubrandenburg]]; [[Magdeburg]]; [[Potsdam]]; [[Berlin]]; [[Frankfurt (Oder)]]; [[Cottbus]]; [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]]; [[Erfurt]]; [[Leipzig]]; [[Dresden]]; [[Karl-Marx-Stadt]] (now again [[Chemnitz]]); [[Gera]]; and [[Suhl]].
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the German Democratic Republic}}
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
[[Image:GDR economy.jpg|right|thumb|312.5px|Economic activity in the GDR.]]
Like other [[East Europe]]an [[communist]] states, East Germany had a [[centrally planned economy]] (CPE), similar to the one in the former [[Soviet Union]], in contrast to the more familiar [[market economy|market economies]] or [[mixed economy|mixed economies]] of most Western states. The state established production targets and prices and allocated resources, codifying these decisions in a comprehensive plan or set of plans. The means of production were almost entirely state owned. In [[1985]], for example, state-owned enterprises or [[collective]]s earned 96.7 percent of total net national income. To secure constant prices for inhabitants, the state bore 80% of costs of basic supplies, from bread to housing.
Advocates of CPEs considered this organizational form to have important advantages. First, the government could harness the economy to serve the political and economic objectives of the leadership. Consumer demand, for example, could be restrained in favor of greater investment in basic industry or channeled into desired patterns, such as reliance on public transportation, like trains and trams, rather than on private automobiles.
Second, CPEs could maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources. Under CPEs, neither [[unemployment]] nor idle plants should have existed beyond minimal levels, and the economy should have developed in a stable manner, unimpeded by [[inflation]] or [[recession]]. Third, CPEs could serve social rather than individual ends; under such a system, the leadership could distribute rewards, whether wages or [[perquisite]]s, according to the concept of "social value" of the service performed, not according to [[supply and demand]] on an [[open market]].
Critics of CPEs identified several characteristic problems. First, given the complexities of economic processes, the plan must be a simplification of reality. Individuals and producing units can be given directives or targets, but in carrying out the plan they may select courses of action that conflict with the overall interests of society as determined by the planners. Such courses of action might include, for example, ignoring quality standards, producing an improper product mix, or using resources wastefully. Second, critics contended that CPEs have build-in obstacles to innovation and efficiency in production; managers of producing units, frequently having limited discretionary authority, see as their first priority a strict fulfillment of the plan targets rather than, for example, development of new techniques or diversification of products. Third, the system of allocating goods and services in CPEs was thought to be inefficient.
Most of the total mix of products was distributed according to the plan, with the aid of a [[ration]]ing mechanism known as the System of Material Balances. But since no one could predict perfectly the actual needs of each producing unit, some units received too many goods and others too few. The managers with surpluses were hesitant to admit they had them, for CPEs were typically "taut," that is, they carried low [[inventory|inventories]] and reserves. Managers preferred to hoard whatever they had and |
tien]], near [[Pattaya]], [[Thailand]], at 5,100 rooms. It is a resort complex with a number of buildings, but the exact room count has not been independently verified. In [[2000]], the [[First World Hotel]], in [[Genting Highlands]], [[Malaysia]], claimed that it was in the process of developing a 6,300-room hotel complex; however, it appears that only about 3,000 rooms have been built and opened to the public.
The largest single-building hotel is the [[MGM Grand Las Vegas]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]], with 5,005 rooms. Third place belongs to the [[Luxor Hotel]], also in Las Vegas, with 4,408 rooms. According to [http://hotels.about.com/cs/uniqueunusual/a/largesthotels_2.htm About.com], 8 of the top 10 largest hotels are in Las Vegas.
=== Oldest ===
According to the [[Guinness Book of World Records]], the oldest hotel still in operation is the [[Hoshi Ryokan]], in [[Awazu]], [[Japan]]. It opened in 717 CE, and features hot springs.
==Hotels in fiction==
Hotels have often been chosen by authors as the setting of their literary works. They are perfect for mysterious, anonymous settings where multiple characters may gather in equal positions. It is especially true of [[crime fiction]], [[farce]]s, and [[mysteries]]. Hotels also feature in [[film]]s , [[television]] series, [[song]]s and even [[theme park]] rides.
Examples:
*''[[Grand Hotel (film)|Grand Hotel]]''
*''[[Room Service (1938 movie)|Room Service]]''
*''[[Plaza Suite]]''
*''[[Tipton Hotel]]'' on Disney Channel's "The Suite Life of Zack and Cody"
*''[[The Hotel New Hampshire]]''
*''[[Fawlty Towers]]''
*''[[White Horse Inn]]''
*''[[Hotelier]]''
*"[[Hotel California (song)|Hotel California]]"
*[[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]''
*''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
*''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]''
*[[Cyril Hare]]'s ''[[Suicide Excepted]]''
*''[[Hotel Rwanda]]''
*"[[The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror|Hollywood Tower Hotel]]" (ride at [[Disney-MGM Studios]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]])
*''[[The Overlook Hotel]] ''from ''[[The Shining]]
*''[[Hotel (TV series)|Hotel]]''
==Other usage==
In [[Australia]], the word "hotel" often refers to a [[public house]], a drinking establishment which does not necessarily provide accommodations. In [[India]], the word may also refer to a [[restaurant]], since earlier the best restaurants were always situated next to a good hotel.
==See also==
{{commonscat}}
* [[List of famous hotels]]
* [[Hotel chain]]
* [[Resort]]
* [[Hospitality services]]
* [[List of lodging types]]
** [[Apartment]]
** [[Bed and breakfast]]
** [[Extended stay hotel]]
** [[Guest House]]
** [[Hostel]]
** [[Hostal]]
** [[Motel]]
** [[Single Room Occupancy]]
** [[Suite (hotel) | Suite]]
* [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]] (mathematics)
*[http://london.wikicities.com/wiki/London_hotels List of London Hotels - link to Wikicities]
[[Category:Hotels| ]]
[[bg:Хотел]]
[[cs:Hotel]]
[[da:Hotel]]
[[de:Hotel]]
[[es:Hotel]]
[[eo:Hotelo]]
[[fr:Hôtel]]
[[id:Hotel]]
[[nl:Hotel]]
[[ja:ホテル]]
[[pl:Hotel]]
[[pt:Hotel]]
[[sr:Хотел]]
[[fi:Hotelli]]
[[sv:Hotel]]
[[zh:酒店]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew mythology</title>
<id>14277</id>
<revision>
<id>15911840</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-28T12:04:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfdwolff</username>
<id>46555</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jewish mythology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hermitian</title>
<id>14278</id>
<revision>
<id>34149561</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T20:06:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gabetarian</username>
<id>626872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added Hermitian wavelet link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A number of [[mathematical]] entities are named '''Hermitian''', after the [[mathematician]] [[Charles Hermite]]:
*[[Hermitian adjoint]]
*[[Sesquilinear form|Hermitian form]]
*[[Hermitian function]]
*[[Hermitian matrix]]
*[[Hermitian metric]]
*[[Hermitian operator]]
*[[Hermitian wavelet]]
See also:
*[[self-adjoint]]
[[Category:Mathematical disambiguation]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Hermitien]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hugh Hefner</title>
<id>14279</id>
<revision>
<id>42079356</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:03:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dumelow</username>
<id>805775</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */ Replaced word: UNVERIVIED with "UNVERIFIED"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:hhefner1.jpg|frame|right|Hugh Hefner, mid 1970s.]] -->
'''Hugh Marston "Hef" Hefner''' (born [[April 9]], [[1926]]) is the founder and [[editor]]-in-chief of ''[[Playboy]]'' [[magazine]]. He has become a [[charisma]]tic icon and spokesman for the [[sexual revolution]], and is known for his lavish bathrobes.
Hefner was born in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and grew up "in a very typically [[Methodist]] repressed home" with "no show of affection of any kind". He went to Sayre Elementary School, and Steinmetz High School in Chicago. He majored in [[psychology]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]. After graduating from high school in 1944, he served in the [[U.S. Army]] during the closing months of [[World War II|WWII]]. Before starting the magazine, Hefner was a [[copywriter]] for [[Esquire (magazine)|''Esquire'']] magazine.
Hefner claims to have hatched the idea for ''Playboy'' while he was in college and that the name for the [[magazine]] came from deciding that his "baby" should have the name he "knew he was himself". In reality, the original working title of his magazine was ''Stag Party'' but Hefner was forced to change it to avoid a trademark conflict with the existing ''Stag Magazine''. The name "Playboy" was suggested by a friend.
From his experience in advertising, Hefner saw the need to package sexuality into aspirational categories, to tell a story about it that placed men in the narrative itself in a way that was not just acceptable but desirable. In launching ''Playboy'', perhaps the smartest thing Hefner did was to establish his personality as that of an urbane sophisticate who enjoyed the company of many young women.
Hefner has been [[marriage|married]] twice. His daughter [[Christie Hefner]], born in 1952, is from his marriage to Millie Williams, whom he married in 1949 and divorced in 1959. Christie eventually joined her father's editorial staff, and now holds the title of [[Chairman|Chairperson]] of [[Playboy Enterprises]] (PEI). He also had a son, David.
He married [[Playmate]] [[Kimberley Conrad]] in 1988. Conrad became Playmate of the Year in 1989. This marriage broke up in 1998, though Hefner and Conrad have yet to divorce. The couple had two children&mdash;Marston, born 1990, and Cooper, born 1991. During this period, Hefner lived [[Monogamy|monogamously]].
Hefner is known to have been involved with the following Playmates: then 18-year-old [[Donna Michelle]], [[Marilyn Cole]], [[Lillian Muller]], [[Patti McGuire]], [[Terri Welles]], and [[Brande Roderick]]. All six were subsequently chosen Playmate of the Year.
Other noteworthy attachments include [[Mary Warren]] (1964&ndash;68); [[Barbi Benton]] (1968&ndash;74); [[Karen Christy]] (1971&ndash;74); ex-[[Sunday school]] teacher [[Sondra Theodore]] (1974&ndash;1981) and then 19-year-old [[Carrie Leigh]] (1983&ndash;1987). The last liaison ended with a failed $35 million [[palimony]] suit by Leigh.
After his separation from Kimberley Conrad Hefner in 1999, Hefner began living with an ever-changing number of blonde women, whose ages range from 18 to 28. He told ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'' magazine "And here's the surprise bit&mdash;it's what ''they'' want!" The actual nature of the relationship between Hefner and these women at his relatively advanced age is sometimes the subject of speculation. No children have come of these relationships . The 2005 [[E!]] [[reality television]] series ''[[The Girls Next Door]]'' chronicles Hefner's three most recent girlfriends, [[Holly Madison]], [[Bridget Marquardt]] and [[Kendra Wilkinson]]. The three all spend time with Hefner, though Madison shares his bed at night and appears to be the most "involved" with Hefner.
Hefner purchased the crypt in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood, California]] beside [[Marilyn Monroe]].
The [[Hugh Hefner First Amendment Award|Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Awards]] were created by daughter Christie in 1979 "to honor individuals who have made significant contributions in the vital effort to protect and enhance [[First Amendment of the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights for Americans."
Whatever his lifestyle, Hugh Hefner's place in American history will transcend his cult status as a perpetual playboy or eccentric. His very public challenges in his nation's highest courts have influenced constitutional law for the better. This is not just a question of pictures depicting nudity, but the more important underlying issue of individual expression. The evolution of publishing rights and freedom of expression owe much to the efforts of High Hefner. Likewise the preservation of Chicago as an important publishing center. Despite what has often been described by political conservatives and other critics as a bizarre lifestyle, and his support of liberal causes, Hefner himself is actually a rather conservative midwesterner in many respects, placing great value on things like family, civic responsibility and service to one's community. By today's standards he may be c |
stages, are in unmistakable antagonism with the theistic beliefs of the time. The eschatology of a nation--and the most influential portion of Jewish and Christian apocrypha are eschatological--is always the last part of their religion to experience the transforming power of new ideas and new facts.
The contemporary religious literature of Judaism outside the canon was composed of apocryphal books, the bulk of which bore an apocalyptic character, and dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom. These naturally became the popular religious books of the rising Jewish-Christian communities, and were held by them in still higher esteem, if possible, than by the Jews. Occasionally these Jewish writings were re-edited or adapted to their new readers by Christian additions, but on the whole it was found sufficient to submit them to a system of reinterpretation in order to make them testify to the truth of Christianity and foreshadow its ultimate destinies. Christianity, moreover, moved by the same apocalyptic tendency as Judaism, gave birth to new Christian apocryphs, though, in the case of most of them, the subject matter was to a large extent traditional and derived from Jewish sources.
Another prolific source of apocryphal gospels, acts and apocalypses was Gnosticism. While the characteristic features of apocalyptic literature were derived from Judaism, those of Gnosticism sprang partly from Greek philosophy, partly from oriental religions. They insisted on an allegorical interpretation of the apostolic writings: they alleged themselves to be the guardians of a secret apostolic tradition and laid claim to prophetic inspiration. With them, as with the bulk of the Christians of the 1st and 2nd centuries, apocryphal books as such were highly esteemed. They were so designated by those who valued them. It was not till later times that the term became one of reproach.
We have remarked above that the Jewish apocrypha--especially the apocalyptic section and the host of Christian apocryphs--became the ordinary religious literature of the early Christians. And this is not strange seeing that of the former such abundant use was made by the writers of the New Testament. (The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with several of the apocryphal books. Thus James i. 19 shows dependence on Sirach v. II, Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26, Hebrews xi. 35 on II Maccabees vi., Romans ix. 21 on Wisdom xv. 7, 2 Cor. v. 1, 4 on Wisdom ix. 15, &c.) Thus [[Book of Jude|Jude]] quotes the [[Book of Enoch]] by name, while undoubted use of this book appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. The influence of the [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]] is still more apparent in the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels, and the same holds true of Jubilees and the Assumption of Moses, though in a very slight degree. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Ep. of Barnabas, [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Clement of Alexandria]], and much of the early church. But the high position which apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences. All claims to the possession of a secret tradition were denied (Irenaeus ii. 27. 2, iii. 2. 1, 3. 1; Tertullian, ''Praescript.'' 22-27): true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as a proof of apostolic authorship. Under the action of such principles apocryphal books tended to pass into the class of spurious and heretical writings.
==== Esoteric writings ====
Turning now to the consideration of the word "apocryphal" itself, we find that in its earliest use it was applied in a laudatory sense to writings,which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge which was too profound or too sacred to be imparted to any save the initiated. Thus it occurs in a magical book of Moses, which has been edited from a Leiden papyrus of the 3rd or 4th century by Dieterich (Abraxas, 109). This book, which may be as old as the 1st century, is entitled: "A holy and secret Book of Moses, called eighth, or holy" (Μωυσεως ἱερα βιβλος αποκρυφος επικαλουμενη ογδοη ἡ ἁγια). The disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted (Clem. Alex. ''Strom.'' i. 15. 69) that they possessed the
secret (αποκρυφους) books of Zoroaster. 4 Ezra is in its author's view a secret work whose value was greater than that of the canonical scriptures (xiv. 44 sqq.) because of its transcendent revelations of the future. It is in a like laudatory meaning that Gregory reckons the New Testament apocalypse as εν αποκρυφοις (''Oratio in suam ordinationem'', iii. 549, ed. Migne; cf. Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' li. 3). The word enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (cf. Acts of Thomas, 10, 27, 44).
==== Questionable writings ====
But the word was applied to writings that were kept from public circulation not because of their transcendent, but of, their secondary or questionable value. Thus Origen distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings; γραφη μη φερομενη με&nu εν τοις κοινοις και δεδημοσιευμενοις βιβλιοις εικος δ ὁτι εν αποκρυφοις φερομενη (Origen's ''Comm. in Matt.'', x. 18, on Matt. xiii. 57, ed. Lommatzsch iii. 49 sqq.). Cf. ''Epist. ad Africam'', ix. (Lommatzsch xvii. 31): Euseb. ''H.E.'' ii. 23, 25; iii. 3, 6. See Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 126 sqq. Thus the
meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to "excluded from the public use of the church," and prepares the way for the third and unfavourable sense of this word.
==== Spurious writings ====
The word came finally to mean what is false, spurious, bad, heretical. If we may trust the text, this meaning appears in Origen (''Prolog, in Cant. Cantic.'', Lommatzsch xiv. 325): "De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem."
==== Other meanings ====
In addition to the above three meanings strange uses of the term appear in the western church. Thus the Gelasian Decree includes the works of Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, under this designation. Augustine (''De Civ. Dei'', xv. 23) explains it as meaning obscurity of origin, while Jerome (''Protogus Galeatus'') declares that all books outside the Hebrew canon belong to this class of apocrypha. Jerome's practice, however, did not square with his theory. The western church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, but retained the word in its original meaning, though great confusion prevailed. Thus the degree of estimation in which the apocryphal books have been held in the church has varied much according to place and time. As they stood in the Septuagint or Greek canon, along with the other books, and with no marks of distinction, they were practically employed by the Greek Fathers in the same way as the other books; hence Origen, Clement and others often cite them as "scripture," "divine scripture," "inspired," and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine, and familiar with the Hebrew canon, rigidly exclude all but the books contained there. This view is reflected, for example, in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. Augustine, however (''De Doct. Christ''. ii. 8), attaches himself to the other side. Two well-defined views in this way prevailed, to which was added a third, according to which the books, though not to be put in the same rank as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, yet were of value for moral uses and to be read in congregations,--and hence they were called "ecclesiastical"--a designation first found in Rufinus (''ob''. 410). Notwithstanding the decisions of some councils held in Africa, which were in favour of the view of Augustine, these diverse opinions regarding the apocryphal books continued to prevail in the church down through the ages till the great dogmatic era of the Reformation. At that epoch the same three opinions were taken up and congealed into dogmas, which may be considered characteristic of the churches adopting them. In 1546 the council of Trent adopted the canon of Augustine, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1st and 2nd Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasses, were declared canonical at Trent. On the other hand, the Protestants universally adhered to the opinion that only the books in the Hebrew collection are canonical. Already Wycliffe had declared that "whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five (Hebrew) shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief." Yet among the churches of the Reformation a milder and a severer view prevailed regarding the apocrypha. Both in the German and English translations (Luther's, 1537; Coverdale's, 1535, &c.) these books are separated from the others and set by themselves; but while in some confessions, ''e.g''. the Westminster, a decided judgment is passed on them, that they are not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings," a milder verdict is expressed regarding them in many other quarters, ''e.g''. in the "argument" prefixed to them in the Geneva Bible; in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine; and elsewhere.
== Old Testament apocryphal books ==
We shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books: f |
se]] of the current lags that of the voltage by 90 degrees. In a capacitor the current leads voltage by 90 degrees. When the inductor is combined with a capacitor, in series or parallel, an [[LC circuit]] is formed with a specific resonant frequency:
:<math>V = I \times \omega L\,</math>
where &omega; is the ''[[angular frequency]]'' of the sinusoid defined in terms of the frequency ''F'' as:
:<math>\omega = 2 \pi F\,</math>
Inductive reactance, Xl, is defined as:
:<math> X_L = \omega L = 2 \pi F L\, </math>
where ''X<sub>L</sub>'' is the [[inductive reactance]], &omega; is the [[angular frequency]], ''F'' is the frequency in [[hertz]], and ''L'' is the [[inductance]] in henries.
Inductive reactance is the positive component of [[impedance]]. It is measured in ohms. The impedance of an inductor (inductive reactance) is then given by:
:<math> Z = j \omega L = j 2 \pi F L = j X_L\, </math>
where ''X<sub>L</sub>'' is in ohms.
When using the [[Laplace transform]] in circuit analysis, the inductive impedance is represented in the ''s'' domain by:
:<math>Z(s) = s L\, </math>
In an ideal inductor, the current lags behind the voltage by 90° or π/2 radians, but since physical inductors are made from wire that has resistance, a combination resistive-inductive circuit results causing the Q of the tank to be lower.
=== Inductor networks ===
{{main|Series and parallel circuits}}
Inductors in a [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]] configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent inductance (''L''<sub>eq</sub>):
:[[image:inductorsparallel.png|A diagram of several inductors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires]]
:<math> \frac{1}{L_\mathrm{eq}} = \frac{1}{L_1} + \frac{1}{L_2} + \cdots + \frac{1}{L_n}</math>
The current through inductors in [[Series and parallel circuits|series]] stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total inductance:
:[[image:inductorsseries.png|A diagram of several inductors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each]]
:<math> L_\mathrm{eq} = L_1 + L_2 + \cdots + L_n \,\! </math>
These relationships hold true only in the limit that they are in magnetically decoupled environments.
== ''Q'' Factor ==
There has not been an ideal inductor created to-date, the nearest approximation being a supercooled inductor (for example, one cooled with liquid nitrogen or a similar supercooled substance). In the real world inductors have a series resistance created by the copper or other electrically conductive metal wire forming the coils. This series resistance converts the electrical current flowing through the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality.
This is where the quality factor is born. The quality factor is a ratio of the inductance to the resistance.
The [[Q factor|quality factor]] of an inductor can be found through this formula, where ''R'' is its internal [[electrical resistance]]:
:<math>Q = \frac{\omega{}L}{R}</math>
==Formulae==
1. Basic inductance formula:
<math>L=\frac{\mu_0\mu_rN^2A}{l}</math><br>
:''L'' = Inductance in [[Henry (inductance)|henries]]<br>
:''&mu;<sub>0</sub>'' = [[permeability]] of [[vacuum|free space]] = 4π × 10<sup>-7</sup> H/m<br>
:''&mu;<sub>r</sub>'' = relative permeability of core material<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
:''A'' = area of cross-section of the coil in [[square metre]]s (m<sup>2</sup>)<br>
:''l'' = length of coil in [[metre]]s (m)<br>
(note: the following formulas were optimized to be used with [[imperial unit]]s)
<!-- where are the SI formulas? :| -->
2. Inductance of a straight wire conductor:
<math>L = 5.08 \cdot l\left(\ln\frac{4l}{d}-1\right)</math><br>
:''L'' = inductance in nH<br>
:''l'' = length of conductor in inches<br>
:''d'' = diameter of conductor in inches<br>
3. Inductance of air core inductor in terms of geometric parameters:
<math>L=\frac{r^2N^2}{9r+10l}</math><br>
:''L'' = inductance in &mu;H<br>
:''r'' = outer radius of coil in inches<br>
:''l'' = length of coil in inches<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
4. For multilayered air core coil:
<math>L = \frac{0.8r^2N^2}{6r+9l+10d}</math><br>
:''L'' = inductance in &mu;H<br>
:''r'' = mean radius of coil in inches<br>
:''l'' = length of coil in inches<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
:''d'' = depth of coil in inches<br>
5. Inductance of a spring coil:
<math>L=\frac{r^2N^2}{6r+11d}</math>
:''L'' = inductance in &mu;H<br>
:''r'' = mean radius of coil in inches<br>
:''N'' = number of turns<br>
:''d'' = depth of coil in inches<br>
== Inductor construction ==
An inductor is usually constructed as a [[coil]] of [[Conductor (material)|conducting]] material, typically copper wire, wrapped around a [[magnetic core|core]] either of air or of ferrous material. Core materials with a higher [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] than air confine the magnetic field closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire wrapped around a ferrite [[bobbin]] with wire exposed on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are called "shielded". Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance. Small inductors can be etched directly onto a [[printed circuit board]] by laying out the trace in a [[spiral]] pattern. Small value inductors can also be built on [[integrated circuit]]s using the same processes that are used to make [[transistors]]. In these cases, aluminum [[interconnect]] is typically used as the conducting material. However, practical constraints make it far more common to use a circuit called a "[[gyrator]]" which uses a [[capacitor]] and active components to behave similarly to an inductor.
Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes made with a wire passing through a [[ferrite]] cylinder or bead.
== Applications ==
Inductors are used extensively in [[analog circuit]]s and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with [[capacitor]]s and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or [[electronic filter|filter]] out specific signal frequencies. This can range from the use of large inductors as '''chokes''' in power supplies, now obsolete, which in conjunction with filter [[capacitor]]s remove residual [[hum]] or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to such small inductances as generated by a [[ferrite]] bead or [[torus]] around a cable to prevent [[radio frequency interference]] from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide [[tuned circuit]]s used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance.
Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a [[transformer]], which is a fundamental component of every electric [[Public utility|utility]] power grid. The efficiency of a transformer increases as the frequency increases; for this reason, aircraft used 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great savings in weight from the use of smaller transformers.
An inductor is used as the energy storage device in a [[switched-mode power supply]]. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This ''X''<sub>L</sub> is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control.
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to intentionally depress system voltages or limit [[fault current]]. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.
As inductors tend to be larger and heavier than other components, their use has been reduced in modern equipment; solid state switching power supplies eliminate large transformers, for instance, and circuits are designed to use only small inductors, if any; larger values are simulated by use of [[gyrator]] circuits.
== See also ==
* [[Capacitor]]
* [[Resistor]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Electronics]]
* [[Gyrator]]
* [[Inductance]] (including ''mutual inductance'')
* [[induction coil]]
* [[Induction loop]]
* [[Saturable reactor]]
* [[Transformer]]
== Synonyms ==
<!-- Are some of these circular Wikilinks? Should they become hard-redirects back to here? -->
* [[coil]]
* [[choke]]
* [[reactor]]
==External links==
;General
*[http://www.mpdigest.com/Articles/2005/aug2005/agilent/Default.htm Spiral inductor models]. Good article on inductor characteristics and modeling.
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/AC.html AC circuits]
* [http://www.theinductor.com The Inductor] Example of commercial use of inductors to create "flameless" heat.
* [http://www.mag-inc.com Magnetic Cores] Good link to magnetic cores.
*[http://www.gass-transformatoren.de/en/frame_wissenswert.htm About Reactors]
;Patents
* '''{{US patent|2415688}}''' -- "''Induction device''"
[[Category:Electromagnetic components]]
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<page>
<title>George Washington Carver</title>
<id>12997</id>
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<id>42149941</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:41:23Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George_washington_carver.jpg|right|240px|thumb|George Washington Carver, 1906]]
'''George Washington Carver''' (c. Spring of 1864 &ndash; [[January 5]], [[1943]]) was an [[African American]] [[botanist]] who worked in [[agricultural extension]] in the [[Southern United States]]. He taught former [[slavery|slaves]] farming techniques for self-sufficiency and is known for suggesting hundreds of uses for the [[peanut]] and other [[plant]]s to increase the profitability of farming.
==Early years==
Carver was born into [[slavery]] in [[Newton County, Missouri|Newton County]], Marion Township, near Diamond Grove, now known as [[Diamond, Missouri|Diamond]], [[Missouri]]. The exact date of birth is unknown due to the haphazard record keeping by slave owners but "it seems likely that he was born in the spring of 1865" {{ref|1}}. His owner, Moses Carver, was a [[German American]] immigrant who had purchased George's mother, Mary, from William P. McGinnis on [[October 9]], [[1855]] for seven-hundred dollars. The identity of Carver's father is unknown but he believed his father was from a neighboring farm and died "shortly after Carver's birth...in a log-hauling accident" {{ref|2}}. George had three sisters and a brother, all of whom died prematurely.
When George was an [[infant]], he, a sister, and his mother were kidnapped by [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] night raiders and sold in [[Arkansas]], a common practice. Moses Carver hired John Bentley to find them. Only Carver was found, orphaned and near death from [[whooping cough]]. Carver's mother and sister had already died, although some reports stated that his mother and sister had gone north with the soldiers. For returning George, Moses Carver rewarded Bentley with his best [[filly]] that would later produce winning race horses. This episode caused George a bout of [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|respiratory disease]] that left him with a permanently weakened constitution. Because of this, he was unable to work as a hand and spent his time wandering the fields, drawn to the varieties of wild plants. He became so knowledgeable that he was known by Moses Carver's neighbors as "the plant doctor."
One day he was called to a neighbor's house to help with a plant in need. When he had fixed the problem, he was told to go into the kitchen to collect his reward. When he entered the kitchen, he saw no one. He did, however, see something that changed his life: beautiful paintings of flowers on the walls of the room. From that moment on, he knew that he was going to be an artist as well as a botanist.
After slavery was abolished, Moses and his wife Susan raised George and his brother Jim as their own. They encouraged Carver to continue his intellectual pursuits. Aunt Susan taught him to read some words and write his name.
Since [[blacks]] were not allowed at the school in Diamond Grove and he had received news that there was a school for [[blacks]] ten miles south in [[Neosho, Missouri|Neosho]], he resolved to go there at once. To his dismay, when he reached the town, the school had been closed for the night. As he had nowhere to stay, he slept in a nearby barn. By his own account, the next morning he met a kind woman, [[Mariah Watkins]], from whom he wished to rent a room. When he identified himself "Carver's George," as he had done his whole life, she replied that from now on, his name was "George Carver." George liked this lady very much and her words "You must learn all you can, then go back out into the world and give your learning back to the people," had a great impression on him.
At the age of thirteen, due to his desire to attend [[high school]], he relocated to the home of another foster family in [[Fort Scott, Kansas]]. After witnessing the beating death of a black man at the hands of a group of white men, George left Fort Scott. He subsequently attended a series of schools before earning his diploma at Minneapolis High School in [[Minneapolis, Kansas]].
After high school, George started a laundry business in [[Olathe, Kansas]].
==College years==
[[Image:Carver1web.jpg|thumb|200px|At work in his laboratory]]
Over the next few years, he sent letters to several colleges and was finally accepted at [[Highland College]] in [[Highland, Kansas]]. He travelled to the college, but was rejected when they discovered he was black. In 1887, he was accepted to [[Simpson College]] in [[Indianola, Iowa]], as its first African-American student (some reports cite the year as 1890 and that he was, in fact, the second black student accepted at Simpson). He transferred in 1891 to [[Iowa State University]] (then Iowa State Agricultural College), where he was the first black student, and later the first black faculty member.
In order to avoid confusion with another George Carver in his classes, he began to use the name George Washington Carver.
While in college at Simpson, he showed a strong aptitude for singing and art. His art teacher, Etta Budd, was the daughter of the head of the department of horticulture at Iowa State: Joseph Budd.
Etta convinced Carver to pursue a career that paid better than art and so he transferred to Iowa State.
At the end of his undergraduate career in [[1894]] and recognizing Carver's potential Joseph Budd and Louis Pammel convinced Carver to stay at Iowa State for his [[master's degree]].
Carver then performed research at the [[Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station]] under Pammel from 1894 to 1896 when he graduated.
It is his work at the experiment station in plant pathology and mycology that gained him national respect as a botanist.
The encouragement Etta Budd gave Carver to seek a better-paying career was well warranted, at least for Etta, since she died a poor retired art teacher in a [[Boone, Iowa]] retirement home.
==Later years==
In 1896, he was recruited to Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (today: [[Tuskegee University]]) by [[Booker T. Washington]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama]]. He remained there for 47 years until his death in [[1943]].
Taking an interest in the plight of poor [[Southern]] farmers working with soil depleted by repeated crops of [[cotton]], Carver advocated employing the [[nitrogen cycle]] by alternating cotton crops with other planting, such as [[legume]]s ([[peanut]]s), or other crops ([[sweet potato]]) to restore [[nitrogen]] and other nutrients to the soil. Thus, the cotton crop was improved and new cash crops added. He developed an [[agricultural extension]] system in [[Alabama]] &mdash; based on that created at Iowa State University &mdash; to train farmers in raising these crops and an [[industrial research laboratory]] to develop uses for them.
[[Image:George Washington Carver-peanut specimen.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|Peanut specimen collected by Carver]]
In order to make these new crops profitable, Carver devised numerous uses, several of which were unique, for the new crops, including more than 300 uses for the peanut. These applications included glue, printer's ink, dyes, punches, varnishing cream, marble, rubbing oils, and [[Worcestershire sauce]]; however, contrary to popular belief, this list does not include [[peanut butter]].[http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blpeanutbutter.htm] He made similar investigations into uses for plants such as [[sweet potato]]es and [[pecan]]s.
Until 1915, Carver was not widely known for his agricultural research. However he became one of the best-known African-Americans of his era following the funeral of [[Booker T. Washington]] when he was praised by [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. In 1916, he was voted in as a member of the [[Royal Society of Arts]] in [[England]], one of only a handful of Americans at that time to receive this honor. By 1920 with the growth of the peanut market in the U.S., the market was flooded with peanuts from [[China]]. That year, Southern farmers came together to plead their cause before a [[tariff]] hearing. Carver was elected, without hesitation, to speak before the hearing. On arrival Carver was mocked but was not deterred and began to show them some of uses he had found. He was initally given ten minutes to present, but the committee extended his time again and again. The committee was held spellbound and rose in applause as he finished his presentation. The following year a tariff was placed on imported peanuts.
Now Carver was famous. Business leaders came to seek his help and he always gave it to them without a price. Three American presidents &mdash; [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Calvin Coolidge]] and [[Franklin Roosevelt]] &mdash; met with Carver. The [[Crown Prince]] of [[Sweden]] studied with him for three weeks; Indian leader, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] too was in his company for a while. Carver's best known guest was [[Henry Ford]] who built a laboratory for Carver and conducted research with him there as well. Their most notable discovery together was regarding the fabrication of [[rubber]]. Carver also did extensive work with [[soy]], which he and Ford considered as an alternative fuel. Carver created a soy-based [[plastic]] still used in automobiles today for its dent-proof qualities.
In [[1923]], Carver received the [[Spingarn Medal]] by the [[NAACP]], awarded annually for outstanding achievement. In [[1928]], [[Simpson College]] bestowed Carver with an [[Honorary degree|honorary doctorate]]. In [[1940]], Carver established the [[George Washington Carver Foundation]] at Tuskegee University. In [[1941]], the [[George Washington Carver Museum]] was dedicated at the Tuskegee Institu |
deau a [[Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning]], the first strip cartoon to be so honored. That month, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, the publishers of collections of Doonesbury until the mid-1980s took out an ad in the ''New York Times Book Review'', marking the occasion by saying: It's nice for Trudeau and Doonesbury to be so honored, "but it's quite another thing when the Establishment clutches all of Walden Commune to its bosom." That same year, then-U.S. President [[Gerald Ford]] acknowledged the stature of the comic strip, telling the Radio and Television Correspondent Association at their annual dinner: "There are only three major vehicles to keep us informed as to what is going on in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]]: the electronic [[mass media|media]], the print media, and Doonesbury &mdash; not necessarily in that order." {{ref|AmHumor511}}
[[Image:stonewalldb.gif|thumb|The famous ''Doonesbury'' "Stonewall" strip, referring to the [[Watergate scandal]], from [[12 August]] [[1974]]; awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]].]]
In [[1977]], Trudeau wrote a script for a twenty-six minute long animated "special." ''A Doonesbury Special'' was produced and directed by Trudeau, along with [[John Hubley]] and [[Faith Hubley]]. The ''Special'' was first broadcast by [[NBC]] in 1977. It won a Special Jury Award at the Cannes International Film Festival for best short film, and received an Academy Award Nomination (for best animated short film), both in 1978. Voice actors for the special included [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], [[William Sloane Coffin|William Sloane Coffin, Jr.]], [[Jack Gilford]] and [[Will Jordan]]. Two songs "sung" by the character of Jimmy Thudpucker (titled "Stop in the Middle" and "I Do Believe", the performances were credited to "Jimmy Thudpucker") were also made part of the ''Special''.
The strip underwent a significant change after Trudeau returned to it from a 22 month hiatus (from January [[1983]] to October [[1984]]), during which he helped create a Doonesbury [[Broadway theatre|Broadway production]]. Before the break in the strip, the characters were eternal college students, living in a commune together near "Walden College," which was modelled after Trudeau's alma mater.
The Broadway show, entitled ''Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy'', opened at the Biltmore Theater in [[New York City]] on [[November 21]], [[1983]]. A cast album was recorded and released by [[MCA Records]]. The cast featured [[Mark Linn-Baker]] as Mark, [[Keith Szarabajka]] as B.D., [[Gary Beach]] as Duke and [[Lauren Tom]] as Honey.
=== Musical plot summary ===
The musical's storyline opened the day before graduation at Walden College, with many of the characters (Mike, B.D., Mark, Zonker, Boopsie) preparing for the day. B.D. has been drafted into professional football (later revealed to be the [[Dallas Cowboys]]), Mike is preparing to propose to J.J., and Zonker has a flashback to his days as a pro suntanner. Meanwhile, Duke and Honey are at Duke's trial for cocaine possession in Los Angeles County, California. The action returns to Walden, where Mike is on the phone with J.J., upset that Mike has invited her mother, Joanie, who arrives with her infant son from her second marriage, Jeffrey. Boopsie and the cast discuss her plans to become a Dallas Cowboys cheerleader, following B.D. Mark reveals Mike's plan to propose to J.J. to Zonker and Joanie.
Back at the courthouse, Duke is found guilty and sentenced to probation, required by the court to open and manage a drug rehabilitation center for the next five years. Then back at Walden, J.J. arrives, only to discover that Mike has planned out their weekend down to the very minute. Joanie returns from grocery shopping, and Mike attempts to mediate the tension between mother and daughter. This fails, and J.J. storms out. Meanwhile, at the campus radio station, Mark is interviewing Roland Hedley, and the two campaign on the air to get Mark a job after graduation.
Back at Walden Commune, Mike is preparing dinner while Boopsie is exercising, Joanie is nursing Jeffrey, Zonker is building a beer-can pyramid, and B.D. is ranting about all of them. Mark returns from the radio station, and J.J. offers to help Mike with dinner. When the meal is served, the cast mocks Mike's cooking. As dinner concludes, Zonker attempts to renew the lease on the commune, but is turned down. As Act I ends, it's discovered that Duke and Honey are having them evicted after graduation for his court-ordered drug rehabilitation center.
<!-- Add Act II or move to sub-page? Please vote on the talk page -->
At the conclusion of the musical, Mark had been offered a radio job at a station on Long Island, New York, B.D. had been traded from Dallas to Tampa Bay, Mike had proposed to J.J. (who accepted) and was preparing to enter business school, and Duke was left in a drug-induced rant. Breaks in the action and scene-changes were accomplished with voice overs behind a screen of the White House, while jokes about the Reagan White House were made.
=== After the hiatus ===
The strip resumed some time after the events in the musical, and some further changes took place. While Mike, Mark, Zonker, B.D. and Boopsie were all now graduates, B.D. and Boopsie were living in Malibu, where B.D. was a third-string quarterback for the Los Angeles Rams, and Boopsie was making a living from walk-on and cameo roles. Mark was living in Washington D.C., working for NPR. Michael and J.J. had gotten married, and Mike had dropped out of business school to start work in an advertising agency in New York City. Zonker, still not ready for the "real world," was living with Mike and J.J. until he was accepted as a medical student at his Uncle Duke's "Baby Doc College" in Haiti. Since then, the main characters' age and career development has tracked that of standard media portrayals of baby boomers, with jobs in advertising, law enforcement, and the [[dot-com]] boom. Current events are mirrored through the original characters, their offspring (the "second generation"), and occasional new characters.
Garry Trudeau received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their [[Reuben Award]] for 1995 for his work on the strip.
[[Image:Db051128.gif|thumb|The ''Doonesbury'' strip from [[28 November]] [[2005]], reuniting the characters of Michael Doonesbury and B.D.]]
==Characteristic style==
Even though Doonesbury frequently features major real-life US politicians, they are rarely depicted with their real face. Originally, strips featuring the President of the US would show an external view of the [[White House]], with dialog emerging from inside. More recently, personal symbols reflecting some aspect of their character are used. For example, since the Vice Presidency of [[George H. W. Bush]], members of the Bush family have been depicted as invisible. George H. W. Bush is depicted as completely invisible. This was originally a reference to the then Vice President's perceived low profile and his denials of knowledge of the [[Iran-Contra Affair]]. (It should be noted that in one strip ([[20 March]], [[1988]]) the vice president almost materialized, but only made it to an outline before reverting to invisibility.) President [[George W. Bush]] was later symbolized by a [[Stetson]] hat atop a giant [[asterisk]] (a la [[Roger Maris]]), because he was Governor of [[Texas]] prior to his presidency (Trudeau accused him of being "all hat and no cattle.") and also due to the controversy surrounding the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 presidential elections]]. Later, President Bush's symbol was changed to a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] military helmet (again, atop an asterisk) representing imperialism. Towards the end of his first term, the helmet became battered, with the giltwork starting to come off and with clumps of bristles missing from the top. Other notable symbols include a waffle for [[Bill Clinton]], an unexploded (but sometimes lit) bomb for [[Newt Gingrich]], a feather for [[Dan Quayle]] and most recently a giant hand for [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] (who is addressed by other characters as "Herr Gropenführer").
The unnamed college attended by the main characters was later given the name "Walden College," was revealed to be in Connecticut (the same state as Yale), and was depicted devolving into a third-rate institution under the weight of [[grade inflation]], slipping academic standards, and the end of [[tenure]], issues that Trudeau has consistently revisited since the early 90s. Many of the second generation of Doonesbury characters are attending Walden, a venue Trudeau uses to advance his concerns about slipping academic standards in America.
Trudeau also delighted and intrigued readers by displaying fluency in various forms of [[jargon]], including that of [[real estate]] agents, [[flight attendant]]s, computer [[nerd]]s, [[journalist]]s, presidential aides, and soldiers in Iraq. Before the invasion of [[Iraq]], many Doonesbury-watchers agreed that Trudeau seemed to be losing his edge, but the strips since then have been seen by some as a return to form.
== Major characters ==
* [[Mike Doonesbury]] - Ex-advertising man and co-founder of a software start-up; ex-husband of JJ, husband of Kim, dad to Alex.
* [[Mark Slackmeyer]] - Former campus revolutionary turned radio commentator, and one of several openly [[gay]] characters in the strip.
*[[B.D. (Doonesbury) | B.D.]] - Husband of [[Boopsie]]. A reservist and veteran of Vietnam and both Gulf Wars, he lost a leg in Iraq. Known for his conservative views and (until [[21 April]] [[2004]]) wearing a series of helmets (originally football helmets, and later desert camouflage, riot gear, and California Highway Patrol). Even Boopsie doesn't know what 'B.D.' stands for (maybe |
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<page>
<title>Afrikaner</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{Otherusesabout|the South African ethnic group}}
{{ethnic group|
|group=Afrikaners
|image=[[Image:Paul_Kruger.jpg|none|250px]]
[[Paul Kruger]], a notable Afrikaner
|poptime='''3 million''' (2005 est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>)
|popplace=[[Gauteng Province]]: '''1.0 million''',
[[Western Cape Province]]: '''0.55 million''',
[[North West Province]]: '''0.2 million''',
[[Free State Province]]: '''0.2 million'''
(2001 est. <sup>[[#References|1]]</sup>)
|rels=[[Christianity|Christian]] [[Protestant]]
|langs=[[Afrikaans]]
|related=[[Coloured]]s [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[French people|French]] [[German people|German]] [[Frisians]] [[Flemish people|Flemish]] [[Walloons]] [[Scottish people|Scots]] [[Griqua]] [[Baster]]
}}
'''Afrikaners''' are [[South Africa|South Africans]] of predominantly [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Calvinism|Calvinist]], [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]], [[German people|German]] [[Protestant]], [[Frisian]], [[Flemish people|Flemish]], and [[Walloon]] descent who speak the [[Afrikaans language]]. Afrikaners are also sometimes referred to as ''[[Boer]]s'' (Afrikaans for ''farmer'') as a significant percentage are descended from cultural Boers, but many Afrikaners now view this as a derogatory term.
==History==
Afrikaners are mainly descended from northwestern European settlers and religious refugees who lived in the [[Cape Colony|Cape of Good Hope]] during the period of administration ([[1652]]-[[1795]]) by the [[Dutch East India Company]] (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or VOC) and the subsequent period of British rule. The original colony at the Cape, which was started as a refreshment station for the VOC, was first settled by the Dutch in 1652. The arrival in 1688 of a small group of French [[Huguenots]] who were fleeing religious persecution in France infused new blood and swelled the settlers' numbers. Some settlers from other parts of Europe (e.g. [[Scandinavia]] and the [[British Isles]]) also joined the ranks of the Afrikaners. Non-Europeans (including [[Cape Malays|Malay]], [[Demographics of Madagascar|Malagasy]], [[South India]]n, [[Khoi]] and [[Bantu]]) makeup around 5-7% of Afrikaner origins.
The Afrikaans language changed over time from the Dutch spoken by the first white settlers at the Cape. From the late 17th century, the form of Dutch spoken at the Cape developed differences in pronunciation and accidence and, to a lesser extent, in syntax and vocabulary, from that of the Netherlands, although the languages are still similar enough to be mutually intelligible (with some effort). Settlers who arrived speaking German and French soon shifted to using Dutch and later Afrikaans. The process of language change was influenced by the languages spoken by slaves, Khoikhoi and people of mixed descent, as well as by Cape Malay and Portuguese. While the Dutch of the Netherlands remained the official language, the new dialect, often known as Cape Dutch, African Dutch or "Kitchen Dutch," developed into a separate language by the 19th century. In 1925 this new language replaced standard Dutch as one of the two official languages of the [[Union of South Africa]]
The term Afrikaner encompasses disparate communities of white Afrikaans speakers. Originally it distinguished those Dutch speakers who saw themselves as local, i.e. "African", from those who still primarily identified with Europe; it was later used to distinguish between Afrikaans speakers and English speakers among the white population. Its earliest use dates from [[1707]] but was not widely used until after the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] of the early [[20th century]]. Prior to then, the various white Afrikaans speaking communities were known under different names. A significant number were known as Boers (farmers). The semi-nomadic/migrating farmers of the eastern frontier were known as Trekboers. Those who lived in the western Cape and did not trek eastward were known as the [[Cape Dutch]]. The isolated pioneers from the eastern Cape frontier who trekked (migrated into the interior) en masse in a series of migrations later known as the [[Great Trek]] (Groote Trek) were known as [[Voortrekkers]] (which may be translated as 'forerunners'). A small number of Voortrekkers came from the western Cape as well.
In the [[1830s]] and [[1840s]] an estimated 12,000 Voortrekkers penetrated the future Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal provinces putting themselves beyond the reach of British authority in order to escape relentless border wars, British colonialism including its Anglicization polices, as well as to ease pressure on an overcrowding frontier where land was becoming scarce. While some historians claim that these series of mass migrations, later known as the Great Trek, were caused because the Boers did not agree with the British restrictions on [[slavery]], the fact of the matter is most [[Trekboers]] did not own slaves, unlike the Cape Dutch, their more affluent cousins in the western Cape who did not trek eastward and migrate or participate in the Great Trek. The vast majority of Voortrekkers were Trekboers from the eastern Cape who engaged in pastoralism. Nevertheless, the British promulgation of Ordinance 50 in 1828, which guaranteed equal rights before the law to all "free persons of colour", was indeed a factor in Boer discontent, as is well documented by numerous contemporary sources; the various republics founded by the Voortrekkers while prohibiting slavery itself would all enshrine inequality by race into their constitutions.
The Great Trek was mainly the result of the "bursting of the dam" of pent up population migration and population pressures, as Trekboer migrations eastward had come to a virtual stop for at least three decades (though some Trekboers did migrate beyond the Orange River prior to the Great Trek). During the ''Great Trek'' they fought against the [[Zulu]]s after Voortrekker leaders [[Piet Retief]] and [[Gerhard Maritz]], along with almost half of their followers, were lured under the pretence of a land treaty and massacred by King [[Dingane]] and his warriors, who occupied the best land in some of the areas the Boers were attempting to trek into. Although in revenge the forces of [[Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius|Andries Pretorius]] killed about 3000 Zulus after the Boers initially came under attack in the [[Battle of Blood River]] in a classic mismatch between guns and spears. Retief and the local Voortrekkers had performed several deeds for [[Dingane]] and came to finalise the treaty in which the Voortrekkers were granted lands in [[Dingan]]'s kingdom before Dingane changed his mind killing Retief, his delegation, and half of the Natal contingent of Voortrekkers. The Zulu resistance changed the direction of the Trek. The emphasis moved from occupying lands which the Zulu held sway over east of the [[Drakensberg]] mountains to the west of them and onto the high veld of the [[Transvaal]] and Transorangia which was lightly occupied due to the devastation of the [[Mfecane]].
The Boers created independent states in what is now South Africa: the [[Natalia Republic]], the [[Transvaal]] Republic (the [[South African Republic]]) and the [[Orange Free State]]. The British wish to appropriate the gold and diamonds mines in the Boer areas led to the two Boer Wars: The [[First Boer War]] (1880-1881) and the [[Second Boer War]] (1899-1902), which ended with the inclusion of the Boer areas in the British colonies. The Boers won the first war, but lost the second after being one of the first people in modern times to employ guerilla tactics. Canada participated in this war being requested by its motherland. One of the first [[concentration camp]]s in the modern era were built for women, the elderly, and children of the Boers and their black allies. An estimated twenty seven thousand Boer civilians (mainly children under sixteen) died in the concentration camps marking a death of about 15 percent of the local Boer population. About 15,000 black allies died in other concentration camps as well. A large number of the prisoners died under the British administration of the camps. Following the British annexation of the Boer republics, the creation of the [[South Africa|Union of South Africa]] ([[1910]]) went some way towards blurring the division between British settler and Afrikaner. The black majority, however, was excluded from equal participation in the affairs of the State and country, except for the states which were self governed ([[Qwaqwa]], [[Zululand]], [[Ciskei]], [[Transkei]], [[Venda]], [[Bophutatswana]]) until [[1994]], owing first to the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonial policies and then later to an Afrikaner-led political party's policy of [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]], (the [[Afrikaans]] word for "aparthood" or "separation"), particularly under the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] from [[1948]].
==Today==
In recent years there has been an movement by some Afrikaners to support the mixed race ("[[coloured]]") population of South Africa, most of whom speak Afrikaans as their first language, to consider themselves Afrikaners. The Afrikaans-speaking people who aren't [[Caucasian]] or who are Coloured people of South Africa, Nambia, and other Afrikaans-speaking locations, go by many names. These na |
leich|1867 Compromise]])
</gallery>
==See also==
{{commons2|Flags of Austria-Hungary|Flags of Austria-Hungary}}
* [[Czech lands: 1867-1918]]
* [[Aftermath of World War I]]
* [[Austrian nobility]]
* [[Habsburg Monarchy]]
* [[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]
* [[List of extinct states]]
*[[Banat Republic]]
* Baron [[Ladislaus Hengelmuller]], Austro-Hungarian Ambassador to the United States from 1894-1913
==References==
*[[Oszkár Jászi|Jász, Oszkár]] ''The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy'', Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1966.
*Macartney, Carlile Aylmer ''The Habsburg Empire, 1790-1918'', New York, Macmillan 1969.
*[[Alan Sked|Sked Alan]] ''The Decline And Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815-1918'', London : Longman, 1989.
*[[A.J.P. Taylor|Taylor, A.J.P.]] ''The Habsburg monarchy, 1809-1918 : a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary'', London : Penguin Books in assoc. with Hamish Hamilton, 1964, 1948
==External links==
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/austria_hungary_1911.jpg "Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary" from the ''Historical Atlas'' by William R. Shepherd, 1911]
* [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/austhung.htm Maps of Austria-Hungary]
* [http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/ The Austro-Hungarian Military]
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Austria_Hungary.html Austria-Hungary] - extensive list of heads of state, ministers, and ambassadors
[[Category:Austria-Hungary| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
[[bg:Австро-Унгария]]
[[bs:Austro-Ugarska]]
[[br:Aostria-Hungaria]]
[[ca:Imperi austrohongarès]]
[[cs:Rakousko-Uhersko]]
[[da:Østrig-Ungarn]]
[[de:Österreich-Ungarn]]
[[et:Austria-Ungari]]
[[es:Imperio Austrohúngaro]]
[[eo:Aŭstrio-Hungario]]
[[fr:Autriche-Hongrie]]
[[ko:오스트리아-헝가리]]
[[hr:Austro-Ugarska]]
[[id:Austria-Hongaria]]
[[it:Impero Austro-Ungarico]]
[[he:האימפריה האוסטרו הונגרית]]
[[la:Imperium Austro-Hungaricum]]
[[lt:Austrija-Vengrija]]
[[hu:Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia]]
[[nl:Oostenrijk-Hongarije]]
[[ja:オーストリア・ハンガリー帝国]]
[[no:Østerrike-Ungarn]]
[[nn:Austerrike-Ungarn]]
[[pl:Austro-Węgry]]
[[pt:Áustria-Hungria]]
[[ro:Imperiul Austro-Ungar]]
[[ru:Австро-Венгрия]]
[[sk:Rakúsko-Uhorsko]]
[[sl:Avstro-Ogrska]]
[[sr:Аустро-Угарска]]
[[fi:Itävalta-Unkari]]
[[sv:Österrike-Ungern]]
[[uk:Австро-Угорщина]]
[[zh:奥匈帝国]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphanumeric keyboard</title>
<id>2984</id>
<revision>
<id>38579464</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T05:56:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vary</username>
<id>208472</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 38188412 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alphanumeric keyboards''' include [[typewriter]] and [[computer]] [[Computer keyboard|keyboards]]. An alphanumeric keyboard is a device with many keys (usually marked with the letters of the [[alphabet]], the [[numerical digit]]s, and various extra keys.)
[[Image:Keyboard large.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The computer keyboard]]
After [[punch cards]] and paper tape, interaction via [[teletype]]-style keyboards became the main input device for computers. During the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] almost all computers came equipped with them as the main form of interaction, and most users are familiar with using them.
There are different types of [[Keyboard technology | keyboard technologies]].
The layout of keys on the modern-day English keyboard is called the [[QWERTY]] design, based on the most popular typewriter keyboard layout. This has been further
==See also==
*[[Computer mouse]]
*[[Keyboard plaque]]
*[[GKOS keyboard]]
*[[extension cable]]
[[Category:Computer keyboards]]
[[id:Papan ketik alfanumerik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alkaline earth</title>
<id>2985</id>
<revision>
<id>28382104</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-15T09:06:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>149.175.103.61</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-verify}}
'''Alkaline [[earth (chemistry)|earth]]''' contains or consits of an [[oxides]] of [[alkaline earth metals]], such as lime, magnesia, strontia, and baryta. The alkaline earth metals are among the most electropositive of all metals, second only to the Group 1 or Alkali metals. Consequently, most of their compounds have a high degree of ionic character. This confers a high degree of basic nature to the oxides. On reacting with water, the corresponding hydroxides are obtained (in solution) which are strong bases. Although highly corrosive, they are used as antacids for their strongly basic nature.
{{chem-stub}}
[[Category:Chemical compounds]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abracadabra</title>
<id>2986</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:44:27Z</timestamp>
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<username>KnightRider</username>
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<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|an incantational word}}
'''''Abracadabra''''' is a word used as an [[incantation]], considered by some to be the phrase that is pronounced most universally in other languages without translation.
The word is now commonly used as an [[incantation]] by [[stage magic|stage magicians]]. In ancient times, however, it was taken much more seriously as an incantation to be used as a cure against fevers and inflammations. The first known mention was in ''De Medicina Praecepta'' by [[Serenus Sammonicus]], [[physician]] to the [[Roman emperor]] [[Caracalla]], who prescribed that the sufferer from the disease wear an [[amulet]] containing the word written in the form of an inverted cone:
<center>
A B R A C A D A B R A<br />
A B R A C A D A B R<br />
A B R A C A D A B<br />
A B R A C A D A<br />
A B R A C A D<br />
A B R A C A<br />
A B R A C<br />
A B R A<br />
A B R<br />
A B<br />
A
</center>
This, he explained, diminishes the hold of the spirit of the disease over the patient. Other [[Roman emperor]]s, including [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]] and [[Alexander Severus]], were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and are likely to have used the incantation as well.
==Etymology==
Theories about the source of the word are:-
===''"I create as I speak"''===
A possible source is [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]: אברא כדברא ''avra kehdabra'' which means "I will create as I speak".
===The curse and the pestilence===
There is the view that Abracadabra derives from the Hebrew, ''ha-brachah'', meaning "the blessing" (used in this sense as a euphemism for "the curse") and ''dabra'', an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] form of the Hebrew word ''dever'', meaning "pestilence." They point to a similar kabbalistic cure for blindness, in which the name of [[Shabriri]], the [[demon]] of blindness, is similarly diminished. Other scholars are skeptical of this origin and claim that the idea of diminishing the power of demons was common throughout the ancient world, and that Abracadabra was simply the name of one such demon.
===Father, Son, Holy Spirit===
Some point to the Hebrew words ''av'' ("father"), ''ben'' ("son"), and ''ruakh hakodesh'' ("the holy spirit").
===Disappear like this word===
Some have argued that the term may come from the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] ''abhadda kedhabhra'', meaning 'disappear like this word'. Rather than being used as a curse, the Aramaic phrase is believed to have been used as a means of treating illness.
===Abraxas===
It has also been claimed that the word comes from [[Abraxas]], a [[Gnostic]] word for God (the source of [[365]] emanations, apparently the Greek letters for Abraxas add up to 365 when deciphered according to [[numerology|numerological methods]]). It has also been claimed to come from Abracalan (or Aracalan), said to have been both a [[Syria]]n god and a Jewish magical symbol.
==Thelema==
The religion of [[Thelema]] spells the word "Abrahadabra", and considers it the magical formula of the current Aeon. The religion's founder, [[Aleister Crowley]], explains in his essay <i>Gematria</i> that he discovered the word (and his spelling) by [[cabala|cabalistic]] methods. He appears to say that this happened before his January 1901 meeting with [[Oscar Eckenstein]], one of his teachers. (At this meeting, Eckenstein ordered him to abandon magick for the moment and practice meditation or concentration.) The Word Abrahadabra appears repeatedly in the 1904 invocation of [[Horus]] that led to the founding of [[Thelema]]. (<i>The Equinox</i> I, no. 7. 1912) It also appears in a 1901 diary that Crowley published in <i>The Equinox</i>.
The essay <i>Gematria</i> gives Hindu, Christian, and "Unsectarian" versions of the problem that Crowley intended this magick word to answer. He also gives a [[cabala|qabalistic]] equivalent for each phrasing, and a brief symbolic answer for each. The unsectarian version reads, "I am the finite square; I wish to be one with the infinite circle." Its equivalent refers to "the Cross of Extension" and "the infinite Rose." Crowley's numerological explanation of ABRAHADABRA focuses mainly on this last formulation and the answer to it.
==Avada Kedavra in Harry Potter==
The "Killing Curse" in the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' stories may have been taken by [[J. K. Rowling]] from an Aramaic form "avada kedavra" or similar, which roughly means "what I speak is destroyed," influenced by the [[Latin]] word ''cadaver'', meaning "corpse". This form differs from the "I create as I speak" form ("Avara Ke |
l woman" feminist. Goldman played a pivotal role in the development of anarchism in the US and Europe throughout the first half of the twentieth century. She immigrated to the [[United States]] at seventeen and was later deported to [[Russia]], where she witnessed the results of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. She spent a number of years in the South of France where she wrote her [[autobiography]], ''[[Living My Life]]'', and other works, before taking part in the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936 as the English language representative in [[London]] of the [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|CNT-FAI]].
==Birth and early years==
Emma Goldman grew up in a [[petite bourgeoisie|petit-bourgeois]] Jewish family in [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]] (then under the control of [[Russia]], and called Kovno by the Russians), where her family ran a small inn. In the period of [[political repression]] after the [[assassination]] of [[Russian Tsar Alexander II|Alexander II]], she moved with her family to [[Saint Petersburg|St Petersburg]] at the age of thirteen. There, after a revolutionary sentiment had spread across the area, she decided to work in a factory as a corset maker. It was in that workplace that Goldman was introduced to revolutionary ideas; she obtained a copy of [[Nikolai Chernyshevsky|Chernyshevsky]]'s ''[[What Is To Be Done]],'' which sowed the seeds for her anarchist ideas and her independent attitude.
==Immigration to America==
At the age of 17 she immigrated with her elder sister, Helene, to [[Rochester, New York]], to live with their sister Lena. Goldman worked for several years in a textile factory, and in 1887 married fellow factory worker Jacob Kersner. The hanging of four anarchists after the [[Haymarket Riot]] drew the young Emma Goldman to the anarchist movement, and at twenty she became a [[Social revolution|revolutionary]]. Following the uproar over the hanging, Goldman left her marriage and her family and traveled to [[New Haven, Connecticut]], and then to [[New York City|New York City]]. Goldman and Kersner remained legally married, allowing her to retain her American citizenship.
[[Image:Goldmanberkman.jpe|thumb|240px|right|Goldman and Alexander Berkman]]
==New York City==
In New York City she met and lived with [[Alexander Berkman]], who was an important figure of the anarchist movement in the United States at the time. Her defense of Berkman's attempted assassination of [[Henry Clay Frick]] in July 1892 made her highly unpopular with the authorities. Berkman (or Sasha as she fondly referred to him) was jailed for fourteen years, and was released from prison in 1906.
She also became friends with [[Hippolyte Havel]] at this time.
==Prison==
She was [[prison|imprisoned]] in 1893 at [[Roosevelt Island|Blackwell's Island]] penitentiary for publicly urging [[unemployment|unemployed]] [[worker]]s that they should ''"Ask for work. If they do not give you work, ask for bread. If they do not give you work or bread, take bread."'' (The statement is a summary of the principle of [[Eminent domain|expropriation]] advocated by anarchist communists like [[Peter Kropotkin]].) She was convicted of "inciting a riot" by a criminal court of New York, despite the testimonies of twelve witnesses in her defense. The jury based their verdict on the testimony of one individual, a Detective Jacobs. [[Voltairine de Cleyre]] gave the lecture ''[[In Defense of Emma Goldman]]'' as a response to this imprisonment. While serving the one year sentence, she developed a keen interest in nursing.
==Conspiracy to assassinate the President==
She was arrested in Chicago, with nine others, on [[September 10]], [[1901]], on charges of conspiracy to assassinate [[William McKinley|President McKinley]]. [[Leon Czolgosz]], a reclusive anarchist sympathizer, had shot the President several days before. The authorities' attempt to associate her and the other nine anarchists, including Abe and Mary Isaak, with the death of McKinley had an ideological purpose: to discredit Anarchism as much as possible due to its ties with the surging labor movement of the early 1900's. She was one of its fiercest organizers, and had already achieved public notoriety by the time of the accusations. Goldman was released on September 24 after authorities were unable to find any evidence connecting her and the others with Czolgosz's actions. Goldman had met Czolgosz only once, briefly, several weeks before, where he had asked Goldman's advice on a course of study in anarchist ideas. Leon Czolgosz was found guilty of murder and executed.
==Birth control==
On [[February 11]], [[1916]], she was [[arrest]]ed and imprisoned again for her distribution of [[birth control]] [[literature]]. She, like many contemporary feminists, saw [[abortion]] as a tragic consequence of social conditions. In 1911, Goldman wrote in ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]'':
:''"The custom of procuring abortions has reached such appalling proportions in America as to be beyond belief...So great is the misery of the working classes that seventeen abortions are committed in every one hundred pregnancies."''
[[Image:Goldman.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Emma Goldman, 1917]]
==World War I==
Her third imprisonment was in 1917, this time for conspiring to obstruct the [[conscription|draft]]: Berkman and Goldman were both involved in setting up [[No_conscription_league|No Conscription leagues]] and organising rallies against [[World War I]].(''illustration, right'') She was imprisoned for two years, after which she was deported to Russia. At her deportation hearing, [[J. Edgar Hoover]], directing the hearing, called her ''"one of the most dangerous anarchists in America."''
==Deportation==
This deportation meant that Goldman, with Berkman, was able to witness the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] first hand. On her arrival in Russia, she was prepared to support the [[Bolshevism|Bolshevik]]s despite the split between anarchists and statist communists at the [[First International]]. But seeing the [[political repression]] and [[forced labour]] in Russia offended her anarchist sensibilities. The Bolsheviks, however, argued that in times of revolution, violence is required in order to depose the previous power holders. This led Goldman to write ''[[My Disillusionment in Russia]]'' and ''[[My Further Disillusionment in Russia]]''. She was also devastated by the massive destruction and death resulting from the [[Russian Civil War]], in which counterrevolutionary elements, aided by foreign governments such as the United States and Japan, attempted to throttle the young communist state. Goldman was friends with Communists and New Yorkers [[John Reed (journalist)|John Reed]] and [[Louise Bryant]], both of whom were also in Russia at this time (during a period when it was impossible to leave the country); they may even have shared an apartment (see also the film [[Reds]]).
==Rejection of violence==
Her experiences in Russia helped change her ideas on the use of [[violence]]: after the [[Red Army]] was used against [[Strike action|strike]]rs, Goldman began rejecting violence except in [[self-defense]].
==Spanish Civil War==
In 1936, Goldman went to [[Spain]] to support the [[Spanish Revolution]] and the fight against [[Francisco Franco]]'s [[fascism]], known as the [[Spanish Civil War]]. During this time she wrote the obituary of the prominent [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchist]] [[Buenaventura Durruti]] in a piece of vibrant [[prose]] entitled ''Durruti is Dead, Yet Living'', which echoes [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s [[Adonais]].
==Death and burial==
Emma Goldman died of a stroke in [[Toronto]] on [[May 14]], [[1940]]. The U.S. [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] allowed her body to be brought back to the United States, and she was buried in [[German Waldheim Cemetery]] (now part of Forest Home Cemetery) in [[Forest Park, Illinois|Forest Park]], [[Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], close to where the executed [[Haymarket Riot]] defendants are interred [http://www.graveyards.com/IL/Cook/foresthome/ne-goldman.html]. Her tombstone reads "Liberty will not descend to a people, a people must raise themselves to Liberty."
An urban legend in [[Toronto]] holds that Goldman's ghost haunts the union hall on [[Spadina Avenue]], now a [[Chinese restaurant]], where she often spoke and where her body was displayed after her death.
==Emma Goldman in fiction==
* Emma Goldman appears as a fictional character in [[E.L. Doctorow]]'s ''[[Ragtime (novel)|Ragtime]]'', where she plays an important part in allowing the characters of [[Evelyn Nesbit]] and her lover, Younger Brother, to examine their own lives in a new way. The book combines fiction with history.
* [[Emmanuel Goldstein]], a character in the novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] by [[George Orwell]], may refer to Emma Goldman.
* The meeting between Emma Goldman and [[Leon Czolgosz]] is featured [[Stephen Sondheim|Sondheim]]'s Broadway musical ''[[Assassins (musical)|Assassins]]''.
* Emma Goldman appears in the 1991 Origin Systems computer RPG [[Martian Dreams]]. In the game's alternate reality, Goldman is an ally of the Martian-possessed [[Grigori Rasputin]].
* Emma Goldman is played in the [[Warren Beatty]] film ''[[Reds]]'' by [[Maureen Stapleton]], who won an [[Academy Award]] for the role.
* Emma Goldman's life is the subject of [[Howard Zinn]]'s play "Emma"
==References==
*Falk, Candace, et al. ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 1 - Made for America, 1890-1901''. Berkeley: U of California P, 2003. ISBN 0520086708
*Falk, Candace, et al. ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 2 - Making Speech Free, 1902-1909''. Berkeley: U of California P, 2004. ISBN 0520225694
*Goldman, Emma. ''The Tragedy of Woman's Emancipation'', New York, Mother Earth Publishing Association, 19 |
nce on Reagan's staffing and was given some line responsibilities. <ref>[http://www.policyreview.org/FEB01/felzenberg_print.html The Vice Presidency Grows Up] - Alvin S. Felzenberg, PolicyReview.com, accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]</ref> Reagan kept Bush busy on overseas diplomatic trips; Bush attended so many [[state funeral]]s that he famously quipped, "I'm George Bush. You die, I fly." <ref>[http://worldroots.com/brigitte/bush.htm George Herbert Walker Bush] - WorldRoots.com, accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]</ref>
The Reagan/Bush ticket won again in 1984, against the Democrats' [[Walter Mondale]]/[[Geraldine Ferraro]] ticket.
During his second term as [[Vice President]], Bush had the distinction of becoming the first [[Vice President]] to become [[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]] when, on [[July 13]], [[1985]], President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon. Bush served as [[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]] for approximately eight hours, most of which he passed playing tennis.
When the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] broke in 1986, Bush stated that he had been "out of the loop" and unaware of the Iran initiatives related to arms trading. <ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/06/29/reviews/iran-transcript.html Transcript] - ''[[New York Times]]'', [[June 30]], [[1997]]</ref> This claim met with some skepticism, but Bush was never charged with any wrongdoing.
==1988 presidential campaign==
[[Image:George H. W. Bush inauguration.jpg|thumb|250px|Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]] administering the oath of office to President George H. W. Bush during Inaugural ceremonies at the [[United States Capitol]]. January 20, 1989.]]
In 1988, after eight years as Vice President, Bush ran for President. Though considered the early frontrunner for the nomination, Bush came in third in the [[Iowa caucus]], beaten by winner U.S. Senator [[Bob Dole]] and runner-up [[televangelist]] [[Pat Robertson]]. However, Bush rebounded to win the [[New Hampshire primary]], partly because of television commercials portraying Dole as a tax raiser. Once the multiple-state primaries such as [[Super Tuesday]] began, Bush's organizational strength and fundraising lead were impossible for the other candidates to match, and the nomination was his.
Leading up to the [[1988 Republican National Convention]], there was much speculation as to Bush's choice of running mate. In a move anticipated by few and later criticized by many, Bush chose little-known U.S. Senator [[Dan Quayle]] of [[Indiana]]. On the eve of the convention, Bush trailed Democratic nominee [[Michael Dukakis]], then [[Massachusetts]] governor, by double digits in most polls. Bush, often criticized for his lack of eloquence compared to Reagan, surprised many by giving possibly the best speech of his public career, widely known as the "Thousand points of light" speech <ref>[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/georgehbush1988rnc.htm George H.W. Bush: 1988 Republican National Convention Acceptance Address] - transcript, speech delivered [[August 18]], [[1988]], [[Superdome]], [[New Orleans]]</ref> for his use of that phrase to describe his vision of American community. Bush's acceptance speech and a generally well-managed Convention catapulted him ahead of Dukakis in the polls, and he held the lead for the rest of the race. Bush's acceptance speech at the convention included the famous pledge, ''[[Read my lips: no new taxes]]''.
The campaign was noted for its highly negative television advertisements. One advertisement run by the Bush campaign showed Dukakis awkwardly riding in a [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[tank]]. Another, produced and placed by an independent group supporting Bush, referred to murderer [[Willie Horton]] who committed a rape and assault while on a weekend furlough from a life sentence being served in Massachusetts. Dukakis's unconditional opposition to [[capital punishment in the United States]] also lead to a pointed question during the US Presidential debates. Moderator Bernard Shaw asked Dukakis hypothetically if Dukakis would support the death penalty if his wife were raped and murdered. Dukakis's response was widely criticized as wooden and technical, and helped characterize him as "soft on crime." These images helped enhance Bush's stature as a possible [[Commander-in-Chief]] compared to the Massachusetts governor.
The Bush-Quayle ticket beat [[Michael Dukakis]] and [[Lloyd Bentsen]] soundly in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]], by 426 to 111 (Lloyd Bentsen received one vote). In the nationwide popular vote, Bush took 53.4% of the ballots cast while Dukakis gained 45.6%.
==Presidency 1989-1993==
===Policies===
Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency from its first days. In his [[January 20]], [[1989]] Inaugural Address upon taking the Presidency, Bush said:
:"''I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise. We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better. For a new breeze is blowing, and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn; for in man's heart, if not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient, lifeless tree. A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken.''"<ref>[http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1989/89012000.html George H.W. Bush: Inagural Address] - transcript, speech delivered [[January 20]], [[1989]]</ref>
Leading up to the first Gulf War, on September 11, 1990 President Bush addressing a joint session of Congress stated:
"''Out of these troubled times, our fifth objective -- a New World Order -- can emerge: a new era''" <ref>[http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1990/90091101.html George H.W. Bush: Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the Persian Gulf Crisis and the Federal Budget Deficit] - transcript, speech delivered [[September 11]], [[1990]]</ref>
thus becoming the first President of the United States of America to openly state and work toward global governance.
=== Tiananmen Square (April-June 1989)===
{{main|Tiananmen Square protests of 1989}}
{{sectstub}}
=== Fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989) ===
{{main|Fall of the Berlin Wall}}
{{sectstub}}
=== Invasion of Panama (December 1989)===
{{main|Operation Just Cause}}
Operation Just Cause was the U.S. military invasion of Panama that deposed [[Manuel Noriega]] in December 1989. Noriega was a one time U.S. ally, who was implicated for cooperating with the illegal narcotics trade. The invasion was preceded by massive protests in Panama against Noriega.
{{sectstub}}
=== Gulf War (January-February 1991)===
[[Image:Bush_troops.jpg|thumb|300px|President Bush visited [[United States|American]] troops in [[Saudi Arabia]] on [[Thanksgiving Day]], 1990]]
As President, Bush is perhaps best known for leading the [[United Nations]] coalition in the 1990&ndash;1991 [[Gulf War]] despite his strong support for Saddam Hussein's regime against Congress over the latter's response to the Halabja affair, when he was Vice President and in his early days as President. In 1990, led by [[Saddam Hussein]], [[Iraq]] invaded its oil-rich neighbor to the south, [[Kuwait]]. The broad coalition sought to remove Iraqi forces from [[Kuwait]] and ensure that [[Iraq]] did not invade [[Saudi Arabia]]. Bush claimed that his position was summed up succinctly when he said, "This aggression will not stand," and "this is not a war for oil. This is war against aggression." It has since been revealed that the [[United Nations]] were unaware that the United States had actually attacked [[Iraq]] until they saw it on [[CNN]] ([[John Pilger]]).
In a foreign policy move that would later be questioned, President Bush achieved his stated objectives of "liberating" Kuwait and forcing Iraqi withdrawal, then ordered a cessation of combat operations &mdash;allowing Saddam Hussein to stay in power. His Secretary of Defense [[Dick Cheney]] noted that invading the country would get the United States "bogged down in the quagmire inside Iraq." Bush later explained that he did not give the order to overthrow the Iraqi government because it would have "incurred incalculable human and political costs... We would have been forced to occupy Baghdad and, in effect, rule Iraq". <ref>[http://www.thememoryhole.org/mil/bushsr-iraq.htm Reasons Not to Invade Iraq, by George Bush Sr.] - [[The Memory Hole]], accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]</ref> <ref>[http://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/gulfwar.asp A Word Transformed] - accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]</ref>
In explaining to Gulf War veterans why he chose not to pursue the war further, he said, "whose life would be on my hands as the commander-in-chief because I, unilaterally, went beyond the international law, went beyond the stated mission, and said we're going to show our macho? We're going into Baghdad. We're going to be an occupying power &mdash; America in an Arab land &mdash; with no allies at our side. It would have been disastrous." <ref>[http://www.fas.org/news/iraq/1999/03/a19990303bush.htm Bush tells Gulf vets why Hussein left in Baghdad] - S. H. Kelly, [[United States Army]] News Center, [[March 3]], [[1999]]</ref>
President Bush's popularity rating in America soared during and immediately after the apparent success of the military operations, but later fell dramatically due to an economic recession.
=== U.S.-Soviet cooperation, fall of the Soviet Union, and a "New World Order" (1989-1991)===
As the [[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union |
nvestment]] and [[Legal]] advice and services.
[[Public utility|Public utilities]] are often considered part of the tertiary sector as they provide services to people, while creating the utility's [[infrastructure]] is often considered part of the secondary sector, even though the same business may be involved in both aspects of the operation.
Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from a heavy reliance on agriculture, toward the development of [[industry]] (e.g. automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel, mining) and finally toward a more service based structure. Whereas the first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the [[United Kingdom]], the speed at which other economies have later made the transition to service-based, sometimes called post-industrial, has accelerated over time.
The term [[service economy]], in contrast, refers to a model wherein as much economic activity as possible is treated as a service. For example IBM treats its business as a service business. Although it still manufactures high-end computers, it sees the physical goods as a small part of the "business solutions" industry. They have found that the price elasticity of demand for "business solutions" is much less elastic than for hardware. There has been a corresponding shift to a [[subscription business model|subscription pricing model]]. Rather than receiving a single payment for a piece of manufactured equipment,many manufacturers are now receiving a steady stream of revenue for ongoing contracts.
Manufacturing tends to be more open to [[international trade]] and competition than services. As a result, there has been a tendency for the first economies to industrialize to come under competitive attack by those seeking to industrialize later, e.g. because production, especially [[labour (economics)|labour]], costs are lower in those industrializing later. The resultant shrinkage of manufacturing in the leading economies might explain their growing reliance on the service sector.
==Issues for service providers==
Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face. Services are not tangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed some, such as [[consulting]] and [[investment]] services, offer no guarantees of the value for price paid.
Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, it is true that "people costs" are a high component of service costs. Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs.
Differentiation is often difficult. How does one choose one investment advisor over another, since they (and hotel providers, leisure companies, consultants, and others) often seem to provide identical services? Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition.
==See also==
* [[Primary sector of industry]]
* [[Secondary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Industry|Sector, 3]]
[[de:Dienstleistung]]
[[es:Sector servicios]]
[[pt:Setor terciário]]
[[ru:Третичный сектор экономики]]
[[sv:Tjänsteproduktion]]
[[zh:第三产业]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Primary sector of industry</title>
<id>14552</id>
<revision>
<id>41001230</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T11:35:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MarkGallagher</username>
<id>128976</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.85.15.68|212.85.15.68]] ([[User talk:212.85.15.68|talk]]) to last version by Bit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''primary sector of [[industry]]''' generally involves the conversion of natural resources into primary products. Most products from this sector are considered raw materials for other industries. Major businesses in this sector include [[Agriculture|agriculture]], [[Agribusiness|agribusiness]], [[fishing]], [[forestry]] and all [[mining]] and [[quarrying]] [[industry|industries]].
Downstream manufacturing industries that aggregate, pack, package, purify or process the raw materials close to the primary producers are normally considered part of this sector, especially if the raw material is unsuitable for sale or difficult to transport long distances.
==See also==
* [[Secondary sector of industry]]
* [[Tertiary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]
{{sectstub}}
[[ja:第一次産業]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Secondary sector of industry</title>
<id>14553</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-08T01:17:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KongminRegent</username>
<id>732030</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''secondary sector of industry''' is the [[manufacturing]] sector of [[Industry|industry]]. This sector of industry generally takes the output of the primary sector and manufactures finished goods or products to a point where they are suitable for use by other businesses, for export, or sale to domestic consumers. This sector is often divided into light industry and heavy industry. Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy and require factories and machinery to convert the raw materials into goods and products. They also produce waste materials and waste heat that may pose environmental problems or cause pollution.
Divisions of this sector include:
*[[Aerospace manufacturing]]
*[[Automaker|Automobile manufacturing]]
*[[Brewing industry]]
*[[Chemical industry]]
*[[Engineering]]
*[[Energy]] industries including the production of [[petroleum]], [[gas]] and [[Electric power]]
*[[Steel]] production
*[[Tobacco industry]]
*[[Radio]]
*[[Telecommunications]] Industry
*[[Metalworking]]
*[[Clothing]] Industry
==See also==
* [[Primary sector of industry]]
* [[Tertiary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]
[[Category:Industry|Sector, 2]]
[[de:Industrie]]
[[ru:Вторичный сектор экономики]]
[[pt:Setor secundário]]
[[zh:第二产业]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Imaginary number</title>
<id>14554</id>
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<id>41395128</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:18:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krun</username>
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<comment>removing extraneous gibberish</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''imaginary number''' (or '''purely imaginary number''') is a [[complex number]] whose [[square (algebra)|square]] is a [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] real number. Imaginary numbers were created in 1572 by [[Rafael Bombelli]]. At the time, such numbers were thought not to exist, much as zero and the negative numbers were sometimes regarded by some as fictitious or useless. Many other mathematicians were slow to believe in imaginary numbers at first, including [[Descartes]] who wrote about them in his ''[[La Géométrie]]'', where the term was meant to be derogatory.
==Definition==
Any [[complex number]] can be written as <math>a+bi</math>, where <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are [[real number]]s and <math>i</math> is the [[imaginary unit]] with the property that:
:<math>i^2 = -1.\,</math>
The number <math>a</math> is the [[real part]] of the complex number, and <math>b</math> is the [[imaginary part]]. Although Descartes originally used the term "imaginary number" to mean what is currently meant by the term "complex number", the term "imaginary number" today usually means a complex number with a [[real part]] equal to <math>0</math>, that is, a number of the form <math>bi</math>. Note that, technically, <math>0</math> is considered to be a purely imaginary number: <math>0</math> is the only complex number which is both real and purely imaginary.
==Geometric interpretation==
Geometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the [[complex number]] plane, allowing them to be presented orthogonal to the real axis. One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard [[number line]], positively increasing in magnitude to the right, and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left. At <math>0</math> on this <math>x</math>-axis, draw a <math>y</math>-axis with "positive" direction going up; "positive" imaginary numbers then "increase" in magnitude upwards, and "negative" imaginary numbers "decrease" in magnitude downwards. This vertical axis is often called the "imaginary axis" and is denoted <math>i\mathbb{R}</math>.
In this model, multiplication by <math>-1</math> corresponds to a [[reflection]] about the origin, i.e. a [[rotation]] of <math>180</math> degrees about the origin. Multiplication by ''i'' corresponds to a <math>90</math>-degree rotation in the "positive" direction (i.e. counter-clockwise), and the equation <math>i^2 = -1</math> is interpreted as saying that if we apply <math>2</math> <math>90</math>-degree rotations about the origin, the net result is a single <math>180</math>-degree rotation. Note that a <math>90</math>-degree rotation in the "negative" direction (i.e. clockwise) also satisfies thi |
ause the longest time at pH of 6.4.
Earthworms form the base of many food chains. They are preyed upon by many species of [[bird]]s, e.g. [[starling]]s, [[Thrush (bird)|thrushes]], [[gull]]s, [[crow]]s, and [[robin]]s. Mammals such as [[hedgehog]]s and [[mole (animal)|mole]]s eat many earthworms as well. Earthworms are also eaten by many invertebrates such as [[Ground beetle]]s and other [[beetle]]s, [[snail]]s, [[slug]]s and [[flatworm]]s. Earthworms have many internal [[parasite]]s including Protozoa, Platyhelminthes, nematodes. They are found in many part of earthworms' bodies like the blood, seminal vesicles, coelom, intestine, or in the cocoons.
==Threats to earthworms==
The application of chemical fertilisers, sprays and dusts can have a disastrous effect on earthworm populations. Nitrogenous fertilisers tend to create [[Soil pH|acid conditions]], which are fatal to the worms, and often dead specimens are to be found on the surface following the application of substances like [[DDT]], [[lime sulphur]] and [[lead arsenate]]. In [[Australia]], the use of [[superphosphate]] on [[pasture]]s almost totally wiped out the giant [[Gippsland earthworm]].
In addition, as earthworms are processors of large amounts of plant and mineral materials, even if not killed themselves they can accumulate pollutants such as [[DDT]], [[lead]], [[cadmium]], and [[dioxin]]s at levels up to 20 times higher than in the soil, which in turn are passed on at lethal dosages to the wildlife which feed upon them such as [[fox]]es, [[mole (animal)|mole]]s or [[bird]]s.
Therefore, the most reliable way to maintain or increase the levels of worm population in the soil is to avoid the application of artificial chemicals, as well as adding organic matter, preferably as a surface mulch, on a regular basis. This will not only provide them with their food and nutrient requirements, but also creates the optimum conditions of heat (cooler in summer and warmer in winter) and moisture to stimulate their activity.
A recent threat to earthworm populations in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is the [[New Zealand Flatworm]] (''Artiposthia triangulata''), which feeds upon the earthworm, but in this country has no natural predator itself. At present sightings of the NZFW have been mainly localised, but this is no reason for complacency as it has spread extensively since its introduction in 1960 through contaminated soil and plant pots. Any sightings of the flatworm should be reported to the [[Scottish Crop Research Institute]], who are monitoring its spread.
==Economic Impact==
Various species of worms are used in [[vermiculture]], the practice of feeding organic waste to earthworms to decompose (digest) it, a form of [[compost]]ing by the use of worms. These are usually ''[[Eisenia fetida]]'' or the Brandling worm, also known as the Tiger worm or Red Wriggler, and are distinct from soil-dwelling earthworms.
Earthworms are sold all over the world. The earthworm market is sizeable. According to Doug Collicut (see "Nightcrawler" link below), "In 1980, 370 million worms were exported from Canada, with a Canadian export value of $13 million and an American retail value of $54 million."
==Taxonomy and main geographic origins of earthworms==
Main families :
* [[Lumbricidae]] : temperate areas of Northern Hemisphere
* [[Hormogastridae]] : Europe
* [[Sparganophilidae]] : North America
* [[Almidae]] : Africa, South America
* [[Megascolecidae]] : South East Asia, Australia and Oceania
* [[Acanthodrilidae]] : Africa, central and South America, Australia and Oceania
* [[Ocnerodrilidae]] : Central and South America, Africa
* [[Octochaetidae]] : Central America, India, New Zealand, Australia
* [[Glossoscolecidae]] : central and Northern South America
* [[Eudrilidae]] : Africa
== See also ==
*[[Lumbricidae]]
*[[Megascolecidae]]
*[[Sparganophilidae]]
*[[Soil life]]
*[[Gilbert White]]
== External References ==
* [http://www.compost-bin.org/worm-compost.html What is Worm Compost?]
* [http://www.compost-bin.org/earthworm-species.html Earthworm Species by Kelly Slocum]
* [http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/worms/ Earthworm Information (UC Davis)]
* [http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/e1/earthworm.asp earthworm on Encyclopedia.com]
* [http://www.naturenorth.com/fall/ncrawler/ncrawlF.html Biology of the Night Crawler (Lumbricus terrestris)]
* [http://www.naturewatch.ca/english/wormwatch/about/guide/about_guide_redworms.html WormWatch - Field guide to earthworms]
* [http://flatworm.csl.gov.uk/ New Zealand flatworm page (UK Govt.)]
* [http://www.hdra.org.uk/factsheets/pc21.htm New Zealand flatworm page (HDRA)]
* [http://www.naturewatch.ca/english/wormwatch/index.html Worm Watch] Canadian worm awareness and appreciation site, with detailed worm anatomy.
* [http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialanimals/earthworms/index.html Minnesota Invasive Earthworms] Minnesota DNR information on the negative impacts of earthworms
* [http://www.pedozoologia.net/Bev.htm#csaba Lumbricidae keys and Dichogastrid checklist]
* [http://bio-eco.eis.ynu.ac.jp/eng/database/earthworm/ A Series of Searchable Texts on Earthworm Biodiversity, Ecology and Systematics from Various Regions of the World]
[[Category:Annelids]]
[[Category:Cryptic animals]]
[[da:Regnorm]]
[[de:Regenwürmer]]
[[es:Lumbricidae]]
[[eo:Tervermo]]
[[fr:Ver de terre]]
[[he:תולעי אדמה]]
[[nl:Regenwormen]]
[[ja:ミミズ]]
[[pl:Dżdżownica]]
[[pt:Minhoca]]
[[sv:Daggmask]]
[[zh:蚯蚓]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Euroscepticism</title>
<id>10037</id>
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<id>41893347</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:29:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.102.225.147</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>see also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Eurorealism}}
{{mergefrom|Euronaivism}}
'''Euroscepticism''' is [[skepticism|scepticism]] about, or disagreement with, existing and many proposed future issues concerning the [[European Union]], sometimes coupled with a wish to preserve national [[sovereignty]] as opposed to a wish to build a federalistic EU-based [[nation state]].
==Eurosceptic influences on European politics==
Euroscepticism is generally stronger in Northern European countries, including member-states [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]], all of which have, for example, declined to further their participation in the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] as much as the other EU member states. Non-members [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]] and (further to the south) [[Switzerland]], especially the German-speaking cantons, have also shown a marked reluctance to expand ties with the EU or accept membership.
According to [http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/standard_en.htm Eurobarometer] surveys, fewer than 3 in 10 citizens of the UK and Sweden feel their countries have benefited from membership of the EU. Most continental European countries tend to be more pro-European, although eurosceptic movements exist in all European countries in some form. Among the new member states who acceded in 2004, the [[Czech Republic]] is the most eurosceptic.
Euroscepticism is likely to have been a factor (at least in part) of:
*the French and Dutch rejection of the [[European Constitution]] by referenda held in 2005.
*the [[Norway|Norwegian]] rejection of EU membership, on both occasions
*the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] rejection of membership in the [[European Economic Area]]
*the initial [[Denmark|Danish]] rejection of the [[Maastricht Treaty]] (later approved).
*the Danish rejection of the [[euro]]
*the [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]] rejection of the [[Treaty of Nice|Nice Treaty]] in the first referendum (later approved). See [[Treaty of Nice#Ratification Process|Ireland's 'No' Vote]], although it is at present very much a minority view.
*the [[Sweden|Swedish]] rejection of the euro in the [[Referenda in Sweden|national referendum]] on [[September 14]] [[2003]]
*the fact that [[Iceland]] has never applied for membership
*the fact that [[Greenland]] chose not to remain in the EU (then the EEC) when it was granted [[home rule]] by Denmark in [[1979]].
*the [[United Kingdom]]'s unwillingness to be a part of the [[Schengen Treaty]] or the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]].
A noted [[Norway|Norwegian]] eurosceptic during the [[Treaty of Maastricht]] negotiations was [[Anne Enger Lahnstein]], representing [[Senterpartiet]].
==Eurosceptic issues==
[[Image:Eurosceptic2005.jpg|thumb|right|A poster against the European Union, seen in Athens, 2005.]]
The issues on which eurosceptics focus vary from country to country.
In European countries outside the EU, eurosceptics focus attention on the perceived disadvantages of Union membership; for instance, in the case of [[Norway]], the greatest concern is the effect of the EU's [[Common Fisheries Policy]]. In those countries which are already members, but have chosen to retain independent currencies (the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]), eurosceptics focus on the disadvantages of [[euro]] membership as well as on other aspects of involvement with the EU. Some arguments against the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] are built on complaints that the [[Growth and Stability Pact]] has been inconsistently applied, and on the recent underperformance of the [[eurozone]] when compared with those economies that have chosen to remain outside.
While many eurosceptics take issue with particular characteristics of the EU as it stands, some maintain in principle that the very concept of the EU is an invention of bureaucrats seeking to create a bureaucratic and undemocratic superstate (or even [[dictatorship]]).
===Centralisation===
Many eurosceptics do not agree with the idea of a centralised European state, a [[United States of Europe]] akin to the [[USA]], which many |
ister and vice prime ministers appointed by the president
<br>''election results:''
President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO reelected with 98% of popular vote in elections marred by widespread fraud
'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral House of People's Representatives or Camara de Representantes del Pueblo (80 seats; members directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
last held [[7 March]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA 2004)
<br>''election results:''
percent of vote by party - PDGE 80%, UP 6%, CPDS 5%; seats by party - PDGE 75, UP 4 and CPDS 1
<br>''note:''
opposition parties have refused to take up their seats in the House to protest widespread irregularities in the 1999 legislative elections
'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Tribunal
'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Convergence Party for Social Democracy or CPDS [Placido Miko ABOGO]; Democratic Party for Equatorial Guinea or PDGE (ruling party) [Augustin Nse NFUMU]; Party for Progress of Equatorial Guinea or PPGE [Severo MOTO]; Popular Action of Equatorial Guinea or APGE [Miguel Esono EMAN]; Popular Union or UP [Fabian MUSA, general secretary]; Progressive Democratic Alliance or ADP [Victorino Bolekia BONAY, mayor of Malabo]
'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
<br>''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Mr Teodoro Biyougo NSUE
<br>''chancery:''
2020 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20009
<br>''telephone:''
[1] (202) 518-5700
<br>''fax:''
[1] (202) 518-5252
'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
<br>''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Niels MARQUARDT (resides in Yaoundé, Cameroon)
<br>Charge d'affaires a.i. Ms. Sarah Craddock MORRISON
<br>''chancery:''
K-3, Carretera de Aeropuerto, Al lado de Restaurante El Paraíso, Malabo
<br>''telephone:''
[240] 093-457
<br>''fax:''
[240] 098-443
<br>''note:''
the US reopened its embassy in Equatorial Guinea in late 2003 (embassy closed September 1995). The US also maintains a Consular Agency in Bata on the mainland.
<br>
'''Flag description:'''
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice)
:''See also :'' [[Equatorial Guinea]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Economy of Equatorial Guinea</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-21T14:14:43Z</timestamp>
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<username>Qero</username>
<id>417430</id>
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<comment>Cote d'Ivoire -> Côte d'Ivoire</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Economy overview==
The discovery and exploitation of large oil reserves have contributed to dramatic economic growth in recent years. Forestry, [[farming]], and [[fishing]] are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the neglect of the rural economy under successive regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth (the government has stated its intention to reinvest some [[petroleum|oil]] revenue into agriculture). A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of corruption and mismanagement. No longer eligible for concessional financing because of large oil revenues, the government has been unsuccessfully trying to agree on a "shadow" fiscal management program with the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]]. Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members. Undeveloped natural resources include [[titanium]], [[iron]] [[ore]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]], and [[alluvial]] [[gold]]. Growth remained strong in 2005, led by oil. Equatorial Guinea now has the second highest per capita income in the world, after [[Luxembourg]].
==2004 US senate report==
A Senate report [http://www.progress.org/2004/oil13.htm] in 2004 found that [[Riggs Bank]] helped top officials of Equatorial Guinea steal hundreds of millions of dollars in oil revenues. The Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations probed the corruption case involving Equatorial Guinea and its oil revenues for much of the past year.
The panel's report found that Riggs Bank helped government leaders in Equatorial Guinea siphon oil revenues to accounts set up for them in Washington. Equatorial Guinea has been cited by the U.S. State Department for human rights abuses, corruption, and diversion of oil revenues to government officials.
Beginning in 1995 until 2004, Riggs oversaw as many as 60 accounts containing as much as $700 million, making Equatorial Guinea its largest single customer. Some were government accounts, while others were the private accounts of President [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema]], other government officials, and their families.
The Senate report says millions of dollars in the government accounts, which should have gone to help impoverished Equatorial Guineans, were instead funneled to off-shore tax shelters, with help from Riggs officials.
At a hearing on the matter at which current and former bank officials appeared, Senator [[Carl Levin]], a [[Michigan]] Democrat, was clearly outraged. "Somehow there has to be a conscience here. Aren't you troubled?," he said.
The report describes one incident in which the bank manager of the country's accounts, [[Simon Kareri]], brought a 27 kilogram suitcase with $3 million in plastic-wrapped cash to Riggs's Dupont Circle branch to make a deposit into President Obiang's account. Mr. Kareri, who was fired in January, refused to testify at the hearing," he said. "Mr. Chairman, there is nothing I would like to do more than answer your questions today. However, I must heed the advice of my counsel and invoke my [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|fifth amendment]] rights under the Constitution and refuse to answer the question," he said.
Senators were angered that bank officials never reported any suspicious financial transactions involving Equatorial Guinea.
Lawrence Hebert, president and chief executive officer of Riggs Bank, blamed a lack of an internal system to monitor and identify such suspicious activity. It is an assertion that Senator Levin found ridiculous.
"First of all Mr. Hebert, you do not need a computer system to realize suspicious activity when you have sixty pounds of cash that are being walked into the door with a suitcase," he said.
Mr. Levin criticized bank regulators for not doing enough in their oversight responsibility.
Riggs was fined a record $25 million by federal banking regulators for allegedly failing to report suspicious transactions made to the Equatorial Guinea accounts, but that didn't happen until May 2004.
Senator Levin also took aim at oil companies that are doing business in Equatorial Guinea, many of which have secret contracts with firms that have ties to President Obiang.
The London-based organization [[Global Witness]] notes that the Senate committee report found that oil companies made payments into the personal accounts of Equatorial Guinean officials that were used for land purchases, office leases, and even education for the children of the country's leaders.
With oil money stashed away in Riggs Bank for the ruling elite of Equatorial Guinea, argues Sarah Wykes of Global Witness, oil companies cannot make the case that they are a force for positive change in the country.
"Equatorial Guinea is now the third largest producer of oil in sub-Saharan Africa," he said. "It has been called the 'Kuwait of Africa' But it is clear that since oil came on stream, the human development indicators of the country have actually gone backward, so we can say the oil money is not contributing to development at all," she said.
Equatorial Guinea responded with an 82-point reort claiming that the Senate had been "duped" by "pressure groups"[http://www.guineequatoriale-info.net/info_05/us_2005052500.htm], naming specifically a $40,000 contract between a lobbying group and [[Severo Moto Nsa]], an EquatoGuinean living in self-imposed exile who uses his website to make wild accusations against Obiang[http://www.guinea-ecuatorial.org/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=448]. The rebuttal also claims that the payments to government members were disclosed in the government accounts and were not illegal.
==In greater depth==
Oil and gas exports have increased substantially (in 2003 [[Equatorial Guinea]] was ranked third among [[Africa|African]] producers behind [[Nigeria]] and [[Angola]]) and will drive the economy for years to come. The GDP increased by 105.2% in 1997, and real GDP growth reached 23% in 1999, and initial estimates suggested growth of about 15% in 2001, according to IMF 2001 forecast. Per capita income grew from about $1,000 in 1998 to about $2,000 in 2000. The energy export sector is responsible for this rapid growth. Oil production has increased from 81,000 to 210,000 barrel/day (13,000 to 33,000 m&sup3;/day) between 1998 and early 2001. There is ongoing additional development of existing commercially viable oil and gas deposits as well as new exploration in other offshore concessions.
Equato |
irst published in 1867)
</blockquote>
A long term foreign employer in the area is [[Du Pont]], who have been based at Maydown since [[1958]], this was its [http://heritage.dupont.com/touchpoints/tp_1958/depth.shtml first] ever [[European]] production facility. Originally [[Neoprene]] was manufactured at Maydown and susequently followed by [[Hypalon]]. More recently [[Lycra]] and [[Kevlar]]® production units were active [http://www.nics.gov.uk/irtu/research/synthetic-4.html]. Thanks to a healthy world-wide demand for Kevlar which is made at the plant, the faclity recently undertook a £40 million upgrade to expand its global Kevlar production. Du pont have stated that contributing factors to their continued commitment to Maydown are: "low labor costs, excellent communications, and tariff-free, easy access to the U.K. mainland and European continent."
[[Image:Seagate building Derry 2005.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Seagate Production Facility, 1 Disc Drive, Springtown Industrial Estate, Derry.]]
In the last 15 years there has been a drive to increase inward investment in the town, more recently concentrating on digital industries. Currently the three largest private-sector employers are American firms [http://www.state.gov/s/p/rem/13319.htm].
Even though Derry provides cheap labour by standards in the West, [http://www.marxist.net/ireland/beyondframe.htm?ch8.htm critics] have noted that the grants offered by the Northern Ireland Industrial Development Board have helped land jobs for the area that will only last as long as the funding lasts. This was reflected by 1990 questions to The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (Mr. Richard Needham) [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm198990/cmhansrd/1990-03-01/Orals-1.html Column 372 & 373]. It was noted that it cost £30,000 to create one job in an American firm in the north of Ireland.
Successes have included call centres and a large investment by [[Seagate]] who have operated a factory in the Springtown Industrial Estate in Derry since 1993, they currently sponsor the city [[film festival]], but more significantly they employ over 1000 people in the Springtown premises which produces more than half of Seagate's total requirement for [[hard drive]] read-write heads.
A success for the [[IDB]] (for Northern Ireland) was [[Stream International]], who opened an outsourced technology call centre operation in the IDB's Ulster Science & Technology Park in Derry in January 1995, it is now the third largest employer in Derry [http://www.stream.com/ourcompany/sites/emea_londonderry.asp].
A recent but controversial new employer in the area is [[Raytheon]], Raytheon Systems Limited, was established in 1999, in the Ulster Science & Technology Park, Buncrana Road [http://www.raytheon.co.uk/about/londonderry.html]. Although local people welcomed the jobs boost many in the area object to the jobs being provided by a firm involved heavily in the [[arms trade]] [http://www.raytheon.co.uk/about/londonderry.html].
The most significant employers in the region are:
'''International:'''
* DuPont (US)
* Stream International (US)
* Seagate Technology (US)
* Perfecseal, Bemis (US)
* [[NTL]] (US)
* Arntz Belting (Germany)
* Raytheon (US)
* Northbrook Technologies (US)
* Invision Software (Germany)
* Homeloan Management Ltd - [http://www.hml.co.uk HML] (UK)
'''Local:'''
* Desmonds - Northern Ireland’s largest privately owned company. (International garment manufacturing and sourcing)
* E&I Engineering
* [[Saint Brendan's|St. Brendan’s Irish Cream Liqueur Ltd]]
* Singularity (software products and services)
[http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/economicdevelopment/downloads/1709M%20DERRY%20BOOK.pdf Source] (pdf)
[[Image:Magee University Derry SMC 2005.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Magee campus, University of Ulster]]
Londonderry Port at Lisahally is the United Kingdom’s most westerly port and has capacity for 30,000 ton vessels. The port played a vital part for the Allies in WWII during the war's longest running campaign, The Battle of the Atlantic and eventually saw the surrender of the German UBoat fleet at Lisahally on May 8, 1945. In spite of Derry being the second city of Northern Ireland road and rail links to other cities are below par for its standing. Many business leaders claim that government investment in the city and infrastructure has been badly lacking.
Some have stated that this is due to its outlaying border location whilst others have cited a [[sectarian]] bias against the west of the province due to its high proportion of Catholics [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/derry/bac.htm] [http://www.irelandseye.com/aarticles/history/events/conflict/bttc4.shtm]. In any event, there is no motorway link with [[Belfast]] or [[Dublin]]. Additionally the rail link to Belfast has been downgraded over the years so that presently it is not a viable alternative to the roads for industry to rely on. Mr Garvan O'Doherty, local business man and board member of the Londonderry Port and Harbour Commission, stated in the [[Irish Times]], October 2005:
<blockquote>
"It is vital that road, rail and air links are all maximised with particular emphasis on the two principal road axes - connections to Belfast and Dublin."
</blockquote>
Much has been made of the City of Derry airport. However it should be noted that the citizens of Derry themselves directly subsidise its running from local council tax coffers.
Critics of investment decisions affecting Derry often point to the decision to build a new university building in nearby [[Coleraine]] rather than developing the University of Ulster campus that already existed in Derry - Magee. Another major government decision affecting Derry was the decision to create the new city of [[Craigavon]] outside Belfast, which again was detrimental to the development of Derry. Even in October 2005, there is perceived bias against Derry with a major civil service job contract going to Belfast rather than the comparitvely impoverished North West of the province. [[Mark Durkan]], the [[SDLP]] leader and [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for Foyle was quoted in the Belfast Telegraph as saying:
<blockquote>
"The fact is there has been consistent under-investment in the North West and a reluctance on the part of the Civil Service to see or support anything west of the Bann, except when it comes to rate increases, then they treat us equally."
[http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northwest_edition/story.jsp?story=666639]
</blockquote>
Many observers note that politics will need to play a part in the future development of the economy of Derry. Whether it is a future devolved Northern Ireland government or the British or Irish or European parliaments that will provide the impetus it is clear that cross border digital and physical infrastructure improvements are needed. In July 2005, the Irish Minister for Finance, [[Brian Cowan]] called for a joint task force to drive economic growth in the cross border region. This would have implications for Derry, Tyrone and Donegal across the border.
Given the afforability of housing in the city, the student population has boomed in recent years bringing a revival in the fortunes of [[Magee Campus|Magee]], the oldest campus within the [[University of Ulster]] established in [[1865]] as Magee College.
== 2001 Census ==
Derry Urban Area (DUA), including the City as well as the neighbouring settlements of [[Culmore]], [[New Buildings]] and [[Strathfoyle]], is classified as a city by the [http://www.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA)] (ie with population exceeding 75,000). On Census day ([[29 April]] [[2001]]) there were 90,736 people living in [[Derry Urban Area]]. Of these:
*27.0% were aged under 16 years and 13.4% were aged 60 and over
*48.3% of the population were male and 51.7% were female
*77.8% were from a [[Catholic]] background and 20.8% were from a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background
*7.1% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed.
For more details see: [http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Neighbourhood Information Service]
== Places of Interest ==
[[Image:Derry Walls SMC 2005.jpg|right|150px|thumbnail|Derry's Historic Walls.]]
[[Image:Halloween Derry 2005.jpg|right|150px|thumbnail|Derry transforms during Halloween.]]
Tourism is set to be central to the future economic success of Derry. There are many museums and sites of interest in and around the region. Future projects include the Walled City Signature Project, which intends to ensure that the city's walls become a world class tourist experience [http://www.nitb.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=809].
Other existing attractions are:
* Templemore Sports Complex, which has hosted the [[European Boxing Championships]] and is claimed to be capable of hosting "any indoor sport up to international level". <ref>[http://www.visitderry.com/sports.htm "Derry Tourist Guide - sports & leisure"]. Retrieved Jan. 26, 2006.</ref>
* [[Amelia Earhart]] Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary
* [[Apprentice Boys of Derry|Apprentice Boys]] Memorial Hall
* [[Bogside]] Murals
* Grianan of Ailech (Royal seat of the Ui Neill family for 700 years [http://www.megalithomania.com/show/site/1465])
* Harbour Museum
* Museum of Free Derry [http://www.museumoffreederry.org/ Online]
* Springhill House And Costume Collection
* St. Columb's Cathedral and Chapter House Museum
* Tower Museum
* Workhouse Museum
The now world famous Halloween celebrations in Derry also prove a huge tourism boost for the city, the carnival is promoted as being the first and longest running Halloween carnival in the whole of Ireland [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/halloween/], [http://aspen.conncoll.edu/politicsandculture/page.cfm?key=448]. It actually is the largest street party in Ireland [http://www.irishabroad.com/news/irishpost/Travel/ireland-home-halloween-051012.asp].
== Fa |
omance]] and were picked up by medi&aelig;val Arab historians. The [[14th century]] Arab historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] ridiculed one where sea-monsters prevent the foundation, but were thwarted when Alexander descends in a glass box, armed with exact knowledge of their appearance, and goes on to erect metal effigies on the beach which succeed in frightening the monsters away.
Alexandria was intended to supersede [[Naucratis]] as a Greek centre in Egypt, and to be the link between [[Greece]] and the rich [[Nile Valley]]. If such a city was to be on the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site, behind the screen of the [[Pharos]] island and removed from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths. An Egyptian townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and was a resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it there were five native villages scattered along the strip between Lake Mareotis and the sea, according to a history of Alexander attributed to the author known as [[Alexander Romance|pseudo-Callisthenes]].
A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt for the East and never returned to his city. After Alexander departed, his viceroy, [[Cleomenes]], continued the creation of Alexandria.
===Ptolemaic history, to Ptolemy VIII - Centre of Learning===
In a struggle with the other successors to Alexander, his general, Ptolemy (later [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]) succeeded in bringing Alexander's body to Alexandria, where it became a famous tourist destination for ancient travellers (including [[Julius Caesar]]).
Though [[Cleomenes]] was mainly in charge of seeing to Alexandria's continuous development, the ''[[#Layout of the ancient city|Heptastadion]]''and the main-land quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined [[Tyre]] and becoming the centre of the new commerce between [[Europe]] and the [[Arabia]]n and [[India]]n East, the city grew, in less than a generation, to be larger than [[Carthage]] and in a century became the largest city in the world; for some centuries more, it was second only to [[Rome]]. Nominally a free Greek city, Alexandria retained its [[senate]] to Roman times and the judicial functions of that body were restored by [[Septimius Severus]], after temporary abolition by [[Augustus]].
It was not only a centre of [[Hellenism]], but was also the greatest Jewish city in the world. There the [[Septuagint]] was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Greek [[university]] ([[Library of Alexandria]]) but they were careful to maintain the distinction of its population into three nations, "Greek", Jew and Egyptian. From this division arose much of the later turbulence which began to manifest itself under [[Ptolemy IV of Egypt|Ptolemy Philopater]], who reigned [[221 BC|221]]&ndash;[[204 BC]]. The reign of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon]] from [[144 BC|144]]&ndash;[[116 BC]] was marked by purges of Alexandria (including the expulsion of [[Apollodorus]]) and civil warfare surrounding the intrigues among the king's wives and sons.
One of the earliest well-known inhabitants of Alexandria during the Ptolemaic reign was the geometer and number-theorist [[Euclid]].
===Roman interest and annexation - 80 to 30 BC===
The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in [[80 BC]], according to the will of [[Ptolemy X of Egypt|Ptolemy Alexander]]: but it had been previously under Roman influence for more than a hundred years. [[Julius Caesar]] dallied with [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] in Alexandria in [[47 BC]], saw Alexander's body (quipping 'I came to see a king, not a collection of corpses' when he was offered a view of the other royal burials) and was mobbed by the [[rabble]]; his example was followed by [[Marc Antony]], for whose favor the city paid dear to [[Octavian]], who placed over it a prefect from the imperial household.
===Jesus in Alexandria?===
If the story of the [[Flight into Egypt]] is historical, then [[Jesus]], [[Mary]] and [[Joseph]] may have spent time in Alexandria, which had a sizeable Jewish population at the time.
===Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt===
From the time of annexation onwards, Alexandria seems to have regained its old prosperity, commanding, as it did, an important granary of Rome; this fact, doubtless, was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it directly under [[Roman Empire|imperial power]]. In AD [[215]] the [[Roman Emperors|emperor]] [[Caracalla]] visited the city and for some insulting [[satire]]s that the inhabitants had directed at him, he abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond the letter, for a general massacre ensued.
===Late Roman history - The Fall of Rome===
Even as its main historical importance had formerly sprung from pagan learning, now Alexandria acquired fresh importance as a centre of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]] and church government. There [[Arianism]] was formulated and where also [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], the great opponent of both Arianism and pagan reaction, triumphed over both, establishing the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] as a major influence in Christianity for the next two centuries.
As native influences began to reassert themselves in the Nile valley, Alexandria gradually became an alien city, more and more detached from Egypt and losing much of its commerce as the peace of the empire, broke up during the [[3rd century]] AD, followed by a fast decline in population and splendour.
In the late [[4th century]], persecution of [[Paganism|pagans]] by Christians had reached new levels of intensity. Temples and statues were destroyed throughout the Roman empire, pagan rituals forbidden under punishment of death, and libraries closed. In [[391]], Emperor [[Theodosius]] ordered the destruction of all pagan temples, and the Patriarch [[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]], complied with his request. It is possible that the great [[Library of Alexandria]] was [[Library of Alexandria#Destruction of the pagan temples by Theophilus|destroyed]] about this time.
The Brucheum and Jewish quarters were desolate in the [[5th century]], and the central monuments, the Soma and Museum, fell into ruin. On the mainland, life seemed to have centred in the vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both which became Christian churches. The Pharos and Heptastadium quarters, however, remained populous and intact.
===Post-Roman history===
In [[616]] it was taken by [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]], King of [[Iran|Persia]]. Although the [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Heraclius]] recovered it a few years later, in [[640]] the Arabs, under the general [[Amr ibn al-As]], captured it for good after a siege that lasted fourteen months. The city received no aid from [[Constantinople]] during that time; Heraclius was dead and the new Emperor [[Constantine III of Byzantine Empire|Constantine III]] was barely twelve years old. Notwithstanding the losses that the city had sustained, Amr was able to write to his master, the [[caliph]] [[Omar]], that he had taken a city containing "4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement."
==Geography==
[[Image:alexandria_egypt.jpg|thumb|310px|Alexandria from space, March 1990]]
===Layout of the ancient city===
The Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions:
#'''The [[Jew]]s' quarter''', forming the northeast portion of the city;
#'''Rhakotis, on the west''', occupied chiefly by Egyptians (from [[Coptic language|Coptic]] ''Rakotə'' "Alexandria");
#'''Brucheum''', the Royal or Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the city.
In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making up four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean [[canal]].
Two main streets, lined with [[colonnade]]s and said to have been each about 60 [[metre]]s (200 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) wide, intersected in the centre of the city, close to the point where rose the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his [[Mausoleum]]). This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great East&ndash;West "Canopic" street only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette. Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but better remains of streets and canals were exposed in [[1899]] by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.
Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a [[mole (architecture)|mole]] nearly a mile long (1240m) and called the ''Heptastadion'' ("seven stadia" &mdash; a ''[[stadium]]'' was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180m). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where rose the "Moon Gate". All that now lies between that point and the modern Ras et-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras et-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour.
In [[Strabo]]'s time, (latter half of [[1st century BC]]) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour.
#The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on |
actical use==
[[Pitching inside]] is a common and legal tactic in baseball, and many players make use of [[brushback]] pitches, or pitches aimed underneath the chin, to keep players away from the [[home plate|plate]]. However, throwing at a batter intentionally is illegal, and can be very dangerous. When an [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]] believes a pitcher has thrown at a batter intentionally, a warning is issued to the pitcher and the [[manager (baseball)|managers]] of both teams. From that point on, any pitch thrown at a batter causes the pitcher and the manager of the offending team to be ejected immediately from the game. Serious offenses such as a ball thrown at the head (called a [[beanball]]) can result in the immediate ejection of the pitcher, and in some cases the manager as well, even without a warning.
Oftentimes, if a player is acting rude or unsportsmanlike, or having an extraordinarily good day, the pitcher may intentionally hit the batter, disguising it as a pitch that accidentally slipped his control. Managers may also order a pitcher to throw such a pitch (sometimes called a "plunking"). These pitches are often aimed at the lower back and slower than normal, designed to send a message more than anything else. The opposing team usually hits a batter in retaliation for this act. The plunkings generally end there because of umpire warnings, but in some cases things can get out of hand, and sometimes they lead to [[charging the mound|fights]], bench-clearing brawls, and several ejections. Such plunking duels are more common in the [[American League]] than in the [[National League]], because in the NL the pitchers must bat for themselves and open themselves up to direct retaliation (although hitting a fellow pitcher is a serious breach of baseball etiquette).
==Crackdown==
In the 2004 season, in an attempt to cut down on headhunting in the American League, umpires began cracking down on players who intentionally threw at batters and ejecting pitchers who throw directly at a batter's body more frequently. [[Baltimore Orioles]] pitcher [[Jorge Julio]] was suspended in September under this change in policy after throwing a pitch at [[Minnesota Twins]] infielder [[Augie Ojeda]]'s head on [[September 7]]. This pitch was thrown one pitch after Julio had given up a home run to the previous batter in the order.
==Miscellaneous==
The all-time record for career HBP is held by [[Hughie Jennings]], a [[19th century]] player who totalled 287 in a 17-year career. For the modern era, the career HBP leader is [[Craig Biggio]] of the [[Houston Astros]], who set his record in 2005, and currently totals 273 HBPs. Before that time, the record had been held by [[Don Baylor]]. [[Ron Hunt]], who held the career record immediately before Baylor and still holds the modern single-season record with 50, sometimes wore a wetsuit underneath his uniform to deaden the pain from being hit by pitches.
A quotation regarding HBP by former baseball coach [[Alvin Dark]] reads: "Any pitcher who throws at a batter and deliberately tries to hit him is a communist."
To this date, only one player has died as a result of being struck by a pitch: [[Ray Chapman]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] in [[1920]], who was hit in the head by [[Carl Mays]].
[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Baseball rules]]
[[Category:Baseball pitching]]
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<page>
<title>Hit (baseball)</title>
<id>3807</id>
<revision>
<id>37694650</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T16:48:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rothesay</username>
<id>709911</id>
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<comment>added image & caption</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:TyCobbTigers.jpg|250px|thumb|right|In [[Major League Baseball]] history, [[Ty Cobb]] had a record 4,191 hits by [[1928 in sports|1928]]; [[Pete Rose]] would surpass it 57 years later, and finish with 4,256 career hits.]]
In [[baseball statistics]], a '''hit''' (denoted by '''H'''), sometimes called a '''base hit''', is credited to a [[batter (baseball)|batter]] when the batter safely reaches [[First baseman|first base]] after hitting the ball into [[fair ball|fair]] territory, without the benefit of an [[error (baseball statistics)|error]] or a [[fielder's choice]]. To do this, the batter must reach first base before any fielder can either [[tag out|tag]] him with the ball, throw to another player protecting the base before the batter reaches it, or [[force play|tag first base]] while carrying the ball. The hit is scored the moment the batter reaches first base safely - if the [[baserunner|runner]] is put out while attempting a [[double (baseball statistics)|double]] or [[triple (baseball statistics)|triple]] on the same play, he still gets credit for the hit.
In cases where a ball takes an unusual bounce, and a fielder might have a chance of throwing the runner out but does not, it is at the [[official scorer]]'s discretion whether the batter is given a hit or instead reached on an error. Most often, an unusual bounce is considered a hit, as the fielder cannot anticipate the errant bounce and make a play on it.
A hit for one base is called a [[single (baseball statistics)|single]] - the number of singles is equal to the total number of hits minus the number of [[extra base hit]]s. A [[home run]] is also scored as a hit.
If a batter reaches first base because of offensive interference by a preceding runner (including if a preceding runner is hit by a batted ball), he is also credited with a hit.
In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted [[Base on balls|bases on balls]] as hits. The result was skyrocketed [[batting average]]s, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.
==See also==
* [[Baseball statistics]]
* [[List of lifetime MLB hit leaders through history]]
[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
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[[zh:安打]]</text>
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<page>
<title>On base percentage</title>
<id>3808</id>
<revision>
<id>38565007</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:36:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WilliamKF</username>
<id>156790</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Add links.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], '''on base percentage (OBP)''' (sometimes referred to as '''on base average (OBA)''') is a measure of how often a [[batting (baseball)|batter]] gets to first base for any reason other than a [[error (baseball)|fielding error]] or a [[fielder's choice]]. OBP is part of the equation for determining [[on-base plus slugging]].
Though extremely unlikely, it is possible for a player's on base percentage to be lower than his [[batting average]] (H/AB). If a player had 2 hits in 5 at bats with a sacrifice fly, his batting average would be .400, but his on base percentage would be .333.
To calculate '''on base percentage (OBP)''' use this formula from the [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/baseball_basics/stats_101.jsp Major League Baseball] site.
:<math>OBP = \frac{H+BB+HBP}{AB+BB+HBP+SF}</math>
where
*''H'' = [[Hit (baseball)|Hits]]
*''BB'' = [[bases on balls]]
*''HBP'' = [[Hit by pitch]]
*''AB'' = [[At bats]]
*''SF'' = sacrifice flies
==See also==
*[[Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game]]
[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
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<page>
<title>Sacrifice fly</title>
<id>3809</id>
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<id>40360352</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:25:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
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<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
In [[baseball]], a batted ball is considered a '''sacrifice fly''' (denoted by ''SF'') if the following four criteria are met:
* There are fewer than two outs.
* The ball is hit to the [[outfield]]: a [[fly ball]].
* The batter is out because an outfielder or an [[infielder]] running in the outfield catches the fly ball (or would have been out if not for an [[Error (baseball)|error]]).
* A runner who is already on base scores on the play.
A sacrifice fly is not counted as a turn [[at bat]] (''AB'') for the batter and he is also credited with a [[run batted in]] (''RBI''). The purpose of not counting a sacrifice fly as an at bat is to avoid penalizing hitters for a successful tactical maneuver. [[Manager (baseball)|Baseball managers]] frequently direct their players to hit a sacrifice fly with a player on third base with less than two outs.
The sacrifice fly is still credited even if another runner is put out for failing to ''tag up'' (return to his base after the catch), so long as the run scores prior to the third out. A fly-out [[double play]] does not affect the validity of the sacrifice fly.
In the case of a fly ball dropped for an error, the sacrifice fly is only credited if the official scorer believes the run would have scored had the ball been caught.
In most cases, the sacrifice fly results because a runner scores from third base. However, in rare cases, a fast runner may legally tag up and score from second base if the fly ball was hit to a particularly deep part of the field. By rule, this is still credited as a sacrifice fly and an RBI, unless the player only reaches home due to an error.
==See also==
* [[Baseball statistics]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/official_rules/official_scorer_10.jsp ''MLB'' Official Rules: 10.00 The Official Scorer]
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</page>
<page>
<title>On-base plus slugging</title>
<id>3810</id>
<revision>
|
stablished by particular industries, that have developed as mill towns. These include [[Toyota City]], near Nagoya, the home of the automobile manufacturer.
The fields in which Japan enjoys relatively high technological development include [[semiconductor]] manufacturing, [[optical fiber]]s, [[optoelectronics]], [[optical media]], [[Fax|facsimile]] and [[Photocopying|copy machines]], [[industrial robot]]s, and [[fermentation]] processes. Japan lags slightly in such fields as [[satellite]]s, [[rocket]]s, and large [[aircraft]], where advanced engineering capabilities are required, and in such fields as computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing ([[CAD/CAM]]), and databases, where basic software capabilities are required, and natural resources exploitation, due to the lack of them.
*''see'' [[Manufacturing industries of Japan]]
==Labor Force==
[[Image:Unemployment1984 2033 2 html m5c39a5a0.jpg]]
Japan's labor force consists of some 64 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership is about 12 million. The unemployment rate is currently 4.9%--a post-war high. In 1989, the predominantly public sector union confederation, SOHYO (General Council of Trade Unions of Japan), merged with RENGO (Japanese Private Sector Trade Union Confederation) to form the Japanese Trade Union Confederation.
One major long-term concern for the Japanese labor force is a low [[birthrate]]. In the first half of [[2005]], the number of deaths in Japan exceeded the number of births, indicating that the decline in population, initially predicted to start in [[2007]], has already started. While one countermeasure for a declining birthrate would be to remove barriers to [[immigration]], the Japanese government has been reluctant to do so.
''see also:'' [[Labor market of Japan]]
==Current Economic Issues==
Japan faces a number of economic concerns. While the bad loan problem of the mid to late 1990s, which plagued the banking sector, has shown improvement in recent years, Japan still has a number of long-term economic issues that it must deal with.
The privatization of [[Japan Post]], the Japanese [[postal system]] which also runs insurance and deposit-taking businesses, is a major issue. A political battle over privatization caused a political stalemate in August, 2005, and ultimately led to the dissolution of the Japanese [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]]. The Postal Savings deposits, which have until now been used to fund public works projects, many of which have had questionable economic value, stands in excess of 1.9 trillion U.S. dollars, and could be a major force in energizing the private sector.
The decline in the Japanese population as a result of a low birthrate threatens the long-term economic vitality of Japan. A higher percentage of [[elderly]] in the population will put pressures on the [[pension system]], and will ultimately force a higher burden on the current generation of laborers.
==Other Economic Indicators==
'''Industrial Production Growth Rate:''' 6.6% (2004)
'''Investment (gross fixed):''' 24% of GDP (2004)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
*''Lowest 10%:'' 4.8%
*''Highest 10%:'' 21.7% (1993)
'''Agriculture - Products:''' rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish
'''Exports - Commodities:''' motor vehicles, semiconductors, office machinery, chemicals
'''Imports - Commodities:''' machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials (2001)
'''[[Exchange rates]]:'''<br>
''Japanese Yen per US$1'' - 109.690016 (2005), 115.933 (2003), 125.388 (2002), 121.529 (2001), 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995)
'''Electricity:'''
*''Electricity - consumption:'' 964.2 [[TWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - production:'' 1037 [[TWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - exports:'' 0 [[kWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - imports:'' 0 [[kWh]] (2001)
'''Electricity - Production by source:'''
*''Fossil Fuel:'' 56.68%
*''Hydro:'' 8.99%
*''Nuclear:'' 31.93%
*''Other:'' 2.4% (1998)
'''Electricity - Standards:'''
*100 [[volts]] at 50 Hz from the Oi River (in [[Shizuoka]]) Northward;
*100 [[volts]] at 60 Hz Southward
'''Oil:'''
*''production:'' 17,330 barrel/day (2001 est.)
*''consumption:'' 5.29 million barrel/day (2001 est.)
*''exports:'' 93,360 barrel/day (2001)
*''imports:'' 5.449 million barrel/day (2001)
*''net imports:'' 5.3 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
*''proved reserves:'' 29.29 million barrels (1 January 2002)
==See also==
*[[Japanese post-war economic miracle]]
==External links==
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
[[Category:Economies by country|Japan]]
[[de:Wirtschaft Japans]]
[[es:Economía del Japón]]
[[fr:Économie du Japon]]
[[he:כלכלת יפן]]
[[id:Ekonomi Jepang]]
[[ja:日本の経済]]
[[pt:Economia do Japão]]
[[vi:Kinh tế Nhật Bản]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Japan</title>
<id>15579</id>
<revision>
<id>25232742</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-10T23:00:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mkill</username>
<id>335257</id>
</contributor>
<comment>looks like the Library of Congress material was still good for a communication history of Japan :)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Japan currently possesses one of the most advanced communication networks in the world.
==Telephone==
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 60.3 million ([[1997]])
'''Telephones - [[mobile cellular]]:''' 88.1 million ([[July]] [[2004]])
'''Telephone system:''' excellent domestic and international service according to CIA World Factbook
:''domestic:'' All major city to city lines are now [[fiber-optic]] and replacing [[copper wires]] to the home has started. Several [[IP phone]] companies have also begun their services providing low or fixed price phone services.
:''international:'' satellite earth stations - 5 [[Intelsat]] (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 [[Intersputnik]] (Indian Ocean region), and 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submerged cables to [[Mainland China]], [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], and [[United States|US]] (via [[Guam]])
==Radio and Television==
'''Radio broadcast stations:''' [[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 190, [[Frequency modulation|FM]] 88, [[shortwave]] 24 ([[1999]])
'''[[Radio]]s:''' 120.5 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:''' 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note - in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable services) (1999)
'''Televisions:''' 86.5 million (1997)
== [[Internet]] Service ==
*'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 357 (1999)
*'''Internet Service Providers via [[Cable Network]]:''' 334 (June 2004)
*'''Number of Portable Phone Users with the Internet Access:''' 71,044,000 (June 2004)
Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (April 2005)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 13,675,840 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 2,852,205 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 2,959,712 lines
Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (June 2004)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 12,068,718 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 1,417,483 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 2,702,000 lines
*'''Number of the [[Dial-up]] Users:''' 17,730,000 lines
Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (June 2002)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 3,300,926 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 84,903 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 1852000 lines
*'''Number of the [[Dial-up]] Users:''' 20,390,000 lines
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' JP
==History==
The first milestones in the Japanese media history were newspapers in the Meiji period, the first being the [[Nagasaki Shipping List & Advertiser]], founded [[1861]] in [[Nagasaki]], with the telegraph and telephone following suit.
<!-- year data needed-->
The broadcast industry has been dominated by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon Hoso Kyokai—[[NHK]]) since its founding in 1925.
In the postwar period, NHK's budget and operations were under the purview of the [[Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (Japan)|Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications]], the [[Broadcasting Law]] of 1950 provides for independent management and programming by NHK. Television broadcasting began in 1953, and color television was introduced in 1960. Cable television was introduced in 1969. In 1978 an experimental broadcast satellite with two color television channels was launched. Operational satellites for television use were launched between 1984 and 1990. Television viewing spread so rapidly that, by 1987, 99 percent of Japan's households had color television sets and the average family had its set on at least five hours a day. Starting in 1987, NHK began full-scale experimental broadcasting on two channels using satellite-to-audience signals, thus bringing service to remote and mountainous parts of the country that earlier had experienced poor reception. The new system also provided twenty-four hours a day, nonstop service.
In the late 1980s, NHK operated two public [[television]] and three [[radio]] networks nationally, producing about 1,700 programs per week. Its general and education programs were broadcast through more than 6,900 television stations and nearly 330 AM and more than 500 FM radio transmitting stations. Comprehensive service in twenty-one languages is available throughout the world.
Rapid improvements, innovations, and diversification in communications technology, including optical fiber cables, communications satellites, and [[fax]] machines, led to rapid growth of the communications industry in the 1980s. [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] Corporation, owned by the government until 1985, had dominated the communications industry until April 1985, |
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