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on Movement by Joseph Smith Junior, from which are various off shoots such as the [[Community of Christ]] and the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], officially organized on April 6th [[1830]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/6 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/6 Today in History: April 6]
-----
[[April 5]] - [[April 7]] - [[March 6]] - [[May 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:6 April]]
[[an:6 d'abril]]
[[ar:6 ابريل]]
[[ast:6 d'abril]]
[[be:6 красавіка]]
[[bg:6 април]]
[[bs:6. april]]
[[ca:6 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 6]]
[[cs:6. duben]]
[[csb:6 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cy:6 Ebrill]]
[[da:6. april]]
[[de:6. April]]
[[el:6 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:6-a de aprilo]]
[[es:6 de abril]]
[[et:6. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 6]]
[[fi:6. huhtikuuta]]
[[fr:6 avril]]
[[fy:6 april]]
[[ga:6 Aibreán]]
[[gl:6 de abril]]
[[he:6 באפריל]]
[[hr:6. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 6]]
[[ia:6 de april]]
[[id:6 April]]
[[ie:6 april]]
[[io:6 di aprilo]]
[[is:6. apríl]]
[[it:6 aprile]]
[[ja:4月6日]]
[[ka:6 აპრილი]]
[[ko:4월 6일]]
[[ku:6'ê avrêlê]]
[[lb:6. Abrëll]]
[[li:6 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 6]]
[[mk:6 април]]
[[nl:6 april]]
[[nn:6. april]]
[[no:6. april]]
[[oc:6 d'abril]]
[[pl:6 kwietnia]]
[[pt:6 de Abril]]
[[ro:6 aprilie]]
[[ru:6 апреля]]
[[scn:6 di aprili]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 5.]]
[[simple:April 6]]
[[sk:6. apríl]]
[[sl:6. april]]
[[sq:6 Prill]]
[[sr:6. април]]
[[sv:6 april]]
[[th:6 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 6]]
[[tr:6 Nisan]]
[[tt:6. Äpril]]
[[uk:6 квітня]]
[[ur:6 اپریل]]
[[vi:6 tháng 4]]
[[wa:6 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月6日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 12</title>
<id>1009</id>
<revision>
<id>41649582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:13:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CorbinSimpson</username>
<id>641043</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reverting vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=12}}
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'''April 12''' is the [[102 (number)|102]]nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (103rd in [[leap year]]s). There are 263 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[467]] - [[Anthemius]] is elevated to [[Roman emperor|Emperor of the Western Roman Empire]]
*[[1606]] - The [[Union Jack]] is adopted as the national flag of [[Great Britain]].
*[[1633]] - The formal interrogation by the [[Inquisition]] of [[Galileo Galilei]] begins.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[war]] begins with [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces firing on [[Fort Sumter]], in the harbor of [[Charleston, South Carolina]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Fort Pillow massacre]] -- [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces under General [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] kill most of the [[African American]] soldiers who had surrendered at [[Fort Pillow]], [[Tennessee]]
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Mobile, Alabama]], falls to the [[Union Army]].
*[[1877]] - The [[United Kingdom]] annexes the [[Transvaal]].
*[[1923]] - [[Kandersteg International Scout Centre]] came into existence.
*[[1926]] - By a vote of 45 to 41, the [[United States Senate]] unseats [[Iowa]] Senator [[Smith W. Brookhart]] and seats [[Daniel F. Steck]], after Brookhart had already served for over one year.
*[[1937]] - Sir [[Frank Whittle]] ground-tests the first [[jet engine]] designed to power an aircraft, at the [[British Thomson-Houston]] factory in [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby, England]]
*[[1945]] - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dies, and [[Harry S. Truman]] is inaugurated as the 33rd [[President of the United States]].
*[[1946]] - [[Syria]] gains independence from [[France]].
*[[1954]] - [[Bill Haley and His Comets]] record "[[Rock Around the Clock]]" in [[New York City]]. Initially unsuccessful, the recording would help launch the [[rock and roll]] revolution a year later.
*[[1955]] - The [[polio]] [[vaccine]], developed by Dr. [[Jonas Salk]], is declared safe and effective.
*[[1961]] - [[Yuri Gagarin]] becomes the first man to fly in space.
*[[1968]] - [[Nerve gas]] accident at [[Skull Valley, Utah]].
*[[1975]] - [[Khmer Rouge]] troops capture [[Phnom Penh]], [[Cambodia]].
*[[1980]] - [[Terry Fox]] began his trans-[[Canada]] [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] to raise money for [[cancer research]] (''[[Marathon of Hope]]'') by dipping his [[Artificial limb|artificial leg]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland]], aiming to dip it again in the [[Pacific Ocean]] at [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]].
*[[1981]] - The first launch of a [[Space Shuttle]]: [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] launches on the [[STS-1]] mission.
*[[1984]] - LiSARS is created
*[[1989]] - TV show ''[[Fast Forward]]'' starts on the [[ATN-7]] Network ([[Australia]]).
*[[1990]] - [[Christian Bernard]], F.R.C., becomes Imperator of [[AMORC]].
*[[1992]] - [[Euro Disneyland]] opens in [[Marne-la-Vallee]], [[France]].
*[[1994]] - [[Canter & Siegel]] post the first commercial mass [[Usenet]] [[Newsgroup spam|spam]].
*[[1996]] - [[Yahoo!]] had its [[initial public offering]], selling 2.6 million shares at $13 each.
*[[1998]] - Catastrophical [[earthquake]] in [[Slovenia]] in Posočje 5,6 on the Richter scale.
*[[2002]] - [[Coup d'Etat]] against [[Hugo Chávez]] in [[Venezuela]].
*[[2005]] - In [[Canada]], a motion by the opposition [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] to kill legislation opening the door for legalized [[same sex marriage]] is defeated 164-132.
==Births==
*[[599 BC]] - [[Mahavira]], Indian founder of Jainism (d. [[527 BC]])
*[[812]] - [[Muhammad at-Taqi]], Arabian Shia Imam (d. [[835]])
*[[1484]] - [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], Italian architect (d. [[1546]])
*[[1500]] - [[Joachim Camerarius]], German classical scholar (d. [[1574]])
*[[1526]] - [[Muretus]], French humanist (d. [[1585]])
*[[1550]] - [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford]], English politician (d. [[1604]])
*[[1577]] - King [[Christian IV of Denmark]] (d. [[1648]])
*[[1713]] - [[Guillaume Thomas François Raynal]], French writer (d. [[1796]])
*[[1722]] - [[Pietro Nardini]], Italian composer (d. [[1793]])
*[[1724]] - [[Lyman Hall]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1790]])
*[[1726]] - [[Charles Burney]], English music historian (d. [[1814]])
*[[1748]] - [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]], French botanist (d. [[1836]])
*[[1777]] - [[Henry Clay]], American statesman and five-time Presidential candidate (d. [[1852]])
*[[1794]] - [[Germinal Pierre Dandelin]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1847]])
*[[1799]] - [[Henri Druey]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1855]])
*[[1823]] - [[Alexandr Ostrovsky]], Russian dramatist (d. [[1886]])
*[[1839]] - [[Nikolai Przhevalsky]], Russian explorer (d. [[1888]])
*[[1856]] - [[William Martin Conway]], English art critic and mountaineer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1869]] - [[Henri Désiré Landru]], French serial killer (d. [[1922]])
*[[1884]] - [[Otto Meyerhof]], German-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1951]])
*[[1887]] - [[Harold Lockwood]], American silent film actor (d. [[1918]])
*[[1888]] - [[Heinrich Neuhaus]], Soviet pianist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1892]] - [[Johnny Dodds]], American jazz clarinetist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1893]] - [[Robert Harron]], American actor (d. [[1920]])
*[[1898]] - [[Lily Pons]], American soprano (d. [[1976]])
*[[1902]] - [[Louis Beel]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1977]])
*[[1903]] - [[Sally Rand]], American dancer and actress (d. [[1979]])
*1903 - [[Jan Tinbergen]], Dutch economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1994]])
*[[1907]] - [[Felix de Weldon]], Austrian-born sculptor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1908]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American musician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1912]] - [[Walt Gorney]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1916]] - [[Beverly Cleary]], American writer
*[[1917]] - [[Helen Forrest]], American singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1922]] - [[Tiny Tim]], American musician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1923]] - [[Ann Miller]], American actress and dancer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1928]] - [[Hardy Krüger]], German actor
*1928 - [[Jean-François Paillard]], French conductor
*[[1932]] - [[Dennis Banks]], American activist
*1932 - [[Lakshman Kadirgamar]], Sri Lankan Politician (assassinated) (d. [[2005]])
*[[1933]] - [[Montserrat Caballe|Montserrat Caballé]], Catalan soprano
*[[1935]] - [[Johnny Bucyk]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1939]] - [[Alan Ayckbourn]], English writer
*[[1940]] - [[Herbie Hancock]], American pianist and composer
*[[1941]] - [[Bobby Moore]], English footballer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1944]] - [[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]], German-born musician ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
*[[1946]] - [[Ed O'Neill]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Tom Clancy]], American author
*1947 - [[David Letterman]], American talk show host
*[[1948]] - [[Jeremy Beadle]], British television presenter
*1948 - [[Joschka Fischer]], Foreign Minister of Germany
*1948 - [[Sandra "Lois" Reeves]], American singer ([[Martha & the Vandellas]])
*[[1949]] - [[Scott Turow]], American writer
*[[1950]] - [[David Cassidy]], American singer and actor
*1950 - [[Kari Palaste]], Finnish architect
*[[1952]] - [[Ralph Wiley]], American sports journalist (d. [[2004]])
*[[1954]] - [[Pat Travers]], Canadian musician
*[[1956]] - [[Andy Garcia]], Cuban-born actor
*1956 - [[Herbert Grönemeyer]], German singer, pianist, and actor
*[[1957]] - [[Vince Gill]], American musician
*[[1961]] - [[Lisa Gerrard]], Australian singer and film composer
*[[1962]] - [[Art Alexakis]], American musician ([[Everclear (band)|Everclear]])
*[[1964]] - [[Amy Ray]], American musician ([[Indigo Girls]])
*[[1970]] - [[Nick Hexum]], American musician ([[311 (band)|311]])
*[[1971]] - [[Nicholas Brendon]], actor
*1971 - [[Shannen Doherty]], American actress
*[[19 |
[[Planck (satellite)|Planck satellite]], [[Atacama Cosmology Telescope]] and the [[South Pole Telescope]].
==Relationship to the Big Bang==
[[Image:WMAP.jpg|thumb|right|300px|WMAP image of the CMB anisotropy,''Cosmic microwave<br> background radiation''. <small>''(June [[2003]]))''</small>]]
[[Image:WMAP power spectrum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background <br>radiation anisotropy interms of the angular scale (or [[multipole moment]]) (top). Data from WMAP have extended the accuracy of the spectrum at large angular scales (i.e. on the left side of the plot) far beyond what was known from earlier measurements.]]
The standard hot big bang model of the universe requires that the initial conditions for the universe are a [[Gaussian random field]] with a nearly [[scale invariant]] or Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum. This is, for example, a prediction of the [[cosmic inflation]] model. This means that the initial state of the universe is random, but in a clearly specified way in which the amplitude of the primeval inhomogeneities is 10<sup>-5</sup>. Therefore, meaningful statements about the inhomogeneities in the universe need to be [[statistics|statistical]] in nature. This leads to [[cosmic variance]] in which the uncertainties in the variance of the largest scale fluctuations observed in the universe are difficult to accurately compare to theory.
===Temperature===
The cosmic microwave background radiation and the cosmological [[red shift]] are together regarded as the best available evidence for the [[Big Bang]] (BB) theory. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in [[non-standard cosmology|alternatives]] such as the [[steady state theory]]. The CMB gives a snapshot of the [[Universe]] when, according to standard cosmology, the temperature dropped enough to allow [[electron]]s and [[proton]]s to form [[hydrogen]] atoms, thus making the universe transparent to radiation. When it originated some [[1 E13 s|400,000 years]] after the Big Bang &mdash; this time period is generally known as the "time of last scattering" or the period of [[recombination]] or [[decoupling]] &mdash; the temperature of the Universe was about [[1 E3 K|3,000&nbsp;K]]. This corresponds to an energy of about 0.25 [[electronvolt|eV]], which is much less than the 13.6 eV ionization energy of hydrogen. Since then the temperature of the radiation has dropped by a factor of roughly 1100 due to the expansion of the Universe. As the universe expands, the CMB photons are [[redshift]]ed, making the radiation's temperature [[inversely proportional]] to the Universe's [[Scale factor (Universe)|scale length]]. For details about the reasoning that the radiation is evidence for the Big Bang, see [[Big Bang#Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation|Cosmic background radiation of the Big Bang]].
===Primary anisotropy===
The [[anisotropy|anisotropy]] of the cosmic microwave background is divided into two sorts: primary anisotropy &ndash; which is due to effects which occur at the last scattering surface and before &ndash; and secondary anisotropy &ndash; which is due to effects, such as interactions with hot gas or gravitational potentials, between the last scattering surface and the observer.
The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collisionless damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a competition in the [[photon]]-[[baryon]] plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons &ndash; which are moving at speeds much less than the speed of light &ndash; makes them tend to collapse to form dense haloes. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude. The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The first peak determines the [[shape of the Universe]]. The second peak &ndash; truly the ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks &ndash; determines the reduced baryon density. The third peak can be used to extract information about the dark matter density.
Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial plasma as a [[fluid]] begins to break down:
* the increasing [[mean free path]] of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe
* the finite thickness of the last scattering surface, which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still occurring.
These effects contribute about equally to the supression of anisotropies on small scales, and give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale anisotropies.
===Polarization===
The cosmic microwave background is polarized at the level of a few microkelvins. There are two types of polarization, called ''E''-modes and ''B''-modes. This is in analogy to electrostatics, in which the electric field (''E''-field) has a vanishing [[curl]] and the magnetic field (''B''-field) has a vanishing [[divergence]]. The ''E''-modes arise naturally from Thomson scattering in an inhomogeneous plasma. The ''B''-modes, which have not been measured and are thought to have an amplitude of at most a 0.1&nbsp;µK, are not produced from the plasma physics alone. They are a signal from [[cosmic inflation]] and are determined by the density of primordial [[gravitational wave]]s. Detecting the ''B''-modes will be extremely difficult, particularly given that the degree of foreground contamination is unknown, and the [[weak gravitational lensing]] signal mixes the relatively strong ''E''-mode signal with the ''B''-mode signal.<ref>{{Journal reference | Author = A. Lewis and A. Challinor | Title = Weak gravitational lensing of the CMB | Journal = Phys. Rep. | URL = http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601594 | Year = 2006 }} (to appear) </ref>
===Late time anisotropy===
After the creation of the CMB, there are a number of important events. After the emission of the CMB, ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the form of neutral hydrogen and helium atoms, but from observations of galaxies it seems that most of the volume of the [[intergalactic medium]] (IGM) today consists of ionized material (since there are few absorption lines due to hydrogen atoms). This implies a period of [[reionization]] in which the material of the universe breaks down into hydrogen ions.
The CMB photons scatter off free charges such as electrons that are not bound in atoms. In an ionized universe, such electrons have been liberated from neutral atoms by ionizing (ultraviolet) radiation. Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in most of the volume of the Universe that they do not measurably affect the CMB. However, if the IGM was ionized at very early times when the universe was still denser, then there are two main effects on the CMB:
# Small scale anisotropies are erased (just as when looking at an object through fog, details of the object appear fuzzy).
# The physics of how photons scatter off free electrons ([[Thomson scattering]]) induces polarization anisotropies on large angular scales. This large angle polarization is correlated with the large angle temperature perturbation.
Both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP satellite, providing evidence that the universe was ionized at very early times, at a [[redshift]] of larger than 17. The detailed provenance of this early ionizing radiation is still a matter of scientific debate. It may have included starlight from the very first population of stars ([[population III]] stars), supernovae when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes.
The period after the emission of the cosmic microwave background and the observation of the first stars is semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the [[Dark Ages (disambiguation)|dark age]], and is a period which is under intense study by astronomers (See [[21 centimeter radiation]]).
Other effects that occur between reionization and our observation of the cosmic microwave background which cause anisotropies include the [[Sunyaev Zeldovic Effect|Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]], in which a cloud of high energy electrons scatters the radiation, transferring some energy to the CMB photons, and the [[Integrated Sachs Wolfe effect]], which causes [[photon]]s from the cosmic microwave background to be gravitationally redshifted or blue shifted due to changing gravitational fields.
==Microwave background observations==
{{seealso|Cosmic microwave background experiments}}
The design of cosmic microwave background experiments is a very challenging task. The greatest problems are:
*'''Detectors''' The challenge of observing differences of a few microkelvins on top of a 2.7&nbsp;K signal is difficult. Many improved microwave detector technologies have been designed for microwave background applications. Some technologies used are [[HEMT]], [[MMIC]], SIS (Superconductor-Insulator-Superconductor) and [[bolometer]]s. Experiments generally use elaborate [[cryogenics|cryogenic]] systems to keep the detectors cool. Often, experiments are [[interferometer]]s which only measure the spatial fluctuations in signals on the sky, and are insensitive to the average 2.7&nbsp;K background. Another problem is the [[1/f noise|1/''f'' noise]] intrinsic to all detectors. Usually the experimental scan strategy is designed to minimize the effect of such noise.
*'''Optics''' To minimize [[side lobe]]s |
phants, just trampled through the fences. This did little to belie their image as a crop-raiding pest. The more often an elephant wandered off its reserve, the more trouble it got into, and the more chance it had of being shot by an angry farmer. When confined to small territories, elephants can inflict an enormous amount of damge to the local landscapes. Today there are still many problems associated with these parks and reserves, but there is now little question as to whether or not they are necessary. As scientists learn more about nature and the environment, it becomes very clear that these parks may be the elephant's last hope against the rapidly changing world around them.
==Man and Elephants==
===Harvest from the Wild===
[[Image:Wild elephant feces on a road.jpg|thumb|200px|Elephant feces on a road adjoining Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, [[Sri Lanka]].]]
The harvest of elephants, both legal and illegal, has had some unexpected consequences on elephant anatomy as well. African ivory hunters, by killing only tusked elephants, have given a much larger chance of mating to elephants with small tusks or no tusks at all. The propagation of the absent-tusk gene has resulted in the birth of large numbers of tuskless elephants, now approaching 30% in some populations (compare with a rate of about 1% in 1930). Tusklessness, once a very rare genetic abnormality, has become a widespread hereditary trait. [http://www.gaiabooks.co.uk/environment/elephants_tuskless.html]
It is possible, if unlikely, that continued selection pressure could bring about a complete absence of tusks in African elephants, a development normally requiring thousands of years of evolution. The effect of tuskless elephants on the environment, and on the elephants themselves, could be dramatic. Elephants use their tusks to root around in the ground for necessary minerals, tear apart vegetation, and spar with one another for mating rights. Without tusks, elephant behavior could change dramatically. [http://www.mail-archive.com/fact@tlk-lists.com/msg00030.html]
===Domestication and use===
[[Image:Elephant.pair.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[African]] Savannah Elephant (left) and [[Asian]] Elephant at an [[England|English]] [[zoo]].]]
Elephants have been [[working animals]] used in various capacities by humans. Seals found in the Indus Valley suggest that the elephant was first domesticated in ancient India. However, elephants have never been truly domesticated: the male elephant in his periodic condition of ''[[musth]]'' is dangerous and difficult to control. Therefore elephants used by humans have typically been female, war elephants being an exception, however: as female elephants in battle will run from a male, only males could be used in war. It is generally more economical to capture wild young elephants and tame them than breeding them in captivity (see also [[Elephant "Crushing"|elephant "crushing"]]).
[[War elephant]]s were used by armies in the Indian sub-continent, and later by the [[Persian empire]]. This use was adopted by [[Hellenistic]] armies after Alexander the Great experienced their worth against king [[Poros]], notably in the [[Ptolemaic]] and [[Seleucid]] diadoch empires. The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] general [[Hannibal]] took elephants across the [[Alps]] when he was fighting the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], but brought too few elephants to be of much military use, although his horse cavalry was quite successful; he probably used a now-extinct third African (sub)species, the North African (Forest) elephant, smaller than its two southern cousins, and presumably easier to domesticate. A large elephant in full charge could cause tremendous damage to infantry, and cavalry horses would be afraid of them (see [[Battle of Hydaspes]]).
Throughout [[Siam]], [[India]], and most of South Asia elephants were used in the military for heavy labor, especially for uprooting trees and moving logs, and were also commonly used as executioners to [[crushing by elephant|crush the condemned underfoot]].
[[Image:Elephant-tracks.jpg|thumb|right|top|200px|Elephant footprints (tyre tracks for scale)]]
Elephants have also been used as mounts for safari-type [[hunting]], especially Indian ''shikar'' (mainly on tigers), and as ceremonial mounts for royal and religious occasions, whilst Asian elephants have been used for [[transport]] and [[entertainment]], and are common to [[Circus (performing art)|circuses]] around the world.
African elephants have long been reputed to not be domesticable, but some entrepreneurs have succeeded by bringing Asian [[mahout]]s from [[Sri Lanka]] to Africa. In Botswana, [[Uttum Corea]] has been working with African elephants and has several young tame elephants near [[Gaborone]]. African elephants are more temperamental than Asian elephants, but are easier to train. Because of their more sensitive temperaments, they require different training methods than Asian elephants and must be trained from infancy hence Corea worked with orphaned elephants. African elephants are now being used for (photo) safaris. Corea's elephants are also used to entertain tourists and haul logs.
It should be noted that elephants cannot jump.
===The Elephant Trap===
Another more effective method is practiced in the Indian Subcontinent which is far less physical and brutal, and more psychological. It is called the "elephant trap". The following is taken from a newsletter. "From when an elephant is a baby they tie him for certain periods with a rope to a tree. The young elephant tries his hardest to escape, he pulls and wriggles and jumps and crawls yet the rope just tightens and to the tree it remains tied. Learning that, the elephant doesn’t try to escape and accepts his confinement. A couple of years pass and the elephant is now an adult weighing several tons. Yet the trainer continues to tie the elephant to the tree with the same rope he’s always used, for the simple reason that the elephant has the concept in his mind that the rope is stronger than him. Abiding to this conditioning the elephant is trapped for life. To break free all the elephant has to do is erase that limiting thought for in fact he is free to go."
===Elephants in Culture===
====Pop culture====
[[Image:KandyPerahara.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Esala Perahera]] in [[Kandy]], [[Sri Lanka]]]]
* [[Jumbo]], a [[Circus (performing art)|circus]] elephant, has entered the English language as a synonym for "large";
* [[Dumbo]], the flying elephant in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie;
*The French children's storybook character [[Babar the Elephant]] (an elephant king) created by [[Jean de Brunhoff]] and also an animated TV series;
* ''[[The Elephant's Child]]'' is one of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'';
* The [[Thai Elephant Orchestra]], a musical instrument playing group of Elephants from the [[National Elephant Institute|Thai Elephant Conservation Center]] in [[Lampang]];
*[[Joseph Merrick]], a British man in [[Victorian England]], who suffered from substantial deformities, and was nicknamed "[[The Elephant Man]]" due to the nature and extent of his condition;
*The fictional planet in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' novels consists of a [[Discworld (world)|flat disc-shaped world]] carried on the backs of four elephants who ride through space on a space turtle, [[Great A'Tuin]].
A common [[adage]] is that "Elephants never forget", and later scientific evidence seems to support they have good memories.
====Religion====
* A [[White elephant (pachyderm)|white elephant]] is considered holy in [[Thailand]].
* [[Ganesh]], the [[Hindu]] god of wisdom, has an elephant's head.
* [[Elephants used for festival, south India]]
====Politics and secular Symbolism====
*The elephant, and the white elephant in particular, has often been used a symbol of royal power and prestige in Asia;
*The elephant is also the symbol for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] of the United States, originating in an [[1874]] cartoon by [[Thomas Nast]] of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' (Nast also originated the [[donkey]] as the symbol of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]);
* See also the Danish royal [[Order of the Elephant]].
===Elephant rage===
There is a cause of elephant rage that is not the result of human activity. Since male elephants are ostracized from their herds when they become [[sexually mature]], their [[sex hormones]] can lead to aggressive behaviour.
At least a few elephants have been suspected to be drunk during their attacks. In December 1998, a herd of elephants overran a village in India. Although locals reported that nearby elephants had recently been observed drinking beer which rendered them "unpredictable", officials considered it the least likely explanation for the attack [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/241781.stm]. An attack on another Indian village occurred in October 1999, and again locals believed the reason was drunkenness, but the theory was not widely accepted [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/482001.stm]. Purportedly drunk elephants raided yet another Indian village again on December 2002 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2583891.stm].
==See also==
* [[Crushing by elephant]]
* [[Dumbo]]
* [[Dwarf elephant]]
* [[Elephant (movie)]]
* [[Elephant ear]]
* [[Elephantiasis]]
* [[Elephant in the corner]]
* [[Elephant Sanctuary]]
* [[Elephants of Kerala]]
* [[History of elephants in Europe]]
* [[List of fictional elephants]]
* [[List of historical elephants]]
* [[Mammal]]
* [[Rogue elephant]]
* [[Temple elephants]]
* [[War elephant]]
* [[White elephant]]
* [[Year of the Elephant]]
==References==
*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/The_Blindmen_and_the_Elephant The Blindmen and the Elephant] by [[John Godfrey Saxe]]
==Footnotes==
*{{Ref 1}} [http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/channel/blog/2005/05/elephant_rage. |
probably occurred in the summer of [[1973]]. A single player made their way through a simple maze of corridors rendered using fixed perspective. Multiplayer capabilities, with players attempting to shoot each other, were probably added later in 1973 (two machines linked via a serial connection) and in the summer of 1974 (fully networked).
''[[Spasim]]'' was originally developed in the spring of [[1974]]. Players moved through a wire-frame 3D universe, with gameplay resembling the 2D game ''[[Empire (computer game)|Empire]]''. Graphically, ''Spasim'' lacked even hidden line removal, but did feature online multiplayer over the world-wide university-based [[PLATO network]].
===1979-1990: Arcades and home computers===
[[Image:Arcade-atari-battlezone1.png|thumb|150px|''Battlezone'' ([[Arcade game|arcade]])]]
The next significant games arrived in the [[video arcade]] boom of the late [[1970s]]. The [[1979]] game ''[[Tail Gunner]]'' was the first commercial game to provide a first-person perspective. Players could not move through the simulated world, but fought off opponents from a fixed point in space.
[[1980]]'s ''[[Battlezone]]'', a tank combat simulator, allowed players to move around the game world in their battle with computer-controlled enemies, and thus became the earliest widely-available first-person shooter in arcades. It was a resounding commercial success.
[[Image:A5200_Rescue_On_Fractalus.png|thumb|150px|left|''Rescue on Fractalus'' ([[Atari 5200]])]]
[[Image:3-Demon.gif|thumb|150px|right||''3-Demon'' (IBM PC)]]
In the early 1980s, the [[home computer]] market grew rapidly. While these machines were relatively low-powered, limited first-person-perspective games appeared early on. ''[[Star Raiders]]'' (1979) gave the player the perspective of a spaceship pilot flying through a streaming 3D starfield; motion was unrestricted, but the environment consisted only of stars and individual moving objects, with no 3D scene rendering at each individual frame. ''[[3D Monster Maze]]'' (1981) for the [[Sinclair ZX81]] was the first truly 3D first-person adventure game on a home computer, although not a shooter. ''[[Phantom Slayer]]'' (1982) restricted the player to 90-degree turns, allowing "3D" corridors to be drawn with simple fixed-perspective techniques. In these games, computer-controlled opponents were drawn using bitmaps. ''[[3D Deathchase]]'' (1982) on the [[ZX Spectrum]] featured a 3D shooter chase through a forest, with the 3D being created using drawings of trees getting larger as they moved closer to the player. Similar to ''Phantom Slayer'', the 1983 game ''[[3-Demon]]'' was a 3D version of [[PacMan]] for the IBM PC situating the player first-person inside the ''PacMan'' maze.
[[Image:ST_Midi_Maze.png|thumb|150px|''MIDI Maze'' ([[Atari ST]])]]
Numerous other "tricks" were used by programmers to simulate 3D graphics. Examples include two early games from Lucasarts, ''[[Rescue on Fractalus]]'' ([[1984]]) which used fractal techniques to generate an alien landscape for the player to fly over, and ''[http://www.ataritimes.com/8-bit/reviews/eidolon.html The Eidolon]'' ([[1985]]) which scaled simple bitmaps to create the illusion of 3D. Other good examples of 8-bit first-person 3D games are [[Pete Cooke]]'s ZX Spectrum titles ''[[Tau Ceti (computer game)|Tau Ceti]]'' (1985) and ''[[Micronaut One (computer game)|Micronaut One]]'' (1987), the former having a 3D planetary environment and the latter involving the player's ship travelling through wireframe tunnels.
Later in the decade, the arrival of a new generation of home computers such as the [[Atari ST]] and the [[Amiga]] increased the computing power and graphical capabilities available, leading to a new wave of innovation.
The first true 3D flat-polygon (hidden surface) first-person shooter was the single-player ''[[Driller]]'', in [[1987]], using the acclaimed [[Freescape engine]]. It lacked most modern graphical features such as textures and colors. Other FPS games of the flat-polygon era include ''[[Faceball 2000]]'', and ''[[MIDI Maze]]'', notable for its networked multiplayer feature (communicating via the computer's [[MIDI]] interface, of all things).
===1991-1993: Defining the genre===
By [[1990]] the technology to render very simple flat-colored 3D worlds was widespread, and was being used extensively in simulator games such as ''[[Abrams M1]]'', ''[[LHX: Attack Chopper]]'', and others.
In April [[1991]], the then-unknown [[id Software]] released ''[[Hovertank 3D]]''. Various assumptions about the game world simplified the processing sufficiently to allow real-time rendering of a 3D maze. The game environment was a simple flat grid-based map, with enemies rendered as [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]]. Later the same year, a modified version of the same game engine, adding texture-mapped walls, was used in ''[[Catacomb 3D]]'', which also introduced the concept of showing the player's hand on-screen, strengthening the illusion that the player is literally viewing the world through the character's eyes.
[[image:Wolf3dtitle.jpg|thumb|Wolfenstein 3D title screen]]
In [[1992]], id improved the technology by adding support for [[VGA]] graphics in ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' which surprisingly was only created by 13 people in 2 months. With these improvements over its predecessors, Wolf 3D was a hit, and marked the emergence of the modern FPS genre.
A lesser-known predecessor to Wolf 3D is [[Ultima Underworld]] (1992), developed by [[Looking Glass Studios]] and marketed by [[Origin Systems]]. Unlike Wolf, Underworld supported many true 3D features such as non-perpendicular walls, walls of varying heights, and inclined surfaces. A technology demo of this game was, in fact, John Carmack&rsquo;s inspiration for Wolfenstein 3D&rsquo;s game engine.
''Wolfenstein 3D'' was soon surpassed by id's next game, the genre-defining ''[[Doom]]'' ([[1993]]). While still using sprites to render in-game opponents, ''Doom'' added texture-mapping to the floor and ceiling, and removed some of the restrictions of earlier games. Walls could vary in height, with floor and ceiling changing levels to create cavernous spaces and raised platforms. In some areas, ''Doom'' removed the ceiling altogether to create the outdoor environments that were generally lacking in previous genre games. However, there were still significant limitations on the environment; all surfaces were strictly horizontal or vertical, and a map could not "stack" floors one above another.
While the graphical enhancements were notable, ''Doom'''s greatest innovation was the introduction of network multiplayer capabilities. While similar multiplayer modes had existed in previous mainframe- or arcade-based games, ''Doom'' was the first mass-market game to gain a significant following dedicated to multiplayer (usually, but not exclusively, [[local area network|LAN]]-based) contests, and guaranteed persistence of the FPS in gaming formats; the real thrill of these already-atmospheric games comes from blasting human opponents, be they friends or strangers on the Internet. ''Doom'' was also one of the earliest FPS games to gain an active community of fans producing add-on maps.
===1994-2000: After ''Doom''===
''Doom'' dominated the genre for years after its release. Every new game in the genre was held up against id's masterpiece, and usually suffered by comparison. However, some developers wisely chose not to attack ''Doom'' head-on, but instead to concentrate on its weaker aspects, or expand the new genre in alternative directions.
''[[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]'' ([[1994]]), together with its sequels [[Marathon 2: Durandal]] ([[1995]]) and [[Marathon ∞]] ([[1996]]), included a strong plot, revealed through a series of computer terminals, a radical change from the simplistic "blast anything that moves" style of most earlier FPSs. Unfortunately, these games did not reach a wide audience, being released on the [[Apple Macintosh]] platform, and only ''Durandal'' being released on the PC.
''[[System Shock]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[System Shock 2]]'' ([[1999]]) combined an FPS-style viewpoint and controls with [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] and [[horror (genre)|horror]] gameplay elements. Both games received huge praise from critics and huge cult followings, but limited mainstream success.
In [[1995]] the [[LucasArts]] [[Star Wars: Dark Forces]], introduced a linear storyline with levels presented as 'missions' with certain objectives to be done, and cutscenes that advanced the plot. It was also the first Doom clone to be set in a definite background ([[Galactic Empire|Imperial]] bases, [[Star Destroyer]]s, ships, planets etc) instead of simplistic surreal mazes and 'find the exit' scenarios.
The [[1995]] game ''[[Descent (computer game)|Descent]]'' used a fully 3D polygonal graphics engine to render opponents (previous games had used [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]]). It also escaped the "pure vertical walls" graphical restrictions of earlier games in the genre, and allowed the player six degrees of freedom of movement (up/down, left/right, forward/backward, [[Flight dynamics|pitch, roll and yaw]]).
In [[1996]] id Software released their eagerly-anticipated ''[[Quake]]'' which significantly enhanced the network gaming concept introduced by ''Doom''. Like ''Descent'', it used a 3D polygonal graphics engine to render enemies, but, again, ''Quake'''s greatest influence was felt in network-based multiplayer gaming. ''Quake'' was the first FPS game to really break out of the LAN and gain a widespread fanbase dedicated to multiplayer [[Internet]] gaming.
''Quake'' also innovated by actively encouraging user-made modifications. These "[[mod (computer gaming)|mods]]" contributed to its longevity and popularity with players; in some cases (such as ''[[Team Fortress]]'') they even developed a semi-independent ex |
when the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official [[Anglican church]] became mandatory due to the [[Test Act]]. They thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education, The [[Unitarians]], in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences--areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the [[middle class]], such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the [[Scientific revolution]] of the 17th century.
====Lunar society====
The work ethic argument has, on the whole, tended to neglect the fact that several inventors and entrepreneurs were rational free thinkers or "Philosophers" typical of a certain class of British intellectuals in the late 18th century, and were by no means normal church goers or members of religious sects. Examples of these free thinkers were the [[Lunar Society]] of [[Birmingham]] which flourished from 1765 to 1809. Its members were exceptional in that they were among the very few who were conscious that an industrial revolution was then taking place in Great Britain. They actively worked as a group to encourage it, not least by investing in it and conducting scientific experiments which led to innovative products.
==Innovations==
The invention of the [[steam engine]] was one of the most important innovations of the industrial revolution. This was made possible by earlier improvements in iron smelting and metal working based on the use of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] rather than charcoal. Earlier in the 18th century the textile industry had harnessed water power to drive improved spinning machines (see [[spinning jenny]]) and looms (see [[flying shuttle]]). These textile mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in factories.
====Transmission of innovation====
Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer, or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. Today this is called [[industrial espionage]], with modern concepts of automatic illegality.
During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in this manner of study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as was the keeping of travel diaries; writings made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.
Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies like the [[Lunar Society]] of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss science and often its application to manufacturing. Some of these societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions, and the London-based [[Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce]] or, more commonly, [[Society of Arts]] published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.
There were publications describing technology. [[Encyclopedia]]s such as Harris's ''[[Lexicon technicum]]'' (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'' (1802-1819) contain much of value. Rees's ''Cyclopaedia'' contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the ''[[Descriptions des Arts et Métiers]]'' and Diderot's ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.
Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and a number regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the [[Annales des Mines]], published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.
===Industry===
====Factories====
[[Image:Dore_London.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Over London by Rail'' [[Gustave Doré]] c 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted environments created in the new industrial cities]]
Industrialisation also led to the creation of the [[factory]]. [[John Lombe]]'s [[Derby Industrial Museum|water-powered silk mill]] at [[Derby]] was operational by 1721. In 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at [[Warmley]] near [[Bristol]]. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass, and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on-site.
[[Josiah Wedgwood]] and [[Matthew Boulton]] were other prominent early industrialists.
The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern [[city]], as workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically powered by water and built to serve local needs.
The transition to industrialisation was not wholly smooth. For example, a group of English workers known as [[Luddite]]s formed to protest against industrialization and sometimes [[sabotage]]d factories.
One of the earliest reformers of factory conditions was [[Robert Owen]].
====Machine tools====
The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without [[machine tool]]s, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches, and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' due to the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machine makers early developed special purpose machines for making parts.
Machines were built by various craftsmen--[[carpenter]]s made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal, and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints used tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, such as castings for a lathe bed, where components had to slide together, the production of flat surfaces by means of the hammer and chisel followed by filing, scraping and perhaps grinding with emery paste, was very laborious and costly.
Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large [[machine tool]] was the cylinder [[boring machine]], used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. They were to be found at all steam-engine manufacturers. The [[planing machine]], the [[slotting machine]] and the [[shaping machine]] were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the [[milling machine]] was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolution.
Military production had a hand in the development of machine tools. [[Henry Maudslay]], who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]], as a young man where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the [[Verbruggans]]. He later worked for [[Joseph Bramah]] on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own he was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the [[Royal Navy]] in the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]]. These were all metal, and the first machines for [[mass production]] and making components with a degree of [[interchangeability]]. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as [[Richard Roberts (engineer)|Richard Roberts]], [[Joseph Clement]] and [[Joseph Whitworth]].
Maudslay made his name for his lathes and precision measurement. [[James Fox]] of [[Derby]] had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did [[Matthew Murray]] of Leeds. Roberts made his name as a maker of high-quality machine tools, and as a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.
====Textile manufacture====
{{main|Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[image:Spinning jenny.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.]]
In |
um Christianum'' ("Christian Empire"), wherein, "just as the inhabitants of the [Roman Empire] had been united by a common Roman citizenship", presumably this new empire would be united by a common Christian faith (Collins 151), certainly this is the view of Pirenne when he says "Charles was the Emperor of the ''ecclesia'' as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church" (Pirenne 233).
What we ''do'' know, from the Byzantine chronicler [[Theophanes]] (Collins 153), is that Charlemagne's reaction to his coronation was to take the initial steps toward securing the Constantinopolitan throne by sending envoys of marriage to Irene, and that Irene reacted somewhat favorably to them. Only when the people of Constantinople reacted to Irene's failure to immediately rebuff the proposal by deposing her and replacing her with one of her ministers, Nicephorus I, did Charlemagne drop any ambitions toward the Byzantine throne and begin minimising his new Imperial title, and instead return to describing himself primarily as ''rex Francorum et Langobardum''.
The title of emperor remained in his family for years to come, however, as brothers fought over who had the supremacy in the Frankish state. The papacy itself never forgot the title nor abandoned the right to bestow it. When the family of Charles ceased to produce worthy heirs, the pope gladly crowned whichever Italian magnate could best protect him from his local enemies. This devolution lead, as could have been expected, to the dormancy of the title for almost forty years ([[924]]-[[962]]). Finally, in 962, in a radically different Europe from Charlemagne's, a new Roman Emperor was crowned in Rome by a grateful pope. This emperor, [[Otto the Great]], brought the title into the hands the kings of Germany for almost a millennium, for it was to become the Holy Roman Empire, a true imperial successor to Charles, if not [[Augustus]].
====Divisio regnorum====
In 806, Charlemagne first made provision for the traditional division of the empire on his death. For Charles the Younger he designated the imperial title, Austrasia and Neustria, Saxony, Burgundy, and [[Thuringia]]. To Pippin he gave Italy, Bavaria, and [[Swabia]]. Louis received Aquitaine, the Spanish March, and [[Provence]]. This division may have worked, but it was never to be tested. Pippin died in 810 and Charles in 811. Charlemagne redrew the map of Europe by giving all to Louis, save the Iron Crown, which went to Pippin's (illegitimate) son [[Bernard of Italy|Bernard]].
==Cultural significance==
[[Image:Raphael_Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Coronation of Charlemagne by [[Raphael]]]]
Charlemagne, being a model knight as one of the [[Nine Worthies]], enjoyed an important afterlife in European culture. One of the great medieval [[literary cycle]]s, the [[Charlemagne cycle]] or the ''[[Matter of France]]'', centers around the deeds of Charlemagne and his historical commander of the [[Breton]] border, [[Roland]], and the [[paladin]]s who are analogous to the knights of the [[Round Table (Camelot)|Round Table]] or [[King Arthur]]'s court. Their tales constitute the first ''[[chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]''.
Charlemagne himself was accorded [[saint]]hood inside the Holy Roman Empire after the [[twelfth century]]. His [[canonisation]] by [[Antipope Paschal III]], to gain the favour of [[Frederick Barbarossa]] in [[1165]], was never recognised by the [[Holy See]], which annulled all of Paschal's ordinances at the [[Third Lateran Council]] in [[1179]]. However, he has been [[beatification|acknowledged]] as ''[[Historical process of beatification and canonization#Confirmation of cult|cultus confirmed]]''.
It is frequently claimed by [[genealogy|genealogists]] that all people with European ancestry alive today are probably descended from Charlemagne. However, only a small percentage can actually prove descent from him. Charlemagne's marriage and relationship [[politics]] and [[ethics]] did, however, result in a fairly large number of descendants, all of whom had far better life expectancies than is usually the case for children in that time period. They were married into houses of [[nobility]] and as a result of [[intermarriage]]s many people of [[noble]] descent can indeed trace their ancestry back to Charlemagne. He is without a doubt an ancestor of every royal family of Europe.
==Family==
[[Image:Karl der Grosse - Pippin der Bucklige.jpg|thumb|right|Charlemagne and Pippin the Hunchback. [[Tenth century]] copy of a lost original from about [[830]].]]
===Marriages and heirs===
*His first wife was [[Himiltrude]], married in 766. The marriage was never formally annulled. By her he had:
**[[Pippin the Hunchback]] (767-813)
*His second wife was [[Gerperga]] (often erroneously called Desiderata or Desideria), daughter of [[Desiderius]], king of the [[Lombards]], married in 768, annulled in 771.
*His third wife was [[Hildegard of Savoy]] (757 or 758-783 or 784), married 771, died 784. By her he had:
**[[Charles, King of Neustria|Charles the Younger]] (772 or 773-811), king of [[Neustria]] from 781
**Adelaide (773 or 774-774)
**[[Pippin of Italy|Carloman, baptised Pippin]] (773 or 777-810), [[king of Italy]] from 781
**[[Rotrude]] (or Hruodrud) (777-810)
**[[Louis the Pious|Louis]] (778-840), twin of Lothair, [[king of Aquitaine]] from 781 and [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] and [[king of the Franks]] from 814
**Lothair (778-779 or 780), twin of Louis
**[[Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne|Bertha]] (779-823)
**[[Gisela, daugher of Charlemagne|Gisela]] (781-808)
**Hildegarde (782-783)
*His fourth wife was [[Fastrada]], married 784, died 794. By her he had:
**[[Theodrada]] (b.784), [[abbess]] of [[Argenteuil]]
**Hiltrude (b.787)
*His fifth and favourite wife was [[Luitgard]], married 794, died 800 childless.
===Concubinages and bastards===
*His first known concubine was [[Gersuinda]]. By her he had:
**Adaltrude (b.774)
*His second known concubine was [[Madelgard]]. By her he had:
**[[Ruodhaid]] (775-810), [[abbess]] of [[Faremoutiers]]
*His third known concubine was [[Amaltrud of Vienne]]. By her he had:
**Alpaida (b.794)
*His fourth known concubine was [[Regina (concubine)|Regina]]. By her he had:
**[[Drogo of Metz|Drogo]] (801-855), [[bishop of Metz]] from 823
**[[Hugh, son of Charlemagne|Hugh]] (802-844), [[archchancellor]] of the Empire
*His fifth known concubine was [[Ethelind]]. By her he had:
**Theodoric (b.807)
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Carolingian|Carolingian Dynasty]]||742||814}}
{{s-vac|last=[[Chilperic II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Frankish Kings|King of Neustria]]|years=768&ndash;771}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Charles, King of Neustria|Charles the Younger]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Desiderius]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Lombards|King of the Lombards]]|years=774&ndash;781}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pippin of Italy|Pippin]]}}
{{s-vac|last=[[Chilperic of Aquitaine|Chilperic]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Aquitaine]]|years=768&ndash;771}}
{{s-aft|rows=3|after=[[Louis the Pious|Louis I]]}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=[[Pippin the Short|Pippin]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Frankish Kings|King of the Franks]]|years=771&ndash;814}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=[[Romulus Augustus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Holy Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|years=800&ndash;814}}
{{end}}
==Notes==
# {{note|1}}His name in [[English language|English]], Charlemagne, is identical to the [[French language|French]] from, which in turn comes from the Latin. The French translation of Charles the Great is ''Charles le Grand'', which is used. In [[German language|German]], he is called ''Karl der Große'' or ''Karl der Grosse'', which means Charles the Great; likewise in [[Dutch]], ''Karel de Grote''. His name in other [[Romance language]]s, like [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Carlomagno'', is derived, of course, from the Latin. In other [[Germanic language]]s and [[Slavic language]]s, it is usually a translation of Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus). Many of the Slavic languages took their word for king from the German name for Charlemagne, Karl: [[Czech language|Czech]] ''král'', [[South Slavic]] (such as [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] or [[Serbo-Croatian]]) ''kralj'', [[Polish language|Polish]] ''król'', etc.
==See also==
{{Commons|Charlemagne}}
* [[List of Frankish Kings]]
* [[Carolingian]]s
* [[Carolingian script]]
* [[Carolingian Renaissance]]
* [[Attila the Hun to Charlemagne]], hypothetical genealogy
* [[Chanson de Roland]]
* [[Matter of France]]
* [[Nine Worthies]]
* [[History of elephants in Europe]]
==Sources==
*[[Charles Oman|Oman, Charles]]. ''The Dark Ages 476-918''. [[London]], [[1914]].
*Santosuosso, Antonio. ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare''. [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]], [[2004]].
*Painter, Sidney. ''A History of the Middle Ages 284-1500''. [[New York, New York|New York]], [[1953]].
*[[Einhard]], translated by Samuel Epes Turner. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html ''The Life of Charlemagne'']. [[New York]], [[1880]].
==Further reading==
*[[Barbero, Alessandro]]. ''Charlemagne, father of a continent''. [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[california|CA]]: [[University of California]] Press, [[2004]]. ISBN 0-520-23943-1
*[[Henri Pirenne|Pirenne, Henri]]. ''Mohammed and Charlemagne''. [[1937]].
* Langston, A.L. and Buck Jr, J. O. (ed) ''Pedigrees of Some of the Emperor Charlemagne's Descendants''. [[Cottonport]], [[1974]], for the Order of the Crown of Charlemagne in the [[USA]], Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 42-11037.
==External links==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html ''The Life of Charlemagne''] by Einhard. At Medieval Sourcebook.
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ein.html ''Vita Karoli Magni''] by Einhard. [[Latin]] text at [[The Latin Library]].
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/charlemagne1.html portrait of Charlemagne |
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<page>
<title>Hydra (genus)</title>
<id>13767</id>
<revision>
<id>41952617</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:17:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Master Jay</username>
<id>526659</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.212.196.145|66.212.196.145]] to last version by Cosmicosmo</comment>
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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Hydra''
| image = Hydra.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption =
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| subregnum = [[Metazoa]]
| phylum = [[Cnidaria]]
| classis = [[Hydrozoa]]
| ordo = [[Hydroida]]
| familia = [[Hydridae]]
| genus = '''''Hydra'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = ''[[Hydra americana]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra attenuata]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra canadensis]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra carnea]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra cauliculata]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra circumcincta]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra hymanae]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra littoralis]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra magnipapillata]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra minima]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra oligactis]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra oregona]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra pseudoligactis]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra rutgerensis]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra utahensis]]''<br/>
''[[Hydra viridis]]''
}}
'''''Hydra''''' is a [[genus]] of simple, fresh-water animals possessing [[symmetry (biology)#Radial symmetry|radial symmetry]]. It is a member of the phylum [[Cnidaria]] and the class [[Hydrozoa]].
Hydras are beautiful low power [[microscope|microscopical]] objects and are often studied by biologists. They can be found in most un-polluted freshwater ponds, lakes and streams in the temperate and tropical regions by gently sweeping a collecting net through weedy areas.
==Form==
Hydras are small animals with a body length ranging from [[1 E-3 m|1 mm]] to 20 mm when fully extended. They have a tubular body secured by a simple adhesive foot. At the free end of the body is a mouth opening surrounded by a ring of 5 to 12 thin mobile [[tentacles]]. Each tentacle is clothed with highly specialised stinging cells called [[cnidocytes]]. Cnidocytes contain specialized structures called nematocysts which look like miniature light bulbs with a coiled thread inside. At the narrow, outer edge of the cnidocyte is a short trigger hair. Upon contact with prey, the contents of the nematocyst are explosively discharged, firing a dart-like thread containing neurotoxins into whatever triggered the release.
Hydra mainly feed on small aquatic invertebrates such as [[Daphnia]]. Some species of hydra exist in a [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationship]] with a type of [[green algae]]. The hydra offers the algae protection from predators and in return, the algae uses [[photosynthesis]] to give the hydra a food source.
==Morphology==
Hydras have two main body layers separated by [[mesoglea]], a gel-like substance. The outer layer is the [[epidermis]] and the inner layer is called the [[gastrodermis]]. The cells making up these two body layers are relatively simple.
The nervous system of Hydra is a [[nerve net]], which is simple compared to [[mammal]]ian nervous systems. They do not have a recognisable [[brain]]. Nerve nets connect sensory [[photoreceptor|photoreceptors]] and touch sensitive nerve cells that are found in the body wall and tentacles of hydras.
Respiration occurs by [[diffusion]] through the epidermis. Some excretion and transportation also occurs in this manner.
Many members of the [[Hydrozoa]] go through a body change from a [[polyp]] to an adult form called [[Medusa (biology)|medusa]]. However all Hydras remain as a polyp throughout their lives.
19th century biologists reported that Hydra was so simple an animal that it was possible to force an animal through gauze so as to separate it into individual cells and then, if the cells were left to themselves, they would regroup to form a hydra again. This experiment has never been repeated successfully in the 20th or 21st centuries - all that is produced is Hydra soup. A similar experiment with some sponges may be more successful.
==Motion and locomotion==
If Hydras are alarmed or attacked, the tentacles can be retracted to small buds and the body column itself can be retracted to a small gelatinous sphere. Due to the simplicity of the nerve net, hydras generally react in the same way, regardless of the direction of the stimulus.
Hydras are generally [[sedentary]], but they do move quite readily. They do this by bending over and attaching themselves to the [[substrate]] with their mouth and tentacles and then release their foot which provides the normal attachment. The body then bends over and makes a new place of attachment with the foot. By this process of "somersaulting", a hydra can move several inches (c. 100 mm) in a day. Hydra may also move by [[amoeboid]] motion of their base, or by simply detaching from the substrate and floating in the current.
==Reproduction==
When food is plentiful, many Hydras reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] by producing [[budding|buds]] in the body wall which grow to be miniature adults and simply break away when they are mature. When conditions are harsh, often before a cold winter, [[sexual reproduction]] occurs in some hydra, producing unfertilized eggs. These eggs are then fertilized by sperm from testes which form on the external surface of the stalk. The fertilized eggs secrete a tough outer coating and, as the adult dies, this resting eggs falls to the bottom of the lake or pond to await better conditions when it will hatch once again into a miniature adult.
==Feeding==
When feeding, Hydras extend their body to maximum length and then slowly extend their tentacles. Despite their simple construction, the tentacles of hydra are extraordinarily extensible and can be 4 - 5 times the length of the body. Once fully extended, the tentacles are slowly manoeuvred around waiting for a suitable prey animal to touch a tentacle. Once contact has been made, nematocysts on the tentacle fire into the prey and the tentacle itself coils around the prey. Within 30 seconds, most of the remaining tentacles have already joined in the attack to subdue the struggling prey. Within 2 minutes, the tentacles will surround the prey and move it into the opened mouth aperture. Within 10 minutes, the prey will be enclosed within the gastrovascular cavity and digestion will have started. The hydra is able to stretch its body wall considerably in order to digest prey more than twice its size. After two or three days, the undigestible remains of the prey will be discharged by muscular contraction through the mouth aperture.
The feeding behaviour of the Hydra demonstrates the sophistication of what appears to be a simple nervous system.
==Morphallaxis==
The hydra undergoes [[morphallaxis]] when injured or severed (see the morphallaxis article for more details).
==Senescence==
It has often been assumed that hydra are unique among the animals in that they don't undergo [[senescence]] (aging), and so are [[Biological_immortality|biologically immortal]]. Evidence for this was provided by (Martinez 1998).
==References==
*Gilberson, Lance, ''Zoology Lab Manual'', 4th edition. Primis Custom Publishing. 1999
*Solomon, E., Berg, l., Martin, D., ''Biology'' 6th edition. Brooks/Cole Publishing. 2002
*Martinez, D.E. (1998) "Mortality patterns suggest lack of senescence in hydra." ''Experimental Gerontology'' 1998 May;33(3):217-225. [http://www.ucihs.uci.edu/biochem/steele/PDFs/Hydra_senescence_paper.pdf Full text.]
[[Category:Cnidarians]]
[[de:Süßwasserpolyp]]
[[fr:Hydre (zoologie)]]
[[he:הידרה (ביולוגיה)]]
[[lt:Hidra]]
[[nl:Hydra (dier)]]
[[ja:ヒドラ (生物)]]
[[pl:Stułbia]]
[[th:ไฮดร้า (สกุล)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hydrus</title>
<id>13768</id>
<revision>
<id>38754933</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T12:19:07Z</timestamp>
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<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Hydrus |
abbreviation = Hyi |
genitive = Hydri |
symbology = the [[Sea snake|Sea Snake]] |
RA = ?????? |
dec= &minus;?????? |
areatotal = 243 |
arearank = 61st |
numberstars = ?????? |
starname = &??????; ?????? |
starmagnitude = ?????? |
meteorshowers =
*[[??????]]
*[[??????]] |
bordering =
*[[Dorado]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]
*[[Horologium]]
*[[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]
*[[Octans]]
*[[Phoenix (constellation)|Phoenix]] (corner)
*[[Reticulum]]
*[[Tucana]] |
latmax = ?????? |
latmin = 90 |
month = December |
notes=}}
'''Hydrus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Hydra]]'', also referred to as "male Hydra" or "little Hydra") is a minor southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in |
ups.
===The Platonist and Aristotelian traditions===
The first usage of the term ‘''gnostikoi''’, that is, 'those capable of knowing', was by [[Plato]] in the ''[[Politicus]]'' (258e-267a), in which he compares the ''gnostike episteme'' ('understanding connected with knowledge') which denotes knowledge based on mathematical understanding, to the ''praktike episteme'' ('understanding connected with practice'). Plato describes the ideal [[politician]] as the practitioner ''par excellence'' of the former, and his success is to be considered ''only'' in the light of his ability toward this ‘art of knowing’, irrespective of social rank. Hence ''any'' man, be he ruler or otherwise may thus become, as Plato puts it, ‘royal’. Here, ''gnostikos'' makes reference to an ''ability'' to possess certain knowledge, not the ''condition'' of possessing knowledge ''per se'' or the knowledge that is itself possessed, nor even, it might be further noted, to the individual who possesses it.
In ‘The History of the Term ''Gnostikos''’ in ''The Rediscovery of Gnosticism'' (E.J. Brill, [[Leiden]], [[1981]], 798&ndash;800) Morton Smith lists users of ‘''gnostikos''’ in this manner as being [[Aristotle]], [[Strato of Lampsacus]], ‘a series of [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreans"]]’, [[Philo Judaeus]] and [[Plutarch]], amongst others. Christoph Markschies notes in ''Gnosis: An Introduction'' (trans. John Bowden, T & T Clark, [[London]], [[2001]]) that the term was used extensively only within the Platonist tradition, and would not have had much relevance outside it.
Despite this, Plato's usage of the descriptive phrase 'royal' to denote the elevated position of the able ''gnostikoi'', and the availability of such a position to ''all'' members of society regardless of rank, would have been greatly appealing to such early Christians as Clement ([[Clement of Alexandria|Titus Flavius Clementis]]) of Alexandria, who happily described ''gnosis'' as the central goal of Christian faith. Despite this, Clement is not typically considered a Gnostic in the modern sense. It is worth noting that this lack of cohesion between understandings of such terms contemporary to Gnosticism's greatest flourishings and modern understandings as shown through usage can sometimes lead to misunderstandings concerning Gnosticism's true nature and development.
Of course, several ancient traditions of 'knowing' existed outside the Platonist tradition: [[Aristotle]] described the ideal life of success as being the one which is spent in theoretical contemplation (''bios theoretikos''). Thus, as with Clement, ''gnosis'' as such becomes the central goal of life, extending through the mode of morality into the realms of [[politics]] and [[religion]]. Philosophy, according to Aristotle, is a methodically ordered form of attaining this ''gnosis'': 'Philosophy promises knowledge of being' ([[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], ''Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle'', ''[[Circa|ca]]''. [[200]] [[Common Era|CE]]).
Gnosticism, therefore, is but one of many ancient traditions which are dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge, and which supply disciplinary systems that are supposed to aid in such a pursuit. As with both the Platonist and the Aristotelian traditions, the pursuit of ''gnosis'' is the central occupation of life, and involves a measure of dedicated contemplation to attain. As with Clement, it may be surmised that the description of the ''gnostike episteme'' by Plato was appealing to early Gnostic formulators; however, early Gnostic movements typically do not depict Plato's capacity for knowing as being extended to all mankind, but restrict it to a select group. This is especially true in the [[Seth|Sethian]] gnostic tradition (see [[#Major gnostic schools and their texts|below]]).
Despite the above, the problem remains that the term 'Gnosticism' was rarely if ever self-applied by any group in antiquity; even if the suitability of the term might be argued from the discussion above, it remains for the most part a modern typographical construction. As a result, the term may be said to draw attention to the doctrine of ''gnosis'' out of proportion to its actual importance to 'Gnostics' themselves. On the other hand, 'Gnosticism' is still adjectivally applied to systems of belief which do not afford knowledge the special significance that is the foundation of the term, but which merely relate to those that ''do'' by dint of other similarities, such as structural parallels. This tactic could be said to stretch the category's usefulness in meaningful discussion. In certain cases, scholars have been led to erroneously assume an exact correspondence of meaning between the ancient and modern usages of the term, as may be seen in the example of [[Plotinus]]' well-known address in ''[[Enneads|The Enneads]]''.
===Neoplatonism and Plotinus' 'Address to the Gnostics'===
The text which has come to be known as [[Plotinus]]' 'Address to the Gnostics' or 'Against the Gnostics' is more properly known as 'Against those that affirm the creator of the ''[[cosmos|kosmos]]'' and the ''kosmos'' itself to be evil'. The text appears in the ninth tractate of the second ''[[Enneads|Ennead]]'', the ''Enneads'' being the works of Plotinus as collated and edited by [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], his disciple. It is known that Plotinus' writing was poor, and that he detested revising and correcting his work, preferring to leave such tasks to others. Thus the correct title is not one of Plotinus' devising, but is one of Porphyry's emendations to the text.
The formation of the text is as an address delivered by Plotinus to a number of his students, who have apparently been corrupted by ideas other than Plotinus' own. As such, the tract takes the form of an extended address by the philosopher, and he occasionally acknowledges the audience as intimates.
The general tendency to view the text much as Porphyry's titles &ndash; both the abbreviated and the lengthier versions &ndash; summarize it has recently come under challenge, as to do so makes several assumptions. Doubts concerning the accuracy of the abbreviated title in reflecting the text's central intentions might arise, especially when it is considered that the word 'Gnostic' is very seldom encountered in the text itself. For example, in [[A.H. Armstrong]]'s translation of ''The Enneads'', 'Gnostic' occurs only eleven times in the tractate in question, often as editorial emendations for neutral phrases such as 'they' (''αύτούς'') or 'the others' (''των αλων''). Thus, it is only through a historical assumption of correspondence that Porphyry's description of the tract becomes evidence for its direction against any Gnostic sect, as they are understood by modern scholarship.
Morton Smith has hypothesized that Porphyry was influenced in his chosen title by the success of [[Irenaeus]]' ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'', which was well known in [[Rome]] at the time; Porphyry thus appropriated the form of the title to describe a schismatic group, though recalling the [[#The Platonist and Aristotelian traditions|discussion above]], it would be likely that Porphyry would understand 'Gnostic' in a Platonist context, rather than a Christian one. In any case, it is less and less certain that Plotinus was addressing a group recognizable as Gnostic by modern standards, and more plausible that a wider category of opponents was intended (though this wider category itself might include Gnostic sects; they are simply not exclusively addressed). The description of his opponent's libertinism, for example, does not sit well with the overwhelming evidence of Gnosticism being a predominantly [[ascetism|ascetic]] tradition (see [[#Moral and ritual practise|below]]). Michael Williams has pointed out that Plotinus arrives at this conclusion of libertinism by a process of ‘rhetorical magic’, rather than ‘direct observation’ (Michael Allen Williams, ''Rethinking “Gnosticism”: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category'', [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey|NJ]], [[1996]]), 178): observing that ultimately only two moral choices pertain &ndash; either dedicating oneself to bodily pleasure or to the pursuit of virtue &ndash; Plotinus reasons that, since his opponents appear uninterested in the operations of virtue, they must therefore despise 'all the laws of the world'.
It is useful to retain knowledge of Plotinus’ objectives in this treatise. He does not address the Gnostics at large, stating that such a thing would be futile ‘for we could make no further progress toward convincing them’ (Ennead II.9.x, 265), but rather directs his arguments to his ‘intimate pupils’. Thus the accusations of libertinism are not necessarily observations of Gnostic behaviour ''per se'', but are rather hypotheses extrapolated from his opponent's apparently neglectful attitude to virtue. One might compare the ‘rhetorical subterfuge’ of Irenaeus in ''Adversus Haereses'': he creates a dilemma upon the horns of which he claims his opponents are caught, forcing them to accept one of ‘two equally unacceptable alternatives’ (Denis Minns, ''Irenaeus'', [[London]]: Geoffrey Chapman, [[1994]], 26). Thus, by trapping his pupils within such a dilemma, Plotinus hopes to convince them of the inferiority of the learnings by which they have been corrupted.
It may be noted that several of Plotinus' criticisms of his opponents are as applicable to orthodox Christianity as they are to Gnosticism (Introductory Note to ‘Against the Gnostics’ in Plotinus, ''Enneads'', trans. A.H. Armstrong, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts|MA]]: [[Harvard University|Harvard University Press]], [[1966]], 221); for example, several of the ideas criticized by Plotinus may be discerned in the theoretic of [[Clement of Alexandria]] (whom, it might be remembered, referred to Christian faith as the pursuit of 'gnosis' in his ''[[Stromateis]]'', |
kowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.
== External links ==
* [http://www.ku.edu/carrie/cec/ Carrie Central Asia Collection] — Full-text documents, literature, interpretive commentaries at the University of Kansas.
* [http://www.jamestown.org/edm/ Eurasia Daily Monitor] — political, strategic, and economic news from Central Asia.
* [http://eurasianet.org/ EurasiaNet] — information and analysis about political, economic, environmental and social developments in Central Asia.
* [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~casww/index.html/ Central Eurasian Studies World Wide].
* [http://www.getcited.org/mbrx/PT/2/MBR/10819625 Publications on the history of Central Asia Prior to 1917].
* [http://www.ucentralasia.org/ University of Central Asia].
==See also==
*[[Music of Central Asia]]
*[[Turkistan]]
{{Central_Asia}}
{{Region}}
[[Category:Central Asia| ]]
[[an:Asia Zentral]]
[[bg:Централна Азия]]
[[de:Zentralasien]]
[[es:Asia Central]]
[[eo:Mez-Azio]]
[[fr:Asie centrale]]
[[ko:중앙아시아]]
[[id:Asia Tengah]]
[[kw:Asi Gres]]
[[lt:Vidurinė Azija]]
[[nl:Centraal-Azië]]
[[ja:中央アジア]]
[[no:Sentral-Asia]]
[[pl:Azja Środkowa]]
[[pt:Ásia Central]]
[[ro:Asia Centrală]]
[[ru:Центральная Азия]]
[[sr:Централна Азија]]
[[sv:Centralasien]]
[[tl:Gitnang Asya]]
[[fi:Keski-Aasia]]
[[vi:Trung Á]]
[[zh:中亚]]
[[th:เอเชียกลาง]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Constantine I</title>
<id>6743</id>
<revision>
<id>39870506</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T12:47:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">There were several rulers called '''Constantine I'''.
*[[Roman emperor]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I (the Great)]]
*[[Constantine I of Scotland]]
*[[Constantine I of Greece]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constantine II</title>
<id>6744</id>
<revision>
<id>39870544</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T12:47:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">There were several rulers called '''Constantine II'''.
* [[Antipope Constantine II]], antipope from [[767]] - [[768]]
* [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] ([[317]] - [[340]]), Roman Emperor [[337]] - [[340]]
* [[Constantine II of Scotland]] ([[874]]? - [[952]]), King of Scotland [[900]] - [[942]] or [[943]]
* [[Constantine II of Greece]] (born 6/2/1940), King of Greece [[March 6]], [[1964]] - [[December 8]], [[1974]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Constantin II]]
[[pl:Konstantyn II]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Couscous</title>
<id>6745</id>
<revision>
<id>42094719</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:12:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dumarest</username>
<id>802809</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Expanded history, possible sub-Saharan origins</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Couscous.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Couscous grains]]
'''Couscous''' is a simple food of the Maghreb, ideal for nomadic people. Ths dish, with a name derived from [[Maghreb Arabic]] ''kuskusu'', which is from [[Tamazight]] ''seksu'', is a [[food]] which consists of grains made from [[semolina]] which are about 1 mm or 1/16th inch in diameter (after cooking).
Couscous was traditionally made from the hard part of the hard [[wheat]] ''[[Triticum]] durum'', the part of the grain that resisted the grinding of the relatively primitive [[millstone]]. The name is also used for prepared dishes made from other grains, such as [[barley]], [[millet]], [[sorghum]], [[rice]], or [[maize]].
Couscous is traditionally served under a meat or vegetable [[stew]]. The dish is the primary staple food throughout the [[Maghreb]]; in much of Algeria, eastern [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia ]], and [[Libya]] it is simply known as ''ta`aam'' &#1591;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;, "food". It is popular in the [[Maghreb]], the West African [[Sahel]], in [[France]], and parts of the [[Middle East]], it's also very popular among [[Jew]]s of [[North African]] descent, but this speciality is from a [[Berber]] origin.
In the [[United States]] couscous is known as a [[pasta]], however in most other countries it is treated more like a [[cereal|grain]] in its own right.
==History==
One of the first written references is from an anoymous 13th century Hispano-Muslim cookery book, "Kitāh al-tabǐkh fǐ al-Maghrib wa'l-Andalus", with a recipe for couscous that was 'known all over the world'. From the name, it appears that this dish was not Arab, but Berber. Couscous was known to the Nasrid royalty in [[Granada]] as well. And in the 13th century a Syrian historian from [[Aleppo]] includes four references for couscous. These early mentions show that couscous spread rapidly, but that in the main, couscous was common from [[Tripolitania]] to the west, while from [[Cyrenaica]] to the east the main culinary basis was Egyptian food, with couscous as a novelty. Today, in [Egypt]] and the [[Middle East]], couscous is known, but in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]], couscous is a staple.
One of the earliest references to couscous in Northern Europe is in [[Brittany]], in a letter dated Jan. 12 1699. But it made a much earlier appearance in [[Provence]], where the traveler Jean Jacques Bouchard writes of eating it in [[Toulon]] in 1630.
==African origins==
Evidence is mounting that the process of couscous cookery, especially the steaming of the grain over broth in a special pot, might have originated before the tenth century in the area of [[West Africa]] now comprising [[Niger]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Ghana]], and [[Burkina Faso]]. [[Ibn Batuta]] journeyed to [[Mali]] in 1352, and in what is now [[Mauritania]] he had a millet couscous. He also noted rice couscous in the area of [[Mali]] in 1350. Also, for centuries, among the nomadic [[Berbers]], black African women were employed as couscous cooks, another possible indication of the sub-Saharan origin of the dish.
==Manufacturing==
The couscous grains are made from [[semolina]] (coarsely ground [[durum]] wheat) or, in some regions, from coarsely ground [[barley]] or [[millet]]. The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets, sprinkled with dry semolina to keep the pellets separate, and then sieved. The pellets which are too small to be finished grains of couscous fall through the sieve to be again sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets. This process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny grains of couscous.
This process is very labour-intensive. Traditionally, groups of women would come together and make a large batch of couscous grains over several days. These would then be dried in the sun and used for several months. In modern times, couscous production is largely mechanized, and is sold in markets around the world.
'''Berkoukes''' are pasta bullets made by the same process, but are larger than the grains of couscous.
==Cooking==
Couscous should be steamed two to three times. When properly cooked the texture is light and fluffy, it should not be gummy or gritty. The couscous available to buy in most Western supermarkets has been pre-steamed and dried, the package directions usually instruct to add a little boiling water to it to make it ready for consumption. This method is quick and easy to prepare by pouring the couscous grains into boiling water or stock, adding some vegetable oil and stirring. The couscous swells and within a few minutes is ready to serve. Pre-steamed couscous takes less time to prepare than dried pasta or grains such as [[rice]].
The traditional North African method is to use a steamer called a ''keskes'' in [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian]] or ''couscoussière'' in [[French language|French]]. The base is a tall metal pot shaped rather like an oil jar in which the meat and vegetables are cooked in a stew. On top of the base a steamer sits where the couscous is cooked, absorbing the flavours from the stew. The lid to the steamer has holes around its edge so that steam can escape. If you do not have a couscousier you can use a pot with a steamer insert. If the holes are too big line the steamer with damp cheesecloth. There is little archeological evidence of early use of couscous, mainly because the original ''kiskis'' or ''keskes'' was probably made organic material which would not survive.
In [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Morocco]], couscous is generally served with vegetables (carrots, turnips, etc.) cooked in a spicy or mild broth, and some meat (generally, [[chicken]], [[lamb]] or [[mutton]]); in some parts of Libya they use [[fish]] and [[squid]]. Such a dish is now popular in former [[colony|colonial]] power France, where this particular preparation is generally implied by the word "couscous". Packaged sets containing a box of quick-preparation couscous and a can of vegetables and, generally, meat are sold in French grocery stores and supermarkets.
There are recipes from [[Brazil]] that use boiled couscous molded into [[timbale]] with other ingredients. Couscous can also be combined with meat or vegetables during cooking, and is often highly flavoured with aromatic spices.
==Israeli couscous==
[[Israel]]i couscous, also known as maftoul or pearl couscous, is a larger version of couscous and used in slightly different ways. In Western cooking it is often used as a bed for [[salmon]] or [[chicken]] dishes, or put into [[salad]]s. Compare with [[egg barley]].
|
resolved a wide range of intractable conflicts, published research working papers and a newsletter. It also maintains an extensive database of those interested in dispute resolution in New York City, a website with resources for dispute resolvers in New York City and since 9/11, the CUNY DRC assumed a leadership role for dispute resolvers in New York City by establishing an extensive listserv, sponsoring monthly breakfast meetings, conducting research on responses to catastrophes, and managing a public awareness initiative to further the work of dispute resolvers.
== External links ==
* [http://www.arbitrator.com Arbitrator.com: offers links to Arbitration and Mediation information.]
[[Category:Dispute resolution| ]]
[[cs:Řešení sporu]]</text>
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<title>Settlers of Catan, 5 to 6 player expansion</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Settlers of Catan 5 to 6 player version''' is an expansion set for the [[Settlers of Catan]] game. It contains fifteen additional terrain hexes: two mountains, two hills, two plains, two pasture, two forest, one desert, two water, one general (3:1) port, and one wool (2:1) port. The expanded board is laid out randomly as in the original game, but is shaped as shown below.
{| align="center" border="1" cellpadding = "1"
|-
| rowspan="8" | [[Image:Settlers 5-6 Board.png]]
| '''Terrain'''
| '''Production'''
| '''Color'''
|-
| Plains
| Grain
| bgcolor="#cca533" | &nbsp;
|-
| Pasture
| Wool
| bgcolor="#75e833" | &nbsp;
|-
| Forest
| Lumber
| bgcolor="#226600" | &nbsp;
|-
| Hills
| Clay
| bgcolor="#aa0000" | &nbsp;
|-
| Mountains
| Ore
| bgcolor="#666666" | &nbsp;
|-
| Desert
| Nothing
| bgcolor="#8c4617" | &nbsp;
|-
| Water
| (trading<br />advantage)
| bgcolor="#0031e5" width="30" | &nbsp;
|}
Also the expansion set includes tokens for roads, settlements, and cities in two additional colors, as well as five extra resource cards for each of the five commodities, and nine additional development cards: six soldiers, one Monopoly, one Year of Plenty, and one Road Building.
There is one significant change to the rules as well. In the original version only the player whose turn it is can build. In the expanded game, after each turn each player has an opportunity to build. This is a necessary modification, or else players would accumulate too many commodity cards, and everything would be built in large individual spurts rather than developing more evenly across time and among the players.
Some enjoy playing on the enlarged board with only four players so the board is less crowded, however a lack of space creates important strategic dilemmas which most players prefer to preserve.
[[Category:Settlers of Catan]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Die Siedler von Catan/Die Seefahrer expansion</title>
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<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:11:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Settlers of Catan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cities and Knights of Catan</title>
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<id>36412737</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T22:01:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robartin</username>
<id>35370</id>
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<comment>/* The Merchant */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Cities and Knights of Catan''''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Städte und Ritter'') is an expansion to the [[board game]] ''[[Settlers of Catan]]'' for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with the ''Settlers'' and ''Cities and Knights'' five to six player expansions). It contains features taken from the [[Settlers of Catan (card game)|''Settlers of Catan'' card game]], with emphasis on city development and the use of [[knight]]s, which are used as a method of attacking other players as well as helping opponents defend Catan against a common foe. ''Cities and Knights'' can also be combined with the ''[[Seafarers of Catan]]'' expansion (again, five to six player play only possible with the ''Seafarers'' five to six player expansion), although players are not recommended to use the ''Cities and Knights'' rules in ''Seafarers'' scenarios where exploration is a gameplay element.
Because of the new gameplay elements introduced in ''Cities and Knights'', the game is typically played to a greater number of victory points.
== Commodities ==
One of the main additions to the game are commodities, which effectively act as secondary resources produced only by cities (and not settlements). Like resources, commodities are associated with a type of terrain, can be stolen by the robber (with ''Seafarers'', also the pirate), can count against the resource hand limit, and may not be collected if the robber is on the terrain. Resources may be traded for commodities, and commodities may be traded for resources. Commodities can then be used to build city improvements (provided the player has a city), which provide additional benefits.
When combining ''Cities and Knights'' with ''Seafarers'', the rules are ambiguous with regards to whether commodities are collected along with normal resources when collecting from a Gold River tile, as well as whether or not commodities can be collected directly from Gold River tiles.
== City Improvements ==
If a player has a city, they may use commodities to build city improvements, which allow the user several advantages. City improvements come in a total of five levels, and in three different categories, with each category of improvements requiring a different commodity and higher levels requiring more cards in that commodity. At the third level, players earn a special ability.
The first player with an improvement at the fourth level can claim any of their cities as a metropolis, worth an additional two points. Each type of improvement has only one associated metropolis, and no city can be a metropolis of two different types (because of this, a player with only metropolises and settlements may not build improvements beyond the third level). If a player is the first to build an improvement to the final level, they may take the metropolis from its current holder.
== Knights ==
The other significant concept in ''Cities and Knights'' are the concept of knights, which replace the concept of soldiers and the largest army. Knights are units that require continuous maintenance through its activation mechanism, but have a wide variety of functions. Knights can be promoted through a total of three ranks, although promotion to the final rank is a special ability granted by a city improvement.
Knights are placed on the board in a similar manner to settlements, and can be used to block opposing roads, active or not. However, knights must be activated in order to perform other functions, which immediately deactivates the knight. Knights cannot perform actions on the same turn they are activated, but can be reactivated on the same turn as performing an action. These actions include:
* Moving along a road (with ''Seafarers'', a line of ships)
* Dispelling opposing knights of a lower rank, forcing the lower ranked knight to retreat
* Dispelling the robber (with ''Seafarers'', also the pirate) if the robber is stationed nearby
If a knight is promoted or forced to retreat, its active status does not change.
== Barbarian attacks ==
''Cities and Knights'' introduce a third die, known as the event die, which serves two functions, the first of which applies to the concept of barbarians, a periodic foe that all players must work together to defend against.
The barbarians are represented by a ship, which is positioned on a track in special "double-hex", representing the distance between the ship and Catan (ie. the board). Each time the event die shows a black ship, the barbarian ship takes one step closer to Catan. When the barbarians arrive at Catan, a special phase is immediately performed before all other actions (including collecting resources). In this special phase, the barbarians' attack strength, corresponding to the combined number of cities and metropolises held by all players, is compared to Catan's defense strength, corresponding to the combined levels of all activated knights in play.
Should the barbarian attack be successful (that is, the attack strength be greater than the defense strength), the player who contributed the least amount of defensive points is forced to reduce a city (not a metropolis) down to a settlement. If there is a tie among this distinction, then all tied players must (if possible) reduce a city to a settlement. If the lowest contibutor(s) only have metropolises, then the next-lowest contributor(s) must reduce a city to a settlement. It may be the case where players tie for the lowest contribution, with some of the players lacking cities to reduce (in which case the players without cities is exempt), or the case where all players are reduced to settlements and metropolises, in which case nothing happens.
There may also be the case where reducing a city would leave a player with six settlements (a player is only given five settlements), in which case the city token is turned on its side until anot |
provincial English Roman Catholic conspirators to kill King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in one swoop by blowing up the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] during its [[State Opening of Parliament|State Opening]]. Guy Fawkes was first introduced to Robert Catesby by a man named [[Hugh Owen (plotter)[[Hugh Owen]].
Fawkes and the other conspirators were able to rent a cellar beneath the House of Lords. By March 1605, they had hidden approximately 2.5 tonnes of [[gunpowder]] in the cellar, with the intent of detonating it during the State Opening of Parliament. Several of the conspirators were concerned, however, about fellow Catholics who would have been present at parliament during the opening. One of the conspirators had written a letter of warning to Lord Monteagle, who received it on [[October 26]]. The conspirators became aware of the letter the following day, but they resolved to continue the plot after Fawkes had confirmed that nothing had been touched in the cellar.
Lord Monteagle had been suspicious, however, and the letter was sent to the secretary of state who initiated a search of the vaults beneath the House of Lords. Fawkes was discovered and arrested during a raid on the cellar in the early morning of [[November 5]]. He was tortured over the next few days, after special permission to do so had been granted by the King. Eventually, he revealed the names of his co-conspirators (who were either already dead or whose names were known to the authorities). On [[January 31]], Fawkes, Wintour, and a number of others implicated in the [[conspiracy]] were taken to [[Old Palace Yard]] in [[Westminster]], where they were [[Drawing and quartering|hanged, drawn, and quartered]].
==Legacy==
[[Image:Guy fawkes torture signatures.jpg|thumb|right|Guy Fawkes signature before (bottom) torture and after (top).]]
The significance of the Gunpowder Plot, with Guy Fawkes being its central figure, has meant that his name remains well recognised. The complete story, his motivations, and the role of his co-conspirators are often simplified or ignored, however.
===Language===
In an example of [[semantic progression]], Guy Fawkes' name is also the origin of the word "[[guy]]" in the [[English language]], particularly in [[American English|American spoken English]]. The burning on 5 November of an effigy of Fawkes, known as a "guy", led to the use of the word "guy" as a term for "a person of grotesque appearance," according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. Over time, the word evolved to become a general reference for a man, as in "some guy called for you." In the 20th century, under the influence of [[American popular culture]], "guy" gradually replaced "fellow," "bloke," "chap" and other such words in many English speaking countries.
===Literature===
[[Image:Lewes Bonfire, Guy Fawkes effigy.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Effigy]] of Guy Fawkes, being paraded by the Cliffe Bonfire Society as part of the [[Guy_Fawkes_Night|Bonfire Night]] celebrations in [[Lewes#Lewes bonfire|Lewes]], Sussex.]]
The story of Guy Fawkes helped to inspire certain situations in [[Alan Moore]]'s post-nuclear [[dystopia]]n [[science fiction]] [[graphic novel]] of a fascist Britain, ''[[V for Vendetta]]''. The story revolves around the main character, V, who in the words of the book's artist [[David Lloyd]] is portrayed as "a resurrected Guy Fawkes." In the story, V finally explodes the abandoned parliament buildings on a future November 5 as his first move to bring down the nation's [[fascism|fascist]] [[tyrant|tyranny]]. [[Charles Dickens]] also referred to Fawkes quite often, particularly in his history of England, but also with references in his novels. The poet [[T. S. Eliot]] also mentions Guy Fawkes in the epigraph for his poem ''[[The Hollow Men]]'', "A penny for the old guy". [[Fawkes]], the [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] that appears in the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' books, is named after [[Guy Fawkes]]. A parallel has been drawn between Fawkes' owner [[Albus Dumbledore]]'s [[Order of the Phoenix]] and the conspirators of the [[Gunpowder Plot]]. The central character of [[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[Fahrenheit 451]], Guy Montag, can be considered an allusion to Guy Fawkes only in that the two share the same name and are associated with large fires.
===General popularity===
Guy Fawkes appears in the 2002 list of "[[100 Greatest Britons]]", sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public. The list ranks him alongside others such as [[David Beckham]], [[Aleister Crowley]], [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Johnny Rotten]]. He was also included in a list of the 50 greatest people from Yorkshire. Although Guy Fawkes' actions have been considered acts of terrorism by many people, cynical Britons, who criticise the integrity of [[politician]]s, sometimes joke that he was the only man to go to Parliament with honourable intentions.
Guy Fawkes is documented in many movie newsreels (see the archives of British Pathe and Movie Tone). The discovery of the plot, the celebration, and Guy Fawkes are also mentioned in many popular songs and ballads. Notably, in [[The Smiths]] album ''[[The Queen is Dead]]'' vinyl version, the text "Guy Fawkes was a genius" is carved near the centre of the record.
A popular English rhyme is often quoted on [[Guy Fawkes Night]], in memory of the [[Gunpowder Plot]]:
''"Remember, remember, the 5th of November''
''Gunpowder, treason and plot;''
''I know of no reason, why the gunpowder treason''
''Should ever be forgot."''
On [[John Lennon]]'s solo album [[Plastic Ono Band]], Lennon sings "Remember, remember, the 5th of November" on the song "Remember." The lyrics are followed by the sound of an explosion.
James McTeigue's movie, ''[[V for Vendetta (film)]]'' is based on Alan Moore's graphic novel about Guy Fawkes.
== See also ==
*[[Guy_Fawkes_Night|Guy Fawkes Night]], [[Lewes#The Lewes Bonfire|Lewes Bonfire]]
*[[Bridgwater|Bridgwater Guy Fawkes Carnival]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Dunchurch]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.guyfawkes.me.uk Guy Fawkes]
* [http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp A biography on Guy Fawkes from the Gunpowder Plot Society]
* [http://www.bonfirenight.net/ Guy Fawkes and Bonfire Night]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/verse.html Guy Fawkes Day Sayings and Chants]
:: An extensive set of rhymes, often known as Bonfire "prayers" or "chants", which vary by community and location.
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~hutmanpr/fawkestheater.html Guy Fawkes and the Theatre]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/maina.html Site of the Center for Fawkesian Pursuits]
* [http://www.gunpowderplot.parliament.uk/ British parliament's Web site to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the plot]
* [http://www.parliament.uk/faq/gunpowder_plot.cfm#gun7 Parliament (Official Site) FAQ on Gunpowder Plot]
* [http://www.britannia.com/history/g-fawkes.html Britannia on Fawkes]
* [http://www.st-peters.york.sch.uk/history/guyfawkes.htm York in the time of Guy Fawkes] – A walking trail exploring the Gunpowder Plot and its historical context
* http://www.innotts.co.uk/asperges/fawkes/index.html
[[Category:1570 births|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:1606 deaths|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:History of Roman Catholicism in Britain|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:English criminals|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:Failed assassins|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:People executed for treason|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[Category:Terrorists|Fawkes, Guy]]
[[ca:Guy Fawkes]]
[[da:Guy Fawkes]]
[[de:Guy Fawkes]]
[[es:Guy Fawkes]]
[[fr:Guy Fawkes]]
[[gl:Guy Fawkes]]
[[he:גאי פוקס]]
[[it:Guy Fawkes]]
[[nl:Guy Fawkes]]
[[ja:ガイ・フォークス]]
[[no:Guy Fawkes]]
[[nn:Guy Fawkes]]
[[pl:Guy Fawkes]]
[[pt:Guy Fawkes]]
[[ru:Фокс, Гай]]
[[fi:Guy Fawkes]]
[[sv:Guy Fawkes]]
[[zh:盖伊·福克斯]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Guitar tablature</title>
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<timestamp>2003-03-02T14:09:18Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[tablature]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Goodtimes virus</title>
<id>12709</id>
<revision>
<id>36772522</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T10:28:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
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<comment>Bringing "External links", "See also" and "Reference" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Goodtimes Virus''' was a [[computer virus]] hoax that spread during the early years of the [[Internet]]'s popularity. Warnings about a computer virus named '''"Good Times"''' began being passed around among Internet users in [[1994]]. The Goodtimes virus was supposedly transmitted via an [[email]] bearing the subject header "Good Times" or "Goodtimes," hence the virus's name, and the warning recommended deleting any such email unread. The virus described in the warnings did not exist, but the warnings themselves, were, in effect, virus-like.
==History==
Email warnings about the Good Times virus first showed up on November 15, 1994. The first message was brief, a simple five sentence email with a holiday greeting, advising recipients not to open email messages with subject "GOOD TIMES!!", as doing so would ruin their files. Later messages became more intricate. The most common versions -- the "[[Infinite loop]]" and "[[ASCII b |
discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1991]] provided for the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages, while limiting the amount that a jury could award.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[de:Civil Rights Act]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cola</title>
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<id>41952383</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:16:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ral315</username>
<id>111703</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.94.143.138|65.94.143.138]] ([[User talk:65.94.143.138|talk]]) to last version by WAvegetarian</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cola.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Several different brands of cola. (Pepsi, TAUfrisch Cola, Pepsi MAX, River Cola, Coca-Cola, Sinalco Cola, afri Cola, Coca-Cola light)]]
[[Image:Cola.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Cola]]
A '''cola''' is a sweet [[Carbonation|carbonated]] drink, usually with [[caramel]] coloring and containing [[caffeine]].
The flavor of the [[soft drink]] sometimes comes from a mixture of [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]],
and [[citrus]] flavorings. The name comes from the [[kola nut]]s that were originally used as the source of caffeine.
The drink may also be caffeine-free, and although some people disagree on calling such a drink a ''cola'', neither the cola companies themselves nor the vast majority of cola drinkers would make such a distinction.
Cola drinks are generally sweetened with [[corn syrup]], but may be sweetened with [[sugar]] or an [[artificial sweetener]].
Major brands of cola include [[Coca-Cola]], [[Pepsi]], [[R.C. Cola|Royal Crown]], [[Virgin Cola]] and various local producers. [[Jolt Cola]] also has a dedicated cult following (especially with college students or young professionals who have to meet tight deadlines), as it has a particularly high caffeine content (about 200 mg/L, compared with about 110-130 mg/L for Pepsi and Coca-Cola and 320 mg/L in non-cola [[energy drink]] [[Red Bull]]). Among colas, German brand [[Afri-Cola]] had a higher caffeine content until the product was relaunched with a new formulation in 1999. [[Inca Kola]] is another brand that is marketed in many countries by the [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca Cola group]]; it is the major cola in some South American countries. [[TuKola|tuKola]] and Tropicola are brands from [[Cuba]]; the former is also sold in [[Italy]]. [[Star cola]] is a brand from Gaza-Palestine marketed by Mecca Cola and Zam Zam Cola.{{fact}}
There is also an [[open source]] recipe for a cola drink, [[OpenCola]].
In 2002 a new brand, [[Mecca Cola]], aimed at [[Muslim]] customers (with the slogan ''Think Muslim, Drink Muslim''), was launched in [[France]] by Tawfik Mathlouthi. It is inspired by Iranian [[Zam Zam Cola]]. The product became available in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 2003. Some of the profits are directed to the Palestinian cause, and to domestic charities. <!--[Source: Channel 4 News, 8 Jan 03]--> A similar product with a similar concept, [[Qibla Cola]], was launched in 2003 in the UK. [[Cola Turka]], a [[Turkey|Turkish]] brand, and [[Zelal Cola]] are also popular among the Muslim community in [[Germany]].
==See also==
*[[Soft drink]]
*[[OpenCola]]
*[[Soda]]
*[[Cola (CMS)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.softdrinkguide.com SoftDrinkGuide.com]
*[http://www.colawp.com/colas/400/cola467_recipe.html OpenCola recipe] (originally published by [[Cory Doctorow]])
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaffeine.html Straight Dope article about caffeine levels on soft drinks]
[[Category:Cola|*]]
[[ca:Beguda de cola]]
[[da:Cola]]
[[de:Cola]]
[[eo:Kolao]]
[[fr:Cola]]
[[id:Kola]]
[[he:קולה]]
[[mk:Кола]]
[[nl:Cola]]
[[ja:コーラ]]
[[ru:Кола (напиток)]]
[[th:น้ำโคล่า]]
[[zh:可乐]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Capability Maturity Model</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:36:53Z</timestamp>
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<username>Kuru</username>
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<comment>revert: vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
The '''Capability Maturity Model''' (CMM) is a method for evaluating and measuring the maturity of the [[software development process]] of organizations on a scale of 1 to 5.
The CMM was developed by the [[Software Engineering Institute]] (SEI) at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]]. It has been used extensively for [[avionics software]] and for government projects since it was created in the mid-1980s.
A maturity model is a structured collection of elements that describe characteristics of effective processes.
A maturity model provides:
* a place to start
* the benefit of a community’s prior experiences
* a common language and a shared vision
* a framework for prioritizing actions
* a way to define what improvement means for your organization
A maturity model can be used as a benchmark for assessing different organizations for equivalent comparison.
The SEI has subsequently released a revised version known as the '''Capability Maturity Model Integration''' (CMMI).
== History ==
=== Context ===
The term '''software''' originates from the idea that software is easy to change ("soft") in comparison to hardware, which was more difficult to change ("hard"). Another theory: software is ''soft'' in the sense that it is not tangible, unlike hardware, which we can replace and touch. In the [[1970s]], the field of [[software development]] saw significant growth as more organizations began to move to computerized information systems. With this significant growth, two events began unfolding.
The first event was that computerized information systems became commonplace and improved computer hardware allowed for more ambitious information system projects. Along with the improved computer hardware, new technologies and manufacturing processes resulted in cheaper, more reliable, and more flexible computer platforms and peripherials which in turn encouraged the use of information systems in more diverse applications.
The second event was the need for many more people to develop the software needed for the computers created by the explosion in the number of computer information systems due to the increased application of computers to organizational problems. This in turn meant that people with little experience in the art of developing computer software moved into that area of work. Not only was there increased demand for people to design and write computer software, there was also increased demand for people to manage these projects.
Many software projects failed due to inadequate processes and project management. This was primarily due to two causes. The first was software development, both the design and writing of computer software as well as the management of software development projects, did not have a large body of published work discussing software development and what work existed was not used by industry to any great extent.
The second cause was that as information systems became more commonplace and people became more ambitious in the application of computer systems to organizational problems. Projects attempted moved from well known areas such as accounting systems or inventory systems which involved primarily numbers and the embedding of an abstract model into a computing platform with software to applications which involved the movement of physical objects in the real world. In addition, software development teams ran into the problem of attempting to model [[complex system]]s, such as the complete information flows of an enterprise, within information systems. The sheer complexity of the problem lead to project failue.
During the 1970s there were a number of proponents for a more scientific and professional practice. People such as [[Edward Yourdon]], [[Larry Constantine]], [[Gerald Weinberg]], [[Tom DeMarco]], and [[David Parnas]] published articles and books with research results in an attempt to professionalize the software development community.
During the 1980s, [[Watts Humphrey]] published a series of works about software development processes and organizations. From this work sprang the ongoing work at the Software Engineering Institute to provide a framework for a professional software development process and meta-process to allow organizations to develop higher quality software.
=== Origins ===
The [[United States Air Force]] funded a study at the SEI to create a model for the military to use as an objective evaluation of software subcontractors. In [[1989]], the Capability Maturity Model was published as ''Managing the Software Process''.
'''Timeline'''
* [[1987]]: SEI-87-TR-24 (SW-CMM questionnaire), released.
* [[1989]]: ''Managing the Software Process'', published.
* [[1991]]: SW-CMM v1.0, released.
* [[1993]]: SW-CMM v1.1, released.
* [[1997]]: SW-CMM revisions halted in support for CMMI.
* [[2000]]: CMMI v1.02, released.
* [[2002]]: CMMI v1.1, released .
=== Current state ===
Although these models have proved useful to many organizations, the use of multiple models has been problematic. Further, applying multiple models that are not integrated within and across an organization is costly in terms of training, appraisals, and improvement activities. The CMM Integration project was formed to sort out the problem of using multiple CMMs. The CMMI Product Team's mission was to combine three source models:
# The Capability Maturity Model for Software (SW-CMM) v2.0 draft C
# The Systems Engineering Capability Model (SECM)
# The Integrated Product Development Capability Maturity Model (IPD-CMM) v0.98
# Supplier |
in film|1914]], 25% of films shown in the UK were British - by [[1926 in film|1926]] this had fallen to 5%. The [[Cinematograph Films Act 1927]] was passed in order to boost local production, requiring that UK cinemas show a certain percentage of British films. The act was technically a success, with audiences for British films becoming larger than the quota required. But it had the effect of creating a market for 'quota quickies': poor quality, low cost films, made in order to satisfy the quota. Some critics have blamed the quickies for holding back the development of the industry. However, many British film-makers learnt their craft making these quota quickies, including [[Michael Latham Powell|Michael Powell]] and [[Alfred Hitchcock]].
Alfred Hitchcock's ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]) is regarded as the first British sound production. In the era of silent films audiences were receptive to movies from all nations. However, with the advent of sound films, many foreign actors or those with thick regional accents soon found themselves in less demand, and more 'formal' English ([[received pronunciation]]) became the norm. Sound also increased the influence of already popular [[Cinema of the United States|American films]].
Starting with [[John Grierson|John Grierson's]] ''[[Drifters]]'', the 1930s saw the emergence of a new school of realist documentary films: [[The Documentary Film Movement]]. It was Grierson who coined the term [[Documentary film|documentary]] to describe a non-fiction film, and he produced the movement's most celebrated film of the 1930s, ''[[Night Mail]]'' ([[1936 in film|1936]]), written and directed by Basil Wright and Harry Watt, and incorporating the poem by [[W.H. Auden]]. Other key figures in this movement were [[Humphrey Jennings]], [[Paul Rotha]] and [[Alberto Cavalcanti]]. Many of them would go on to produce important films during [[World War II]].
Several other new talents emerged during this period, and [[Alfred Hitchcock]] would confirm his status as one of Britain's leading young directors with his influential thrillers ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' ([[1934 in film|1934]]), ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' ([[1935 in film|1935]]) and ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' ([[1938 in film|1938]]), before moving to [[Hollywood]].
[[Music hall]] also proved influential in [[comedy films]] of this period, and a number of popular personalities emerged, including [[George Formby]], [[Gracie Fields]], [[Jessie Matthews]] and [[Will Hay]].
Many of the most important [[United Kingdom|British]] productions of the 1930s were produced by [[London Films]], founded by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] ''emigre'' [[Alexander Korda]]. These included ''[[Things to Come]]'' (1936), ''[[Rembrandt (film) | Rembrandt]]'' (1936) and ''[[Knight Without Armour]]'' ([[1937 in film|1937]]), as well as the early [[Technicolor]] films ''[[The Drum]]'' (1938), ''[[The Four Feathers]]'' ([[1939 in film|1939]]) and ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' ([[1940 in film|1940]]). These had followed closely on from ''[[Wings of the Morning]]'' ([[1937 in film|1937]]), Britain's first colour feature film.
After the boom years of the late 1920s and early 1930s, rising expenditure and over-optimistic expansion into the American market caused the production bubble to burst in 1937. Of the 640 British production companies registered between 1925 and 1936, 20 were still going in 1937. Moreover, the 1927 Films Act was up for renewal. The replacement Cinematograph Films Act 1938 provided incentives for UK companies to make fewer films of higher quality and, influenced by world politics, encouraged American investment and imports. One result was the creation by the American company [[MGM]] of a British studio [[MGM British]] in [[Hertfordshire]], which produced some very successful films, including ''[[A Yank at Oxford]]'' (1938) and ''[[Goodbye, Mr. Chips]]'' (1939), before [[The Second World War]] intervened.
===World War II===
The constraints imposed by [[World War II]] seemed to give new energy to the British film industry. After a faltering start, British films began to make increasing use of documentary techniques and former documentary film-makers to make more realistic films, many of which helped to shape the popular image of the nation at war. Among the best known of these films are ''[[In Which We Serve]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]), ''[[Went the Day Well?]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]), ''[[We Dive at Dawn]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]), ''[[Millions Like Us]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]) and ''[[The Way Ahead]]'' ([[1944 in film|1944]]). In the later war years [[Gainsborough Pictures|Gainsborough]] Studios produced a series of critically derided but immensely popular period melodramas including ''[[The Man in Grey]]'' (1943) and ''[[The Wicked Lady]]'' ([[1945 in film|1945]]). These helped to create a new generation of British stars, such as [[Stewart Granger]], [[Margaret Lockwood]] and [[James Mason]]. [[Two Cities]], an independent production company also made some important films including ''[[This Happy Breed]]'' (1944), ''[[Blithe Spirit]]'' (1945) and [[Laurence Olivier]]'s ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' (1944) and ''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]]). The war years also saw the flowering of the [[Powell and Pressburger]] partnership with films like ''[[Forty-Ninth Parallel]]'' ([[1941 in film|1941]]), ''[[The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp]] ''(1943) and ''[[A Canterbury Tale]]'' (1944) which, while set in wartime, were very much about the people affected by war rather than battles.
===Post-war cinema===
Towards the end of the [[1940s]], the [[Rank Organisation]], founded in 1937 by [[J. Arthur Rank]], became the dominant force behind British film-making. It acquired a number of British studios, and bank-rolled some of the great British film-makers which were emerging in this period.
Building on the success British cinema had enjoyed during World War II, the industry hit new heights of creativity in the immediate post-war years. Among the most significant films produced during this period were [[David Lean]]'s ''[[Brief Encounter]]'' (1945) and his Dickens adaptations ''[[Great Expectations (1946 film)|Great Expectations]]'' ([[1946 in film|1946]]) and ''[[Oliver Twist (1948 film)|Oliver Twist]]'' (1948), Carol Reed's ''[[Odd Man Out]]'' ([[1947 in film|1947]]) and ''[[The Third Man]]'' ([[1949 in film|1949]]), and [[Powell and Pressburger]]'s ''[[A Matter of Life and Death]]'' (1946), ''[[Black Narcissus]]'' (1946) and ''[[The Red Shoes (film)|The Red Shoes]]'' (1948). Ealing Studios also embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including ''[[Whisky Galore]]'' (1948), ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' (1949) and ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'' ([[1951 in film|1951]]).
In the [[1950s in film|1950s]] the industry retreated slightly from the prestige productions which had made British films successful worldwide, and began to concentrate on popular comedies and [[World War II]] dramas aimed more squarely at the domestic audience.
The war films were often based on true stories and made in a similar low-key style to their wartime predecessors. They helped to make stars of actors like [[John Mills]], [[Jack Hawkins]] and [[Kenneth More]], and some of the most successful included ''[[The Cruel Sea]]'' ([[1953 in film|1953]]), ''[[The Dambusters]]'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), ''[[The Colditz Story]]'' ([[1955 in film|1955]]) and ''[[Reach For The Sky]]'' ([[1956 in film|1956]]).
Popular comedy series included the [[St Trinians]] films and the "Doctor" series, beginning with ''[[Doctor in the House]]'' in 1954. The latter series starred [[Dirk Bogarde]], probably the British industry's most popular star of the 1950s. Bogarde was later replaced by [[Michael Craig]] and [[Leslie Phillips]], and the series continued until [[1970 in film|1970]]. The [[Rank Organisation]] also produced some other notable comedy successes, such as ''[[Genevieve]]'' in 1953.
The writer/director/producer team of twin brothers [[John and Roy Boulting]] also produced a series of successful satires on British life and institutions, beginning with ''[[Private's Progress]]'' (1956), and continuing with ''[[Brothers in Law]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]]), ''[[Carlton-Browne of the F.O.]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]]), ''[[I'm All Right Jack]]'' ([[1959 in film|1959]]) and ''[[Heavens Above!]]'' ([[1963 in film|1963]]). The Italian director-producer [[Mario Zampi]] also made a number of comedies including ''[[Laughter in Paradise]]'' (1951), ''[[The Naked Truth (film)|The Naked Truth]]'' (1957) and ''[[Too Many Crooks]]'' (1958).
After a string of successful films, including the comedies ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'' ([[1951]]), ''[[The Lavender Hill Mob]]'' (1951), ''[[The Titfield Thunderbolt]]'' (1953) and ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' (1955), as well as dramas like ''[[Dead of Night]]'', ''[[Scott of the Antarctic]]'' and ''[[The Cruel Sea]]'', [[Ealing Studios]] finally ceased production in 1958, and the studios were taken over by the [[BBC]] for television production.
Less restrictive censorship towards the end of the 1950s encouraged B-movie producer [[Hammer Films]] to embark on their series of influential and wildly successful horror films. Beginning with black and white adaptations of [[Nigel Kneale]]'s [[BBC]] [[science fiction]] serials ''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]'' (1955) and ''[[Quatermass II]]'' (1957), Hammer quickly graduated to deceptively lavish colour versions of ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein|Frankenstein]]'', ''[[Horror of Dracula|Dracula]]'' and ''[[The Mummy (1959 movie)|The Mummy]]''. Their enormous commercial success encouraged them to turn out sequel after sequel, and lead to an explosion in [[horror film]] production in Britain that would last for nearly two decades. Hamme |
a strong military advantage.
Byzantine fire was largely responsible for many Byzantine military victories, and partly the reason for the Eastern Roman Empire surviving as long as it did. It was particularly helpful near the end of the empire's life when there were not enough inhabitants to effectively defend its territories. It was first used to repel the Arab siege of [[Constantinople]] in [[674]]-[[677]] ([[Battle of Syllaeum]]), and in [[717]]-[[718]]. The Byzantines also used this powerful weapon against the [[Varangian]]s (Vikings) in [[941]] and against the Venetians during the [[Fourth Crusade]]. It quickly became one of the most fearsome weapons of the medieval world. The mere sight of any sort of siphon, whether it was used for Greek fire or not, was often enough to defeat an enemy. However, Greek fire was very hard to control, and it would often accidentally set Byzantine ships ablaze.
Although similar substances have been invented in the modern age, the exact composition of the original Greek fire is currently assumed to be a lost art.
==Manufacture==
The ingredients, process of manufacture and usage were a very carefully guarded military secret, so secret it remains a source of speculation to this day. It may have been a mixture of [[sulfur]], [[quicklime]], and liquid [[petroleum]]. It is not clear if it was ignited by a flame as the mixture emerged from the syringe, or if it ignited spontaneously when it came into contact with water. If the latter is the case, it is possible that the active ingredient was [[calcium phosphide]], made by heating lime, bones and charcoal. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases [[phosphine]], which ignites spontaneously.
These materials were apparently heated in a [[cauldron]], and then pumped out through a [[siphon]] or large [[syringe]], known as a ''siphonarios'' mounted on the bow of the ship. It could also be used in [[hand grenades]], made of earthenware vessels.
==Testimony==
The ''Memoirs'' of [[Jean de Joinville]], a thirteenth century French nobleman, include these observations[http://stronghold.heavengames.com/sc/history/greekfire] of Greek fire during the [[Seventh Crusade]]:
:"It happened one night, whilst we were keeping night-watch over the tortoise-towers, that they brought up against us an engine called a perronel, (which they had not done before) and filled the [[sling (weapon)|sling]] of the engine with Greek fire. When that good knight, Lord Walter of Cureil, who was with me, saw this, he spoke to us as follows: "Sirs, we are in the greatest peril that we have ever yet been in. For, if they set fire to our turrets and shelters, we are lost and burnt; and if, again, we desert our defences which have been entrusted to us, we are disgraced; so none can deliver us from this peril save God alone. My opinion and advice therefore is: that every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger."
:"So soon as they flung the first shot, we went down on our elbows and knees, as he had instructed us; and their first shot passed between the two turrets, and lodged just in front of us, where they had been raising the dam. Our firemen were all ready to put out the fire; and the Saracens, not being able to aim straight at them, on account of the two pent-house wings which the King had made, shot straight up into the clouds, so that the fire-darts fell right on top of them."
:"This was the fashion of the Greek fire: it came on as broad in front as a vinegar cask, and the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed."
:"Thrice that night they hurled the Greek fire at us, and four times shot it from the tourniquet cross-bow."
==See also==
*[[Flamethrower]]
*[[Napalm]]
*[[Byzantine navy]]
==References==
* Spears, W.H., Jr. ''Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe'' (1969) ISBN 0960010637
* Partington, Riddick James (fwd by [[Frederick E. Morgan|Sir Frederick Morgan]]). ''A history of Greek fire and gunpowder'' (W. Heffer, Cambridge, 1960). [[Library of Congress Control Number|LCCN]] 60003402
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</page>
<page>
<title>GIGO</title>
<id>12823</id>
<revision>
<id>41852102</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:47:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sifaka</username>
<id>916327</id>
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<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Garbage In, Garbage Out''' (abbreviated to '''GIGO''') is an aphorism in the field of [[computer science]]. It refers to the fact that [[computer]]s, unlike humans, will unquestioningly process the most nonsensical of input [[data]] and produce nonsensical output. It was most popular in the early days of computing, but has fallen out of use as programs have become more sophisticated and now usually have checks built in to reject improper input.
GIGO is usually said in response to users who complain that a program did not "do the right thing" when given imperfect input. The first example of this was probably cited by [[Charles Babbage]], inventor of the first programmable device who said "On two occasions I have been asked, 'Pray, Mr. Babbage, if you put into the machine wrong figures, will the right answers come out?' I am not able rightly to apprehend the kind of confusion of ideas that could provoke such a question." It is also commonly used to describe failures in human decision making due to faulty, incomplete, or imprecise data. For example, a badly written [[TeX]] document will look bad because the user did not correctly typeset the TeX source properly. This instance of GIGO could be described in a similar vein to [[WYSIWYG]] - ''what you see is what you get''.
Another, more recent, meaning of GIGO is '''Garbage In, Gospel Out'''. This phrase is a sardonic comment on the human tendency to accept the results from computer systems with unquestioning faith. An example of this blind-faith GIGO mentality is to believe that your work, stored in a computer, will be there whenever you need it even though you never perform data [[backup]] or [[anti-virus software|virus scan]].
It can also be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file. Although [[digitizing]] is the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality. Defects in the original analog signal will be faithfully recorded, but may be identified and removed by a subsequent step. See [[Digital signal processing]].
==See also==
*[[KIBO]]
*[[SNAFU|FUBAR]]
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:4-letter acronyms]]
[[de:GIGO]]
[[pl:&#346;mieci wesz&#322;y, &#347;mieci wysz&#322;y]]
[[nl:GIGO]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gdingen</title>
<id>12824</id>
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<id>15910481</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gdynia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Geometers</title>
<id>12827</id>
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<id>15910484</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-11T13:30:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of geometers]]</text>
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<page>
<title>GATT (disambiguation)</title>
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<id>31830679</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T09:03:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hathawayc</username>
<id>221296</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''GATT''' might be an [[acronym]] or [[abbreviation]] for:
# [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
# [[graphics address translation table]]
{{4LA}}</text>
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<page>
<title>General agreement on tariffs and trade</title>
<id>12829</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Gipsy</title>
<id>12830</id>
<revision>
<id>26876004</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-30T12:50:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
<id>119438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gypsy]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</title>
<id>12831</id>
<revision>
<id>41804914</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:39:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.225.62.28</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade''' (typically abbre |
e (CRS) Report
[[Category:Taxation in the United States]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Extreme Programming</title>
<id>10352</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:09:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Primetime</username>
<id>457099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>tag mvd up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{Software-development-process}}
'''Extreme Programming''' (XP) is a [[software engineering]] [[methodology]] for the development of software projects. It prescribes a set of day-to-day [[Extreme_Programming#Practices|practices]] for developers and managers; the practices are meant to embody and encourage particular [[Extreme_Programming#Values|values]]. Proponents believe that the exercise of these practices, which are software engineering best practices taken to "extreme" levels, leads to a development process with the qualities prized by [http://agilemanifesto.org/ Agile Manifesto] signatories. This makes Extreme Programming the most prominent of several [[agile software development]] methodologies used to create software. Agile methodologies prioritize adaptability to changing requirements over the project predictability valued by more traditional methodologies. Some elements of the Extreme Programming methodology are [[Extreme Programming#Controversial aspects|controversial]].
== History ==
Extreme Programming was created by [[Kent Beck]], [[Ward Cunningham]], and [[Ron Jeffries]] during their work on the [[Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System]] (C3) project. Kent Beck became the C3 [[project leader]] in March 1996 and began to refine the development methodology used on the project. Kent Beck wrote a book on the methodology and in October 1999, ''Extreme Programming Explained'' was published. Chrysler cancelled the C3 project in February 2000, but the methodology had caught on in the [[software engineering]] field. [[As of 2006]], a number of software development projects continue to use Extreme Programming as their methodology.
=== Origins ===
Software development in the [[1990s]] was shaped by two major influences. Internally, [[object-oriented programming]] replaced [[procedural programming]] as the programming paradigm favored in the industry. Externally, the [[dot-com|dot-com boom]] emphasized speed to market and company growth as competitive business factors. Rapidly changing requirements demanded shorter [[Product life cycle management|product life-cycles]], and were often incompatible with traditional methods of software development.
The Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation project was started in order to determine the best way to use object technologies, using the payroll systems at Chrysler as the object of research, with [[Smalltalk]] as the language and [[GemStone]] as the persistence layer. They brought in [[Kent Beck]], a prominent Smalltalk practitioner, to do [[performance tuning]] on the system, but his role expanded as he noted several issues they were having with their development process. He took this opportunity to propose and implement some changes in their practices based on his work with his frequent collaborator, [[Ward Cunningham]].
:''The first time I was asked to lead a team, I asked them to do a little bit of the things I thought were sensible, like testing and reviews. The second time there was a lot more on the line. I thought, "Damn the torpedoes, at least this will make a good article," [and] asked the team to crank up all the knobs to 10 on the things I thought were essential and leave out everything else.'' &mdash;[http://www.informit.com/articles/article.asp?p=20972&rl=1 Kent Beck]
Beck invited [[Ron Jeffries]] to the project to help develop and refine these methods. Jeffries thereafter acted as a kind of coach to instill the practices as habits in the C3 team.
Information about the principles and practices behind XP was disseminated to the wider world through discussions on the original [[Wiki|WikiWiki]], Cunningham's [[WikiWikiWeb]]. Various contributors discussed and expanded upon the ideas, and some spin-off methodologies resulted (see [[agile software development]]).
Beck edited a series of books on XP, beginning with his own ''[[Extreme Programming Explained]]'', spreading his ideas to a much larger yet very receptive audience. Authors in the series went through various aspects attending XP and its practices, even a book critical of the practices.
=== Current state ===
XP created quite a buzz in the late 1990s and early 2000s, seeing adoption in a number of environments radically different from its origins.
The high discipline required by the original practices often went by the wayside, causing certain practices to be deprecated or left undone on individual sites. Agile development practices have not stood still, and XP is still evolving, assimilating more lessons from experiences in the field. In the second edition of ''Extreme Programming Explained'', Beck added more values and practices and differentiated between primary and corollary practices.
== Goal of XP ==
''Extreme Programming Explained'' describes Extreme Programming as being:
* An attempt to reconcile humanity and productivity
* A mechanism for social change
* A path to improvement
* A style of development
* A software development discipline
The main aim of XP is to lower the cost of change. In traditional system development methods (like [[Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology|SSADM]]) the requirements for the system are determined at the beginning of the development project and often fixed from that point on. This means that the cost of changing the requirements at a later stage (a common feature of software engineering projects) will be high.
XP sets out to lower the cost of change by introducing basic values, principles and practices. By applying XP, a system development project should be more flexible with respect to changes.
== XP values ==
Extreme Programming initially recognized just four values but a new value was added in the second edition of ''Extreme Programming Explained''. The five values are:
*[[Communication]]
*[[Simplicity]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Courage]]
*[[Respect]] (the latest value)
Building software systems requires '''communicating''' system requirements to the developers of the system. In formal software development methodologies, this task is accomplished through documentation. Extreme Programming techniques can be viewed as methods for rapidly building and disseminating institutional knowledge among members of a development team. The goal is to give all developers a shared view of the system which matches the view held by the users of the system. To this end, Extreme Programming favors simple designs, metaphor, collaboration of users and programmers, frequent verbal communication and feedback.
Extreme Programming encourages starting with the '''simplest''' solution and [[refactoring]] to better ones. The difference between this approach and more conventional system development methods is the focus on designing and coding for the needs of today instead of those of tomorrow, next week, or next month. Proponents of XP acknowledge the disadvantage that this can sometimes entail more effort tomorrow to change the system; their claim is that this is more than compensated for by the advantage of not investing in possible future requirements that may change before they become relevant. Coding and designing for uncertain future requirements implies the risk of spending resources on something that might not be needed. Related to the "communication" value, simplicity in design and coding should improve the (quality of) communication. A simple design with very simple code can be easily understood by every programmer in the team.
Within Extreme Programming, '''feedback''' relates to different dimensions of the system development:
*Feedback from the system: by writing [[unit test]]s the programmers have direct feedback from the state of the system after implementing changes.
*Feedback from the customer: The functional tests (aka [[acceptance tests]]) are written by the customer and the testers. They will get concrete feedback about the current state of their system. This review is planned once in every two or three weeks so the customer can easily steer the development.
*Feedback from the team: When customers come up with new requirements in the planning game the team directly gives an estimation of the time that it will take to implement.
Feedback is closely related to communication and simplicity. Flaws in the system are easily communicated by writing a unit test that proves a certain piece of code will break. The direct feedback from the system tells programmers to recode this part. A customer is able to test the system periodically according to the functional requirements (aka [[user story|user stories]]). To quote [[Kent Beck]], "Optimism is an occupational hazard of programming, feedback is the treatment."
Several practices embody '''courage'''. One is the commandment to always design and code for today and not for tomorrow. This is an effort to avoid getting bogged down in design and requiring a lot of effort to implement anything else. Courage enables developers to feel comfortable with [[refactoring]] their code when necessary. This means reviewing the existing system and modifying it so that future changes can be implemented more easily. Another example of courage is knowing when to throw code away. Every programmer has experienced getting stuck on a complex problem in their own design and code after working on it all day, then coming back the next day with a clear and fresh view and rapidly solving the problem in half an hour.
The '''respect''' value manifests in several ways. In Extreme Programming, team members respect each other |
ch popularized the idea, scientists use blood from fossilized [[mosquito]]s that have been suspended in [[amber|tree sap]] since the Mesozoic to reconstruct the [[DNA]] of dinosaurs, filling chromosomal gaps with modern [[frog]] genes. It is probably impossible to resurrect dinosaurs in this manner. One problem with the amber extraction method is that DNA decays over time by exposure to air, water and radiation, making it unlikely that such an approach would recover any useful DNA (DNA decay can be measured by a [[racemization]] test).
The successful extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions, but upon further inspection and [[peer review]], neither of these reports could be confirmed.{{ref|wang}} However, a functional visual [[peptide]] of a (theoretical) dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of still-living related species (reptiles and birds).{{ref|chang}}
Even if dinosaur DNA could be reconstructed, it would be exceedingly difficult to "grow" dinosaurs using current technology since no closely related species exist to provide [[zygote]]s or a suitable environment for [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]].
===Soft tissue in dinosaur fossils===
One of the best examples of soft tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in [[Petraroia]], [[Italy]]. The discovery was reported in [[1998]], and described the specimen of a small, very young [[Coelurosaur]], ''[[Scipionyx]] samniticus''. The fossil includes portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe of this immature dinosaur{{ref|softtissue}}.
In the March 2005 issue of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Dr. Mary Higby Schweitzer and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68-million-year-old ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' leg [[bone]] from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] in [[Montana]]. After recovery, the tissue was rehydrated by the science team.
When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone marrow cavity (a process called demineralization), Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as [[blood vessel]]s, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. The exact nature and composition of this material are not yet clear, although many news reports immediately linked it with the movie ''Jurassic Park''. Interpretation of the artifact is ongoing, and the relative importance of Dr. Schweitzer's discovery is not yet clear.{{ref|chanceatlife}}
==Extinction theories==
{{main|Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event}}
The sudden [[mass extinction]] of the non-avian dinosaurs, which occurred around 65 million years ago, is one of the most intriguing mysteries in [[paleontology]]. Many other groups of animals also became extinct at this time, including [[ammonite]]s ([[nautilus]]-like [[mollusk]]s), [[mosasaur]]s, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, herbivorous [[turtle]]s and [[crocodile]]s, most birds, and many groups of mammals.{{ref|changes}} The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s. At present, several related theories are broadly supported by paleontologists.
===Asteroid collision===
[[Image:Chicxulub radar topography.jpg|thumb|The [[Chicxulub Crater]] at the tip of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], the impact of which may have caused the dinosaur extinction.]]
The asterioid collision theory, which was first proposed by [[Walter Alvarez]] in the late 1970s, links the [[extinction event]] at the end of the Cretaceous period to a [[bolide]] impact approximately 65.5 million years ago. Alvarez proposed that a sudden increase in [[iridium]] levels, recorded around the world in the period's rock stratum, was direct evidence of the impact. The bulk of the evidence now suggests that a 10 km wide [[bolide]] hit in the vicinity of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], creating the [[1 E5 m|170&nbsp;km]]-wide [[Chicxulub Crater]] and triggering the [[mass extinction]]. Scientists are not certain whether dinosaurs were thriving or declining before the impact event. Some scientists propose that the meteor caused a long and unnatural drop in Earth's atmospheric temperature, while others claim that it would have instead created an unusual heat wave.
Although the speed of extinction cannot be deduced from the fossil record alone, various models suggest that the extinction was extremely rapid. The consensus among scientists who support this theory is that the impact caused extinctions both directly (by [[heat]] from the meteorite impact) and also indirectly (via a worldwide cooling brought about when matter ejected from the impact crater reflected thermal radiation from the sun).
===Multiple collisions&mdash;the Oort cloud===
While similar to Alvarez's impact theory (which involved a single asteroid or comet), this theory proposes that a stream of comets was dislodged from the [[Oort cloud]] due to the gravitational disruption caused by a passing star. One or more of these objects then collided with the Earth at approximately the same time, causing the worldwide extinction. As with the impact of a single asteroid, the end result of this comet bombardment would have been a sudden drop in global temperatures, followed by a protracted cool period.{{ref|koeberl}}
===Environment changes===
At the peak of the dinosaur era, there were no polar ice caps, and sea levels are estimated to have been from 100 to 250 metres (330 to 820 feet) higher than they are today. The planet's temperature was also much more uniform, with only 25 degrees Celsius separating average polar temperatures from those at the equator. On average, atmospheric temperatures were also much warmer; the poles, for example, were 50 °C warmer than today. {{ref|enviro1}}{{ref|enviro2}}
The atmosphere's composition during the dinosaur era was vastly different as well. Carbon dioxide levels were up to 12 times higher than today's levels, and oxygen formed 32 to 35 percent of the atmosphere, as compared with 21 percent today. However, by the late Cretacious, the environment was changing dramatically. Volcanic activity was decreasing, which led to a cooling trend as levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide dropped. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere also started to fluctuate and would ultimately fall considerably. Some scientists hypothesize that climate change, combined with lower oxygen levels, might have led directly to the demise of many species. If the dinosaurs had respiratory systems similar to those commonly found in modern birds, it may have been particularly difficult for them to cope with reduced respiratory efficiency, given the enormous oxygen demands of their very large bodies.{{ref_label|changes|32|a}}
==History of discovery==
Dinosaur fossils have been known of for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized; the Chinese considered them to be [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] bones, while Europeans believed them to be the remains of giants and other creatures killed by the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]].
The first dinosaur species to be identified and named was ''[[Iguanodon]]''. Iguanodon was discovered in 1822 by the English geologist [[Gideon Mantell]], who recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern [[iguana]]s. Two years later, the Rev [[William Buckland]], a professor of [[geology]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], unearthed the fossilized bones of ''[[Megalosaurus bucklandii]]'' near [[Oxford]]. Buckland then became the first person to describe his find in a scientific journal.
The study of these "great fossil lizards" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist [[Richard Owen]] coined the term "dinosaur". He recognized that the remains that had been found so far, ''Iguanodon'', ''Megalosaurus'' and ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]'', shared a number of distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]], the husband of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], Owen established the [[Natural History Museum]] in [[South Kensington]], [[London]], to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.
[[Image:OthnielCharlesMarsh.jpeg|left|thumb|130px|[[Othniel Charles Marsh]], (19th Century photograph).]]
[[Image:edcope.jpg|130px|right|thumb|[[Edward Drinker Cope]], (19th Century photograph).]]
In 1858, the first known American dinosaur was discovered in [[marl]] pits in the small town of [[Haddonfield, New Jersey]] (although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned). The creature was named ''[[Hadrosaurus]] foulkii'', after the town and the discoverer, [[William Parker Foulke]]. It was an extremely important find; ''Hadrosaurus'' was the first nearly complete dinosaur skeleton found and it was clearly a [[bipedal]] creature. This was a revolutionary discovery, as until that point most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of dinosaur mania in the [[United States]].
Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between [[Edward Drinker Cope]] and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]], both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the [[Bone Wars]]. The feud probably originated when Marsh publicly pointed out that Cope's reconstruction of an ''[[Elasmosaurus]]'' skeleton was flawed; Cope had inadvertently placed the [[plesiosaur]]'s head at what should have been the animal's tail end. The fight between the two scientists lasted for ove |
in the case with [[ice castle]]s) and not practical for long-term habitation. [[Ice hotel]]s exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. [[Igloo]]s are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow.
== Ice at different pressures ==
Ice can be formed at higher temperatures in pressurized environments, and water will remain a liquid or gas until -30&nbsp;°C at lower pressures. Ice formed at high pressure has a different crystal structure and density than ordinary ice. Ice, water, and [[water vapor]] can coexist at the [[triple point]], which is 273.16&nbsp;K at a pressure of 611.73&nbsp;[[Pascal|Pa]].
=== Phases of ice ===
{|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
! Phase
! Characteristics
|-
| [[Amorphous ice]]
| [[Amorphous]] ice is an ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in two forms: low-density (LDA), formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, and high density (HDA), forming at higher pressures. It forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water.
|-
| [[Ice Ih]]
| Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic.
|-
| [[Ice Ic]]
| Metastable [[cubic crystal|cubic]] crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130-150 [[kelvin|K]], and is stable for up to 200 K, when it transforms into ice Ih. It is occassionally present in the upper atmosphere.
|-
| [[Ice II]]
| A [[rhombohedral]] crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190-210 K. When heated it undergoes transformation to ice III.
|-
| [[Ice III]]
| A [[tetragonal]] crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa. Least dense of the high-pressure phases. More dense than water.
|-
| [[Ice IV]]
| Metastable rhombohedral phase. Does not easily form without a nucleating agent.
|-
| [[Ice V]]
| A [[monoclinic]] crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa. Most complicated structure of all the phases.
|-
| [[Ice VI]]
| A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa. Exhibits [[Debye relaxation]].
|-
| [[Ice VII]]
| A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms position is disordered, the material shows Debye relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices.
|-
| [[Ice VIII]]
| A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions. Formed from ice VII by cooling it beyond 5 &deg;C.
|-
| [[Ice IX]]
| A tetragonal metastable phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from -65 to -108 &deg;C, stable below 140K and pressures between 200 and 400 MPa. It has density of 1.16 g/cm³, slightly higher than ordinary ice.
|-
| [[Ice X]]
| Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at about 40-45 GPa. A transformation of ice VII to ice X at 70 GPa is predicted.
|-
| [[Ice XI]]
| An [[orthorhombic]] low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is [[ferroelectric]].
|-
| [[Ice XII]]
| A tetragonal metastable dense crystalline phase. It is metastable in the phase space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77K to about 183K at 810 MPa.
|}
== See also ==
[[Image:Icicles forming.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Icicles forming on a cabin's roof at [[Dinner Plain]] [[Australia]].]]
* [[Black ice]]
* [[De-icing]]
* [[Diamond dust]]
* [[Firn]]
* [[Frazil ice]]
* [[Iceberg]]
* [[Glacier]]
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[Polynya]]
* [[Pykrete]]
* [[Sea ice]]
* [[Amorphous solid water]]
* [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], an ice-covered moon
== Related terms ==
* A [[rusticle]] is a rust formation similar to an icicle.
* [[Isaz]] is the Proto-Germanic rune for "ice".
== External links ==
{{commons|Ice}}
* [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ice/ice.htm The phase diagram of water, including the ice variants]
* [http://www.webmineral.com/data/Ice.shtml Webmineral listing for Ice]
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-2001.html MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice]
* [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/ATG/ice.html The physics of ice]
* [http://www.martin.chaplin.btinternet.co.uk/phase.html The phase diagrams of water with some high pressure diagrams]
* [http://www.livescience.com/forcesofnature/050630_melting_discovery.html A recent discovery about how ice melts]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/unfreezable.html 'Unfreezable' water, 'bound water' and water of hydration]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Forms of water]]
[[Category:Water ice| ]]
[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Minerals]]
[[als:Eis]]
[[bg:Лед]]
[[ca:Gel]]
[[cs:Led]]
[[cy:Iâ]]
[[da:Is (vand)]]
[[de:Eis]]
[[et:Jää]]
[[es:Hielo]]
[[eo:Glacio]]
[[fr:Glace]]
[[gl:Xelo]]
[[ko:얼음]]
[[io:Glacio]]
[[id:Es]]
[[is:Ís]]
[[it:Ghiaccio]]
[[he:קרח]]
[[lv:Ledus]]
[[nl:IJs]]
[[nds:Ies]]
[[ja:氷]]
[[no:Is]]
[[nn:Is]]
[[pl:Lód]]
[[pt:Gelo]]
[[simple:Ice]]
[[sk:Ľad]]
[[sl:Led]]
[[su:És]]
[[fi:Jää]]
[[sv:Is]]
[[zh:冰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Instantaneous dipole attraction</title>
<id>14947</id>
<revision>
<id>15912467</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sodium</username>
<id>41</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Induced-dipole attraction</title>
<id>14948</id>
<revision>
<id>15912468</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction</title>
<id>14950</id>
<revision>
<id>15912469</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ionic bond</title>
<id>14951</id>
<revision>
<id>41605574</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:25:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ilmari Karonen</username>
<id>398996</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Polarization effects */ surely this was a mistake?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ionic_bonding.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Electron configuration]]s of [[lithium]] and [[fluorine]]. Lithium has one electron in its outer shell, held rather loosely because the [[ionisation energy]] is low. Fluorine carries 7 electrons in its outer shell. When one electron moves from lithium to fluorine, each [[ion]] acquires the [[noble gas]] configuration. The bonding energy from the [[electrostatic attraction]] of the two oppositely-charged ions has a large enough negative value that the overall bonded state energy is lower than the unbonded state]]
'''Ionic bonds''' are a type of [[chemical bond]] based on [[electrostatic force]]s between two oppositely-charged [[ion]]s. Often ionic bonds form between [[metal]]s and [[non-metals]]. In ordinary [[table salt]], the bonds between the [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]] ions are ionic bonds. In ionic bond formation, a metal donates an electron, due to a low [[electronegativity]] to form a positive ion or [[cation]]. The non-metal atom has an [[electron configuration]] just short of a [[noble gas]] structure. They are [[electronegative]], and so readily gain electrons to form negative ions or [[anion]]s. The two or more ions are then attracted to each other by [[electrostatic force]]s. Such bonds are stronger than [[hydrogen bond]]s, but similar in strength to [[covalent bond]]s.
: <math>Li + F\ \ \ \to\ \ \ Li^+F^-\,\!</math>
: <math>3Na + P\ \ \ \to\ \ \ Na^+_3P^{3-}</math>
Ionic bonding occurs only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favourable when the bonded atoms have a lower energy than the free ones. The larger the resulting energy change the stronger the bond.
''Pure'' ionic bonding is not known to exist. All ionic bonds have a degree of [[covalent bond]]ing or [[metallic bond]]ing. The larger the difference in [[electronegativity]] between two atoms the more ionic the bond. Ionic compounds conduct [[electricity]] when molten or in solution. They generally have a high [[melting point]] and tend to be soluble in water.
[[Image:ionicbond.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Impression of two ions, for example Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>-</sup> forming an ionic bond. The [[electron orbital]]s generally do not overlap (i.e., [[molecular orbital]]s are not formed), because each of the ions reached the lowest [[energy state]] and the bond is based only (ideally) on the electrostatic interactions between positive and negative ions.]]
==Polarization effects==
[[Ion]]s in [[crystal lattice]]s of purely ionic compounds are [[sphere|spherical]], but, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion. This [[Polarization (electrostatics)|polarization]] of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]], i.e., to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually only important when positive ions with [[electrical charge|charges]] of 3+ (e.g., Al<sup>3+</sup>) are involved (e.g., pure AlCl<sub>3</sub> is a covalent molecule). However, 2+ ions (Be<sup>2+</sup>) or even 1+ (Li<sup>+</sup>) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small |
]] 9%, [[France]] 7%, [[Spain]] 6%, [[United States]] 2% (1996)
'''Imports:'''
$315.6 million (c.i.f., 1995)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment 17.0%, consumer goods 33%, raw materials and semi-manufactures 26.9%, [[fuels]] 11.4%, [[fish]] and [[salt]] 6.7%
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 33%, [[Norway]] 18%, [[United Kingdom]] 8% [[Germany]] 9%, [[Sweden]] 5%, [[United States]] 2% (1996)
'''Debt - external:'''
$767 million (1995 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$150 million (annual subsidy from [[Denmark]]) (1995)
'''Currency:'''
1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere
'''Exchange rates:'''
Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
[[Category:Faroe Islands]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Faroe Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10703</id>
<revision>
<id>28153746</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T23:18:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Caerwine</username>
<id>347371</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Unreferenced}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
22,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
35,000 (2004) est.
'''Telephone system:'''
good international communications; good domestic facilities
<br>''domestic:''
digitalization was to have been completed in [[1998]]
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 1 Orion; 2 fiber-optic submarine cable linking the [[Faroe Islands]] with [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]] and [[Scotland]]
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
26,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
7 (plus 51 low-power repeaters) (September 1995)
'''Televisions:'''
15,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
DataNet[http://www.datanet.fo]
El & Tele[http://www.eltele.fo]
Føroya Tele[http://www.ft.fo]
Kall[http://www.kall.fo]
Teletech[http://www.teletech.fo]
'''[[Country code top-level domain|Country code (TLD)]]:''' FO
{{Faroe-stub}}
[[Category:Communications by country|Faroe Islands]]
[[Category:Faroe Islands]]
[[he:תקשורת באיי פארו]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10704</id>
<revision>
<id>31717259</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-17T09:59:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Woohookitty</username>
<id>159678</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ linked Faroese</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== History ==
The general history of the [[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] transportation-system can be summed up into 4 general periods:
*In the first period stretching from the feudal era into the beginning of the 20th century transportation was made mainly by a combination of rowboats and walking/carrying - including horse-transport in certain places and upper social classes.
*In the second period, starting in the late 19th century the ferry-connections start to emerge. First through private initiatives and in the 20th century increasingly transforming into public transport further supplemented by the emerging automobilism, especially during and between the two world wars. After World War II a large part of the Faroe Islands was reachable through a combination of ferries and automobiles - frequently private buses and taxis.
*The third period included a modernization of the ferries, introducing the car-ferries, making it possible to drive between the large centres of the country. Soon it would be possible to drive all the way from the capital of [[Tórshavn]] to [[Vágur]] and [[Tvøroyri]] in the south, to [[Fuglafjørður]] and [[Klaksvík]] in the north and to the airport at [[Sørvágur]] in the west, that was established by the British during the 2nd world war. During this second period the road network was further extended and supplemented by tunnels to distant valleys and firths such as [[Hvalba]], [[Sandvík]] and [[Norðdepil]] in the 1960s. Thus the third period stretches from the 2nd world war to around 1970.
*The fourth period starts a completely new development. In the 1973 the first solid connections between two islands was established between [[Norðskála]] on [[Eysturoy]] and [[Nesvík]] on [[Streymoy]]. In 1976 the new tunnel between [[Norðskála]] and the rest of [[Eysturoy]] was established, and together with the bridge this meant that the two largest islands were suddenly connected into what is now referred to as "Meginlandið" - (the Mainland). In 1975 the "bridge" between [[Viðoy]] and [[Borðoy]] was established, and in 1986 the "bridge" between [[Borðoy]] and [[Kunoy]] was established, and in 1992 the capital [[Tórshavn]] was granted a 1st class connection to the northern parts of the country, creating the infrastructural prepositions for a new mobile society on the Mainland. The newest developments of the Faroese transportation network are the sub-sea tunnels. In 2002 the tunnel between [[Streymoy]] and [[Vágar]] - the last is the airport-island - was finished, and in 2006 the tunnel between [[Eysturoy]] and [[Borðoy]] will be finished. In 2006 more than 85% of the Faroese population will be mutually reachable by automobile.
The main problem of the Faroe Islands is therefore not the internal transportation-network, but rather the external transport-possibilities. There are practically no other travel- or freight-possibilities but ships and airplanes. This means that export of domestically produced commodities is very expensive harming the development of a commodity-based economy.
== [[Railway]]s ==
There are no railways on the Faroe Islands, due to the difficult landscape and the relatively short distances. Instead roads have become the main [[transport]] artery of the society.
== [[Highway]]s ==
''total:'' 458 km (1995 est.)
:''paved:'' 450 km
:''unpaved:'' 8 km
== Ports and [[harbor]]s ==
* [[Torshavn]]
* [[Klaksvik]]
* [[Tvøroyri]]
* [[Runavík]]
* [[Fuglafjørður]]
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
''total:'' 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 22,853 GRT/13,481 DWT (1999 est.)
:''ships by type:'' cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 1
== [[Airport]]s ==
1 ([[Vágar Airport]]) (2005)
:Airports - with paved runways
:''total:'' 1
::''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1
== See also ==
* [http://landsverk.fo/Default.asp?sida=709 Map of Transportation net]
* [[Tunnels of the Faroes]]
[[Category:Faroe Islands]]
[[he:תחבורה באיי פארו]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10705</id>
<revision>
<id>29078031</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-23T19:44:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CDN99</username>
<id>97002</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirected</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faroe Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiji</title>
<id>10707</id>
<revision>
<id>42081438</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ChromiumCurium</username>
<id>878771</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{For|the fraternity|Phi Gamma Delta}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''Republic of the Fiji Islands<br>Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti'''</big>
| align="center" colspan="2"|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;"
| width="130px"| [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|125px|Flag of Fiji]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:fij-coa.gif|125px|Coat of Arms of Fiji]]
|-
| width="130px" | ([[Flag of Fiji|In Detail]])
| width="130px" | ([[Coat of Arms of Fiji|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | <small>''National [[motto]]: Rerevaka na Kalou ka Doka na Tui<BR> ([[English language|English]]: Fear God and honour the Queen)''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" | [[image:LocationFiji.png|Location of Fiji]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]s''' || [[English language|English]], [[Fijian language|Bau Fijian]], and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi language|Hindi]]/[[Urdu language|Urdu)]]
|-
| '''[[Religion]]''' || [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Suva]]
|-
| '''Largest City''' || Suva
|-
| '''[[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]]''' || [[Josefa Iloilo|Ratu Josefa Iloilo]]
|-
| '''[[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Laisenia Qarase]]
|-
| '''[[List of Chairmen of the Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Chairman]] [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]''' || [[Ovini Bokini|Ratu Ovini Bokini]]
|-
| '''[[List of Great Chiefs of Fiji|Great Chief]] [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]''' || [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] <sup>&dagger;</sup>
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % freshwater
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 151st]] <br> [[1 E11 m²|18,270 km²]] <br> negligible
|-
|-
|'''[[Population]]''' <br>&nbsp;- Total ([[2005]]) <br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 153rd]] <br>893,354<br>49/km&sup2;
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.752 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|92nd]]) – <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|-
| '''[[ |
vel Comics|Marvel]] and [[Dark Horse Comics|Dark Horse]] have published ''Godzilla'' comic book series (1977–1979 and 1987–1999, respectively).
===Video games===
:''Main article: '''[[Godzilla video games]]'''''
Godzilla and his fellow monsters have appeared in several video games, including:
* ''[[Godzilla: Monster of Monsters]]''
* ''[[Super Godzilla]]''
* ''[[Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee]]''
* ''[[Godzilla: Domination]]''
* ''[[Godzilla: Save the Earth]]''
==References in culture==
As with any pop culture icon, Godzilla has been parodied, referenced to and homaged in many movies, TV shows, comic books, internet articles, and so on. Here is a partial list of such references:
* Featured in the [[Animaniacs]] short, "Warners and the Beanstalk" where [[Yakko]] tells the Giant, ''"Would you like it in Japan with Godzilla and Rodan?"''(a parody of [[Green Eggs and Ham]]) The Giant ignores Yakko's offer resulting in Godzilla burning him with his Atomic breath, and Rodan blowing him away.
* In the last scene of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' 10th season finale "[[Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo]]", Godzilla attacks a plane going from Japan to the USA that the Simpsons are on. Godzilla is distracted by [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]] and [[Gamera]], allowing the plane to escape.
[[Image:Godzilla1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Godzilla's cameo from the animated comedy series ''Drawn Together'']]
* In the episode of the [[Comedy Central]] [[animated cartoon|animated]] [[reality show]] parody ''[[Drawn Together]]'' entitled "[[List of Drawn Together episodes#15. .22Super Nanny.22|Super Nanny]]", Godzilla plays a minor role as Ling-Ling's conscience (with his size probably meant as a subtle joke to Ling-Ling's cultural responsibility).
* In [[The Fairly Oddparents]] TV movie [[School's Out: The Musical]] before the Mayor starts singing it shows Godzilla destroying the city.
* In ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'', Austin crashes his car into a dinosaur like parade float while in Japan, causing it to roll around the streets uncontrollably. It is identified by a civilian as Godzilla, but another civilian corrects him, stating that it only looks like Godzilla due to copyright issues.
* [[Mariah Carey]]'s video for "[[Boy (I Need You)]]", which takes place in a futuristic Japanese metropolis, features a yellow, fire-breathing Godzilla-like monster, also brought to life by suitmation.
* In Olive the Other Reindeer, a show often shown on Cartoon Network during the Christmas season, Olive, Santa, and Santa's reindeer sing a song titled "Merry Christmas After All" while traveling the world delivering presents. However, when they visit Tokyo, Ultraman flies by them, waves, and then starts dancing and singing with Godzilla.
* A great many of ''[[The Far Side]]'' cartoons feature Godzilla, including one where he is driving a car with a license plate saying "I 8 NY" (I ate New York}.
*There is a [[Warcraft]] creature called [[Gahz'rilla]] who is a hydra. However, his name gives away that he is a parody of Godzilla.
* One ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' episode is titled
" Giant Billy and Mandy: All Out Attack"
* Godzilla has cameoed or inspired likenesses in several other (usually animated) shows:
** ''[[Reign Storm]]''
** ''[[Garfield and Friends]]''
** ''[[Animaniacs]]''
** ''[[Jimmy Neutron]]''
** ''[[Invader Zim]]''
** ''[[Rugrats]]''
**''[[The Fairly OddParents]]''
* There is a drink in [[Malaysia]] called "[[Nestlé Milo|Milo]] Godzilla", consisting of a cup of Milo with ice cream and/or whipped cream on top of it.
=== Paleontology ===
At least two [[prehistoric creatures]] from the [[fossil record]] have been named after Godzilla:
* ''[[Gojirasaurus]] quayi'' is a [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]] that lived in the [[Triassic Period]]; a partial skeleton was unearthed in [[Quay County, New Mexico]].
* ''[[Dakosaurus andiniensis]]'', a [[crocodile]] from the [[Jurassic Period]], was nicknamed "Godzilla" before being [[scientific classification|scientifically classified]].
==See also==
* ''[[Agon (TV series)]]'' (''Agon'' was a serialized B&W TV movie produced in 1964, but aired in 1968. This 4 episode miniseries (aired Jan 2-5, 1968 on Fuji TV) was produced by Japan Radio Pictures (Nippon Denpa Eiga). The title monster is similar in appearance to Godzilla, so much that Toho almost sued Japan Radio Pictures, until they found that it was [[Fuminori Ohashi]] (who helped create the Godzilla suit for the original 1954 film) who designed the Agon costume!)
* Ditanix (''[[Seijuu Sentai Gingaman]]'')
* Dragon Caesar (''[[Kyoryuu Sentai ZyuRanger]]'')
* [[Gamera]]
* [[Gappa]]
* ''[[Gorgo]]''
* [[Raki (monster)|Raki]]
* [[Reptar]]
* ''[[Reptilicus]]''
* Rhedosaurus (''[[The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms]]'')
==External links==
===Official===
* [http://www.godzilla.co.jp Godzilla Official Website (Japan)]
* [http://www.godzilla.com Godzilla Official Website (US)]
=== Information ===
* [http://www.tohokingdom.com/ Toho Kingdom]
* [http://www.kaijuphile.com/ Kaijuphile: Monster Site. Monster Obsession.]
* [http://www.monsterzero.us/ Monster Zero News]
* [http://www.godzillatemple.com/ Barry's Temple of Godzilla]
* [http://www.gojistomp.org/ Godzilla Stomp]
* [http://www.rodansroost.com/ Rodan's Roost]
* [http://s14.invisionfree.com/Gamera_Fans/ Gamera Fans], kaiju fan site & resource board
* [http://www.tokyomonsters.com/ Tokyo Monsters] The premiere kaiju multimedia site
* [http://giantmonstermovies.com/ Giant Monster Movies]
* [http://www.henshinonline.com/ Henshin! Online], Japanese fantasy website
* {{dmoz|Arts/Movies/Titles/G/Godzilla_Movies/|Godzilla Movies}}
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/godzilla.jsp GreenCine primer on ''Godzilla'']
* [http://www.godzillamonstermusic.com/ Godzilla and other Monster Music]
* [http://www.clubtokyo.org/ Club Tokyo], kaiju collectibles reference
* [http://godzilla-uk.net/ Godzilla U.K.], The British Godzilla Webzine
* [http://www.g-fan.com/ G-FAN], an international fanzine
* [http://www.neomonsterisland.com/ Twisted Kaiju Theatre], a webcomic
===Analysis===
* Allsop, S "Gojira?Godzilla' in {{cite book | last = Bowyer | first = Justin | title = 24 Frames: The Cinema of Japan and Korea | location = London | publisher = Wallflower Press | year = 2002 }}
* "''[http://edition.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/Movies/03/04/film.goodbye.godzilla.ap/ Godzilla taking a break -- for now]''". Japanese film producer putting star on hiatus. [[CNN]]. [[4 March]] [[2004]].
* "'''Monster Theory' Godzilla: [http://www.wlu.ca/~wwwblack/an332/documents/Nov2.htm Cross-Cultural Analysis of Godzilla]''". AN332/CS310 [[2 November]] [[2000]].
* Kroke, Arthur, and Marilouise Kroke, "''[http://collection.nlc-bnc.ca/100/201/300/ctheory/articles/1995/art-27b.txt Ctheory: Tokyo Must Be Destroyed]''". Theory, technology and culture, Ctheory. VOL 18, NO 1-2 Article 27b 95/06/22 Editors:
{{Godzilla}}
[[Category:Fictional dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Fictional monsters]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame]]
[[Category:Kaiju]]
[[Category:Tokusatsu]]
[[Category:Fictional lizards]]
[[de:Godzilla]]
[[es:Godzilla]]
[[fi:Godzilla]]
[[fr:Godzilla]]
[[he:גודזילה]]
[[ja:ゴジラ]]
[[nl:Godzilla]]
[[pl:Godzilla]]
[[pt:Godzilla]]
[[sv:Godzilla]]
[[zh:哥斯拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gigantis the Fire Monster</title>
<id>11987</id>
<revision>
<id>22219284</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-31T02:04:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ryuuseipro</username>
<id>281264</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godzilla Raids Again]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>King Kong vs. Godzilla</title>
<id>11988</id>
<revision>
<id>38467867</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T15:05:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.91.49.152</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''King Kong vs. Godzilla''''' (キングコング対ゴジラ - ''Kingu Kongu tai Gojira'') is a [[1962]] [[tokusatsu]] [[kaiju]] film directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] with visual effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]]. It was the third installment in the Japanese series of ''[[kaiju]]'' films featuring the monster [[Godzilla]]. It is an eccentric departure from the visual effects style of the original 1933 film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'', this film features a man in a gorilla suit playing [[King Kong|Kong]] instead of [[stop-motion animation]]. Godzilla, freshly released from his iceberg enclosure from the end of ''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]'' (U.S. title: ''[[Gigantis the Fire Monster]]'') rampages through Japan. He eventually faces King Kong, brought from his island originally as a [[publicity stunt]] by the greedy head of a pharmaceutical company (played by [[Ichiro Arishima]]).
Unlike the other films in the series ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' overtly emphasizes comedy, both in the human and monster scenes. This is usually attributed to Eiji Tsuburaya, who wanted to move the Godzilla series in a lighter direction. The film is obviously a spoof of commercialism and the burgeoning media in Japan. Some critics also claim that Kong, and in the following film [[Mothra]], represent the resources of the Pacific Islands with Godzilla as symbol of the [[United States]]'s nuclear power. However, Kong is usually viewed as an 'American' monster.
Much of the overt comedy of the film disappears in the re-edited version released in America by [[Universal International]]. Producer [[John Beck]] cut large amounts of the Japanese footage and replaced it with new footage of American actors playing newscasters commenting on the action. The score by [[Akira Ifukube]] was also replaced with library music, much of it replaced by stock music from the movie [[Creature from the Black Lagoon]] by [[Henry Mancini]]. The score swap angers |
</page>
<page>
<title>Götterdämmerung</title>
<id>13019</id>
<revision>
<id>40902781</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:01:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kleinzach</username>
<id>547500</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Wagner opera. For the [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]] album see [[Twilight of the Gods (album)]].''
<!--There should be an explanation for why the title is sometimes translated as "Dawn of the Gods," sometimes as "Doom of the Gods," and sometimes as "Twilight of the Gods"; see Talk page for more details.-->
{{Audio|De-goetterdaemmerung.ogg|'''''Götterdämmerung'''''}} ("Twilight of the Gods" – see [[#Notes|Notes]]) is the last of the four operas that comprise [[Der Ring des Nibelungen]] (The Ring of the Nibelung), by [[Richard Wagner]]. It received its premiere at the [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus]] on [[17 August]] [[1876]], as part of the first complete performance of the Ring. The cast included Georg Unger as [[Sigurd|Siegfried]], Eugen Gura as [[Gunther]], Gustav Siehr as [[Hagen (legend)|Hagen]], Amalie Materna as [[Brünnhilde]], and Luise Jaide as [[Gudrun|Gutrune]].
The title is a translation into [[German language|German]] of the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] phrase ''[[Ragnarok]]'', which in [[Norse mythology]] refers to a prophesied war of the Gods which brings about the [[end of the world]] in [[Völuspá]]. However, as with the rest of the Ring, Wagner's account of this apocalypse diverges significantly from his Old Norse sources.
The term ''Götterdämmerung'' is occasionally used in English, referring to a disastrous conclusion of events.
===Prologue===
[[Image:Nornsweaving.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Norns weave the rope of destiny, by Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
The three [[Norns]], daughters of [[Jord|Erda]], gather beside Brünnhilde's rock, weaving the rope of Destiny. They sing of the past and the present, and of the future when [[Odin|Wotan]] will set fire to [[Valhalla]] to signal the end of the [[Æsir|Gods]]. Without warning, their rope breaks. Lamenting the loss of their wisdom, the Norns disappear.
As day breaks, Siegfried and Brünnhilde emerge from their cave. Brünnhilde sends Siegfried off to new adventures, urging him to keep their love in mind. As a pledge of fidelity, Siegfried gives her the [[Andvarinaut|Ring]] which he took from Fafner's hoard. Bearing Brünnhilde's shield and mounting her horse Grane, Siegfried rides away.
===Act I===
The act begins in the Hall of the Gibichungs, a people dwelling by the Rhine. [[Gunther]], lord of the Gibichungs, sits enthroned. His half-brother [[Hagen (legend)|Hagen]] advises him to find a wife for himself and a husband for their sister [[Gudrun|Gutrune]]. He suggests Brünnhilde for Gunther's wife, and Siegfried for Gutrune's husband. He has given Gutrune a potion to make Siegfried forget Brünnhilde and fall in love with Gutrune; under its influence, Siegfried will win Brünnhilde for Gunther.
[[Image:Waltraute_confronts.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Brünnhilde is visited by her Valkyrie sister Waltraute. By Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
Siegfried appears at Gibichung Hall, seeking to meet Gunther. Gunther extends his hospitality to the hero, and Gutrune offers him the drugged drink. Unaware of the deception, Siegfried toasts Brünnhilde and their love. Drinking the potion, he loses his memory of Brünnhilde and falls in love with Gutrune instead. In his drugged state, Siegfried offers to win a wife for Gunther, who tells him about Brünnhilde and the magic fire. They swear [[Blood brother|blood-brotherhood]], and leave for Brünnhilde's rock.
Meanwhile, Brünnhilde is visited by her Valkyrie sister Waltraute, who relates how Wotan returned from his wanderings one day with his [[Gungnir|spear]] shattered. (Wotan is dismayed at losing his spear, as it has all the treaties and bargains he has made&mdash;everything that gives him power&mdash;carved into its shaft.) Wotan ordered branches of [[Yggdrasil]], the World tree, be piled around Valhalla; sent his [[Hugin and Munin|ravens]] to spy on the world and bring him news; and currently awaits in Valhalla for the end. Waltraute begs Brünnhilde to return the ring to the [[Rhinemaidens]], since the ring's curse is now affecting their father, Wotan. However, Brünnhilde refuses to relinquish Siegfried's token of love, and Waltraute rides away in despair.
Siegfried arrives, disguised as Gunther using the [[Tarnhelm]], and claims Brünnhilde as wife. Though Brünnhilde violently resists, Siegfried overpowers her, snatching the Ring from her hand and placing it on his own.
===Act II===
[[Image:Alberich_hagen.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Alberic speaking to Hagen by Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
Hagen, waiting by the bank of the Rhine, is visited in his sleep by his father, [[Alberich]]. On Alberich's urging, he swears to acquire the Ring. Siegfried arrives as dawn breaks, having secretly resumed his natural form and traded places with Gunther. Hagen summons the Gibichung to welcome Gunther and his bride.
Gunther leads in a downcast Brünnhilde, who is astonished to see Siegfried. Noticing the Ring on Siegfried's hand, she realizes she has been betrayed. She denounces Siegfried in front of Gunther's vassals. Siegfried swears on Hagen's spear that her accusations are false. He then leads Gutrune and the bystanders off to the wedding feast, leaving Brünnhilde, Hagen, and Gunther alone by the shore. Deeply shamed by Brünnhilde's outburst, Gunther agrees to Hagen's suggestion that Siegfried must be slain for his honor to be regained. Brünnhilde, seeking revenge for Siegfried's treachery, joins the plot and tells Hagen about the hero's sole weakness: though she had used her magic to ward him from harm, she had left his back unguarded, knowing that he would never flee from a foe. Hagen and Gunther decide to lure Siegfried on a hunting-trip and murder him.
===Act III===
In the woods by the bank of the Rhine, the Rhinemaidens mourn the lost Rheingold. Siegfried happens by, separated from the hunting party. They urge him to return the Ring and avoid its curse, but he ignores their tidings of doom. They swim away, predicting that Siegfried will die and that his heir, a lady, will treat them more fairly.
[[Image:Siegfried_rhinemaidens.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Rhine Maidens warn Siegfried by Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
Siegfried rejoins the hunters, who include Gunther and Hagen. While resting, he tells them about the adventures of his youth. Hagen gives him a drink that restores his memory, and he tells of discovering the sleeping Brünnhilde and awakening her with a kiss. Suddenly, two ravens fly out of a bush, and as Siegfried watches them, Hagen stabs him in the back with his spear. The others look on in horror, and Hagen calmly walks away into the wood. Siegfried dies, lingering on his memories of Brünnhilde. His body is carried away in a solemn funeral procession.
Back in Gibichung Hall, Gutrune awaits Siegfried's return. Hagen arrives, ahead of the funeral party. Gutrune is devastated when Siegfried's corpse is brought in. Gunther blames Siegfried's death on Hagen, who defiantly admits to the murder and claims the Ring on Siegfried's finger by right of conquest. When Gunther objects, Hagen attacks and kills him. However, as Hagen moves to take the Ring, the dead hero's hand raises threateningly, and he recoils.
Brünnhilde makes her entrance and takes charge of the scene. She issues orders for a huge [[funeral]] [[pyre]] to be assembled by the river, and sends Wotan's lurking ravens home with "anxiously longed-for tidings." She takes the Ring and tells the Rhinemaidens to claim it from her ashes, once fire has cleansed it of its curse. The pyre lit, Brünnhilde mounts her horse Grane and rides into the flames.
The fire flares up as the Rhine overflows its banks, bearing the Rhinemaidens on its waves. Hagen leaps after the Ring and drowns. The Rhinemaidens swim away, bearing the Ring in triumph. As the flames increase in intensity, Valhalla comes into view in the sky. Bright flames seem to flare up in the hall of the Gods, finally hiding it from sight completely. The curtain falls.
===Notes===
#The opera is sometimes called in English "Dawn of the Gods," or "Doom of the Gods"; however, "Twilight of the Gods" correctly translates the German title, ''Götterdämmerung''. <!--- See talk page --->
#''Götterdämmerung'' is itself a translation of "ragnarökkr" (Twilight of the Gods) as it is sometimes written in the Prose-Edda. In the older Edda only "[[ragnarök]]" (Fate of the Gods) is mentioned. Many believe that "ragnarökkr" was a misconception on [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s behalf.
==External links==
* [http://www.richard-wagner-postkarten.de/postkarten/goe.php Richard Wagner - ''Götterdämmerung]. A gallery of historic postcards with motives from Richard Wagner's operas.
* [http://www.wagneroperas.com Wagner Operas]. A comprehensive website featuring photographs of productions, recordings, librettos, and sound files.
{{Der Ring des Nibelungen}}
[[Category:Operas by Richard Wagner|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:German-language operas|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:Music dramas|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:German loanwords|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:Operas|Gotterdammerung]]
[[de:Götterdämmerung (Oper)]]
[[es:El ocaso de los dioses]]
[[fr:Le Crépuscule des dieux]]
[[it:Il crepuscolo degli dei]]
[[nl:Götterdämmerung]]
[[pt:Götterdämmerung]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guppie</title>
<id>13020</id>
<revision>
<id>15910662</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-16T15:17:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[guppy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[guppy]]</text>
|
asses <math>p_i</math> (whose sum is one). The point at which the rod balances (its [[center of gravity]]) is <math>\mathrm{E}(X)</math>. (Note however, that the [[center of mass]] is not the same as the center of gravity.)
==Expectation of matrices==
If <math>X</math> is an <math>m \times n</math> [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], then the expected value of the matrix is a matrix of expected values:
:<math>
\mathrm{E}[X]
=
\mathrm{E}
\begin{bmatrix}
x_{1,1} & x_{1,2} & \cdots & x_{1,n} \\
x_{2,1} & x_{2,2} & \cdots & x_{2,n} \\
\vdots \\
x_{m,1} & x_{m,2} & \cdots & x_{m,n}
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
\mathrm{E}(x_{1,1}) & \mathrm{E}(x_{1,2}) & \cdots & \mathrm{E}(x_{1,n}) \\
\mathrm{E}(x_{2,1}) & \mathrm{E}(x_{2,2}) & \cdots & \mathrm{E}(x_{2,n}) \\
\vdots \\
\mathrm{E}(x_{m,1}) & \mathrm{E}(x_{m,2}) & \cdots & \mathrm{E}(x_{m,n})
\end{bmatrix}
</math>
This property is utilized in [[covariance matrix|covariance matrices]].
==See also==
*[[Conditional expectation]]
*[[An inequality on location and scale parameters]].
*[[Expected number]]
*Expected value is also a key concept in [[economics]] and [[finance]].
*The general term [[expectation]].
==External links==
*{{planetmath reference|id=505|title=Expectation}}
[[Category:Probability theory]]
[[de:Erwartungswert]]
[[es:Valor esperado]]
[[fr:Espérance mathématique]]
[[gl:Valor esperado]]
[[it:Valore atteso]]
[[he:תוחלת]]
[[nl:Verwachting (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:期待値]]
[[no:Forventning]]
[[pl:Wartość oczekiwana]]
[[ru:Математическое ожидание]]
[[su:Nilai ekspektasi]]
[[sv:Väntevärde]]
[[zh:期望值]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edison</title>
<id>9654</id>
<revision>
<id>31075148</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T18:18:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reddi</username>
<id>13833</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT[[Thomas Edison]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Thomas Edison]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electric light</title>
<id>9656</id>
<revision>
<id>38960397</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T20:16:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.7.119.155</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Most of the industrialized world is lit by '''electric lights''', which are used both at night and to provide additional light during the daytime. These lights are normally powered by the [[electric grid]], but some run on local [[generator]]s, and emergency generators serve as backups in hospitals and other locations where a loss of power could be catastrophic. [[Battery (electricity)|Battery]]-powered lights, usually called "flashlights" or "torches", are used for portability and as backups when the main lights fail.
==Types==
Types of [[electricity|electric]] lighting include:
*incandescent [[light bulb]]s
*[[arc lamp]]s
*[[gas discharge lamp]]s, e.g., [[fluorescent light]]s, [[neon lamp]]s, modern [[photographic flash]]es
*[[laser]]s
*[[light-emitting diode]]s, including [[OLED]]s
*[[sulfur lamp]]s
Different types of lights have vastly differing efficiencies. [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/cmsctech/747/747we81.htm]
{|
| '''Name''' || '''[[optical spectrum]]''' || '''nominal [[efficiency]]''' <br>([[lumen|lm]]/[[watt|W]]) || '''Lifetime''' ([[MTBF]])<br> (hours) || '''[[Colour temperature]]'''<br> ([[kelvin]]s) || '''[[Colour]]''' || '''[[Color rendering index]]'''
|-
| [[Incandescent light bulb]] || [[Continuous spectrum|Continuous]] || 12-17 || 1000-2500 || 2700 || Warm white (yellowish) || 100
|-
| [[Halogen lamp]] || Continuous || 16-23 || 3000-6000 || 3200 || Warm white (yellowish) || 100
|-
| [[Fluorescent lamp]] || [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] line + [[Phosphor]] || 52-100 || 8000-20000 || 2700-5000<sup>*</sup> || White (with a tinge of green) || 15-85
|-
| [[Metal halide lamp]] || quasi-Continuous || 50-115 || 6000-20000 || 3000-4500 || Cold White || 65-93
|-
| [[Sodium vapor lamp|High pressure sodium]] || broadband ||55-140 || 10000-40000 || 1800-2200<sup>*</sup> || Pinkish orange || 0-70
|-
| [[Sodium vapor lamp|Low pressure sodium]] || narrow line || 100-200 || 18000-20000 || 1800<sup>*</sup> || Yellow, virtually no color rendering || 0
|}
<sup>*</sup><small>Color temperature is defined as the temperature of a [[black body]] emitting a similar spectrum; these spectra are quite different from those of black bodies.</small>
The most efficient source of electric light is the low-pressure sodium lamp. It produces an almost [[monochromatic]] orange light, which severely distorts color perception. For this reason, it is generally reserved for outdoor public lighting usages. Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since the [[light pollution]] that they generate can be easily filtered, contrary to broadband or continuous spectra.
==Vendors==
* [[GE]] [http://www.gelighting.com/ Lighting]
* [[Osram]]
==Public lighting==
The total amount of artificial light is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. This wasted light should not be confused with the [[light pollution]] that burdens [[astronomy|astronomers]] and others, although it is the source of it.
<center>[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|650px]]
<br /><small>Human-made lights highlight particularly developed or populated areas of the Earth's surface, including the seaboards of Europe, the eastern United States, and Japan.</small> </br></center>
----
[[Category:Lighting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edgar Rice Burroughs</title>
<id>9657</id>
<revision>
<id>39923343</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T21:24:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BPK2</username>
<id>476225</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Caspak series */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edgar Rice Burroughs''' ([[September 1]], [[1875]] – [[March 19]], [[1950]]) was an [[United States|American]] author, best known for his creation of the jungle hero [[Tarzan]], although he also produced works in many genres.
==Biography==
Burroughs was born on [[September 1]], [[1875]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] (although he later lived for many years in the neighboring suburb of [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]]), the son of a businessman. He was educated at a number of local [[school]]s, and during the Chicago [[influenza]] epidemic in [[1891]] spent a half year on his brothers' ranch on the [[Raft River]] in [[Idaho]]. He then attended the [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts|Andover]] and then the [[Michigan Military Academy]]. Graduating in [[1895]], and failing the entrance exam for [[United States Military Academy|West Point]], he ended up as an enlisted [[soldier]] with the [[7th U.S. Cavalry]] in [[Fort Grant]], [[Arizona]] [[Territory]]. After being diagnosed with a [[heart]] problem and thus found ineligible for promotion to officer class, he was discharged in [[1897]].
What followed was a string of seemingly unrelated and short stint jobs. Following a period of drifting and ranch work in [[Idaho]], Burroughs found work at his father's firm in [[1899]]. He married Emma Centennia Hulbert in [[1900]]. In [[1904]] he left his job and found less regular work, initially in Idaho but soon back in Chicago.
By [[1911]], after seven years of low wages, he was working as a [[pencil sharpener]] wholesaler and began to write fiction. By this time Burroughs and Emma had two children, Joan and Hulbert. During this period, he had copious spare time and he began reading many [[pulp magazine|pulp fiction magazines]] and claimed:
:"...if people were paid for writing rot such as I read in some of those magazines that I could write stories just as rotten. As a matter of fact, although I had never written a story, I knew absolutely that I could write stories just as entertaining and probably a whole lot more so than any I chanced to read in those magazines."
Aiming his work at the 'pulp' magazines then in circulation, his first story "Under the Moons of Mars" was serialized in ''[[All-Story]]'' magazine in [[1912]] and earned Burroughs US$400.
Burroughs soon took up writing full-time and by the time the run of ''Under the Moons of Mars'' had finished he had completed two [[novel]]s, including ''[[Tarzan of the Apes]]'' which was published from October 1912 and went on to become his most successful brand. In [[1913]], Burroughs and Emma had their third and last child, John Coleman.
Burroughs also wrote popular [[science fiction]]/[[fantasy]] stories involving Earthly adventurers transported to various [[planet]]s (notably [[Barsoom]], Burroughs' fictional name for [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]), lost [[island]]s, and into the interior of the [[Hollow Earth|hollow earth]] in his ''[[Pellucidar]]'' stories, as well as [[Western fiction|western]]s and historical romances. Along with All-Story, many of his stories were published in the ''[[Argosy Magazine]]''.
Tarzan was a cultural sensation when introduced. Burroughs was determined to capitalize on Tarzan's popularity in every way possible. He planned to exploit Tarzan through several different media including a syndicated Tarzan [[comic strip]], [[film|movie]]s and merchandise. Experts in the field advised against this course of action, stating that the different media would just end up competing against each other. Burroughs went ahead, however, and proved the experts wrong&mdash;the public wanted Tarzan in whatever fashion he was offered. Tarzan remains one of the most successful fictional characters to this day |
ys, the vast majority of mathematicians who are neither [[constructive mathematics|constructivists]] nor [[finitism|finitists]] accept Cantor's work on transfinite sets and arithmetic, recognizing it as a major [[paradigm shift]]. In the words of [[David Hilbert]]: "No one shall expel us from the Paradise that Cantor has created."
==Life==
Georg Cantor was the son of Georg Waldemar Cantor, a [[Denmark|Danish]] businessman who was a [[broker]] on the St Petersburg Stock Exchange, and Maria Anna Böhm, a [[Russia|Russian]]. Georg, an outstanding [[violin]]ist, inherited their considerable musical and artistic talents. Although the name Cantor is [[Judaism|Jewish]], Georg was brought up [[Lutheran]], the faith of his father; his mother was [[Roman Catholic]].
When Cantor's father became ill, the family moved to [[Germany]] in 1856, first to [[Wiesbaden]] then to [[Frankfurt]], seeking winters milder than those of [[St. Petersburg]]. In 1860, Cantor graduated with distinction from the Realschule in [[Darmstadt]]; his exceptional skills in mathematics, [[trigonometry]] in particular, were noted. In 1862, following his father's wishes, Cantor entered the [[ETH Zurich| Zurich Polytechnic]] and began studying mathematics.
After his father's death in 1863, Cantor shifted his studies to the [[University of Berlin]], attending lectures by [[Weierstrass]], [[Kummer]], and [[Kronecker]], and befriending his fellow student [[Hermann Schwarz]]. He spent a summer at the University of Göttingen, then and later a very important center for mathematical research. In 1867, Berlin granted him the Ph.D. for a thesis on [[number theory]], ''De aequationibus secundi gradus indeterminatis''. After teaching one year in a Berlin girl's school, Cantor took up a position at the [[University of Halle]], where he spent his entire career. He was awarded the requisite [[habilitation]] for his thesis on number theory.
In 1874, Cantor married Vally Guttmann. They had 6 children, the last born in 1886. Cantor was able to support a family despite modest academic pay, thanks to an inheritance from his father. During his honeymoon in [[Switzerland]], Cantor spent much time in mathematical discussions with [[Richard Dedekind]], whom he befriended two years earlier while on another Swiss holiday.
Cantor was promoted to Extraordinary Professor in 1872, and made full Professor in 1879. To attain the latter rank by one's 34th year was a notable accomplishment. But Cantor very much desired a chair at a more prestigious university, in particular at Berlin, then the leading German university. However, [[Kronecker]], who headed mathematics at Berlin until his 1891 death, and his colleague [[Hermann Schwarz]] were not agreeable to having Cantor as a colleague. Worse yet, Kronecker, who was peerless among German mathematicians while he was alive, fundamentally disagreed with the thrust of Cantor's work. Kronecker, now seen as one of the founders of the [[constructive mathematics | constructive viewpoint in mathematics]], disliked much of Cantor's set theory because it asserted the existence of sets satisfying certain properties, without giving a specific example of a set whose members did indeed satisfy those properties. Cantor came to believe that Kronecker's stance ruled out his (Cantor's) ever leaving Halle.
In 1881, Cantor's Halle colleague [[Eduard Heine]] died, creating a vacant chair. Halle accepted Cantor's suggestion that it be offered to [[Dedekind]], [[Heinrich Weber]], and [[Franz Mertens]], in that order, but each declined the chair after being offered it. Dedekind's lack of interest is surprising, given that he taught in a low level engineering school, and carried burdensome administrative duties. This episode is revealing of Halle's lack of standing among German mathematics departments. [[Wangerin]] was eventually appointed, but he was never close to Cantor.
In 1884, Cantor suffered his first known bout of [[depression]]. This emotional crisis led him to apply to lecture on philosophy rather than on mathematics. Every one of the 52 letters Cantor wrote to [[Mittag-Leffler]] that year attacked Kronecker. Cantor soon recovered, but a passage from one of these letters is revealing of the damage to his self-confidence: <blockquote>"... I don't know when I shall return to the continuation of my scientific work. At the moment I can do absolutely nothing with it, and limit myself to the most necessary duty of my lectures; how much happier I would be to be scientifically active, if only I had the necessary mental freshness." </blockquote> Although he performed some valuable work after 1884, he never attained again the high level of his remarkable papers of 1874-84. He eventually sought a reconciliation with Kronecker, which Kronecker graciously accepted. Nevertheless, the philosophical disagreements and difficulties dividing them persisted. It was once thought that Cantor's recurring bouts of depression were triggered by the opposition his work met at the hands of [[Kronecker]]. While Cantor's mathematical worries and his difficulties dealing with certain people were greatly magnified by his depression, it is doubtful whether they were its cause, which was probably [[bipolar disorder]].
When Cantor was depressed, he turned away from mathematics and towards [[philosophy]]. During his 1884 illness, he had asked to lecture on philosophy instead of mathematics. In 1888, he published his correspondence with several philosophers on the philosophical implications of his set theory. [[Edmund Husserl]] was his Halle colleague and friend, 1886-1901. While Husserl made his reputation in philosophy, his doctorate was in mathematics and supervised by [[Weierstrass]]. On Cantor, Husserl, and [[Frege]], see Hill and Rosado Haddock (2000). Cantor also wrote on the theological implications of his mathematical work; for instance, he identified the [[Absolute Infinite]] with [[God]].
Cantor believed that [[Francis Bacon]] wrote the plays attributed to [[Shakespeare]]. During his 1884 illness, he began an intense study of [[Elizabethan literature]] in an attempt to prove his Bacon authorship thesis. He eventually published two pamphlets, in 1896 and 1897, setting out his thinking about Bacon and Shakespeare.
In 1890, Cantor was instrumental in founding the ''[[Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung]]'', chaired its first meeting in Halle in 1891, and was elected its first president. This is strong evidence that Kronecker's attitude had not been fatal to his reputation. Setting aside the animosity he felt towards [[Kronecker]], Cantor invited him to address the meeting; Kronecker was unable to do so because his spouse was dying at the time.
After the 1899 death of his youngest son, Cantor suffered from chronic depression for the rest of his life, for which he was excused from teaching on several occasions and repeatedly confined in various [[sanatorium|sanatoria]]. He did not abandon mathematics completely, lecturing on the paradoxes of set theory (eponimously attributed to [[burali-forti paradox|Burali-Forti]], [[russell's paradox|Russell]], and [[cantor's paradox|Cantor]] himself) to a meeting of the ''Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung'' in 1903, and attending the International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg in 1904.
In 1911, Cantor was one of the distinguished foreign scholars invited to attend the 500th anniversary of the founding of the [[University of St. Andrews]] in [[Scotland]]. Cantor attended, hoping to meet [[Bertrand Russell]], whose newly published ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' repeatedly cited Cantor's work, but this did not come about. The following year, St. Andrews awarded Cantor an honorary doctorate, but illness precluded his receiving the degree in person.
Cantor retired in 1913, and suffered from poverty, even hunger, during [[WWI]]. The public celebration of his 70th birthday was cancelled because of the war. He died in the sanatorium where he had spent the final year of his life.
==Work==
Cantor was the originator of [[set theory]], 1874-84. He was the first to see that [[infinite sets]] come in different sizes, as follows. He first showed that given any set ''A'', the set of all possible subsets of ''A'', called the [[power set]] of ''A'', exists. He then proved that the [[power set]] of an infinite set ''A'' has a size greater than the size of ''A'' (this fact is now known as [[Cantor's theorem]]). Thus there is an infinite hierarchy of sizes of infinite sets, from which springs the transfinite [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number]]s, and their peculiar arithmetic. His notation for the cardinal numbers was the Hebrew letter [[aleph number|aleph]] with a natural number subscript; for the ordinals he employed the Greek letter omega.
Cantor was the first to appreciate the value of [[one-to-one correspondence]]s (hereinafter denoted "1-to-1") for set theory. He defined [[finite set|finite]] and [[infinite set]]s, breaking down the latter into [[countable set|denumerable]] and [[uncountable set|nondenumerable set]]s. There exists a 1-to-1 correspondence beween any denumerable set and the set of all [[natural number]]s; all other infinite sets are nondenumerable. He proved that the set of all [[rational number]]s is denumerable, but that the set of all [[real number]]s is not and hence is strictly bigger. The [[cardinality]] of the natural numbers is [[aleph number|aleph-null]]; that of the reals is larger, and is at least [[aleph number|aleph-one]] (the latter being the next smallest cardinal after aleph-null).
Cantor's first 10 papers were on [[number theory]], his thesis topic. At the suggestion of [[Eduard Heine]], the Professor at Halle, Cantor turned to [[analysis]]. Heine proposed that Cantor solve an open problem that had eluded [[Dirichlet]], [[Lipschitz]], [[Bernhard Riemann]], and [[Eduard Heine]] himself: the uniqueness of the representation of a [[Function ( |
ase he is correspondingly malevolent.<br>The demiurge typically creates a group of coactors named '[[Archons]]', who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it;
#The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as flawed or a production of 'error' but nevertheless as good as its constituent material might allow, or in certain cases as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants;
#The explanation of this state through the use of a complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element 'falls' into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening. It may be noted that the salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrently restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event;
#Knowledge of a specific kind as a central factor in this process of restoration, achieved through the mediation of a redeemer figure ([[Christ]], or, in other cases, [[Seth]] or [[Sophia]]).
It may be noted that the model limits itself to describing characteristics of the [[#Major gnostic schools and their texts|Syrian-Egyptian]] school of Gnosticism. This is for the reason that the greatest expressions of the [[#Major gnostic schools and their texts|Persian gnostic school]] - [[Manicheanism]] and [[Mandaeanism]] - are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right (extensive articles exist for both on Wikipedia); indeed, the typical usage of 'Gnosticism' is to refer to the Syrian-Egyptian schools alone, while 'Manichean' describes the movements of the Persia school.
It should be noted also that the conception of Gnosticism offered above has recently been challenged by Michael Allen William's groundbreaking work 'Rethinking Gnosticism', which re-examines the common conception of categorical 'Gnosticism' in an effort to demonstrate the somewhat nebulous nature of the term (see [[#'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category|below]]). Despite this, the understanding presented above remains in common usage, and retains at least ''some'' usefulness in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism, even if the extent of that usefulness is in doubt.
===Dualism and monism===
Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being 'dualistic' in nature. Within this definition, they run the gamut from the 'extreme' or 'radical dualist' systems of Manicheanism to the 'weak' or 'mediated dualism' of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of [[monism]], expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.
* '''Radical dualism''' - Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness which become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism likely inherits this dualistic mythology from [[Zoroastrianism]], in which the eternal spirit [[Ahura Mazda]] is opposed by his antithesis, [[Angra Mainyu]]; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant.<br>The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the progressive emanations of Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of [[Ptahil]], the god of darkness who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm.
* '''Mediated dualism''' - such classical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.
* '''Monism''' - elements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth suggest that its understanding of the universe was a monistic rather than a dualistic one: 'Valentinian gnosticism [...] differs essentially from dualism' ([[Elaine Pagels]], ''The Gnostic Gospel'', [[1978]]); 'a standard element in the interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic' (William Schoedel, 'Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth' in ''The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, Vol.1: The School of Valentinus'', edited by Bentley Layton, E.J.Brill, Leiden, [[1980]]). In these myths, the malevolence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on his part, but due to his honest ignorance of the superior spiritual world above him. As such, Valentinians already have more cause to treat physical reality with less contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic.<br>Perhaps for this reason Valentinus appears to conceive of materiality, rather than as being a separate substance from the divine, as attributable to an ''error of perception''; the physical universe is not characterised as being distinct from the Pleroma, but as being ''contained within it''. Thus it follows that the Valentinian conception of the universe is of a fundamentally monistic nature, in which all things are aspects of the divine; our apprehension of a distinct material realm is owing to our errors of perception, which become symbolized mythopoetically as the demiurge's act of creation.
===Moral and ritual practise===
Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnostic moral behaviour as being overwhelmingly [[asceticism|ascetic]] in basis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary practise. This presented a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic movements: as this mode of behaviour was one which they themselves favoured and supported, the Church Fathers, it seemed, would be required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents. In order to avoid this, a common heresiological approach was to avoid the issue completely by resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, excessive) allegations of [[libertinism]], or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being based on incorrect interpretations of scripture, or simply duplicitous in nature. [[Epiphanes (gnostic)|Epiphanius]] provides an example when he writes of the 'Archontics' 'Some of them ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostensible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride themselves with a sort of [[abstinence]], under the disguise of monks' (''[[Panarion]]'', 40.1.4). Thus it might be noted that moral asceticism provides a point of cohesion and co-development between orthodox Christianity and Gnostic Christianity which the Church Fathers sought to downplay.
In other areas of morality Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behaviour. Ptolemy's ''Epistle to Flora'' lays out a project of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the moral inclination of the individual:
:External physical fasting is observed even among our followers, for it can be of some benefit to the soul if it is engaged on with reason (''[[logos]]''), whenever it is done neither by way of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor because of the day, as if it had been specially appointed for that purpose.
This extract marks a definite shift away from the position of orthodoxy, that the correct behaviour for Christians is best administered and prescribed by the central authority of the church, as transmitted through the apostles. Instead, the internalised inclination of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effectiveness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation.
Charges of Gnostic libertinism arguably find their source in the works of Irenaeus. According to this writer, Simon Magus (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of Gnosticism) founded the school of moral freedom ('[[amorality|amoralism]]'). Irenaeus reports that Simon's argument, that those who put their trust in him and his consort Helen, need trouble themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their moral exhortations and are free 'to do what they wish', as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace, and not by their 'righteous works' (adapted from ''Adversus Haereses'', I.23.3).
It should be noted that Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save for his curious attachment to Helen, a prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the [[Testimony of Truth]] that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to asceticism can likewise be ruled out. Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he characterizes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they are lax in their dietary habits (eating food that has been 'offered to idols'), sexually promiscuous ('immoderately given over to the desires of the flesh') and guilty of taking wives under the pretence of living with them as adopted 'sisters'. In the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as 'brother' and 'sister': intimate, yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial |
ter" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Genesis]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Genesis]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Genesis]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Genesis]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Exodus]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Exodus]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Exodus]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Exodus]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Leviticus]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Leviticus]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Leviticus]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Leviticus]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" valign="top" | [[Deuteronomy]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" valign="top" | [[Deuteronomy]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" valign="top" | [[Deuteronomy]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ccccff" valign="top" | [[Deuteronomy]]
|-
| colspan="4" rowspan="1" align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" | <br>
<div align="center">''[[Nevi'im]] or Prophets''</div>
|-
|
| colspan="3" align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" | <div align="center">''Historical books''</div>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" | *
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kingdoms)]]<sup>[[#Notes|13]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kingdoms)]]<sup>[[#Notes|13]]</sup>
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|Kings]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kingdoms)]]<sup>[[#Notes|13]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]<br>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kingdoms)]]<sup>[[#Notes|13]]</sup><br>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" | &nbsp;
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="31" | <br>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
|-
| valign="top" | <br> || valign="top" | <br>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" valign="top" | [[1 Esdras]]<sup>[[#Notes|6]]</sup><br>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra (2 Esdras)]]<sup>[[#Notes|12]],[[#Notes|13]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah (2 Esdras)]]<sup>[[#Notes|12]],[[#Notes|13]]</sup>
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" | <br>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Judith|Judith]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Judith|Judith]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
|-
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" valign="top" | <br>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[1 Maccabees]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[1 Maccabees]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[2 Maccabees]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[2 Maccabees]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]</sup>
|-
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | &nbsp;
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[3 Maccabees]]<sup>[[#Notes|6]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99" | [[4 Maccabees]]<sup>[[#Notes|6]]</sup>
|- align="center"
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" | ''Wisdom books''<br>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Job|Job]]
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| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Psalms]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Psalms]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Psalms]]<sup>[[#Notes|9]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" | &nbsp;
| align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" | &nbsp;
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Odes]]<sup>[[#Notes|6]],[[#Notes|7]]</sup>
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| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
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| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Ecclesiastes]]
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| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Song of Solomon]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Song of Solomon]]
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Song of Solomon]]
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" | <br>
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Sirach]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
| align="center" bgcolor="#99ff99" | [[Sirach]]<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |
==
Space Center Houston is the official visitors’ center of [[NASA]]'s [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]]. Space Center Houston includes many interactive exhibits &mdash; including moon rocks and a shuttle simulator&mdash;in addition to special presentations that tell the story of NASA's manned space flight program. It also features Texas’ largest IMAX theatre.
The [[Houston Theater District|Theater District]], a 17-block area in the heart of downtown Houston, is home to Bayou Place Entertainment Complex, restaurants, movies, plazas and parks. Bayou Place Entertainment Complex is a large multilevel building that is home to full service restaurants, bars, live music, [[billiards]], multiple theatres and art house films. The Houston Verizon Wireless Theatre stages a variety of live [[concert]]s and the Angelika Theatre presents the latest in art, foreign and [[independent film]]s.
Houston's many parks include Hermann Park, which has a [[zoo]], a [[museum]] of [[natural science]], and a [[planetarium]]. The civic center was replaced by the [[George R. Brown Convention Center]], one of the nation's largest; and the Jesse H. Jones Hall for the Performing Arts, home of the [[symphony orchestra]]. Sam Houston Coliseum and Music Hall have been replaced by the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts.
Other [[tourism|tourist]] attractions include [[Houston Galleria|the Galleria]], a huge enclosed [[shopping mall]] noted for its luxury stores; Old Market Square; Sam Houston Historical Park, which contains restored homes (built between [[1824]] and [[1868]]) and reconstructed buildings. The [[Battle of San Jacinto|San Jacinto battlefield]] is in the nearby city of [[Deer Park, Texas|Deer&nbsp;Park]]. The [[Port of Houston]] offers free, 90-minute cruises (except on Mondays and during September). Less than an hour from the [[Gulf of Mexico]], Houston is close to sunny [[beach]]es, one of the nation's largest concentrations of pleasure boats, and tourist attractions such as the [[Kemah Boardwalk]] and [[Galveston Island]].
==Architecture==
===Downtown===
[[Image:Houston Panoramic.jpg|thumb|center|736px|A panoramic view of the [[Downtown Houston]] skyline]]
[[Image:JPMorgan Chase Tower from base.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|J.P. Morgan Chase Tower]].]]
In the [[1960]]s, [[Downtown Houston]] comprised of a modest collection of mid-rise office structures, but has since grown into one of the largest [[skyline]]s in the United States. In 1960, the [[central business district]] had 10 million square feet (1,000,000 m²) of office space, increasing to about 16 million square feet (1,600,000 m²) in [[1970]]. Downtown Houston was on the threshold of a boom in 1970 with 8.7 million square feet (870,000 m²) of office space planned or under construction and huge projects being launched by [[real estate developer]]s. The largest proposed development was the 32 block Houston Center. Only a small part of the original proposal was ultimately constructed. Other large projects included the Cullen Center, Allen Center, and towers for [[Shell Oil Company]]. The surge of skyscrapers mirrored the skyscraper booms in other cities, such as [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. Houston experienced another downtown construction spurt in the [[1970]]s with the energy industry boom.
[[Image:Wells Fargo Bank Plaza, Houston, from base.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Wells Fargo Bank Plaza]].]]
The first major [[skyscraper]] to be constructed in Houston was the 50-floor, 714-foot-tall (218 m) One Shell Plaza in [[1971]]. A succession of skyscrapers were built throughout the 1970s, culminating with Houston's tallest skyscraper, the 75-floor, 1,002-foot-tall (305 m) [[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|J.P. Morgan Chase Tower]] (formerly the [[Texas Commerce Tower]]), which was completed in [[1982]]. In [[2002]], it was the tallest structure in Texas, ninth-tallest building in the United States and the 23rd tallest skyscraper in the [[world]]. In [[1983]], the 71-floor, 970-foot-tall (296 m) [[Wells Fargo Bank Plaza|Wells Fargo Bank Plaza]] was completed, which became the second-tallest building in Houston and Texas, and 11th tallest in the country. Skyscraper construction in downtown Houston came to an end in the mid-[[1980]]s with the collapse of Houston's energy industry and the resulting severe [[economic recession]]. When the 53-floor [[Texaco]] Heritage Plaza was completed in [[1987]], it appeared that no more skyscrapers would be constructed for a while. However, in 2002, the Houston-based [[Enron Corporation]] began construction of a 40-floor skyscraper which was about to be completed in [[2001]], the year the company collapsed in one of the most dramatic corporate failures in the history of the United States. Other smaller office structures were built in the 2000-2003 period. As of December [[2001]], downtown Houston had about 40 million square feet (4,000,000 m²) of office space, including 28 million square feet (2,800,000 m²) of class A office space.
Many downtown buildings are linked by a [[Houston Downtown Tunnel System|system of tunnels and skywalks]]. [[Image:Houston Texas CBD.jpg|67KB|thumb|left|Downtown Houston]]
===Uptown===
[[Image:Williams_Tower_Moon.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Williams Tower]].]]
The [[Uptown Houston]] district boomed along with Houston during the 1970s and early 1980s. A collection of mid-rise office buildings appeared along the [[Interstate 610 (Texas)|Interstate 610]] west (or simply "West Loop"). It became one of the most impressive instances of the [[edge city]]. The highest achievement of Uptown Houston was the construction of the 899-foot-tall (274 m), Philip Johnson designed landmark [[Williams Tower]] (known as the [[Transco Tower]] until [[1999]]). At the time, it was believed to the be the world's tallest skyscraper outside of a [[central business district]]. The Williams Tower was the product of a unique era in Houston: energy companies were loaded with assets and sought impressive, monumental structures to broadcast their power.
The Uptown Houston district is also home to other buildings designed by noted architects such as [[I. M. Pei]] and [[César Pelli]] among others also designed by [[Philip Johnson]]. Large-scale office construction in Uptown Houston, however, came to an end with the collapse of energy prices and the meltdown of Houston's economy in the mid-to-late 1980s. Uptown Houston had 23.8 million square feet (2,210,000 m²) of office space in [[2001]], whereas Downtown Houston had about 40 million square feet (4,000,000 m²). In the late [[1990]]s, there was a mini-boom of mid-rise [[residential]] [[tower]] construction, typically about 30 stories tall. Uptown Houston has accumulated a large concentration of [[high-rise]] residential structures for such a low-density city.
::''See also: [[Tallest buildings in Texas]]''
==Districts and communities==
:''Main article: [[Districts and communities of Houston, Texas|Districts and communities of Houston]]''
[[Image:MidtownHCCTrain.JPG|275px|left|thumb|[[Midtown, Houston, Texas|Midtown]].]]
When Houston was established in [[1837]], the city's founders divided it into political geographic districts called "[[Ward (politics)|wards]]." The ward designation is the progenitor of the current-day Houston City Council districts &mdash; there are nine in all.
Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside [[Interstate 610 (Texas)|Interstate 610]], known as the "610 Loop" or "The Loop". Inside the loop generally encompasses the [[central business district]], and has come to define an urban [[lifestyle]] and state of mind. The appellation “inner&nbsp;looper” carries with it the expectation of someone who appreciates cosmopolitan-style city life.
The outlying areas of Houston, the airports and the city's suburbs and enclaves are outside the loop. Another ring road, [[Texas State Highway Beltway 8|Texas Beltway 8]] (also known simply as the "Beltway"), encircles the city another 5 miles (8 km) farther out. Another ring road, [[Texas State Highway 99|Texas Highway 99]] (also known as the Grand Parkway), is under construction.
Houston, being the largest city in the United States without [[zoning]] laws, has grown in an unusual manner. Rather than a single “[[downtown]]” as the center of the city's employment, five additional [[business district]]s have grown throughout the [[inner city|inner-city]]. If these business districts were combined, they would form the third largest downtown in the United States. The city also has the third largest skyline in the country (after New York City and [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]), but because it is spread over a few miles, pictures of the city show, for the most part, the main downtown area.
==Healthcare and medical research==
[[Image:Texas Medical Center ariel.JPG|275px|right|thumb|[[Texas Medical Center]].]]
Houston is the seat of the internationally-renowned [[Texas Medical Center]], which contains the world's largest concentration of [[research]] and [[healthcare]] institutions.
There are 42 member institutions in the Texas Medical Center&mdash;all are [[Non-profit organization|not-for-profit]], and are dedicated to the highest standards of patient and preventive care, [[research]], [[education]], and local, national, and international community well-being. These institutions include 13 renowned [[hospital]]s and two specialty institutions, two [[medical school]]s, four [[nursing school]]s, and schools of [[dentistry]], public health, [[pharmacy]], and virtually all health-related careers. It is where one of the first, and still the largest, air emergency service was created&mdash;a very successful inter-institutional transplant program was developed&mdash;and more [[heart surgery|heart surgeries]] are performed than anywhere else in the world.
Some of |
mc.gov.eg/ Egyptian Armed Forces]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook]
*[http://www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&contentId=196 FAS]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/egypt/ GlobalSecurity]
[[Category:Militaries|Egypt]]
[[Category:Military of Egypt|Military of Egypt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Egypt</title>
<id>9355</id>
<revision>
<id>41731194</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:01:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|May 2005}}
'''Egypt's foreign policy''' operates along a non-aligned level. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give [[Egypt]] extensive political influence in the [[Middle East]] and Northern [[Africa]], and within the Nonaligned Movement as a whole. [[Cairo]] has been a crossroads of [[Arab]] commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and [[Islam|Islamic]] institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
==EU relations==
EU relations with Egypt are based on a partnership relation within the Euro – Mediterranean and Middle East area, which is of vital strategic importance and a key external relations priority for the EU.<br>
The [[Euro-Mediterranean Partnership]] launched at the [[1995 Barcelona Conference]] between the European Union and its originally 12 [[Mediterranean]] Partners: [[Algeria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Malta]], [[Morocco]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], and the [[Palestinian Authority]]. [[Libya]] currently has observer status at certain meetings. Since the enlargement, in May 2004, the co-operation covers 35 countries, the EU of 25, including [[Cyprus]] and [[Malta]] and the 10 Mediterranean Partners.<BR>
<BR>
Egypt has also taken an active role regarding Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, such as its participation in the technical meeting of which it was the speaker for the Arab group. Additionally, the first meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary assembly was co-chaired by an Egyptian.<BR>
[[Egypt]] has been one of the leading recipients among the Mediterranean partners in terms of total funds received from the [[MEDA]] programme, the principal financial instrument of the European Union for the implementation of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. It is focused on policy-led, national structural reform and liberalisation programmes with a sector-wide approach.<BR>
<BR>
The EU is Egypt’s biggest trading partner currently accounting for 42% of Egyptian exports and 37% of imports, with the balance of trade still in the EU's favour. Trade between the EU and Egypt has risen by more than 5% in the last five years to reach around 11.6 billion euro in 2004. Egypt’s main exports to the EU in 2004 were energy (39%), textiles and clothing (15%), agricultural products (9%), and chemicals (5%). Major imports from the EU were power generating machinery (21%), chemicals (16%), transport equipment (16%), and food and agricultural products (10%). Egypt has a serious but improving trade deficit that has put considerable pressure on the [[Egyptian Pound]].<BR>
<BR>
Trade relations with the EU are good although there are several outstanding trade and phyto-sanitary issues. These range from specific market access issues and difficulties for businesses facing a highly regulated and complex system through to restrictions in the export of agricultural goods (potatoes) and fishery products because they do not conform with EU quality norms. <BR>
==Middle Eastern relations==
===Arab relations===
The [[Arab League]] headquarters is in [[Cairo]], and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former [[Egyptian Foreign Minister]] [[Amr Moussa]] is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. [[Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister]] [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] served as Secretary General of the United Nations from [[1991]] to [[1996]].<BR>
Egypt is on good terms with [[Libya]] and [[Sudan]], its African neighbours, although it has a land dispute with Sudan over the [[Hala'ib Triangle]], a small area of land on the Egypt-Sudan border on the [[Red Sea]] coast. Sudan claims the area, although the Egyptian military currently occupies it.
===Relations with Israel===
Being a pioneer of Peace making in the region and driven from its belief that a peaceful middle east is the best solution for the development of Egypt, then [[President of Egypt|third Egyptian president]] [[Anwar Sadat]]'s groundbreaking trip to [[Israel]] in [[1977]], the [[1978]] [[Camp David Accords]], and the [[1979]] [[Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty]] represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region; from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from [[1979]] to [[1989]]. <BR>
However, due to circumstances of today's [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], full normalization of relations between these two countries is still halted and sometimes fought against in both countries. The Egyptian ambassador to Tel Aviv is often withdrown, and the peace has been called a cool peace due to the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].
===Israeli-Palestinian conflict===
Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. <BR>
Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the [[Madrid Peace Conference]] in [[1991]], which, under [[United States]] and [[Russia|Russian]] sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. <BR>
This support has continued to the present, with President [[Hosni Mubarak]] often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In [[1996]], he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President [[Bill Clinton]] and other world leaders. <BR>
In [[2000]], he hosted two summits at [[Sharm El-Sheikh]] and one at [[Taba]] in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July of 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President [[George W. Bush]] for another summit on Middle East peace process. Another summit was convened in Sharm El Sheik in early 2005, which was attended by Egypt, [[Israel]], the [[Palestinian Authority]] and [[Jordan]]. The [[Egyptian Chief of Intelligence]], General [[Omar Suleiman]], has played a substantial role in negotiations between the Israeli and Palestinian sides and is highly respected on both sides.
==US relations==
After the [[1973 Arab-Israeli War]], Egyptian foreign policy began to shift as a result of the change in Egypt's leadership from President [[Gamal Abdel-Nasser]] to [[Anwar Sadat]] and the emerging peace process between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]]. [[Sadat]] realized that reaching a settlement of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] is a precondition for [[Egyptian]] development. To achieve this goal, Sadat ventured to enhance US-Egyptian relations to foster a peace process with Israel. <BR>
<BR>
===Military cooperation===
''Main Article: [[American-Egyptian Military Relations]]''<BR>
<BR>
Between [[1979]] and [[2003]], the US has provided Egypt with about $30 billion in military aid making Egypt the second largest recipient of US military aid after Israel. Also, Egypt received about $30 billion in economic aid within the same time frame.<BR>
Military cooperation between the US and Egypt is probably the strongest aspect of their strategic partnership. General [[Anthony Zinni]] the former Commandant of the [[US Central Command]] (CENTCOM) once said, ''Egypt is the most important country in my area of responsibility because of the access it gives me to the region. Egypt was also described during the [[Clinton]] Administration as the most prominent player in the Arab world and a key US ally in the Middle East. US military assistance to Egypt was considered part of the administration's strategy to maintaining continued availability of Persian Gulf energy resources and to secure the Suez Canal, which serves both as an important international oil route and as critical route for US warships transiting to the Gulf.''<BR>
The Egyptian military provides indirect support for the foreign policy of Egypt in the region. Egypt is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East, after Israel - (Source: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance).
The real test of American-Egyptian friendship is whether the US administration is capable of adopting an even-handed policy towards the two key states in the Middle East.<BR>
===War on terrorism===
Despite differences and periods of friction in relations between the two countries, the US-Egyptian relations under Mubarak have evolved moving beyond the Middle East peace process towards an independent bilateral friendship. It was in the US interest that Egypt was able to present moderate voice in Arab councils and persuade other Arab states to join the peace process and to normalize their relations with the US. <BR>
However lately Egyptian-American relations have become a little tense. This is due to a great extent to the Egyptian unwillingness to send troops to Afghanistan and Iraq in peace stabilization missions. Egypt strongly backed the US in its war against international terrorism after [[11 September]] attacks, but refused to send troops to Afghanistan neither during the war nor after it. Egypt also opposed US military intervention of March 200 |
3T20:10:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wesman83</username>
<id>94433</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Research on Hypnosis */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hypnotisk seans av Richard Bergh 1887.jpg|thumb|right|Hypnotic Seance, by [[Richard Bergh]]]]
'''Hypnosis''' is generally understood to be a psychological condition in which an individual may be induced to exhibit apparent changes in behavior, thought, or affect. Although some individuals experience an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of an '[[altered state of consciousness]]', this is not true for everyone. In fact, supposed hypnotic indicators and subjective changes can be achieved without relaxation or a lengthy induction, which increases the controversy around hypnosis.
Intense debate surrounds the topic of hypnosis. Some scientists dispute its very existence, while many therapists insist upon its value. One potential source of controversy is the wide variety of theories of hypnosis which have traditionally been split into 'state' and 'non-state' camps. This controversy may be decreasing as the value of both perspectives is increasingly recognized. Modern brain-imaging techniques offer hope for an increased understanding of the nature of hypnosis.
The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in [[entertainment]] and health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is [[sleep|asleep]] or, popularly termed, in [[altered_state_of_consciousness|trance]]. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.
On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Evidence supports the clinical use of hypnosis for [[pain]] control, for weight control, in the treatment of [[irritable bowel syndrome]], and as an adjunct to cognitive behavioral and other therapies. Hypnosis is not a therapy in-and-of-itself but is effectively used as an adjunct to other therapies; hence "hypnotherapy" is less preferable than the use of hypnosis-related techniques as part of an integrated psychological package.
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of hypnosis]]''
==Definitions==
It is often said that there are as many definitions of hypnosis as there are hypnotists. Researchers and clinicians have different requirements from explanations of hypnosis and consequently the focus of theories from these respective fields can vary dramatically.
One fundamental distinction in hypnosis theory is between 'state' and 'non-state' approaches to hypnosis. State theorists believe that hypnosis is an [[altered state of consciousness]], whereas non-state theorists believe that hypnotic effects are the product of more mundane psychological processes such as absorption and expectancy. Note how the APA definition, essentially a consensus statement from a broad range of researchers and clinicians, remains neutral with respect to this argument.
===American Psychological Association===
Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented. The hypnotic induction is an extended initial suggestion for using one's imagination, and may contain further elaborations of the introduction. A hypnotic procedure is used to encourage and evaluate responses to suggestions. When using hypnosis, one person (the subject) is guided by another (the hypnotist) to respond to suggestions for changes in subjective experience, alterations in perception, sensation, emotion, thought or behavior. Persons can also learn self-hypnosis, which is the act of administering hypnotic procedures on one's own. If the subject responds to hypnotic suggestions, it is generally inferred that hypnosis has been induced. Many believe that hypnotic responses and experiences are characteristic of a hypnotic state. While some think that it is not necessary to use the word "hypnosis" as part of the hypnotic induction, others view it as essential.
Details of hypnotic procedures and suggestions will differ depending on the goals of the practitioner and the purposes of the clinical or research endeavor. Procedures traditionally involve suggestions to relax, though relaxation is not necessary for hypnosis and a wide variety of suggestions can be used including those to become more alert. Suggestions that permit the extent of hypnosis to be assessed by comparing responses to standardized scales can be used in both clinical and research settings. While the majority of individuals are responsive to at least some suggestions, scores on standardized scales range from high to negligible. Traditionally, scores are grouped into low, medium, and high categories. As is the case with other positively-scaled measures of psychological constructs such as attention and awareness, the salience of evidence for having achieved hypnosis increases with the individual's score.
(see [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30/define_hypnosis.html Complete definition and description].)
===Michael Yapko===
[[Michael Yapko]] defines hypnosis: "...hypnosis is a process of influential communication in which the clinician elicits and guides the inner associations of the client in order to establish or strengthen therapeutic associations in the context of a collaborative and mutually responsive goal-oriented relationship. (Yapko, M.. Hypnosis and the Treatment of Depressions. Brunner/Mazel Inc., New York, New York, ISBN: 0-87630-682-2, p. 37)
===Dave Elman===
[[Dave Elman]] defines hypnosis as "a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human mind is bypassed, and selective thinking established." The critical faculty of your mind is that part which passes judgment. It distinguishes between concepts of hot and cold, sweet and sour, large and small, dark and light. If we can bypass this critical faculty in such a way that you no longer distinguish between hot and cold, sweet and sour, we can substitute selective thinking for conventional judgment making. {{ref|Elman}}
===Physiological: Alpha and Theta State-based Definitions===
Through data collected via [[electroencephalography]] (EEGs), four major brain-wave patterns&mdash;frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain&mdash;have been identified. The Beta state (alert/working) is defined as 14-32 cycles per second (CPS), the Alpha state (relaxed/reflecting) falls in the 7-14 CPS range, the Theta state (drowsy) from 4-7 CPS, and Delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) is defined as approximately 3-5 CPS.
Some physiological definitions of hypnosis assert that a predominantly alpha state is required for successful therapeutic change, others assert that predominantly theta activity is the marker of hypnosis. Many lay definitions of hypnosis stem from a misunderstanding of what the EEG data means, and trying to define hypnosis as either an alpha or theta state is likely to be a gross oversimplification. It is important to note that non-hypnotized subjects can be found in any of these states of cortical arousal without also displaying any of the behavior, traits or the enhanced suggestibility associated with being hypnotized. Some sophisticated, and scientifically testable, models of brain activity in hypnosis have been developed (see Gruzelier's Neuropsychological Model below).
==Theories==
A scientific [[theory]] attempts to describe and explain the behaviour of a natural or social phenomenon, following the principles of the [[scientific method]]. Good theories produce testable [[hypotheses]] which can be supported or refuted by experimental data. There are unfortunately many vague and untestable theories of hypnosis which continue to circulate, but high quality research is still published in peer-reviewed scientific journals.
One fundamental distinction is between 'state' and 'non-state' theories of hypnosis. State theorists believe that an [[altered state of consciousness]] is a core part of hypnosis, whereas non-state theoriests believe that more mundane psychological processess such as focussed attention and expectation are sufficient to explain hypnotic phenomenon. The precise definition of what constitutes an altered state of consciousness is a matter of some debate. Although many people who are hypnotised describe their experience as 'altered' it is difficult to use these terms in the absence of an a priori definition.
One final thing to say about theories is that they can work at different levels of description. Some theories of hypnosis attempt to describe hypnotic phenomenon in terms of brain activity while others concentrate more on the phenomenological experience. Both are valuable and a unified theory is a laudable goal.
=== Dissociation and neodissociation theories ===
[[Pierre Janet]] originally developed the idea of [[dissociation]], literally a splitting-off of some components of consciousness, as a result of his work with hysterical patients. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation: areas of an individual's behavioral control are split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexive behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as "[[dissociation]] of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place."{{ref|Weitzenhoffer}}
[[Ernest Hilgard]] developed Janet's ideas and published his neodissociation theory in 1977. His theory, a classic 'state' t |
iTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240157&isize=L]
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01615b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Heresy]]
[[cs:Apollinarismus]]
[[de:Apollinarianismus]]
[[eo:Apolinarismo]]
[[gl:Apolinarismo]]
[[ia:Apollinarismo]]
[[id:Apolinarisme]]
[[nl:Apollinarisme]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Acid-base reaction theories</title>
<id>3038</id>
<revision>
<id>41174176</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T15:13:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grogono</username>
<id>989891</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Acids_and_Bases}}
An '''acid-base reaction''' is a [[chemical reaction]] between an [[acid]] and a [[base (chemistry)|base]].
==Common acid-base theories==
=== Lavoisier's definition ===
The first scientific definition was proposed by the [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[Antoine Lavoisier]].
Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to [[oxoacid]]s, which tend to contain central atoms in high [[oxidation number|oxidation states]] surrounded by oxygen, such as [[Nitric acid|HNO<sub>3</sub>]] and [[Sulfuric acid|H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]], and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids, HCl, HBr, and HI, he defined acids in terms of their containing ''[[oxygen]]'', which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former". When the elements [[chlorine]], [[bromine]], and [[iodine]] were identified and the absence of oxygen in the hydrohalic acids was established by Sir [[Humphry Davy]] in 1810, this definition had to be rejected.
=== The Arrhenius definition ===
[[Svante Arrhenius]] provided the first modern definition of acids and bases in [[1884]]. In [[water (molecule)|water]], a [[dissociation constant|dissociation]] takes place:
:2H<sub>2</sub>O &harr; H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> + OH<sup>-</sup>
A compound causing an increase in H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> and a decrease in OH<sup>-</sup> is an '''acid''' and one causing the reverse is a '''base'''.
An Arrhenius '''acid''', when dissociated in water, typically yields a positively-[[electric charge|charged]] [[hydronium]] ion and a complementary negative [[ion]].
An Arrhenius '''base''', when dissociated in water, typically yields a negatively-[[electric charge|charged]] [[hydroxide]] ion and a complementary positive [[ion]].
The positive ion from a base can form a salt with the negative ion from an acid. For example, two [[mole (unit)|mole]]s of the base [[sodium hydroxide]] (NaOH) can combine with one mole of sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) to form two moles of [[water]] and one mole of sodium [[sulfate]].
:2NaOH + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> &rarr; 2H<sub>2</sub>O + Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>
=== The protonic (Brønsted-Lowry) definition ===
The Brønsted-Lowry definition, formulated independently by its two proponents [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Martin Lowry]] in [[1923]], revolves around an [[acid]]'s ability to donate [[proton (physics)|protons]] (H<sup>+</sup>) to another compound, called a [[Base (chemistry)|base]], in a chemical reaction.
A base is a [[proton (physics)|proton]] acceptor. In Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reactions, there is a "competition" between two bases for a proton, so that if '''X''' and '''Y''' are two species, the equilibrium
:HX + Y<sup>-</sup> &harr; HY + X<sup>-</sup>
occurs. Both HX and HY are Brønsted-Lowry acids; both X<sup>-</sup> and Y<sup>-</sup> are Brønsted-Lowry bases. If the reaction runs mostly to the left, then HY is the stronger acid and X<sup>-</sup> the stronger base; if the reaction runs mostly to the right, then HX is the stronger acid and Y<sup>-</sup> the stronger base.
It may be more intuitive to define the stronger of two acids as the one which reacts more completely with a common base. The following shows that this definition gives the same result. Compare the reactions of the two acids HX and HY with the same base Z<sup>-</sup> (in a mixture containing all these species):
:HX + Z<sup>-</sup> &harr; HZ + X<sup>-</sup>
:HY + Z<sup>-</sup> &harr; HZ + Y<sup>-</sup>
If these reactions have equilibrium constants K<sub>X</sub> and K<sub>Y</sub> respectively, then:
:[X<sup>-</sup>][HZ] / [HX][Z<sup>-</sup>]=K<sub>X</sub>
:[Y<sup>-</sup>][HZ] / [HY][Z<sup>-</sup>]=K<sub>Y</sub>
and hence (dividing):
:[X<sup>-</sup>][HY] / [HX][Y<sup>-</sup>] = K<sub>X</sub> / K<sub>Y</sub>
Given that this last quantity is the equilibrium constant for the above reaction, the reaction will tend to the right if K<sub>X</sub>&nbsp;/&nbsp;K<sub>Y</sub>&nbsp;&gt;&nbsp;1, in other words if HX is a stronger acid than HY under this definition, and ''vice versa''.
Acids and bases in the Brønsted-Lowry system occur in '''conjugate pairs'''; in the reaction
:HX &rarr; H<sup>+</sup> + X<sup>-</sup>
'''HX''' is called the [[conjugate acid]] of the base '''X<sup>-</sup>''', and '''X<sup>-</sup>''' is called the [[conjugate base]] of the acid '''HX'''.
Some compounds, like [[water]], can act either as an acid or a base, and are called amphoteric compounds.
Stronger acids typically oxidize metals, forming salts and releasing hydrogen.
See [[pH]] for a measure of proton concentration frequently used for measuring acidity and alkalinity using this definition. For a list of conjugate acid-base pairs, see [[conjugate acid]].
=== The solvent-system definition ===
This definition is based on a generalization of the earlier Arrhenius definition. If we consider a solvent which can be dissociated into a positive species '''X''' and a negative species '''Y''':
: XY &harr; X<sup>+</sup> + Y<sup>-</sup>
or
: 2XY &harr; X<sub>2</sub>Y<sup>+</sup> + Y<sup>-</sup>
or
: 2XY &harr; X<sup>+</sup> + XY<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>
a compound causing an increase in X<sup>+</sup> (or X<sub>2</sub>Y<sup>+</sup>) and a decrease in Y<sup>-</sup> (or XY<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>) is an '''acid''' and one causing the reverse is a '''base'''. For example in liquid [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>), [[thionyl]] compounds (formally supplying SO<sup>2+</sup>) behave as acids, and [[sulfites]] (supplying SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup>) behave as bases.
In this more general sense, aprotic compounds (those which do not donate protons), can still react with bases, and the terms "acid" and "base" can still be used for reactions in aprotic or non-aqueous environments.
=== The [[electron]]ic (Lewis) definition ===
The more general definition offered by [[Gilbert N. Lewis|Lewis]] in [[1923]] (the same year as the Brønsted-Lowry definition) describes the reactivity of an acid in terms of its ability to accept a pair of electrons from a base, defined as an electron-pair donor. In general, an acid reacts with a base by forming a new [[covalent bond]] utilizing an empty [[Electron configuration|orbital]] of the acid to share the extra electron pair of the base. Such a covalent bond, in which both of the shared electrons originate from one of the reacting molecules, is known as a [[coordinate covalent bond]]. From the perspective of Molecular Orbital theory, an acid-base reaction is the combination of [[HOMO]] from base and [[LUMO]] from acid to form a stable bonding [[molecular orbital]].
The Lewis definition is one of the most broad definitions and is necessary for an understanding of acid-base reactions, although the Brønsted-Lowry definition is sufficient and more practical for most cases in everyday use.
==Other acid-base theories==
=== The Usanovich definition ===
The most general definition is that of the Russian chemist Usanovich, and can basically be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a base as the reverse. This tends to overlap the concept of [[redox]] ([[oxidation]]-[[reduction]]), and so is not highly favored by chemists. This is because redox reactions focus more on physical electron transfer processes, rather than bond making/bond breaking processes, although the distinction between these two processes is somewhat ambiguous.
==See also==
* [[HSAB concept]]
* [[Electron configuration]]
[[Category:Acid-bases]]
[[ko:산·염기 반응 이론]]
[[su:Téori réaksi asam-basa]]
==External links==
*[http://www.acid-base.com Acid-Base Tutorial]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abednego</title>
<id>3039</id>
<revision>
<id>33361833</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T09:24:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tetraminoe</username>
<id>182015</id>
</contributor>
<comment>blanking page, redirect to [[Fiery furnace]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fiery furnace]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abu al-Faraj</title>
<id>3040</id>
<revision>
<id>27958426</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T21:25:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<usern |
t, and Individualism. She, however, explicitly rejected the idea of competing private defense institutions. Some anarcho-capitalists derive much of their philosophical inspirations from Rand's arguments. Rand was adamant that the government did play a necessary and important role in society, that of policing the society, protecting individual rights, and stepping into an aggressor role only in retaliation, self-defense or defense of the country.
-->
==Anarcho-capitalism in the real world==
[[Image:Law speaker.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[19th-century]] interpretation of the [[Althing]] in the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], which authors such as [[David Friedman]] and [[Roderick Long]] believe to have been a functioning anarcho-capitalist society.]]
Anarcho-capitalism is largely theoretical, and even sympathetic critics say that it is unlikely ever to be more than a [[utopian]] ideal. Despite this, some anarcho-capitalist philosophers point to actual societies to support their claim that stateless capitalism can function in practice.
===Medieval Iceland===
According to [[David Friedman]], "[[Icelandic Commonwealth |Medieval Icelandic institutions]] have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions."<ref name=Friedman-79>Friedman, David D. (1979) [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Iceland/Iceland.html Private Creation and Enforcement of Law: A Historical Case], Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]</ref> He argues that the Icelandic Commonwealth between 930 and 1262 had some of the features of an anarcho-capitalist society--while there was a single legal system, enforcement of law was entirely private--and so provides some evidence of how such a society would function. "Even where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially "public" offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system."<ref name=Friedman-79/><ref>http://www.gettysburg.edu/academics/english/vikingstudies/jackson/researchdocument.html</ref>
However, some disagree with this assessment, arguing that Medieval Iceland was a communal rather than individualist society - ''[p]eople of a communitarian nature... have reason to be attracted [to Medieval Iceland]... The economy barely knew the existence of markets. Social relations preceded economic relations. '' <ref>William Ian Miller, "Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law and Society in Saga Iceland", p. 306</ref> and that when a free market finally did arise, that it was the cause of the end of the republic - ''"During the 12th century, wealth and power began to accumulate in the hands of a few chiefs, and by 1220, six prominent families ruled the entire country. It was the internecine power struggle among these families, shrewdly exploited by King Haakon IV of Norway, that finally brought the old republic to an end."'' <ref>Hallberg Hallmundsson, an article on Iceland in the "Encyclopaedia Americana"</ref>
===Modern Somalia===
[[Image:Somalia_marketplace_2_DoD.JPG|300px|left|thumb|A marketplace in [[Somalia]], 1992, one year after the collapse of the government. Somalia is cited by some anarcho-capitalists as an example how stateless capitalism is possible.]]
More recently, [[Somalia]] is cited by some as a real-world example of how a stateless capitalist economy and a legal system can develop organically. Since 1991, Somalia as a whole has had no functioning central government, and therefore no regulations or licensing requirements for businesses, and no taxes on businesses or individuals. One World Bank study reports that "it may be easier than is commonly thought for basic systems of finance and some infrastructure services to function where government is extremely weak or absent."<ref name=WorldBank-2004>Nenova, Tatiana and Harford, Tim (2004) [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf Anarchy and Invention (PDF)] Public Policy Journal Note Number 280, Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]</ref> Journalist Kevin Sites, after a recent trip to Somalia, reported: "Somalia, though brutally poor, is a kind of libertarian's dream. Free enterprise flourishes, and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation. Somalia has some of the best telecommunications in Africa, with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal-clear service, including international long distance, for about $10 a month." One of the poorest countries in the world in 1991, Somalia remains a very poor country. However, wealth distribution appears to be more uniform than in other African countries. When extreme poverty was last measured in 1998 (percentage of individuals living on less than PPP$1 a day), it was faring better than wealthier West African and neighboring countries.<ref name=WorldBank-2004/>
In the absence of a state and business regulations the private sector has flourished. One business sector that is said to be doing well is telecommunications. Abdullahi Mohammed Hussein of Telecom Somalia says "The government post and telecoms company used to have a monopoly but after the regime was toppled, we were free to set up our own business" ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm according to a BBC report]). Also, in 1989, before the collapse of the government, the national airline had only one airplane. Now there are approximately 15 airlines, over 60 aircraft, 6 international destinations, and more domestic routes. Electricity is now furnished by entrepreneurs, who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors (''[http://www.somalianarchy.com/viewtopic.php?t=16 photo]''). With the collapse of the central government, the educations system is now private and includes universities such as [[Mogadishu University]]. A World Bank study reports "modest gains in education." As last measured in 2001, primary school enrollment, which stood at 17%, was nearly at prewar levels, and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since 1998. However, "adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of 24% in 1989 to 17.1% in 2001" ([http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf ''WB study'']). A more recent 2003 study reported that the literacy rate had risen to 19% ([http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf ''WB study'']). A statistic from 2000 indicated that only 21% of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time. The impact of collapse of the government and ensuing civil war on human development in Somalia has been profound, resulting in the collapse of political institutions, the destruction of social and economic infrastructure, and massive internal and external migrations."<ref>World Bank Advisory Committee for Somalia [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf Country Re-Engagement Note (pdf)] (2003), retrived [[4 November]] [[2005]]</ref>
An essential element of anarcho-capitalist theory is that private businesses should protect individual liberty and property rather than tax-funded institutions. As such, the Somali situation falls short of being anarcho-capitalism as it is it is severely lacking in such options. Though some urban areas such as Mogadishu have private police and are relatively safe<ref>[http://www.netnomad.com/crigler.html ''Return to Somalia'']</ref>, crime is rampant in other areas according to some [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/africa/2004/somalia/default.stm news reports]. Businessmen in Mogadishu have organized to fund private police that patrol the city streets for petty crime<ref>[http://www.petermaass.com/core.cfm?p=1&mag=51&magtype=1 ''Ayn Rand Comes to Somalia'']</ref>. There is a rudimentary legal system which has been called "a free market for the supply, adjudication and enforcement of law."<ref>van Notten, Michael (2000) [http://www.liberalia.com/htm/mvn_stateless_somalis.htm From Nation-State To Stateless Nation: The Somali Experience], Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]</ref> It remains to be seen if private solutions develop to the point of providing high-quality security.
While most of what was Somalia is a stateless area, two internationally unrecognized democratic states exist in its north. These are [[Somaliland]] and [[Puntland]], which are ruled by governments. These regions lack the armed competition in the more anarchic south, and the destruction this causes. Their people are correspondingly more prosperous on average. This is seen by many as evidence that competition in security should not be allowed.
==Criticisms of anarcho-capitalism==
:''For critiques of libertarianism in general, see: [[Criticism of libertarianism]]''
:''For critiques of capitalism from an anarchist (libertarian socialist) perspective, see: [[Anarchism and capitalism]]''
:''For the spectrum of political ideologies in relation to capitalism see: [[Capitalism and related political ideologies]]''
Anarcho-capitalism is a radical development of liberalism. Therefore, the same general arguments for and against [[liberalism]], [[laissez-faire capitalism]] and [[capitalism]] apply, excepting those points (such as the justice system) where anarcho-capitalism diverges from the classical liberal tradition.
===Practical questions===
Critics often ass |
gn="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[Dean Rusk]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[C. Douglas Dillon]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert S. McNamara]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert F. Kennedy]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1964
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[J. Edward Day]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John A. Gronouski]]'''||align="left"|1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Stewart L. Udall]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Orville L. Freeman]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Luther H. Hodges]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[Arthur J. Goldberg]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1962
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[W. Willard Wirtz]]'''||align="left"|1962&ndash;1963
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Abraham A. Ribicoff]]'''||align="left"|1961&ndash;1962
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Anthony J. Celebrezze]]'''||align="left"|1962&ndash;1963
|}
<br clear="all">
[[Image:KennedyCabinet.jpg|thumb|right|Kennedy's Cabinet meets during the Cuban Missile Crisis]]
===Supreme Court appointments===
Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Byron Raymond White]] 1962
* [[Arthur Joseph Goldberg]] 1962
===Assassination and aftermath===
[[Image:JFKmotorcade.jpg|thumb|right|President Kennedy, Jackie, and Gov. [[John Connally]] in the Presidential limousine shortly before the assassination.]]
{{main|John F. Kennedy assassination}}
President Kennedy was assassinated in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]] on Friday, [[November 22]], [[1963]] at 12:30 pm [[CST]] while on a political trip through Texas. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was charged at 7:00 pm for killing Dallas policeman, J.D. Tippit, by "murder with malice", and also charged at 11:30 pm for the murder of the president (there being no charge of "assassination" of a president at that time). Oswald was fatally shot less than two days later in Dallas police station by [[Jack Ruby]]. Five days after Oswald was killed, the new president, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], created the [[Warren Commission]], chaired by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], to investigate the assassination. It concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin. A later investigation in the 1970s by the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (HSCA) also concluded that Oswald was the assassin, however, it added that he was likely part of a [[conspiracy]] to kill the president, although the committee did not uncover sufficient evidence to identify any other members of the conspiracy.
Critics have proposed a number of [[Kennedy assassination theories]] which contradict the various theories on exactly how the assassination took place that have been proposed by the government's official reports. There is no consensus among government investigations, let alone amongst their critics, on the number of bullets fired at the president, the direction from which all the bullets were fired, and which of the bullets struck the president, and [[List of Governors of Texas|Governor]] [[John Connally]], who was also wounded in the attack.
[[Lee Harvey Oswald]] denied shooting anyone, and claimed he was being set up as a "[[patsy]]". He claimed the photograph of him holding the alleged murder weapon was a fabrication, and that he would prove his face was pasted on the body of someone else holding the rifle. However, because of his own murder by [[Jack Ruby]], Oswald's guilt or innocence was never determined in a court of law. Some critics contend that Oswald was not involved at all and that he was framed.
Among the most widely posited conspirators in the assassination are the [[CIA]], the [[mafia]], the [[KGB]], and [[Fidel Castro]], Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], and the military-industrial complex.
==Image, social life and family==
{{see|Kennedy political family}}
Both Kennedy and his wife "Jackie" were very young in comparison to earlier presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to [[pop singer]]s and [[movie star]]s than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines.
[[Image:Kennedy bros.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Kennedy brothers during the 1960 campaign: John, Robert, and Edward (Ted)]]
The Kennedys brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the [[White House]]. They believed that the White House should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement, and invited artists, writers, scientists, poets, musicians, actors, [[Nobel Prize]] winners and athletes to visit. [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] also gathered new [[art]] and [[furniture]] and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.
The White House also seemed like a more fun, youthful place, because of the Kennedys' two young children, [[Caroline Kennedy|Caroline]] and [[John F. Kennedy Jr.|John Jr.]] (who came to be known in the popular press as "John-John" though years later Jacqueline Kennedy denied that the family called him by that name). Outside the White House Lawn, the Kennedys established a pre-school, swimming pool, and tree house.
Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies. Jacqueline suffered a miscarriage in 1955, and gave birth to a stillborn daughter in 1956. (Although the daughter was unnamed and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery next to her parents with a marker reading "Daughter" Kennedy later reports indicated that the Kennedys had intended to call her Arabella.) The death of their newborn son [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] in August 1963 was a great loss.
The charisma of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "[[Camelot (disambiguation)|Camelot]]" for his administration, credited by his widow to his affection for the contemporary Broadway musical of the same name.
Kennedy is the third most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].
==Legacy==
[[Image:JFKCasketLeavesCapitolHill.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The world mourned the assassinated president]]
[[Television]] became the primary source by which people kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination, with newspapers the following day becoming more souvenirs than sources of updated information. U.S. networks switched to 24 hour news coverage for the first time ever. [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy’s state funeral]] and the murder of [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. It was with this event that television matured as a news source rivaling that of newspapers.
The assassination had such an impact on every American, most that were alive when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated vividly remember where they were when they received word. U.N. Ambassador [[Adlai Stevenson]] said of the assassination that "all of us...will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours."
[[Image:JFK grave.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kennedy's grave at Arlington National Cemetery.]]
On [[March 14]], [[1967]] Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial place and memorial at [[Arlington National Cemetery]]. Kennedy is buried with his wife and their deceased children, and his brother Robert is also buried nearby. His grave is marked with an "[[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame|Eternal Flame]]." Kennedy and [[William Howard Taft]] are the only two US Presidents buried at Arlington.
Many of Kennedy's speeches, especially his inaugural address, are considered to be inspiring and iconic. Despite his relatively short term in office and a lack of major legislative changes during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Selected excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on marble panels at his grave at Arlington.
==Memorials==
[[Image:wiki_kennedy.JPG|thumb|left|200px]]
Kennedy's legacy has been memorialized in various aspects of American culture. To name a few:
*New York Idlewild International Airport was renamed [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK]] on [[December 24]], [[1963]]. Even though the airport was renamed "John F. Kennedy International Airport," most people refer to it as "JFK."
*The ''[[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS John F. Kennedy]]'' was awarded on [[April 30]], [[1964]] as a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]].
*The [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Lib |
ld] - a collection of materials updated regularly
*[http://www.secularislam.org/articles/khawaja3.htm The Problem of Muslim Anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Antisemitism.htm The Salience of Islamic Anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.tenc.net/gilwhite/israel.htm Anti-Semitism and the Palestinian Leaders]
*[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/article.asp?aid=11906035_1 The Anti-Semitic Disease] - an analysis by [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]] in ''[[Commentary Magazine]]''.
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107:S.RES.366: S.RES.366] Urging the Government of [[Egypt]] and other Arab governments not to allow their government-controlled television stations to broadcast any program that lends legitimacy to the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], and for other purposes. (Passed/agreed to in Senate on [[20 November]] [[2002]]).
* [http://www.zionismontheweb.org/history_of_Muslim_antisemitism_and_anti-Zionism.htm Roots of Islamic based antisemitism and anti-Zionism]
* [http://www.zionism.netfirms.com/ArabAntiZionism.htm Arab and Muslim anti-Semitism, a mini- Study]Considers the causes of Arab/Muslim anti-Semitism and provides extensive links.
=== Examples of anti-Semitism in the Arab press provided by [[MEMRI]] ===
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=antisemitism&ID=SP33902 Egyptian government newspaper reprints Nazi forgeries]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=antisemitism&ID=SR00602 Jews blamed for the September 11th World Trade Center attacks]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=antisemitism&ID=SP32201 Egyptian government science journal claims that the Jews deliberately spread AIDS]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=antisemitism&ID=SP32101 Saudi government newspaper claims that Jews are taking over the world]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=antisemitism&ID=SP22501 Zionism is accused of being the same as Nazism]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=antisemitism&ID=SP21401 Leader of Libya claims that the Jews deliberately spread AIDS]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Arab]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accidental property</title>
<id>2188</id>
<revision>
<id>33830428</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T10:25:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pengo</username>
<id>35807</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Accidental properties]] to [[Accidental property]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Aristotle]] made a distinction between the ''[[essential properties|essential]]'' and ''accidental'' [[properties]] of a thing. An '''accidental property''' is one which has no necessary connection to the [[essence]] of the thing being described.
A trivial example may help to illustrate the distinction. It is an ''essential property'' of bachelors that they are unmarried, but it is an ''accidental property'' of bachelors that they have brown hair. This is because it is logically impossible to find a married bachelor anywhere in this or any other possible world, and therefore the property of being unmarried is an necessary or essential part of being a bachelor. On the other hand, brown hair is a ''contingent'' or accidental property of bachelors since some bachelors have brown hair and others do not. Even if for some reason all the unmarried men with non-brown hair were killed, and every single existent bachelor had brown hair, the property of having brown hair would still be accidental, since it is the case that in some possible world, a bachelor could have hair of another color.
There are various categories of accidental properties in Aristotle's logic, including number, quality, place, time, relation to other objects, etc.
[[Category:Classical Greek philosophy]]
[[Category:Aristotle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alternate History</title>
<id>2190</id>
<revision>
<id>15900622</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-22T12:04:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alternative history]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 11</title>
<id>2192</id>
<revision>
<id>41948518</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:48:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=11}}
|}
'''[[August 11]]''' is the 223rd day of the year (224th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 142 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[3114 BC]] - On this date in the [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]] begins our current era in the [[Maya calendar|Maya Long Count Calendar]].
*[[480 BC]] - [[Iran|Persia]]ns under [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] defeat [[Sparta]]ns under King [[Leonidas]] in the [[Battle of Thermopylae]]. The Spartans fought to the last man.
*480 BC - The Persian and Greek fleets also fight the indecisive [[Battle of Artemisium]].
*[[1492]] - [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] is elected [[Pope]].
*[[1711]] - The first race meeting was held at [[Ascot Racecourse|Ascot]]
*[[1858]] - First ascent of the [[Eiger]].
*[[1898]] - American troops enter the city of [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]], [[Puerto Rico]] during the [[Spanish-American War]].
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]] - [[Battle of Amiens]] ends
*[[1919]] - Constitution of [[Weimar Republic]] adopted
*[[1920]] - The [[Latvia]] - [[Soviet Russia]] peace treaty which relinquished Russia`s authority and pretences to Latvian nation and territory for all time. In [[1940]] the [[Soviet Union]] unilaterally broke this Treaty and occupied [[Latvia]]
*[[1929]] - [[Babe Ruth]] becomes the first [[baseball]] player to hit [[500 home run club|500]] [[Home run|home runs]] in his career with a home run at [[League Park]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].
*[[1934]] - Federal prison opened at [[Alcatraz]] Island
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]] - [[First Quebec Conference]] of [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[T. V. Soong]] and [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] begins.
*[[1951]] - [[René Pleven]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[1952]] - [[King Hussein|Hussein]] proclaimed king of [[Jordan]]
*[[1956]] - [[Jackson Pollock]] dies in car crash [[East Hampton, NY]]
*[[1960]] - [[Chad]] declares independence
*[[1965]] - Race riots (the [[Watts riots]]) begin in [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]] area of [[Los Angeles, California]]
*[[1966]] - [[John Lennon]] holds a press conference in Chicago apologizing for stating that the Beatles were [[John Lennon#"More popular than Jesus" controversy|"more popular than Jesus"]].
*[[1970]] - A trademark application by the [[Van Brode Milling Company]] for the word [[Spork]] was published by the [[USPTO]].
*[[1972]] - Last [[United States]] ground combat unit departs [[South Vietnam]]
*[[1981]] - The [[IBM PC]], an early [[personal computer]], is introduced
*[[1984]] - [[United States]] [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]], during a voice check for a radio broadcast remarks "My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw [[Russia]] forever. We begin bombing in five minutes".
*[[1987]] - [[Alan Greenspan]] becomes [[Chairman of the Federal Reserve|Chairman]] of the [[Federal Reserve| United States Federal Reserve]].
*[[1991]] - The three original [[Nicktoons]], [[Doug]], [[Rugrats]], and [[The Ren and Stimpy Show]] make their debuts on the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] cable channel.
*[[1995]] - Three people are killed when a [[Toronto Transit Commission|TTC]] train [[Russell Hill Subway accident|hits the back of a stationary train]] near [[Toronto]]'s [[Dupont (TTC)|Dupont Station]].
*[[1992]] - The [[Mall of America]] opens in [[Bloomington, Minnesota]], USA
*[[1999]] - A total [[solar eclipse]] visible from Europe and Asia.
*[[2003]] - [[NATO]] takes over command of the [[International Security Assistance Force|peacekeeping force]] in [[Afghanistan]], marking its first major operation outside [[Europe]] in its 54-year-history.
*2003 - [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] leader Riduan Isamuddin, better known as [[Hambali]], is arrested in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]].
==Births==
*[[1667]] - [[Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici]], last of the Medicis (d. [[1743]])
*[[1673]] - [[Richard Mead]], English physician (d. [[1754]])
*[[1718]] - Sir [[Frederick Haldimand]], Swiss-born British colonial governor (d. [[1791]])
*[[1722]] - [[Richard Brocklesby]], English physician (d. [[1797]])
*[[1794]] - [[James Barton Longacre]], American engraver (d. [[1869]])
*[[1807]] - [[David Rice Atchison]], American politician (d. [[1886]])
*[[1833]] - [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], American politician and soldier (d. [[1899]])
*1833 - [[Kido Takayoshi]], Japanese politician (d. [[1877]])
*[[1837]] - [[Marie François Sadi Carnot]], French statesman (d. [[1894]])
*[[1858]] - [[Christiaan Eijkman]], Dutch physician and pathologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1930]])
*[[1863]] - [[Gaston Doumergue]], [[President of France]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1870]] - [[Tom Richardson]], English cricketer (d. [[1912]]).
*[[1872]] - [[Shidehara Kijuro]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1951]])
*[[1892]] - [[Eiji Yoshikawa]], Japanese novelist (d. [[1962]])
*[[1897]] - [[Louise Bogan]], American poet (d. [[1970]])
*1897 - [[Enid Blyton]], English author (d. [[1968]])
*[[1902]] - [[Alfredo Binda]], Italian cyclist (d. [[1986]])
*1902 - [[Lloyd Nolan]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1905]] - |
= Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 4
| publisher = Comics One Corporation
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 1588993051
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 5
| year = 2003
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527835
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 6
| year = 2004
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527843
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 7
| year = 2004
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527851
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 8
| year = 2004
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 962852786X
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 9
| year = 2004
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527878
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 10
| year = 2005
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527886
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 11
| year = 2005
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527894
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 12
| year = January 31, 2006
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9628527800
}}
# {{cite book
| author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
| others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
| title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 13
| year = 2005
| publisher = HK Comics Ltd
| id = ISBN 9889797224
}}
==Production==
''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' is an "international co-production", and it was produced by the following film companies:
[[Asia Union Film & Entertainment Ltd.]], [[China Film Co-Production Corporation]], [[Columbia Pictures]] Film Production Asia, [[EDKO Film Ltd.]], [[Good Machine]], [[Sony Pictures Classics]], [[United China Vision]], [[Zoom Hunt International Productions Company, Ltd]].
Much of the international success of the film was due to the fact that, unlike most Chinese films, this one was supported by [[Sony Pictures]] and therefore received marketing typical of Western films.
==Reception==
Despite its international fame, the movie was not as well received in [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Taiwan]]. It was perceived by many as another ''wuxia'' movie among countless in the past four decades. Members of the Mandarin-speaking audience complained that they had to read the Chinese subtitles because the actors' accents were hard to understand. Neither Chow nor Yeoh speak Mandarin as a [[native language]].
==See also==
* [[A Love Before Time]] (end-credit title song)
* [[Cinema of China]]
*[[Cinema of Hong Kong]]
*[[Cinema of Taiwan]]
==External links==
* [http://www.chikung.org.tw/etxt/20010222-1.htm A philosphical discussion of the film]
* [http://csc.ziyi.org/filmography/cthd/index.html Zhang Ziyi CSC: Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]
* [http://www.helloziyi.us/ Zhang Ziyi: Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon]
*{{imdb title|id=0190332|title=Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon}}
{{Ang Lee Films}}
[[Category:2000 films]]
[[Category:Chinese sword era films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Best Song Oscar Nominee]] <!-- "A Love Before Time" -->
[[Category:Wuxia]]
[[Category:Best Foreign Language Film Oscar winner]]
[[Category:Martial arts films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ang Lee]]
[[Category:Best Director Golden Globe]]
[[Category:Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe]]
[[bs:Tigar i zmaj]]
[[de:Tiger and Dragon]]
[[eo:Wò hǔ zàng lóng]]
[[fr:Tigre et dragon]]
[[it:La tigre e il dragone]]
[[nl:Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlemagne</title>
<id>5314</id>
<revision>
<id>41925868</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:45:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.68.36.13</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|
[[Image:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg|right|thumb|Charlemagne, portrait by [[Albrecht Dürer]].]]
|-
|{{carolingians}}
|}
'''Charlemagne''' ([[742]] or [[747]] &ndash; [[28 January]] [[814]]) (also '''Charles the Great'''{{ref|1}}; from [[Latin]], '''Carolus Magnus''' or '''Karolus Magnus'''), son of King [[Pippin the Short]] and [[Bertrada of Laon]], was the [[king of the Franks]] from [[768]] to 814 and king of the [[Lombards]] from [[774]] to 814. He was crowned ''[[Imperator Augustus]]'' in [[Rome]] on [[Christmas Day]], [[800]] by [[Pope Leo III]] and is therefore regarded as the founder of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], a reincarnation of the ancient [[Western Roman Empire]]. Through military conquest and defence, he solidified and expanded his realm to cover most of Western Europe and is today regarded as the founding father of both [[France]] and [[Germany]] and sometimes as the ''Father of Europe''. His was the first truly imperial power in the West since the fall of Rome.
==Background==
[[Image:Karl_1_mit_papst_gelasius_gregor1_sacramentar_v_karl_d_kahlen.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Frankish king (center), like Charlemagne, depicted in the Sacramentary of [[Charles the Bald]] (about [[870]]).]]
The [[Franks]], originally a [[Paganism|pagan]], [[barbarian]], [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] people who migrated over the [[River Rhine]] in the late [[fifth century]] into a crumbling [[Roman Empire]], were, by the early [[eighth century]], the masters of [[Gaul]] and a good portion of [[central Europe]] east of the Rhine and the protectors of the [[Papacy]] and the [[Roman Catholic]] faith. However, their ancient dynasty of kings, the [[Merovingians]], had long before descended into a state of complete disutility. Their chief officers, the [[mayor of the palace|mayors of the palace]], had, practically-speaking, usurped all government powers of any consequence. The final dynasts were called ''rois fainéants'', do-nothing kings, and for a period of five years ([[737]]-742), the mayor of the palace, [[Charles Martel]], governed without one on the throne.
It was from these mayors of the palaces that the Franks were to draw more useful monarchs. Charles Martel was the illegitimate son of the Mayor [[Pippin of Heristal]], who himself was the son of a Mayor [[Ansegisel]] and his wife, [[Saint Begga]]. It is through the fathers of Ansegisel and Begga, [[St Arnulf of Metz]] and [[Pippin of Landen]] respectively, that Martel's dynasty received its name, that of [[Arnulfing]]s or [[Pippinid]]s. Martel died before he could place a new [[puppet king]] on the throne and he was succeeded by his son [[Pippin the Short]], the father of Charlemagne. Pippin promptly placed a puppet on the throne and refusing to play any part in such a charade as his father's, he called for the [[pope]], [[Zachary]], to give the man with the royal power the royal title. This the pope did and Pippin was crowned and consecrated king of the Franks in [[751]].
As a consequence of this, Pippin's eldest son, Charlemagne, immediately became heir to the great realm which already covered most of western and central Europe. It was not the old name of Pippin of Landen or Ansegisel that was to be immortalised, however. From his Latin name, Carolus, the new dynasty which was to bequeath the world [[France]] and [[Germany]] is called the [[Carolingian]].
==Date and place of birth==
Charlemagne's birthday was believed to be [[April 2]], 742 in Aachen; however several factors led to reconsideration of this traditional date. First, the year 742 was calculated from his age given at death, rather than attestation within primary sources. Another date is given in the ''Annales Petarienses'', April 1, 747. In that year, April 1 is [[Easter]]. The birth of an Emperor on Easter is a coincidence likely to provoke comment, but there is no such comment documented in 747, leading some to suspect that the Easter birthday was a pious fiction concocted as a way of honoring the Emperor. Other commentators weighing the primary records have suggested that the birth was one year later, [[748]]. At present, it is impossible to be certain of the date of the birth of Charlemagne. The best guesses include April 1, 747, after [[April 15]], 747, or April 1, 748, probably in [[Herstal]] or [[Jupille]] (where his father was born), both close to [[Liège (city)|Liège]], in [[Belgium]], the region from which both the Meroving and Caroling families originate. Other cities have been suggested, including [[Prüm]], [[Düren]], or [[Aachen]].
==Personal appearance==
[[Image:Portrait of Charlemagne whom the Song of Roland names the King with the Grizzly Beard.png|right|thumb|Portrait of Charlemagne, whom the ''Song of Roland'' names the "King with the Grizzly Beard"&mdash;[[Facsimile]] of an [[engraving]] from the end of the [[sixteenth century]].]]
Charlemagne's personal appearance is not known from any contemporary portrait, but it is known rather famously from a good description by [[Einhard]], author of the biographical ''Vita Caroli Magni''. He is well known to have been tall, stately, and fair-haired, with disproportionately thick neck. As Einhard tells it in his 22nd chapter:
:''Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (his height is well known to have been seven times the length of his foot); the upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus his appearance |
ric Trail]]
* [[Yellowstone National Park]]
=== State Parks ===
[[Image:wiki_idaho.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Greetings from Idaho]]
<table><tr><td valign=top>
* Balanced Rock
* [[Bear Lake State Park]]
* [[Box Canyon State Park]]
* [[Bruneau Dunes State Park]]
* [[Castle Rocks State Park]]
* [[City of Rocks State Park]]
* [[Coeur d'Alene Parkway]]
* [[Dworshak State Park]]
* [[Eagle Island State Park]]
* [[Farragut State Park]]
* [[Harriman State Park, Idaho|Harriman State Park]]
* [[Hells Canyon]]
* [[Hells Gate State Park]]
* [[Henrys Lake State Park]]
* [[Heyburn State Park]]
</td><td valign=top>
* [[Lake Cascade State Park]]
* [[Lake Walcott State Park]]
* [[Lucky Peak State Park]]
* [[Malad Gorge State Park]]
* [[Massacre Rocks State Park]]
* [[Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park]]
* [[Niagara Springs State Park]]
* [[Old Mission State Park]]
* [[Ponderosa State Park]]
* [[Priest Lake State Park]]
* [[Round Lake State Park]]
* [[Three Island Crossing State Park]]
* [[Trail of the Coeur d'Alenes]]
* [[Winchester Lake State Park]]
* [[Yankee Fork State Park]]
</td></tr></table>
=== Surrounding Territories ===
* [[British Columbia]] - north
* [[Montana]] - east
* [[Nevada]] - southwest
* [[Oregon]] - west
* [[Utah]] - south
* [[Washington]] - west
* [[Wyoming]] - east
== Economy ==
The state's gross product for 2004 was $43.6 billion. The Per Capita Income for 2004 was $26,881.
Idaho is an important agricultural state, producing nearly one third of the [[potato|potatoes]] grown in the United States. Other important agricultural products are [[beans]], [[lentils]], [[sugar beets]], [[cattle]], dairy products, [[wheat]], and [[barley]].
Important industries in Idaho are food processing, lumber and wood products, machinery, chemical products, paper products, electronics manufacturing, silver and other mining, and tourism. The [[Idaho National Laboratory]] (INL), a government lab for nuclear energy research, is also an important part of the eastern Idaho economy.
== Demographics ==
{| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations
|-
! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population
|-
| colspan=2|<hr>
|-
| align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 14,999
|-
| align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 32,610
|-
| align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 88,548
|-
| align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 161,772
|-
| align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 325,594
|-
| align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 431,866
|-
| align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 445,032
|-
| align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 524,873
|-
| align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 588,637
|-
| align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 667,191
|-
| align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 712,567
|-
| align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 943,935
|-
| align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 1,006,749
|-
| align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 1,293,953
|}
As of 2005, Idaho has an estimated population of 1,429,096, which is an increase of 33,956, or 2.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 135,140, or 10.4%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 58,884 people (that is 111,131 births minus 52,247 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 75,795 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 14,522 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 61,273 people.
This makes Idaho the sixth fastest-growing state, after only Nevada, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, and Utah. From 2004 to 2005, however, Idaho was the third fastest-grower, surpassed only by Nevada and Arizona.
[[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa]], the state's second largest city, has experienced particularly strong growth in recent years. According to census estimates Nampa has grown 22.1 perecent to nearly 65,000 residents between [[2000]] and [[2003]]. Growth of 5% or more over the same period has also been observed in [[Caldwell, Idaho|Caldwell]], [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]], [[Meridian, Idaho|Meridian]] and [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]] [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/16000.html].
Since 1990, Idaho's population has increased 386,000 (38%).
The [[Boise metropolitan area|Boise Metropolitan Area]] (officially known as the Boise City-Nampa, ID Metropolitan Statistical Area) is Idaho's largest metropolitan area. Other metropolitan areas in order of size are [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]], [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]], [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]] and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]. As of [[2006]] six official [[United States micropolitan area|micropolitan statistical areas]] are based in Idaho.
===Race===
The racial makeup of Idaho:
*88% [[Whites|White]]
*7.9% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*1.4% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*0.9% [[Asians|Asian]]
*0.4% [[Blacks|Black]]
*2% [[Mixed race]]
The five largest reported ancestries in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (18.9%), [[British-American|English]] (18.1%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10%), American (8.4%), [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (3.6%).
===Religion===
[[Image:IdahoCity.jpg|thumb|A church in Idaho City]]
As with many other western states, the percentage of Idaho's population identifying themselves as "non-religious" (an [[umbrella term]] which is sometimes synonymous with or includes elements of [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]], [[skepticism]], [[freethought]], [[humanism]], [[secular humanism]], [[heresy]], [[logical positivism]], and [[apathy]]) is higher than the rest of the country.
The current religious affiliations of the people of Idaho are shown in the table below:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 65%
**[[Protestant]] &ndash; 50%
***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 10%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 10%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 3%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &ndash; 24%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Catholic]] &ndash; 15%
*[[LDS]] &ndash; 14%
*Other Religions &ndash; <1%
*Non-Religious &ndash; 20%
== Important cities and towns ==
<table><tr><td valign=top>
Population > 100,000 (urbanized area)
* [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]]
(state capital)
</td><td valign=top>
Population > 10,000 (urbanized area)
* [[Blackfoot, Idaho|Blackfoot]]
* [[Burley, Idaho|Burley]]
* [[Caldwell, Idaho|Caldwell]]
* [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]]
* [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]]
* [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]
* [[Meridian, Idaho|Meridian]]
* [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]] - Home of the University of Idaho
* [[Mountain Home, Idaho|Mountain Home]]
* [[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa]]
* [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]]
* [[Post Falls, Idaho|Post Falls]]
* [[Rexburg, Idaho|Rexburg]]
* [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]]
</td><td valign=top>
Smaller Towns and Cities
* [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]] - major year-round resort with world-class skiing
* [[Island Park, Idaho|Island Park]] - snowmobiling, summer recreation
* [[Driggs, Idaho|Driggs]] - skiing (Grand Targhee)
* [[St. Anthony, Idaho|St. Anthony]] - sand dunes
* [[Kuna, Idaho|Kuna]]
* [[McCall, Idaho|McCall]] - major tourist hub
* [[Rathdrum, Idaho|Rathdrum]]
* [[Hayden, Idaho|Hayden]]
* [[Kellogg, Idaho|Kellogg]] - skiing (Silver Mountain)
* [[Wallace, Idaho|Wallace]]
* [[Plummer, Idaho|Plummer]]
* [[Worley, Idaho|Worley]]
* [[Mullan, Idaho|Mullan]]
* [[St. Maries, Idaho|St. Maries]]
* [[Sandpoint, Idaho|Sandpoint]]
* [[Malad City, Idaho|Malad City]]
</td></tr></table>
== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Albertson College of Idaho]]
*[[Boise State University]]
*[[Brigham Young University-Idaho]]
*[[Idaho State University]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[Lewis-Clark State College]]
*[[Northwest Nazarene University]]
*[[University of Idaho]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[North Idaho College]]
*[[College of Southern Idaho]]
</td></tr></table>
== Professional sports teams ==
The [[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball teams]] are:
*[[Boise Hawks]]
*[[Idaho Falls Chukars]]
Other minor league sports teams:
*[[Idaho Stampede]]
*[[Idaho Steelheads]]
== Miscellaneous information ==
=== Major highways ===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[[Interstate 15]]
*[[Interstate 84 (west)|Interstate 84]]
*[[Interstate 86 (west)|Interstate 86]]
*[[Interstate 90]]
*[[Interstate 184]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[U.S. Highway 2]]
*[[U.S. Highway 12]]
*[[U.S. Highway 20]]
*[[U.S. Highway 26]]
*[[U.S. Highway 30]]
*[[U.S. Highway 89]]
*[[U.S. Highway 91]]
*[[U.S. Highway 93]]
*[[U.S. Highway 95]]
</td></tr></table>
=== Well-known Idahoans ===
{{see|:Category:People from Idaho}}
== See also ==
*[[Red Rock Pass]] - The pass where the ancient [[Lake Bonneville]] was emptied.
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Idaho}}
*http://www.state.id.us/
*[http://www.idahoparks.org/ Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation]
*[http://www.visitid.org/ Visit Idaho site]
*[http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Idaho.htm A photographic virtual tour of Idaho]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/16000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/idaho Idaho Newspapers]
{{Idaho}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:States of the A |
made of steel tape, but the latest models used Kevlar filament, wound not unlike a bobbin of thread.
Flywheel power storage systems in current production ([[2001]]) have storage capacities comparable to batteries and faster discharge rates. They are mainly used to provide load leveling for large battery systems, such as an [[uninterruptible power supply]]. Developers of such flywheel energy storage systems include Active Power, AFS Trinity and Beacon Power.
A long-standing niche market for flywheel power systems is facilities where
circuit-breakers and similar devices are tested: even a small household
circuit-breaker may be rated to interrupt a current of 10,000 or more
amps, and larger units may be have interrupting ratings of 100,000 or
1,000,000 amps. Obviously the enormous transient loads produced by
deliberately forcing such devices to demonstrate their ability to interrupt
simulated short circuits would have unacceptable effects on the local
grid if these tests were done directly off building power. So typically
such a laboratory will have several large motor-generator sets, which
can be spun-up to speed over some minutes; then the motor is disconnected
before a circuit-breaker is tested.
== Advantages and disadvantages ==
Flywheels are not affected by temperature changes as are chemical [[battery (electricity)|batteries]], nor do they suffer from [[memory effect]]. Moreover, they are not as limited in the amount of energy they can hold. They are also less potentially damaging to the environment, being made of largely inert or benign materials. Another advantage of flywheels is that by a simple measurement of the rotation speed it is possible to know the exact amount of energy stored. However, use of flywheel accumulators is currently hampered by the danger of explosive shattering of the massive wheel due to overload.
One of the primary limits to flywheel design is the [[tensile strength]] of the material used for the rotor. Generally speaking, the stronger the disc, the faster it may be spun, and the more energy the system can store. When the tensile strength of a flywheel is exceeded the flywheel will shatter, releasing all of its stored energy at once; this is commonly referred to as "flywheel explosion" since wheel fragments can reach kinetic energy comparable to that of a cannon shell. Consequently, traditional flywheel systems require strong containment vessels as a safety precaution, which increases the total mass of the device. Fortunately, composite materials tend to disintegrate quickly once broken, and so instead of large chunks of high-velocity shrapnel one simply gets a containment vessel filled with red-hot sand (still, many customers of modern flywheel power storage systems prefer to have them embedded in the ground to halt any material that might escape the containment vessel). Gulia's tape flywheels did not require a heavy container and reportedly could be rewound and reused after a tape fracture.
== Future improvements ==
The expense of refrigeration led to the early dismissal of low temperature superconductors for use in magnetic bearings. High temperature superconductor (HTSC) bearings however may be economic and could possibly extend the time energy could be stored economically. Hybrid bearing systems are most likely to see use first. HTSC bearings have historically had problems providing the lifting forces necessary for the larger designs, but can easily provide a stabilizing force. Therefore, in hybrid bearings, permanent magnets support the load and HTSC are used to stabilize it. The reason superconductors can work well stabilizing the load is because they are good diamagnets. In hybrid-bearing systems, a conventional magnet levitates the rotor, but the high temperature superconductor keeps it stable. If the rotor tries to drift off center, a restoring force due to [[flux pinning]] restores it. This is known as the magnetic stiffness of the bearing. Rotational axis vibration problems caused by the low stiffness and damping and are an inherent problem in completely superconducting magnetic bearings for flywheel applications.
Since flux pinning is the important factor for providing the stabilizing and lifting force, the HTSC can be made much easier for FES than for other uses. HTSC powders can be formed into arbitrary shapes so long as flux pinning is strong. An ongoing challenge that has to be overcome before superconductors can provide the full lifting force for a FES system is finding a way to suppress the decrease of levitation force and the gradual fall of rotor during operation caused by the flux creep of SC material.
Parasitic losses such as friction, hysteresis and [[eddy current]] losses of both magnetic and conventional bearings in addition to refrigerant costs can limit the economical energy storage time for flywheels. However, further improvements in [[superconductor]]s may help eliminate eddy current losses in existing magnetic bearing designs as well as raise overall operating temperatures. Even without such improvements, however, modern flywheels can have a zero-load rundown time measurable in years.
==References==
* Sheahen, T., P. (1994). Introduction to High-Temperature Superconductivity. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 76-78, 425-431.
* El-Wakil, M., M. (1984). Powerplant Technology. McGraw-Hill, pp. 685-689.
* Koshizuka, N., Ishikawa, F.,Nasu, H., Murakami, M., Matsunaga, K., Saito, S., Saito, O., Nakamura, Y., Yamamoto, H., Takahata, R., Itoh, Y., Ikezawa, H., Tomita, M. (2003). Progress of superconducting bearing technologies for flywheel energy storage systems. Physica C 386, pp. 444–450.
* Wolsky, A., M. (2002). The status and prospects for flywheels and SMES that incorporate HTS. Physica C 372–376, pp. 1495–1499.
* Sung, T., H., Han, S., C., Han, Y., H., Lee, J., S., Jeong, N., H., Hwang, S., D., Choi, S., K. (2002). Designs and analyses of flywheel energy storage systems using high-Tc superconductor bearings. Cryogenics V. 42, pp. 357–362.
* http://www.parcon.uci.edu/OLD_WEBSITE/paper/eeenergy.htm
* http://infoserve.sandia.gov/cgi-bin/techlib/access-control.pl/1997/970443.pdf
* http://www.wtec.org/loyola/scpa/04_02.htm
* [http://space-power.grc.nasa.gov/ppo/highlights/ NASA Power and Propulsion Office: Highlights and Accomplishments]
== See also ==
*[[Grid energy storage]]
*[[Flywheel]]
[[es:batería inercial]]
[[Category:Energy storage]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Florida Marlins</title>
<id>11278</id>
<revision>
<id>42064988</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:50:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.44.121.252</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 2005 offseason */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Marlins}}
The '''Florida Marlins''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], [[Florida]], [[United States|USA]]. They are in [[National League East|Eastern Division of the National League]].
In only a decade since their inception into the majors, the Marlins have been highly successful on the field, winning two [[World Series]], but draw among the smallest crowds in baseball. In late [[2005]], the organization began a [[fire sale]] and announced plans to relocate in the coming years.
== Franchise history ==
===1993-1996===
On [[June 10]], 1991, the National League awarded a franchise to [[Wayne Huizenga]], chief executive officer of [[Blockbuster Video|Blockbuster Entertainment Corporation]], owner of the [[Miami Dolphins]] football team, and chairman of the board of the [[Florida Panthers]] hockey team. The Marlins' first [[Manager (baseball)|manager]] was [[Rene Lachemann]], a former [[catcher]] who had previously managed the [[Seattle Mariners]] and [[Milwaukee Brewers]] and at the time of his hiring was [[3rd Base Coach]] under [[Tony LaRussa]] for the [[Oakland Athletics]]. Lachemann kept Florida out of the Eastern Division cellar during the 1993 season as the team finished the year five games ahead of the last-place [[New York Mets]]. After the Marlins finished last in their division in [[1994]] and fourth in [[1995]], Lachemann was replaced as manager midway through the [[1996]] season with the Marlins' director of player development, [[John Boles]].
Despite problems in the dugout and on the field, the Marlins had some bright spots on the mound and behind the plate in 1996. The team's 3.95 [[earned run average|ERA]] ranked third in the NL, led by newcomer [[Kevin Brown]], who finished the season with a 17-11 win-loss record and an impressive 1.89 ERA. Catcher [[Charles Johnson (baseball)|Charles Johnson]] led the league with a .995 [[fielding percentage]], threw out a league-high 48 percent of base runners, and collected his second straight [[Gold Glove Award]] for fielding excellence. After a slow start, the Marlins finished the year with an 80-82 win-loss record to place third in their division. Boles then returned to his previous position as director of player development, and former [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] manager [[Jim Leyland]] was hired to lead the club in 1997.
===1997 season: Already on Top===
The Marlins got their second no-hitter from ace Kevin Brown, the first coming in 1996 from [[Al Leiter]]. With those two starters and an almost automatic closer in [[Robb Nen]], the Marlins' staff was almost systematic during their regular season run. In 1997, the Florida Marlins led by new manager Jim Leyland won the wild card, finishing 92-70. RF [[Gary Sheffield]] followed his 40 HR 120 RBI season with a .250 average but 6 million dollars richer. Veteran additions such as LF [[Moises Alou]], 3B [[Bobby Bonilla]], and [[Darren Daulton|Darren "Dutch" Daulton]] added experience and clutch hits. Talented young stars and starters [[Luis Castillo]] (2B) and [[Edgar Renteria]] (SS) were one of the best double play combos in the League. Castillo was injured and replaced |
by reversing the direction of the River's flow with the construction of the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]] leading to the [[Illinois River]]. Fifteen years later, the ''[[Eastland]]'', a large passenger ship, capsized in the river and sank with 841 deaths.
Prohibition in Chicago is known nationally as the era of gansters such as [[Al Capone]]; in actuality the 1920s saw a large increase in industry in the city as well as the first arrivals of the [[Great Migration]] that would lead thousands of mostly Southern blacks to Chicago and other Northern cities.
On [[December 2]], [[1942]], the world's first controlled [[nuclear reaction]] was conducted at the [[University of Chicago]] as part of the top secret [[Manhattan Project]].
Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] was elected in 1955, in the era of so-called [[political machine|machine politics]]. During Daley's tenure (he died in office in 1976), the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] was held in Chicago, four major expressways were built, [[McCormick Place]] (the nation's busiest convention hall) was constructed, the [[Sears Tower]] became the [[world's tallest building]] and [[O'Hare Airport]] (which later became the world's busiest airport) was constructed. 1979 saw the election of the city's first female mayor, [[Jane Byrne]]. Four years later in 1983, [[Harold Washington]] became the first [[African American]] to be elected to the office of mayor. [[Richard M. Daley]], son of [[Richard J. Daley]], became mayor in 1989. One new development under the younger Daley has sparked debate, the destruction of the city's vast [[public housing]] projects.
Starting in the 1950s, many upper- and middle-class citizens left the inner-city of Chicago for the [[suburb]]s, and the city itself shrank by nearly 700,000, leaving many impovershed neighborhoods in their wake. However, since the early 1990s, Chicago has seen a turnaround from the decline common to American cities following [[World War II]]. Many formerly abandoned neighborhoods are starting to show new life and the city's diversity has grown with larger percentages of ethnic groups such as Asians and Hispanics. In the 1990s alone, Chicago gained 113,000 new inhabitants.
[[Image:Chicago_Skyline_at_Sunset.png|750px|center|]]
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Chicago}}
[[Image:Chicago.landsat.750pix.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[USGS]] Landsat Image]][[Image:Chicago River from Michigan Ave.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chicago River from Michigan Ave.]]
Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois at the southwestern tip of [[Lake Michigan]]. It sits on the [[continental divide]], at the site of the [[Chicago Portage]], connecting the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Great Lakes]] [[watershed]]s
When Chicago was founded in the 1830s most of the early building began around the mouth of the [[Chicago River]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]], Chicago has a total area of 606.1 [[square kilometre|km²]] (234.0 [[square mile|mi²]]), of which 588.3 km² (227.1 mi²) is land and 17.8 km² (6.9 mi²) is water. The total area is 2.94% water. The city has been built on relatively flat land; the average height of land is 579 feet (176 meters) above sea level. The city lies beside Lake Michigan and two rivers, the Chicago in downtown and the [[Calumet River|Calumet]] in the industrial far South Side, entirely or partially flow through Chicago. The [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]] connects the Chicago River with the [[Des Plaines River]], which runs to the west of the city.
===Climate===
{{main|Climate of Chicago}}
Chicago is known as a city of climate extremes. While winters can often be bitterly cold, extreme summer heat waves are not uncommon. Chicago has a [[continental climate]] typical of the [[U.S. Midwest]], with hot summers and cold winters, subject to possible extremes in both seasons. [[Lake Michigan]] can have a moderating effect for neighborhoods close to the shoreline, keeping them cooler in summer and slightly warmer in winter; but also producing a '[[lake effect]]' of snowfall in winter. Average high and low temperatures for July are 84&nbsp;&deg;F/63&nbsp;&deg;F (29 °C/17 °C), and for January it is 29&nbsp;&deg;F/13&nbsp;&deg;F (-2 °C/-11 °C). Weather typical of each season can sometimes arrive unusually early or late, for example, the highest recorded temperature in March was 84&nbsp;&deg;F (29 °C) and the lowest in September was 37&nbsp;&deg;F (3 °C). Summers have been known to bring different elements in a one day period; ranging from bright sunny mornings, to partly-cloudy and rainy ''early'' afternoons, to bright sunny ''late'' afternoons, to comfortable evenings.
[[Image:ChicagoWinter1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Chicago in winter]]
Chicago's yearly precipitation averages about 36 inches (914 mm). Summer is the rainiest [[season]], with short-lived [[rain]]fall and [[thunderstorm]]s more common than prolonged rainy periods[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lot/?n=CHI_summer_precip]. The highest temperature ever reached in Chicago was 104 °F (40 °C).
[[Winter]] in Chicago is a variable and fickle season. Temperatures and snowfall can vary widely in the span of one to two weeks, and extended periods of temperatures below 32 °F (0 °C) are not uncommon in January and February. Temperatures can sometimes drop below 0 °F (-18 °C) overnight and then rise by the next morning. This frigid weather doesn't normally last more than 1-3 days at a time. Although rare, the temperature can climb to 50 °F (10 °C) or higher in winter.
Contrary to popular belief, Chicago is not called the "Windy City" because of its high winds,... it actually has to do with the "windiness" of 19th century politicians. Nevertheless, the [[wind]] has a strong hold on Chicago's popular imagination. There's even a nickname for the city's legendary gusts: "The Hawk."
[[Lou Rawls]] brought The Hawk to national attention in his song Dead End Street:<br>
:''I was born in a city they called the Windy City''<br>
:''And they call it the Windy City because of The Hawk.''<br>
:'' All mighty Hawk.''<br>
Several U.S. cities, among them [[New York City]], [[Boston]], and [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], have higher average annual wind speeds than Chicago, according to the National Climatic Data Center [http://www.nbierma.com/language/column/windy/windy-ncdc.htm].
===Geology===
Since the first recorded [[earthquake]] in 1804 [http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/isgshome/chicago_quakes.htm], Chicago has occasionally experienced earthquakes. More recently, an earthquake with an epicenter in [[Ottawa, Illinois]] registering about 4.3 on the [[Richter scale]] shook some buildings in Chicago on [[2004 Chicago Earthquake|June 28, 2004]]. This earthquake sparked worries that the [[New Madrid fault]] might become active again. An earthquake of 6 or higher in the Missouri [[Geologic fault|Fault]] might cause moderate to high damage in Chicago.
==Law and government==
{{main|Law and government of Chicago}}
[[Image:Chicagocityhall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Chicago City Hall]].]]
Chicago is the largest city and the [[county seat]] of [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]].
The government of the City of Chicago is divided into [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[legislative]] branches. The mayor is the [[Chief Executive Officer|chief executive]], elected by general election for a term of four years. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. The current mayor is [[Richard M. Daley]], a Democrat. In addition to the mayor, Chicago's two other citywide elected officials are the clerk and the treasurer.
The [[Chicago City Council|City Council]] is the legislative branch and is made up of [[Chicago aldermen|50]] [[alderman|aldermen]], one elected from each [[ward (politics)|ward]] in the city. The council enacts local [[ordinance]]s and approves the city [[budget]]. Government priorities and activities are established in a budget ordinance usually adopted each November. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions.
===Politics===
Former Chicago Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] once led a [[political machine]] called the [[Chicago Democratic Machine]]. Another point of interest is the party leanings of the city. For much of the last century, Chicago has been considered one of the largest [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] strongholds in the [[United States]]. For example, the citizens of Chicago have not elected a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] mayor since 1927, when [[William Hale Thompson|William Thompson]] was voted into office. Today, only one [[alderman]] is Republican. The city is also well known for [[Political corruption|corruption]] in many levels of government, for example the [[Hired Trucking Scandal]].
Chicago's politics lean famously to the [[Left-wing politics|left]] compared to the rest of the [[Midwest]], and it is often said that Chicago is the "[[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]]" of the Midwest. [[Social liberalism]] is strong in the city, with a strong majority of Chicagoans supporting [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] programs and the [[pro-choice]] movement. In 2004, Mayor [[Richard M. Daley]] rejected a proposal to legalize [[same-sex marriage]] in the city. The issue was controversial especially in [[Illinois]], since the state is arguably the most varied in terms of [[liberalism|liberal]] [[urban area|urban areas]] vs [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[rural]] areas. In partisan elections, such as for the [[State Legislature]] and [[U.S. Congress]], most elections are won by Democrats, such as the landslide win of [[Barack Obama]] in 2004.
===Law enforcement===
[[Image:Chicago police car horiz.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Chicago police car]]
The [[Chicago Police Department]], also known as the CPD, is the principal law |
struck just before in order to steal the secret of the device, the secret of the Ixian device has been scattered far and wide. Malky is escorted into Leto's presence, Malky and Leto talk about old and new times. At the end of this conversation, Moneo does what Leto cannot and kills Leto's friend at Leto's behest. Leto and his convoy set off to Tuono village.
Duncan and Siona talk at Tuono village after a difficult start; and realize that they both still believe that the God Emperor needs to be killed, and overthrown. They both realize that he can be killed by water and hatch a desperate plan to kill the God Emperor. Idaho climbs a high cliff by himself without ropes, using the experience he learned in his youth. From there he lowers a rope down for Siona and Nayla. From the cliff they await the arrival of Leto's convoy. When the convoy does arrive, Siona orders Nayla to fire her lasgun at the bridge and Nayla, having been directly ordered by Leto to obey Siona's every order, obeys, fully expecting it to be a religious test of Leto's and expecting him to perform a miracle. The shot shatters the bridge and Moneo, Hwi Noree, Leto and the rest of the convoy is hurled into the water. Leto escapes to the shore, but, as his death is nigh, the sandtrout desert his dying body into the sands, leading to the fulfillment of his prophecy about the resurgence of sandworms on Arrakis. Duncan is distraught that Nayla has killed Hwi, and kills the utterly shocked Nayla. Leto leaves Duncan and Siona [[stewardship]] of his Empire by telling them where he has hidden his spice reserves before he breathes his last.
==Notable Parody==
In an episode of the cartoon [[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]], the characters look into the future on a boring day, a future which is an obvious spoof of ''God Emperor of Dune.'' Mandy, like Leto, has taken on a large worm form that has granted her an extremely long life. She controls the world with her "cinnamon mines," which plays much the same role as Spice. Through the ages, Mandy has been kept company by clones of her friend Billy, much like Leto was by Duncan Idaho. The Grim Reaper plays a role of both Mandy's attendant (like Moneo) and a rebel (like Siona). Billy, like Duncan, joins the plot to destroy Mandy. However, Mandy crushes this rebellion. When asked how she uncovered the rebellion's secret, we find that she learned it millennia ago, on the boring day when she looked into the future and saw what would happen, an obvious reference to prescience.
==External links==
*{{isfdb title|id=1863|title=God Emperor of Dune}}
[[Category:1981 books]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]
[[fr:L'Empereur-Dieu de Dune]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station</title>
<id>12654</id>
<revision>
<id>35524568</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T10:23:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluewave</username>
<id>427487</id>
</contributor>
<comment>BT Group name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Goonhilly Arthur.jpg|thumb|right|"Arthur", Goonhilly's first dish]]'''Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station''' is a large telecommunications site located on [[Goonhilly Downs]] near [[Helston]] on the [[The Lizard|Lizard peninsula]] of the [[England|English]] county of [[Cornwall]].
Currently owned by [[BT Group plc]], it is the largest [[satellite]] earth receiving station in the world with over 25 communications dishes in use (and over 60 dishes in total) &ndash; they provide a significant proportion of [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]'s satellite connectivity and the site also links into [[transatlantic telephone cable|undersea cable lines]]. The first dish, Antenna One (dubbed "Arthur"), was built on the site in [[1962]] to link with [[Telstar]], it was the first open parabolic design and is 29.5 [[metre]]s in diameter and weighs 1,100 [[tonne]]s. The largest dish is the 32 metre diameter "Merlin" (other dishes are named [[Guinevere]], [[Tristan]] and [[Isolde]] after characters in [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] legend).
Close to the [[earth station]] is a [[wind generator]] farm which provides some of the power needs of the station.
A good visitor centre at the site attracts technically-minded tourists.
== External links ==
* http://www.goonhilly.bt.com
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cornwall]]
[[de:Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global Warming</title>
<id>12655</id>
<revision>
<id>28351348</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-15T01:35:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.3.39.32</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Global warming]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godwin's Law</title>
<id>12656</id>
<revision>
<id>42141189</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.169.244.162</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Godwin's Law''' (also '''Godwin's Rule of Nazi Analogies''') is an [[adage]] in [[Internet culture]] originated by [[Mike Godwin]] on [[Usenet]] in [[1990]] that states:
::''As an online discussion grows longer, the [[probability]] of a comparison involving [[Nazism|Nazis]] or [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] approaches 1.''
There is a tradition in many Usenet [[newsgroup]]s that once such a comparison is made, the [[Topic thread|thread]] in which the comment was posted is over and whoever mentioned the Nazis has automatically lost whatever [[debate]] was in progress.
It is considered poor form to raise arbitrarily such a comparison with the motive of ending the thread. There is a widely recognized [[Wiktionary:codicil|codicil]] that any such deliberate invocation of Godwin's Law will be unsuccessful.
Based upon [[probability theory]] alone the chance of a comparison involving any subject matter whatsoever approaches 1 as a discussion grows. While extraneous references often serve to derail discussions, legitimate comparisons often find Godwin's Law cited as a counter-argument when in fact it presents no argument at all.
==Debate and controversy==
One common objection to the invocation of Godwin's Law is that sometimes using Hitler or the Nazis is an apt way of making a point. For instance, if one is debating the relative merits of a particular leader, and someone says something like, "He's a good leader, look at the way he's improved the economy," one could reply, "Just because he improved the economy doesn't make him a good leader. Even Hitler improved the economy." Some would view this as a perfectly acceptable comparison. One uses Hitler as a well-known example of an extreme case that requires no explanation to prove that a generalization is not universally true.
Some would argue, however, that Godwin's Law applies especially to the situation mentioned above, as it portrays an inevitable [[appeal to emotion]] as well as holding an implied [[ad hominem]] attack on the subject being compared, both of which are [[logical fallacies|fallacious]] in irrelevant contexts. Hitler, on a [[semiotics|semiotic]] level, has far too many negative connotations associated with him to be used as a valid comparison to anything but other [[despot]]ic dictators. Thus, Godwin's Law holds even when making comparisons to normal leaders that, on the surface, would seem to be reasonable comparisons.
Godwin's standard answer to this objection is to note that Godwin's Law does not dispute whether, in a particular instance, a reference or comparison to Hitler or the Nazis might be apt. It is precisely because such a reference or comparison may sometimes be appropriate, Godwin has argued, that [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] overuse of the Hitler/Nazi comparison should be avoided. Avoiding such hyperbole, he argues, is a way of ensuring that when valid comparisons to Hitler or Nazis are made, such comparisons have the appropriate impact.
==Notes==
From a [[philosophy|philosophical]] standpoint, Godwin's Law could be said to exclude [[normative]] (emotional) considerations from a [[positivism (philosophy)|positivist]] (rational) discussion. Frequently, a reference to Hitler is used as an evocation of evil. Thus a discussion proceeding on a positivist examination of facts is considered terminated when this objective consideration is transformed into a normative discussion of subjective right and wrong. It is exacerbated by the frequent fallacy "Hitler did A, therefore A is evil" (''[[Reductio ad Hitlerum]]''). However, as noted, the exceptions to Godwin's Law include the invocation of the Hitler comparison in a positivist manner that does not have a normative dimension.
In general, Godwin's Law does not apply in situations wherein one could reasonably expect Hitler or Nazis to be mentioned, such as a discussion of Germany in [[World War II]]. Exceptions, of course, may exist and should be obvious given the preceding discussion.
On [[December 12]], [[2005]], Godwin's Law was the subject of a question in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] television quiz show ''[[University Challenge]]''.
==See also==
*[[Benford's law of controversy]]
*[[Jargon File]]
*[[Reductio ad Hitlerum]]
*[[Wilcox-McCandlish law of online discourse evolution]]
*[[Adages named after people]]
==External links and references==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Godwin's_law.ogg|2005-07-01}}
*[http://www.killfile.org/~tskirvin/faqs/godwin.html Godwin's Law FAQ]
* Usenet posting: [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1991Aug18.215029.19421%40eff.org Mike Godwin restates the Usenet variant of Godwin's Law] (Aug 1991)
*[http://catb.org/esr/jargon/html/G/Godwins-Law.html Godwin's Law entry] in the [[Jargon File]]
*[[Ursine:Godwin's Law|Godwin's Law]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wik |
0 Advanced Server
*Windows 2000 Datacenter Server
*Windows 2000 Small Business Server
{{Clr}}
== Windows XP: Merging the product lines ==
{{seealso|Features new to Windows XP}}
[[Image:Windows_xp_desktop.PNG|thumbnail|300px|A typical Windows XP desktop.]]
In 2001, Microsoft introduced [[Windows XP]]. The merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 3.1/95/98/ME lines was achieved with Windows XP (codenamed "Whistler"). Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 [[kernel (computers)|kernel]]; however, it finally marks the entrance of the Windows NT core to the consumer market, to replace the aging 16-bit branch.
Windows XP is available in a number of versions:
*"Windows XP Home Edition", for home desktops and [[laptop]]s (notebooks)
*"Windows XP Home Edition N", as above, but without a default installation of [[Windows Media Player]], as mandated by a [[European Union]] ruling
*"Windows XP Professional Edition", for business and power users
*"Windows XP Professional Edition N", as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling
*[[Windows XP Media Center Edition]] (MCE), released in November 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an emphasis on audio, video, and [[Personal video recorder|PVR]] capability
** Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003
** Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004
** Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on October 12th, 2004.
*"Windows XP Tablet PC Edition", for [[tablet PC]]s (notebooks with [[touch screen]]s)
*[[Windows XP Embedded]], for embedded systems
*"Windows XP Starter Edition", for new computer users in developing countries
*[[Windows XP Professional x64 Edition]], released on April 25, 2005 for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86 instruction set (AMD calls this AMD64, Intel calls it Intel EM64T)
*[[Windows XP 64-bit Edition]], is a version for Intel's Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator. It is roughly analogous to Windows XP Professional in features. It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as 'Workstations'.
{{Clr}}
== Windows Server 2003==
[[Image:Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition trial.png|thumb|300px|Windows Server 2003 desktop and Start menu.]]
On April 24th, 2003 Microsoft launched [[Windows Server 2003]], a notable update to [[Windows 2000 Server]] encompassing many new security features, a new "Manage Your Server" wizard that simplifies configuring a machine for specific roles, and improved performance. It has the version number 5.2.
In December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 R2, which added a number of management features for branch offices, file serving, and company-wide identity integration.
Windows Server 2003 is available in seven editions:
* Small Business Server
* Web Edition
* Standard Edition
* Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit)
* Datacenter Edition
* Compute Cluster Edition
* Storage Server
{{Clr}}
== Thin client: Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs ==
In [[March 2006]], Microsoft plans to release a [[thin-client]] version of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called [[Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs]] (WinFLP). It will only be available to [[Microsoft Software Assurance|Software Assurance]] customers. The aim of WinFLP is to give companies a viable upgrade option for older PC's that are running Windows 95, 98, ME, and 2000, that will be supported with patches and updates for the next several years. Most user applications will typically be run on a remote machine using Terminal Services or [[Citrix]].
== Late 2006: Windows Vista ==
[[Image:Vista_5308_Desktop.png|thumb|300px|Windows Vista desktop, from the February 2006 CTP release]]
{{main|Windows Vista}}
{{seealso|Features new to Windows Vista}}
The next client version of Windows, [[Windows Vista]], is expected in fall 2006. According to Microsoft, this will bring enhanced security from a new restricted user mode called [[User Account Protection]], replacing the "administrator-by-default" philosophy of Windows Xp. Vista will also feature advanced graphics features, a user interface called "[[Aero (user interface)|Aero]]", a number of new applications (such as [[Windows Calendar|Calendar]], [[Windows Defender|Defender]], a DVD maker, some new games including Chess, Mahjong, and [[Purble Place]]), a revised and more secure version of [[Internet Explorer]], a faster and more intuitive version of [[Windows Media Player]], and a large number of underlying architectural changes.
== 2007: Windows Server "Longhorn" ==
{{main|Windows Server "Longhorn"}}
The next version of Windows Server, currently scheduled for release in the first half of [[2007]], is known by the codename '''Windows Server "Longhorn"''', but given Microsoft's announcement that its server products will maintain the year based naming scheme, it is likely to be released as "Windows Server 2007". Server "Longhorn" builds on the technological and security advances first introduced with Windows Vista, and aims to be significantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003.
{{Clr}
== Future development: Windows "Vienna" ==
{{main|Windows "Vienna"}}
The next major release after Vista is code-named "[[Windows "Vienna"|Vienna]]", though in previous years was known by the code-name '''Blackcomb'''. Little is known about what Microsoft plans for the release of Windows following Vista.
{{Clr}}
== History of the Microsoft Operating Systems ==
===MS-DOS product progression===
* MS-DOS and [[PC-DOS]]
* Windows 1.0
* Windows 2.0
* Windows 2.1 (aka Windows/286 and Windows/386)
* Windows 3.0, Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11 (and Windows for Workgroups)
* Windows 95 (Windows 4.0)
* Windows 98 (Windows 4.1), Windows 98 Second Edition
* Windows Millennium Edition (Windows 4.9)
===OS/2 product progression===
* 16-bit Versions: OS/2 1.0 (CLI only), 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
* 32-bit Versions: OS/2 2.0, 2.1, 2.11, 2.11 SMP, Warp 3, Warp 4
* Until 32 bit Versions : [[OS/2 Warp 5]]
===Current NT-Line product progression===
* Windows NT 3.1, 3.5, 3.51
* Windows NT 4.0
* Windows 2000 (Windows NT 5.0)
* Windows XP (Windows NT 5.1)
* Windows Server 2003 (Windows NT 5.2)
== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
|align="center" |<b>Date</b>
|align="center" |<b>16-bit</b>
|align="center" |<b>16/32-bit</b>
|align="center" |<b>32-bit</b>
|align="center" |<b>64-bit</b>
|-
|align="right" {{highlight1}}|November, [[1985]]
|[[Windows 1.0]]
|
|
|
|-
|align="right" {{highlight1}}|[[1987]]
|[[Windows 2.0]]
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|}
----
==Other==
*[[Windows CE]]
*[[Windows Embedded]]
== See also ==
*[[Comparison of operating systems]]
*[[Apple v. Microsoft]]
*[[Blue Screen of Death]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[Operating system]]
*[[ReactOS]]
*[[Microsoft Version Number]]
*[[Microsoft codenames]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1895,1868435,00.asp PC Magazine's long article titled "20 Years of Windows"]
*[http://www.oldos.org Old Os (help get your old PC surfing again)]
*[http://www.toastytech.com/guis/ ToastyTech GUI Gallery (screenshots of early versions of Windows)]
*[http://www.win2000mag.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=4494 Windows NT and VMS: The Rest of the Story (discussion of VMS and WNT similarities)]
*[http://osviews.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=4484 Early Windows history (1982-1993)]
{{History_of_Windows}}
[[Category:Microsoft Windows|*History of Microsoft Windows]]
[[Category:History of computing|Microsoft Windows]]
[[es:Historia de Windows]]
[[i |
ld Series, certainly the best in a 4-game series. The Yankees batted .313 and averaged over 9 runs a game. [[Lou Gehrig]] did much of the damage. Gehrig went 9&ndash;17, a .529 average, scored 9 runs, drove in 8, and hit 3 home runs. The series, however, is remembered for one memorable play that occurred in game 3 of the series. It would be Babe Ruth's last great moment on the baseball stage, when he hit a famous home run that became known as [[Babe Ruth's Called Shot]].
==Decline and end with Yankees==
Despite his heroics in the [[1932 World Series]], Ruth was informed in 1933 by [[Ed Barrow]] that his salary would be cut 33%, from $75,000 to $50,000 a year. Ruth's salary had been cut before the 1932 season, but it was only a $5,000 cut. It was the [[Great Depression]], and teams were losing money, although the Yankees themselves were still making a profit. Cutting Ruth's pay was also part of Barrow and Ruppert's plan to phase Ruth out from the Yankees. With baseball's [[reserve clause]] firmly in place, Ruth, even with all his stature, had little negotiating power at this stage in his career. Ruth eventually settled to play for $52,000, although he was still the highest paid player in the game. Ruth was unhappy with the pay cut, but in these bad economic times, few people felt sorry for him.
Ruth remained productive in 1933, batting .301, with 34 home runs, 103 RBIs, and led the league in walks with 114. Although most major league players could only dream about these types of numbers, they were well below Ruth's previous standards. His [[batting average]] and [[slugging average]] were down over 40 points and 100 points, respectively, from his career averages, and he was also slow in the field. It was clear [[Father Time]] was eroding Ruth's skills. The Yankees did finish second to the [[Washington Senators]], but they never seriously threatened to win the pennant. At least to Barrow and Ruppert, Ruth and the Yankees' season justified his pay cut, and the next year, Ruth took another big pay cut down to $25,000 a year.
One highlight for Ruth during the season was when he hit the very first home run in the very first [[All-Star]] game, held [[July 6]], 1933, at [[Comiskey Park]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. His 2-run shot off Bill Hallahan helped the A.L. to a 4&ndash;2 win over the N.L., and he also made a fine defensive catch in the game.
After the season Ruth continued to press Barrow for a chance to manage the Yankees, but Barrow had no intentions of getting rid of manager [[Joe McCarthy (baseball)|Joe McCarthy]]. Ruth never liked the disciplinarian style of McCarthy, and had even stated he could do a better job managing the team. The Yankees never gave him the chance. The closest they came was offering him a chance to manage the Yankees [[farm team]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]], an offer Ruth scoffed at with justification. Players such as [[Ty Cobb]], [[Tris Speaker]], and 26-year-old [[Joe Cronin]] had been given big league managerial jobs with no previous managing experience. At one point Frank Navin, owner of the [[Detroit Tigers]], seemed serious about hiring Ruth to player-manage the Tigers. Ruth, however, put off a meeting with Navin to take a trip to [[Hawaii]], and Navin, never a particularly congenial man, essentially retracted any meeting with Ruth. Ruth never received a chance to manage, as owners apparently took to heart a statement Barrow had made about Ruth when he said, "How can he manage other men when he can't even manage himself?"
Ruth's play continued downward in 1934, and he finished the year with a .288 average and 22 home runs. It was understood during the season that it would be Ruth's last season in a Yankee uniform, and Ruth himself stated it might be the last year he played. He made the 1934 [[All-Star]] team, but certainly this was more an honorary selection than for his play on the field. During the game, he was the first of the five consecutive strikeout victims (with [[Lou Gehrig]], [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Al Simmons]], and [[Joe Cronin]]) of [[Carl Hubbell]], one of the most famous moments in All-Star game history. His last appearances around various cities was understood as his farewell tour, and a fairly large crowd turned out to see his last game at [[Yankee Stadium]].
After the 1934 season, Ruth went on a baseball barnstorming tour in the Far East. Players such as [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Lefty Gomez]], [[Earl Averill]], [[Charlie Gehringer]], and [[Lou Gehrig]] were among 14 players who played a series of 22 games. Seventeen of the games were played in [[Japan]], and the reception there was completely enthusiastic. Ruth was by far the most popular [[United States|American]] player in Japan, and over a half a million [[Japanese people|Japanese]] greeted him on his arrival. Baseball had been big in Japan for decades, so many Japanese baseball fans were well aware of Ruth. Riding in a car in [[Tokyo]], Ruth waved the American and Japanese flags, and a crowd of Japanese waved American flags back at him. The games were played in two different stadiums: [[Tokyo]]'s [[Meiji-Jingu Stadium]] which held over 60,000 fans and [[Koshien Stadium]] near [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]] which held over 80,000. Both sites had been sold out for weeks, and Ruth would excite the huge crowds with 13 home runs in the 17 games. The tour in [[Japan]] was a complete success, and in just a couple of years, Japan organized its first professional baseball league, the [[Japanese Baseball|Japan Professional Baseball Association]].
==Return to Boston==
In 1935, [[Boston Braves]] owner [[Emil Fuchs]] was looking to jumpstart the Braves franchise. A perennial cellar-dweller, the Braves had improved somewhat, but the [[Great Depression|Depression]] had killed off attendance and Fuchs was desperate to revive fan interest and revenue. Fuchs was very interested in Ruth and worked out a complex deal with Barrow and Ruppert to get Ruth in February, 1935. Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the team's profits, a managerial job as assistant to Braves manager Bill Mckechnie (with a good chance to succeed him next year), and Ruth could play whenever he wanted. All parties seemed happy with the deal, and with much media hoopla, Ruth returned to the city that gave him his major league start.
[[Image:Ruth1935.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth in a Boston Braves uniform in 1935, his last year as a player.]]
On opening day before a home capacity crowd of over 25,000, Ruth was responsible for all the Braves runs in a 4&ndash;2 win over [[Carl Hubbell]] and the [[New York Giants]]. It was just one game, but fan excitement for the Braves was as high as it had ever been. The euphoria quickly died away. Ruth completely stopped hitting, was clumsy in the field, and soon missed a dozen or so games. The Braves were as bad as they had ever been, and the few fans that showed up booed the team. Ruth was also miffed that Mckechnie ignored any of his managerial advice. Seeing a franchise in disarray, Ruth soon realized that Fuch's promise of a stake in the Braves profits was a lot of hot air, as there would be few profits for a losing team that had little fan support.
On [[May 25]], [[1935]], at [[Forbes Field]], [[Pittsburgh]], Ruth gave one last glimpse of how great a player he was. He went 4&ndash;4, drove in 6 runs, and hit 3 home runs in an 11&ndash;7 loss to the Pirates. The last home run was said to be the longest ball ever hit at Forbes Field. It was his 714th and last home run, and last hit. He hung on for another few days, and on [[May 30]] in [[Philadelphia]], played in his last major league game. He struck out in the first inning and, while playing the field in the same inning, hurt his [[knee]] and left the game. Ruth would never play another big league game.
Fuchs and Ruth's relationship soured badly. Fuchs blamed Ruth for the Braves' failures, and Ruth believed Fuchs had lied to him about the Braves franchise. On [[June 1]], after having had another argument with Fuchs, Ruth stated to reporters, "I'm quitting." The experiment with Fuchs, Ruth and the Braves was a complete failure for all parties. Fuchs, who was deeply in debt, saw revenue and attendance continue to fall, and soon lost ownership control of the team. Ruth played in only 28 games and batted a dismal .181 in 72 at-bats while striking out 24 times in his last season as a player. The season for the Braves was a complete disaster, as they finished 38&ndash;115, a .248 winning percentage, the third worst percentage in major league history.
==Retirement and later years==
When Ruth retired in 1935, many of his major batting records seemed almost untouchable. He held the records for career [[bases on balls]] (2,062), bases on balls in a season (170), [[on-base percentage]] (.474, although a statistic not yet created during Ruth's era), career [[RBI]]s (2,213), career [[slugging average]] (.690), slugging average in a season (.847), [[home run]]s in a season (60), home run ratio (1 every 11.76 at bats), and career home runs (714). His career home run total at his retirement was twice that of the next nearest player, [[Lou Gehrig]]. It took many decades, but, except for his career slugging average, all of these major records have fallen, including the fabled 60 and 714 home run marks. Over the years, Ruth's image, and even his 60 and 714 numbers, grew into an almost sacred status among some [[fan (aficionado)|fans]], so much so that when [[Roger Maris]] and [[Hank Aaron]] both approached, and eventually surpassed both these records, respectively, both men were deluged with [[hate mail]].
Although many of his batting records have been surpassed, a strong case can be made that Ruth still owns the greatest career batting numbers of any player in baseball history, and a major reason why Ruth's name grew into an almost legendary and iconic figure.
In 1936, Ruth was one of the |
a viable airliner.
In [[October 2005]], [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]], the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency, undertook aerodynamic testing of a scale model of a plane designed to carry 300 passengers at Mach 2. If pursued to commercial deployment, it would be expected to be in service around 2020 - 2025. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4325634.stm]
==Films and television==
The Concorde has been featured or mentioned in:
*''[[The Concorde: Airport '79]]'': The Concorde used for the live-action aerial filming was the same Air France Concorde that crashed 21 years later on [[25 July]], [[2000]].
* ''[[The Concorde Affair]]'' (''Concorde Affaire'' in orig.) Italy 1979. Director: Ruggero Deodato
*''[[Moonraker]]'': Upon James Bond's arrival in Rio de Janeiro, a Concorde landing is shown, indicating that 007 flew to Brazil on an Air France Concorde.
*''[[Doctor Who]]'': Featured in the 1983 story '[[Time-Flight]]'
*''[[The Transformers]]'', as the [[Aerialbot]] leader [[Silverbolt]].
*''[[Coming to America]]'': Prince Akeem and Semmi arrive in New York on a British Airways Concorde.
*''[[Sabrina (1995 film)|Sabrina]]'': Linus takes the Concorde to beat Sabrina to [[Paris]].
*''[[Snatch (film)|Snatch]]'': The character Cousin Avy flew from New York City to London to see Doug the Head and flew back in the closing scene of the film.
*''[[The Parent Trap]]'': Hallie gets to London in "half the time" by taking the Concorde (no actual appearance).
*''[[National Treasure]]'': In the scene on the [[USS Intrepid]], the Concorde can be seen sitting on a barge in the Hudson River.
*''[[The Bonfire of the Vanities]]'': Maria Ruskin ([[Melanie Griffith]]) arrives in New York on an [[Air France]] Concorde. The film's Second Unit Director, Eric Schwab, went to considerable effort to calculate the exact time and day when a runway at JFK would line up exactly with the setting sun, to serve as a spectacular backdrop for the landing Concorde.
*''[[Superman II]]'': Superman flies past concorde on the way to Paris, France to save Lois Lane who is stuck under an elevator plunging from the top of the Eiffel Tower with a hydrogen bomb in the elevator
==See also==
*[[Boeing 2707]]
*[[Tupolev Tu-144]]
*[[Supersonic transport]]
*[[Hypersonic|Hypersonic transport]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[G-BBDG]]
==External links==
{{commons|Concorde}}
* [http://www.concordesst.com "Concorde SST" fan site]
* [http://www.concorde-jet.com "Concorde Jet" fan site]
* [http://www.technik-museum.de/ Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim] (in German; has streaming video)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/uk/2003/concorde_retirement/default.stm "Farewell to Concorde"] (BBC)
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/taxiway.fr/gb/concorde.htm Guided tour of Concorde in Toulouse]
* [http://www.intrepidmuseum.org/visitinfo_webcam.html NYC Intrepid Museum webcam]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078740/ ''Airport 79: The Concorde''] (Internet Movie Database entry)
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078989/ ''Concorde Affaire ''] (Internet Movie Database entry)
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/aerospatiale/concorde/ Aircraft-Info.net - Concorde]
* [http://y2u.co.uk/&002_Images/Concorde%2001.htm Concorde on display at Manchester Airport - UK]
* [http://www.nms.ac.uk/concorde National Museums of Scotland: Concorde at the Museum of Flight]
* [http://flyawaysimulation.com/article508.html Concorde SST Tribute]
* [http://www.darsys.com/concorde.html Concorde Tribute Page]
* [http://www.darsys.com/cweb Detailed Passenger Experience w/photos]
* [http://www.ba001.com BA001 Trip Report & Concorde fan page]
* [http://www.britishairways.com/travel/concvidwm/public/en_gb Take off and landing video clips from the final flights] (BA)
* [http://www.elettra.co.uk/concorde/ Concorde appreciation web site]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/spot/concorde.html Concorde Profile ]
* [http://www.concordecollectables.com Concorde Gifts and Memorabilia. Original Concorde Aircraft Parts]
* [http://forscene.net/sc1/published/ny1-1113694002.mon/index.html 2003 Amateur Video] (Unscheduled stop at Gander due to unusually hot weather enroute to New York)
{{airlistbox}}
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[[zh:协和飞机]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Copycat</title>
<id>7046</id>
<revision>
<id>42007498</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:36:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Midusunknown</username>
<id>901621</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>DV8's copycat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''copycat''''' (also written as '''''copy-cat''''' or '''''copy cat''''') refers to the tendency of humans to duplicate the [[behavior]] of others, as expressed in the saying, "[[monkey]] see, monkey do."
This notably happens in the case of "copycat crimes", where a notorious or unusual crime inspires a wave of similar activity; this can happen with crimes ranging from [[shoplifting]] of particular items and [[graffiti]], up to [[copycat suicide]]s and [[murder]]s. The term is used both for the act and for the person. It is often used in the derogatory sense, meaning a [[plagiarism|plagiarist]]. The "[[copycat effect]]" refers to the tendency of sensational publicity about a violent murder or suicide to cause more of the same.
The expression may have originated from observing the habits of [[kitten]]s that learned by imitating the behaviors of their mother. Copycat has been in recorded use since at least [[1896 in literature|1896]], in [[Sarah Orne Jewett|Sarah Orne Jewett's]] "[[The Country of Pointed Firs]]" but the expression could be many decades older.
*'''[[Copycat (movie)|Copycat]]''' is also the name of a 1995 thriller starring [[Sigourney Weaver]] about a serial murderer in San Franscico whose [[modus operandi|MO]] is to copy the killings of high profile killers.
*'''CopyCat''' is also an alternative "full name" for [[CC (cat)]], a [[Cloning|cloned]] cat created in 2001.
*'''[[Copycat (software)|Copycat]]''' is also a computer model of analogy-making, developed by [[Douglas Hofstadter]] and [[Melanie Mitchell]].
*The '''Copycats''' are a villainous musical band of [[anthropomorphic]] cats in the cartoon [[Kidd Video]].
*'''Copycat''' is also the name of a character of the Marvel Universe. A mutant, whose ability was to duplicate the form of any person nearby. [[Copycat (comics)|Copycat]] was later killed by [[Sabretooth (comics)|Sabretooth]].
*'''[[Copycat (Wildstorm)|Copycat]]''' is also the name of a character of the [[Wildstorm Comics|Wildstorm Universe]]. She is a genetically enhanced member of the super team [[DV8]].
*'''Copycat''' is also the nickname of a very minor character in the [[Pokémon Red and Blue|Pokémon Red/Blue]]/[[Pokémon Yellow|Yellow]] games in [[Saffron City]]. Giving her a PokéDoll will make her happy enough to give you TM 31, Mimic, which makes the user copy one enemy attack.
*The [[Copycat effect]] is where reporting on a tragic event causes others to perform similar behaviour.
*'''Copycat''' is the name of a [[Java]] sketchpad that records writing and speaking, see [https://copycat.dev.java.net/ Copycat]
==See also==
*[[Meme]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Popular psychology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cannon</title>
<id>7053</id>
<revision>
<id>41275145</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:46:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dhp1080</username>
<id>884053</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.253.26.200|24.253.26.200]] to last version by Marian Gladis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Cannon_pic.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage]]
A '''cannon''' is any large tubular [[firearm]] designed to fire a heavy [[projectile]] over a considerable distance. The term can apply to a modern day [[rifled]] [[machine gun]] with a [[calibre]] of 20 mm or more (see [[autocannon]]).
'''Cannon''' also refers to a large, smooth-bored, [[muzzle-loading]] [[gun]] used before the advent of [[breech-loading]], [[rifled]] guns firing explosive [[shell (projectile)|shell]]s.
"Cannon" derives from the Latin ''canna'' (a tube). ''Bombard'' was earlier used for "cannon", but from the early 15th century came to refer only to the largest weapons. "Cannon" can serve both as the singular and plural of the noun.
==History==
[[Image:Tir.jpg|thumb|Firing of a naval 18-pounder gun]]
The oldest evidence for the use of cannon is a relief carved by Buddhist monks in China in 1128, where a cannon is portrayed among other weapons of war. In the West, the use of cannon was first recorded in the battles of the early 14th century, for instance, at the siege of [[Metz]] in 1324, and by the English against the Scots in 1327. The earliest listing of firearms in an army inventory is in 1326. The new weapon's popularity is indicated by cannon being regarded "as common and familiar as any weapon" by 1350. The first cannon were of two types, small guns of cast [[bronze]] or larger, banded wrought [[iron]] cannon. Developments in [[gunpowder]] in the 1400s helped speed the military adoption of cannon. The actual effectiveness of these early weapons is not clear; battle reports of the time tend to exaggerate. However, |
betydelser)]]
[[th:เคมบริดจ์ (แก้ความกำกวม)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cambridge University</title>
<id>5687</id>
<revision>
<id>34758629</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T14:51:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wooster</username>
<id>11896</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm random invisible rubbish</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colin Dexter</title>
<id>5688</id>
<revision>
<id>41807192</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:56:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''(Norman) Colin Dexter''' is the [[United Kingdom|British]] author of the [[Inspector Morse]] novels. Dexter was born in [[Stamford, England|Stamford]], [[Lincolnshire]], on [[29 September]] [[1930]] and was educated at [[Stamford School]]. After National Service with the [[Royal Corps of Signals]] he read [[Classics]] at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], graduating in [[1953]].
In [[1954]] he started his teaching career in the [[East Midlands]], becoming assistant classics master at [[Wyggeston and Queen Elizabeth I College|Wyggeston School]], [[Leicester]]. A post at [[Loughborough Grammar School]] followed, before he took up the position of senior classics teacher at Corby Grammar School, [[Northamptonshire]], in [[1959]].
In [[1966]] he was forced by the onset of [[hearing impairment|deafness]] to retire from teaching, and took up the post of Senior Assistant Secretary at the Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations in [[Oxford]] - a job he held until his retirement in [[1988]].
He started writing mysteries in [[1972]] during a family holiday: "We were in a little guest house halfway between [[Caernarfon]] and [[Pwllheli]]. It was a Saturday and it was raining - it's not unknown for it to rain in
north [[Wales]]. The children were moaning ... I was sitting at the kitchen table with nothing else to do, and I wrote the first few paragraphs of a
potential detective novel." ''Last Bus to Woodstock'' was published in [[1975]] and introduced the world to the character of Inspector Morse, the irascible detective whose penchants for [[cryptic crossword]]s, [[English literature]], [[cask ale]] and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] reflect Dexter's own enthusiasms.
The success of the [[TV series]] based on ''Inspector Morse'' and produced between [[1987]] and [[2001]], brought further acclaim for Colin Dexter. In the manner of [[Alfred Hitchcock]], he also makes a [[cameo appearance]] in each of the episodes.
Colin Dexter has been the recipient of several [[Crime Writers Association]] "Golden Dagger" awards, and in [[2000]] he was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for services to literature.
''See also'': [[Diogenes Small]]
==Bibliography==
*''Last Bus to Woodstock'' (1975) #
*''Last Seen Wearing'' (1976) #
*''The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn'' (1977) #
*''Service of All the Dead'' (1979) #
*''The Dead of Jericho'' (1981) #
*''The Riddle of the Third Mile'' (1983) #
*''The Secret of Annexe 3'' (1986) #
*''The Wench is Dead'' (1989) #
*''The Jewel That Was Ours'' (1991) #
*''The Way Through the Woods'' (1992) #
*''The Inside Story'' (1993) #
*''Morse's Greatest Mystery'' [Short stories] (1993)
#"Morse's Greatest Mystery" #
#"Evans Tries an O-level"
#"Dead as a Dodo #
#"At The Lulu-bar Motel"
#"Neighbourhood Watch" #
#"A Case of Mis-identity"
#"The Inside Story" #
#"Monty's Revolver"
#"The Carpet-bagger"
#"Last Call" #
*''Neighbourhood Watch'' (1993) #
*''The Daughters of Cain'' (1994)
*''As Good as Gold'' [Short stories] (1994) #
#"Morse's Greatest Mystery" #
#"Evans Tries an O-level"
#"Dead as a Dodo #
#"At The Lulu-bar Motel"
#"Neighbourhood Watch" #
#"A Case of Mis-identity"
#"The Inside Story" #
#"Monty's Revolver"
#"The Carpet-bagger"
#"Last Call" #
#"As Good as Gold" #
*''Death is Now My Neighbour'' (1996) #
*''The Remorseful Day'' (1999) #
<nowiki>#</nowiki> Inspector Morse series
Note: "Neighbourhood Watch" and "The Inside Story" were published both as separate books and in ''Morse's Greatest Mystery''. ''As Good as Gold'' includes all the stories in ''Morse's Greatest Mystery'' plus the story "As Good as Gold." "Neighbourhood Watch" was published as special, extremely limited edition, ''The Inside Story'' and ''As Good as Gold'' were published as advertisements for [[American Express]] and [[Kodak]], respectively.
==Resource==
*[http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/colindexterbib.htm Illustrated Bibliography of 1st Editions]
[http://www.inspectormorse.co.uk/ The Inspector Morse Page]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:British crime writers|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:English mystery writers|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:English novelists|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire]]
[[de:Colin Dexter]]
[[fr:Colin Dexter]]
[[ja:コリン・デクスター]]
[[nl:Colin Dexter]]
[[no:Colin Dexter]]
[[fi:Colin Dexter]]
[[sv:Colin Dexter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>College</title>
<id>5689</id>
<revision>
<id>42047109</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:51:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The non-English-speaking world */ dab. Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''college''' ([[Latin]] '''collegium''') is most often used today to denote an [[education]]al [[institution]]. More broadly, it can be the name of any [[group]] of [[colleague]]s (see for example [[electoral college]], [[College of Arms]]). Originally it meant a group of [[person|people]] living together under a common set of [[rule]]s (''con-'', "together" + ''leg-'', "law"); as a consequence members of colleges were originally styled "[[fellow]]s" and still are in some places. The precise usage of the term varies among [[English language|English]]-speaking countries.
== United Kingdom ==
[[United Kingdom|British]] usage of the word "college" remains the loosest, encompassing a range of institutions:
* certain [[independent schools|public schools]] for children such as [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Winchester College|Winchester]]
* certain [[secondary education| secondary schools]], particularly "[[sixth form college|sixth form colleges]]", where students (ages 16-18) finish their secondary education, and some [[specialist school|specialist schools]]
* the constituent parts of some [[universities]] (see below)
* [[university college]]s &mdash; independent higher education institutions that have been granted degree-awarding powers but not [[university]] status.
* colleges of [[further education]] and [[adult education]].
* professional associations such as the [[Royal College of Organists]], the [[Royal College of Surgeons]] and other various [[Royal College]]s.
* the [[College of Justice]] or [[Court of Session]] of [[Scotland]]
In general use, a "college" refers to; institutions between secondary school and university, colleges of further education and adult education. Many types of institutions have "college" in its name but are not "colleges" in the general use of the word. For example Eton College would not be refered to as a college, but as a school or by its full name.
===Universities and colleges===
In relation to universities, the term ''college'' normally refers to a part of the university which does not have degree-awarding powers in itself. Degrees are always awarded by ''universities'', ''colleges'' are institutions or organisations which prepare students for the degree. In some cases, colleges prepare students for the degree of a university of which the college is a part (eg colleges of the [[University of London]], [[University of Cambridge]], etc) and in some cases colleges are independent institutions which prepare students to sit as external candidates at other universities (eg many higher education colleges prepare students to sit for external examinations of universities). In the past, many of what are now universities with their own degree-awarding powers were colleges which had their degrees awarded by either a federal university (eg [[Cardiff University]]) or another university (eg many of the [[Post-1992 university|post-1992 universities]]).
====Oxford and Cambridge====
The two [[ancient universities]] of [[England]]: [[University of Oxford |Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge |Cambridge]] (collectively termed [[Oxbridge]]), are [[federation]]s of [[autonomous]] colleges. While many of the [[Student Affairs]] functions are housed in the colleges, each college is more than a [[residence hall]].
In addition to [[dwelling|accommodation]], [[meal]]s, [[Junior Common Room|common room]]s, [[libraries]], [[sport]]ing and social facilities for its students, each college admits students to the University and, through [[tutorial]]s or supervisions, contributes to the work of educating them.
The [[Faculty (university)|faculties]] at each university provide [[lecture]]s, central facilities such as libraries and laboratories, and examines for and awards degrees. Academic staff are commonly employed both by the university (typically as [[lecturer]] or [[professor]]) and by a college (as [[fellow]] or [[tutor]]), though some may have only a college or university post. Nearly all colleges cater to students studying a range of |
sed forged or fraudulently obtained passports and other identity documents from Australia, Canada, the United States and other countries.
Senior leadership also typically still attempt to keep their legal names from common circulation, although this has became more difficult through the second half of the 1990s, due to legal action in many countries. In particular, a major court case in England brought to light many formerly guarded names of senior members.
In The Family's publications printed photographs of WS members were typically "censored" by means of a rudimentary pencil drawing pasted over the person's face. It was not uncommon in Family-produced art for Berg's head to be replaced with that of a hand-drawn lion.
Following the death of David Berg in 1994, all members of The Family and the public were finally allowed to see up-to-date photographs of the organization's late founder. For many members this was the first time they had ever seen a photograph of his face. In recent years, Steven Kelly has carried pictures of Karen Zerby with him on travels to show members, since most have never seen a picture of their spiritual leader prior to this.
Although, by now, most of the group's members will have seen photographs or video footage of Karen Zerby and Steven Kelly, their identities and location are still heavily guarded by those members working closest to them. Recent photographs or video footage of Karen Zerby, Steven Kelly, and most WS members are not readily available even to fulltime members of The Family. Some may argue that it is unique that the organization's leadership neither seeks the limelight, nor lives at a higher standard than the rank and file, which is often not the case with other religious leaders and organizations.
====Finances====
Family finances are based on a system of [[tithe|tithing]]. Ten percent of all income for all members is required to be donated to World Services. A further three percent, typical in every region, is to be donated to the regional offices for locally administered projects and a community lending program. A further one percent is given for regional literature publishing.
A study of how The Family channels funds around the world is very interesting from a sociological angle since it depends largely on trust of carefully placed non-senior members who typically manage bank accounts in their own names that contain organization funds. Surprisingly, very little graft has been experienced, and the notable cases involved insubstantial amounts of money.
Organization literature includes many discussions of impending world financial doom. The Family as a result has gone to considerable lengths to avoid investments and actions that it deems unstable in the event of a world financial crash. Typically, they store any reserves in Japanese Yen, Swiss Francs, or gold.
The Family has consistently avoided property investments and stocks or bonds, believing them to be contrary to the scriptural requirements for Christian discipleship and their [[End times|End time]] beliefs.
==Criticism==
The group has often and heavily been criticized by the press and the [[anti-cult movement]]. In 1971, an organization called [[FREECOG]] was founded by concerned family members of followers, including [[deprogramming|deprogrammer]] [[Ted Patrick]], to "free" them from their involvement in the group.
Frequently, critics of the movement cite the writings of David Berg and/or specific incidents and behavior of certain individuals, including members of the leadership. Family members meanwhile argue that the entire volume of writings of Father David do not reflect either the fundamental beliefs (contained in the "Statement of Faith") or the organization's policies (contained in the Charter, published in 1995). Likewise, they reject the concept of the entire group being blamed for the alleged wrongdoing of individuals.
The controversy over the movement has generated strong feelings in both current and ex-members. An example of the contrasting interpretations of Family life can be seen in the accounts of second generation members: former members at [http://www.movingon.org/abuse.asp Movingon.Org] and (mostly) current members at MyConclusion.com<ref name="MyConclusion"/>.
==Notable members (past and present) ==
Actors [[River Phoenix]], [[Joaquin Phoenix]], [[Summer Phoenix]], [[Rain Phoenix]], and [[Rose McGowan]] were members of the group during their childhood. Renowned [http://www.fleetwoodmac.net/penguin/rrhof.htm] [[blues]] [[slide guitar|slide guitarist]] [[Jeremy Spencer]] [http://jeremyspencer.com/], a founding member of [[Fleetwood Mac]], has been a member of the group since 1971. Comedian [[Tina Dupuy]] [http://www.tinadupuy.com] was also a member, and now mentions her childhood in the group in her act.
==Statistics==
According to the Children of God, there were 130 [[Intentional Community|communes]] or "colonies" in 15 countries in 1972. In 1993, 7,000 of the 10,000 members were under 18 years of age. Recent statistics by The Family International puts full-time and fellow members at just over 11,200 in over 100 countries (around 4,000 adult full-time members and 4,000 children). Some estimates have placed the total number of people that have passed through the group at 35,000.
==Programs, projects, and productions==
:''Main article: [[Programs, projects, and productions of the Children of God]].''
The Family International (as the group calls itself today) or The Family International Fellowship has various programs through which it operates. The main ones include ''Family Care Foundation'' (FCF), ''Aurora Productions AG'', and [[Activated Ministries]]. However, the group has many other local foundations and projects in various countries throughout the world.
==Leadership, Regional Offices, and Management==
:''Main article: [[Leadership and Management of the Children Of God]].''
The leadership of The Family International is headed by:
* Karen Elva Zerby
: - spiritual leader of The Family International
: - American
: - legally changed her name ''to'' Katherine Rianna Smith, 4-Nov-1997
: - Aliases: Maria, Mama, Maria Fontaine, Maria David, Maria Berg, or Queen Maria
* Steven Douglas Kelly
: - head-leader of The Family International
: - American
: - legally changed his name ''to'' Chris Smith
: - Aliases: Peter Amsterdam or King Peter
Under them, management is divided into ''World Services'', ''Creations'', and ''Family Care Foundation''.
Each region is managed by a team of Continental Officers (COs), each team typically having five to seven members. The management structures beneath the CO team are more variable and their members are changed frequently.
==References==
<references/>
==Sources==
===Academic===
*Chancellor, James (2000). "Life in The Family: An Oral History of the Children of God". ''University of Syracuse Press'', Syracuse, NY.
* Bainbridge, William Sims (1996). "The Sociology of Religious Movements". ''Routledge''. ISBN 0-4159-1202-4.
* Barker, Eileen. (1989). "New Religious Movements, A Practical Introduction". ''Her Majesty's Stationery Office''. ISBN 0-1134-0927-3.
* Barrett, DV (1996). "Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions". ''Blandford A. Cassell''. ISBN 0-7137-2567-2.
* Boeri, Miriam Williams (2002). "Women After the Utopia: The Gendered Lives of Former Cult Members". Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 31(3), 323-360.
* Kent, Stephen A. (1994). [http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~skent/Linkedfiles/lustfulprophet.htm "Lustful prophet: A psychosexual historical study of the children of god's leader, David Berg."] ''Cultic Studies Journal'' '''11''' (2), 135-188.
* Kent, Stephen A. (1994). [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Misattribution_and_Social_Control_in_the_Children_of_God "Misattribution and social control in the Children of God."] ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''33''' (1), 29&ndash;43.
* Kent, Stephen A. (2000). [http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~skent/Linkedfiles/cog_brainwashing.htm "Brainwashing and re-indoctrination programs in the Children of God/The Family."] ''Cultic Studies Journal'' '''17''', 56&ndash;78.
* Lewis, James R, and Melton, J. Gordon (eds). (1994). [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/toc.htm ''Sex, Slander, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God'']. ''Center for Academic Press'', Stanford, CA.
* Lynch, Dalva, and Paul Carden (1990). [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0075a.html "Inside the 'Heavenly Elite': The Children of God Today."]. ''Christian Research Journal'', pp 16.
* McFarland, Robert (1994). [http://www.vote.org/ramsey/cults.htm "The Children of God."] ''The Journal of Psychohistory'' '''4'''(21).
* Melton, J. Gordon (2004). ''[http://www.signaturebooks.com/children.htm The Children of God, "The Family" (Studies in Contemporary Religion vol. 7)]''. Signature Books. ISBN 1-5608-5180-5.
* Melton, J. Gordon and Robert L. Moore (1982). "The Cult Experience: Responding to the New Religious Pluralism". ''The Pilgrim Press'', New York, USA.
* Palmer, Susan J. (1994). [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/chapter1.htm "Heaven's Children: The Children of God's Second Generation"] in ''Sex, Slander, and Salvation'', ''op. cit.''
* Palmer, Susan J., and Charlotte Hardman eds. (1999). ''Children in New Religions'' (3rd ed.). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2620-5.
* Shepherd, Gary, and Lawrence Lilliston (1994). [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/chapter5.htm "Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family"] in ''Sex, Slander, and Salvation'', ''op. cit.''
* Shepherd, Gary, and Shepherd, Gordon (August 2005). [http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/nr.2005.9.1.067 "Accommodation and Reformation in The Family |
[[avant-garde]] [[performance art]] group [[Exit (performance art group)|EXIT]] [[Penny Rimbaud]] (real name Jerry Ratter) began [[jamming]] with [[The Clash|Clash]] fan [[Steve Ignorant]], who was staying at the house at the time. Between them they put together the songs "So What?" and "Do They Owe Us A Living?" as a drums and vocals duo. For a (very) short period of time they called themselves '''Stormtrooper''', before choosing the name '''Crass''', a reference to the [[David Bowie]] song "[[Ziggy Stardust]]" (specifically the line "The kids was just crass").
Other members of the household began to join in, and it was not long before Crass performed their first live gig as part of a [[squat]]ted street festival at Huntley Street, North London. Here they had intended to play a set of five songs; however, the "plug was pulled" on them by the organisers after four. Shortly afterwards they played at the legendary [[Roxy Club|Roxy]] punk club in London's [[Covent Garden]] area. By the band's own account this was a [[drunkenness|drunken]] debacle, ending in the group being ejected from the stage, and immortalised by their song "Banned from the Roxy" [http://www.lyricstime.com/lyrics/50021.html] and Rimbaud's essay ''Crass at the Roxy'' [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/anthem1/anthem1_4.html]. Other early gigs included regularly playing alongside the [[UK Subs]] at the White Lion [[pub]] in [[Putney]]. These performances were often not well-attended; "The audience consisted mostly of us when the Subs played and the Subs when we played." [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/]
[[Image:libertine1.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Eve Libertine]] performing with Crass at the [[Wapping]] Anarchist Centre, [[London]], December 1981]]
A while later, the band decided to take themselves more seriously, particularly paying more attention to their presentation. As well as avoiding [[recreational drug use|drug]]s such as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] before gigs, they also adopted a policy of wearing black, [[military surplus]]-style clothing at all times, whether on or off stage. They also introduced their distinctive stage backdrop, a [[Logotype|logo]] designed by Rimbaud's friend Dave King (later of [[Sleeping Dogs Lie (band)|Sleeping Dogs Lie]]), as pictured below on the sleeve of ''[[The Feeding of the 5000 (album)|The Feeding Of The 5000]]''. This gave the band a [[militarism|militaristic]] image, which led some to accuse them of [[fascism]]. Crass countered that their uniform appearance was intended to be a statement against the "cult of the personality", so that, in contrast to the norm for many [[rock band]]s, no member would be identified as the 'leader'.
The aforementioned logo represented an amalgamation of several "[[icon]]s of authority" including the [[Christian Cross]], the [[swastika]] and the [[Union Flag]] combined with a two headed snake consuming itself (to symbolise the idea that power will eventually destroy itself). Using such deliberately mixed messages was also part of Crass' strategy of presenting themselves as a "barrage of contradictions", which also included using loud, aggressive music to promote a [[pacifism|pacifist]] message, and was in part a reference to their own [[Dada]]ist and performance art backgrounds.
The band also eshewed any elaborate stage lighting during live sets, instead preferring to be illuminated by a simple bare light bulb. The band also pioneered [[multimedia]] presentation techniques, fully utilising video technology and using back-projected films and video collages made by [[Mick Duffield]] and [[Gee Vaucher]] to enhance their performances.
[[image:crassbanner1.jpg|thumb|left|Sleeve art for Crass' ''The Feeding Of The 5000'' 12" record, illustrating the band's logo]]
==[[Crass Records]]==
Crass' first release was ''The Feeding Of The 5000'', an 18 track 12" 45 rpm EP on the [[Small Wonder Records|Small Wonder]] label in [[1978]]. Workers at the pressing plant initially refused to handle it due to the allegedly [[blasphemy|blasphemous]] content of the song "Reality Asylum." The record was eventually released with this track removed and replaced by two minutes of silence, ironically titled "The Sound Of Free Speech". This incident also prompted Crass to set up their own record label, [[Crass Records]], in order to retain full editorial control over their material, and "Reality Asylum" was shortly afterwards issued in a re-recorded and extended form as a 7" single. A later pressing of the album on Crass Records restored the missing track.
As well as their own material, Crass Records released recordings by other performers, the first of which was the [[1980]] single "You Can Be You" by [[Honey Bane]], a teenage girl who was staying at Dial House whilst on the run from a children's home. Other artists included [[Zounds (band)|Zounds]], [[Flux Of Pink Indians]], [[Rudimentary Peni]], [[Conflict (band)|Conflict]], [[Iceland]]ic band [[KUKL]] (who included singer [[Björk]]), [[European classical music|classical]] singer [[Jane Gregory]], and the [[Poison Girls]], a like-minded band who worked closely with Crass for several years.
They also put out three editions of ''[[Bullshit Detector]]'', compilations of demos and rough recordings which had been sent to the band, and which they felt represented the [[DIY punk ethic]].
The catalogue numbers of Crass Records releases were intended to represent a countdown to the year [[1984]] (eg, 521984 meaning "five years until 1984"), both the year that Crass stated that they would split up, and a date charged with significance in the anti-authoritarian calendar due to [[George Orwell]]'s novel of the same name (see [[1984 (novel)]]).
==''Penis Envy'', ''Christ the Album'' and a change of strategy==
[[Image:Crass3.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Crass at the [[Digbeth Civic Hall]], [[Birmingham]], 1981]]
Crass released their third album ''[[Penis Envy (record)|Penis Envy]]'' in [[1981]]. This marked a departure from the somewhat [[testosterone]]-driven 'hardcore punk' image that ''Feeding of the 5000'' and its follow up ''[[Stations of the Crass]]'' had to some extent given the group. It featured more complex musical arrangements and exclusively female vocals provided by [[Eve Libertine]] and [[Joy De Vivre]] (although Steve Ignorant remained a group member and is credited on the record sleeve as ''not on this recording'').
The album addressed [[feminist]] issues and once again attacked the institutions of 'the system' such as [[marriage]] and [[sexual repression]]. One track, a deliberately [[saccharine]] [[parody]] of a '[[MOR]]' love song entitled "Our Wedding", was given away as a [[flexi disc]] with a teenage girl's romance magazine after the magazine was offered it by an organisation calling itself "Creative Recording And Sound Services" (note the initials). A minor [[tabloid]] controversy resulted once the hoax was revealed, with the [[News of the World]] going so far as to state that the album's title was "too obscene to print".
The band's fourth LP, [[1982]]'s double set ''[[Christ The Album]]'', took over a year to record, produce and mix, during which time the [[Falklands War]] had broken out and ended. This caused Crass to fundamentally question their approach to making records. As a group whose primary purpose was to comment upon political issues, they felt they had been overtaken and made to appear redundant by real world events. Subsequent releases, including the singles "How does it Feel to Be the Mother of A Thousand Dead" and "Sheep Farming in the Falklands", and the album ''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'', saw the band strip their sound back to basics and were issued as "tactical responses" to political situations. They also anonymously produced a flexi-disc featuring a live recording of "Sheep Farming...", copies of which were randomly inserted into the sleeves of other records by sympathetic workers in distribution warehouses as a means of spreading their views to those who might not normally hear them.
==Direct Action, 'Thatchergate' and internal debates==
[[Image:Stations.jpeg|thumb|left|Detail from front cover artwork from ''Stations of the Crass'', illustrating an example of the stenciled graffiti used by the band ]]
From their earliest days of spraying stencilled [[graffiti]] around the [[London Underground]] network [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09400a.html], the band had always been involved in [[direct action]] as well as musical activities. In [[1983]] and [[1984]] they were part of the [[Stop the City]] actions that can be seen as fore-runners of the early 21st century [[Anti-globalization movement|anti-globalisation protest]]s. Explicit support for such activities was given in the lyrics of the band's final single release "You're Already Dead", which also saw Crass abandoning their long time commitment to pacifism. This led to further introspection within the band, with some members feeling that they were beginning to become embittered as well as losing sight of their essentially positive stance. As a reflection of this debate, the next release using the Crass name was ''[[Acts of Love]]'', [[European classical music|classical music]] settings of 50 poems by Penny Rimbaud described as "songs to my other self" and intended to celebrate "'the profound sense of unity, peace and love that exists within that other self."
A further post-Falklands war [[hoax]] that originated from members of Crass garnered enough attention to elicit fears of [[KGB]] activity from the [[Reagan Administration]]. Known as 'the [[Thatchergate]] tapes', this was a [[Compact audio cassette|cassette]] featuring a faked conversation |
able whether these things alone constitute imperialism, or whether such "imperialism" adequately resembles past incarnations &mdash; Roman, British, German or otherwise.
==Marxist theory of Imperialism==
[[Karl Marx]] never published a theory of imperialism, although he referred to [[colonialism]] in [[Das Kapital]] as an aspect of the prehistory of the [[capitalist mode of production]]. In various articles he also analysed British colonial rule in Ireland and India.
[[Marxism|Marxists]] use the term ''imperialism'' as [[Lenin]] defined it: "the highest stage of capitalism", specifically the era in which monopoly finance capital becomes dominant, forcing nations and corporations to compete amongst themselves increasingly for control over resources and markets all over the world. Such control may take the form of geopolitical machinations, military adventures, or financial maneuvers. This usage of the term "imperialism" is in some ways inaccurate, since imperialism is historically implicated in the very origins of capitalism - although historians differ in their assessment of its economic importance.
The essential feature of the Marxist theories of imperialism, or related theories such as [[dependency theory]], is their focus on the [[economic]] relation between countries, rather than the formal [[political]] relationship. Imperialism thus consists not necessarily in the direct control of one country by another, but in the economic [[exploitation]] of one region by another, or of a group by another. This Marxist usage contrasts with many people's understanding of the connotation of the word 'imperialism', which they think of as relating to the era when countries ''directly'' controlled vast empires, rather than the ''economic'' domination that some parts of the world have over others today - this popular view is a conflation of imperialism with [[colonialism]], the establishment of overseas colonies.
As noted above, the Marxist theory of imperialism is not founded on the works of [[Karl Marx]], but on those of [[Vladimir Lenin]]. Nevertheless, the theory is accepted today by the majority of Marxists, even those who are not [[Leninism|Leninists]]. It states that imperialism allows the [[capitalism|capitalists]] from developed (rich) countries to extract a [[superprofit]] from the [[working class]] of undeveloped (poor) countries. The majority of this superprofit is kept by the capitalists themselves, but some of it is shared with the working class of the developed countries (in the form of higher standards of living, cheaper consumer goods, etc.), in order to placate that working class and avoid revolution at home.
The [[Soviet Union]], which claimed to follow Leninism, proclaimed itself the foremost enemy of imperialism and supported many independence movements throughout the [[Third World]]. However, at the same time, it asserted its dominance over the countries of [[Eastern Europe]]. This has led many to accuse the Soviet Union of [[hypocrisy]], and it is often used as an argument for the idea that the Soviet Union did not, in fact, follow Leninist principles.
New developments in the Marxist study of imperialism stem from the ground-breaking study ''The Age of Imperialism'', written by [[Harry Magdoff]] in 1969. [[Globalization]] is generally viewed as the latest incarnation of imperialism among Marxists.
==Name dualism==
One thing to note in some allegedly imperialistic countries is the "melting" between the name — and in many times, the sense of [[National identity|national identity]] — of the titular nation and the other territories controlled by this nation including the titular nation itself. Some examples are:
*[[Ottoman Empire]] / [[Turkey]]
*[[British Empire]] / [[England]]
*[[German Empire]] / [[Prussia]]
*[[Soviet Union]] / [[Russia]]
*[[Yugoslavia]] / [[Serbia]]
==Quotes==
*"The term “imperialism” is no more precise, and its overuse and recent abuse is making it nearly meaningless as an analytical concept....“imperialism” is “more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition of the events themselves. Where Colonization finds analysts and analogies, imperialism must contend with crusaders for and against."--Benevolent Assimilation The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899-1903, --Stuart Creighton Miller, (Yale University Press, 1982): page 3, quoting Professor Archibald Paton Thorton author of the book ''Doctrines of Imperialism''.
[[ca:Imperialisme]]
[[cs:Imperialismus]]
[[da:Imperialisme]]
[[de:Imperialismus]]
[[es:Imperialismo]]
[[fr:Impérialisme]]
[[ko:제국주의]]
[[he:אימפריאליזם]]
[[nl:Imperialisme]]
[[ja:帝国主義]]
[[nn:Imperialisme]]
[[no:Imperialisme]]
[[pl:Imperializm]]
[[pt:Imperialismo]]
[[ro:Imperialism]]
[[sl:Imperializem]]
[[fi:Imperialismi]]
[[sv:Imperialism]]
[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยม]]
[[zh:帝国主义]]
[[Category:Imperialism|*]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[Category:History of colonialism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IPv4</title>
<id>15317</id>
<revision>
<id>42080240</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:11:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cburnett</username>
<id>140084</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Addressing */ Note</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
'''IPv4''' is version 4 of the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) and it is the first version of the Internet Protocol to be widely deployed.
IPv4 is the dominant [[network layer]] protocol on the [[internet]] and when ignoring its successor &mdash; [[IPv6]] &mdash; it is the only protocol used on the [[internet]].
It is described in [[IETF]] RFC 791 (September 1981) which obsoleted RFC 760 (January 1980).
IPv4 is a data-oriented protocol to be used on a [[packet switched]] [[internetwork]] (e.g., [[Ethernet]]). It is a [[best effort delivery|best effort]] protocol in that it doesn't guarantee delivery. It doesn't make any guarantees on the correctness of the data; it may result in duplicated packets and/or packets out-of-order. All of these things are addressed by an upper layer protocol (e.g., [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]).
==Addressing==
<!-- Note: [[IP address]] points to this heading so if you rename this then fix that link -->
IPv4 uses 32-[[bit]] (4 [[byte]]) addresses which limits the [[address space]] to 4,294,967,295 possible unique addresses.
However, many are reserved for special purposes such as [[private network]]s (~18 million addresses) or [[multicast]] addresses (~1 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an [[#Exhaustion|IPv4 address shortage]] appears to be inevitable in the long run.
This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards [[IPv6]], which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.
===Address representations===
When writing IPv4 addresses in strings the most common notation is the [[dot-decimal notation]]. There are other notations based on the values of the [[octet (computing)|octet]]s of the IP address.
For example, the IPv4 address for <tt>www.wikipedia.org</tt> is <tt>207.142.131.235</tt> in the dot-decimal notation which comprises four octets in [[decimal]] separated by periods. This is the base format used in the conversion in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Notation !! Value !! Conversion from dot-decimal
|-
| [[Dot-decimal notation]]
| <tt>207.142.131.235</tt>
| N/A
|-
| Dotted Hexadecimal
| <tt>0xCF.0x8E.0x83.0xEB</tt>
| Each octet is individually converted to hex
|-
| Dotted Octal
| <tt>0317.0216.0203.0353</tt>
| Each octet is individually converted into octal
|-
| [[Hexadecimal]]
| <tt>0xCF8E83EB</tt>
| Concatenation of the octets from the dotted hexadecimal
|-
| [[Decimal]]
| <tt>3482223595</tt>
| The hexadecimal form converted to decimal
|-
| [[Octal]]
| <tt>031743501753</tt>
| The hexadecimal form converted to octal
|}
All/most of these formats should work in all browsers.
Additionally, in dotted format, each octet can be of the different bases.
For example, <tt>207.0x8E.0203.235</tt> is a valid (though unconventional) equivalent to the above addresses.
A final form is not really a notation since it is rarely written in an ASCII string notation. That form is a binary form of the hexadecimal notation in binary. This difference is merely the representational difference between the string "0xCF8E83EB" and the 32-bit integer value 0xCF8e83EB. This form is used in both the source and destination fields.
===Allocation===
Originally, the IP address was divided into two parts:
* network number &ndash; first octet
* rest &ndash; last three octets
This created an upper limit of 256 networks and led to the creation of [[classful network]]s.
Under classful networking, 5 classes were created (A, B, C, D, & E) with 3 created (A, B, & C) with different lengths of network number and rest fields to change the number of IPs in each range: few networks with lots of addresses and numerous networks with only a few addresses.
Class D was for [[multicast]] addresses and class E is reserved.
Around [[1993]], the classful networks were replaced with a [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]] (CIDR) scheme.
CIDR's primary advantage is to allow subdivision of networks to let entities sub-allocate IPs (e.g., an [[Internet service provider|ISP]] to a customer).
The actual assignment of an address is not arbitrary.
The fundamental principle of [[routing]] is that address encodes information about a device's location within a network.
This implies |
[August 29]] [[2005]], one day before its 12th anniversary show.
==Guests==
===Oprah===
On [[December 1]], [[2005]], daytime talk queen [[Oprah Winfrey]] returned to Letterman's show, ending a 16-year "feud" between the two TV titans. Winfrey's appearance garnered Letterman his highest [[Nielsen ratings]](13.5 million people) in ten years, tripling his average numbers.
===Bill O'Reilly===
On [[January 4]], [[2006]], [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] appeared on the David Letterman program [http://www.youtube.com/w/Letterman-on-OReilly?v=Iix923o9lkU&search=letterman (Video)]. When O'Reilly began a discussion on the alleged War on [[Christmas]], Letterman replied, "I think that this is something that happened here, and it happened there, and so people like you are trying to make us think that it's a threat." Letterman accused O'Reilly of making up some of his claims on particular points on the supposed War, and O'Reilly replied with, "Then I could write for your show." When O'Reilly attacked the views of [[Cindy Sheehan]], Letterman made it personal, saying O'Reilly had never lost a family member in a war, and therefore O'Reilly should have nothing but sympathy for Sheehan (implying O'Reilly had no standing to speak against Sheehan's opinions.) When asked if he agreed with Sheehan's comparison of terrorist insurgents in [[Iraq]] to "freedom fighters", Letterman had no response. Letterman eventually said, "I might not be smart enough to debate you point-for-point, but I have the feeling that about 60 percent of what you say is crap." When asked if he had ever watched an airing of O'Reilly's [[FOX NEWS]] program "The Factor", Letterman said he had not. The next day on his program, O'Reilly called Letterman "a card-carrying member of the secular progressive movement". Yet, in [[2001]], O'Reilly had said about Letterman and the show "The late-night program hosted by David Letterman is the toughest interview show on television. That's because Mr. Letterman is a smart guy who can spot a phony with telescopic accuracy and expects his guests to bring something to the table. If a guest begins to sink on this show, the bottom is a long way down."[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=21855]
===Albert Brooks===
On [[January 10]], comedian [[Albert Brooks]] made an appearance on Letterman's show. He joked that he'd heard [[January 13]]th would be Letterman's last show: "I have had a knot in my stomach all day because obviously this will be the last David Letterman show I will ever do." Letterman replied, "I don't think that's true. I think we are going to be here another two or three years." Letterman's spokesperson said that he has no plans to retire.
===Most Appearances by Guests===
[[Image:Jayondave.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Jay Leno as a guest on ''Late Night'']]
According to the ''Late Show Newsletter'', the following comedians have appeared most frequently on Letterman's two late-night talk shows [[2004 in television|as of April 2004]]:
*[[George Miller (comedian)|George Miller]] (55 appearances, plus four "From My Room" taped segments)
*[[Richard Lewis (comedian)|Richard Lewis]] (52 appearances)
*[[Jay Leno]] (40)
*[[Robert Klein]] (37)
*[[Jeff Altman]] (36)
*[[Billy Crystal]] (35)
*[[Jerry Seinfeld]] (34)
==Worldwide Pants==
Letterman started his own production company, [[Worldwide Pants Incorporated]], which produces his show and several others, including ''[[Everybody Loves Raymond]]'', ''[[The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson]]'', and several critically acclaimed, but short-lived television series for [[Bonnie Hunt]]. Worldwide Pants also produced the comedy/drama program [[Ed (television program)|Ed]], starring [[Tom Cavanagh]], which aired on [[NBC]] from 2000-2004. It was Letterman's first association with NBC since he left the network in 1993. During ''Ed's'' run, Cavanagh appeared as a guest on ''The Late Show'' several times.
== Outside of television ==
*A Life Loyal Member and Significant Sig laureate of the [[Sigma Chi]] fraternity, Letterman financed the construction of a house for Ball State's chapter.
*In [[1969]], Letterman married his college sweetheart, Michelle Cook. The couple divorced in [[1977]].
*For a time, Letterman was engaged to ''Late Night'' head writer [[Merrill Markoe]], but their relationship eventually fell apart. Markoe moved to California soon after to pursue a writing career.
*In [[1985]], Letterman established the Letterman Telecommunications Scholarship at his [[alma mater]], to provide financial assistance to Department of Telecommunications students, based solely on his or her creativity, and not high academic grades &mdash;Many reports have stated that in order to qualify for the scholarship a student must have a C average or below. This is not true, nor has it ever been true. The scholarships are based on creativity regardless of grade point average. Letterman continues to regularly donate to Ball State and other organizations through his [[American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming]].
*In [[1988]], [[Margaret Mary Ray]] was arrested while driving Letterman's [[Porsche]] near the Lincoln Tunnel in [[New York City]]. Ray claimed to be Letterman's wife. Ray went on to be arrested repeatedly in subsequent years on trespassing and other counts. In one instance, police found her sleeping on Letterman's private tennis court at his home in [[New Canaan, Connecticut]]. Ray spent nearly ten months in prison and 14 months in a state mental institution for her numerous trespassing convictions. On [[October 7]], [[1998]], Ray was struck and killed by a train in an apparent [[suicide]] in [[Colorado]].
*In [[1994]], Letterman appeared in the [[Chris Elliott]] film ''[[Cabin Boy]]'', as the "Old Salt in the Fishing Village." He is credited as Earl Hofert, a [[pseudonym]] Letterman employs occasionally, the name borrowed from an uncle on his mother's side of the family.
*In [[1996]], Letterman became co-owner of the open-wheel racing team known as Team Rahal, with former [[Indianapolis 500]] champion [[Bobby Rahal]]. The team changed its name to [[Rahal Letterman Racing]] in May 2004, and later that same month, team driver [[Buddy Rice]] won the Indianapolis 500. This was an exciting win indeed for Indianapolis native Letterman, who has attended the race regularly since he was a young child. Normally a private person away from the studio (like his mentor, Johnny Carson), Letterman uncharacteristically gave many interviews following the race.
*Also in [[1996]], Letterman provided the voice of the character "[[Mötley Crüe]] Roadie #1" in the animated motion picture ''[[Beavis and Butt-head Do America]]'', again using Earl Hofert as his name in the end credits. Letterman has often expressed an appreciation for ''[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]'', once calling it "the only thing [on television] that consistently makes me laugh".
*Letterman, along with bandleader [[Paul Shaffer]] and ''Late Show'' stage manager [[Biff Henderson]], celebrated [[Christmas]] [[2002]] in [[Afghanistan]] with United States and international military forces stationed there. The three visited [[Iraq]] around Christmas in [[2003]] and [[2004]] as well.
*On [[September 12]], [[2003]], Letterman announced that his long-time girlfriend and ex-colleague Regina Lasko [http://www.geocities.com/davidletterman82/BabyPage.html] was six months pregnant with his child. His son Harry Joseph Letterman, named after David's late father, was born on [[November 3]], [[2003]]. Letterman was about to tape a show when the news came and thus Shaffer was forced to step in as guest host for the broadcast.
*In [[March 2005]], local police in [[Choteau, Montana]], where Letterman owns a home, foiled an alleged scheme to kidnap Letterman's son.
*In late [[October 2005]], [[Jay Leno]] told the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' that he and Letterman have not spoken to one another in 13 years.
*In [[December 2005]], a fan named Colleen Nestler (whom Letterman claimed he had never met) filed a temporary restraining order in a [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] court against Letterman, claiming he used code words and gestures on his television broadcasts to convey romantic feelings towards her. She claims these incidents caused her "mental cruelty." After a judge granted the order, Letterman's lawyer declared the order "absurd and frivolous" and filed a motion to end it. [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,18017,00.html?newsrellink] At a [[December 26]] hearing, the order was lifted. [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,18041,00.html] As usual, Letterman was able to make fun out of the situation: during one of his monologues soon after the story broke, he told the audience after they laughed at a joke he had made: "That wasn't a joke, that was a coded message."
== See also ==
*[[Madonna on Letterman]] - info on some of Letterman's most talked about shows, including the 1994 interview in which the singer said the f-word thirteen times.
*[[Craig Ferguson]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb name|id=0001468|name=David Letterman}}
* [http://www.tv.com/david-letterman/person/4618/summary.html?q=david+letterman David Letterman at TV.COM]
* [http://www.cbs.com/latenight/lateshow/show_info/bios/ls_show_info_bios_dletterman.shtml Official ''Late Show'' biography]
* [http://www.ddy.com/dl3.html DDY's Late Show with David Letterman Fan Page]
* [http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800122204/website List of Letterman Fan Sites on Yahoo]
* [http://www.indystar.com/library/factfiles/people/l/letterman_david/letterman.html Letterman biography] from his hometown newspaper ([[The Indianapolis Star]])
* [http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/07/20/letterman/ 1999 article on Letterman] from [[salon.com]]
{{start box}}
{{succession b |
lt;/td></tr></table>
'''Frequency modulation synthesis''' (or '''FM synthesis''') is a form of [[synthesizer|audio synthesis]] where the [[timbre]] of a simple waveform is changed by [[frequency modulation|frequency modulating]] it with a modulating frequency that is also in the audio range, resulting in a more complex waveform and a different-sounding tone.
For synthesizing harmonic sounds, the modulating signal must have a [[harmonic]] relationship to the original carrier signal. As the amount of FM modulation increases, the sound grows progressively more complex. Through the use of modulators with frequencies that are non-integer multiples of the carrier signal (i.e., non harmonic), bell-like dissonant and percussive sounds can easily be created.
The technique was discovered by John Chowning at [[Stanford University]] in 1967-68, was patented in [[1975]] and was later licensed to [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]].
''It should be noted that the implementation commercialized by Yamaha ([http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=4018121 US Patent 4018121 Apr 1977]) is actually based on phase modulation.''
FM synthesis is very good at creating both harmonic and inharmonic ('clang', 'twang' or 'bong' noises) sounds. Complex ''(and proper)'' FM synthesis using analog [[Oscillator|oscillators]] is not generally feasible due to their inherent pitch instability, but FM synthesis ''(using the frequency stable phase modulation variant)'' is easy to implement digitally. As a result, FM synthesis was the basis of some of the early generations of [[digital synthesizer]]s from Yamaha, with Yamaha's flagship [[Yamaha DX7|DX7]] synthesizer being ubiquitous throughout the [[1980s]]. [[Casio]] developed a related form of synthesis called [[phase distortion synthesis]], used in its CZ series of synthesizers. It had a similar (but slightly differently derived) sound quality as the DX series.
With the expiration of the Stanford University FM patent in [[1995]], FM synthesis is now part of the synthesis repertoire of most modern synthesizers, usually in conjunction with [[additive synthesis|additive]], [[subtractive synthesis|subtractive]] and sometimes [[Sampler (musical instrument)|sampling]] techniques.
The harmonic distribution of a simple sine wave signal modulated by another sine wave signal can be represented with [[Bessel function]]s - this provides a basis for a simple mathematical understanding of FM synthesis.
-----
[author note 9/9/05: the addition below is incomplete]
FM synthesis is a form of "distortion synthesis" or "nonlinear synthesis".
It begins with an oscillator generating an audio-frequency "carrier" waveform with a frequency of Fc. An audio-frequency modulating waveform, with a frequency Fm, is then applied to change or "modulate" the frequency of the carrier oscillator.
If the amplitude of the modulator is 0, the output frequency of the carrier oscillator is simply Fc. Otherwise, the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the frequency of the carrier oscillator to swing above and below Fc. This frequency swing is known as "deviation".
In simple terms, the "louder" the modulating signal is, the more the carrier frequency changes.
For illustration, suppose Fc is 1000 Hz. Modulation amplitude might be applied that causes the carrier to swing between 900 Hz and 1100 Hz, that is, 100 Hz in either direction. This is termed a "deviation" of 100 Hz.
At the same time, the frequency of the modulating signal causes what are termed "sideband" frequencies to appear on either "side" of the carrier frequency. Therefore for each frequency component in the modulating signal, an "upper" sideband appears above Fc, and a "lower" sideband appears below Fc. Clearly a modulating waveform containing many frequencies (e.g. "partials") will create many FM sidebands.
Deviation (d) is partly responsible for the power of each component of the output audio signal. When d=0, all the power is heard at the carrier frequency. The larger the deviation, the more power is shifted to the sidebands.
The ratio of deviation to modulation frequency is called the "index of modulation". ( I = d / Fm )
This ratio controls the spectral richness of the sound.
By varying deviation through modulation amplitude, and varying the spectrum of the modulating waveform, the resulting audio can be evolved without further instrument complexity. This is the power of FM synthesis. Tremble, puny mortals.
==Reference==
J. Chowning, "The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation," Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21(7), 1973
Dodge, Charles and Jerse, Thomas A. (1997). <i>Computer Music: Synthesis, Composition and Performance.</i> New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-864682-7.
== See also: ==
* [[Frequency modulation]]
* [[Harmonic series (music)|Harmonic series]]
* [[Subtractive synthesis]]
* [[Additive synthesis]]
* [[Wavetable synthesis]]
* [[Digital waveguide synthesis]]
* [[Physical modelling synthesis]]
* [[Phase distortion synthesis]]
== External links ==
* [http://ccrma.stanford.edu/software/snd/snd/fm.html An Introduction To FM], by Bill Schottstaedt
* [http://www.sfu.ca/~truax/fmtut.html FM tutorial]
* [http://www.sospubs.co.uk/sos/apr00/articles/synthsecrets.htm Article: FM Synthesis]
* [http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/1997_articles/sep97/synthschool3.html Paul Wiffens Synth School: Part 3]
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[[Category:Audio engineering]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FM synthesis</title>
<id>11570</id>
<revision>
<id>15909310</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency modulation synthesis]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Font (disambiguation)</title>
<id>11572</id>
<revision>
<id>35161662</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T17:05:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mitsukai</username>
<id>242799</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Font''' may mean:
* [[Typeface]], a coordinated set of designs for characters, or a computer file that stores these designs
* [[Baptismal font]], a container for holy water
* An older term for [[fountain]]
{{disambig}}
[[es:Fuente]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friedrich Bessel</title>
<id>11574</id>
<revision>
<id>41991770</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:13:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kusma</username>
<id>145855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>image from commons</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel.jpeg|thumb|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
'''Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel''' ([[July 22]], [[1784]] &ndash; [[March 17]], [[1846]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]], [[astronomer]], and systematizer of the [[Bessel function]]s (which, despite their name, were discovered by [[Daniel Bernoulli]]). He was born in [[Minden]], [[Westphalia]] and died of [[cancer]] in Königsberg (now [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]). Bessel was a contemporary of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Carl Gauss]], also a mathematician and astronomer.
Bessel was the son of a civil servant, and at the age of 14 he was apprenticed to the import-export concern [[Kulenkamp]]. He shortly became an accountant for them, and the business' reliance on cargo ships led him to turn his mathematical skills to problems in navigation. This in turn led to an interest in astronomy as a way of determining [[longitude]].
He came to the attention of a major figure of German astronomy at the time, [[Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers]], by producing a refinement on the orbital calculations for [[Halley's Comet]]. Within two years he had left Kulenkamp and become an assistant at [[Lilienthal, Lower Saxony|Lilienthal]] Observatory near [[Bremen (city)|Bremen, Germany]]. There he worked on [[James Bradley]]'s stellar observations to produce precise positions for some 3222 stars.
This work attracted considerable attention, and at the age of 26 he was appointed director of the [[Koenigsberg Observatory|Königsberg Observatory]] by [[Frederick William III of Prussia]]. There he published tables of [[atmospheric refraction]] based on Bradley's observations, which won him the [[Lalande Prize]] from the [[Institut de France]]. On this base, he was able to pin down the position of over 50,000 stars during his time at Königsberg.
With this work under his belt, Bessel was able to achieve the feat for which he is best remembered today: he is credited with being the first to use [[parallax]] in [[calculation|calculating]] the [[distance]] to a [[star]]. Astronomers had believed for some time that parallax would provide the first accurate measurement of interstellar distances -- in fact, the 1830s housed a fierce competition between astronomers to be the first to accurately measure a stellar parallax. In [[1838]] Bessel won the "race", announcing that [[61 Cygni]] had a parallax of 0.314 [[arcsecond]]s; which, given the diameter of the [[Earth]]'s orbit, indicated that the star was ~3 [[parsec]]s away. [[Hipparcos]] experiment has now calculated the parallax at 0.28547 [[arcsecond]]s. He narrowly beat [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve]] and [[Thomas Henderson]], who measured the parallaxes of [[Vega]] and [[Alpha Centauri]] in the same year.
As well as helping determine the parallax of 61 Cygni, Bessel's precise measurements allowed him to notice deviations in the motions of [[Sirius]] and [[Procyon]], which he deduced must be caused by the gravitational attraction o |
steppes in places 160 km (100 miles) broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels.
The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the chief mountains and lakes of the continent:
{| border="0"
|-
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| border="1"
|-
! Mountain
! ft
! m
|-
| [[Mount Rungwe]] (Nyasa) || style="text-align: right" | 10,400
| style="text-align: right" |3170
|-
| [[Drakensberg]] || style="text-align: right" | 10,700
| style="text-align: right" |3261
|-
| [[Mount Lereko|Lereko]] or [[Sattima]] (Aberdare Range)
| style="text-align: right" | 13,214
| style="text-align: right" |4028
|-
| [[Mount Cameroon|Cameroon]] || style="text-align: right" | 13,370
| style="text-align: right" |4075
|-
| [[Mount Elgon|Elgon]] || style="text-align: right" | 14,152
| style="text-align: right" |4314
|-
| [[Mount Karisimbi|Karisimbi]] (Mfumbiro)
| style="text-align: right" | 14,683
| style="text-align: right" | 4475
|-
| [[Mount Meru (Tanzania)|Meru]] || style="text-align: right" | 14,955
| style="text-align: right" |4558
|-
| [[Mount Taggharat|Taggharat]] (Atlas)
| style="text-align: right" | 15,000
| style="text-align: right" |4572
|-
| [[Simen Mountains|Simens]], [[Ethiopia]]
| style="text-align: right" | 15,160
| style="text-align: right" | 4621
|-
| [[Ruwenzori]] || style="text-align: right" | 16,619
| style="text-align: right" | 5065
|-
| [[Mount Kenya|Kenya]] || style="text-align: right" | 17,007
| style="text-align: right" | 5184
|-
| [[Mount Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]] || style="text-align: right" | 19,321
| style="text-align: right" | 5889
|}
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| border="1"
|-
! Lake
! ft
! m
|-
| [[Lake Chad|Chad]] || style="text-align: right" | 850
| style="text-align: right" | 259
|-
| [[Lake Mai-Ndombe|Mai-Ndombe]] || style="text-align: right" | 1100
| style="text-align: right" | 335
|-
| [[Lake Rudolf|Rudolf]] || style="text-align: right" | 1250
| style="text-align: right" | 381
|-
| [[Lake Nyasa|Nyasa]] || style="text-align: right" | 1645
| style="text-align: right" | 501
|-
| [[Lake Albert|Albert]] || style="text-align: right" | 2028
| style="text-align: right" | 618
|-
| [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]] || style="text-align: right" | 2624
| style="text-align: right" | 800
|-
| [[Lake Ngami|Ngami]] || style="text-align: right" | 2950
| style="text-align: right" | 899
|-
| [[Lake Mweru|Mweru]] || style="text-align: right" | 3000
| style="text-align: right" | 914
|-
| [[Lake Edward|Edward]] || style="text-align: right" | 3004
| style="text-align: right" | 916
|-
| [[Lake Bangweulu|Bangweulu]] || style="text-align: right" | 3700
| style="text-align: right" | 1128
|-
| [[Lake Victoria|Victoria]] || style="text-align: right" | 3720
| style="text-align: right" | 1134
|-
| [[Lake Abaya|Abaya]] || style="text-align: right" | 4200
| style="text-align: right" | 1280
|-
| [[Lake Kivu|Kivu]] || style="text-align: right" | 4829
| style="text-align: right" | 1472
|-
| [[Lake Tsana|Tsana]] || style="text-align: right" | 5690
| style="text-align: right" | 1734
|-
| [[Lake Naivasha|Naivasha]] || style="text-align: right" | 6135
| style="text-align: right" | 1870
|}
|}
=== National Parks and Game Reserves ===
* [[List of National Parks in Africa]]
=== The Hydrographic Systems ===
From the outer margin of the African plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
The high lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the [[Nile]] and [[Congo River|Congo]]: the former the longest, the latter the largest river of the continent. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams pour east to [[Lake Victoria]], the largest African lake (covering over 26,000 square m.), and west and north to [[Lake Edward]] and [[Lake Albert]], to the latter of which the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile flows north, and between 7 deg. and 10 deg. N. traverses a vast marshy level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the [[Sobat River|Sobat]], [[Blue Nile]] and [[Atbarah River|Atbara]] from the Ethiopian highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a vast delta.
The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the [[Chambezi River|Chambezi]], which flows south-west into the marshy [[Lake Bangweulu]]. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through [[Lake Mweru]] and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands.
North of the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface is the basin of [[Lake Chad]] - a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Shad coming from the south-east. West of this is the basin of the [[Niger River|Niger]], the third river of Africa, which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however - the [[Benue River|Benue]] - comes from the south-east. These four river-basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea.
Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the [[Orange River|Orange]], in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the [[Drakensberg]] on the opposite side of the
continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west corst highlands of the southern limb; the [[Volta]], Komoe, Bandama, [[Gambia River|Gambia]] and [[Senegal River|Senegal]] the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal for over 1000 miles (1600 km) of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the
streams, with comparatively short courses, which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains.
Of the rivers flowing to the [[Indian Ocean]] the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the [[Zambezi]], whose western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main stream has its rise in 11°21′3″ S 24°22′ E at an elevation of 5000 ft. It flows west and south for a considerable distance before turning to the east. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of [[Lake Nyasa]], flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the conbnent in 10 deg. to 12 deg. S. In the south-west the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the [[Taukhe River|Taukhe]] (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the [[Okavango River|Okavango]], is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred in [[Lake Ngami]], now dried up.
Farther south the [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]], [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]], [[Tana River|Tana]], [[Jubba River|Jubba]] and [[Webi Shebeli River|Webi Shebeli]] principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands, the last named losing itself in the sands in close proximity to the sea. Another large stream, the [[Hawash river|Hawash]], rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden.
Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the [[Omo river|Omo]], which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into [[Lake Rudolf]]. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a network of navigable waters of vast extent.
The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897, pp. 184-186) gives the following general results:
{| border="1"
|-
! ||mi² || Mm²
|-
| Basin of the Atlantic || 4,070,000 || 10.541
|-
| Basin of the Mediterranean || 1,680,000 || 4.351
|-
| Basin of the Indian Ocean || 2,086,000 || 5.403
|-
| Inland drainage area || 3,452,000 || 8.941
|}
The areas of individual river-basins are:
{| border="1"
|-
! || mi² || Mm²
|-
| Congo, length over 3000 mi (4800 km) || 1,425,000 || 3.691
|-
| Nile, length fully 4000 mi (6500 km) || 1,082,000 || 2. |
sic is a relatively recent development, first being used by [[Curt Sachs]] in [[1919]], and only acquiring currency in English in the [[1940s]]. Indeed, as late as [[1960]] there was still considerable dispute in academic circles as to whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of [[Jacopo Peri]], [[Domenico Scarlatti]] and [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] with a single term; yet the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. It may be helpful to distinguish it from both the [[Renaissance music|preceding (Renaissance)]] and [[Classical music era | following (Classical)]] periods of musical history. A small number of musicologists argue that it should be split in to Baroque and [[Mannerist]] periods to conform to the divisions that are sometimes applied in the visual arts.
====Baroque versus Renaissance style====
Baroque music shares with Renaissance music a heavy use of [[polyphony]] and [[counterpoint]]. However, its use of these techniques differs from Renaissance music. In the Renaissance, harmony is more the result of consonances incidental to the smooth flow of polyphony, while in the early Baroque era the order of these consonances becomes important, for they begin to be felt as chords in a hierarchical, [[functional tonality|functional]] tonal scheme. Around [[1600]] there is considerable blurring of this definition: for example one can see essentially tonal progressions around cadential points in madrigals, while in early [[monody]] the feeling of tonality is still rather tenuous. Another distinction between Renaissance and Baroque practice in harmony is the frequency of chord root motion by [[interval (music)|third]] in the earlier period, while motion of [[interval (music)|fourths]] or [[interval (music)|fifths]] predominates later (which partially defines functional tonality). In addition, Baroque music uses longer lines and stronger rhythms: the initial line is extended, either alone or [[accompaniment|accompanied]] only by the [[basso continuo]], until the theme reappears in another voice. In this later approach to counterpoint, the harmony was more often defined either by the basso continuo, or tacitly by the notes of the theme itself.
These stylistic differences mark the transition from the ''[[ricercar]]s'', ''[[fantasia (music)|fantasia]]s'', and ''[[canzona]]s'' of the Renaissance to the [[fugue]], a defining Baroque form. [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]] called this newer, looser style the ''seconda prattica'', contrasting it with the ''prima prattica'' that characterized the [[motet]]s and other sacred [[choir|choral]] pieces of high Renaissance masters like [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]. Monteverdi himself used both styles; he wrote his [[Mass (music)|Mass]] ''In illo tempore'' in the older, Palestrinan style, and his [[1610]] [[Vespers]] in the new style.
There are other, more general differences between Baroque and Renaissance style. Baroque music often strives for a greater level of emotional intensity than Renaissance music, and a Baroque piece often uniformly depicts a single particular emotion (exultation, grief, piety, and so forth; see [[doctrine of the affections]]). Baroque music was more often written for virtuoso singers and instrumentalists, and is characteristically harder to perform than Renaissance music, although idiomatic instrumental writing was one of the most important innovations of the period. Baroque music employs a great deal of [[musical ornamentation|ornamentation]], which was often improvised by the performer. Expressive performance methods such as [[notes inégales]] were common, and were expected to be applied by performers, often with considerable latitude. Instruments came to play a greater part in Baroque music, and [[a cappella]] vocal music receded in importance.
====Baroque versus Classical style====
In [[Classical music era|the Classical era]], which followed the Baroque, the role of counterpoint was diminished (albeit repeatedly rediscovered and reintroduced; see [[fugue]]), and replaced by a [[homophony|homophonic]] texture. The role of ornamentation lessened. Works tended towards a more articulated internal structure, especially those written in [[sonata form]]. Modulation (changing of keys) became a structural and dramatic element, so that a work could be heard as a kind of dramatic journey through a sequence of musical keys, outward and back from the tonic. Baroque music also modulates frequently, but the modulation has less structural importance. Works in the classical style often depict widely varying emotions within a single movement, whereas Baroque works tend toward a single, vividly portrayed feeling. Lastly, Classical works usually reach a kind of dramatic climax and then resolve it; Baroque works retain a fairly constant level of dramatic energy to the very last note. Many forms of the Baroque would serve as the point of departure for the creation of the [[History of sonata form | sonata form]], by creating a "floor plan" for the placement of important cadences.
====Other features====
* ''[[basso continuo]]'' - a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation system, [[figured bass]], usually for a sustaining bass instrument and a keyboard instrument
* [[monody]] - music for one melodic voice with [[accompaniment]], characteristic of the early 17th century, especially in Italy
* [[homophony]] - music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar accompaniment (this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance [[texture (music)|texture]], [[polyphony]])
* text over music - intelligible text with instrumental accompaniment not overpowering the voice
* vocal soloists ('bel canto')
* dramatic musical expression
* dramatic musical forms like [[opera]], ''drama per musica''
* combined instrumental-vocal forms, such as the [[oratorio]] and [[cantata]]
* new instrumental techniques, like ''[[tremolo]]'' and ''[[pizzicato]]''
* clear and linear [[melody]]
* [[notes inégales]], a technique of applying dotted rhythms to evenly written notes
* the [[aria]]
* the ''ritornello'' aria (repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages)
* the [[concertato]] style (contrast in sound between orchestra and solo-instruments or small groups of instruments)
* precise instrumental scoring (in the Renaissance, exact instrumentation for ensemble playing was rarely indicated)
* idiomatic instrumental writing: better use of the unique properties of each type of [[musical instrument]]
* virtuosic instrumental and vocal writing, with appreciation for virtuosity as such
* [[ornament (music)|ornamentation]]
* development to modern Western tonality ([[major scale|major]] and [[minor scale]]s)
===Genres===
Baroque composers wrote in many different musical genres. [[Opera]], invented in the late Renaissance, became an important musical form during the Baroque, with the operas of [[Alessandro Scarlatti]] (1660&ndash;1725), Handel, and others. The [[oratorio]] achieved its peak in the work of Bach and Handel; opera and oratorio often used very similar music forms, such as a widespread use of the [[da capo aria]].
In other religious music, the [[mass (music)|mass]] and [[motet]] receded slightly in importance, but the [[cantata]] flourished in the work of Bach and other Protestant composers. Virtuoso organ music also flourished, with [[toccata]]s, [[fugue]]s, and other works.
Instrumental [[sonata (music)|sonatas]] and [[suite|dance suites]] were written for individual instruments, for chamber groups, and for (small) orchestra. The [[concerto]] emerged, both in its form for a single soloist plus orchestra and as the [[concerto grosso]], in which a small group of soloists is contrasted with the full ensemble. The [[French overture]], with its contrasting slow and fast sections, added grandeur to the many courts at which it was performed.
Keyboard works were sometimes written largely for the pleasure and instruction of the performer. These included a series of works by the mature Bach that are widely considered to be the intellectual culmination of the Baroque era: the [[Well-Tempered Clavier]], the [[Goldberg Variations]], and [[The Art of Fugue]].
== Brief history of Baroque music ==
'''Composers of the Baroque'''
{{Timeline_Classical_Composers_Baroque}}
===Early Baroque music (1600&ndash;1654)===
The conventional dividing line for the Baroque from the Renaissance begins in Italy, with the composer [[Claudio Monteverdi]] (1567&ndash;1643), with his creation of a recitative style, and the rise of a form of musical drama called [[opera]]. This was part of a self-conscious change in style that was across the arts, most particularly architecture and painting.
Musically the adoption of the [[figured bass]] represents a larger change in musical thinking&mdash;namely that [[harmony]], that is "taking all of the parts together" was as important as the linear part of [[polyphony]]. Increasingly polyphony and harmony would be seen as two sides of the same idea, with harmonic progressions entering the notion of composing, as well as the use of the tritone as a dissonance. Harmonic thinking had existed among particular composers in the previous era, notably [[Carlo Gesualdo|Gesualdo]], however the Renaissance is felt to give way to the Baroque at the point where it becomes the common vocabulary. Some historians of music point to the introduction of the [[seventh]] chord without preparation as being the key break with the past. This created the idea that chords, rather than notes, created the sense of closure, which is one of the fundamental ideas of what would much later be called [[tonality]].
Italy formed one of the cornerstones of the new style, as the papacy, besieged by [[Reformation]] but with coffers fattened by the immense revenues flowing in from [[Hapsburg]] conquest, searched for artistic mea |
nd. Now it understands the reason why hunters come after it with such eagerness and impetuosity, and it puts down its head and with its teeth cuts off its testicles and throws them in their path, as a prudent man who, falling into the hands of robbers, sacrifices all that he is carrying, to save his life, and forfeits his possessions by way of ransom. If however it has already saved its life by self-castration and is again pursued, then it stands up and reveals that it offers no ground for their eager pursuit, and releases the hunters from all further exertions, for they esteem its flesh less. Often however Beavers with testicles intact, after escaping as far away as possible, have drawn in the coveted part, and with great skill and ingenuity tricked their pursuers, pretending that they no longer possessed what they were keeping in concealment."
The [[Loeb Classical Library]] introduction characterizes the book as
:"an appealing collection of facts and fables about the animal kingdom that invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior."
Aelian's anecdotes on animals rarely depend on direct observation: they are almost entirely taken from written sources, often [[Pliny the Elder]], but also other authors and works now lost, to whom he is thus a valuable witness. He is more attentive to marine life than might be expected, though, and this seems to reflect first-hand personal interest; he often quotes "fishermen". At times he strikes the modern reader as thoroughly credulous, but at others he specifically states that he is merely reporting what is told by others, and even that he does not believe them. Aelian's work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the [[Bestiary|bestiaries]] of the Middle Ages; in some ways an allegory of the moral world, an [[Emblem]] Book.
[[Conrad Gessner]] (or Gesner), the Swiss scientist and natural historian of the Renaissance, made a Latin translation of Aelian's work, to give it a wider European audience. The latest Latin translation is that of Friderich Jacobs (1832), based on both Gesner's translation and that of Petrus Gillius (1533). An English translation by A.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;Scholfield has been published in the Loeb Classical Library.
==''Varia Historia (&Pi;&omicron;&iota;&kappa;&iota;&lambda;&eta; &Iota;&sigma;&tau;&omicron;&rho;&iota;&alpha;)''==
''Various History'' &#8212; for the most part preserved only in an abridged form &#8212; is Aelian's other well-known work, a miscellany of anecdotes and biographical sketches, lists, pithy maxims, and descriptions of natural wonders and strange local customs, in 14&nbsp;books, with many surprises for the cultural historian and the [[mythographer]], anecdotes about the famous Greek philosophers, poets, historians, and playwrights; myths instructively retold. The emphasis is on ''various'' moralizing tales about heroes and rulers, athletes and wise men; reports about food and drink, different styles in dress or lovers, local habits in giving gifts or entertainments, or in religious beliefs and death customs; and comments on Greek painting. Aelian gives an account of fly fishing, using lures of red wool and feathers, of lacquerwork, [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] worship &#8212; Essentially the ''Various History'' is a Classical "[[magazine]]" in the original senses of that word. He is not perfectly trustworthy in details, and his agenda is always to inculcate culturally "correct" [[Stoicism|Stoic]] opinions, perhaps so that his readers will not feel guilty, but [[Jane Ellen Harrison]] found survivals of archaic rites mentioned by Aelian very illuminating in her ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion'' (1903).
Two English translations of the ''Various History,'' by Fleming (1576) and Stanley (1665) made Aelian's miscellany available to English readers; a recent English translation of Aelian's ''Varia Historia'' is by Diane Ostrom Johnson, 1997.
Considerable fragments of two other works, ''On Providence'' and ''Divine Manifestations'', are preserved in the early medieval encyclopedia, the ''[[Suda]].'' Twenty "letters from a farmer" after the manner of [[Alciphron]] are also attributed to him. The letters are invented compositions to a fictitious correspondent, which are a device for vignettes of agricultural and rural life, set in Attica, though mellifluous Aelian once boasted that he had never been outside Italy, never been aboard a ship (which is at variance, though, with his own statement, de Nat. An. XI.40, that he had seen the bull [[Serapis]] with his own eyes). Thus conclusions about actual agriculture in the ''Letters'' are as likely to evoke [[Latium]] as [[Attica]]. The fragments have been edited in 1998 by D. Domingo-Foraste, but are not available in English. The ''Letters'' are available in the Loeb Classical Library series.
==Reference==
''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 1911.
==External links==
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Aelian/home.html ''De natura animalium'' at LacusCurtius] (complete Latin translation)
*[http://www.wayward.com/animal.htm Some quotes from Aelian's natural history] (English)
*[http://www.flyfishinghistory.com/aelian.htm Aelian from the fly-fisherman's point-of-view]
[[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians|Aelianus, Claudius]]
[[Category:Latin authors|Aelianus, Claudius]]
[[es:Claudio Eliano]]
[[fr:Élien]]
[[it:Claudio Eliano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Callisto (mythology)</title>
<id>7214</id>
<revision>
<id>38298344</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T11:22:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.182.163.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the mythological figure. For other meanings, see [[Callisto]].''
From [[Greek mythology]], '''Callisto''' was the daughter of [[Lycaon]], the king of [[Arcadia]], and possibly a [[nymph]]. Her name is derived from ''kalliste'' (καλλιστη), meaning "most beautiful."
==The myth==
A follower of [[Artemis]], she took a vow to remain a virgin. But [[Zeus]] fell in love with her and disguised himself as [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] in order to lure her into his embrace. [[Hera]], Zeus' wife, then turned Callisto into a [[bear]] out of revenge. Later, [[Arcas]], the son of Callisto and Zeus, nearly killed her in a hunt but Zeus placed them both in the sky as the [[constellation|constellations]] [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].
An alternate version: One of Artemis' companions, Callisto lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis. Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear. Callisto's son, Arcas, nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as Ursa Major and Ursa Minor.
Another alternate version: Artemis killed Callisto in bear form, deliberately.
Hera was not pleased with the placement of Callisto and Arcas in the sky, so she asked her nurse, [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]], to help. Tethys, a marine goddess, cursed the constellations to forever circle the sky and never drop below the horizon, hence explaining why they are circumpolar.
==Origin of the myth==
The myth may be derived from the fact that a set of constellations appear close together in the sky, in and near the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Libra]], namely [[Ursa Minor]], [[Ursa Major]], [[Boötes]], and [[Virgo]].
Boötes, since it resembles a male [[stick-figure]], is in some versions of the myth explicitly identified as Arcas (untransformed), and was in myths elsewhere said represents a male god. Virgo, since it resembles a female, was usually considered to be a significant female goddess, though not identified as to whom.
The combination of a god and goddess and two bears in the same area of sky may have led to a transformation myth, associating the bears either as the god and goddess transformed, or as some thing they have cast out. The circumpolarity of the bears adding an extra detail to the myth.
== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Callisto (mythology)}}
* Richard Wilson's [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=7&id=130 'Landscape with Diana and Callisto'] at the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ladylever/index.asp Lady Lever Art Gallery]
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Fictional bears]]
[[de:Kallisto (Mythologie)]]
[[el:Καλλιστώ (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Calisto (mitología)]]
[[fr:Callisto (mythologie)]]
[[hr:Kalisto (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Kallisztó]]
[[it:Callisto]]
[[he:קליסטו (מיתולוגיה)]]
[[la:Callisto]]
[[lt:Kalista]]
[[ja:カリスト]]
[[pl:Kallisto (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Calisto]]
[[ru:Каллисто]]
[[sv:Kallisto]]
[[zh:卡利斯托]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Callisto the moon</title>
<id>7215</id>
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<id>15905293</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-06T20:44:41Z</timestamp>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Callisto (moon)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Callisto (moon)]]
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<page>
<title>Centromer</title>
<id>7216</id>
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<id>15905294</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centromere]]
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<page>
<title>Crown copyright</title>
<id>7217</id>
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<id>40908401</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:46:59Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ncox</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Exceptions */</comment>
< |
gt;
<td>Moon</td>
<td>Muin</td>
<td>Maan</td>
<td>Maan</td>
<td>Maan</td>
<td>Mond</td>
<td>לבנה {{IPA|[ləvɔnə]}}</td>
<td>Mēna</td>
<td>Tungl/ Máni</td>
<td>Máni</td>
<td>Måne</td>
<td>Måne</td>
<td>Måne</td>
<td>Måne</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Night</td>
<td>Nicht</td>
<td>Nag</td>
<td>Nacht</td>
<td>Natt / Nacht</td>
<td>Nacht</td>
<td>נאַכט {{IPA|[naxt]}}</td>
<td>Nahts</td>
<td>Nótt</td>
<td>Nátt</td>
<td>Natt</td>
<td>Nat</td>
<td>Natt</td>
<td>Natt</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>No</td>
<td>Nae</td>
<td>Nee</td>
<td>Niet/ Nee</td>
<td>Nee</td>
<td>Nein/ Nö/ Nee</td>
<td>ניין {{IPA|[nɛjn]}}</td>
<td>Nē</td>
<td>Nei</td>
<td>Nei</td>
<td>Nej</td>
<td>Nej</td>
<td>Nei</td>
<td>Nei</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Old</td>
<td>Auld</td>
<td>Oud</td>
<td>Oud</td>
<td>Oll</td>
<td>Alt</td>
<td>אַלט {{IPA|[alt]}}</td>
<td>Sineigs</td>
<td>Gamall</td>
<td>Gamal/ Gomul/ Gamalt</td>
<td>Gammal</td>
<td>Gammel</td>
<td>Gammel (but: eldre, eldst)</td>
<td>Gammal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>One</td>
<td>Ane</td>
<td>Een</td>
<td>Een</td>
<td>Een</td>
<td>Eins</td>
<td>איין {{IPA|[ɛjn]}}</td>
<td>Áins</td>
<td>Einn</td>
<td>Ein/ Eitt</td>
<td>En/ett</td>
<td>En</td>
<td>En</td>
<td>Ein</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ounce</td>
<td>Unce</td>
<td>Ons</td>
<td>Ons</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Unze</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Únsa</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Uns</td>
<td>Unse</td>
<td>Unse</td>
<td>Unse</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Snow</td>
<td>Snaw</td>
<td>Sneeu</td>
<td>Sneeuw</td>
<td>Snee</td>
<td>Schnee</td>
<td>שניי {{IPA|[ʃnɛj]}}</td>
<td>Snáiws</td>
<td>Snjór</td>
<td>Kavi/ Snjógvur</td>
<td>Snö</td>
<td>Sne</td>
<td>Snø</td>
<td>Snø</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Stone</td>
<td>Stane</td>
<td>Steen</td>
<td>Steen</td>
<td>Steen</td>
<td>Stein</td>
<td>שטיין {{IPA|[ʃtɛjn]}}</td>
<td>Stáins</td>
<td>Steinn</td>
<td>Steinur</td>
<td>Sten</td>
<td>Sten</td>
<td>Sten</td>
<td>Stein</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>That</td>
<td>That</td>
<td>Dit</td>
<td>Dit, Dat</td>
<td>Dat (Dit)</td>
<td>Das</td>
<td>דאָס {{IPA|[dɔs]}}</td>
<td>&THORN;ata</td>
<td>&THORN;etta</td>
<td>Hatta</td>
<td>Det</td>
<td>Det</td>
<td>Det</td>
<td>Det</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Two</td>
<td>Twa</td>
<td>Twee</td>
<td>Twee</td>
<td>Twee</td>
<td>Zwei/[[Zwo]]</td>
<td>צוויי {{IPA|[tsvɛj]}}</td>
<td>Twái</td>
<td>Tveir</td>
<td>Tveir</td>
<td>Två</td>
<td>To</td>
<td>To</td>
<td>To</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Who</td>
<td>Wha</td>
<td>Wie</td>
<td>Wie</td>
<td>Wokeen</td>
<td>Wer</td>
<td>ווער {{IPA|[vɛr]}}</td>
<td>&#502;as (Hwas)</td>
<td>Hver</td>
<td>Hvør</td>
<td>Vem</td>
<td>Hvem</td>
<td>Hvem</td>
<td>Kven</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Worm</td>
<td>Wirm</td>
<td>Wurm</td>
<td>Wurm, Worm</td>
<td>Worm</td>
<td>Wurm</td>
<td>וואָרעם {{IPA|[vɔrəm]}}</td>
<td>Ma&thorn;a</td>
<td>Ma&eth;kur, Ormur</td>
<td>Maðkur/ Ormur</td>
<td>Mask, Orm²</td>
<td>Orm</td>
<td>Orm</td>
<td>Orm</td>
</tr>
</table>
1: The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
2: The cognate means snake.
==See also==
* [[Germanic verb]] and its various subordinated articles.
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Non-Indo-European roots of Germanic languages]]
* [[Folkspraak]], a [[planned language]] designed to be quickly learnable by a speaker of any Germanic language.
* [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents]]
* [[Germanization]] and [[Anglicization]]
* [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents]]
* [[Germanic placenames]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/language_resources.html Germanic Lexicon Project]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90067 Ethnologue Report for Germanic]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/theudiskon Proto-Germanic Language Reconstruction Group]
[[Category:Germanic languages| ]]
[[af:Germaanse tale]]
[[az:Alman qrupu]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tek-gí-hē]]
[[be:Германскія мовы]]
[[ca:Llengües germàniques]]
[[cs:Germánské jazyky]]
[[da:Germanske sprog]]
[[de:Germanische Sprachen]]
[[el:Γερμανικές γλώσσες]]
[[es:Lenguas germánicas]]
[[eo:Ĝermana lingvo]]
[[fo:Germanskt mál]]
[[fr:Langue germanique]]
[[fy:Germaanske talen]]
[[gl:Linguas xermánicas]]
[[ko:게르만어파]]
[[id:Bahasa Jermanik]]
[[is:Germönsk tungumál]]
[[it:Lingue germaniche]]
[[he:שפות גרמאניות]]
[[kw:Yethow Germanek]]
[[lt:Germanų kalbos]]
[[li:Germaanse taole]]
[[hu:Germán nyelvek]]
[[nl:Germaanse talen]]
[[ja:ゲルマン語派]]
[[no:Germanske språk]]
[[nn:Germanske språk]]
[[pl:Języki germańskie]]
[[pt:Línguas germânicas]]
[[ro:Limbile germanice]]
[[ru:Германские языки]]
[[se:Germánalaš gielat]]
[[sco:Germanic leid]]
[[sk:Germánske jazyky]]
[[fi:Germaaniset kielet]]
[[sv:Germanska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Đức]]
[[zh:日耳曼语族]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German language</title>
<id>11884</id>
<revision>
<id>42109666</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:04:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Header - references plural</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=German
|nativename=Deutsch
|familycolor=Indo-European
|pronunciation=[ˈdɔʏtʃ]
|states=[[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Belgium]], [[Italy]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], and 37 other countries.
|region=[[Western Europe]]
|speakers=Native speakers: 110 million<br>Second language: 120 million
|rank=11
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|nation=[[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]], [[European Union]].
Regional or local official language in: [[Denmark]], [[Italy]],
[[Poland]], (Official language of [[Namibia]] until 1990). |iso1=de|iso2b=ger|iso2t=deu|iso3=deu|sil=GER}}
'''German''' (''{{Audio|de-Deutsch.ogg|Deutsch}}''), is a member of the western group of [[Germanic languages]] (and [[Indo-European languages]]) and one of the world's major [[language]]s.
Worldwide, German accounts for the most written [[translation]]s into and from a language and according to the [[Guinness Book of Records]] German belongs to the ten most spoken languages worldwide. After English, German is the second largest of the [[Germanic language]]s.
German is the language with the most native speakers and the second most learned [[second language]] in the [[European Union]], after English and just before French. Spoken by more than 120 million people in 38 countries of the world, German is — like English and French — a [[pluricentric language]] with [[Germany]], [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]] as the three main centers of usage .
==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Map_German_World.png|400px|right|Some major German-speaking communities]]
German is spoken primarily in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], in two-thirds of [[Switzerland]], in two-thirds of the [[South Tyrol]] [[province of Italy]] (in German, ''Südtirol''), in the small [[German speaking community in Belgium|East Cantons]] of [[Belgium]], and in some border villages of the [[South Jutland |
troops at [[Panjdeh]], over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian government made ready for that contingency, the ''amir'' 's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the [[Order of the Star of India]] appeared to give him much pleasure.
From the end of 1888, the ''amir'' spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly afterwards (in [[1892]]) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance of the [[Hazara]] tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central authority at Kabul.
In [[1893]] Sir [[Mortimer Durand]] was deputed to Kabul by the government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with the ''amir'' other pending questions. The ''amir'' showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. In [[1895]] the ''amir'' found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] to visit England; hut his second son [[Nasrullah Khan]] went in his stead.
Abdur Rahman died on [[October 1]], [[1901]], being succeeded by his son [[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]]. He had defeated all enterprises by rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of [[espionage]]; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in [[Asia]]; he availed himself of [[European]] inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like [[railway]]s and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]s, might give Europeans a foothold within his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan.
The ''amir'' received an annual subsidy from the British government of 18-1/2 ''[[lakh]]s'' of ''[[rupee]]s''. He was allowed to import munitions of war. In [[1896]] he adopted the title of ''Tia-ul-hlillat-ud Din'' ("Light of the nation and religion"); and his zeal for the cause of [[Islam]] induced him to publish treatises on ''[[jihad]]''. His two eldest sons, [[Habibullah Khan]] and [[Nasrullah Khan]], were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, [[Mahomed Omar Jan]], was born in [[1889]] of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family.
==See also==
*[[History of Afghanistan]]
*[[European influence in Afghanistan]]
*[[The Great Game]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = Emir of Kabul | title = [[Emir of Afghanistan]] | years = 1880 &ndash; 1901 | after = [[Habibullah Khan]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdur Rahman Khan}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Afghan heads of state]]
[[Category:Emirs of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:1844 births|Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Star of India|Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[de:Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[fr:Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[ja:アブドゥッラフマーン・ハーン]]
[[no:Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[ru:Абдур-Рахман, эмир Афганистана]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abencerrages</title>
<id>2696</id>
<revision>
<id>35149325</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T14:41:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.194.30.216</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed ungrammatical sentence</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abencerrages''', was a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the [[Moorish]] kingdom of [[Granada]] in the [[15th century]].
The name appears to have been derived from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of [[Mahommed VII]], who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.
Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but the name is familiar from the interesting romance of [[Gines Perez de Hita|Ginés Perez de Hita]], ''Guerras civiles de Granada'', which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian's ''Gonsalve de Cordoue'' and Chàteaubriand's ''Le dernier des Abencerrages'' are imitations of Perez de Hita's work.
The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The king, enraged, shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and ordered the Zergis to kill them all. The apartment where this is to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the [[Alhambra]], and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages.
Many poems and plays, and one opera (''[[Les Abencerrages]]'', by [[Cherubini]]) mention the legend, but the whole story is doubtful, because the best historians do not mention it.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abencerrages}}
{{1911}}
[[de:Abencerragen]] [[fr:Abencerrajes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abenezra</title>
<id>2697</id>
<revision>
<id>15901092</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-04T00:21:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RK</username>
<id>198</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirected to proper entry title.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Abraham ibn Ezra]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abeokuta</title>
<id>2698</id>
<revision>
<id>38831543</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:53:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Biyibandele</username>
<id>430631</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Locator Map Abeokuta-Nigeria.png|thumb|250px|Location of Abeokuta in Nigeria]]
'''Abeokuta''' is a city of southwest [[Nigeria]], situated at {{coor dm|7|8|N|3|25|E|type:city}}, on the [[Ogun river]], 64 miles north of [[Lagos]] by railway, or 81 miles by water. As of 2002, the Abeokuta proper had an estimated population of about 230,000, while the figure for the city and outlying environs was approximately 500,000 individuals.
The city lies below the sacred [[Olumo]] rock, home to [[cave]]s and [[shrine]]s. [[Fela Kuti]] and [[Wole Soyinka]] were both born in the town.
==History==
{{1911}}
A town of [[British West Africa]] in the Egba division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. [[Population]], approximately 60,000.
Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile country, the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite. It is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud walls 18 miles in extent. Abeokuta, under the reforming zeal of its native rulers, was largely transformed during the early years of the [[20th century]]. Law courts, government offices, prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads made, and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed. The streets are generally narrow and the houses built of mud. There are numerous markets in which a considerable trade is done in native products and articles of European manufacture. Palm-oil, timber, [[rubber]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]] and shea-butter are the chief articles of trade. An official newspaper is published in the [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] and [[E |
e, many people who come to A.A. with all sorts of religious beliefs, or the lack thereof, have found long-lasting recovery from alcoholism in A.A. "one day at a time."
Finally, many AA members would agree with the idea that most members *begin* AA involvement as a result of some form of coercion, whether from family, a spouse, a boss or supervisor, or the courts. Even those who are not pressured by others are nonetheless pressured by circumstances -- they have "hit rock bottom" and decided that the pain of drinking and the consequences of drinking are too severe to be tolerated. Regardless of initial pressures, many AA members come to value their involvement with the AA program and embrace sobriety for the benefits it brings them.
==Discussion of the Merits of A.A.==
Though there is little doubt that A.A. is the number one treatment for
alcoholism in the world today, it has its detractors.
(Note: in this section, BB refers to ''The Big Book'', aka ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', 3rd Edition, by the first 100 members of Alcoholics Anonymous, and 12x12 refers to ''Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions'', by William G. Wilson) Note: in 2001 the 4th edition of Alcoholics Anonymous, was released. The first 164 pages (including the doctors opinion), of the BB have been left intact and unchanged since the book's initial publication in 1939. The only change in each edition, aside from some minor updating of the basic text from the first to the second edition, has been the addition and/or deletion of some of the stories in the back of the book.
===AA's Supporters===
On one hand, supporters claim that AA is an indispensable support group for people seeking to free themselves of an addiction to alcohol. Some things they cite include:
* The [[American Medical Association]] supports the disease model of alcoholism that was developed in the early part of the 20th century and embraced by AA.
* A large amount of [[anecdotal evidence]] in which people assert that joining AA saved their lives [http://www.aa-uk.org.uk/alcoholics-anonymous-reviews/2005/05/lot-of-bottle.html] [http://www.aa-uk.org.uk/alcoholics-anonymous-reviews/2005/05/i-was-taught-to-take-my-life-one-day.html] [http://www.aa.org/default/en_about_aa_sub.cfm?subpageid=68&pageid=12] [http://www.aamolly.org.uk/alexg.htm]
* Long-term sobriety lengths of 20, 30, or 40 or more years are not uncommon in AA.
* Many members find that AA is [[fun]]. While meetings can be serious, they can also be filled with [[laughter]]. Social activities such as dances, picnics, and conventions are enjoyed by great numbers of AAs. Many members discover that their fears of never again having fun after quitting drinking have proven false. Many AA's believe that engaging in therapeutic [[recreation]] that does not include alcohol helps them to stay away from drinking.
* Because of the large number of AA groups (over 100,000 worldwide as of 2001), AA members are free to try different groups until they find groups that they enjoy. Because AA members come from all walks of life and every segment of [[society]], there is a tremendous amount of variety within the [[fellowship]]. Not only do these facts make it difficult to [[generalize]] about AA groups, but these circumstances allow for a level of flexibility that accommodates the sobriety needs of a large spectrum of recovering alcoholics.
* The fact that AA does not require a belief in any specific higher power means that AA is not a [[religion]]. Since members are free to choose any higher power they like--including higher powers that are not spiritually based--and since members are allowed to change higher powers whenever they like, this agility facilitates a kind of [[transference]] that aids in recovery from alcoholism. By this definition, an alcoholic is a person who has turned alcohol into a higher power. By selecting an alternate higher power of his or her own choice and/or design, the alcoholic is able to achieve the psychological transference that topples alcohol as a higher power. As the alcoholic progresses in [[recovery]] over months and years, this same flexibility allows the recovering alcoholic to switch to higher powers that are more individually appropriate to that AA member at that given time.
* "Doing the footwork and turning over the results." Contrary to occasional criticism, the AA program encourages members to act as individuals and to think for themselves. Not only must they design the pace of their own programs and choose their own higher powers with which to supplant alcohol, but they must do their own "footwork" in all areas of their lives. The [[individual]] in AA is fully empowered to do his or her own footwork. When the AA program speaks of "powerlessness," this applies to the ''results'' of the footwork. This distinction is expressed in the words, "Grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change, the courage to change the things I can, and the wisdom to know the difference." In life, footwork is always changeable by the individual, while results are often uncertain, unpredictable, and/or out of the individual's control.
* The "Toolbox Principle." Many AA's see the program as a large "toolbox." Not everyone feels comfortable with all of the tools all of the time. Many AA's find that they can stay sober while using some tools and not others, or using different tools at different times. This flexibility allows members to reach for the specific help they need at specific times, then use a different kind of help as circumstances fluctuate.
* [[Enlightened self-interest]]: Many AA's believe that in order for an alcoholic to stay sober, he or she must be in the program for him- or herself. According to this perspective, an AA member does not work the program for the sake of his family, his job, his community, or for the sake of any AA group or AA as a whole. An alcoholic works the program for himself, and helps others primarily because it helps oneself.
* Every AA member is free to have a sponsor of his or her own choice or not to have a sponsor at all. Some AA's have more than one sponsor at one time. Some AA's have a sponsor or sponsors at the beginning of sobriety, then choose not to have sponsors later on. A member may "fire" a sponsor at any time, and vice versa. Because AA members are learning to become individually empowered, it is their [[responsibility]] to select appropriate sponsors and change sponsors when necessary. The great variety of available sponsors is another aspect of the program's flexibility in terms of the shifting needs of individual members.
* Many members and groups acknowledge that AA isn't the right program for everyone, and that there are effective alternatives for other individuals.
* The 12 steps are suggestions rather than requirements (though "they are 'suggested' in the same way that, if you jump out of an airplane with a parachute, it is 'suggested' that you pull the ripcord" (''Daily Reflections; A Book of Reflections by A.A. members for A.A. members'', Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., pg. 344))
* There are no official membership records, allowing members to come and go as they choose (see [[Alcoholics Anonymous#A.A..2C religion and the law|above]] for the exception to this, which AA itself does not sanction)
* Despite Bill W.'s claim that members are "impersonally and severely disciplined from without" in a letter to Dr. Harry Tiebout (quoted in ''Not-God: A History of Alcoholics Anonymous'', Ernest Kurtz, page 129, a book put out by a publisher which publishes much addiction literature), AA lacks any sort of formal disciplinary measures against members who fail to adhere strictly to the program
* The claim that AA is spiritual, not religious, and that the requisite Higher Power can be anything including god (as the individual understands Him, according to the [[12 steps#The twelve steps|3rd Step]]), the group itself (one [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html slogan]: "G.O.D.='''G'''ood '''O'''rderly '''D'''irection), a philosophical system, a dead person, the universe, nature, a principle or anything the individual member chooses to invent. AA philosophy acknowledges that all rational people admit the existence of powers greater than themselves, and that this is in fact one of the definitions of a [[rational]] person.
* The [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html slogan] that says to "Take what you can use and leave the rest." Members are also reminded that AA will work for them only if they work the program.
* The lack of a guru-like figure rising to fill the late Bill Wilson's shoes, lending credibility to the [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html slogan] that says "principles before personalities"
* According to the BB, "Our primary purpose is to stay sober and to help others to achieve sobriety." Thus, AA is not a social movement and is not involved in trying to reshape society or to affect communities or their values. AA prefers to appeal to potential members through "attraction rather than promotion."
===AA's Critics===
Specific criticisms sometimes put forth by AA's critics (some of whom go so far as to call AA a [[cult]]) include:
* There have been at least three randomized clinical trials that studied the effectiveness of AA. Specifically: Ditman et al. 1967; Brandsma et al. 1980; Walsh et al. 1991.
**Dr. Ditman found that participation in A.A. increased the alcoholics' rate of rearrest for public drunkeness.[1]
**Dr. Brandsma found that A.A. increased the rate of binge drinking. After several months of indoctrination with A.A. 12-Step dogma, the alcoholics in A.A. were doing five times as much binge drinking as a control group that got no treatment at all, and nine times as much binge drinki |
a presbyter (elder or priest). He spent some time in the wilderness with Basil practicing asceticism, but later returned to care for the Christian parishes in Nazianzos. Basil later made him Bishop of Sasima. In [[378]], the Antioch Council asked Gregory to come to Constantinople as bishop, as the preceding bishop had recently died. With the consent of Basil, he agreed. At the time, there were many [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Apollinarianism|Apollinarians]] in the city, both of which heresies were soon to be denounced in [[381]] at the second [[Ecumenical Council]]. But in [[379]], the night before Easter, a mob of armed heretics burst into Gregory's church during worship services, wounding Gregory and killing another bishop.
== Theology and other works==
In his theology, Gregory advocated the doctrine of the [[Trinity]], including the full divinity of both [[Jesus]] and the [[Holy Spirit]]. He emphasized that Jesus did not cease to be God when he became a man, nor did he lose any of his divine attributes when he took on human nature. Furthermore, Gregory asserted that Christ was fully human, including a full human soul. He also proclaimed the eternality of the Holy Spirit, saying that the Holy Spirit's actions were somewhat hidden in the [[Old Testament]] but much clearer since the ascension of Jesus into Heaven and the descent of the Holy Spirit at the feast of Pentecost. Gregory Nazianzus is given the title 'Gregory the Theologian' by Eastern Orthodoxy, a title he shares with [[John the Apostle]], also known as John the Theologian. Although Theologian in this context means more Christological than what would be expected tody. He is widely quoted by Eastern Orthodox theologians and highly regarded as a defender of the Christian faith.
Apart from the several theological discourses, Gregory is also one of the most important early Christian man of letters, a very accomplished orator, perhaps one of the greatest of his time, and also a very prolific poet, having written several poems with theological and moral matter and some with biographical content, about himself and about his friends.
== Death ==
Following his death, Saint Gregory's body was buried at Nazianzos. His relics were transferred to Constantinople in 950, into the church of the Holy Apostles. Part of the relics were transferred to [[Rome]] at a later date, and on [[27 November]] [[2004]], those relics were returned to [[Istanbul]] by [[Pope John Paul II]] (though the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] retained a small portion of the relics).
==References==
*''St. Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Biography'' (2000; Nominated for the 2002 Pollock Biography Prize) ISBN 0-88141-222-8 by [[John McGuckin]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Demophilus of Constantinople|Demophilus]] or <br>[[Evagrius of Constantinople|Evagrius]]|
title=[[List of Constantinople patriarchs|Bishop of Constantinople]]<br>Disputed by<br>[[Maximus of Constantinople|Maximus]]|
years=[[379]]&ndash;[[381]] |
after=[[Patriarch Nectarius of Constantinople|Nectarius]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:329 births]]
[[Category:389 deaths]]
[[category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox bishops]]
[[cs:Řehoř z Nazianzu]]
[[de:Gregor von Nazianz]]
[[fr:Grégoire de Nazianze]]
[[ko:그레고리우스 나지안스]]
[[it:Gregorio Nazianzeno]]
[[la:Gregorius Nazianzenus]]
[[hu:Nazianzoszi Szent Gergely]]
[[nl:Gregorius van Nazianze]]
[[fi:Gregorios Nazianzilainen]]
[[ja:ナジアンゾスのグレゴリオス]]
[[zh:額我略·納西盎]]</text>
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<title>Main Page</title>
<id>13173</id>
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<id>40091244</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T01:45:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Levy</username>
<id>197557</id>
</contributor>
<comment>The extra title was on the featured picture page.</comment>
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<username>Ellmist</username>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page]]</comment>
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<title>HowCanIExploreWikiPedia</title>
<id>13176</id>
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<timestamp>2004-02-22T03:04:47Z</timestamp>
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<title>HisTory</title>
<id>13177</id>
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<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
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<page>
<title>HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast</title>
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<title>HelL</title>
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<title>HumanComputerInteraction</title>
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<title>HiStory</title>
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<title>HomoMorphism</title>
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<title>HistoryOfEurope</title>
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loper)|Alan Bond]] has formed Reaction Engines Limited where they have since been working on the [[Skylon]] vehicle which seems to avoid many of the problems of HOTOL.
[[Category:Spaceplanes]]
[[Category:Single stage to orbit]]
[[Category:Reusable launch vehicles]]
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<page>
<title>Homo sapiens sapiens</title>
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<title>Hammerhead Shark</title>
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<title>Hammerhead shark</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Star Wars]] character nicknamed “Hammerhead”, see [[Ithorians]].}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hammerhead shark
| image = Hammerheadshark.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Chondrichthyes]]
| ordo = [[Carcharhiniformes]]
| familia = [[Sphyrnidae]]
| genus = '''''Sphyrna'''''
| genus_authority = [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz|Rafinesque]], 1810
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Scalloped Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) lewini]]''<br />
''[[Great Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) mokarran]]''<br />
''[[Smooth Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena]]''<br />
''[[Whitefin Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) couardi]],''<br />
''[[Scalloped Bonnethead|Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) corona]]''<br />
''[[Scoophead|Sphyrna (Platysqualus) media]]''<br />
''[[Bonnethead|Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tiburo]]''<br />
''[[Golden Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tudes]]''
}}The '''hammerhead shark''' ([[genus]] ''Sphyrna'') is a member of the family [[Sphyrnidae]]. The only other genus of Sphyrnidae, ''[[Eusphyra]]'', contains only one species, ''E. blochii'', the [[winghead shark]]).
The eight species of hammerhead range from 2&ndash;6&nbsp;m long, and all species have projections on both sides of the head that give it a resemblance to a flattened [[hammer]]. The shark's eyes and nostrils are at the tips of the extensions.
It is an aggressive [[predator]] that eats [[fish]], [[batoidea|rays]], other [[shark]]s, [[cephalopod]]s, and [[crustacean]]s. It is found in warmer waters along coastlines and [[continental shelf|continental shelves]].
The shape of the head seems to act as a wing, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability, allowing sharks to execute sharp turns without loss of stability. It also seems to help in electrolocation by separating the receptors, thus giving hammerheads a wider area of search. These sharks have been able to detect an electronic signal of half a billionth of a volt. The hammer shaped head also gives these sharks larger nasal tract, increasing the chance of finding a particle in the water by at least 10 times as compared to other 'classical' sharks. Hammerheads have proportionately small mouths and seem to do a lot of bottom-hunting. They are also known to form schools during the day, sometimes in groups of over 100. In the evening, like other sharks, they become lonely hunters.
Reproduction in the hammerhead shark occurs once a year and each litter contains 12&ndash;15 pups. Hammerhead shark mating courtship is a very violent affair. The male will bite the female until she acquiesces, allowing mating to occur. Unlike many other shark species, the hammerhead shark has internal fertilization which creates a safe environment for the [[sperm]] to unite with the [[ova|egg]]. The embryo develops within the female inside a [[placenta]] and is fed through an [[umbilical cord]], much like in mammals. The gestation period is 10&ndash;12 months. Once the pups are born the parents do not stay with them and they are left to fend for themselves.
Of the eight species of hammerhead, three (3) can be dangerous to humans: the scalloped, great, and smooth hammerheads.
*'''Genus ''Sphyrna'''''
**Subgenus ''Sphyrna''
***[[Scalloped Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) lewini''
***[[Great Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) mokarran''
***[[Smooth Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) zygaena''
***[[Whitefin Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) couardi''
**Subgenus ''Mesozygaena''
***[[Scalloped Bonnethead]], ''S. (M.) corona''
**Subgenus ''Platysqualus''
***[[Scoophead]], ''S. (P.) media''
***[[Bonnethead]] or Shovelhead, ''S. (P.) tiburo''
***[[Golden Hammerhead]] (previously known as Smalleye Hammerhead), ''S. (P.) tudes''
Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely [[fossil]]ize, it is their teeth alone that are commonly found as fossils. The hammerheads seem closely related to the [[carcharhinus|carcharhinid sharks]] that evolved during the mid-[[Tertiary]] Period. Because the teeth of hammerheads resemble those of some carcharhinids, it has been difficult to determine when hammerheads first appeared. It is probable that the hammerheads evolved during the late [[Eocene]], [[Oligocene]] or early [[Miocene]].
There are two schools of thought for the odd head shape of the hammerheads. One states that it is because of the greater area for sensors to scan the bottom of the seafloor for food and the other that it provides lift (Hammerheads are one of the most negatively buoyant of sharks) and added maneuverability. Both of the theories are probably correct <ref name="Hammer">{{Web reference | author=R. Aidan Martin| title=If I Had a Hammer | work=Rodale's Scuba Diving | url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/d_functions_of_hammer.htm | date=August | year=1993 }}</ref>. Geneticist Andrew Martin used [[DNA]] to study all hammer head species and he concluded that the first hammer appeared on the [[Winghead shark]] which have the largest hammer and the rest of the hammerhead sharks evolved one at a time from the original Winghead shark each with a smaller hammer <ref name="Mutation">{{Web reference | author=R. Aidan Martin| title=Origin and Evolution of the 'Hammer' | work=www.elasmo-research.org | url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/d_hh_origin.htm |date=January | year=2005 }}</ref>.
==References==
<references />
==External links==
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Sphyrna.html#Sphyrna Animal Diversity Web Genus ''Sphyrna''] with species sub-pages
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/hammerhead/ Hammerhead Shark!] web directory, with pictures
*[http://www.fishbase.org/NomenClature/ScientificNameSearchList.cfm?Crit1_FieldName=SYNONYMS.SynGenus&Crit1_FieldType=CHAR&Crit1_Operator=EQUAL&Crit1_Value=Sphyrna&Crit2_FieldName=SYNONYMS.SynSpecies&Crit2_FieldType=CHAR&Crit2_Operator=contains&Crit2_Value=&group=summary&backstep=-2 Fishbase]
*[http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/205/23/3609 "Electroreception in juvenile scalloped hammerhead and sandbar sharks"] by Stephen M. Kajiura and Kim N. Holland, ''The Journal of Experimental Biology'' (2002). Attempts to explain the "hammer" shape.
* [http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=87 MarineBio: Great hammerhead shark, Sphyrna mokarran]
[[Category:Sharks]]
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<page>
<title>Hall effect</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hall effect.png|thumb|300px|Hall effect diagram, showing electron flow (rather than [[conventional current]]). <br>''Legend'': <br>1. Electrons (not [[w:conventional current|conventional current]]!) <br>2. Hall element, or Hall sensor <br>3. Magnets <br>4. Magnetic field <br>5. Power source<br>''Description'':<br>In drawing "A", the Hall element takes on a negative charge at the top edge (symbolised by the blue color) and positive at the lower edge (red color). In "B" and "C", either the electric current or the magnetic field is reversed, causing the polarization to reverse. Reversing both current and magnetic field (drawing "D") causes the Hall element to again assume a negative charge at the upper edge.]]
The '''Hall effect''' refers to the [[potential difference]] ('''Hall voltage''') on opposite sides of a thin sheet of conducting or semiconducting material in the form of a 'Hall bar' or a van der Pauw element through which an [[current (electricity)|electric current]] is flowing, created by a [[magnetic field]] applied perpendicular to the Hall element. The ratio of the voltage created to the amount of current is known as the ''Hall resistance'', and is a characteristic of the material in the element. Dr. [[Edwin Hall]] discovered this effect in [[1879]].
==Analysis==
The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the current flow in the conductor. Current consists of many small [[electric charge|charge]]-carrying "particles" (typically [[electro |
== Merchant marine ==
<br>''total:''
12 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 84,915 GRT/112,634 DWT (1999 est.); 9 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 81,933 GRT/101,287 DWT (2003 est.)
<br>''ships by type:''
cargo 7; container 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off 3 (1999 est.), 1 (2003 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
82 (2203 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
14
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
3
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
5
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (2003 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
68
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
3
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
13
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
27
<br>''under 914 m:''
23 (2003 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Ethiopia]]
== Further reading ==
* "Chapter 8: Transport and Communications" in Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia (1800 - 1935)'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press, 1968).
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
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[[Category:Transportation in Ethiopia| ]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Military of Ethiopia</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Ethiopian National Defense Force]] (ENDF) has approximately 100,000 personnel, which makes it one of the largest [[military]] forces in [[Africa]]. This number is significantly smaller than the 250,000 plus troops that existed during the [[Derg]] regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991. The [[United States]] was Ethiopia's major [[arms trade|arms supplier]] from the end of [[World War II|World War 2]] until [[1977]], when Ethiopia began receiving massive arms shipments from the [[Soviet Union]]. These shipments, including armored patrol boats, transport and jet fighter aircraft, helicopters, tanks, trucks, missiles, artillery, and small arms have incurred an unserviced Ethiopian debt to the former Soviet Union estimated at more than $3.5 billion. Since the early [[1990s]], the ENDF has been in transition from a rebel force to a professional military organization with the aid of the U.S. and other countries. Training in demining, humanitarian and peace-keeping operations, professional military education, and military justice are among the major programs sponsored by the U.S.
'''Military branches:'''
Ground Forces, Air Force, Police, Militia
<br>''note:''
Ethiopia is landlocked and has no [[navy]]; following the independence of Eritrea, Ethiopian naval facilities remained in Eritrean possession and ships which belonged to the former Ethiopian Navy and based at [[Djibouti]] have been sold
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:'' 15,748,632 (2004 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:'' 8,234,442 (2004 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:'' 760,868 (2004 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$345 million (2003)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
5.2% (2003)
==Equipment==
The Ethiopian Military uses the following equipment.
IFV/APCs:[[BMP-1]],[[M113]],[[BRDM-2]],
[[BTR-152]],[[BTR-60]].Tanks:[[T-54/55]],[[T-62]].
Artillery:[[M1974]],[[M109]].Aircraft:[[Mi-6]],
[[Mi-8]],[[Mi-24]],[[An-2]],[[An-12]],[[An-26]],
[[MiG-15]],[[MiG-17]],[[MiG-21]],[[MiG-23]],
[[Su-25]],[[F-5]],[[Su-27]]
==References and Links==
*[[Ethiopia]]
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<title>Foreign relations of Ethiopia</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Ethiopia}}
[[Ethiopia]] was relatively isolated from major movements of world politics until the [[1895]] and [[1935]] [[Italy|Italian]] invasions. Since [[World War II]], it has played an active role in world and [[African]] affairs. Ethiopia was a [[charter member]] of the [[United Nations]] and took part in UN operations in [[Korea]] in [[1951]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] in [[1960]]. Former [[Emperor]] [[Haile Selassie]] was a founder of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU). [[Addis Ababa]] is the host capital for the UN Economic Commission for Africa and the OAU.
Although nominally a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], after the [[1974]] revolution, Ethiopia moved into a close relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] and its allies and supported their international policies and positions until the change of government in [[1991]].
Today, Ethiopia has very good relations with the U.S. and the West, especially in responding to regional instability and, increasingly, through economic involvement. Ethiopia's relations with [[Eritrea]] are extremely close, reflecting the shared revolutionary struggle against the [[Derg]]. Continuing instability along Ethiopia's borders with [[Sudan]] and [[Somalia]] contributes to tension with the [[National Islamic Front]] regime in Sudan and several groups in Somalia.
==International Disputes==
===Somalia===
*Most of the southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line, not an international boundary
*maintains alliances with local clans in opposition to the Transitional National Government, which lost its mandate in August 2003, in [[Mogadishu]]
*"[[Somaliland]]" secessionists provide port facilities and trade ties to landlocked Ethiopia
*Territorial dispute with Somalia over the [[Ogaden]]
===Eritrea===
*Dispute over alignment of boundary with Eritrea led to armed conflict between 1998 - 2000, which was resolved by the 2002 independent boundary commission's delimitation decision. However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the decision ignored "human geography," made technical errors in the delimitation, and incorrectly awarded [[Badme]] and other areas to Eritrea. Eritrea meanwhile insists on not deviating from the commission's decision
===Sudan===
*Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan have been delayed by civil war
==Illicit drugs==
*Transit hub for [[heroin]] originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America, as well as [[cocaine]] destined for markets in southern Africa.
*Cultivates [[qat]] (chat) for local use and regional export, principally to [[Djibouti]] and Somalia.
*Lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's usefulness as a [[money-laundering]] center
==External link==
*[http://mfa.gov.et/index.php Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Ethiopia's webpage]
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</pa |
as he did so. Aragorn however, gave the rod back, announcing that as long as his line would last, Faramir and his descendants would be Stewards of Gondor. After Faramir had asked the people of Gondor if they accepted Aragorn as their King (in which they did), Faramir took the crown out and Aragorn was crowned King Elessar.
King Elessar appointed Faramir as the Prince of Ithilien and Beregond to be the Captain of his guard, the White Company. As Prince of Ithilien, he and the Prince of Dol Amroth, Gondor’s two highest ranking nobles, became King Elessar's chief commanders. His duties also included acting as resident march-warden of Gondor's main eastward outpost, rehabilitating the lost territories, as well as clearing it of outlaws and orcs and cleansing [[Minas Morgul]] of evil-remnants (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 323). Faramir also fulfilled the traditional role as Steward, acting as the King’s chief counselor as well as ruling Gondor in the King’s absence.
With Éowyn, the two settled in [[Emyn Arnen]], where the two had at least one son named Elboron, who succeeded him as Steward of Gondor, Prince of Ithilien, and Lord of Emyn Arnen, after Faramir’s death in 82 of the [[Fourth Age]].
==Portrayal in adaptations==
In the [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|''Lord of the Rings'' movie trilogy]] by [[Peter Jackson]], Faramir does not at first let Frodo, Sam, and Gollum go, but decides to bring them and the Ring to Gondor. He takes them west to [[Osgiliath]], crossing the river [[Anduin]], and not until the [[Ringwraith]]s attack the city does he release them. Many fans of the book criticize this change, saying that it seriously damages the character; some have jokingly dubbed him "Farfromthebookamir", among other names ([http://www.theonering.com/docs/9839.html]).
[[Peter Jackson]]'s explanation is that he needed another adventure to delay Frodo and Sam, because the episode at [[Cirith Ungol]] was moved to the third movie, and so a new climax was needed. Another explanation often cited is that it was felt that for dramatic reasons it was necessary to show character ''development'', which meant that Faramir had to go through some kind of struggle or difficult decision. Jackson also argued that it was necessary for Faramir to be tempted by the Ring because everyone else was tempted, and letting Faramir be immune would be inconsistent, at least in the eyes of a film audience, and would weaken the films' portrayal of the Ring, which was that of a seduction of normal men.
[[Image:Faramir_ride.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[David Wenham]] as Faramir in [[Peter Jackson]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|''Lord of the Rings'' movie trilogy]]]]
A number of fans however, remain unimpressed and unconvinced by Jackson's explanations, and have complained that Faramir was changed into a carbon copy of Boromir and have commented that Tolkien himself, who once likened himself to Faramir, would not have liked the way the film characterized him. Jackson counters that the important difference between Boromir and Faramir is kept: Boromir was completely incapable of resisting the temptation of the Ring. Faramir, realizing what his brother went through, what Frodo and Gollum must endure, and his own morals and personality in check, realizes the danger, and freely decides to let Frodo go.
There was also criticism concerning the Rangers', including Faramir's, treatment of Gollum. Fans bitterly complained that Faramir, whose gentle heart was easily moved by pity, would have never let his men or himself torture any prisoner, no matter how wicked or evil. In the book, Faramir calls the creature Sméagol instead of Gollum, and told his men to "treat him gently...but watch him" (The Two Towers, "The Window on the West").
In the extended edition of ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'', Jackson has included a new flashback scene showing that Denethor has been neglecting him and favoring Boromir, so that Faramir wanted to please his father by bringing him the Ring. (The relationship is similarly strained in the books, but there his father's favoritism does not seem to affect his decisions in Ithilien.) On the whole, however, new Extended Edition scenes with Faramir brought the character closer to the sympathetic treatment of the books (the line he is given regarding a fallen Southron belongs to Sam in the books, but is not out of keeping with Faramir's character).
Faramir is played by [[David Wenham]] in the films, who joked that he got the role because he and Sean Bean, who played Boromir, both had large noses. A minor change is that in the book, Faramir and his brother are dark-haired and lack beards, but in the movie, they have fair hair and are slightly bearded.
In the BBC Radio adaptation, Faramir is voiced by Andrew Seear.
==Trivia==
*Faramir's name in Elvish either means 'sufficient jewel' or 'jeweled hunter'. The -mir meaning "jewel, precious thing, treasure" and the -phar meaning "suffice" or the the element far (from faras) meaning "hunting."
*Faramir was, in the words of Tolkien, "modest, fair-minded and scrupulously just, and very merciful" (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien]]'', 244). His appearance toward the end of ''[[The Two Towers (book)|The Two Towers]]'' apparently was as much of a surprise to Tolkien as it is to his readers. "I am sure I did not invent him," he wrote. "I did not even want him, though I like him" (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 66).
*Faramir in many ways speaks for Tolkien, who was a soldier in [[World War I]] and saw action in the [[Somme]], when he spoke that he only fought to defend Gondor, not for glory or triumph or valor. Much later, Tolkien would write, "As far as any character is 'like me', it is Faramir" (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 180). It is for this reason that Tolkien bestowed his dream of a great wave (that reoccurred in his family) to Faramir. "For when Faramir speaks of his private vision of the Great Wave, he speaks for me. That vision and dream has been ever with me&mdash;and has been inherited (as I only discovered recently) by one of my children, Michael" (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 180).
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[House of Húrin]]
*[[Stewards of Gondor]]
*[[Rangers of Ithilien]]
==Sources==
*''The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien'', 1st Hough edition, 2000. J. R. R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (Editor), ISBN 0618056998
*''The History of Middle-earth, vol. V, The Lost Road and Other Writings'', 1996. J. R. R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (Editor), ISBN 0345406850
==External links==
* [http://www.tuckborough.net/faramir.html Faramir] at The Thain's Book
* [http://minas-anor.net/faramir/ There He Came] - A Faramir tribute and fansite
{{sequence|
prev=[[Denethor|Denethor II]]|
next=''Princes of [[Ithilien]]''|
list=[[Stewards of Gondor]]
}}
[[Category:Middle-earth Dúnedain]]
[[Category:Fictional nobility|Faramir]]
----
''There is another Faramir, '''Faramir, son of Ondoher''', who died at the [[Battle of the Camp]]. During the Fourth Age, Pippin Took's son, '''Faramir Took''', is named after Faramir, son of Denethor II.''
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</page>
<page>
<title>Frederick Copleston</title>
<id>11161</id>
<revision>
<id>40363506</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Charles Copleston''', ([[April 10]], [[1907]], [[Taunton]], [[Somerset]], [[England]] – [[February 3]], [[1994]], [[London]], [[England]]) was a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[priest]] and [[writer]] on [[philosophy]].
Copleston converted to [[Roman Catholicism]] while a pupil at [[Marlborough College]]. He was author of an influential nine-volume ''[[A History of Philosophy (Copleston)|History of Philosophy]]''. He is well known for debating famed British thinker [[Bertrand Russell]], in a celebrated [[1948]] [[BBC]] broadcast, on the [[existence of God]], as well as [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosopher]] [[A. J. Ayer]] on [[logical positivism]] and the meaningfulness of [[religious language]]
==Quote==
''"Even if the actual systems of philosophy which have appeared in the philosophical thought of a given culture are historically conditioned, there may be ways of thought exemplified by past systems which remain a feature of a people's mentality or cultural outlook."''
==External links==
* [http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p20.htm The BBC Debate]
[[Category:1907 births|Copleston, Frederick C.]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Copleston, Frederick C.]]
[[Category:Natives of Somerset|Copleston, Frederick C.]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Copleston, Frederick]]
[[sk:Frederick Copleston]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finance</title>
<id>11162</id>
<revision>
<id>41463303</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:42:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GraemeL</username>
<id>383311</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.76.123.40|62.76.123.40]] ([[User talk:62.76.123.40|talk]]) to last version by GilliamJF</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Finance''' studies and addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses and organizations raise, allocate and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. |
ction turnout]] in national lower house elections from 1960 to 1995, numbers from Mark N. Franklin's "Electoral Participation."</br>
4.{{note|minister}} [http://www.fed-parl.be/gwuk0006.htm#E11E6 Constitution of Belgium] Art. 99</br>
5.{{note|rainbow_BBC}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/392004.stm Belgium's "rainbow" coalition sworn in, BBC News, 12 July, 1999]</br>
6.{{note|chambre}} [http://www.lachambre.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/pri/fiche/10F.pdf Composition of the Chamber of Representatives, on the official homepage of the Chamber, in French]</br>
7.{{note|VB_expa}}[http://jackosheas.com/news/newsstory.cfm?story_no=1124 Court says Vlaams Blok conviction is sound, Expatriate Online, 10 November, 2004] </br>
8.{{note|VB_BBC}}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3994867.stm Court rules Vlaams Blok is racist, BBC News, 9 November, 2004] </br>
9.{{note|dioxin}}[http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/jun1999/belg-j08.shtml Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium: Effects spread through European Union and beyond, World Socialist Web Site, 8 June, 1999]</br>
10.{{note|food}}[http://www.favv-afsca.fgov.be/portal/page?_pageid=34,66751&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL History of the Federal Food Agency, at its official homepage]</br>
11.{{note|rwanda}}[http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0019846.html The Rwanda article at Tiscali.References] shows an example of Belgium's recent African policies.</br>
12.{{note|flanders}}[http://www.flanders.be/ The official homepage of Flanders (Community and Region)]</br>
13.{{note|meteo}}[http://www.eurometeo.com/english/climate/city_EBBR/id_GT/meteo_brussels_belgium Eurometeo: The meteo at Brussels]</br>
14-15.{{note|state_dpt}}[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2874.htm US Department of State's report]</br>
16.{{note|nationalBank}}[http://www.nbb.be/pub/Home.htm?l=en&t=ho National Bank of Belgium]</br>
17.{{note|economist}}[http://www.economist.com/countries/Belgium/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast Economic forecast of the Economist, 30 September, 2005]</br>
18,20.{{note|statbel}}[http://statbel.fgov.be/ Official statistics of Belgium]</br>
19,24.{{note|undp}}[http://www.undp.org/hdr2001/indicator/cty_f_BEL.html United Nation Development Programme]</br>
21-22.{{note|ethnologue}}[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=BE Ethnologue.com] published by [[SIL International]]</br>
23.{{note|edu}}[http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/ch_6.asp Digest of Education Satistics 2003, US National Education Statistics]</br>
25.{{note|religion}}[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35444.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2004 at the US Department of State]
</div>
{{EU countries}}
{{Europe}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BASIC</title>
<id>3344</id>
<revision>
<id>26175300</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-22T10:32:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enochlau</username>
<id>36424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>format</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BASIC''' can refer to:
* [[BASIC programming language]]
* [[British American Security Information Council]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Dylan</title>
<id>3345</id>
<revision>
<id>42118151</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:07:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lion King</username>
<id>484194</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reinserted Dylan's legal name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name = Bob Dylan
| image = [[Image:Bob Dylan by Daniel Kramer.jpg|200px]]
| caption = Portrait photograph by Daniel Kramer
| years_active = 1959&mdash;present
| origin = [[Hibbing, Minnesota]]
| music_genre = [[Folk music]], [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Country music|Country]]
| record_label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]]
}}
'''Bob Dylan''' (born '''Robert Allen Zimmerman''' on [[May 24]], [[1941]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer-songwriter]], [[musician]] and [[poet]] whose enduring contributions to American song are comparable, in fame and influence, to those of [[Stephen Foster]], [[Irving Berlin]], [[Woody Guthrie]], and [[Hank Williams]].
Much of Dylan's best known work is from the 1960s, when he became an informal documentarian and reluctant figurehead of American unrest. Many involved in the [[anti-war]] and [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movements]] found an anthem in his song "[[Blowin' in the Wind]]". He remains an influential and popular artist; his last album, [["Love and Theft"]], reached #5 on the charts in the US and #3 in Britain despite being released on [[September 11, 2001]].
Dylan's lyrics incorporated [[politics]], [[social commentary]], [[philosophy]] and [[literature|literary]] influences, defying existing pop music conventions and appealing widely to the counterculture of the time. While expanding and personalizing musical styles, Dylan has shown steadfast devotion to traditions of American song, from [[folk music|folk]] and [[country music|country]]/[[blues]] to [[rock 'n' roll]] and [[rockabilly]], to [[Celtic music|Gaelic]] balladry, even [[jazz]], [[swing]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
Dylan plays the [[guitar]], [[keyboard]] and [[harmonica]]. Backed by a changing lineup of musicians, he has toured steadily since the late 1980s.
==Musical career and personal life==
===Beginnings===
[[Image:BobDylanHSPhoto.jpg|thumb|Robert Zimmerman (a.k.a Bob Dylan) in high school]]
Bob Dylan was born in [[Duluth, Minnesota]] and raised in [[Hibbing, Minnesota]], on the extreme western shore of [[Lake Superior]]. His grandparents were [[Jewish]] emigrants from [[Lithuania]], [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]], and his parents, Abraham Zimmerman and Beatrice Stone (Beatty), were part of the area's small but close-knit Jewish community. He lived in Duluth until age seven, when his father was stricken with [[polio]]. The family returned to nearby [[Hibbing, Minnesota|Hibbing]], Beatty's hometown, where Robert Zimmerman spent the rest of his childhood.
Zimmerman spent much of his youth listening to the radio, first to the powerful [[blues]] and [[country music]] stations broadcasting from [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and, later, early [[rock and roll]]. He made his earliest known recordings on Christmas Eve 1956, with two friends in a department store booth, singing verses of songs by [[Carl Perkins]], [[Little Richard]], [[Lloyd Price]], [[The Penguins]] and others. He formed several bands while in high school; the first, The Shadow Blasters, was short-lived, but the second, the Golden Chords, proved more durable. They played covers and the Zimmerman-penned tune "Little Richard" at their high-school talent show. In 1959 he toured briefly under the name of Elston Gunnn with [[Bobby Vee]], playing piano and supplying handclaps.
An able but not outstanding student, Zimmerman enrolled at the [[University of Minnesota]] in 1959 and moved to [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]]. His musical focus on [[rock and roll]] gave way to an interest in subtler, Gaelic-inflected American folk music, typically performed with an acoustic guitar. He soon became actively involved in the local [[Dinkytown, USA|Dinkytown]] [[folk music]] circuit, fraternizing with local folk enthusiasts and occasionally "borrowing" many of their albums. During his Dinkytown days Zimmerman began introducing himself as "Bob Dylan" (or Dillon). In his autobiography "Chronicles" (2005) Dylan writes: "What I was going to do as soon as I
left home was just call myself Robert Allen...It sounded like a Scottish king and I liked it." However he discovered by reading Downbeat magazine that there was already a saxophone player called David Allyn. Dylan explains that he liked the way Allyn has changed the spelling of his last name to appear more exotic. A little later he came across [[Dylan Thomas]] and then made a choice between Robert Allyn and Robert Dylan: "I couldn't decide - the letter D came on stronger" he explained. He decided on "Bob" as there were several Bobbys in popular music at the time (Bobby Vee, Bobby Vinton, Bobby Rydell).
Dylan quit college at the end of his freshman year but stayed in Minneapolis, working the folk circuit there with temporary sojourns in [[Denver, Colorado]], and [[Chicago, Illinois]]. In Ja |
>7386</id>
<revision>
<id>15905457</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyril_of_Jerusalem]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyril of Jerusalem</title>
<id>7387</id>
<revision>
<id>37626748</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T03:46:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kzollman</username>
<id>166829</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved dab</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Saint Cyril (disambiguation)]] for other persons with this name.''
'''Cyril of Jerusalem''' was a distinguished theologian of the early Church ([[circa|ca]]. [[315]] - [[386]]). He is venerated as a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. In [[1883]] the [[Holy See]] declared him a [[Doctor of the Church]].
==Life and character==
Little is known of his life before he became bishop; the assignment of the year [[315]] for his birth rests on mere conjecture. He seems to have been ordained deacon by Bishop [[Macarius of Jerusalem]] about [[335]], and priest some ten years later by Maximus. Naturally inclined to peace and conciliation, he took at first a rather moderate position, distinctly averse from [[Arianism]], but (like not a few of his undoubtedly orthodox contemporaries) by no means eager to accept the uncompromising term ''homooussios''. Separating from his metropolitan, [[Acacius of Caesarea]], a partisan of [[Arius]], Cyril took the side of the [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebians]], the "right wing" of the post-Nicene conciliation party, and thus got into difficulties with his superior, which were increased by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned to Cyril's see by the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]]. A council held under Acacius's influence in [[358]] deposed Cyril and forced him to retire to [[Tarsus]]. At that time he was officially charged with selling church property to help the poor, although the actual motivation appears to be that Cyril was teaching Nicene and not Arian doctrine in his catechism. On the other hand, the conciliatory [[Council of Seleucia]] in the following year, at which Cyril was present, deposed Acacias. In 360 the process was reversed through the metropolitan's court influence, and Cyril suffered another year's exile from Jerusalem, until [[Julian the Apostate]]'s accession allowed him to return. The Arian emperor [[Valens]] banished him once more in 367, after which he remained undisturbed until his death, his jurisdiction being expressly confirmed by the [[First Council of Constantinople]] ([[381]]), at which he was present. At that council, he voted for acceptance of the term ''homooussios'', having been finally convinced that there was no better alternative.
==Theological position==
Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene orthodoxy. Even if he does avoid the debatable term ''homooussios'',
he expresses its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and
the Arian formula "There was a time when the Son was not." In other points he takes the ordinary
ground of the Eastern Fathers, as in the emphasis he lays on the freedom of the will, the ''autexousion'',and his imperfect realization of the factor so much more strongly brought out in the West--sin. To him sin is the consequence of freedom, not a natural condition. The body is not the cause, but the instrument of sin. The remedy for it is repentance, on which he insists. Like many of the Eastern Fathers, he has an essentially moralistic conception of Christianity. His doctrine of the [[Resurrection of Christ|Resurrection]] is not quite so realistic as that of other Fathers; but his conception of the Church is decidedly empirical-- the existing catholic Church form is the true one, intended by Christ, the completion of the Church of the [[Old Testament]]. His doctrine on the [[Eucharist]] is noteworthy. If he sometimes seems to approach the symbolical view, at other times he comes very close to a strong realistic doctrine. The bread and wine are not mere elements, but the body and blood of Christ.
==Catechetical lectures==
His famous twenty-three catechetical lectures (Gk. ''Katecheseis''), which he delivered while still a [[presbyter]] in 347 or 348, contain instructions on the principal topics of Christian faith and practise, in rather a popular than a scientific manner, full of a warm pastoral love and care for the catechumens to whom they were delivered. Each lecture is based upon a text of Scripture, and there is an abundance of Scriptural quotation throughout. After a general introduction, eighteen
lectures follow for the ''competentes'', and the remaining five are addressed to the newly baptized, in preparation for the reception of the communion. Parallel with the exposition of the creed as it was then received in the church of Jerusalem are vigorous polemics against [[Paganism|pagan]], [[Jewish]], and [[Heresy|heretical]] errors. They are of great importance for the light which they throw on the method of instruction usual in that age, as well as upon the liturgical practises of the period, of which they give the fullest account extant.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Maximus III of Jerusalem|Maximus III]]|
title=[[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Bishop of Jerusalem]]|
years=[[350]]-[[386]]|
after=[[Bishop John II of Jerusalem|John II]]}}
{{end box}}
----
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
[[Category:315 births]] [[Category:386 deaths]] [[category:Church Fathers]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Jerusalem]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[de:Kyrill von Jerusalem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanukkah</title>
<id>7388</id>
<revision>
<id>42160135</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:29:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Holiday |
|image=Hannouccia.jpg
|caption=Hanukkah menorah on the eighth night of the festival.
|color1=#003EFA
|color2=#003EFA
|color3=#3399FF
|holiday_name=Hanukkah
|official_name=[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''חֲנֻכָּה''' or '''&#1495;&#1504;&#1493;&#1499;&#1492;'''
|nickname=Translation: "Renewal/Rededication" (of the [[Beit Hamikdash]], the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]); Festival of Lights, Festival of Dedication
|observedby=[[Judaism]] and [[Jew]]s
|begins=25 [[Kislev]]
|ends=2 [[Tevet]] or 3 [[Tevet]]
|celebrations=Lighting a [[candle]] each night of in a special Hanukkah [[Menorah]] (a Chanukiah) near a [[window]] for [[eight]] [[night]]s. Playing the ''[[dreidel]]'' (''sevivon'') game, eating foods fried in olive oil, such as [[latke|latkes]] (potato pankakes) and [[sufganiyot]] (jelly doughnuts).
|type=Religious
|significance=One of two rabbinical festivals. The [[Maccabee|Maccabees']] successful rebellion against [[Antiochus IV]]. The purification of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]]. The miracle of the eternal flame burning for eight days with only enough oil for one day.
|relatedto=[[Purim]], as a [[rabbi]]nically decreed holiday, and [[Kwanzaa]], which borrowed elements from Hanukkah
|date2006=[[December 26]] to [[January 2]], [[December 16]] to [[December 23]]
|date2007=[[December 5]] to [[December 12]]
|date2008=[[December 22]] to [[December 29]]
|date2009=[[December 12]] to [[December 19]]
|date2010=[[December 2]] to [[December 9]]
}}
{{infobox Halacha|verse=N/A|talmud=Shabbat 21b|rambam=''Zemanim'' (Times):''Chanukah u-Megillah'': 3-4|sa=[[Orach Chayim]] 670-684}}
'''Hanukkah''', also known as the '''Festival of Lights''' or '''Festival of Dedication''', is an eight day [[Jewish holiday]] that starts on the 25th day of [[Kislev]], which generally is in December, or sometimes, late November. The festival is observed in [[Jewish]] homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on.
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew script]], the word Hanukkah is written &#1495;&#1504;&#1499;&#1492;, {{IPA|&#7717;&#259;nukk&#257;h}}, or &#1495;&#1504;&#1493;&#1499;&#1492;, {{IPA|&#7717;&#259;n&#363;kk&#257;h}}. It is most commonly transliterated to English as '''Hanukkah''' or '''Chanukah'''. Other variations are discussed below.
==Commemoration==
The word ''Hanukkah'' means "dedication." Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the Miracle of the Oil. At the re-dedication of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] following the victory of the [[Maccabees]] over the [[Seleucid Empire]], there was only enough consecrated [[olive oil]] to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days - which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil.
Historically, Hanukkah commemorates two events:
*The triumph of [[Judaism]]'s spiritual values as embodied in its [[Torah]] (symbolized by the [[Menorah]], since the Torah is compared to [[light]]) over [[Hellenistic civilization]] (considered darkness) which under [[Antiochus IV]], had attempted to [[cultural assimilation|culturally assimilate]] the Jews away from practicing Judaism's [[613 mitzvot|commandments]], by forcefully installing Greek religious symbols in the [[Second Temple]].
*The victory of the Jews over the armies of [[Antiochus IV]]. The rebellion was begun by [[Mattathias|Mattathias Maccabee]] and continued by [[Judah Maccabee]] and his other sons. They defeated overwhelm |
<page>
<title>Biathlon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Biathlon''' (not to be confused with [[duathlon]]) is a term used to describe any sporting event made up of two disciplines. Biathlon, however, usually refers specifically to the [[winter sport]] that combines [[cross-country skiing]] and [[rifle|rifle shooting]]. Another popular variant is summer biathlon, which combines cross-country running with riflery.
Biathlon events are broadcast most regularly where the sport enjoys its greatest popularity, namely [[Germany]] ([[Das Erste|ARD]], [[ZDF]]), [[Norway]] ([[Norsk Rikskringkasting|NRK]]), [[Finland]] ([[Yleisradio|YLE]]), [[Sweden]] ([[Sveriges Television|SVT]]), [[Russia]] ([[RTR]]), [[Belarus]] ([[TVR (Belarus)|TVR]]), [[Slovenia]] ([[RTV Slovenia|RTV]]), [[Estonia]] ([[ETV (Estonia)|ETV]]) and [[Bulgaria]]; it is also broadcast on European-wide [[Eurosport]].
The broadcast distribution being one indicator, the constellation of a sport's main [[sponsor]]s usually gives a similar indication of popularity: for biathlon, these are the Germany-based companies [[E.ON|E.ON Ruhrgas]] (energy), [[Krombacher]] (beer), and [[Viessmann]] (boilers and other heating systems).
[[Image:Jeremy Teela 2002 Olympics.jpg|thumb|right|[[United States|U.S.]] biathlete Jeremy Teela at the [[2002 Winter Olympics]].]]
== Concise history ==
The sport has its origins in an exercise for [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[soldier]]s. The first known competition took place in [[1767]] when border patrol companies competed against each other. Gradually the sport became more common throughout [[Scandinavia]] as an alternative training for the [[army|military]].
Called '''[[military patrol]]''', the combination of skiing and shooting was demonstrated at the [[Winter Olympic Games|Olympic Winter Games]] in [[Military patrol at the 1924 Winter Olympics|1924]], [[Military patrol at the 1928 Winter Olympics|1928]], [[Military patrol at the 1948 Winter Olympics|1936]] and [[Military patrol at the 1948 Winter Olympics|1948]], but did not gain Olympic recognition then, as the small number of competing countries disagreed on the rules (see also Governing body, below).
The first [[Biathlon World Championships|World Championship]] in the sport was held in [[1958]] in [[Austria]], and in [[1960]] the sport was finally included in the [[1960 Winter Olympics|Olympic Games]]. At [[1992 Winter Olympics|Albertville]] in 1992, women were first allowed in Olympic biathlon.
{{section-stub}}
== Governing body ==
In [[1948]], the '''''U'''nion '''I'''nternationale de '''P'''entathlon '''M'''oderne et '''B'''iathlon '''(UIPMB)''''' was founded, to standardise the rules for biathlon and [[modern pentathlon]]. In [[1993]], the biathlon branch of the UIPMB created the '''''I'''nternational '''B'''iathlon '''U'''nion '''(IBU)''''', which officially separated from the UIPMB in [[1998]].
Presidents of the UIPMB/IBU:
* [[1948]]&ndash;[[1949]]: [[Tom Wiborn]] ([[Sweden]])
* [[1949]]&ndash;[[1960]]: [[Gustaf Dyrssen]] (Sweden)
* [[1960]]&ndash;[[1988]]: [[Sven Thofelt]], (Sweden)
* [[1988]]&ndash;[[1992]]: [[Igor Novikov (athlete)|Igor Novikov]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]]/[[Russia]])
* From&nbsp;&nbsp;[[1992]]: [[Anders Besseberg]] ([[Norway]])
== Champions ==
The following articles list major international biathlon events and medalists. Contrary to the Olympics and World Championships (BWCH), the World Cup (BWC) is an entire winter season of (mostly) weekly races, where the medalists are those with the highest sums of World Cup points at the end of the season.
* [[Olympic medalists in biathlon]]
* [[Biathlon World Championships]]
* [[Biathlon World Cup champions]]
== Rules and equipment ==
[[Image:Andrea Nahrgang 2002 Winter Olympics.jpg|thumb|right|Andrea Nahrgang prepares to shoot from the prone position at the [[2002 Winter Olympics]].]]
[[Image:Torino 2006 Jeremy Teela standing.jpg|thumb|right|Jeremy Teela shoots from the standing position at the [[2006 Winter Olympics]].]]
The complete rules of biathlon is given in the official IBU rule book (see [[#External links|External links]], below). However, the concise description given below, along with the section on competition format, should be enough for a spectator to understand what is going on at a biathlon stadium whether actually being there or at home watching a televised biathlon event.
=== Basic concepts ===
In short, a biathlon competition consists of a race in which contestants ski around a cross-country track, and where the total distance is broken up by either two or four shooting rounds, half in prone position, the other half standing. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. As in most races, the contestant with the shortest total time wins.
For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; each missed target must be "atoned for" in one of three ways, depending on the competition format:
* by making a skiing round in a 150 [[metre|m]] penalty loop, typically taking 20&ndash;30 seconds for top-level biathletes to complete (running time depending on weather/snow conditions),
* by having one minute added to one's total skiing time, or
* by having to use an "extra cartridge" (placed at the shooting range) to finish off the target; only three such "extras" are available for each round, and a penalty loop must be made for each of the targets still remaining after expending the "extras".
In order to keep track of the contestants' progress and relative standing throughout a race, [[split time]]s (intermediate times) are taken at several points along the skiing track and upon finishing each shooting round. The large display screens commonly set up at biathlon arenas, as well as the information graphics shown as part of the TV picture, will typically list the split time of the fastest contestant at each intermediate point and the times and time differences to the closest runners-up.
=== Skiing details ===
All cross-country skiing techniques are permitted in biathlon, which means that the [[cross-country skiing#Free/Skating|free technique]] is usually the preferred one, being the fastest. No other equipment than skis and ski poles may be used for moving along the track. Minimal ski length is 4 [[centimetre|cm]] less than the height of the skier.
=== Shooting details ===
The biathlete carries the 3.5 [[kilogram|kg]] small bore rifle including ammunition in magazines on her/his back during the race. The rifles use [[.22 Long Rifle|.22 LR]] ammunition and are [[bolt action]].
The target range shooting distance is 50 [[metre|m]] or 160 feet. There are five circular targets to be hit in each shooting round. When shooting in the [[Prone position|prone]] position the target diameter is 45 [[millimeter|mm]] or 1.7 inches, when shooting in the standing position the target diameter is 115 mm or 4.5 inches. On all modern biathlon ranges, the targets are self-indicating, in that they flip from black to white when hit, giving the biathlete as well as the spectators instant visual feedback for each shot fired.
== Competition format ==
=== Individual ===
The 20 [[kilometer|km]] Individual race (15 km for women) is the oldest biathlon event. The biathlete shoots four times, in the order of prone, standing, prone, standing, totalling 20 targets. For each missed target a fixed penalty time, usually one minute, is added to the skiing time of the biathlete. Competitors' starts are staggered, normally by 30 seconds.
=== Sprint ===
The sprint is 10 km for men and 7.5 km for women. The biathlete shoots twice, once prone and once standing, for a total of 10 shots. For each miss, a penalty loop of 150 [[metre|m]] must be skied before the race can be continued. As in the Individual competition, the biathletes start in intervals.
=== Pursuit ===
In a Pursuit, biathletes' starts are separated by their time difference from a previous race, most commonly a Sprint. The contestant crossing the finish line first is the winner. The distance is 12.5 km for men and 10 km for women, there are four shooting bouts (two prone, two standing), and each miss means a penalty loop of 150 m. To prevent awkward and/or dangerous crowding in the skiing track, and undercapacity at the shooting range, World Cup Pursuits are held with only the 60 top ranking biathletes after the preceding race.
=== Mass start ===
In the Mass start, all biathletes start at the same time and the first across the finish line wins. In this 15 km (12.5 km for women) competition, there are four bouts of shooting; two standing, two prone. As in Sprint races, competitors must ski one 150 m penalty loop for each miss. Here again, to avoid unwanted congestion, World Cup Mass starts are held with only the 30 top ranking athletes on the start line (half that of the Pursuit since here all contestants start simultaneously).
=== Relay ===
The Relay teams consist of four biathletes, who each ski 7.5 km (men) or 6 km (women), with two shooting rounds; one prone, one standing. For every round of five targets there are eight bullets available, though the last three can only be loaded one at a time from trays at the shooting range. If after eight bullets there are still misses, one 150 m penalty loop must be taken for each miss. The first-leg participants start all at the same time, and as in cross-country skiing relays, every athlete of a team must touch the team's next-leg participant to perform a valid changeover.
=== Mixed relay ===
The most recent addition to the number of biathlon com |
l of Casablanca was not formalised until 1910.
Casablanca was an important strategic port during [[World War II]] and hosted the [[Casablanca Conference (1943)|Anglo-American Summit]] in [[1943]], in which [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Franklin D Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] discussed the progress of the war.
Having had the highest concentration of urban poor in Morocco, including substantial ''[[shanty town|shanty towns]]'', Casablanca has frequently provided a home for social unrest. During the 1940s and 1950s, it was a major centre of anti-French rioting. A terrorist bomb on Christmas Day 1953 caused terrible casualties.
===Since independence===
Morocco gained independence from France on 2nd March 1956.
In [[1958]], Casablanca hosted a round of the [[Formula One]] world championship at the [[Ain-Diab]] circuit. In [[1983]], Casablanca hosted the [[Mediterranean Games]].
The city is now developing a [[tourism]] industry. Casablanca has become the economic and business capital of Morocco, while [[Rabat]] is the political capital.
In March 2000, women's groups organised demonstrations in Casablanca proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country. 40,000 women attended, calling for a ban on [[polygamy]] and the introdction of [[muslim divorce|divorce law]] (divorce being a purely religious procedure at that time). Although counter-demonstration attracted half a millon participants, the movement for change started in 2000 was influential on [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|King Mohammed VI]], and he enacted a new ''[[Mudawana]]'', or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists.
On [[May 16]], [[2003]], 33 civilians were killed and more than 100 people were injured when Casablanca was hit by a [[2003 Casablanca bombings|multiple suicide bomb attack]] carried out by Moroccans and claimed by some to have been linked to [[al-Qaeda]].
== Notable physical landmarks ==
[[Image:Mosque-hassan-II.jpg|thumb|[[Hassan II Mosque]]]]
[[Image:Parc de la Ligue Arabe.jpg|thumb|Parc de la Ligue Arabe]]
The '''French period New Town''' of Casablanca was designed by the French architect [[Henri Prost]] and was a model of a new town at that time. The main streets of the New Town radiate south and east from Place des Nations Unies, where the main market of [[Anfa]] had been. The New Town is possibly the most impressive in Morocco. Former admistrative buildings and present-day hotels populate the area. Their style is a combination of [[Islamic architecture#Moorish Architecture|Hispano-Mauresque]] and [[Art Deco]] styles.
Casablanca is home to the '''[[Hassan II Mosque]]''', designed by the French architect [[Michel Pinceau]]. It is the second largest in the world (after the [[Faisal Mosque|Shah Faisal Mosque]] near [[Islamabad]]). It is sited on a [[promontory]] looking out to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], which can be seen through a gigantic glass floor with room for 25,000 worshippers. A further 80,000 can be accommodated in the mosque's courtyard. Its [[minaret]] is the world's tallest at 210 [[metre|metres]].
Work on the mosque was started in 1980, and was intended to be completed for the 60th birthday of former the Moroccan king, [[Hassan II of Morocco|Hassan II]], in 1989. However, the building was not inaugerated until [[1993]]. It is the only mosque in Morocco which is open to non-muslims.
The '''Parc de la Ligue Arabe''' is the city's largest public park. On it's edge is situated the Cathedrale du Sacré Coeur, disused, but a splendid example of ''Mauresque'' architecture.
The '''Old Medina''' (the part of town pre-dating the French [[protectorate]]) attracts fewer tourists than the medinas of other Moroccan towns, such as [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] and [[Marrakech|Marrakesh]]. However, it has undergone some restoration in recent years. Included in this project have been the western walls of the medina, its ''skala'', or [[bastion]], and its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-period clock tower.
The city is served by Anfa Airport and [[Mohammed V International Airport]], and its port is one of the largest artificial ports in the world.
==Jews in Casablanca==
* ''See also: [[History of the Jews in Morocco]]''
There was a [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] community in [[Anfa]] up to its destruction by the Portuguese in 1468. Jews were slow to return to the town, but by 1750 there seem to have been enough of them to warrant the building of the first [[synagogue]] in Casablanca, the Rabbi Elijah Synagogue, which was destroyed along with much of the town in the [[earthquake]] of 1755.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Casablanca was home to about 6,000 Jews - more than a quarter of the population. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Casablanca has been associated with Judaism more than any other city in [[North Africa]]. The Jewish population snowballed in the mid 20th century, partly because of the attraction of the town as an economic capital, partly because of the development of social support structures for Jewish incomers and partly, after the European [[Holocaust]], because of an increased desire of some Jews for the protection of a large Jewish community.
Between the 1940s and 1960s, the Jewish population of Casablanca was around 70,000. [[Emigration]] to [[France]], [[United States|America]] and [[Israel]] from Casablanca has been substantial since then, however. Large numbers of [[expatriate|expats]] retain Moroccan citizenship and a Moroccan identity. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remain in the city today.
==Transport==
===Trains===
Casablanca is served by two rail stations run by the national rail service, the [[ONCF]]. The main long haul station is '''Gare des Voyageurs''', from which trains run south to [[Marrakech|Marrakesh]] or [[El Jadida]] and north to [[Rabat]], and then on either to [[Tangiers]] or [[Meknes]], [[Fes]] and [[Oujda]]. A dedicated airport shuttle service to [[Mohammed V International Airport]] also has its primary in-city stop at this station, for connections on to further destinations.
The second station, '''Gare du Port''' serves primarily commuter trains running the Casablanca - Rabat corridor, with some connecting trains with running on to Gare des Voyageurs.
===Coaches===
[[CTM]] coaches (intercity buses) and various private lines run services to most notable Moroccan towns as well as a number of European cities. These run from the '''Gare Routière''' on Rue Léon l'Africain in downtown Casablanca
===Planes===
Casablanca's main airport is '''[[Mohammed V International Airport]]''', Morocco's busiest airport. Regular domestic flights serve [[Marrakech|Marrakesh]], [[Agadir]], [[Oujda]], and [[Tangiers]], [[Laayoune]] in the disputed [[Western Sahara]], as well as other cities.
Casablanca is well served by international flights to Europe, especially [[France|French]] and [[Spain|Spanish]] airports, and has regular connections to [[North Aftrica]]n, [[Middle East]]ern and sub-Saharan [[Africa]]n destinations. [[New York]], [[Dakar]] and [[Dubai]] are important primary destinations.
The older, smaller '''Casablanca Anfa''' airport to the west of the city still serves certain destinations including [[Sydney]], [[Damascus]], and [[Tunis]].
===Taxis===
Registered taxis in Casablanca are coloured red and known as ''petits taxis'', or coloured white and known as ''grands taxis''. As is standard Moroccan practice, ''petits taxis,'' typically small-four door Fiat or similar cars, provide metered cab service in the central metropolitan areas. ''Grands taxis,'' generally older Mercedes sedans, provide shared mini-bus like service within the city on pre-defined routes, or shared inter-city service. Grands Taxis may also be hired for private service by the hour or day, although typically only foreigners do so.
==List of main Casablanca Districts==
*2 Mars
*Ain Diab
*Ain Sebaa
*Anfa
*Belvedere
*Bourgogne
*Centre Ville (City Center)
*Californie
*C.I.L.
*Derb Gallef
*Derb Sultan Al Fida
*El Hank
*Gautier
*Habous
*Hay Hassani
*Hay Moulay Rachid
*La Colline
*Laimoun
*Lissasfa
*Maarif
*Mers Sultan
*Oasis
*Polo
*Racine
*Riviera
*Roches Noires
*Sidi Bernoussi
*Sidi Moumen
*Sidi Maarouf
*Sidi Othman
== References ==
#{{note|ref1}} Pennel, CR: ''Morocco from Empire to Independence'', Oneworld, Oxford, 2003, p 121
#{{note|ref1}} Ibid., p 149
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Casablanca}}
*[http://lexicorient.com/morocco/casablanca.htm Casablanca entry in Lexicorient]
*[http://www.moroccotravelandtours.com/casablancamap.htm Tourist map]
*[http://www.magicmorocco.com/casablanca_morocco.html Casablanca at the Magic Morocco]
*[http://www.casablanca.ma/ Official web site of Casablanca]
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<page>
<title>Cross</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve"><table border="0" width="200" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="4" align="right"><tr><td>[[Image:Cross.png]]</td></tr>
<tr><td><center>A ''Greek cross'' (all arms of equal length) above a ''[[saltire]]'', a cross rotated by 45 degrees</center></td></tr>
</td></tr>
</table& |
ted to the use of the experimental method in all forms of inquiry, a non-skeptical fallibilism about our current store of knowledge, and the importance of knowledge proving itself through future testing.
=== Rationalism ===
[[continental rationalism|Rationalists]] believe that there are [[a priori]] or [[innate ideas]] that are not derived from [[sense experience]]. These ideas, however, may be justified by experience. These ideas may in some way derive from the structure of the human [[mind]], or they may exist independently of the mind. If they exist independently, they may be understood by a human mind once it reaches a necessary degree of sophistication.
The epitome of the rationalist view is [[Descartes]]' ''[[Cogito ergo sum]]'' ("I think, therefore I am"), in which the skeptic is invited to consider that the mere fact that he doubts this claim implies that there is a doubter. Because doubting is a kind of thinking, the claim must be correct. [[Spinoza]] derived a rationalist system in which there is only one substance, [[God]]. [[Leibniz]] derived a system in which there are an infinite number of substances, his ''[[monad|Monads]]''.
=== Representationalism ===
[[Representationalism]] or [[representative realism]], unlike naïve realism, proposes that we cannot see the external world directly, but only through our perceptual representations of it. In other words, the objects and the world that you see around you are not the world itself, but merely an internal virtual-reality replica of that world. The so-called [[veil of perception]] removes the real world from our direct inspection.
===Relativism===
[[Relativism]] as advocated by [[Protagoras]] maintains that all things are true and in a constant state of flux, revealing certain aspects of truth at one time while concealing them at another. It claims that there is no objective truth: anything which a person can perceive is true for that person, but not necessarily true for the next person. By equating perceptions and beliefs with truth, overt self-contradiction is avoided.
=== Skepticism ===
[[Philosophical skepticism]] holds that one can never have sufficient justification in a belief to have knowledge. By contrast, [[scientific skepticism]] is the practical stance that one should accept claims only given solid evidence.
== See also ==
* [[Contextualism]]
* [[Eastern epistemology]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Evidentialism]]
* [[Methodology]]
* [[Methods of obtaining knowledge]]
* [[Philosophy of perception|Perception]]
* [[Philosophy of science]]
* [[Reason]]
* [[Science education]]
* [[Scientific modeling]]
* [[Self-evidence]]
* [[Social epistemology]]
* [[Subjective idealism]]
* [[Transcendental idealism]]
* [[Virtue epistemology]]
* [[Analytic tradition]]
* [[Bayesian probability]]
* [[Evidentiality]] (linguistics)
== External links and references ==
* [http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/e-page.htm The Epistemology Page] by Keith DeRose
* [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/epistemo.htm Epistemology Papers] by Michael Huemer
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int5.html Epistemology Introduction, Part 1] and *[http://www.galilean-library.org/int20.html Part 2] by Paul Newall at the Galilean Library.
* [http://www.ditext.com/clay/know.html Marjorie Clay (ed.), ''Teaching Theory of Knowledge'', The Council for Philosophical Studies, 1986.]
* Boufoy-Bastick, Z. (2005). [http://zach.securitymeltdown.com/papers/Attainable-Knowledge-Boufoy-Bastick,Z.pdf Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge]. ''Sophia Journal of Philosophy'', 8, 39-51.
* [http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?] from ''Analysis'', Vol. 23, pp. 121-23 (1963) by [[Edmund L. Gettier]], transcribed by Andrew Chrucky (Sept. 13, 1997).
* Richard Kirkham, "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" Mind, 93, 1984.
* Bertrand Russell, [http://www.ditext.com/russell/russell.html ''The Problems of Philosophy'' (1912)]
* Ayn Rand, [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/books/rand/itoe.html ''Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology'' (1979)]
* [http://www.groovyweb.uklinux.net/?page_name=philosophy%20of%20knowledge&category=philosophy Groovyweb]
* [http://www.philosophyonline.co.uk/tok/tokhome.htm Philosophy online]
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int5.html An Introduction to Epistemology] by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
* [http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/reformedepistemology.html Reformed Epistemology] by Tim Holt
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ Bayesian Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-evolutionary/ Evolutionary Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-epistemology/ Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-naturalized/ Naturalized Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-social/ Social Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue/ Virtue Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/ Sense Data]
* [http://www.solagratia.org/Search.aspx?q=epistemology Articles on Christian Epistemology]
* [http://www.missouri.edu/%7ekvanvigj/certain_doubts/ Certain Doubts] (interactive epistemic discussion)
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<page>
<title>Esperanto</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Esperanto
|caption=Flag
|image=[[Image:Flag of Esperanto.svg|150px|center|Esperanto flag]]
|creator=[[L.L. Zamenhof]]
|date=[[1887]]
|setting=[[International auxiliary language]]
|speakers=[[Native Esperanto speakers|Native]]: approx. 1000-2000;<br />Fluent speakers: est. 100,000 to 2 million
|fam2=[[International auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=vocabulary from [[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages; phonology from [[Slavic languages]]
|agency=[[Akademio de Esperanto]]
|iso1=eo|iso2=epo|iso3=epo}}
{{portal}}
{{wiktionarypar|Esperanto}}
'''Esperanto''' is the most widely spoken [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language|international language]]. The name derives from ''Doktoro Esperanto'', the [[pseudonym]] under which [[L. L. Zamenhof]] first published the ''[[Unua Libro]]'' in [[1887]]. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible [[language]] as a universal [[second language]] to foster [[peace]] and international understanding.
Although no [[List of countries|country]] has adopted the [[official language|language officially]], it has enjoyed continuous usage by a community estimated at between 100,000 and 2 million speakers. It is estimated that there are more than a thousand [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]].
Today, Esperanto is employed in [[tourism|world travel]], [[correspondence]], [[culture|cultural]] exchange, conventions, [[literature]], language instruction, [[television]] ([[Internacia Televido]]) and [[radio]] [[broadcasting]]. Some state [[education]] systems offer elective courses in Esperanto; there is evidence that learning Esperanto is a useful preparation for later language learning (see [[#Esperanto and education|Esperanto and education]]).
== History ==
{{main|History of Esperanto}}
[[Image:Zamenhof.gif|thumb|right|L.L. Zamenhof, creator of Esperanto]]
Esperanto was developed in the late [[1870s]] and early [[1880s]] by Dr. [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof]]. After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into the language as well as writing original [[prose]] and [[verse]], the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto grammar]] was published in [[Warsaw]] in July [[1887]]. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the [[Russian empire]] and [[Eastern Europe]], then in [[Western Europe]] and the [[Americas]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]. In the early years speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and [[magazine|periodicals]], but in [[1905]] the first [[World Congress of Esperanto|world congress of Esperanto speakers]] was held in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], [[France]]. Since then world congresses have been held on five [[continent]]s every year except during the two [[world war|World Wars]], and have been attended by up to 6000 people (typically 2000-3000).
Esperanto has no official status in any country, but is an elective part of the [[curriculum]] in several state systems. There were plans at the beginning of the [[20th century]] to establish [[Moresnet|Neutral Moresnet]] as the world's first Esperanto state, and the short-lived [[artificial island]] [[micronation]] of [[Republic of Rose Island|Rose Island]] used Esperanto as its official language in [[1968]]. In China, there was talk in some circles after the [[1911]] [[Xinhai Revolution]] about officially replacing [[Chinese language|Chinese]] with Esperanto as a means to dramatically bring the country into the twentieth century, though this policy proved untenable. In the summer of [[1 |
uences of dissolving it?
* How may a corporation issue [[stock]], and what rights do a [[shareholder]] have with respect to the corporation?
Corporate law also sometimes includes [[securities law]]s, which govern the conditions under which corporations can issue shares and is aimed at preventing fraudulent offering schemes.
Corporate law is generally considered to be distinct from the fields of law that are principally concerned with the relationship between a corporation and a [[third party]], such as [[commercial law]], [[antitrust law]], and [[environmental law]].
==Corporate law in the United States==
In the [[United States]], corporations are generally [[incorporation (business)|incorporated]], or chartered, under the laws of a particular [[U.S. state|state]]. The corporate law of a corporation's state of incorporation generally governs that corporation (even if the corporation's operations take place outside of that state). The corporate laws of the various states differ- in some cases significantly- from state to state, as a result of which corporate [[lawyers]] are often consulted in an effort to determine the most appropriate or advantageous state in which to incorporate. The [[federal law|federal laws of the United States]] and local law may also be applicable sources of corporate law.
==See also==
*[[Business ethics]]
*[[Corporate crime]]
*[[Corporate Lawyer]]
*[[Corporate personhood]]
*[[Delaware corporation]]
*[[European Company Statute]]
[[Category:Corporations law]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Finance]]
[[de:Gesellschaftsrecht]]
[[es:Derecho de sociedades]]
[[zh:公司法]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cistron</title>
<id>6763</id>
<revision>
<id>15904883</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gene]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CDDB</title>
<id>6764</id>
<revision>
<id>39331565</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T11:40:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GRAHAMUK</username>
<id>10999</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rephrase CD-TEXT bit - since CD-TEXT came about in 1996, and the original format in 1980, the phrasing as was was very misleading</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CDDB''' (which stands for '''C'''ompact '''D'''isc '''D'''ata'''b'''ase) is a [[database]] for [[software]] [[application software|applications]] to look up CD ([[compact disc]]) information over the [[Internet]]. This is performed by a client which calculates a (nearly) unique disc ID and then queries the database. As a result, the client is able to display the artist name, CD title, track list and some additional information.
The database is used primarily by [[media player]] and [[CD ripper]] software.
The need for CDDB is a direct consequence of the original design of the CD, which was conceived as an evolution of the [[gramophone record]], and did not consider the audio tracks as data files to be identified and indexed. The audio CD format does not include the disc name or track names, therefore a supplemental database is needed to supply this information when discs are used with modern media systems. A later development called [[CD-TEXT]] is another solution to the same problem.
==History==
CDDB was invented by [[Ti Kan]] and [[Steve Scherf]]. The source code was released under the [[GNU General Public License]], and thus many people submitted CD information believing that the contributions, too, would remain freely available to others. Later, however, the project was sold and the license conditions were changed and it was no longer a free service, requiring commercial developers to pay an "initial fee", as well as a license fee based on the usage of the servers and support. It also included terms that many programmers felt were unacceptable: no other similar database (such as [[freedb]]) could be accessed in addition to CDDB, and the CDDB logo was required to be displayed while the database was being accessed.
In [[March 2001]], CDDB, now owned by [[Gracenote]], banned all unlicensed applications from accessing their database. New licenses for CDDB1 (the original version of CDDB) were not available anymore, as they wanted to force programmers to switch to CDDB2 (a new version incompatible with CDDB1 and hence with freedb).
After the unpopular commercialization of CDDB as [[Gracenote]], most media player applications switched to [[freedb]], but continued to refer to the service as 'CDDB' as a generic term. It is still common to see many applications refer to CDDB in their documentation when in fact the application is using [[freedb]].
==Technical==
CDDB was designed around the task of identifying entire CDs, not merely single tracks. The identification process involves creating a 'discid', a sort of "fingerprint" of a CD created by performing [[hash table|calculations]] on the track duration information stored in the table-of-contents of the CD. This discid is used with the internet database, typically either to download track names for the whole CD or to submit track names for a newly-identified CD.
Since identification of CDs is based on the length and order of the tracks, CDDB cannot identify playlists in which the order of tracks has been changed, or compilations of tracks from different CDs. CDDB also cannot distinguish different CDs that have the same number of tracks and the same track lengths.
==Alternatives==
The licence change motivated a new project, [[freedb]], which is intended to remain free.
An alternative project that aims to enhance CDDB beyond a mere database of CDs is called [[MusicBrainz]]. Their site also contains more information on CDDB and some database statistics of CDDB and freedb.
Another commercial alternative to CDDB is the [[AMG LASSO]] service. LASSO was launched by [[All Media Guide]] in late 2004 and includes recognition technology for CDs, DVDs, and digital audio files. The AMG metadata database is generally recognized to be more comprehensive and of higher quality, because of quality controls that CDDB lacks. Microsoft's [[Windows Media Player]], [[Musicmatch Jukebox]], and the [[Virgin Digital Megastore]] are licensees.
== External links ==
*[http://www.allmediaguide.com/ All Media Guide]
*[http://www.allmediaguide.com/lasso/ All Media Guide's LASSO]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/ All Music Guide]
*[http://www.freedb.org/ freedb]
*[http://www.gracenote.com/ Gracenote]
*[http://www.musicbrainz.org/ MusicBrainz]
*[http://freedb.org/modules.php?name=Sections&sop=viewarticle&artid=6 How DiscId is computed]
[[Category:Online music databases]]
[[de:Compact Disc Database]]
[[es:CDDB]]
[[fr:Compact Disc Data Base]]
[[nl:Compact Disc Database]]
[[ru:CDDB]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commonwealth</title>
<id>6766</id>
<revision>
<id>42140612</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:14:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikeh</username>
<id>97954</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Australia */ further explanation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternative meanings, see [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], or [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)]].''
==Definition and linguistics==
The original phrase "common wealth" or "the common weal" is a [[calque]] translation of the Latin term ''[[res publica]]'' ('public thing'), from which the word ''[[republic]]'' comes, which was itself used as a synonym for the Greek ''politeia'' as well as for the republican (i.e. non-monarchical) [[Roman Republic|Roman]] constitution (in legal theory still in force during the empire, see [[Principate]]).
The [[English language | English]] noun '''''Commonwealth''''' dates originally from the [[15th century | fifteenth century]] and in different contexts indicates:
# a political unit founded in [[law]] by agreement of the people for the common good;
# a [[federation|federated]] union of constituent states;
# a [[republic]];
# a [[Cooperative Commonwealth|Co-operative Commonwealth]] is a society based on [[cooperative]] and [[socialist]] principles.
==International or Multinational==
===Commonwealth of Nations===
When capitalised, "Commonwealth" refers to the 53 member [[Commonwealth of Nations]] - formerly the "British Commonwealth" - a loose [[confederation]] of nations formerly members of the [[British Empire]] (with one exception: [[Mozambique]]). The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies and the (appointed, not hereditary) head of the Commonwealth of Nations is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. She also reigns as monarch directly in a number of states, known as [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, notably the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], [[Jamaica]] and others. The Commonwealth of Nations is sometimes referred to as the New Commonwealth in a British context.
===Commonwealth of Independent States===
The [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) is a loose [[military alliance|alliance]] or confederation consisting of 12 of the 15 [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Republics]]. Its creation signaled the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], its purpose being to "allow a civilized divorce" between the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]]. The CIS has developed as forum by which the member-states can co-operate, and even integrate, in areas of [[economics]], [[Defense (military)|defense]] and [[foreign policy]].
==National==
===Great Britain===
The [[Commonwealth of England]] was the official name of the political unit (de facto military rule in the name of p |
ossessive [[pronoun]] של ''shel'' (of, belonging to):
*הספר שלי ''ha-sefer sheli'' (my book)
*הדירה שלך ''ha-dira shelkha'' (your apartment).
*המשחק של אנדר ''ha-miskhak shel ender'' ([[Ender's Game]])
In literary style, nouns are inflected to show possession through noun declension; a personal suffix is added to the construct form of the noun (the same form used by the סמיכות ''smikhut''). So, ספרי ''sifrei'' (books, construct form) can be inflected to form ספריי ''sifrai'' (my books), ספרייך ''sifraikha'' (your books), ספרינו ''sifreinu'' (our books) and so forth, while דירת ''dirat'' (apartment, construct form) gives דירתי ''dirati'' (my apartment), דירתך ''diratkha'' (your apartment), דירתינו ''dirateinu'' (our apartment), etc.
While the use of these forms is mostly restricted to formal and literary speech, they are in regular use in some colloquial phrases, for instance, מה שלומך ''ma shlomkha?'' ("what is your peace?" or "how are you?") or לדעתי ''l'da'ati'' (in my opinion).
In addition, the inflected possessive is commonly used for terms of kinship, for instance בני ''bni'' (my son), בתם ''bitam'' (their daughter), אשתו ''ishto'' (his wife) are preferred to הבן שלי ''ha-ben sheli'', הבת שלכם ''ha-bat shelahem'', and האשה שלו ''ha-isha shelo''.
===Noun derivation===
In the same way that Hebrew verbs are conjugated by applying various prefixes, suffixes and internal vowel combinations, Hebrew nouns can be formed by applying various "meters" (Hebrew ''mishkalim'') to the same roots. Gerunds are one example (see above).
The words for many abstract concepts are derived by adding the ending ''-ut'' to another noun or a verb (usually hit'pael):
*ספר ''sefer'' (book) &rarr; ספרות ''sifrut'' (literature)
*התייעץ ''hitya'etz'' (consult) &rarr; התייעצות ''hitya'atzut'' (advice)
*התרגש ''hitragesh'' (get excited) &rarr; התרגשות ''hitrag'shut'' (excitement)
The ''katlan'' meter, applied to a verb, indicates "someone who does this":
*שיקר ''shiker'' (lie) &rarr; שקרן ''shakran'' (liar)
*פחד ''pakhad'' (be afraid) &rarr; פחדן ''pakhdan'' (coward)
The suffix ''-on'' denotes a smaller version of something:
*ספר ''sefer'' (book) &rarr; ספרון ''sifron'' (booklet)
*מחשב ''makhshev'' (computer) &rarr; מחשבון ''makhshevon'' (calculator)
Repeating the last two letters of a noun or adjective can also denote a smaller or lesser version:
*כלב ''kelev'' (dog) &rarr; כלבלב ''k'lavlav'' (puppy)
*קצר ''katsar'' (short) &rarr; קצרצר ''k'tsartsar'' (very short)
The ''katelet'' mishkal can have a variety of meanings:
*אדום ''adom'' (red) &rarr; אדמת ''ademet'' (measles)
*כלב ''kelev'' (dog) &rarr; כלבת ''kalevet'' (rabies)
*נייר ''n'yar'' (paper) &rarr; ניירת ''naiyeret'' (paperwork)
*כסף ''kesef'' (money) &rarr; כספת ''kasefet'' (a safe)
New nouns are also often formed by the addition of two existing stems:
*קול ''kol'' (sound) + נוע ''noa'' (motion) &rarr; קולנוע ''kolnoa'' (cinema)
A combination of methods (The example has the katlan meter plus the ending ''-ut''):
*תועלת ''to'elet'' (benefit) &rarr; תועלתנות ''to'al'tanut'' (utilitarianism)
==Adjectives==
The Hebrew adjective שם תואר ''shem toar'' comes after the noun and agrees with it in gender and number:
*ספר קטן ''sefer katan'' (small book)
*ספרים קטנים ''sfarim k'tanim'' (small books)
*בובה קטנה ''buba k'tana'' (small doll)
*בובות קטנות ''bubot k'tanot'' (small dolls)
Adjectives ending in ''-i'' have slightly different forms:
*איש מקומי ''ish m'komi'' (a local man)
*אשה מקומית ''isha m'komit'' (a local woman)
*אנשים מקומיים ''anashim m'komiyim'' (local people)
*נשים מקומיות ''nashim m'komiyot'' (local women)
Masculine nouns that take the "feminine" plural ending ''-ot'' still take masculine plural adjectives, e.g. מקומות יפים ''m'komot yafim'' (beautiful places). The reverse goes for feminine plural nouns ending in ''-im'', e.g. מילים ארוכות ''milim arukot'' (long words).
Note also that many adjectives, like segolate nouns, change their vowel structure in the feminine and plural.
===Use of the definite article with adjectives===
In Hebrew, an adjective that modifies a definite noun (including proper nouns) also takes the definite article:
*הספר הקטנים ''ha-sefer ha-katan'' (the small book)
*הבובות הקטנות ''ha-bubot ha-k'tanot'' (the small dolls)
*רותי הקטנה ''ruti ha-k'tana'' (little Ruthie; Ruthie the small)
===Adjectives derived from verbs===
Many adjectives in Hebrew are derived from the present tense of verbs. These adjectives are inflected the same way as the verbs they are derived from:
*סוער ''so'er'' (stormy, pa'al) &rarr; סוערת ''so'eret'', סוערים ''so'arim'', סוערות ''so'arot''
*מנותק ''menutak'' (alienated, pu'al) gives מנותקת ''menuteket'', מנותקים ''menutakim'', מנותקות ''menutakot''
*מרשים ''marshim'' (impressive, hif'il) gives מרשימה ''marshima'', מרשימים ''marshimim'', מרשימות ''marshimot''
==Adverbs==
The Hebrew term for adverb is תואר הפועל ''toar ha'po'al''.
Hebrew forms adverbs in several different ways.
A few common adjectives can use the masculine singular form as an adverb as well, for instance חזק ''khazak'' (strongly), יפה ''yafe'' (nicely) or ברור ''barur'' (clearly).
Some adjectives have a unique adverb that must be memorized, for instance מהר ''maher'' (quickly) or לאט ''l'at'' (slowly). These forms cannot be used as adjectives (the corresponding adjectives are מהיר ''mahir'' and איטי ''iti'').
In most cases, though, the adverb will be expressed by some sort of '''adverbial phrase'''. Many adjectives prefer the prefix ''b'-'' plus a noun, for instance ''b'zehirut'' (carefully); בעדינות ''b'adinut'' (gently).
Others prefer באופן ''b'ofen'' (in a nature/fashion) plus a masculine singular adjective, or בצורה ''b'tsura'' (in a form) plus a feminine singular, e.g. באופן מאפיין ''b'ofen me'afyen'' (characteristically) or בצורה אלגניטית ''b'tsura elegantit'' (elegantly).
The use of one of these methods does not necessarily preclude the use of the others: even though לאט ''l'at'' exists, for instance, one may also use באיטיות ''b'itiut'' to express "slowly" in a more elegant way.
== Miscellaneous ==
=== Indirect objects ===
Indirect objects are objects requiring a preposition other than את ''et''. The preposition used depends on the verb, and these can be very different than the one used in English. A good dictionary is required to look these up. In the case of definite indirect objects, the preposition will replace את ''et''.
* אני שכחתי מהבחירות ''ani shakhakhti me-ha-b'khirot'' (I forgot about the election)
The Hebrew grammar distinguishes between various kinds of indirect objects, according to what they specify. Thus, there is a division between objects for time (''te'ur z'man''), objects for place (''te'ur makom''), objects for reason (''te'ur siba'') and many others.
<!-- Additionally, Hebrew distinguishes between various kinds of verbless fragments according to their use, such as ''t'mura'' for elaboration, ''k'ri'a'' for exclamation, ''p'niya'' for approach and ''hesger'' for disclosing the opinion of another party using direct speech (e.g. לדעת הרופא, העישון מזיק לבריאות ''l'da'at ha'rofe, ha'ishun mazik la'briut'' (in the doctor's opinion, smoking is harmful to health'').-->
=== Impersonal sentences ===
A sentence may lack a subject. In this case it is called סתמי ''s'tami'', or indefinite. If several parts of the sentence have the same function and are attached to the same word, they are called ''kolel'', or collective. Two or more sentences that do not share common parts and are separated by comma are called משפט מחובר ''mishpat m'khubar'', or joined sentences. In many cases, the second sentence uses a pronoun that stands for the other's subject; they are generally interconnected.
=== Relative clauses ===
A sentence in which one or more of the parts are replaced by a clause (''p'sukit'') is called a ''mishpat murkav'' (compound sentence). Compound sentences usually use the conjunctional prefix ש ''she-'' (usually "that"). For example, in the sentence ''Yosi omer she-hu okhel.'' (Yosi says that he is eating.), ''Yosi omer'' (Yosi says) is the main sentence and ''hu okhel'' (he is eating) is the direct subject clause that follows it.
==References==
# {{cite book | title = 501 Hebrew Verbs | first = Shmuel | last = Bolozky | id = ISBN 0-8120-9468-9 | publisher = Barron's Educational Series, Inc. }}
# {{cite book | title = Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar | edition = 3rd edition | first = Lewis | last = Glinert | id = ISBN 0-415-70082-5 | publisher = Routledge UK }}
==External links==
*[http://foundationstone.com.au/HtmlSupport/FrameSupport/onlineHebrewTutorialFrame.html Online Hebrew Tutorial] (foundationstone)
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/babel-site/ Hebrew is easy] (babel-site)
*[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/gk_cont.htm Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar]
*[http://www.yiwoodmere.org/library/cybrary/hebrew.html Learning Hebrew - Links], Young Israel
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Hebrew language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew phonology</title>
<id>13846</id>
<revision>
<id>40480285</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T21:52:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garzo</username>
<id>140345</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.192.242.27|70.192.242.27]] ([[User talk:70.192.242.27|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hebrew [[phonology]]''' must take into account that the [[Hebrew language]] has been used primarily for [[liturgy|liturgical]] purposes for most of the past two millennia. As a consequence, its pronunciation has been strongly influenced by the [[vernacular]] of each individual [[Jew]]ish community. In contrast to the varied development of these pronunciations is the rela |
par David]]
[[Category:Romantic painters|Friedrich, Caspar David]]
[[Category:Natives of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania|Friedrich, Caspar David]]
[[de:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[es:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[eo:Caspar David FRIEDRICH]]
[[fr:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[it:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[he:קספר דוד פרידריך]]
[[nl:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[ja:カスパー・ダーヴィト・フリードリヒ]]
[[no:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[pl:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[pt:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[ru:Фридрих, Каспар Давид]]
[[fi:Caspar David Friedrich]]
[[sv:Caspar David Friedrich]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Courtney Love</title>
<id>5655</id>
<revision>
<id>41932394</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:41:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.42.175.142</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:CourtneyLove.jpg|thumb|Courtney Love]] -->
'''Courtney Love''' (born '''Love Michelle Harrison''' on [[July 9]][[1964]], name changed to '''Courtney Michelle Harrison''' in 1967) was the singer for the now-defunct rock band [[Hole (band)|Hole]]. Love is now a solo artist, and is also an occasional model and actress. Love is the widow of [[Kurt Cobain]] (1967&ndash;1994), lead singer of the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. With him she has one daughter, Frances Bean Cobain.
==Biography==
===Early life===
Born in [[San Francisco, California]], to [[Grateful Dead]] manager and publisher [[Hank Harrison]] and therapist Linda Carroll (née Risi). Love's mother Linda Carroll was born to writer Paula Fox but given up for adoption to an [[Italian American]] couple who raised the ([[Jew]]ish-born) daughter Catholic [http://redsea.blogspot.com/]. Love spent her childhood with her mother as she wandered through four husbands and as many [[hippie]] [[commune (intentional community)|commune]]s in [[Oregon]] and at boarding school in [[Nelson, New Zealand]]. Love later claimed to have been given [[LSD]] as a toddler. Her father denies this allegation and has passed [[polygraph]] tests.
A troubled, angry child, Love was a veteran of [[reform school]]s and [[juvenile hall]]s by the time she was a teenager. She broke away from her family and traveled around the US, [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], living off of a trust fund established for her by her mother's adoptive parents. Her first rock musician boyfriend was [[Rozz Rezabek]] followed in Liverpool by [[Julian Cope]], the founder of [[The Teardrop Explodes]]. In her late teens she worked in [[Japan]] as a [[stripper]], a job that she would return to at several points in her life before attaining fame. At age 22 she found herself back in [[Portland, Oregon]], then moved to [[Los Angeles, California]] in 1987 along with the band [[Babes in Toyland (band)|Babes in Toyland]]. After being fired from Babes by founding member [[Kat Bjelland]], she took up in Los Angeles with [[Leaving Trains]]. Viewed by some as a social climber, she befriended many musicians who would later become [[alternative rock]] icons, among them [[Michael Stipe]] of [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]] and [[Billy Corgan]] of [[Smashing Pumpkins]].
===Musical career and marriage===
Love began her professional music career with a brief stint as the lead singer of [[Faith No More]] in the early 1980s. She was kicked out of the band for being overly controlling shortly after. About this time she also played in an all-female pop-rock band called [[Sugar Baby Doll]] with Kat Bjelland and [[Jennifer Finch]]. None of their [[The Bangles|Bangles]]-influenced material has ever been released. Love had more early success as an actress, appearing as the best friend of [[Nancy Spungen]] in [[Alex Cox]]'s [[Sid Vicious]] [[biopic]] ''[[Sid and Nancy]]'' in 1986, and in Cox's ''[[Straight to Hell]]'' in 1987, as well as some small roles on television episodes.
Returning to music in her adopted hometown of [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]], Love claims she co-founded the all-female rock band Babes in Toyland with Bjelland, but this is denied by others; acrimony between Love and Bjelland led to Love's quick exit from the band. The band's biographer claims she stole house receipts to a [[Butthole Surfers]] concert. In 1991 Love formed her own band, Hole. The band's debut album garnered little critical or popular attention in the U.S. but was celebrated in the influential British alternative music press. Already a star in England, Hole's fortunes improved considerably following Love's marriage to Cobain and the publicity following Cobain's death.
Unpopular with some Nirvana fans (comparisons to [[Yoko Ono]] were made early on and persist to this day), Love's image was further tarnished by a 1992 article in ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' entitled "Strange Love" in which she admitted to using [[heroin]] in the early stages of pregnancy. As a result, Child Welfare Services briefly investigated the Cobains' fitness as parents. Love claims to this day that she was misquoted, saying she had told author Lynn Hirschberg that she had stopped using it once she learned she was pregnant.
Similarly to [[Axl Rose]], she was often ridiculed in the press for her abrasive, sometimes erratic behavior, such as cursing at [[paparazzi]] and publicly harassing Cobain's former girlfriend, folksinger [[Mary Lou Lord]].
Shortly before the release of Hole's breakthrough album ''[[Live Through This]]'' in April 1994, Cobain committed suicide. Love read his suicide note at a televised memorial a few days later, sobbing hysterically and alternately cursing her husband as a "fucking asshole" and pleading with him to come back.
Hole bassist [[Kristen Pfaff]] died of an apparent [[drug overdose]] two months later. She was replaced by [[Melissa Auf Der Maur]] later that year.
=== Life after Cobain ===
Love was a fashion trendsetter. In her early career, she modelled a "[[kinderwhore]]" look, which she was accused of having imitated after Kat Bjelland, although other sources suggest the rip-off was in fact in the opposite direction. Love stated that the look was inspired by [[Christina Amphlett]] of 1980s rock group [[The Divinyls]], most famously in a lengthy phone message recorded and subsequently released by [[The Muffs]], who had ironically titled their album ''[[Blonder and Blonder]]'' after a sarcastic quote by Love regarding lead singer [[Kim Shattuck]]. Love's style has since evolved, and she has modelled for more sophisticated designer labels.
Love received considerable acclaim for her role as [[Larry Flynt]]'s wife, Althea, in [[Milos Forman]]'s 1996 film ''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]'', opposite [[Woody Harrelson]] as Flynt. She was also praised for her supporting role in the 1998 [[Andy Kaufman]] biopic ''[[Man on the Moon]]'', which starred [[Jim Carrey]] as Kaufman. Other notable film credits include ''[[Basquiat]]'', ''[[200 Cigarettes]]'', and ''[[Feeling Minnesota]]''.
==Controversy==
Since Cobain's death, conspiracy theories have circulated, alleging that he was in fact murdered at Love's instigation.
Love has been a strong critic of the [[music industry]], especially the [[RIAA]]. In 2000, she publicly announced her admiration for [[Napster]] which, at the time, was being accused of fostering illegal [[file-sharing]]. She became known for her criticism of unfair record contracts and [[Artist exploitation|mistreatment of artists]].
With Hole having fallen into disarray, Love attempted to begin a "[[punk rock]] femme supergroup" called Bastard during summer/autumn of 2001, though this project never reached fruition. Hole broke up that year amid continuing litigation. Love in October 2001 performed in some solo shows as an opening act.
[[Image:CourtneyLoveQMagMarch2003.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Controversial cover of the March 2003 edition of Q magazine, in which Courtney Love posed nude]]In 2003, Love pleaded not guilty to felony drug charges related to possession of [[painkiller]]s. In February of 2004, an arrest warrant was issued for Love after she failed to appear at a preliminary hearing; the warrant was subsequently rescinded when she appeared in court on [[February 18]]. She released her first solo album, ''[[America's Sweetheart]]'', just eight days earlier, on [[February 10]].
Early on the morning of [[March 19]][[2004]] Love was arrested in [[New York City]] for allegedly throwing a microphone stand and hitting a man on the head. Earlier in the night, she appeared on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' and flashed her breasts at [[David Letterman|Letterman]] six times.
On her 40th birthday, [[July 9]][[2004]], she missed a scheduled court appearance relating to an attempted break-in at a boyfriend's house and was found in [[contempt of court]]. Her attorney later said she missed the appearance due to medical problems; later in the month she appeared in court and was sentenced to an 18-month probation and drug rehabilitation program.
In August of 2004, Love alienated some fans when she allowed a bill for a message board tied into her website to go unpaid. Love had agreed to pay (and had been paying) the bill though the board was owned by a fan, which she had decided to reimburse in order to influence aspects of the website's design and usage. The site is now separately managed and no longer affiliated with Love.
Love recently regained the custody of her daughter after beginning a state-enforced rehabilitation program, although it is still in jeopardy due to a possible drug-related incident which is the subject of current legal action.
According to [[Neil Strauss]]'s book ''[[The Game (book on Pickup Artists)|The Game]]'', at some point before 2005, Courtney Love spent a good amount of time staying at the mansion called "Project Hollywood" where Pick-Up Artists such as the famous "Mystery" resided.
On [[August 19]][[2005]], Love admitted using drugs in violation of |
symbol: ''G'') is a [[SI prefix|prefix]] in the [[SI]] system of units denoting [[1 E9|10<sup>9</sup>]], or 1 000 000 000.
Confirmed in [[1960]], it comes from the [[Greece|Greek]] γίγας, meaning ''[[wiktionary:giant|giant]]''.
In [[computing]], ''giga-'' can sometimes mean 1 073 741 824 (2<sup>30</sup>) for information units, eg [[gigabit]] or [[gigabyte]], but can also denote 1 000 000 000 of other quantities, e.g. transfer rates: 1 gigabit/s = 1 000 000 000 [[bit/s]]. The binary prefix [[gibi]]- has been suggested for 2<sup>30</sup>, to resolve this ambiguity, but has yet to achieve widespread usage.
==Pronunciation==
In [[English language|English]] the initial G of ''giga'' can be pronounced with a soft G as in ''jig'', or with a hard G as in ''giggle''. The latter hard G pronunciation has become more common, especially when referring to computer measurements such as [[gigabyte]] and [[gigahertz]]. An example of the soft G pronunciation is found in the [[1985]] movie ''[[Back to the Future]]'', where ''gigawatts'' was pronounced as ''jigawatts''. This was before units like gigabyte became common, and was used to emphasize magnitude, since quantities that large were rare at the time. One conjecture for the ascendant popularity, in the United States, of the hard G pronunciation is that it is a reaction to the way the soft G pronunciation places the word gigabyte so phonetically close to the [[racial slur]] "jigaboo".
== Common usage ==
*[[Gigabyte]] — [[hard disk]] capacity, e.g. 120 GB; [[DVD]] capacity, e.g. 5 GB = 5 × 1 073 741 824 [[byte]]s
*[[Gigahertz]] — [[clock rate]] of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]], e.g. 3 GHz = 3 000 000 000 [[Hertz|Hz]]
*[[Gigabit]] — [[bandwidth]] of a [[computer network|network]], e.g. 1 Gbit = 1 000 000 000 [[bit]]/s
*Gigabort - Common slang expression that could represent any of the above. Used to mock those that don't know the difference between bytes, bits, hertz, etc.
{{SI prefixes}}
== See also ==
*[[SI prefix]]
*[[Binary prefix]]
*[[gibibyte]]
*[[Gigabit Ethernet]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.bipm.org BIPM website]
[[Category:SI prefixes]]
[[ca:Giga]]
[[de:Giga]]
[[es:Giga]]
[[fi:Giga]]
[[fr:Giga]]
[[he:גיגה]]
[[it:Giga (prefisso)]]
[[ja:ギガ]]
[[ko:기가]]
[[nl:Giga]]
[[no:Giga]]
[[pl:Giga]]
[[pt:Giga]]
[[sl:Giga]]
[[sr:Гига]]
[[sk:Giga]]
[[sv:Giga]]
[[vi:Giga]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Stephenson</title>
<id>12578</id>
<revision>
<id>40940996</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T00:36:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hynca-Hooley</username>
<id>982357</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the British politician see [[George Stevenson]]''
[[Image:George_Stephenson.jpg|thumb|250px|George Stephenson]]
[[Image:George Stephenson - National Railway Museum - 2005-10-15.jpg|thumb|250px|Statue of George Stephenson at the [[National Railway Museum]], [[York]]]]
'''George Stephenson''' ([[9 June]] [[1781]] &ndash; [[12 August]] [[1848]]) was an [[England|English]] [[mechanical engineer]] who designed a famous and historically important [[steam]]-powered [[locomotive]] named ''[[Stephenson's Rocket|Rocket]]'', and is known as the Father of British Steam Railways. To the [[Victorians]], he was a great example of diligent application and a thirst for improvement (in a phrase, [[Samuel Smiles | 'Self Help']]). His [[rail gauge]] of 4 ft 8½ in (1435 mm), originally called "[[Stephenson gauge]]", has become the [[standard gauge]] for the majority of the world's railways.
George Stephenson was born in [[Wylam]], [[Northumberland]], 9.3 miles (15 km) west of [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. In 1748, a [[wagonway]] -- an arrangement similar to a [[railway]], but with wooden tracks and designed to support horse-drawn carts -- had been built from the Wylam colliery to the [[River Tyne, England|River Tyne]], running for several miles. The young Stephenson grew up near it, and in 1802 gained employment as an engine-man at a coal mine. For the next ten years his knowledge of steam engines increased, until in 1812 he stopped operating them for a living, and started building them.
Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on a coal site. Named ''[[Blucher]]'', it could haul 30 tons of coal in a load, and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive - it used flanged wheels to rest on the track, and its traction depended only on the contact between the wheel and the rail. Over the next five years, he built 16 more engines.
His ingenuity also found other outlets: in 1815 he developed a miners' safety lamp , known as the [[Geordie lamp]] to distinguish it from the [[Davy lamp]] invented by [[Sir Humphrey Davy]] at much the same time. (There was an outbreak of controversy over which was invented first.)
As his success grew, Stephenson was hired to build an 8- mile (13-km) railway from [[Hetton colliery railway|Hetton colliery]] to [[Sunderland, England|Sunderland]]. The finished result used a combination of gravity pulling the load down inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches, and was the first railway to use no animal power at all.
In 1821, a project began to build the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]]. Originally the plan was to use horses to draw coal carts over metal rails, but after company director [[Edward Pease]] met Stephenson he agreed to change plans. Work began in 1822, and in September 1825 Stephenson completed the first locomotive for the new railway: at first named ''Active'', it was soon renamed ''[[Locomotion No 1|Locomotion]]''. The Stockton and Darlington opened on [[27 September]] [[1825]]. Driven by Stephenson, ''Locomotion'' hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour for nine miles (15 km) over two hours, reaching a speed of 24 miles per hour (39 km/h) over one stretch. The first purpose-built passenger car (dubbed ''Experiment'') was also attached, and carried a load of dignitaries for the opening journey. It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam-driven locomotive railway.
While building the S&D railway, Stephenson had noticed that even small inclines greatly reduced the speed of his locomotives. (One might add that even slight declines would have made the primitive brakes next to useless.) He came to the conclusion that railways should be kept as level as possible. He used this knowledge while working on the [[Bolton and Leigh Railway]] and the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], executing a series of difficult cuts, embankments and stone viaducts to smooth the route the railways took. Defective surveying for the original route of the LMR (caused by hostility of some of the affected landowners) meant that Stephenson was given a very bad time during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original Bill, which was rejected. A revised bill with a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session. The revised alignment presented a considerable problem: the crossing of [[Chat Moss]], an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson eventually overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it.
As the Liverpool & Manchester approached completion in 1829, the directors of that company arranged for a competition to decide who would build the locomotives for the new railway. The [[Rainhill Trials]] were run in October of that year. Stephenson's entry was [[Stephenson's Rocket|Rocket]], and its impressive performance in winning the contest made it arguably the most famous machine in the world.
When the L&MR opened on [[15 September]] [[1830]], the opening ceremony was a considerable event, drawing luminaries from the government and industry, including the then Prime Minister, the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]]. The day was marred by the death of [[William Huskisson]] ([[Member of Parliament]] for [[Liverpool]]) who was struck and killed by ''Rocket'', but the railway was a resounding success. Stephenson became a very famous man, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways.
However, his conservative views on the capabilities of locomotives meant that he tended to favour routes and civil engineering which were more costly than his successors thought necessary. For example, rather than the [[West Coast Main Line]] taking the direct route over [[Lancaster and Carlisle Railway|Shap]] favoured by [[Joseph Locke]] between [[City of Lancaster|Lancaster]] and [[Carlisle]], Stephenson reported in favour of a longer sea-level route via [[Ulverston]] and [[Whitehaven]]. Locke's route was preferred.
Stephenson therefore tended to become a reassuring name, rather than a cutting-edge technical adviser. He was selected as the first president of the [[Institution of Mechanical Engineers]] on its formation in 1847. He had by this time settled into semi-retirement supervising his mining interests in Derbyshire. (Tunnelling work for the [[North Midland Railway]] had revealed unworked coal seams, and Stephenson had put much of his money into their exploitation.) Rich and successful for the remainder of his career, George Stephenson died on [[12 August]] [[1848]] in [[Chesterfield, England]]. The local museum has a room full of Stephenson memorabilia , including the straight thick glass tubes in which Stephenson (inventive to the last) grew his cucumbers to stop them curving.
Stephenson's son, [[Robert Stephenson]], was also a noted locomotive engineer, and was heavily involved in the creation of many of his father's engines from ''Locomotion'' onwards. [[Joseph Locke]] was initially apprenticed to George Stephenson, eventually being promoted to chief engineer on some of the schemes he instigated (e.g. the [[Grand Junction Railway]]).
|
/San Antonio, TX
*210: 951 Brownsville/Laredo/San Antonio, TX (GTE)
*212: 958 Manhattan, NY
*213: 114 Los Angeles, CA (GTE)
*213: 1223 Los Angeles, CA (Some 1AESS switches)
*213: 211-2345 Los Angeles, CA (English response)
*213: 211-2346 Los Angeles, CA (DTMF response)
*213: 61056 Los Angeles, CA
*214: 570 Dallas, TX
*214: 790 Dallas, TX (GTE)
*214: 970-222-2222 Dallas, TX
*214: 970-611-1111 Dallas, TX (Southwestern Bell)
*215: 511 Philadelphia, PA
*215: 958 Philadelphia, PA
*216: 331 Akron/Canton/Cleveland/Lorain/Youngstown, OH
*216: 959-9892 Akron/Canton/Cleveland/Lorain/Youngstown, OH
*219: 550 Gary/Hammond/Michigan City/Southbend, IN
*219: 559 Gary/Hammond/Michigan City/Southbend, IN
*301: 2002006969 Hagerstown/Rockville, MD
*301: 958-9968 Hagerstown/Rockville, MD
*303: 958 Aspen/Boulder/Denver/Durango/Grand Junction, CO [Nonworking as of 2006-02-08]
*305: 200-555-1212 Ft. Lauderdale/Key West/Miami, FL
*305: 200200200200200 Ft. Lauderdale/Key West/Miami, FL
*305: 780-2411 Ft. Lauderdale/Key West/Miami, FL
*310: 114 Long Beach, CA (On many GTE switches)
*310: 1223 Long Beach, CA (Some 1AESS switches)
*310: 211-2345 Long Beach, CA (English response)
*310: 211-2346 Long Beach, CA (DTMF response)
*310: 958-1114 West Los Angeles, CA (Verizon)
*312: 200 Chicago, IL
*312: 290 Chicago, IL
*312: 1-200-8825 Chicago, IL (Last four change rapidly)
*312: 1-200-555-1212 Chicago, IL
*313: 200-200-2002 Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, MI
*313: 200-222-2222 Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, MI
*313: 200200200200200 Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, MI
*315: 953 Syracuse/Utica, NY
*315: 958 Syracuse/Utica, NY
*315: 998 Syracuse/Utica, NY
*317: 310-222-2222 Indianapolis/Kokomo, IN
*317: 559-222-2222 Indianapolis/Kokomo, IN
*317: 743-1218 Indianapolis/Kokomo, IN
*334: 5572411 Montgomery, AL
*334: 5572311 Montgomery, AL
*401: 200-200-4444 RI
*401: 222-2222 RI
*402: 311 Lincoln, NE
*404: 311 Atlanta, GA
*404: 990 Atlanta, GA
*405: 890-7777777 Enid/Oklahoma City, OK
*405: 897 Enid/Oklahoma City, OK
*407: 200-222-2222 Orlando/West Palm Beach, FL (Bell South)
*407: 520-3111 Orlando/West Palm Beach, FL (United)
*408: 760 San Jose, CA
*408: 940 San Jose, CA
*409: 951 Beaumont/Galveston, TX
*410: 200-6969 Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*410: 200-200-6969 Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*410: 200-555-1212 Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*410: 811 Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*412: 711-6633 Pittsburgh, PA
*412: 711-4411 Pittsburgh, PA
*413: 958 Pittsfield/Springfield, MA
*413: 200-555-5555 Pittsfield/Springfield, MA
*414: 330-2234 Fond du Lac/Green Bay/Milwaukee/Racine, WI
*415: 200-555-1212 San Francisco, CA
*415: 211-2111 San Francisco, CA
*415: 2222 San Francisco, CA
*415: 640 San Francisco, CA
*415: 760-2878 San Francisco, CA
*415: 7600-2222 San Francisco, CA
*419: 311 Toledo, OH
*423: 200-200-200 Chattanooga, Johnson City, Knoxville, TN
*480: 958-7847 Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*501: 511 AR
*502: 2002222222 Frankfort/Louisville/Paducah/Shelbyville, KY
*502: 997-555-1212 Frankfort/Louisville/Paducah/Shelbyville, KY
*503: 611 Portland, OR
*503: 999 Portland, OR (GTE)
*504: 997-1111 New Orleans/Metairie/Kenner/River Ridge, LA (BELL SOUTH) <[[Verified 02/04/06]]>,
*504: 99882233 Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*504: 201-269-1111 Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*504: 998 Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*504: 99851-0000000000 Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*505: 243-0049 Albuquerque Metro, NM
*508: 958 Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*508: 200-222-1234 Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*508: 200-222-2222 Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*508: 26011 Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*509: 560 Spokane/Walla Walla/Yakima, WA
*510: 760-1111 Oakland, CA
*512: 830 Austin/Corpus Christi, TX
*513: 380-55555555 Cincinnati/Dayton, OH
*515: 280-1241 Des Moines Metro Area ([[Regional Bell Operating Company|RBOC]]), IA
*515: 552# Des Moines Metro Area ([[CLEC]]), IA
*515: 5463 Des Moines, IA
*515: 811 Des Moines, IA
*516: 958 Hempstead/Long Island, NY
*516: 968 Hempstead/Long Island, NY
*517: 200-222-2222 Bay City/Jackson/Lansing, MI
*517: 200200200200200 Bay City/Jackson/Lansing, MI
*518: 511 Albany/Schenectady/Troy, NY
*518: 997 Albany/Schenectady/Troy, NY
*518: 998 Albany/Schenectady/Troy, NY
*540: 211 Roanoke, VA (GTE)
*540: 311 Roanoke, VA (GTE)
*541: 200 Bend, OR
*541: 330-0024 Bend, OR
*585: [unknown] Rochester, NY
*602: 958-7847 Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*602: 253-0227 Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*603: 200-222-2222 NH
*603: 958 NH
*606: 997-555-1212 Ashland/Winchester, KY
*606: 711 Ashland/Winchester, KY
*607: 993 Binghamton/Elmira, NY
*609: 958 Atlantic City/Camden/Trenton/Vineland, NJ
*610: 958 Allentown/Reading, PA
*610: 958-4100 Allentown/Reading, PA
*614: 200 Columbus/Steubenville, OH
*614: 571 Columbus/Steubenville, OH
*615: 200200200200200 Chatanooga/Knoxville/Nashville, TN
*615: 2002222222 Chatanooga/Knoxville/Nashville, TN
*615: 830 Nashville, TN
*616: 200-222-2222 Battle Creek/Grand Rapids/Kalamazoo, MI
*617: 200-222-1234 Boston, MA
*617: 200-222-2222 Boston, MA
*617: 200-444-4444 Boston, MA (Woburn, MA)
*617: 220-2622 Boston, MA
*617: 958 Boston, MA
*618: 930 Alton/Cairo/Mt.Vernon, IL
*619: 211-2001 San Diego, CA
*619: 211-2121 San Diego, CA
*623: 958-7847 Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*659: 220-2622 Newmarket, NH
*703: 211 VA
*703: 511-3636 Culpeper/Orange/Fredericksburg, VA
*703: 811 Alexandria/Arlington/Roanoke, VA
*704: 311 Asheville/Charlotte, NC
*707: 211-2222 Eureka, CA
*708: 1-200-555-1212 Chicago/Elgin, IL
*708: 1-200-8825 Chicago/Elgin, IL (Last four change rapidly)
*708: 200-6153 Chicago/Elgin, IL
*713: 380 Houston, TX
*713: 811 Humble, TX
*713: 380-5555-5555 Houston, TX
*714: 114 Anaheim, CA (GTE)
*714: 211-2121 Anaheim, CA (PacBell)
*714: 211-2222 Anaheim, CA (Pacbell)
*714: 211-7777 Anaheim, CA (Pacbell)
*716: 511 Buffalo/Niagara Falls, NY
*716: 990 Buffalo/Niagara Falls, NY
*717: 711 Coaldale/Lansford/Summit Hill, PA (Alltel)
*717: 958 Harrisburg/Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, PA
*718: 958 Bronx/Brooklyn/Queens/Staten Island, NY
*781: 200-2222222 Boston
*770: 780-2311 Atlanta/Marietta/Norcross, GA
*802: 2-222-222-2222 Vermont
*802: 200-222-2222 Vermont
*802: 1-700-222-2222 Vermont
*802: 111-2222 Vermont
*804: 990 Virginia Beach, VA
*805: 114 Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA
*805: 211-2345 Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA
*805: 211-2346 Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA (Returns DTMF)
*805: 830 Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA
*810: 200200200200200 Flint/Pontiac/Southfield/Troy, MI
*810: 311 Pontiac/Southfield/Troy, MI
*812: 410-555-1212 Evansville, IN
*813: 311 Ft. Meyers/St. Petersburg/Tampa, FL
*815: 200-3374 Crystal Lake, IL
*815: 270-3374 Crystal Lake, IL
*815: 770-3374 Crystal Lake, IL
*815: 290 La Salle/Rockford, IL
*816: 959-1122 Kansas City Metro Area (Missouri side)
*817: 211 Ft. Worth/Waco, TX
*817: 970-611-1111 Ft. Worth/Waco, TX (Southwestern Bell)
*818: 1223 Pasadena, CA (Some 1AESS switches)
*818: 211-2345 Pasadena, CA (English response)
*818: 211-2346 Pasadena, CA (DTMF response)
*845: 990 Hudson Valley region, NY
*860: 970 CT
*903: 970-611-1111 Tyler, TX
*904: 200-222-222 Jackonsville/Pensacola/Tallahasee, FL
*906: 1-200-222-2222 Marquette/Sault Ste. Marie, MI
*907: 811 AK
*908: 958 New Brunswick, NJ
*908: 311-MMYY Sprint United of NJ (MMYY is month/year)
*909: 111 Riverside/San Bernardino, CA (GTE)
*910: 200 Fayetteville/Greensboro/Raleigh/Winston-Salem, NC
*910: 311 Fayetteville/Greensboro/Raleigh/Winston-Salem, NC
*910: 988 Fayetteville/Greensboro/Raleigh/Winston-Salem, NC
*913: 959-1122 Kansas City Metro Area (Kansas side)
*914: 990-1111 Peekskill/Poughkeepsie/White Plains/Yonkers, NY
*916: 211-0007 Sacramento, CA (Pac Bell)
*916: 461 Sacramento, CA (Roseville Telephone)
*919: 200 Durham, NC
*919: 711 Durham, NC
*919: 958-1114 Durham, NC
*928: 666-1111 Northern Arizona
*954: 200-555-1212 Ft. Lauderdale, FL
*954: 200200200200200 Ft. Lauderdale, FL
*954: 780-2411 Ft. Lauderdale, FL
*970: 958-1114 Greeley, CO (Qwest)
===Canada===
*204: 644-4444 |
es the traditional movements within the conservative Reformed churches, several trends have arisen through the attempt to provide a contemporary, but theologically conservative approach to the world.
===Neo-Calvinism===
A version of Calvinism that has been adopted by both theological conservatives and liberals gained influence in the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] Reformed churches, late in the [[1800s|19th century]], dubbed "neo-Calvinism", which developed along lines of the theories of Dutch theologian, statesman and [[journalist]], [[Abraham Kuyper]]. More traditional Calvinist critics of the movement characterize it as a revision of Calvinism, although a conservative one in comparison to modernist Christianity or neo-orthodoxy. Neo-calvinism, "calvinianism", or the "reformational movement", is a response to the influences of [[the Enlightenment]], but generally speaking it does not touch directly on the articles of salvation. Neo-Calvinists intend their work to be understood as an update of the Calvinist [[worldview]] in response to modern circumstances, which is an extension of the Calvinist understanding of salvation to [[science|scientific]], [[society|social]] and [[politics|political]] issues. To show their consistency with the historic Reformed movement, supporters may cite Calvin's ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion|Institutes]]'', book 1, chapters 1-3, and other works. In the United States, Kuyperian neo-Calvinism is represented among others, by the ''Center for Public Justice'', a faith-based political [[think-tank]] headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]]
Neo-Calvinism branched off in more theologically conservative movements in the United States. The first of these to rise to prominence became apparent through the writings of [[Francis Schaeffer]], who had gathered around himself a group of scholars, and propagated their ideas in writing and through a Calvinist study center in Switzerland, called ''L'Abri''. This movement generated a reawakened social consciousness among [[evangelicalism|Evangelical]]s, especially in response to [[abortion]], and was one of the formative influences which brought about the "[[Moral Majority]]" phenomenon in the United States, in the early 1980s.
===Christian Reconstructionism===
{{main|Christian Reconstructionism}}
Another Calvinist movement called [[Christian Reconstructionism]] is much smaller, more radical, and [[Theocracy|theocratic]], but by some believed to be widely influential in American family and political life. Reconstructionism is a distinct revision of Kuyper's approach, which sharply departs from that root influence through the complete rejection of pluralism, and by formulating suggested applications of the sanctions of Biblical Law for modern civil governments. These distinctives are the least influential aspects of the movement. Its intellectual founder, the late [[R.J. Rushdoony|Rousas J. Rushdoony]], based much of his understanding on the [[presuppositional apologetics|apologetical]] insights of [[Cornelius Van Til]], [[professor]] at [[Westminster Theological Seminary]]. It has some influence in the conservative Reformed churches in which it was born, and in Calvinistic Baptist and [[Charismatic]] churches mostly in the United States, Canada, and to a lesser extent in the U.K.
Reconstructionism aims toward the complete rebuilding of the structures of society on Christian and Biblical presuppositions, not, according to its promoters, in terms of "top down" structural changes, but through the steady advance of the Gospel of Christ as men and women are converted, who then live out their obedience to God in the areas for which they are responsible. In keeping with the [[Theonomy|Theonomic Principle]], it seeks to establish laws and structures that will best instantiate the ethical principles of the [[Bible]], including the [[Old Testament]] as expounded in the case laws and summarized in the [[Decalogue]]. Not a political movement, strictly speaking, Reconstructionism has nonetheless been influential in the development of the [[Christian Right]] and what some critics have called, "[[Dominionism]]".
===Lapsarianism===
Within [[scholasticism|scholastic]] Calvinist theology, there are two schools of thought over ''when'' and ''whom'' God predestined: [[supralapsarianism]] and [[infralapsarianism]]. The former view, sometimes called "high Calvinism," argues that before time began God chose people to be saved or condemned before ([[Latin]]: ''supra'') the decree to allow man [[The Fall of Man|to fall]] (Latin: ''lapsare'') from perfection into sin. This view suggests a "double predestination" where some are ordained to salvation and others to damnation.
Infralapsarianism, sometimes called "low Calvinism," refers to the view that before time began God chose ("elected") people to be saved in the context of or after (Latin: ''infra'') the decision to allow man to fall. In this view, God chose to save some people while ''allowing'' (rather than actively ordaining) others to remain in the sin and misery into which they had fallen. As such, Infralapsarianism avoids the idea that God created some people to be condemned.
These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort (1618), an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around [[Europe]], and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism ([[Canons of Dort]], First Point of Doctrine, Article 7). To most modern Calvinists, however, the Lapsarian controversy seems like "splitting hairs," and it doesn't get much attention today.
===Hyper-Calvinism===
{{main|Hyper-Calvinism}}
Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a heretical view that appeared among the early [[England|English]] [[Particular Baptists]] in the [[1700s]]. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to "[[repentance|repent]] and believe" is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation. While this doctrine has always been a minority view, it has not been relegated to the past and may still be found in some small denominations and church communities today. Among notable groups holding to what may be considered a hyper-Calvinistic view is the notorious [[Westboro Baptist Church]]; however, Westboro goes beyond this to state that "the elect" can be found ''only'' among Westboro members.
The term also occasionally appears in both [[theological]] and [[secular]] controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety of [[determinism]], [[predestination]], or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.
==Usury and capitalism==
One school of thought about Calvinism long has been that it represented a revolt against the medieval condemnation of [[usury]] and, implicitly, of profit in general, helping to set the stage for the development of [[capitalism]] in northern Europe. Such a connection was advanced in influential works by [[R. H. Tawney]] and by [[Max Weber]].
Calvin expressed himself on usury in a letter to a friend, [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of [[Aristotle]]) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful.
He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest.
==See also==
===History===
*[[John Calvin]] and [[Arminianism]]: for more of the history of Calvinism
*[[Jesus]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christian anarchism]]
*[[Crypto-Calvinism]]: [[Germany|German]] [[Protestants]] accused of Calvinist leanings within the [[Lutheran]] church in the late 16th century
*[[Jansenism]]: a group within the Catholic church with doctrinal distinctives very similar to Calvinism
*[[Welsh Methodist revival]], [[1904-1905 Welsh Revival]]
*[[Max Weber]], ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''
===Doctrine===
*[[Five points of Calvinism]]
*[[Predestination]] and [[Predestination (Calvinism)]]
*[[Imputed righteousness]]
*[[Intercession of saints]] on the rejection of saint cults
*[[Presuppositional apologetics]]: [[apologetics]] from a Calvinist perspective
*[[Christian Right]], [[Dominionism]], [[Dominion Theology]], [[Theocracy]], [[Theonomy]], [[Christian Reconstructionism]]
===People===
*[[:Category:Calvinists]]
*[[Huguenot]]s: followers of Calvinism in France, the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century]].
*[[Puritans]]: radical Calvinists in England.
*[[Pilgrims]]: Puritan separatists who left Europe for America in search of [[religious freedom]].
*[[Reformed churches]]: denominations that have historically adhered to Calvinist doctrine.
*[[Sydney Anglicans]]: an expression of Calvinist and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] thinking within the Anglican Church of Australia.
===Educational institutions===
*[[Calvin College]] and [[Calvinist Theological Seminary]]
*[[Columbia Theological Seminary]]
*[[Covenant College]]
*[[Covenant Theological Seminary]]
*[[Dordt College]]
*[[Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary]]
*[[Pittsburgh Theological Seminary]]
*[[Princeton Theological Seminary]]
*[[Redeemer University College]]
*[[Reformed Theological Seminary]]
*[[Westminster Theological Seminary]]
*[[Westminster Seminary California]]
*[[Geneva College]]
==Resources==
*John Calvin (1960). |
sh Isles Indoor Bowls Council]
* [http://www.bowls.org/ British Crown Green Bowling Association]
'''New Zealand'''
* [http://www.nzindoorbowls.co.nz/ New Zealand Indoor Bowls Inc]
'''Australia'''
* [http://www.bowls-aust.com.au/ Bowls Australia]
http://www.sydneybowls.com.au/ Sydney Bowls Centre
'''Other'''
* [http://www.valebowlingclub.co.uk Extensive information on Lawn Bowls from a bowling club in Scotland ]
* [http://www.julianhainesbowls.co.uk/forum Julian Haines Bowls Forum]
* [http://www.21up.co.uk 21up] - Crown Green bowls
{{Bowling}}
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<page>
<title>Barcelonnette</title>
<id>4249</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-05T10:39:16Z</timestamp>
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<ip>84.99.245.179</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|nomcommune=Barcelonnette
|région=[[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]]
|département=[[Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]]
|arrondissement=Barcelonnette
|canton=[[Canton of Barcelonnette|Barcelonnette]] (chief town)
|insee=04019
|cp=04400
|maire=Jean Chabre
|mandat=[[2001]]-[[2007]]
|intercomm=
|longitude=06° 39' 11" E
|latitude=44° 23' 12" N
|alt moy=1,132 m
|alt mini=1,115 m
|alt maxi=2,680 m
|hectares=1,642
|km²=16.42
|sans=2,819
|date-sans=1999
|dens=171|}}
'''Barcelonnette''' is a small town and [[commune in France|commune]] in the Southern [[France|French]] [[Alps]], in [[Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]'', in the [[Ubaye Valley]].
The city's name means "little [[Barcelona]]" in French. The city and the region around has been the center of French [[immigration]] wave to the Americas (mostly [[Mexico]] ) at the end 19th/ beginning 20th century. Families which had prospered abroad came back and built the huge mansions that one can see all over the town called "Meson Mexique". Today, a big community of Barcelonettes live in Mexico City and the city of Puebla in Mexico. The most notorious of these descendants is Mexican comedian Eugenio Derbez.
==Geography==
It is built at a height of 3717 ft. on the right bank of the [[Ubaye]] river, on which it is the most well-known place.
==Miscellaneous==
It is mainly a tourist and resort centre, serving many [[ski]] lodges.
Barcelonnette is situated in a wide and very fertile valley, and is surrounded by many villas, called ''"Maisons Mexicaines"'' (Mexican houses), which where built by natives who have made their fortune in [[Mexico]].
[[Category:Communes of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]]
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<page>
<title>Believers Baptism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Believers baptism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bahá'í Faith</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the generally-recognized global Bahá'í community. See [[Bahá'í (disambiguation)|disambiguation]] for others.''
[[Image:seatofUHJ.jpg|thumb|260px|Seat of the [[Universal House of Justice]], governing body of the Bahá'ís in [[Haifa]] Israel]]
{{Bahá'í}}
The '''Bahá'í Faith''' is an emerging global religion founded by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], a 19th century [[Iran|Persian]] exile. "'''Bahá'í'''" is either an adjective referring to this religion, or the term for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh.
Bahá'í theology speaks of [[Three Onenesses|three interlocking unities]]: the [[monotheism|oneness of God]]; the [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion|oneness of religion]]; and the [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity|oneness of humanity]]. These three principles have a profound impact on the theological and social teachings of this religion.
Religion is seen as a progressively unfolding process of education, by God, through his messengers, to a constantly evolving human family. [[Bahá'u'lláh]] is seen as the most recent, pivotal, but not final of God's messengers. He announced that his major purpose is to lay the spiritual foundations for a new global civilization of peace and harmony, which Bahá'ís expect to gradually arise.
==Relation to other religions==
Bahá'ís believe in a process of [[progressive revelation]] recognising the major religions' founders including [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra), [[Krishna]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], and [[Muhammad]]. Bahá'ís interpret religious history in terms of a series of prophetic dispensations. Each [[prophet]], or [[Manifestation of God]], brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation for the time and place it appeared in. Importantly, Bahá'ís do not believe that this process of [[progressive revelation]] has an end. Rather, they believe that, in time, a new Manifestation of God will appear to guide mankind in its continued maturation.
===Distinction===
The Bahá'í Faith is not [[Syncretism|syncretic]] (a combination of religions), but is a distinct religious tradition, with its own scriptures, teachings, laws, and history. Even though Bahá'ís have their own distinct teachings, they believe in the divinity of several past messengers of God.
Bahá'ís describe their faith as an independent world [[religion]], differing from the other great religious traditions only in its newness. Bahá'u'lláh is believed to fulfill the [[Messianic prophecies|messianic promises]], and other spiritual aspirations, of all these various predecessor faiths.
===Persecution===
{{main|Persecution of Bahá'ís}}
Bahá'ís continue to be persecuted in [[Islamist]] ruled countries, especially [[Iran]], where over 200 believers were executed between 1978 and 1998. Since the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] of 1979, Iranian Bahá'ís have regularly had their homes ransacked or been banned from attending university or holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in [[Bahá'í study circle|study circles]]. Bahá'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Burzurg, Bahá'u'lláh's father. The House of the Báb in Shiraz has been destroyed twice, and is one of three sites to which Bahá'ís perform [[Bahá'í pilgrimage|pilgrimage]].
[http://www.aa.psu.edu/journals/war-crimes/v1n1a3.pdf] [http://sim.law.uu.nl/SIM/CaseLaw/uncom.nsf/0/e7b8824bdd987268c1256fa8004a8753?OpenDocument] [http://www.religionnews.com/press02/PR041505.html] [http://www.denial.bahai.org/]
===The Covenant===
{{main|Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh}}
Bahá'ís have high regard for what is termed the "Greater Covenant", which they see as universal in nature, and from "time immemorial" has been carried through by the [[Manifestation of God|Manifestations of God]] of all ages. They also regard highly the "Lesser Covenant", which is viewed as unique to each revelation, and incorporates the [[Progressive revelation|distinguising characteristics]] of these. At this time they view Bahá'u'lláh's revelation as a binding "Lesser Covenant" for his followers.
With unity as an essential teaching of the Faith, Bahá'ís follow an [[Bahá'í administration|administration]] that they believe is divinely ordained, and therefore see attempts to create schisms and divisions as insignificant, doomed efforts which are contrary to the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. Throughout the Faith's history schisms have occurred over the succession of authority. The followers of the various [[Bahá'í divisions]], who in total, number in the low thousands, are regarded as [[Covenant-breaker]]s and shunned, essentially [[Excommunication|excommunicated]].
==Demographics==
{{main|Bahá'í statistics}}
Bahá'í sources usually estimate the worldwide Bahá'í population to be above 5 million [http://www.bahai.org/dir/worldwide]. Encylopedias and similar sources estimate from 2 to 8 million Bahá'ís in the world in the early twenty-first century, with most estimates between 5 and 6 million.
From its origins in the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Empires, the Bahá'í Faith had acquired a number of [[Western world|Western]] converts by [[World War I]]. Fifty years later its population shifted again, this time to the [[Third World]], as a deliberate result of [[Pioneering (Bahá'í) |Bahá'í pioneering]] efforts. Most sources agree that India, Africa, South America, and the South Pacific have overtaken the Middle East and Western countries in terms of Bahá'í representation.
[[Image:BahaiLotusTemple.JPG|thumb|Known in India as the "Lotus Temple", the [[Bahá'í House of Worship]] attracts an average of 3.5 million visitors a year (around 12,000 each day).]]
According to ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004'':
:The majority of Bahá'ís live in Asia (3.6 million), Africa (1.8 million), and Latin America (900,000). The largest Bahá'í community in the world is in [[India]], with 2.2 million Bahá'ís, next is [[Iran]], with 350,000, and the [[USA]], with 150,000. Aside from these countries, numbers vary greatly. Currently, no country has a Bahá'í majority. [[Guyana]] is the country with the largest percentage of Bahá'ís (7%).
''The Britannica Book |
worst ever]]
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0118688|title=Batman and Robin}}
*[http://www.bullzeye.com/mguide/reviews_1997/batman_and_robin.htm Batman and Robin review, Batman and Robin DVD review]
*[http://www.agonybooth.com/batman_robin/ the agony booth : BATMAN & ROBIN Review]
*[http://www.geocities.com/tyrannorabbit/batrobin.html BATMAN & ROBIN - An evil masterpiece?]
*[http://www.moria.co.nz/fantasy/batman4.htm BATMAN & ROBIN]
*[http://www.badmovies.org/othermovies/batmanrobin/index.html Badmovies.org - Batman and Robin]
*[http://www.fuzzydog.com/zzbatmanrobin.htm Fuzzydog.com - Batman and Robin]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20001017063703/http://www.batman-robin.com/ Official Batman and Robin Website]
*[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/thegoodlifeofcrime.html The Good Life of Crime]
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batmanandrobin/index.php Batman and Robin @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]
{{Batmanmovies}}
[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Joel Schumacher]]
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<page>
<title>Batman Forever</title>
<id>4730</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Cast */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name =Batman Forever |
image = Forever.JPG |
producer =[[Tim Burton]]<BR>[[Peter MacGregor-Scott]]|
writer = [[Lee Batchler]] (screenwriter)<BR>[[Janet Scott Batchler]] (screenwriter)<BR>[[Akiva Goldsman]] (screenwriter)<BR>[[Lee Batchler]] (story)<BR>[[Janet Scott Batchler]] (story)<BR>[[Bob Kane]] (comic book)<BR> |
starring = [[Val Kilmer]]<BR>[[Tommy Lee Jones]]<BR>[[Jim Carrey]]<BR>[[Nicole Kidman]]<BR>[[Chris O'Donnell]]<br>[[Drew Barrymore]]<BR>[[Debi Mazar]] |
director = [[Joel Schumacher]]|
distributor =[[Warner Bros.]] |
released =[[June 9]], [[1995]] |
runtime = 122 min. |
language = English |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $100,000,000 |
imdb_id = 0112462 |
}}
'''''Batman Forever''''' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) is the third of the [[Batman]] movies which began with [[Tim Burton]]'s [[1989 in film|1989]] [[Batman (film)|version of the character]], although it is a major departure from previous entries in the franchise, with the dramatic changes to such things as the cast, design and [[Danny Elfman]]'s theme, which is scrapped completely (The music was composed by [[Elliot Goldenthal]]). It starred [[Val Kilmer]] as [[Batman]], in his first and only appearance as the Dark Knight, and marked the series debut of [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] (played by [[Chris O'Donnell]]).
==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': Val Kilmer
*''[[Two-Face]] / Harvey Dent'': Tommy Lee Jones
*''The [[Riddler]] / Edward Nygma'': Jim Carrey
*''Dr. Chase Meridian'': Nicole Kidman
*''Robin / Dick Grayson'': Chris O'Donnell
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''Sugar'': Drew Barrymore
*''Spice'': Debi Mazar
==Background==
While the previous two films had been directed by [[Tim Burton]], ''Batman Forever'' was directed by [[Joel Schumacher]], whose changes to the established designs and thematics of the first two films -- Batman's costume includes latex [[nipple]]s for example -- are regarded by many as being less serious than the franchise's previous two. Burton, incidentally, was producer in name only.
The villains in the movie are [[Riddler|The Riddler]], played by [[Jim Carrey]], and [[Two-Face]]/Harvey Dent, a role played in the original [[1989 in film|1989]] movie by [[Billy Dee Williams]], but assumed here by [[Tommy Lee Jones]]. Also in the movie is Dr. Chase Meridian, played by [[Nicole Kidman]]; the movie proved to be Kidman's breakout role and put her on the road to superstardom.
Picking up a few years after the events of ''[[Batman Returns]]'', this sequel follows Two-Face's alliance with The Riddler and their resulting plan to destroy Batman. It also tells the origin story of Robin, who was not seen in either of the two previous films; As in the comic books, Robin is a circus performer whose family is murdered (although, in the film, his family are killed by Two-Face, rather than a gangster) and becomes Bruce Wayne's ward and Batman's partner in crime-fighting. The Riddler, meanwhile, is portrayed as a vengeful, obsessive former engineer who once worked for Bruce Wayne, Batman's [[alter ego]].
Rumors at the time proposed that the third Batman film would be directed by Burton (Though Warners never intended to let Burton direct another Batman film again) with Michael Keaton, [[Rene Russo]] as the love interest, rumors claimed [[Micky Dolenz]] was the Riddler and that [[Robin Williams]] was offered the role, but turned it down, along with a possible return of the [[Catwoman]] character (who survived the events of ''[[Batman Returns]]''). After some negotiating, Keaton left the film as he was unhappy with the script being lighter-in-tone. Due to its huge success, ''Batman Forever'' was followed two years later by ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 film)|Batman and Robin]]'' (1997).
== Critical reaction and box office==
The film's budget was approximately $90 - $100 million and earned $184,031,112 in total domestic sales and $152.5 million worldwide (according to [http://boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=1995&p=.htm]), making it the most commercially successful movie of the summer of 1995 and second-best of that year (next to ''[[Toy Story]]'')). It was also the third most successful Batman movie as of [[July 20]]th, [[2005]] (after the 1989 original and 2005's ''[[Batman Begins]]'').
The film obtained generally mixed reviews. Much of the negative reaction came from the drastic makeover of the franchise (most of it led by [[Joel Schumacher]] at the will of the [[Warner Bros.]] executives). Due to the fact that ''Batman Returns'' earned less than the original, Warner Bros. insisted the movie be aimed predominantly at children to improve merchandising turnover. This included deleting over 30 minutes of footage, including Two-Face escaping from [[Arkham Asylum]], the resolution to the Red Book subplot, and a sequence in which Bruce confronts a section of the Batcave with a giant bat. Further editing rearranged the first half of the film to start it off with an action scene. This resulted making the third Batman movie with a feel that was more reminiscent to the [[1960s]] [[Batman (TV series)|TV show]] than its Burton predecessors.
Disapproval was also heaped upon Val Kilmer; critics charged that Kilmer, while sufficiently physically fit to play ''Batman'', more so than his predecessor [[Michael Keaton]] had been, gave a wooden performance as ''Bruce Wayne''. Some fans, however, defend Kilmer's performance, insisting that he did the best he could with lesser material &mdash; as well as frequent clashes with Schumacher about the film's direction &mdash; and some even insisting that he surpassed Keaton. Interestingly, Batman creator [[Bob Kane]] said in a ''Cinescape'' interview that of all the actors to have played Batman up to that point, he felt Kilmer had given the best interpretation. Film critic [[Leonard Maltin]] complimented Kilmer's portrayal when he reviewed the film for his expanding collection of film reviews, as well as being very favorable of the film as a whole. Others accused Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones' of giving cartoonish performances as the Riddler and Two-Face (Carrey himself even stated, though non-judgementally, that this film "didn't take itself as seriously" as the past films had.) Still others complained that Carrey's portrayal of the Riddler, and his obsession with Bruce Wayne, bordered on being too [[homosexual]] in nature. Another source of controversy is the introduction of nipples in the Batsuit (except for the suit used in the finale), as well as the humorous close-ups of Bruce Wayne while donning his suit.
A prominent criticism of the film's atmosphere centers around the constant use of neon lights, black lights, and glow-in-the-dark elements, which seemingly reaches its peak with the street gang Robin fights halfway through the film. These effects are regarded by some fans as slightly nonsensical. Another issue some fans have had with the film are the new gadgets. While Batman's technology has always been sci-fi and fantastical, some fans thought that the [[Batmobile]] climbing walls and a cape that melts into a bomb resistant shell were pushing plausibility to its limit.
''Batman Forever'' has been regarded by some as [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]], especially after [[Gary Willis]], a [[conservative]] columnist for the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', sardonically bashed the movie's campiness and perceived homoerotic motifs ("''Batman Forever'' is a Gay Old Time," ''Chicago Sun-Times'', 1995). Though not defending the film's cinematic merits, most view this analysis a groundless throwback to similar [[homophobia|homophobic]] criticisms of the early years of the comic books and the [[1960s]] TV series.
==On DVD==
[[Image:forever2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]
''Batman Forever'' was given a "bare bones" [[DVD]] release when the medium was introduced in [[1997]]-[[1998]]. However, in [[2005]], the newest feature film, ''[[Batman Begins]]'', spawned Warner Bros. to release a T |
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==Economic Overview==
The economy of the CAR is dominated by the cultivation and sale of foodcrops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame and plantains. The importance of foodcrops over exported cash crops is illustrated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between c. 200,000 and 300,000 tons a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from c. 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year. Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee. Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not "on the books" and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The per capita income of the CAR is often listed as being around $300 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally-produced alcohol, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicines, for example. The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most Central Africans.
Diamonds constitute the most important export of the CAR, frequently accounting for 40-55% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely.
The CAR is heavily dependent upon multilateral foreign aid and the presence of numerous [[NGO]]'s which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide. As one [[UNDP]] official put it, the CAR is a country "sous serum," or a country hooked up to an IV. (Mehler 2005:150) The very presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and even refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans.
The [[Central African Republic]] is classified as one of the world's least developed countries, with an estimated annual per capita income of $310 (2000).
Sparsely populated and landlocked, the nation is overwhelmingly agrarian, with the vast bulk of the population engaged in subsistence farming and 55% of the country's GDP arising from agriculture. Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Principal foodcrops include [[cassava]], [[peanuts]], [[sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[sesame]], and [[plantains]]s. Principal cash crops for export include [[cotton]], [[coffee]], and [[tobacco]]. [[Timber]] has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%.
The country also has rich but largely unexploited natural resources in the form of [[diamond]]s, [[gold]], [[uranium]], and other [[mineral]]s. There may be [[petroleum]] deposits along the country's northern border with [[Chad]]. Diamonds are the only of these mineral resources currently being developed; reported sales of largely uncut diamonds make up close to 60% of the CAR's export earnings. Industry contributes less than 20% of the country's GDP, with artesian diamond mining, breweries, and sawmills making up the bulk of the sector. Services currently account for 25% of GDP, largely because of the oversized government bureaucracy and high transportation costs arising from the country's landlocked position.
Much of the country's limited electrical supply is provided by hydroelectric plants based in [[Boali]]. Fuel supplies must be barged in via the [[Oubangui River]] or trucked overland through [[Cameroon]], resulting in frequent shortages of gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. The C.A.R.'s transportation and communication network is limited. The country has only 429 kilometers of paved road, limited international, and no domestic air service, and does not possess a railroad. River traffic on the Oubangui River is impossible from April to July, and conflict in the region has sometimes prevented shipments from moving between [[Kinshasa]] and Bangui. The telephone system functions, albeit imperfectly. Four radio stations currently operate in the C.A.R., as well as one television station. Numerous newspapers and pamphlets are published on a regular basis, and one company has begun providing internet service.
In the 40 years since independence, the C.A.R. has made slow progress toward economic development. Economic mismanagement, poor infrastructure, a limited tax base, scarce private investment, and adverse external conditions have led to deficits in both its budget and external trade. Its debt burden is considerable, and the country has seen a decline in per capita [[GNP]] over the last 30 years. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on [[12 January]] [[1994]] had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government.
The [[IMF]] approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998. The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 2.5% inflation for 2000-2001. Structural adjustment programs with the [[World Bank]] and IMF and interest-free credits to support investments in the [[agriculture]], [[livestock]], and transportation sectors have had limited impact. The World Bank and IMF are now encouraging the government to concentrate exclusively on implementing much-needed economic reforms to jump-start the economy and defining its fundamental priorities with the aim of alleviating poverty. As a result, many of the state-owned business entities have been privatized and limited efforts have been made to standardize and simplify labor and investment codes and to address problems of corruption. The Central African Government is currently in the process of adopting new labor and investment codes.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $5.8 billion (1999 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5% (1999 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $1,700 (1999 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
53%
<br>''industry:''
21%
<br>''services:''
26% (1997 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.6% (1999 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
NA
'''Unemployment rate:'''
6% (1993)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$638 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $888 million (1994 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[diamond]] mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
105 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
19.05%
<br>''hydro:''
80.95%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
98 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cotton]], [[coffee]], [[tobacco]], [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[banana]]s; timber
'''Exports:'''
$195 million (f.o.b., 1999)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[diamond]]s, timber, [[cotton]], [[coffee]], [[tobacco]]
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Benelux]] 36%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] 5%, [[Spain]] 4%, [[Egypt]] 3%, [[France]] (1997)
'''Imports:'''
$170 million (f.o.b., 1999)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[France]] 30%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] 18%, [[Cameroon]] 11%, [[Germany]] 4%, [[Japan]] (1997)
'''Debt - external:'''
$790 million (1999 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$172.2 million (1995); note - traditional budget subsidies from France
'''Currency:'''
1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
'''Exchange rates:'''
Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
<br>''note:''
since [[1 January]] [[1999]], the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
* [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Central African Republic]]
[[Category:WTO members|Central African Republic]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Central African Republic]]
[[es:Economía de la República Centroafricana]]</text>
</revision>
< |
timestamp>2006-03-03T12:20:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nvineeth</username>
<id>298260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>biography infobox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography
|subject_name='''William B. "Bill" Watterson II'''
|image_name=Billwatterson86.jpg
|image_caption= watterson at his studio
|date_of_birth=[[July 5]], [[1958]]
|place_of_birth=[[Washington, D.C.]]
|dead=
|date_of_death=
|place_of_death=
}}
'''William B. "Bill" Watterson II''' (born [[July 5]], [[1958]]) is the author of the [[comic strip]] ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''. Watterson was born in [[Washington, D.C.]], where his father, James G. Watterson (1932 - ), worked as a patent examiner while going to law school, until becoming a patent attorney in [[1960]]. The family moved to [[Chagrin Falls, Ohio|Chagrin Falls]], [[Ohio]] when Bill was six years old; his mother (Kathryn) became a city council member. He has a younger brother, Tom, who is a high school teacher in Austin, Texas.
In [[1980]], Watterson graduated from [[Kenyon College]] in [[Gambier, Ohio|Gambier]] with a degree in [[political science]]. Immediately the ''Cincinnati Post'' offered him a job drawing political [[cartoon|cartoons]] for a six-month trial period:
:The agreement was that they could fire me or I could quit with no questions asked if things didn't work out during the first few months. Sure enough, things didn't work out, and they fired me, no questions asked.
:My guess is that the editor wanted his own [[Jeff MacNelly]] (a [[Pulitzer Prize|Pulitzer]] winner at 24), and I didn't live up to his expectations. My [[Cincinnati]] days were pretty [[Franz Kafka|kafkaesque]]. I had lived there all of two weeks, and the editor insisted that most of my work be about local, as opposed to national, issues. Cincinnati has a weird, three-[[political party|party]], [[city manager]]-government, and by the time I figured it out, I was standing in the [[unemployment]] lines. I didn't hit the ground running. Cincinnati at that time was also beginning to realize it had major cartooning talent in [[Jim Borgman]], at the city's other paper, and I didn't benefit from the comparison. [http://home3.inet.tele.dk/stadil/interw.htm]
''Calvin and Hobbes'' was first published on [[November 18]], [[1985]].
Watterson spent a huge portion of his career trying to change the climate of comics. He believed that the artistic value of comics was being undermined, and that the space they occupied in newspapers continually decreased and was subject to arbitrary whims of publishers (on one occasion, Watterson said "I am a cartoonist, not the leader of a commercial Calvin and Hobbes factory.") Watterson believes that art should not be judged by the medium for which it is created (i.e., that there is no "high" art or "low" art, just [[art]]).
Watterson is also known for battling against the arbitrary structure publishers imposed on newspaper cartoons: the standard cartoon starts with a large wide rectangle featuring the cartoon's logo, and the strip is presented in a series of rectangles of different widths, limiting the cartoonist's options of allowable presentation. Watterson managed to get an exception to this constraint for ''Calvin and Hobbes'', allowing him to draw his Sunday cartoons the way he wanted. In many of them the panels overlap or contain their own panels; in some of them the action takes place diagonally across the strip.
Moreover, Watterson battled constantly against the many things that he felt cheapened his comic. He refused to merchandise his creation on the grounds that pasting ''Calvin and Hobbes'' images on commercially-sold coffee mugs, stickers and t-shirts would devalue the characters and their personalities. This also explains his refusal to allow the strip to become an [[animated series]]. Watterson fought this uphill battle against the pressure from publishers with success, until and beyond the end of his career.
Watterson took two extended breaks from writing new strips, from May [[1991]] to February [[1992]] and from April through December of [[1994]].
In a brief letter newspaper editors made public [[November 9]], [[1995]], Watterson announced his retirement:
::Dear Editor:
::I will be stopping Calvin and Hobbes at the end of the year. This was not a recent or an easy decision, and I leave with some sadness. My interests have shifted however, and I believe I've done what I can do within the constraints of daily deadlines and small panels. I am eager to work at a more thoughtful pace, with fewer artistic compromises. I have not yet decided on future projects, but my relationship with Universal Press Syndicate will continue.
::That so many newspapers would carry Calvin and Hobbes is an honor I'll long be proud of, and I've greatly appreciated your support and indulgence over the last decade. Drawing this comic strip has been a privilege and a pleasure, and I thank you for giving me the opportunity.
::Sincerely,
::Bill Watterson
The last strip of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' was published on [[December 31]], 1995. Since retiring, Bill Watterson has taken up painting, often drawing landscapes of the woods with his father. He has also published several anthologies of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips.
According to the October 2005 issue of ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]'', Watterson requested that Universal Press Syndicate not forward any fan mail.
Living in relative seclusion in Chagrin Falls [http://www.clevescene.com/issues/2003-11-26/feature.html] with his wife Melissa, Watterson refuses to sign autographs or give interviews, emerging only occasionally into the public eye. On [[December 21]], [[1999]], a short piece called "Drawn Into a Dark But Gentle World," written by Watterson to mark the forthcoming end of the comic strip ''[[Peanuts]],'' was published in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''.[http://ignatz.brinkster.net/cpeanuts.html] The Wattersons have been seen sometimes roller skating at the rink in Chagrin Falls.
==Awards==
Watterson was awarded the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Humor Comic Strip Award for 1988, and their [[Reuben Award]] for [[1986]]. He was the youngest person to ever receive the award. He received the same award in [[1988]], and was nominated again in [[1992]].
==References==
* Renner, James. ''[http://www.clevescene.com/issues/2003-11-26/feature.html "Missing!"]'', clevescene.com. November 26, 2003. Retrieved October 25, 2005.
* ''[http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/books/10/24/reclusive.cartoonist.ap/index.html "Where's 'Calvin and Hobbes' creator?"]'', CNN / The Associated Press. October 24, 2005. Retrieved October 25, 2005; removed sometime after. [http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/breaking_news/12972054.htm Mirror]
* [http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]
==External links==
Bill Watterson has given two speeches:
* "The Cheapening of the Comics," a speech delivered at the Festival of Cartoon Art at [[Ohio State University]] ([[October 27]], [[1989]]) [http://hobbes.ncsa.uiuc.edu/comics.html]
* "Some Thoughts on the Real World by One who Glimpsed It and Fled," a commencement speech delivered at Kenyon College ([[May 20]], [[1990]]) [http://home3.inet.tele.dk/stadil/spe_kc.htm]
* [http://calvinandhobbes.michaelgoonan.net/billwatterson.html Michael's Calvin and Hobbes Website-Bill Watterson] Includes information about the genius behind Calvin and Hobbes, as well as speeches and interviews.
* [http://www.ucomics.com/calvinandhobbes/ Calvin & Hobbes Comics at uComics]
==Influences==
Bill Waterson said in one of his interviews that he had been influenced by:
Charles Schulz, for his work in "Peanuts," Walt Kelly for his comic, "Pogo," and George Herriman for "Krazy Kat."
==Notable==
* "Fans From Around the World Interview Bill Watterson", published in advance of the complete Calvin & Hobbes collection release, ([[September 22]], [[2005]]) [http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/interview.html]
Washington Post book review of "The Complete Calvin and Hobbes", October 2005, including broad look at Watterson's career:
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/03/AR2005100301754.html "After an Early Bedtime, Calvin and Hobbes Are Up and Running in a New Collection"]
* [http://jawboneradio.blogspot.com/2005/11/jawbone-81-in-search-of-bill-watterson.html Interview with Bill Watterson's mother] (interview begins around 7:10)
Watts Hoffman law firm bio of Bill's father:
* [http://www.wattshoff.com/lawyers/counsel.asp Of Counsel - James G. Watterson]
Picture of Bill's father (the inspiration of Calvin's father)
*[http://www.chagrin-falls.org/Council_Staff/Personnel/wattersonx150.jpg Chagrin Falls Council Staff]
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:1958 births|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:Calvin and Hobbes|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:Reuben Award winners|Watterson, Bill]]
[[de:Bill Watterson]]
[[es:Bill Watterson]]
[[fr:Bill Watterson]]
[[it:Bill Watterson]]
[[no:Bill Watterson]]
[[pt:Bill Watterson]]
[[simple:Bill Watterson]]
[[sv:Bill Watterson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Britannica Public Domain</title>
<id>4034</id>
<revision>
<id>34638555</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T18:14:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R.Koot</username>
<id>170083</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black</title>
<id>4035</id>
<revision>
<id>41791547</id>
<timestamp>2006- |
aditional prophecies, as described in the [[Puranas]] and several other texts, say that the world shall fall into chaos and degradation. There will then be a rapid influx of perversity, greed and conflict, and this state has been described as:
"When deceit falsehood, lethargy, sleepiness, violence, despondency, grief, delusion, fear, and poverty prevail ... when men, filled with conceit, consider themselves equal with the [[Brahmins]]...that is the ''[[Kali Yuga]]''."
This is followed by the appearance of an [[avatar]], "The Lord shall manifest Himself as the ''[[Kalki|Kalki Avatar]]''...He will establish righteousness upon the earth and the minds of the people will become as pure as crystal...As a result, the [[Sat]] or [[Krta Yuga]] (golden age) will be established."
==Islam==
{{main|Islamic eschatology}}
In [[Islam]], it is believed that on the [[Qiyamah|Day of Reckoning]], [[Allah|God]] will resurrect and judge the dead, sending the righteous to [[Jannah|Heaven]] and unrepentant evildoers to [[Jahannam|Hell]]. The historical origins of Islamic eschatological belief are also closely related to the Christian, in that [[Muhammad]] taught his [[Sahaba|companions]], as Jesus taught his [[Apostles|disciples]], that some of them would see the end of all things within their lifetimes.
Non-[[Qu'ran]]ic [[Hadith|traditions]] include a Muhammad-like holy warrior, the [[Mahdi]] (whom [[Shi'a]] equate with the long-lived [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Twelfth Imam]]), who will defend Islam from the Antichrist, various [[Dabbat al-ard|Beast]]s, the [[Gog_and_Magog#Gog_and_Magog_in_the_Qur'an|Gog and Magog]] tradition, angelic heralds with trumpets, [[Fitna|civil war]], natural disasters and signs in the heavens, and a clash between [[Isa|Jesus]] and the [[Dajjal|Antichrist]]&nbsp;&mdash; a belief system broadly similar to the Christian [[New Testament]] stories from which it may have been derived.
==Judaism==
{{main|Jewish eschatology}}
In [[Judaism]], the end of the world is called the ''acharit hayamim'' ('''end of days'''). Tumultuous events will overturn the old world order, creating a new order in which [[God]] is universally recognized as the ruler over everyone and everything. One of the sages of the [[Talmud]] says that, "Let the end of days come, but may I not live to see them", because they will be filled with so much conflict and suffering.
The [[Talmud]], in the tractate Avodah Zarah, page 9A, states that this world as we know it will only exist for six thousand years. The [[Jewish calendar]] (''luach'') functions completely on the assumption that time begins at the [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] of the world by God in [[Genesis]]. Many people (notably [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Reform Judaism|Reform Jews]] and some [[Christianity|Christians]]) think that the years of the [[Torah]], or Jewish [[Bible]], are symbolic. According to the ancient Jewish teachings continued by today's [[Orthodox Jews]], the years are literal and consistent throughout all time, with 24 hours per day and an average of 365 days per year. Appropriate calibrations are, of course, done with leap years, to account for the difference between the [[lunar calendar]] and the [[solar calendar]], since the [[Jewish calendar]] is based on both. Thus the year [[2005]] equals 5765 years ''since creation'' on the present Jewish calendar. According to this calculation, the end of days will occur in the year [[2240]].
According to Jewish tradition, the end of the world will see:
# Ingathering of the scattered Jewish exiles to geographic [[Israel]],
# Defeat of all of Israel's enemies,
# Building of the third Jewish [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and the resumption of the [[sacrifice|sacrificial offerings]] and Temple service,
# Revival of the Dead (''techiat hameitim''), or the [[Resurrection]],
# At some point, the [[Jewish Messiah]] who will become the anointed [[Monarch|King]] of Israel. He will divide the Jews in Israel into their original [[Tribes of Israel|tribal]] portions in the land. During this time [[Gog]], king of [[Magog (Bible)|Magog]], will attack Israel. Who Gog and the Magog nation are is unknown. Magog will fight a great battle, in which many will die on both sides, but God will intervene and save the [[Jew]]s. This is the battle referred to as [[Armageddon]]. God, having vanquished this final enemy once and for all, will accordingly banish all evil from human existence. After the year 6000 (in the Jewish calendar), the seventh millennium will be an era of holiness, tranquility, spiritual life, and worldwide peace, called the ''Olam Haba'' ("Future World"), where all people will know God directly. The Jewish holiday of [[Rosh Hashanah]] has many identical aspects to the Islamic belief in Qiyamah, such as the title of, "Day of the sounding of the [[Shofar]]".
== Native American==
Several [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes have similar beliefs concerning the end times.
=== Hopi ===
Tribal leaders of the [[Hopi]] tribe, such as [[Dan Evehama]], [[Thomas Banyaca]] and [[Martin Gashwaseoma]] prophecize that the coming of the [[white man]] signals the end times, along with a strange beast "like a [[Bison|buffalo]] but with great horns that would overrun the land" (i.e. [[cattle]]). It is prophesized that during the end times the earth would be crossed by [[iron]] [[snake]]s and [[rock (geology)|stone]] [[rivers]], (i.e. [[railroad]]s), and the land would be criss-crossed by a giant spider's web (i.e. [[freeway]]s), and seas will turn black (i.e. [[oil spill]]s).
It is also prophesized that a "great dwelling place" in the heavens shall fall with a great crash. It will appear as a blue star, and the earth will rock to and fro. White men would then battle people in other lands, with those who possess wisdom of their presence. There would then be smoke in the deserts, and the signs that great destruction is near.
Many would then die, but those who understand the prophecies shall live in the places of the Hopi people and be safe. The [[Pahana]] or "True White Brother" would then return to plant the seeds of wisdom in people's hearts, and thus usher in the dawn of the Fifth World.
=== Mayans ===
The [[Mayans]] believe that earth would be destroyed by several catastrophes (i.e. [[earthquakes]], [[volcano]]es, [[flood]]s etc.). [[Civilization]]s would then collapse, and the Indian [[god]] [[Kulkulcan]] - the Mayan equivalent to the [[Aztec]] [[Quetzalcoatl]] - a feathered serpent deity, who represents forces of good and light, would then appear.
According to ''The Mayan Prophecies'' "The end of artificial time signals and the return to natural light, a time in harmony with the Earth and with the natural cycles [would] hold the potential to reinstate a balanced, positive love and unity cycle."
The current [[Mayan calendar]] cycle ends on [[December 21]], [[2012]], thus this year is predicted to be the end of the world according to several prophecies.
=== Sioux ===
According to an [[Ogalala]] - or [[Sioux]] medicine man - "darkness would descend over the tribe...the world would be out of balance. Floods, fires and earthquakes would then ensue."
A "White Buffalo Calf Woman" will then purify the world. She will then bring back harmony and spiritual balance.
A [[white buffalo]] was born in [[1994]], and another in [[1995]]. Many tribal leaders thus feel that the prophecy is being fulfilled.
==[[Norse mythology]]==
{{main|Ragnarok}}
In [[Norse mythology]] a strong winter called the [[Fimbulwinter]] will seize the earth and bring disorder and fighting between the people of [[Midgard]] just before [[Ragnarok]]. Ragnarok ("fate of the gods") is the [[battle]] during the end of the world waged between the gods (the [[Æsir]], the Vaner and the Einherjar, led by [[Odin]]) and the forces of Chaos (the [[fire giant]]s, the [[Jotuns]] and various monsters, led by [[Loki]]). Not only will the gods, giants, and monsters perish in this apocalyptic conflagration, but almost everything in the [[universe]] will be torn asunder.
==Zoroastrianism==
{{main|Zoroastrian eschatology}}
Zoroastrianism eschatology is the oldest eschatology in recorded history. By [[500 BC]], [[Zoroastrians]] had fully developed a concept of the end of the world through a divine devouring in fire.
According to Zoroastrian philosophy, redacted in the Zand-i Vohuman Yasht, "at the end of thy tenth hundredth winter...the [[sun]] is more unseen and more spotted; the year, month, and day are shorter; and the earth is more barren; and the crop will not yield the seed; and men ... become more deceitful and more given to vile practices. They have no gratitude."
At the end of the Battle between the righteous and wicked, a [[Last Judgement|Final Judgement]] of all souls will commence. Sinners will be punished 3 days, but are then forgiven. The world will reach perfection as poverty, old age, disease, thirst, hunger and death are halted. Zoroastrian concepts parallel greatly with those of [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Christianity|Christian]], and [[Islam]]ic eschatological beliefs, largely due to the influence Zoastrianism exerted on Judaism whilst the Levant was under [[Achaemenid]] control and the subsequent emergence of Christianity and Islam from Judaism.
==Prophetic movements==
*In [[1843]], [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]] made the first of several predictions that the world would end in only a few months. Obviously, none of them took place, but [[Millerites|followers of Miller]] went on to found separate churches, the most successful of which is the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]].
==Other religions==
{{sect-stub}}
Many [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] and [[Wicca|Wiccans]] believe that the entire Universe continues in endless cycles of birth, death, and rebirth.
== Philosophy ==
Eschatology h |
/id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>hr link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=First Battle of El Alamein
|partof=[[World War II]], [[North African Campaign]]
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[July 1]]&ndash;[[July 27]], [[1942]]
|place=[[El Alamein]], [[Egypt]]
|result=Tactical stalemate; Strategic Allied victory
|combatant1=[[Allies of World War II|Allies]] (mostly [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces)
|combatant2=[[Axis Powers|Axis]] (mostly [[Nazi Germany|German]])
|commander1=[[Claude Auchinleck]]
|commander2=[[Erwin Rommel]]
|strength1=150,000 troops, 1,115 tanks, 1,000 artillery, 1,500 planes
|strength2=100,000 troops, 585 tanks, 500 planes
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
{{Campaignbox Western Desert}}
The '''First Battle of El Alamein''' [[July 1|1]]&ndash;[[July 27]] [[1942]] was a battle of the [[Western Desert Campaign]] of [[World War II]], fought between the [[Germany|German]]&ndash;[[Italy|Italian]] ''[[Afrika Korps]]'' commanded by [[Erwin Rommel]] and the [[British Eighth Army]], commanded by [[Claude Auchinleck]].
Following the defeat at the [[Battle of Gazala]] in June 1942, the Eighth Army had retreated from [[Mersa Matruh]] to the ''Alamein Line'' in [[Egypt]], a 40&nbsp;mile (60&nbsp;km) gap between the town of [[El Alamein]] on the [[Mediterranean]] coast to the north and the [[Qattara Depression]] in the desert to the south.
On [[July 1]] the Afrikakorps attacked. The Allied line near El Alamein was not overrun until the evening and this hold up stalled the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] advance. On [[July 2]] Rommel concentrated his forces in the north, intending to break through around El Alamein. Auchinleck ordered a counter-attack at the centre of the Axis line but the attack failed. The Allies also attacked in the south and were more successful against the Italians. As a result of the Allied resistance, Rommel decided to regroup and defend the line reached.
Auchinleck attacked again on [[July 10]] at [[Tel el Eisa]] in the north and over one thousand prisoners were taken. Rommel's counter at Tel el Eisa achieved little. Auchinleck then attacked again in the centre at the Ruweisat Ridge in two battles (the '''First''' and '''Second Battles of Ruweisat''' on [[July 14]] and [[July 21]]). Neither battle was successful and the failure of armour to reach the infantry in time at the Second Battle led to the loss of 700 men. Despite this another two attacks were launched on [[July 27]]. One in the north at Tel el Eisa was a moderate failure. The other at Miteiriya was more calamitous, as the minefields were not cleared and the infantry were left without armour support when faced with a German counter-attack.
The Eighth Army was exhausted, and by [[July 31]] Auchinleck ordered an end to offensive operations and the strengthening of the defences to meet a major counter-offensive.
The battle was a stalemate, but the Axis advance on [[Alexandria]] (and then [[Cairo]]) was halted. A second attempt by Rommel to bypass or break the Commonwealth position was repulsed in the [[Battle of Alam Halfa]] in August, and in October the Eighth Army, now commanded by [[Bernard Montgomery]], decisively defeated the Axis forces in the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]].
[[Category:Western Desert Campaign|El Alamein 1]]
[[Category:Tank battles|El Alamein 1]]
[[Category:History of Egypt|El Alamein 1]]
[[de:Erste Schlacht von El Alamein]]
[[fr:Bataille d'El-Alamein]]
[[hr:Prva bitka kod El Alameina]]
[[it:Prima battaglia di El Alamein]]
[[nl:Eerste slag om El Alamein]]
[[ja:エル・アラメインの戦い]]
[[pl:I bitwa pod El Alamein]]
[[fi:El Alameinin ensimmäinen taistelu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Italo-Abyssinian War</title>
<id>11776</id>
<revision>
<id>42052084</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:46:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ghepeu</username>
<id>217964</id>
</contributor>
<comment>new Infobox Military Conflict</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|campaign=
|conflict=First Italo-Abyssinian War
|date=[[1895]]-[[1896]]
|place=[[Ethiopia]]
|result=Attempted Italian annexation of Ethiopia failed
|combatant1=[[Italy]]
|combatant2=[[Ethiopia]]
|commander1=
|commander2=
|strength1=20,000
|strength2=100,000 (estimated)
|casualties1=11,000 (killed or wounded)
|casualties2=17,000 (killed or wounded)
}}
The '''First Italian-Abyssinian War''' was one of the very few instances of successful armed [[Africa]]n resistance to [[Europe]]an [[colonialism]] in the 19th century.
On [[March 25]], [[1889]], the [[Shewa]] ruler [[Menelik II]] -- having conquered [[Tigray]] and [[Amhara]], and with the support of [[Italy]] -- declared himself Emperor of [[Ethiopia]] (''Abyssinia'' in the European parlance of the time). Barely a month later, on [[May 2]], he signed a treaty of amity with the [[Italy|Italian]]s, which gave them control over [[Eritrea]], the [[Red Sea]] coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule. Or so it seemed.
In fact, the bilingual [[Treaty of Wuchale]] did not say the same thing in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Amharic language|Amharic]]. The former text established an Italian [[protectorate]] over Ethiopia, which Menelik discovered soon afterwards.
Menelik repudiated the treaty in [[1893]], at which point the Italians ramped up the pressure in a variety of ways, including military expeditions into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in [[1895]].
By then, however, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of modern [[weapon]]s and ammunition. In December of 1895, he himself moved large forces into Tigray. Heavily outnumbered, the Italian commander, [[Oreste Baritieri]] refused to engage, but the Italian government of [[Francesco Crispi]] was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baritieri to bring about a battle.
The result was the [[Battle of Adowa]] (or ''Adua'') on [[March 1]], [[1896]]. Almost half of all the Italian forces in East Africa were concentrated and engaged the Ethiopians who defeated them decisively. The actual battle took place in mountainous county to the north of the town of Adowa. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Italian officered askari (native infantry) recruited from Eritrea. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Generals Damorida, Ellena and Baratieri. The Ethiopian forces under Menelik outnumbered the Italians by an estimated five or six times. On the night of [[29 February]] the four brigades advanced separately towards Adowa over narrow mountain tracks. Menlik's large forces were due to retire back into Ethiopia that same day as their food supplies ran low. Learning of the Italian advance Menlik rallied his four separate armies (those of Shoa, Harar, Gojjam and Wollo) and moved to meet them.
Disastrously, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn on [[1 March]] were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Albertone's askari brigade was the first to encounter large numbers of Ethiopians, near the hill called Enda Chidane Meret. The well-disciplined but heavily outnumbered askari, with artillery support, beat off attacks by Ethiopian forces for three hours until Menlik sent forward his reserve of 25,000 Shoans and swamped Albertone's brigade.
Dabormida's Italian brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida executed a well-organised fighting retreat. However the numbers, courage and ferocity of the Shoan warriors opposing him led to Dabormida's death and the destruction of much of his brigade.
The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. Baratieri escaped to be courtmartialed and condemned as unfit for his command. Italian dead and missing numbered 4,133 with a further 2,000 captured. In addition four thousand Eritrean askaris were killed or captured. The Ethiopians had lost about 7,000 dead and 10,000 wounded. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.
Menelik retired in good order to his capital, [[Addis Ababa]], and waited for the discredited Crispi government to fall. It did within two weeks, and Menelik secured the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] in October, strictly delimiting the borders of Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia.
==See also==
* [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]
[[Category:Wars of Ethiopia|Italy]]
[[Category:Wars of Italy|Abyssinia]]
[[it:Prima guerra Italo-Abissina]]
[[ja:第一次エチオピア戦争]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flip-flop (electronics)</title>
<id>11777</id>
<revision>
<id>41433165</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:29:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.220.79.99</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Uses */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the electronic component. For other meanings, see [[flip-flop (disambiguation)]].''
In [[electronics]] and [[digital circuit]]s, the '''flip-flop''' or ''[[bistable]] [[multivibrator]]'' is a pulsed [[digital circuit]] capable of serving as a one-[[bit]] [[computer storage|memory]]. A flip-flop typically includes zero, one, or two [[input]] signals; a [[clock signal]]; and an [[output]] signal, though many commercial flip-flops additionally provide the [[complement]] of the output signal. Some flip-flops also include a ''clear'' input |
n:center;"|{{IPA|p&nbsp;&nbsp;b}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|t&nbsp;&nbsp;d}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|k&nbsp;&nbsp;g}}
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|nasal]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|m}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|n}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|ŋ}} {{footnote|1}}
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[flap consonant|flap]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|ɾ}} {{footnote|2}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|fricative]]'''
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|f&nbsp;&nbsp;v}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|θ&nbsp;&nbsp;ð}} {{footnote|3}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|s&nbsp;&nbsp;z}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|ʃ&nbsp;&nbsp;ʒ}} {{footnote|4}}
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|x}} {{footnote|5}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[affricate consonant|affricate]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|tʃ&nbsp;&nbsp;dʒ}} {{footnote|4}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|ɹ}} {{footnote|4}}
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|j}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|lateral approximant]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA|l, ɫ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}
{|class="wikitable"
! &nbsp;
![[labial-velar consonant|labial-velar]]
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA|ʍ&nbsp;&nbsp;w}}{{footnote|6}}
|}
#The [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is a non-phonemic allophone of /n/ in some northerly British accents, appearing only before /g/. In all other dialects it is a separate phoneme, although it only occurs in [[syllable coda]]s.
#The [[alveolar flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in [[North American English]] and increasingly in [[Australian English]]. This is the sound of "tt" or "dd" in the words ''latter'' and ''ladder'', which are homophones in North American English. This is the same sound represented by single "r" in some varieties of [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
#In some dialects, such as [[Cockney]], the interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ are usually merged with /f/ and /v/, and in others, like [[African American Vernacular English]], /ð/ is merged with /d/. In some Irish varieties, /θ/ and /ð/ become the corresponding dental plosives, which then contrast with the usual alveolar plosives.
#The sounds {{IPA|/ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /ɹ/}} are labialised in some dialects. Labialisation is never contrastive in initial position and therefore is sometimes not transcribed.
#The [[voiceless velar fricative]] /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as ''loch'' {{IPA|/lɒx/}} or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like ''Bach'' {{IPA|/bax/}} or ''Chanukah'' /xanuka/, or in some dialects such as Scouse ([[Liverpool]]) where the [[affricate]] [kx] is used instead of /k/ in words such as ''docker'' {{IPA|/dɒkxə/}}. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.
#Voiceless w {{IPA|[ʍ]}} is found in Scottish and Irish English, as well as in some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English. In all other dialects it is merged with /w/.
====Voicing and aspiration====
[[Voiced consonant|Voicing]] and [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] of [[stop consonant]]s in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:
* [[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]] [[plosive]]s and [[affricate]]s (/{{IPA|p}}/, /{{IPA|t}}/, /{{IPA|k}}/, and /{{IPA|tʃ}}/) are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable and are not part of a consonant cluster&mdash;compare ''pin'' [{{IPA|pʰɪn}}] and ''spin'' [{{IPA|spɪn}}].
** In some dialects, aspiration extends to unstressed syllables as well.
** In other dialects, such as [[Indian English]], most or all voiceless stops may remain unaspirated.
* Word-initial voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects.
* Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of [[American English]])&mdash;examples: ''tap'' [{{IPA|tʰæp̚}}], ''sack'' [{{IPA|sæk̚}}].
* Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of [[American English]])&mdash;examples: ''sad'' [{{IPA|sæd̥}}], ''bag'' [{{IPA|bæɡ̊}}]. In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.
===See also===
[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
==Supra-segmental Features==
===Tone groups===
English is an [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation language]]. This means that the [[pitch (music)|pitch]] of the [[human voice|voice]] is used [[Syntax|syntactically]], for example, to convey [[surprise]] and [[irony]], or to change a [[statement]] into a [[question]].
In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called [[tone group]]s, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. The structure of tone groups can have a crucial impact on the meaning of what is said. For example:
:-{{IPA|/duː juː niːd ˈɛnɪˌθɪŋ/ ''Do you need anything?''}}
:-{{IPA|<nowiki>/aɪ dəʊnt | nəʊ/ ''I don't, no''</nowiki>}}
:-{{IPA|/aɪ dəʊnt nəʊ/ ''I don't know''}}
===Characteristics of intonation (stress accent)===
English is a ''stress times language'', i.e., certain syllables in each multi-syllablic word get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be ''accentuated/stressed'' and the latter are ''unaccentuated/unstressed''. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ˈ ) sign either before (as in [[IPA]], [[Oxford]] [[dictionary]]) or after (as in [[Webster's dictionary]]) the syllable where the stress accent falls. In general, for a two-syllable word in English, it can be broadly said that if it is a noun or an adjective, the first syllable is accentuated; but if it is a verb, the second syllable is accentuated.
Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example:
:''That | was | the | <u>'''best'''</u> | thing | you | could | have | '''done'''!''
Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words "best" and "done", which are stressed. "Best" is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable.
The nuclear syllable carries the main point the speaker wishes to make. For example:
:'''''John''' had stolen that money''. (... not I)
:''John '''had''' stolen that money''. (... you said he hadn't)
:''John had '''stolen''' that money''. (... he wasn't given it)
:''John had stolen '''that''' money''. (... not this money)
:''John had stolen that '''money'''''. (... not something else)
The nuclear syllable is spoken louder than all the others and has a characteristic '''change of pitch'''. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the '''rising pitch''' and the '''falling pitch''', although the '''fall-rising pitch''' and/or the '''rise-falling pitch''' are sometimes used. For example:
:''When do you want to be paid?''
:''Nów?'' (rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: can I be paid now?)
:''Nòw'' (falling pitch. In this case, it denotes a statement: I choose to be paid now)
==Grammar==
{{main|English grammar}}
English grammar displays minimal [[inflected language|inflection]] compared with some other [[Indo-European]] languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern [[German language|German]] or [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and the [[Romance languages]], lacks [[grammatical gender]] and [[agreement (grammar)|adjectival agreement]]. [[case (grammar)|Case]] marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in [[pronoun]]s. The patterning of [[strong verbs|strong]] (eg. ''speak/spoke/spoken'') versus [[weak verbs|weak]] verbs inherited from Germanic has declined in importance and the remnants of inflection (such as [[plural]] marking) have become more regular.
At the same time as inflection has declined in importance in English, the language has developed a greater reliance on features such as [[modal verb]]s and [[word order]] to convey grammatical information. [[Auxiliary verb]]s are used to mark constructions such as questions, negatives, the [[passive voice]] and progressive [[tense]]s.
==Vocabulary==
Almost without exception, Germanic words (which include all the basics such as [[pronoun]]s and [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]s) are shorter and more informal. Latinate words are regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive use of Latinate words is often mistaken for either pretentiousness (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of "apprehending the suspect") or [[obfuscation]] (as in a military document which says "neutralise" when it means "kill"). [[George Orwell]]'s [[essay]] "[[Politics and th |
qualities to do well in society.
He was naturally gregarious and egoistic enough to relish attention and admiration. At a time when people devised their own amusements and singing and recitation were required social skills, the young Dodgson was well-equipped as an engaging entertainer. He could sing tolerably well and was not afraid to do so in front of an audience. He was adept at mimicry and story-telling. He was reputedly quite good at [[charades]].
There are brief hints at a soaring sense of the spiritual and the divine; small moments that reveal a rich and intensely lived inner life. 'That is a wild and beautiful bit of poetry, the song of "call the cattle home",' he suddenly observed, in the midst of an analysis of [[Charles Kingsley]]'s novel ''[[Alton Locke]]'':
<blockquote>''I remember hearing it sung at Albrighton: I wonder if any one there could have entered into the spirit of Alton Locke. I think not. I think the character of most that I meet is merely refined animal... How few seem to care for the only subjects of real interest in life.''</blockquote>
He was also quite socially ambitious, anxious to make his mark on the world in some way, as a writer, or as an artist. It was perhaps the realisation that his talent as an artist was not sufficient that he eventually turned to photography. His scholastic career was seen as something of a stop-gap to other more exciting attainments that he desired. Although he is known to have a great number of friends among his cooleagues at Oxford University, in London, he also enjoyed the company of children. The three Lidell girls were special favorites. His favorite Alice was the inspiration for Alice in "Alice in Wonderland."
In the interim between his early published writing and the success of ''Alice'', he began to move in the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] social circle. He first met [[John Ruskin]] in [[1857]] and became friendly with him. Dodgson developed a close relationship with the [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and his family, and also knew [[William Holman Hunt]], [[John Everett Millais]] and [[Arthur Hughes (artist)|Arthur Hughes]] among other artists. He also knew the fairy-tale author [[George MacDonald]] well - it was the enthusiastic reception of "Alice" by the young MacDonald daughters that convinced him to submit the work for publication.
== Writing career ==
During his writing career, Carroll wrote [[poetry]] and [[short story|short stories]], sending them to various magazines and enjoying moderate success. Between [[1854]] and [[1856]], his work appeared in the national publications, ''The Comic Times'' and ''The Train'', as well as smaller magazines like the ''[[Whitby Gazette]]'' and the ''Oxford Critic''.
Most of his output was humorous, sometimes [[satire|satirical]]. But his standards and his ambitions were exacting. "I do not think I have yet written anything worthy of real publication (in which I do not include the ''Whitby Gazette'' or the ''Oxonian Advertiser''), but I do not despair of doing so some day," he wrote in July [[1855]]. Years before ''Alice'', he was thinking up ideas for children's books that would make money: 'Christmas book [that would] sell well... Practical hints for constructing Marionettes and a theatre'. The ideas got better as he got older, but his canny mind, with an eye to income, was always there.
In [[1856]] he published his first piece of work under the name that would make him famous. A very predictable little romantic poem called "Solitude" appeared in ''The Train'' under the authorship of 'Lewis Carroll'. This pseudonym was a play on his real name, ''Lewis'' being the anglicised form of ''Ludovicus'', which was the Latin for ''Lutwidge'', and ''Carroll'' being an [[anglicise]]d version of ''Carolus'', the Latin for ''Charles''.
[[Image:GodstowNunneryRuin20050326 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|300px|The ruin of Godstow Nunnery.]]
In the same year, a new Dean, [[Henry Liddell]], arrived at Christ Church, bringing with him a young wife and children, all of whom would figure largely in Dodgson's life over the following years. He became close friends with the mother and the children, particularly the three sisters Lorina, Edith and [[Alice Liddell|Alice]] from whom it is often said he may have derived his own "Alice", a suggestion backed up by the acrostic of Alice's full name that appears at the end of Through the Looking Glass, though Dodgson himself later denied his 'little heroine' was based on any real child. It seems there became something of a tradition of his taking the girls out on the river for picnics at [[Godstow]] or [[Nuneham]].
It was on one such expedition, in [[1862]], that Dodgson invented the outline of the story that eventually became his first and largest commercial success &mdash; the first Alice book. Having told the story and been begged by Alice Liddell to write it down, Dodgson eventually presented [[Alexandra Kitchin]] ("Xie"), daughter of the Dean of Durham, with a hand-written, illustrated manuscript entitled ''Alice's Adventures Under Ground'', dated 1887. Later he took the little book to Macmillan the publisher, who liked it immediately. After the possible alternative titles ''Alice Among the Fairies'' and ''Alice's Golden Hour'' were rejected, the work was finally published as ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' in [[1865]] under the Lewis Carroll pen-name Dodgson had first used some nine years earlier. The illustrations this time were by Sir John Tenniel; Dodgson evidently realised that a published book would need the skills of a professional artist. The first edition copy of ''Alice's Adventures Under Ground'', now highly sought after by literary collectors, changed hands to a private collector on Thursday 26th January, 2006. It was sold at Christie's for a staggering £4,800 by the Duke of Gloucester, its previous owner, to pay for his father's death duties (The Sunderland Echo, 28th January, 2006).
With the immediate, phenomenal success of Alice, the story of the author's life becomes effectively divided in two: the continuing story of Dodgson's real life and the evolving myth surrounding "Lewis Carroll." Carroll quickly became a rich and detailed [[alter ego]], a persona as famous and deeply embedded in the popular psyche as the story he told. To him belongs a large part of the image of little girls and strange otherworldliness that we know from the author of ''Alice''.
It is undisputed that throughout his growing wealth and fame, he continued to teach at Christ Church until [[1881]], and that he remained in residence there until his death. He published ''[[Through_the_Looking-Glass|Through the Looking-Glass and what Alice Found There]]'' in [[1872]]; his great Joycean mock-epic ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'', in [[1876]] (inspired by and dedicated to his other great child-friend after Alice Liddell, [[Gertrude Chataway]]), and his last novel, the two-volume ''[[Sylvie and Bruno]]'', in [[1889]] and [[1893]] respectively.
He also published many mathematical papers and books under his own name.
===Other selected works===
*''An Elementary Treatise on Determinants''
*''Symbolic Logic''
* ''[[Euclid and his Modern Rivals]]''
* ''[[The Alphabet Cipher]]''
* ''[[What the Tortoise Said to Achilles]]''.
*''Hiawatha's Photographing'' (a [[parody]] of [[The Song of Hiawatha]])
==Drug use==
An allegation arose at some point that Carroll used the fungus [[ergot]], which is what [[LSD]] was eventually derived from. It can induce psychoactive experiences at large enough quantities, and was used as a medical treatment during the 19th century. While some artists and poets have been inspired by [[hallucinogenic drugs]], there is no factual evidence for the allegation that Carroll took psychoactive drugs.
However, Carroll was a fairly heavy [[cannabis]] smoker[http://www.politics.co.uk/issues/cannabis-$2073002.htm]. According to one source, he regularly bought [[hash oil]], which was legal at the time.
==Allegations of pedophilia==
Dodgson&#8217;s undeniable fondness for little girls, the sheer number of his child friends, his collection of the early child photographs by [[Oscar Rejlander]], his love of the London theatres before the child-actress reforms, and psychological readings of his work &mdash; especially his photographs of nude or semi-nude girls and his sketchbooks featuring his own drawings of such &mdash; have all led to speculation that he was a pedophile, albeit probably a celibate one.
The issue has been contentious, with some arguing that child nudes were not uncommon during the era. Other notable Victorian-era photographers who took images of nude children include [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] and [[Francis Meadow Sutcliffe]].
According to the 'controversial' investigation by [[Karoline Leach]] into what she calls the 'Carroll Myth' (see below), the first hints of allegations that Dodgson was a pedophile seem to have appeared in [[1932]], in ''[[The Life of Lewis Carroll]]'' by [[Langford Reed]]. According to Leach, Reed was the first to claim that all of Carroll's female friendships ended when the girls reached [[puberty]] (around 16 in [[1870s]] England), though Reed apparently only intended to suggest that Dodgson was thereby a pure man untainted by touch of lust for adult flesh. This claim that Dodgson lost interest in girls once they reached puberty was later caught up by other biographers, who remained unaware of the evidence to the contrary since Dodgson's family refused to publish his diaries and letters.
The view of Dodgson as having no adult life and being preoccupied with children persisted among his biographers, including [[Florence Becker Lennon]] (''[[Victoria Through the Looking-Glass]]'' - UK title "[[Lewis Carroll]]"), [[1945]]) and the highly influential [[Alexander Taylor]] (''[[The White Knight]]'', [[1952] |
", thus confirming ''F. silvestris'' for the wild cat and ''F. silvestris catus'' for its domesticated subspecies. (''F. catus'' is still valid if the domestic form is considered a separate species.)
[[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben]] named the domestic cat ''Felis domesticus'' in his ''Anfangsgründe der Naturlehre and Systema regni animalis'' of 1777. This name, and its variants ''Felis catus domesticus'' and ''Felis silvestris domesticus'', are often seen, but they are not valid scientific names under the rules of the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]].
==Varieties of domestic cat==
The [[list of cat breeds]] is quite large. Each breed has distinct features and heritage. The owners and breeders of show cats compete to see whose animal bears the closest resemblance to the "ideal" definition of the breed (see [[selective breeding]]). Due to common crossbreeding in populated areas, many cats are simply identified as belonging to the homogeneous breeds of [[domestic longhair cat|domestic longhair]] and [[domestic shorthair cat|domestic shorthair]], depending on their type of fur. In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]], non-purebred cats are referred in slang as [[moggy|moggies]] (also an archaic slang word for a [[prostitute]], probably referring to a female cat's promiscuous habits). In the [[United States of America|United States]], a non-purebred cat is sometimes referred to in slang as an alley cat, even if it is not a [[feral cat|stray]].
Cats come in a variety of [[color]]s and patterns. These are physical properties and should not be confused with a breed of cat.
[[Image:Greece-Cat.jpg|thumb|This [[Greece|Greek]] cat has light fur and green eyes.]]
Household cats are divided into:
*[[domestic longhaired cat|Domestic longhaired]]
*[[domestic shorthaired cat|Domestic shorthaired]]
; [[Cat coat genetics]] can produce a variety of coat patterns; some of the most common are:
; '''[[Bicolor cat]]''' : Also known as 'Tuxedo cat' or 'Jellicle cat' ([[tuxedo cat|tuxedo]]s are mostly black with white paws/legs, bellies, chests, and possible markings on face).
; '''[[Maltese cat]]''' : The former name for a blue (grey) cat.
; '''[[Oriental cat]]''' : (not a specific breed, but any cat with an elongated slender build, almond-shaped eyes, large ears and very short sleek fur).
; '''[[Tabby cat]]''' : Striped, with a variety of patterns. The classic "blotched tabby" pattern is the most common and consists of butterflies and bull's-eyes. The [[mackerel]] tabby is a series of vertical stripes down the cat's side (resembling the fish). This pattern broken into spots is referred to as spotted tabby. The worldwide evolution of the cat means that certain types of tabby are associated with certain countries; for instance, blotched tabbies are quite rare outside NW Europe, where they are the most common type.
[[Image:Cat_ML2.jpg|thumb|This [[Tortoiseshell cat|Calico]] cat has black-brown-white fur and green eyes.]]
; '''[[Tortoiseshell cat|Tortoiseshell and Calico]]''' : Featuring three colors mottled throughout the coat, this cat is also known as a Calimanco cat or Clouded Tiger cat, and by the nickname "tortie". A true tortoiseshell must consist of three kinds of color: a reddish color, dark or light; white; and one other color, typically a brown, black or blue, as described by American breeder Barbara French, writing for the Cat Fanciers community <ref>{{cite web | title=Torties, Calicos and Tricolor Cats | url=http://www.fanciers.com/cat-faqs/tricolors.shtml| accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>. Calico cats are white with distinct black and red (or blue and cream in the dilute variant) spots. The Japanese refer to this pattern as mi-ke (meaning "triple fur"). Both tortoiseshell and calico cats are typically female because the [[coat]] pattern is the result of differential [[X chromosome]] [[Lyonization|inactivation]] in [[females]] (which, as with all normal female [[mammals]], have two X [[chromosomes]]). Those male tortoiseshells that are created are usually sterile; conversely, cats where the overall color is ginger (orange) are commonly male. In a litter sired by a ginger tom, the females will be tortoiseshell or ginger. See "[http://www.messybeast.com/tricolours.htm Tortoiseshell and Tricolour Cats]" for an extensive genetic explanation for tricolor cats, and detailing the possible combinations of coloring.<ref>{{cite web | title=White Cats, Eye Colours and Deafness | url=http://www.messybeast.com/whitecat.htm | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>
[[Image:Filou5.jpg|thumb|right| A Bicolor cat (otherwise known as a Tuxedo cat).]]
==History and mythology==
''Main article [[History of cats]]''
Cats have been kept with humans since at least the days of [[Ancient Egypt]] through various cultures. In Ancient Egypt, the cat god, [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], is a goddess of the home and of the domestic cat, although she sometimes took on the war-like aspect of a lioness. Daughter of the sun god Ra, although sometimes regarded as the daughter of Amun. She was the wife of Ptah and mother of the lion-god Mihos. Her cult was centered on her sanctuary at Bubastis in the delta region, where a necropolis has been found containing mummified cats. Bast was also associated with the 'eye of Ra', acting as the instrument of the sun god's vengeance. She was depicted as a cat or in human form with the head of a cat, often holding the sacred rattle known as the sistrum.
==References==
<references/>
==See also==
* [[Felidae]]
* [[Big cat]]
* [[Cat body language]]
* [[Catnip]]
* [[Cat flap]]
* [[Cat Fanciers' Association]]
{{Wikibooks|How to choose your pet and take care of it}}
{{wiktionarypar|cat}}
{{wiktionarypar|kitty}}
{{wiktionarypar|meow}}
{{wikispecies|Felis silvestris catus|Cat}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Category:Felis silvestris catus}}
* [[Cats in Ancient Egypt]]
* [[Catfight]]
* [[Kitten]]
* [[List of historical cats]]
* [[List of fictional cats]]
* [[Polydactyl cat]] (extra toes)
* [[:Category:Cat types|Cat types]]
* [[:Category:Cat breeds|Cat breeds]]
==External links==
*[http://www.avidpets.com/new-cat.htm Introducing a new cat or kitten to your resident cat]
*[http://www.cat-guide.org/ Cat-Guide.org]
*[http://maxshouse.com/ Max's House] [http://maxshouse.com/Database_toc.htm Feline Medical & Behaviour Database] (large number of short articles)
*[http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/cats/3.html Australian Threat Abatement Plan for Predation by Feral Cats]
*[http://www.cute-cat.net/ Cats for Beginners]
*[http://www.wildlife.org/policy/index.cfm?tname=policystatements&statement=ps28 Feral cats] (The Wildlife Society)
*[http://www.napa.ufl.edu/2003news/feralcat.htm Feral cats] (University of Florida)
*[http://www.abcbirds.org/cats/states/florida_intro.htm American Bird Conservancy] (domestic cat predation)
*[http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/jan04/040115a.asp American Veterinary Medical Association] (large article on cat colonies)
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/nature_20030623.shtml Feral cats] (BBC)
*[http://www.animalsaustralia.org/default2.asp?idL1=1274&idL2=1311 Animals Australia]: Feral Cat bibliography
*{{citenews|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/06/science/06cats.html?ex=1294203600&en=4b75c4da1cdc2167&ei=5090|title=DNA Offers New Insight Concerning Cat Evolution|date=[[January 6]], [[2006]]|org=The New York Times}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Animals kept as pets]]
[[Category:Cats]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[als:Hauskatze]]
[[an:Gato]]
[[ar:قطة]]
[[ast:Gatu]]
[[bg:Котка]]
[[bm:Jakuma]]
[[bo:ཞི་མི་]]
[[br:Kazh]]
[[ca:Gat]]
[[chr:ᏪᏌ]]
[[cs:Kočka domácí]]
[[cy:Cath]]
[[da:Kat (Felis silvestris catus)]]
[[de:Hauskatze]]
[[eo:Kato]]
[[es:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[et:Kass]]
[[fi:Kesykissa]]
[[fr:Chat domestique]]
[[gl:Gato]]
[[he:חתול]]
[[hu:Macska]]
[[ia:Catto domestic]]
[[id:Kucing]]
[[io:Kato]]
[[is:Köttur]]
[[it:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[ja:ネコ]]
[[jv:Kucing]]
[[ko:고양이]]
[[la:Felis catus]]
[[lb:Hauskaz]]
[[lv:Kaķis]]
[[mg:Saka]]
[[ms:Kucing]]
[[nds:Katt]]
[[nl:Kat]]
[[no:Tamkatt]]
[[pl:Kot domowy]]
[[pt:Gato doméstico]]
[[ru:Кошка]]
[[simple:Cat]]
[[sk:Mačka domáca]]
[[sr:Мачка]]
[[sv:Katt]]
[[th:แมว]]
[[tr:Kedi]]
[[wa:Tchet]]
[[zh:猫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CLI</title>
<id>6679</id>
<revision>
<id>36376561</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T17:12:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ultramandk</username>
<id>469212</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+[[da:CLI]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Meanings of '''CLI''':
*[[Command line interface]] (computer interaction)
*[[Call Level Interface]] (an SQL database management API)
*[[Common Language Infrastructure]] (a Microsoft .NET Framework specification)
*[[CLI (x86 instruction)]]
*[[Composite Leading Indicator]]
*[[Caller Line Identification]] (caller ID, telephony network service)
*[[Celebrity Love Island]] (ITV reality TV show)
*[[Critical Language Institute]]
*[[Customer Loyalty Index]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:CLI]]
[[de:CLI]]
[[it:CLI]]
[[nl:CLI]]
[[ja:CLI]]
[[pl:CLI]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crank</title>
<id>6681</id>
<revision>
<id>31136295</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T02:19:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R7</username>
<id>109846</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|crank}}
'''Crank''' may refer to:
As a '''technical''' term:
* [[Crankshaft]], the part of a piston engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation
* [[Crankset]], the component of a bicycle drivetrain that converts the reciprocating motion of the rider's legs into rotational motion |
x Regius]]. Along with [[Prose Edda|Snorri's Edda]] the Poetic Edda is the most important source we have on [[Norse mythology]] and Germanic heroic legends.
Codex Regius was written in the [[13th century]] but nothing is known of its whereabouts until [[1643]] when it came into the possession of [[Brynjólfur Sveinsson]], then Bishop of [[Skálholt]]. At that time versions of [[Prose Edda|Snorri's Edda]] were well known in Iceland but scholars speculated that there once was another Edda - an '''Elder Edda''' - which contained the [[Nordic religion|pagan]] poems Snorri quotes in his book. When Codex Regius was discovered it seemed that this speculation had proven correct. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to [[Saemund|Sæmundr the Learned]], a larger-than-life [[12th century]] Icelandic priest. While this attribution is rejected by modern scholars the name '''Sæmundar Edda''' is still sometimes encountered.
Bishop Brynjólfur sent Codex Regius as a present to the Danish king, hence the name. For centuries it was stored in the [[Royal Library, Copenhagen|Royal Library]] in [[Copenhagen]] but in [[1971]] it was returned to Iceland.
==The Younger Edda==
{{main|Younger Edda}}
The Younger Edda, known also as the Prose Edda or Snorri's Edda is an [[Iceland|Icelandic]] manual of poetics which also contains many mythological stories. Its purpose was to enable [[Iceland]]ic poets and readers to understand the subtleties of [[alliterative verse]], and to grasp the meaning behind the many ''[[kenning]]s'' that were used in [[skaldic poetry]].
It was written by the Icelandic scholar and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]] around [[1220]]. It survives in seven main manuscripts, written from about 1300 to about 1600.
The Prose Edda consists of three distinct sections: the [[Gylfaginning]] (c 20 000 words), the [[Skáldskaparmál]] (c 50 000 words) and the [[Háttatal]] (c 20 000 words).
==External links==
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PT7234xE211/ The Elder Eddas and Younger Eddas], Eng. trans. by I. A. Blackwell, 1906 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PT7234xE211/1f/the_eddas.pdf layered PDF] format)''
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsIcelandic.htm Prose Edda in Old Norse]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsEnglish.htm Prose Edda in English]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/PoeticEdda/Index.htm#ice Poetic Edda in Old Norse]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/PoeticEdda/Index.htm#en Poetic Edda in English]
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Epics]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[cs:Edda]]
[[da:Edda digtene]]
[[de:Edda]]
[[el:Έντα]]
[[eo:Edda]]
[[fr:Eddas]]
[[es:Eddas]]
[[he:אדה]]
[[nl:Edda]]
[[pl:Edda]]
[[sv:Eddan]]
[[fi:Edda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ephemeris time</title>
<id>9994</id>
<revision>
<id>24539314</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-02T05:52:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: id</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ephemeris Time''' ('''ET''') is a now obsolete time scale used in [[ephemerides]] of celestial bodies, in particular the [[Sun]] (as observed from the [[Earth]]), [[Moon]], [[planet]]s, and other members of the [[solar system]]. This is distinct from [[Universal Time]] ('''UT'''): the time scale based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. ET was replaced with the two time scales [[Terrestrial Dynamical Time]] (TDT) and [[Barycentric Dynamical Time]] (TDB) by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) in [[1976]]&mdash;TDT was renamed [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT) in [[1991]].
In the late 19th century it was found that the rotation of the Earth (''i.e.'' the length of the [[day]]) was both irregular on short time scales, and was slowing down on longer time scales. In fact, observing the position of the Moon, Sun and planets and comparing this with their ephemerides was a better way to determine the time.
Using the ephemerides based on the theory of the apparent motion of the Sun by [[Simon Newcomb]] (1898), the [[SI]] [[second]] was defined in 1960 as:
:1 / 31556925.9747 part of the average length of the [[tropical year]] at the [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] [[J1900]].
[[Caesium]] [[atomic clocks]] became operational in [[1955]], and quickly made it evident that the rotation of the earth fluctuated randomly. This confirmed the utter unsuitability of the mean solar second of Universal Time as a measure of time interval. After three years of comparisons with lunar observations it was determined that the ephemeris second corresponded to 9192631770 cycles of the cesium resonance. In 1960 the length of the [[SI ]] second was defined to be equal to the ephemeris second until [[1984]].
As the theoretical basis for Ephemeris Time is wholly non-relativistic, in [[1976]] the IAU resolved that beginning in [[1984]] ET would be replaced by the two relativistic timescales[[ Barycentric Dynamical Time]] (TDB) and [[Terrestrial Dynamical Time]] (TDT). For practical purposes the length of the ephemeris second can be taken as equal to the length of the TDB or TDT second.
The difference between ET and UT is called [[Delta T|&Delta;T]]; it increases irregularly with about half a second per year. [[International Atomic Time]] (TAI) was set equal to [[Universal Time|UT2]] at 1 January 1958 0:00:00 . At that time, [[Delta T|&Delta;T]] was already about 32.18 seconds. The difference between ''[[Terrestrial Time]] (TT)'' (the successor to ephemeris time) and atomic time was later defined as follows:
:1977 January 1.0003725 TT = 1977 January 1.0000000 TAI, ''i.e.''
:ET - TAI = 32.184 seconds
This difference may be assumed constant, the rates of TT and TAI are designed to be identical.
=== References ===
* P.K.Seidelmann (ed.), ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac.'' University Science Books, CA, 1992 ; ISBN 0-935702-68-7
[[Category:Time scales]]
[[id:Waktu Ephemeris]]
[[ru:Эфемеридное время]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EastEnders</title>
<id>9995</id>
<revision>
<id>42104416</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:28:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Setting */ dab Prince Albert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = EastEnders
| image = [[Image:EastEnders_CM.gif|center|250px]]
| caption = The current opening title of ''EastEnders'' (introduced on [[5 September]] [[1999]]), which was originally developed by a series of pictures.
| format = [[Soap opera]]
| runtime = 30 [[minute|min]] per episode
| creator = [[Julia Smith]] & [[Tony Holland]]
| starring = ([[List of characters from EastEnders|Present cast]])</br>[[Derek Martin]] - [[Lacey Turner]] - [[Ricky Groves]] - [[Laila Morse]] - [[Kacey Ainsworth]] - [[Perry Fenwick]] - [[Wendy Richard]] - [[James Alexandrou]] - [[Natalie Cassidy]] - [[John Bardon]] - [[June Brown]] - [[Rudolph Walker]] - [[Angela Wynter]] - [[Joel Beckett]] - [[Gerry Cowper]] - [[Charlie G. Hawkins]] - [[David Spinx]] - [[Joe Swash]] - [[Shana Swash]] - [[Pam St Clement]] - [[Adam Woodyatt]] - [[Laurie Brett]] - [[Melissa Suffield]] - [[James Martin (actor)|James Martin]] - [[Mohammed George]] - [[Billy Murray (actor)| Billy Murray]] - [[Petra Letang]] - [[Ray Brooks]] - [[Barbara Windsor]] - [[Joseph Kpobie]] - [[Emma Barton]] - [[Cliff Parisi]] - [[Kara Tointon]] - [[Jade Sharif]] - [[Matt Di Angelo]] - [[Charlie Clements]] - [[Tom Ellis]] - [[Phil Daniels]] - [[Kellie Shirley]] - [[Dave Hill (actor)|Dave Hill]] - [[Nicky Henson]]
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| network = [[BBC One]]
| first_aired = [[19 February]] [[1985]]
| last_aired = Present
| num_episodes = 3111 (as of [[3 March]] [[2006]])
| imdb_id = 0088512
|}}
'''''EastEnders''''' is a popular [[BBC]] [[television]] [[soap opera]] which was first broadcast on [[19 February]] [[1985]]. It has been running ever since, generating strong viewing figures for much of that time, and has been the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s highest-rating programme on numerous occasions. Despite lengthy criticism of the show from the critics, in [[October 2005]] it won the prestgious [[National Television Award]] for most popular Serial Drama which ''EastEnders'' has won several consecutive times in the past ten years.
==Setting and characters==
===Setting===
''EastEnders'' is set in the fictional [[Walford|London Borough of Walford]], however the central focus of the show is that of the equally fictional Victorian square named [[Albert Square]].
The show's creators were both [[London]]ers, but when they researched Victorian Squares they found massive changes in areas they thought they knew well. However, delving further into the East End, they found exactly what they had been searching for. A real East End spirit — an inward looking quality, a distrust of strangers and authority figures, a sense of territory and community that the creators summed up as 'Hurt one of us and you hurt us all'. These themes that were found for the setting can still be found in a present day episode of ''EastEnders''.
[[Image:QueenVic_EE.gif|left|thumb|225px|The Queen Vic provides a central meeting point within the show's setting, thus most of the action happens here in view of the community.]]
It is thought that Albert Square was built around the early 20th century, indeed heavy research was done by the show's creators to support this. Firstly, the square is named Albert Square after [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]], the lat |
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'''Dysprosium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Dy''' and [[atomic number]] 66.
== Notable characteristics ==
Dysprosium is a [[rare earth]] element that has a metallic, bright silver luster, relatively stable in air at room temperature, but dissolving readily in dilute or concentrated [[mineral acid]]s with the emission of [[hydrogen]]. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife, and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's characteristics can be greatly affected even by small amounts of impurities.
== Applications ==
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with [[vanadium]] and other elements, for making [[laser]] materials; its high [[thermal neutron]] absorption cross-section and melting point also suggest using it for [[nuclear control rod]]s, dysprosium oxide (also known as ''dysprosia'') with [[nickel]] [[cement]] compounds which absorb neutrons readily without swelling or contracting under prolonged neutron bombardment, is being used for cooling rods in [[nuclear reactor]]s. Dysprosium-[[cadmium]] [[chalcogen|chalcogenide]]s are sources of [[infrared]] radiation for studying chemical reactions; furthermore, dysprosium is used for manufacturing [[compact disc]]s.
== History ==
Dysprosium was first identified in [[Paris]] in [[1886]] by [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]; however, the element itself was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of [[ion exchange]] and [[metallographic reduction]] techniques in the [[1950s]]. The name dysprosium is derived from [[Greece|Greek]] ''dysprositos'', "hard to get at".
== Occurrence ==
Dysprosium is never encountered as the free element, but is found in many [[mineral]]s, including [[xenotime]], [[fergusonite]], [[gadolinite]], [[euxenite]], [[polycrase]], [[blomstrandine]], [[monazite]] and [[bastnasite]], often with [[erbium]] and [[holmium]] or other rare earth elements.
== Compounds ==
Nearly all dysprosium compounds are in the +3 oxidation state, and are highly [[paramagnetic]]. Dysprosium compounds include:
* [[Fluoride]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) fluoride|DyF<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Chloride]]s
** [[dysprosium(II) chloride|DyCl<sub>2</sub>]]
** [[dysprosium(III) chloride|DyCl<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Bromide]]s
** [[dysprosium(II) bromide|DyBr<sub>2</sub>]]
** [[dysprosium(III) bromide|DyBr<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Iodide]]s
** [[dysprosium(II) iodide|DyI<sub>2</sub>]]
** [[dysprosium(III) iodide|DyI<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Oxide]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) oxide|Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Sulfide]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) sulphide|Dy<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Nitride]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) nitride|DyN]]
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 stable [[isotope]]s, 156-Dy, 158-Dy, 160-Dy, 161-Dy, 162-Dy, 163-Dy and 164-Dy, with 164-Dy being the most abundant (28.18% [[natural abundance]]). 28 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, with the most stable being 154-Dy with a [[half-life]] of 3.0E+6 years, 159-Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days, and 166-Dy with a half-life of 81.6 hours. All of the remaining [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 5 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being 165m-Dy (t<sub>½</sub> 1.257 minutes), 147m-Dy (t<sub>½</sub> 55.7 seconds) and 145m-Dy (t<sub>½</sub> 13.6 seconds).
The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, 164-Dy, is [[electron capture]], and the primary mode after is [[beta minus decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before 164-Dy are [[terbium]] isotopes, and the primary products after are [[holmium]] isotopes.
== Precautions ==
As with the other lanthanides, dysprosium compounds are of low to moderate [[toxicity]], although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Dysprosium does not have any known biological properties.
== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/66.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Dysprosium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Dysprosium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Dy/key.html WebElements.com &ndash; Dysprosium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele066.html It's Elemental &ndash; Dysprosium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]
[[ca:Disprosi]]
[[cs:Dysprosium]]
[[de:Dysprosium]]
[[et:Düsproosium]]
[[el:Δυσπρόσιο]]
[[es:Disprosio]]
[[eo:Disprozio]]
[[fr:Dysprosium]]
[[ko:디스프로슘]]
[[io:Disprozio]]
[[it:Disprosio]]
[[he:דיספרוסיום]]
[[lt:Disprozis]]
[[hu:Diszprózium]]
[[nl:Dysprosium]]
[[ja:ジスプロシウム]]
[[nn:Dysprosium]]
[[pl:Dysproz]]
[[pt:Disprósio]]
[[ru:Диспрозий]]
[[sl:Disprozij]]
[[sr:Диспрозијум]]
[[fi:Dysprosium]]
[[sv:Dysprosium]]
[[th:ดิสโพรเซียม]]
[[uk:Диспрозій]]
[[zh:镝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deforestation</title>
<id>8103</id>
<revision>
<id>41810739</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:22:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bucephalus</username>
<id>136897</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert further vandalism by [[user:168.212.80.1|168.212.80.1]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Deforestation''' is the conversion of [[forest]]ed areas to non-forested. Historically, this meant conversion to grassland or to its artificial counterpart, grainfields; however, the [[Industrial Revolution]] added [[urbanization]] and technological uses. Generally this removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced [[biodiversity]]. In developing countries, massive deforestation is a leading cause of environmental degradation. The forest is an enormously valuable resource and the loss, or degradation of the forest can cause severe and irreparable damage to wildlife habitat, and to other economic and ecological services the forest provides. Historically deforestation has accompanied mankind's progress since the [[Neolithic]], and has shaped [[climate]] and [[geography]].
[[Image:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Orbital photograph of human deforestation in progress in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia. Photograph courtesy NASA.]]
Deforestation (whether deliberate or unintended) is the result of the removal of trees without sufficient [[Secondary forest|reforestation]]. There are many causes, ranging from extremely slow forest [[land degradation|degradation]] to sudden and catastrophic [[wildfire]]s. Deforestation can be the result of the deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or [[Urbanization|urban]] development, or it can be an unintentional consequence of uncontrolled [[grazing]] (which can prevent the natural regeneration of young [[tree]]s). The combined effect of grazing and fires can be a major cause of deforestation in dry areas. In addition to the direct effects brought about by forest removal, indirect effects caused by [[edge effect]]s and [[habitat fragmentation]] can greatly magnify the effects of deforestation.
While [[tropical rainforest]] deforestation has attracted most attention, [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]] are being lost at a su |
:Djibouti]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Djibouti]]
[[fr:Transport à Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Djibouti</title>
<id>8048</id>
<revision>
<id>31800963</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T02:24:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.74.66.158</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#8888ff
| age=15-49
| availability=106,287 (2000 est.)
| service=62,496 (2000 est.)
| reaching age=
| active=
| amount=$23 million (FY97)
| percent GDP=4.5% (FY97)
}}
[[Djibouti]]'s [[military]] consists of the [[Djibouti National Army]] (includes Navy and Air Force).
{{Africa-stub}}
{{mil-stub}}
[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:Militaries|Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Djibouti</title>
<id>8049</id>
<revision>
<id>27958331</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T21:23:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username>
<id>397664</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>4 &<name>; → Unicode</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Djibouti]]'s military and economic agreements with [[France]] provide continued security and economic assistance. Links with Arab states and East Asian states, [[Japan]] and [[People's Republic of China]] in particular, also are welcome. Djibouti is a member of the [[Arab League]], as well as the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), and the [[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD). After the terror attacks of [[September 11]], [[2001]], Djibouti joined the Global War on Terror, and now hosts a large military camp, home to soldiers from many countries, but primarily the U.S. The U.S. and Djibouti have forged strong ties in recent years. Foreign Aid from the U.S. plays the lead role in Djibouti's economy.
Djibouti is greatly affected by events in [[Somalia]] and [[Ethiopia]], and therefore relations are important and, at times, very delicate. The fall of the [[Siad Barre]] and [[Mengistu]] governments in Somalia and Ethiopia, respectively, in 1991, caused Djibouti to face national security threats due to the instability in the neighboring states and a massive influx of refugees estimated at 100,000 from Somalia and Ethiopia. In 2000, after 3 years of insufficient rain, 50,000 drought victims entered Djibouti. In 1996 a revitalized organization of seven East African states, the [[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD), established its secretariat in Djibouti. IGAD’s mandate is for regional cooperation and economic integration. In 1991 and 2000, Djibouti played a key role in the search for peace in Somalia by hosting Somali Reconciliation Conferences. In the summer of 2000, Djibouti hosted the Arta Conference which brought together various Somali clans and warlords. Djibouti's efforts to promote reconciliation in Somalia led to the establishment of the [[Transitional National Government]] (TNG) in Somalia. Djibouti hopes the TNG can form the basis for bringing peace and stability to Somalia.
With the Ethiopia-Eritrea war of 2000, Ethiopia channeled most of its trade through Djibouti. Though Djibouti is nominally neutral, it broke off relations with Eritrea in November 1998, renewing relations in 2000. Eritrea's President Isaias visited Djibouti in early 2001 and President [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] made a reciprocal visit to Asmara in the early summer of 2001. While Djibouti’s President Ismail Omar Guelleh has close ties with Ethiopia’s ruling [[Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF), he has tried to maintain an even hand, developing relations with [[Eritrea]].
Djibouti has been the host country for [[Military of France|French]] military units since independence. In [[2002]], [[Military of the United States|United States]] units began operations from Djibouti with the aim of countering the possible threat of Islamic terrorism in the [[Horn of Africa]].
[[Somalia]] has in the past claimed the areas of Djibouti inhabited by [[Somali]]s as part of the [[Greater Somalia]] idea.
[[category:djibouti]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Djibouti, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dominica</title>
<id>8050</id>
<revision>
<id>41524129</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:00:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.211.50.10</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Dominica infobox}}
The '''Commonwealth of Dominica,''' popularly known as '''Dominica''', is an [[island nation]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]]. It should not be confused with the [[Dominican Republic]], another Caribbean nation.
The name is pronounced [[IPA chart for English|IPA]]: {{IPA|/&#716;d&#594;.m&#618;n&#712;i&#720;.k&#601;/}} ("do-min-EE-ka"). In [[Latin]] the name means "Sunday", which was the day of its 'discovery' by Europeans (i.e. Columbus).
Dominica's [[pre-Columbian]] name is ''Wai'tu kubuli'', which means "Tall is her body." The Kalinago (Indigenous) people of the island, somewhat erroneously called 'Caribs', have a territory which resembles the 'Indian' reserves of Canada. Because it lies between two overseas [[départements]] (territories) of [[France]], [[Guadeloupe]] to the north and [[Martinique]] to the south, and due to a considerable historical influence from France, the island is sometimes called "French Dominica." The island is also nicknamed "''The Nature Isle of the Caribbean''" due to its seemingly unspoiled natural beauty.
Dominica is a lush island of mountainous [[rainforests]], home of many rare plant, animal and bird species. The Sisserou parrot is featured on the Dominica flag. The isle of Dominica is one of the youngest islands in the [[Lesser Antilles]], and it is still being formed by [[Geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]-[[volcano|volcanic]] activity. Dominica's economy is heavily dependent on both tourism and agriculture.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Dominica]]''
Dominica was first sighted by Europeans, including [[Christopher Columbus]], in [[1493]]. They encountered the [[indigenous]] peoples known as the [[Carib]]s, but soon left the island after being defeated by the Caribs. In [[1627]] [[Kingdom of England|England]] also tried and failed to capture Dominica. In [[1635]] the French claimed the island and sent missionaries, but were unable to wrench Dominica from the Caribs. They abandoned the island, along with the island of [[Saint Vincent_(island)|Saint Vincent]], in the [[1660]]s.
For the next hundred years Dominica remained isolated, and even more Caribs settled there after being driven from surrounding islands as [[European]] powers entered the region. [[France]] formally ceded possession of Dominica to the United Kingdom in [[1763]]. The United Kingdom then set up a government and made the island a colony in [[1805]]. The emancipation of African slaves occurred throughout the British Empire in [[1834]], and, by [[1838]], Dominica became the first British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature. In [[1896]], the United Kingdom re-took governmental control of Dominica and turned it into a [[crown colony]]. Half a century later, from [[1958]] to [[1962]], Dominica became a province of the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]]. In [[1978]] Dominica finally became an independent nation. Dominica's fortunes improved in [[1980]] when its corrupt and tyrannical administration was replaced by that of [[Mary Eugenia Charles]], the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who remained in office for 15 years.
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Dominica]]''
Dominica is a [[parliamentary democracy]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The President is [[head of state]], while executive power rests with the [[Cabinet]], headed by the [[Prime Minister]]. The [[unicameral]] [[parliament]] consists of the 30-member House of Assembly, which consists of twenty-one directly elected members and nine Senators, who may either be appointed by the President or elected by the other members of the House.
Unlike other former British colonies in the region, Dominica was never a [[Commonwealth realm]] with the [[British monarch]] as [[head of state]], as it instead became a [[republic]] on independence.
Dominica is a full and participating member of the [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]] and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS).
==Parishes==
''Main article: [[Parishes of Dominica]]''
Dominica is divided into ten parishes, each named after a [[saint]].
The parishes are: St. Luke, St. Mark, St. George, St. Paul, St. St Joseph, St. Peter,
St. Andrew, St. David, St. Patrick, St. John.
==Geography==
[[Image:Do-map.gif|thumb|280px|Map of Dominica]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Dominica]]''
Dominica is an [[island nation]] and [[borderless country]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]]. The size of the country is about 751 square kilometers (290 square miles). The capital is [[Roseau]].
Dominica is largely covered by [[rainforest]] and is home to the world's second-largest [[boiling lake]]. Dominica also has many waterfalls, springs and rivers. Some plants and animals thought to be extinct on surrounding islands can still be found in Dominica's forests. The volcanic nature of the island and the lack of sandy beaches have made Dominica a popular [[scuba diving]] spot.
The Commonwealth of Dominica is engaged in a long-running dispute with [[Venezuela]] over Venezuela's territorial claims to the sea surrounding [[Isla Aves]] (Bird Island), a tiny islet located 110 km (70 miles) west of the island of Dominica.
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Dominica}}
The Dominican economy is dependent on both [[tourism]] and [[agriculture]]. Forty percent of Dominican workers are in the [[agri |
it. <ref>"<cite>The British Environment Agency estimates Brits discard 61 to 100 million condoms per year, many of which end up in rivers, the sea and on beaches.</cite>" "<cite>Many animals confuse trash for food and try to eat it.</cite>" [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1594/is_2_14/ai_98469962 Ask E - The environmental magazine]</ref>
Polyethylene condoms aren't biodegradable, and there have been no studies to determine if lubricated condoms take longer to biodegrade than non-lubricated ones, but it is believed that that their landfill mass is negligible. <ref>"<cite>Unfortunately, condoms made of polyurethane, a plastic material, do not break down at all.</cite>" [http://www.goaskalice-cms.org/scripts/printerfriendly.cfm?questionid=2311 Go ask Alice - Environmentally-friendly condom disposal]</ref>
==Other uses for condoms==
Condoms have been used to waterproof boxes of matches and kindling, often by hikers and campers.
In [[WWII]], the [[Vietnam War]] and more recently the [[Gulf War]], the U.S. military instructed its soldiers to place a condom around the muzzle of the rifle barrel in order to prevent moisture, sand, rain, etc. from fouling the weapon without hindering a bullet in case of firing.
The British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] (and probably other [[Special Forces]] units) carry condoms as a method for carrying water in survival situations (rather than for day-to-day use).
Condoms have also been used in many cases to smuggle [[cocaine]] across borders <ref>"<cite>A 41 year old man has been remanded in custody after being stopped on Saturday by customs officials at the Norwegian border at Svinesund. He had a kilo of cocaine in his stomach.</cite>" [http://www.thelocal.se/article.php?ID=2671&date=20051212 Smuggler hospitalised as cocaine condom bursts]</ref>.
In his book entitled ''Last Chance to See'', [[Douglas Adams]] reported having used a condom to protect a microphone he used to make an underwater recording. According to one of his travelling companions, this is standard [[BBC]] practice for when a waterproof microphone is needed but cannot be procured.
==See also==
* [[Safe sex]]
* [[Durex]]
* [[LifeStyles]]
* [[Trojan Condoms]]
* ''[[State of Louisiana v. Frisard]]''
* [[Male oral contraceptive]]
* [[Something for the weekend]]
==References==
<references/>
* Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 2005. <cite>[[Our Bodies, Ourselves]]: A New Edition for a New Era</cite>. New York: Touchstone.
* MacPhail, Catherine and Campbell, Catherine (2001 Jun). “I think condoms are good but, aai, I hate those things: condom use among adolescents and young people in a Southern African township.” Social Science and Medicine, 2001, 52, 11, 1613–1627
* Kulczycki, Andrzej. "The Sociocultural context of condom use within marriage in rural Lebanon. Studies in Family Planning 35.4 (Dec 2004): 246(15).
* Crossley, Michele L. (2004). "Making sense of 'barebacking': Gay men's Narratives, unsafe sex and the 'resistance habitus'. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 225–244.
* Watt, Emily (2005 April 24). "Older Adults Shy Away From Safe Sex Advice". The Sunday Star-Times (Auckland, New Zealand).
* Semple, S.J., Patterson, T.L., & Grant, I. (2004). Determinants of condom use stage of change among heterosexually-identified methamphetamine users. AIDS & Behavior, 8 (4), 391–400.
==External links==
*[http://www.plannedparenthood.org Planned Parenthood of America] — Provides information and training for all forms of birth control from their website and locations across the U.S.
*[http://www.fhi.org/en/topics/condoms Condom Research from FHI] — Family Health International's topic page on condoms.
*[http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts/condoms.htm Fact sheet on condoms and sexually transmitted diseases] — from the US Center for Disease Control.
*[http://www.gayhealth.com/templates/1088461167278587978798/news?record=930&trycookie=1 Spotlight: How to Choose and Use Condoms] — directed at gay men, but contains advice applicable to all.
*[http://preservatif.maisonx.com/index.htm Condom use] — in French, but with many pictures.
*[http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=549&head=Condoms%2B%96%2BAn%2BOverview] — History and production.
*[http://www.contraceptiononline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=male+condom&dpg=4 Information about polyurethane condoms] - [[Baylor College of Medicine]]
[[Category:Barrier contraception]]
[[Category:Sexual health]]
[[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:Penis]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[cs:Kondom]]
[[da:Kondom]]
[[de:Kondom]]
[[es:Preservativo]]
[[eo:Kondomo]]
[[fa:کاندوم]]
[[fr:Préservatif]]
[[ko:콘돔]]
[[id:Kondom]]
[[it:Profilattico]]
[[he:קונדום]]
[[lt:Prezervatyvas]]
[[ln:Ekopekisa]]
[[mk:Кондом]]
[[ms:Kondom]]
[[nl:Condoom]]
[[ja:コンドーム]]
[[no:Kondom]]
[[pl:Prezerwatywa]]
[[pt:Preservativo]]
[[ru:Презерватив]]
[[simple:Condom]]
[[fi:Kondomi]]
[[sv:Kondom]]
[[vi:Bao cao su]]
[[zh:避孕套]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Country code</title>
<id>5375</id>
<revision>
<id>40569031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T14:25:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.70.120.119</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other country codes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the rules of behaviour in the [[United Kingdom|British]] countryside|The Country Code}}
'''Country codes''' are short alphabetic or numeric [[geography|geographical]] [[code]]s ([[geocode]]s) developed to represent countries and dependent areas, for use in data processing and communications. Several different systems have been developed to do this. The most famous of these is [[ISO 3166-1]].
==Lists of country codes by country==
[[Country codes: A|A]] -
[[Country codes: B|B]] -
[[Country codes: C|C]] -
[[Country codes: D-E|D-E]] -
[[Country codes: F|F]] -
[[Country codes: G|G]] -
[[Country codes: H-I|H-I]] -
[[Country codes: J-K|J-K]] -
[[Country codes: L|L]] -
[[Country codes: M|M]] -
[[Country codes: N|N]] -
[[Country codes: O-R|O-R]] -
[[Country codes: S|S]] -
[[Country codes: T|T]] -
[[Country codes: U-Z|U-Z]]
==ISO 3166-1==
''Main article: [[ISO 3166-1]]''
This standard defines for most of the countries and dependent areas in the world:
*a two letter ([[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]])
*a three-letter ([[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]]), and
*a three-digit numeric ([[ISO 3166-1 numeric]]) code.
The two-letter codes are used as the basis for some other codes or applications, e.g.
*for [[ISO 4217]] [[currency|currency codes]] and
*with deviations for country code [[top-level domain]] names (ccTLDs) on the Internet: [[list of Internet TLDs]].
For more applications see [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]].
==Other country codes==
*The [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) three letter codes used in sporting events: [[list of IOC country codes]]
*The Fédération Internationale de Football Association ([[FIFA]]) assigns a three-letter code (dubbed FIFA Trigramme) to each of its member and non-member countries: [[List of FIFA country codes]]
*The [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) used two-letter codes of its own: [[list of NATO country codes]]. They were largely borrowed from the FIPS 10-4 codes mentioned below. In [[2003]], the eighth edition of the Standardisation Agreement (STANAG) adopted the ISO 3166 three-letter codes with one exception (the code for Macedonia). With the ninth edition, NATO is transitioning to four- and six-letter codes based on ISO 3166 with a few exceptions and additions.
*The coding system for car [[license plate]]s under the 1949 and 1968 United Nations Road Traffic Conventions (distinguishing signs of vehicles in international traffic): [[List of international license plate codes]] [http://www.unece.org/trans/conventn/Distsigns_Sept2003.pdf]
*The [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] (FIPS) two letter codes used by the [[United States|US]] government and in the [[CIA World Factbook]]: [[list of FIPS country codes]], See also [[List of FIPS region codes]] for a set of 4-character region codes, also assigned by FIPS.
*The coding system for [[diplomatic license plates in the United States]], assigned by the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]].
*From the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU):
**the [[E.164]] international dialling codes: [[list of country calling codes]] with 1-3 digits,
**the [[IMSI|E.212]] [[mobile country codes]] (MCC), for mobile/wireless phone addresses,
**the first few characters of call signs of radio stations (maritime, aeronautical, [[amateur radio]], broadcasting, etc.) define the country: the [[ITU prefix]],
**[[ITU letter codes]] for member-countries,
**Three-digit codes used to identify countries in maritime mobile radio transmissions, known as [[maritime identification digits]]
*[[European Union]]:
**Before the [[Enlargement of the European Union|2004 EU enlargement]] the EU used the UN Road Traffic Conventions [[List of international license plate codes|license plate codes]]; since then, it uses [[ISO 3166-1]], with 2 exceptions: ''EL'' (not ''GR'') is used for [[Greece]], and ''UK'' (not ''GB'') is used for the [[United Kingdom]]. [http://publications.eu.int/code/en/en-cover.htm EU Interinstitutional style guide]
**The [[Nomenclature des unités territoriales statistiques]] (Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics, NUTS) of the [[European Union]], mostly focusing on subdivisions of the EU member states
*From the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO):
**[[aircraft registration|aircraft registration prefixes]],
**nationality letters for location indicators.
The developers of ISO 3166 intended that in time it would replace other coding systems in existence.
==Other codings==
The following can represent countries:
*The initial digits of Inter |
mp;ndash; [[1134]]), called '''the Battler''', was the [[Kings of Aragon|king of Aragón]] and [[Kings of Navarre|Navarre]] from [[1104]] until his death in [[1134]]. He was the second son of King [[Sancho I of Aragon|Sancho Ramírez]] and successor of his brother [[Peter I of Aragon|Peter I]]. Alfonso the Battler won his greatest successes in the middle [[Ebro]], where he expelled the Moors from [[Zaragoza]] in [[1118]] and took [[Egea]], [[Tudela]], [[Calatayud]], [[Borja]], [[Tarazona]], [[Daroca]], and [[Monreal del Campo]]. He died in September 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the [[Moors]] at the siege of [[Fraga]].
==Early life==
His earliest years were passed in the [[monastery]] of [[Siresa]], learning to read and write and the military arts by Lope Garcés the Pilgrim, who was repaid for his services by his former charge with the county of [[Pedrola]] when he came to the throne.
During his brother's reign, he participated in the taking of Huesca (the [[Battle of Alcoraz]], [[1096]]), which became the largest city in the kingdom and the new capital. He also joined [[El Cid]]'s expeditions in [[Valencia]]. His father gave him the lordships of [[Biel]], [[Luna]], [[Ardenes]], y [[Bailo]].
A series of fortunate deaths put Alfonso directly in line for the throne. His brother's children, Isabel and Peter (who married María Rodríguez, daughter of El Cid), died in [[1103]] and 1104 respectively.
==Reign==
===Marriage===
A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against Christian or Moor), he was married (when well over 30 years and a habitual bachelor) in [[1109]] to [[Urraca of Castile]], widow of [[Raymond of Burgundy]], a very dissolute and passionate woman. The marriage had been arranged by her father [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] in 1106 to unite the two chief Christian states against the [[Almoravides]], and to supply them with a capable military leader. But Urraca was tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Alfonso is reported to have said that a real soldier lives with men, not women. Husband and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and came to open war. Alfonso had the support of one section of the nobles who found their account in the confusion. Being a much better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories at [[Sepulveda]] and [[Fuente de la Culebra]], but his only trustworthy supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough to keep [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of Leon|León]] subjugated. The marriage of Alfonso and Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were third cousins, in [[1114]]. During his marriage, he had called himself "King and Emperor of Castile, Toledo, Aragón, Pamplona, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza" in recognition of his rights as Urraca's husband; of his inheritance of the lands of his father, including the kingdom of his great-uncle [[Gonzalo of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza|Gonzalo]]; and his prerogative to conquer [[Andalusia]] from the Moor. He inserted the title of ''imperator'' on the basis that he had three kingdoms under his rule.
===Church relations===
The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the [[Cistercian]]s, almost as violently as with his wife. As he beat her, so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the monks of [[Sahagún]]. He was finally compelled to give way in Castile and Leon to his stepson [[Alfonso_VII_of_Castile|Alfonso Raimúndez]], son of Urraca and her first husband. The intervention of [[Pope Calixtus II]] brought about an arrangement between the old man and his young namesake.
In [[1122]] in Belchite, he founded a confraternity of knighst to fight agains the Almoravids. It was the start of the military orders in Aragón. Years later, he organised a branch of the ''Militia Christi'' of the [[Holy Land]] at [[Monreal del Campo]].
===Reconquista===
Alfonso spent his first four years in near-constant war with the Moor. In [[1105]], he conquered Ejea and Tauste and refortified Castellar and Juslibol. In [[1106]], he defeated [[Ahmad II al-Musta'in]] of Zaragoza at Valtierra. In [[1107]], he took Tamarite de Litera and Esteban de la Litera. Then followed a period dominated by his relations with Castile and León through his wife, Urraca. He resumed his Reconquista in [[1117]] by conquering Fitero, Corella, Cintruénigo, Murchante, Monteagudo, and Cascante from Islam.
In [[1118]], the Council of Toulouse declared it a [[crusade]] to assist in the reconquest of [[Zaragoza]]. Many Frenchmen consequently joined Alfonso at [[Ayerbe]]. They took Almudévar, Gurrea de Gállego, and Zuera, besieging Zaragoza itself by the end of May. On [[18 December], it fell and the forces of Alfonso occupied the Azuda, the government tower. The great palace of the city was given to the monks of Bernard. Promptly, the city was made Alfonso's capital. Two years later, in [[1120]], he defeated a Moslem army intent on reconquering his new capital at [[Cutanda]]. He promulgated the ''fuero'' of ''tortum per tortum'', facilitating taking the law into one's own hands, and forced the Moslem population of the city (greater than 20,000) to move to the suburbs.
In [[1119]], he retook Cervera, Tudejen, Castellón, Tarazona, Ágreda, Magallón, Borja, Alagón, Novillas, Mallén, Rueda, Épila and repopulated the region of [[Soria]]. He began the siege of [[Calatayud]], but left to defeat the army at Cutanda trying to retake Zaragoza. When Calatayud fell, he took Bubierca, Alhama de Aragón, Ariza, and Daroca (1120). In [[1123]], he besieged and took [[Lérida]], which was in the hands of the [[count of Barcelona]]. From the winter of [[1124]] to September [[1125]], he was on a risky expedition to Peña Cadiella deep in Andalusia.
In the great raid of 1125, he carried away a large part of the subject Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, he had claims as usurper-king of Navarre. From 1125 to [[1126]], he was on campaign against [[Granada]], where he was trying to install a Christian prince, and [[Córdoba]], where got only as far as Motril. In [[1127]], he reconquered Longares, but simultaneously lost all his Castilian possessions to [[alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]]. He confirmed a treaty with Castile the next year ([[1128]]) at [[Támara]] which fixed the boundaries of the two realms.
He conquered Molina de Aragón and repopulated Monzón in [[1129]], before besieging [[Valencia]], which had falled again upon the Cid's death.
He went north of the Pyrenees in October [[1130]] to protect the [[Val d'Aran]]. Early in [[1131]], he besieged [[Bayonne]]. It is said he ruled "from Belorado to Pallars and from Bayonne to Monreal."
Three years before his death, he made a will leaving his kingdom to the [[Templars]], the [[Hospitallers]], and the Knights of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], which his subjects refused to carry out—instead bringing his brother Ramiro from the monastery to assume royal powers.
His final campaigns were against Mequinenza ([[1133]]) and Fraga (1134), where [[García VI of Navarre|García Ramírez]], the future king of Navarre, and a mere 500 other knights fought with him. It fell on [[17 July]]. He was dead by September. Alfonso was a fierce, violent man, a soldier and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. He has a great role in the Spanish reconquest.
==Death==
His testament was not honored: Aragon took his aged brother abbot-bishop Ramiro out of monastery and made him king; [[Navarrese]] regained independence and put Lord Garcia Ramirez of [[Monzon, Spain|Monzón]], son of his second cousin, to the throne in [[Pamplona]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Peter I of Aragon|Peter I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Aragonese monarchs|King of Aragon]]|years=[[1104]]&ndash;[[1134]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ramiro II of Aragon|Ramiro II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Navarrese monarchs|King of Navarre]]|years=[[1104]]&ndash;[[1134]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[García VI of Navarre|García VI]]}}
{{end}}
[[Category:Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:Navarrese monarchs]]
[[Category:1073 births|Alfonso I of Aragon]]
[[Category:1134 deaths|Alfonso I of Aragon]]
[[ca:Alfons I d'Aragó]]
[[de:Alfons I. (Aragón)]]
[[es:Alfonso I de Aragón]]
[[fr:Alphonse Ier d'Aragon]]
[[he:אלפונסו הראשון מלך אראגון]]
[[nl:Alfons I van Aragon]]
[[pl:Alfons I (król Aragonii)]]
[[pt:Afonso I de Aragão]]
[[zh:阿方索一世 (阿拉贡)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amaryllis</title>
<id>1680</id>
<revision>
<id>42083640</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:42:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.134.193.16</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>minus pictur of [[Hippeastrum]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Amaryllis''
| image = NakedLadies.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = "Naked Lady" flowers in the [[Sinkyone Wilderness State Park]], [[California]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Amaryllidaceae]]
| genus = ''Amaryllis''
| species = '''''A. belladonna'''''
| binomial = ''Amaryllis belladonna''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''''Amaryllis''''' is a monotypic [[genus]] of plant containing one species, the '''Belladonna Lily''' (''Amaryllis belladonna''), a native of [[South Africa]]. ['''Note:''' [[Hippeastrum]] is the flowering bulb commonly sold in November and December for blooming inside]
The Belladonna Lily is a [[bulb]] plant, with each bulb being 5-10 cm in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, dull green [[leaf|leaves]], 30-50 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, arranged in two rows. The leaves are produced in the autumn and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until lat |
attles.
===1990 to present===
[[Image:Austin_skyline.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Downtown high-rises, viewed from the west]]
In the 1990s, the boom resumed with the influx and growth of a large technology industry. Initially the technology industry was centered around larger, established companies such as [[IBM]], but in the late 1990s, Austin gained the additional reputation of being a center of the [[dot-com boom]] and subsequent [[dot-com bust]]. Austin is also known for [[game development]], [[filmmaking]], and [[popular music]].
In 2000, Austin became the center of an intense media focus as the headquarters of presidential candidate and Texas Governor [[George W. Bush]]. Interestingly, the headquarters of his main opponent, [[Al Gore]], were in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], thus re-creating the old country music rivalry between the two cities.
As Austin became known as a location for creative individuals, corporate retail branches also moved into town and displaced many 'home-grown' businesses. To many long-time Austinites, this loss of landmark retail establishments has left a void in the city's culture. In response, "[[Keep Austin Weird]]" became a popular rallying cry and many Austinites have reacted with renewed support of local businesses.
==Geography==
According to the 2000 [[United States Census Bureau]], Austin is located at 30&deg;18'01" North, 97&deg;44'50" West (30.300474, -97.747247){{GR|1}}. According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 669.3 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (258.4 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 651.4 km&sup2; (251.5 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 17.9 km&sup2; (6.9 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 2.67% water.
Austin is situated on the Colorado River, with three man-made (artificial) lakes wholly within the city limits: [[Town Lake]], [[Lake Austin]], and Lake Walter E. Long. Additionally, the foot of [[Lake Travis]], including [[Mansfield Dam]], is located within the city's limits. Town Lake, Lake Austin, and Lake Travis are all on the Colorado River. The city is also situated on the [[Balcones Fault]], which, in much of Austin, runs roughly the same route as the [[Texas State Highway Loop 1|MoPac Expressway]]. The eastern part of the city is flat, whereas the western part and western suburbs consist of scenic rolling hills on the edge of the [[Texas Hill Country]]. Because the hills to the west are primarily [[limestone]] rock with a thin covering of topsoil, the city is subjected to frequent [[flash flood]]ing from the excessive runoff caused by [[thunderstorm]]s. To help control this runoff and to generate [[hydroelectric power]], the [[Lower Colorado River Authority]] operates a series of [[dam]]s that form the [[Texas Highland Lakes]]. The lakes also provide venues for [[boating]], [[swimming]], and other forms of [[recreation]] within several [[park]]s located on the lake shores.
A popular point of prominence in Austin is [[Mount Bonnell]]. At about 780 feet above sea level, it is a natural limestone formation overlooking [[Lake Austin]] on the Colorado River, approximately 200 feet below its summit.
==Economy==
Thousands of graduates each year from the engineering and computer science programs at The University of Texas provide a steady source of young, talented and driven employees that help to fuel Austin's technology sector. The metro Austin area also has much lower housing costs than, for example, [[Silicon Valley]]. As a result of the relatively high concentration of high tech companies in the region, Austin was strongly affected by the [[dot-com]] boom in the late 1990s and subsequent bust, although recovery is proceeding rapidly.
Austin's biggest employers include the State of Texas, The University of Texas, the SETON Healthcare Network, [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[IBM]] and [[Freescale|Freescale Semiconductor]] (spun off from [[Motorola]] in 2004). Other high-tech companies in Austin include [[Apple Computer]], [[Vignette (software)|Vignette]], [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]], [[Intel]], [[Motive Inc]], [[Cirrus Logic]], [[Samsung]], [[National Instruments]], [[United Devices]] and [[Sun Microsystems]]. The proliferation of technology companies has led to the region's nickname, "the Silicon Hills," (Austin was originally "Silicon Gulch", but it seems that [[San Jose, California]] already has that distinction) and has spurred rapid development that has greatly expanded the city to the north and south.
Other globally well known companies, such as [[Hoover's, Inc.]], a business research and publishing company, are headquartered in the city.
==Government and politics==
{{seealso|List of current and former capital cities within U.S. states}}
===Law and government===
[[Image:Austin downtown.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Downtown Austin and the State Capitol as seen from the Congress Avenue Bridge over Town Lake]]
Austin is administered by a [[city council]] of seven members, each of them elected by the entire city, and by an elected [[mayor]] under the weak [[mayor-council government]] system of municipal governance. Council and mayoral elections are non-partisan, with a runoff in case there is no 50 percent majority winner. Austin remains an anomaly among large Texas cities in that the council is not elected by districts, though there has been a strong effort to change the election system to one of single districts.
===Politics===
The main political actors within Austin city politics are interest groups such as the pro-environmental [[Save Our Springs Alliance]], the [[Austin Police Association]], [[Austin Toll Party]] and the [[Austin Business Council]].
The political controversy that dominated the 1990s was the conflict between [[environmentalist]]s, strong in the city center, and advocates of urban growth, who tend to live in the outlying areas. The city council has in the past tried to mitigate the controversy by advocating [[smart growth]], but growth and environmental protection are still the main hot-button issues in city politics. Today conservatives in Austin argue that the cities various highway traffic problems are rooted in the denial of past highway/infrastructure development by political action committees who do not support highway expansion.
Austin is well known as a center for [[liberalism|liberal]] politics in a generally [[conservatism|conservative]] state, leading some Texas conservatives to deride the city as "The People's Republic of Austin." Austin's suburbs, especially to the west and north, and several satellite municipalities, however, tend toward political conservatism.
As a result of the major party realignment that began in the 1970's, central Austin became a stronghold of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] while the suburbs tend to vote [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]. To a limited degree the division between Democratic and Republican precincts coincides with the aforementioned divisions between supporters of environmental regulations and supporters of urban growth. One consequence of this is that in the most recent redistricting plan, formulated by the Republican-majority legislature, the central city has been split among multiple sprawling districts that do not conform to any unifying economic, geographic or cultural theme. Many political observers have characterized the resulting districting layout as [[gerrymander|gerrymandering]]. The plan was challenged in court by Democratic and minority activists, but was upheld by a three-judge federal panel in late 2003; in December 2005, the [[United States Supreme Court]] accepted an appeal of this decision for argument on [[1 March]] [[2006]]. [http://www.statesman.com/search/content/news/stories/local/12/13REDISTRICT.html]
Overall, the city leans Democratic; in the 2004 presidential election, Senator [[John Kerry]] won a substantial majority of the votes in Travis County as illustrated in this [http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/vote2004/countymap.htm pictorial of votes by-county]. Of Austin's six state legislative districts, three are strongly Democratic, one leans Republican, and two are swing districts presently held by Democrats. However, two of its three congressional districts are presently held by Republicans; this is largely due to the 2003 redistricting, which left Austin with no congressional seat of its own. Travis County was also the only county in Texas to reject [[Texas Constitutional Amendment Proposition 2]] &#8212; effectively outlawing gay marriage and status equal or similar to it &#8212; and did so by a wide margin (40% for, 60% against).
The combination of economic conservatism with social liberalism has also made Austin an active area for the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]. Although the Libertarians remain a third party, the party is very active in the Austin area, and one of the past Libertarian presidential candidates, [[Michael Badnarik]], comes from Austin. Republican congressman Ron Paul is from the Texas Gulf Coast and used to represent neighboring counties surrounding Travis County.
==Demographics==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Austin <br>Population by year'''
|-
|1950 || 132,459
|-
|1960 || 186,545
|-
|1970 || 251,808
|-
|1980 || 345,496
|-
|1990 || 465,622
|-
|2000 || 656,562
|-
|2004 || 681,804
|}
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there are 656,562 people, 265,649 households, and 141,590 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,007.9/km&sup2; (2,610.4/mi&sup2;). There are 276,842 housing units at an average density of 425.0/km&sup2; (1,100.7/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 65.36% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 10.05% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census |
nic Privacy Information Center]] [http://www.epic.org]. Often, spyware applications send the user's browsing habits to an adserving company, which then targets adverts at the user based on their interests. [[Kazaa]] and [[eXeem]] are popular programs which incorporate software of this type.
Adware programs other than spyware do not invisibly collect and upload this activity record
or personal information when the user of the computer has not expected
or approved of the transfer, but some vendors of adware maintain that their application which
does this is not also spyware, due to disclosure of program activities: for example, a
product vendor may indicate that since somewhere in the product's [[Terms of Use]] there is a clause
that third-party software will be included that may collect and may report on computer use, that
this Terms of Use disclosure means the product is just adware.
A number of software applications are available to help computer users search for and modify adware programs to block the presentation of advertisements and to remove spyware modules. To avoid a backlash, as with the advertising industry in general, creators of adware must balance their attempts to generate revenue with users' desire to be left alone.
==Well-known adware programs==
* [[123 Messenger]]
* [[180 Solutions]]
** [[180SearchAssistant]]
** [[Zango]]
* [[Bonzi Buddy]]
* [[ClipGenie]]
* [[Comet Cursor]]
* [[Cydoor]]
* [[Direct Revenue]]
** [[Aurora]]
* [[Ebates MoneyMaker]]
* [[Claria Corporation|Gator]]
* [[PornDigger!]]
* [[WinFixer]]
==External links==
* [http://www.vernalex.com/guides/malware/ Vernalex.com's Malware Removal Guide] - Guide for understanding, removing and preventing adware infections
* [http://www.spywarepoint.com/spyware/ Spyware Point Database] - Manual removal instructions for adware and spyware
* [http://www.phx-web.co.uk/forum/index.php?topic=21.0 Spyware / Adware Removal Tutorial] - Spyware / Adware Removal Tutorial
{{software distribution}}
[[Category:Adware|*]]
[[Category:Internet advertising and promotion]]
[[ar:Adware]]
[[da:Adware]]
[[de:Adware]]
[[es:Adware]]
[[fi:Mainosohjelma]]
[[fr:Adware]]
[[gl:Adware]]
[[he:תוכנת פרסום]]
[[it:Adware]]
[[ja:アドウェア]]
[[nl:Adware]]
[[no:Adware]]
[[pl:Adware]]
[[simple:Adware]]
[[sv:Adware]]
[[vi:Phần mềm quảng cáo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adam's Peak</title>
<id>2617</id>
<revision>
<id>35144263</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T13:35:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Imc</username>
<id>17145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Sri Pada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aeacus</title>
<id>2618</id>
<revision>
<id>40359992</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Aeacus''' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: '''Aiakos''', "bewailing" or "earth borne") was king in the island of [[Aegina]] in the [[Saronic Gulf]]. He was far-famed for the righteous sense of piety and justice with which he ruled over his people and his judgment was sought all over Hellas, so much so that, after his death, he was appointed one of the judges of the shades in [[Erebus]], with Cretan [[Minos]] and [[Rhadamanthus]]. Rhadamanthus judged the souls of easterners, Aeacus judged [[Hellenes]] and Minos had the deciding vote, a later elaboration of the myth tells.
Aeacus was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]], daughter of the river-god [[Asopus]]. Thus in his birthright he linked the Olympians with the immemorial [[chthonic]] water spirits of the land. His mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of [[Oenone]], which was afterwards called by her name.
When Aeacus' kingdom had a horrific plague, he prayed to his father Zeus for help. The king of the gods changed the local ants into people ([[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' vii. 520), who were called [[Myrmidones]]. Aeacus was the ancestor of the [[Aeacidae]].
By his wife [[Endeis]] he was the father of [[Telamon]] and [[Peleus]] (the father of [[Achilles]]). By [[Psamathe]], he fathered [[Phocus]].
His successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates, Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ii. 29). He himself erected a temple to [[Zeus]] and helped [[Poseidon]] and [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] to build the walls of [[Troy]].
No other of the archaic priest-kings who ruled Aegina are remembered by the mythographers, for the grandsons of Aeacus, Phocus' sons Panopeus and Crisus left Aegina to settle in [[Phocis]], a region bordering the Gulf of Corinth west of Boeotia.
[[Alexander the Great]] traced his ancestry (through his mother) to Aeacus.
In [[Masami Kurumada]]'s anime [[Saint Seiya]], Aeacus is one of the three Generals of the Underworld, and wears the surplice of Garuda, Celestial Superior Star.
==External links==
*[http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Aeacus.html Greek Mythology Link:] Aeacus
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[ast:Éacu]]
[[de:Aiakos]]
[[es:Éaco]]
[[fr:Éaque]]
[[hu:Aiakosz]]
[[it:Eaco]]
[[lt:Ajakas]]
[[nl:Aeacus]]
[[ja:アイアコス]]
[[no:Aeakus]]
[[fi:Aiakos]]
[[sv:Aiakos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aeclanum</title>
<id>2619</id>
<revision>
<id>35484439</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T02:11:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mlouns</username>
<id>327771</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Updated internal link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aeclanum''' was an ancient town of [[Samnium]], [[Italy]], 15 m. E.S.E. of [[Beneventum]], on the [[Via Appia]] (near the modern [[Mirabella Eclano]]).
It became the chief town of the [[Hirpini]] after [[Benevento|Beneventum]] had become a [[Rome|Roman]] [[colony]].
[[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] captured it in [[89 BC]] by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and new fortifications were erected.
[[Hadrian]], who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has ruins of the city walls, of an [[aqueduct (Roman)|aqueduct]], baths and an [[amphitheatre]]; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered.
Two different routes to [[Apulia]] diverged at this point, one (Via Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern [[Ariano]] to [[Herdoniae]], the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the [[Lacus Ampsanctus]] and going on to [[Aquilonia]] and [[Venusia]]; while the road from Aeclanum to [[Abellinum]] (mod. [[Avellino]]) may also follow an ancient line.
H. Nissen (''Italische Landeskunde,'' [[Berlin]], [[1902]], ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he believes to have been that followed by [[Horace]], from Aeclanum to [[Trevicum]] and thence to [[Ausculum]]; but Th. [[Mommsen]] (''Corpus Inscrip. Lat.,'' Berlin, [[1883]], ix. 602) is more likely to be right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of later date.
==External links==
*[http://spazioinwind.libero.it/popoli_antichi/altro/Aeclanum.html Aeclanum] (with photographs)
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Roman sites of Campania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aedesius</title>
<id>2620</id>
<revision>
<id>27959467</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T21:36:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aedesius ''' (died [[355]]), [[Neo-Platonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher, was born of a noble [[Cappadocia|Cappadocian]] family. He migrated to [[Syria]], attracted by the lectures of [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]], of whom he became a follower. According to [[Eunapius]], he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with [[theurgy]] and [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. He taught at [[Pergamum]], his chief disciples being [[Eusebius]] and Maximus. He seems to have modified his doctrines through fear of [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine]].
See [[Heinrich Ritter|Ritter]] and [[Ludwig Preller|Preller]], 552; Ritter's ''Geschichte der Philosophie''; T Whittaker, ''The Neoplatonists'' ([[Cambridge]], [[1901]]).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]
[[Category:355 deaths]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aedicula</title>
<id>2621</id>
<revision>
<id>40588271</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:34:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palica</username>
<id>188933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Roman religion]], an '''aedicula''' (pl. ''aediculae'') is a small [[shrine]]. The word ''aedicula'' is the [[diminutive]] of the [[Latin]] ''aedis'' or ''[[aedes (Roman)|aedes]]'', a temple or house; thus, an aedicula is literally a small house or [[temple]].
Many aediculae were household [[shrine]]s that held small [[altar]]s or [[statue]]s of the [[Lares]] and [[Penates]]. The Lares were [[Roman religion|Roman deities]] protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really [[genius (mythology)|genii]]) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house.
[[image:Ephesus_library-650px.jpg|thumb|250px|[[front]] of [[Celsus]]-Library with Aediculae]]
Other aediculae were small shri |
bstances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances. All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances.
==History==
Since its enactment in [[1970]], the Act has been amended several times:
*The [[Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)|Psychotropic Substances Act]] of [[1978]] added provisions implementing the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]].
* The [[Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984]].
*The [[Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act]] of [[1988]] added provisions implementing the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]].
*The [[Domestic Chemical Diversion and Control Act]] of [[1993]].
*The [[Federal Analog Act]].
{{section-stub}}
==International law==
The Congressional findings in ''21 U.S.C. § 801(7)'', ''21 U.S.C. § 801(a)(2)'', and ''21 U.S.C. § 801(a)(3)'' state that a major purpose of the CSA is to "enable the United States to meet all of its obligations" under international [[treaty|treaties]] - specifically, the [[1961]] [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] and the [[1971]] [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]][http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm]. The CSA bears many resemblances to these Conventions. Both the CSA and the treaties set out a system for classifying controlled substances in several Schedules in accordance with the binding scientific and medical findings of a public health authority.
Under ''[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/csa/811.htm 21 U.S.C. § 811]'' of the CSA, that authority is the [[Secretary of Health and Human Services]] (HHS). Under [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles.htm#3 Article 3] of the Single Convention and [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/articles.htm#2 Article 2] of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the [[World Health Organization]] is that authority.
''21 U.S.C. § 811(d)'' provides for automatic compliance with treaty obligations and establishes mechanisms for amending international drug control regulations to correspond with HHS findings on scientific and medical issues. If control of a substance is mandated by the Single Convention, the Attorney General is required to "issue an order controlling such drug under the schedule he deems most appropriate to carry out such obligations," without regard to the normal scheduling procedure or the findings of the HHS Secretary. However, the Secretary has great influence over any drug scheduling proposal under the Single Convention, because ''21 USC § 811(d)(2)(B)'' requires the Secretary the power to "evaluate the proposal and furnish a recommendation to the Secretary of State which shall be binding on the representative of the United States in discussions and negotiations relating to the proposal."
Similarly, if the UN [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] adds or transfers a substance to a Schedule established by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that current U.S. regulations on the drug do not meet the treaty's requirements, the Secretary is required to issue a recommendation on how the substance should be scheduled under the CSA. If the Secretary agrees with the Commission's scheduling decision, he can recommend that the Attorney General initiate proceedings to reschedule the drug accordingly. If the HHS Secretary disagrees with the UN controls, however, the Attorney General must temporarily place the drug in Schedule IV or V (whichever meets the minimum requirements of the treaty) and exclude the substance from any regulations not mandated by the treaty, while the Secretary is required to request that the [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] take action, through the Commission or the [[UN Economic and Social Council]], to remove the drug from international control or transfer it to a different Schedule under the Convention. The temporary scheduling expires as soon as control is no longer needed to meet international treaty obligations.
This provision was invoked in [[1984]] to place Rohypnol ([[flunitrazepam]]) in Schedule IV. The drug did not then meet the Controlled Substances Act's criteria for scheduling; however, control was required by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In [[1999]], an FDA official explained to Congress[http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html]:
:''Rohypnol is not approved or available for medical use in the United States, but it is temporarily controlled in Schedule IV pursuant to a treaty obligation under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. At the time flunitrazepam was placed temporarily in Schedule IV (November 5, 1984), there was no evidence of abuse or trafficking of the drug in the United States.''
The [[Cato Institute]]'s ''Handbook for Congress'' calls for repealing the CSA, an action that would likely bring the U.S. into conflict with [[international law]][http://www.cato.org/pubs/handbook/hb108/hb108-17.pdf]. The exception would be if the U.S. were to claim that the treaty obligations violate the [[United States Constitution]]. Many articles in these treaties - such as [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles_II.htm?#35 Article 35] and [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles_II.htm?#36 Article 36] of the Single Convention - are prefaced with phrases such as "Having due regard to their constitutional, legal and administrative systems, the Parties shall . . ." or "Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall . . ." According to former [[United Nations Drug Control Programme]] Chief of Demand Reduction [[Cindy Fazey]], "This has been used by the USA not to implement part of article 3 of the 1988 Convention, which prevents inciting others to use narcotic or psychotropic drugs, on the basis that this would be in contravention of their constitutional amendment guaranteeing freedom of speech"[http://www.fuoriluogo.it/arretrati/2003/apr_17_en.htm].
==Constitutional issues==
Most of the Congressional findings and declarations in ''21 U.S.C. § 801'' are devoted to establishing the statute's constitutionality. Using similar language to [[Article I of the United States Constitution|Article I]], Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, the CSA cites the impact of intrastate drug offences on "interstate commerce" and the "general welfare" of the American people. However, [[David Boaz]], executive director of the Cato Institute, claims that "The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states or the people all powers not granted to the federal government. At least the advocates of alcohol Prohibition had enough respect for the Constitution to seek a constitutional amendment to impose Prohibition, but Congress never asked the American people for the constitutional power to impose drug prohibition"[http://www.cato.org/dailys/3-03-97.html].
In 2003, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] ruled the CSA illegal as it applied to the use of medical marijuana in the case ''[[Raich v. Ashcroft]]'', [[Case citation|352 F.3d 1222]] ([[9th Cir.]] [[2003]]). However, the case was appealed to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] by the federal government, and in [[2005]], the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the federal government.
==Drug Schedules==
'''''The below lists are incomplete. Consult the [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/scheduling.html DEA Drug Scheduling Reference] for a longer list.'''''
21 U.S.C. §812(b) specifies the findings that the government must make in order to classify a drug in a certain schedule. The specific classification of any given drug is usually a source of controversy, as is the purpose and effectiveness of the entire regulatory scheme.
===Schedule I drugs===
Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.''
Under the DEA's interpretation of the CSA, a drug does not necessarily have to have the same abuse potential as heroin or cocaine to merit placement in Schedule I (in fact, cocaine is currently a Schedule II drug) [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_register&docid=01-9306-filed]:
:''When it comes to a drug that is currently listed in schedule I, if it is undisputed that such drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and it is further undisputed that the drug has at least some potential for abuse sufficient to warrant control under the CSA, the drug must remain in schedule I. In such circumstances, placement of the drug in schedules II through V would conflict with the CSA since such drug would not meet the criterion of "a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States." 21 USC 812(b).''
Sentences for first-time, non-violent offenders convicted of trafficking in Schedule I drugs can easily turn into ''de facto'' life sentences when multiple sales are prosecuted in one proceeding. See ''United States v. Angelos'', [[Case citation|345 F. Supp. 2d 1227]] ([[D. Utah]] [[2004]]) (55 years for three sales of marijuana). Sentences for violent offenders are much higher.
Drugs on this schedule include:
* [[GHB]] (Gamma-hydroxybutyrate), which has been used as a general anaesthetic with minimal side-effects and controlled action but a limited safe dosage range. It was placed in Schedule I in [[March 2000]] after widespread recreational use;
* [[Ibogaine]], which has potential medical uses in the treatment of drug |
erestimation of his person.
[[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] considered Apollos to be a valuable helper in carrying on his work in the important Corinthian congregation (1 Cor. 3:6, 4:6, 16:12). In harmony with Paul's notices are the statements of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] (18:24-28) that Apollos was a highly educated [[Alexandria]]n [[Jew]], who came to [[Ephesus]] (probably in [[54]]), was instructed more accurately in the gospel there by [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]] and [[Priscilla_%28Christian%29|Priscilla]] and afterwards settled in [[Achaia]], where he showed himself useful to the Church by speaking and teaching with power and success.
It is difficult to get a correct idea of his religious standpoint; but it probably was that of the so-called disciples of [[John the Baptist]] (Acts 19:1-7). Taken all in all, it may be said that Apollos was a zealous missionary, who, while confessing [[Jesus]], did not have the full New Testament revelation, and stood in danger of becoming antagonistic to the apostolic message to all the world; he became, however, an adherent of the Pauline doctrine, and the author of the Acts of the Apostles thought this fact of sufficient importance to be included in his history. In the [[Epistle to Titus]] (3:13) Apollos is mentioned, with [[Zenas]], as bearer of the letter to Crete.
Apollos may have captivated his hearers by teaching "wisdom," as P. W. Schmiedel suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction between Acts 18:25 ''a b'' and Acts 18:25 ''c'', 26 ''b c''; and it has been suggested that these latter passages are subsequent accretions. Since Apollos was a Christian and "taught exactly," he could hardly have been acquainted only with John's baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla.
[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] regarded Apollos as the author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], and many scholars since have shared his view.
Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth, that he retired into Crete with [[Zenas]], a doctor of the law; and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.
== References ==
* Articles in the ''Encyclopaedia Biblica''; Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopadie''; ''The Jewish Encyclopaedia''; Hastings' ''Dictionary of the Bible''.
* Weizsäcker, ''Das apostolische Zeitalter''
* A. C. McGiffert, ''History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age''.
* ''Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''
* {{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acquis</title>
<id>2687</id>
<revision>
<id>40212293</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T00:11:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pap3rinik</username>
<id>356530</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+it.wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Legislation of the European Union}}The [[French language|French]] term '''''acquis''''' (or sometimes '''''acquis communautaire''''') is used in [[European Union law]] to refer to the total body of EU law accumulated so far. The term is also used to describe laws adopted under the [[Schengen treaty]], prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]], in which case one speaks of the ''Schengen acquis''.
==Chapters of the Acquis==
During the process of the [[enlargement of the European Union]], the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate member states for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]]). These chapters were:
{|
|-
|
#Free movement of goods
#Free movement of persons
#Freedom to provide services
#Free movement of capital
#Company law
#Competition policy
#Agriculture
#[[Fishery|Fisheries]]
#Transport policy
#Taxation
#[[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]]
#Statistics
#Social policy and employment
#Energy
#Industrial policy
#Small and medium-sized enterprises
| valign=top|<ol start=17>
<li>Science and research
<li>Education and training
<li>Telecommunication and information technologies
<li>Culture and audio-visual policy
<li>[[Regional policy]] and coordination of structural instruments
<li>Environment
<li>Consumers and health protection
<li>Cooperation in the field of [[Justice and Home Affairs]]
<li>[[Customs union]]
<li>External relations
<li>[[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP)
<li>Financial control
<li>Financial and budgetary provisions
<li>Institutions
<li>Others
</ol>
|}
For the negotiations with [[Croatia]] and [[Turkey]], the acquis was split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process:
#Free movement of goods
#[[Freedom of movement for workers]]
#Right of establishment and freedom to provide services
#Free movement of capital
#Public procurement
#Company law
#Intellectual property law
#Competition policy
#Financial services
#Information society and media
#Agriculture and rural development
#Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy
#Fisheries
#Transport policy
#Energy
#Taxation
#Economic and monetary policy
#Statistics
#Social policy and employment (including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)
#Enterprise and industrial policy
#Trans-European networks
#Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments
#Judiciary and fundamental rights
#Justice, freedom and security
#Science and research
#Education and culture
#Environment
#Consumer and health protection
#Customs union
#External relations
#Foreign, security and defence policy
#Financial control
#Financial and budgetary provisions
#Institutions
#Other issues
Correspondance between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement:<br>
<table border=0 cellpadding=3>
<tr>
<th>5th Enlargement</th>
<th>6th Enlargement</th>
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>1. Free movement of goods<td>1. Free movement of goods&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>7. Intellectual property law&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>2. Free movement of persons<td>2. Freedom of movement for workers&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td>3. <b>Right of establishment</b> and freedom to provide services&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>3. Freedom to provide services<td>3. Right of establishment and <b>freedom to provide services</b>&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>9. Financial services&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>4. Free movement of capital<td>4. Free movement of capital&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>5. Company law<td>6. Company law&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>6. Competition policy<td>8. Competition policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td>5. Public procurement&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>7. Agriculture<td>11. Agriculture and rural development&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>12. Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>8. Fisheries<td>13. Fisheries&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>9. Transport policy<td>14. Transport policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>21. Trans-European networks <b>(one half of it)</b>&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>10. Taxation<td>16. Taxation&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>11. Economic and Monetary Union<td>17. Economic and monetary policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>12. Statistics<td>18. Statistics&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>13. Social policy and employment<td>19. Social policy and employment <br><small>(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)</small>&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>14. Energy<td>15. Energy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td>21. Trans-European networks <b>(one half of it)</b>&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>15. Industrial policy<td rowspan=2 valign=middle>20. Enterprise and industrial policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>16. Small and medium-sized enterprises&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>17. Science and research<td>25. Science and research&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td rowspan=1 valign=top>18. Education and training<td rowspan=3 valign=middle>26. Education and culture<br>10. Information society and media&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>19. Telecommunication and information technologies&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefff>
<td>20. Culture and audio-visual policy&nbsp;
<tr bgcolor=#efefef& |
ategory:Blue eyed soul]]
[[Category:High school dropouts]]
[[Category:Kansas Citians]]
[[Category:Living people|Eminem]]
[[Category:Controversial people|Eminem]]
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans]]
[[Category:Sirius Satellite Radio personalities|Eminem]]
[[Category:American rappers|Eminem]]
[[Category:White rappers|Eminem]]
[[ar:إيمينيم]]
[[bg:Еминем]]
[[cs:Eminem]]
[[da:Eminem]]
[[de:Eminem]]
[[et:Eminem]]
[[es:Eminem]]
[[eo:Eminem]]
[[fr:Eminem]]
[[gl:Eminem]]
[[hr:Eminem]]
[[id:Eminem]]
[[it:Eminem]]
[[he:אמינם]]
[[lt:Eminem]]
[[nl:Eminem]]
[[ja:エミネム]]
[[no:Eminem]]
[[pl:Eminem]]
[[pt:Eminem]]
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[[zh:阿姆]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>EverQuest</title>
<id>10322</id>
<revision>
<id>41436184</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T08:10:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.127.135.214</ip>
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<comment>/* Gameplay jargon */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = EverQuest
|image = [[Image:EverQuest_Box_Art.jpg|250px|center|EverQuest box art.]]
|developer = [[Sony Online Entertainment]]
|publisher = [[Sony Online Entertainment]]
|designer =
|engine =
|released = [[March 16]], [[1999]]
|genre = [[MMORPG]]
|modes = [[Multiplayer]]
|ratings = Teen (T)
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]]
|media = [[CD]], download
|requirements =
|input = [[computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[computer mouse|Mouse]]
}}'''''EverQuest''''' ('''EQ''') is a 3D [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] [[massively multiplayer]] online [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] ([[MMORPG]]) that was released on [[March 16]] [[1999]]. The original design is credited to [[Brad McQuaid]], [[Steve Clover]], and [[Bill Trost]]. It was [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Verant Interactive]] (which had recently parted from [[989 Studios]]) and [[video game publisher|published]] by [[Sony Online Entertainment]] (SOE). SOE currently runs and distributes ''EverQuest''.
To play, one must initially pay for the game [[software]] and then pay a recurring monthly fee; a free trial is also available for those who wish to experience the game before paying. ''EverQuest'' was, for a time, the most popular MMORPG in the industry.
In the game, players explore a [[J.R.R. Tolkien|Tolkienesque]] fantasy world of [[sword and sorcery]], fighting monsters and enemies for treasure and [[experience point]]s and interacting with other players. As they progress, players advance in level, gaining power, prestige and abilities. Players can also procure powerful items for their characters in a variety of ways: through slaying monsters (and then [[Looting (Gaming)|looting]] whatever items they were carrying), doing "quests" (tasks and adventures given by non-player characters ( [[NPCs]] ) in which a reward is given upon success), or by gathering raw materials and then fashioning them, via numerous trade skills such as tailoring or blacksmithing, into useful (or not-so-useful, but nevertheless fun) items. In structure and rules, the game is a direct descendant of the famed ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' role-playing game. Many of the elements from ''EverQuest'' have also been drawn from text-based [[MUD]] (multi-user dungeon) games, especially [[DikuMUD]].
The game features a 3D environment set in the fictional world of Norrath, its moon Luclin and alternate planes of reality. The geography of the [[EverQuest universe|''EverQuest'' universe]] is vast&mdash;few have visited all of the nearly 400 [[Zones of EverQuest|zones]]. Multiple instances of the world exist on various ''servers'', each one hosting between 1000 and 3000 simultaneous players online during peak times. After selecting a server, a player can create multiple characters by choosing from a variety of classes and races (e.g., humans, gnomes, trolls, halflings, elves, etc.). The main aspect of [[gameplay]] involves grouping with fellow players to kill [[monster]]s for experience and gear. Beyond that, a player can explore the large world, socialize, [[role-play]], join [[Everquest player guilds|player guilds]], master [[EverQuest trade skills|trade skills]], and duel other players (in restricted situations &mdash; EQ only allows [[Player versus Player]] (PvP) combat on the [[EverQuest special servers|PvP-specific server]], in designated arenas, or in a consensual duel in a limited number of locations.
While some parts of ''EverQuest'' can be experienced alone, without the help of other players, EQ generally remains a very group-centric game. A single character, unless exceptionally well prepared (either by means of equipment or with spell enhancements, referred to in-game as 'buffs'), will be unable to complete many of the encounters in ''EverQuest''. Most parts of the game can be completed with small groups of up to six or so people, but the most challenging (and rewarding) encounters require the cooperation of many players, possibly totalling 72 players, although the trend in recent [[expansions]] tends towards 54 as a maximum. A large force of gamers gathered together to perform one task, is referred to as a "raid". Normally the number of players range from 36 to 72, limiting factors being the maximum number of people allowed in a "raid window" (72) and the maximum number of people allowed in certain [[Instance dungeon|instanced zones]] in more recent expansions. [[Zerging]] (A term that comes from another popular computer game, [[Starcraft]]) is when a raid's main strategy is to overwhelm an enemy by sheer force of numbers. As ''EverQuest'' has aged, tactics have become more and more involved. Some of the most complex 'modern' [[raid]] events can take a very experienced guild dozens of attempts before they succeed. Less skilled guilds may take as many as a hundred tries to beat the same event, if they are able to accomplish it at all, due to the level of strategy and teamwork required to defeat modern EverQuest encounters.
==Development==
While the original concept is credited to Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover, and Bill Trost, much of the original product design was done by Brian Canary, Ryan Palacio, Roger Uzun and Geoffrey "GZ" Zatkin. Many other people have worked on EverQuest through the many updates and [[expansion pack]]s that have been released as the service has operated continually since 1999. The idea of the "[[MMORPG]]" (Massive Multi-Player Online Role-Playing Game) is credited to [[Ultima Online]], the first of its genre.
[[989 Studios]] funded development and initially [[game publisher|published]] the game, before [[Verant Interactive]] took management after [[989 Studios]] unilaterally canceled all of its PC projects. [[Sony Online Entertainment]] later purchased Verant, and SOE runs and distributes ''EverQuest'' currently.
[[Image:EverQuest - The Temple of Solusek Ro.jpg|thumb|right|The Temple of Solusek Ro was added as a free download in October 1999.]]
''EverQuest'' launched with some technical difficulties on [[March 16]], [[1999]] but quickly became successful. By the end of the year, it had surpassed the leading competitor, ''[[Ultima Online]]'' in number of subscriptions. Numbers continued rising at a steady rate until mid-[[2001]] when growth slowed. [[As of 2004]], Sony reports subscription numbers close to 450,000.
==Zones==
{{details|Zones of EverQuest}}
The ''EverQuest'' universe is divided into nearly 400 ''zones''. These zones represent a wide variety of geographical features, including plains, oceans, cities, deserts, and other planes of existence.
==Controversies and social issues==
''EverQuest'' has lived through its share of controversy, much of it shared by the entire MMORPG genre. One example involves the sale of in-game objects for real currency (often through [[eBay]]). The developers of EQ have always forbidden the practice and in January [[2001]] asked eBay to stop listing such auctions. For a time, such auctions were immediately removed, which created market conditions that allowed a number of upstart auction sites to specialize in this new virtual economy. The game has always had problems with exploiting, cheating, and hacking. Patches have stopped some of the most serious cheats, but controversy also surrounds SOE's policies, once seen as heavy-handed and subjective, now generally perceived as lighter than deserved in many instances. Changes in management have caused changes in company-to-customer representatives who defend or promote said policies. Gordon Wrinn ("Abashi") was the spokesperson of Verant, followed by Alan VanCouvering ("Absor") for SOE; a team now presents plans to the players. Critics of EQ's overall design deride it as "simplistic", and this has led to a satirical game called ''[[Progress Quest]]'' to appear on the [[Internet]]. Some [[gamer]]s have nicknamed it "LevelQuest", implying that the purpose of the game is to only acquire levels. Monotonous in-game-activities are referred to as [[timesink]]s.
The game is renowned and berated (by some [[psychologist]]s specializing in [[computer addiction]]) for its addictive qualities. Many refer to it half-jokingly as "NeverRest" and "EverCrack" (a reference to [[crack cocaine]]). EQ is very time-consuming for many people, and there have been some well-publicized suicides of ''EverQuest'' users, such as that of [[Shawn Woolley]]. Relationships broken because of obsessive playing resulted in the creation of an online support group called EverQuest Widows and sites like GamerWidow.com. The capacity of the game to absorb time and money, and to distract players from a possibly-dull life on the other side of the screen, are appealing features to its users. However, the same could be said for any other addictive and obsessive activity. An infamous |
Final Fantasy IX]]'' during a battle. The enlarged bars represent the [[Active Time Battle]] system used in several Final Fantasy installments.]]
''Final Fantasy'' uses a menu-driven, [[Turn-based game|turn-based]] battle system. Most games in the series utilize an [[Experience point|experience level]] system for character advancement (although ''Final Fantasy II'' and ''Final Fantasy X'' did not), and a point-based system for casting magical spells (though ''Final Fantasy'', ''Final Fantasy III'' and ''Final Fantasy VIII'' all featured different approaches). Most games in the series (from ''Final Fantasy III'' and on) feature a variety of "special commands," over and beyond the traditional "Attack," "Defend," "Cast Magic," "Item," and "Run" battle commands, such as the ability to steal items from enemies, or performing a leap attack. Often these special attacks are integrated into the "job system," which has appeared in several games in the series and spinoffs (''Final Fantasy III'', ''Final Fantasy V'', ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', ''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'', ''Final Fantasy X-2'').
''Final Fantasy'' through ''Final Fantasy III'' all featured a traditional turn-based battle system. The player would input all battle commands at the beginning of each combat round, which would then be carried out based on the speed rating of each participant. Starting with ''Final Fantasy IV'', and continuing until ''Final Fantasy IX'' (and revived in ''Final Fantasy X-2''), the "[[Active Time Battle]]" (ATB) system was used. The ATB system was semi-real time, and assigned every participant in combat a time gauge. When a specific character's time gauge was filled, the character could act, which would then reset the timer. Generally each of these games included both "active" and "wait" modes: when "wait" mode was chosen, then all activity relating to the time gauge would pause whenever the player was using a submenu to choose a magic spell, item, or special attack. In "active" mode, time would pass even if the player was using a submenu, allowing attacks to be performed while the player was issuing commands.
''Final Fantasy X'' abandoned the ATB system in favor of the "[[Turn-based strategy|Conditional Turn-based Battle]]" (CTB) system. In the CTB system, every participant in battle would be ranked according to speed. As this ranking was displayed on screen during battle, it was possible to know when a character and/or enemy would move several combat turns in advance, and to plan battles accordingly. Because the CTB system was completely turn-based, the time gauge was absent. This system was also used in the spinoffs, ''Final Fantasy Tactics'' and ''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'', although the terminology was not.
''Final Fantasy XI'' featured the "Real Time Battle" (RTB) system. Unlike previous iterations of the ''Final Fantasy'' series, characters no longer stand still during battle while taking turns to attack. Combat is real time, where the character is allowed to freely move about. After targeting an enemy, the character automatically performs basic physical attacks unless otherwise instructed by the player through menu-based commands. However, unlike in some other [[MMORPG]]s, the attack speed, hit rate and dodge rate of the character are entirely dependent on the game's statistics system, rather than by player input.
''Final Fantasy XII'' will feature a combat system similar to ''Final Fantasy XI'', called the "Active Dimension Battle" (ADB) system. The system is similar to the RTB system in that characters are free to move about during battle, and after targeting a monster, the character will automatically perform basic attacks. However, there will also be a visible ATB-like time gauge showing when a character can act. "Active" and "wait" modes will also make a return. Also, an important addition to this game's battle system is the ''Gambit'' system, in which the [[artificial intelligence|AI]] of party members can be set so that they will automatically perform certain actions without prior input from the player.
Unlike previous games, battles in both ''Final Fantasy XI'' and ''Final Fantasy XII'' take place on the field screen, with no separate battle screen resulting from "random encounters".
== Criticism ==
Although the series is extremely popular, it is not without critics. More recent installments are attacked in particular, especially those made after ''Final Fantasy VI''. Elements of the ''Final Fantasy'' series which have drawn especial criticism in recent years include the creators' extensive use (some would say overuse) of full motion video, the games' often rigidly linear storylines, and the designers' tendency to repeat themes, motifs, or battle systems from one game to the next. Defenders often argue that the negative responses can be attributed to nostalgia on the part of fans of earlier Final Fantasy games; for example, full motion video has only been used since ''Final Fantasy VII''.
Many long time fans of the series blame the fall in standards on the departure of character designer [[Yoshitaka Amano]] after ''Final Fantasy VI''. [[Tetsuya Nomura]], who has handled character design for the majority of the post-''Final Fantasy VI'' series', has been criticized by the Amano fans, especially those who feel that Nomura's designs look too juvenile when compared to Amano's work. Similar complaints have begun to surface surrounding the departure of long-time series music composer [[Nobuo Uematsu]] since ''Final Fantasy X'', where he shared the role of composer with Masashi Hamauzu and Junya Nakano. ''Final Fantasy XII'' sees Uematsu's role diminished to a single song. The game's theme song is performed by [[Angela Aki]] while the rest of the soundtrack is composed by [[Hitoshi Sakimoto]]. ''Final Fantasy XII'' has neither Amano nor Nomura as character designer, but instead has [[Akihiko Yoshida]].
''Final Fantasy'' is also known for "re-inventing" the series with almost every game, as each game takes a different approach in gameplay and story than the last; although this keeps the series from feeling stale with repeated sequels, fans of one game may not like the other games in the series. Of the more recent installments in the series ''Final Fantasy VIII'', ''Final Fantasy XI'' and ''Final Fantasy X-2'' have been most frequently singled out for criticism: ''Final Fantasy VIII'' for its radical story and cast of entirely human teenaged characters, ''Final Fantasy XI'' for switching to a [[MMORPG]] format and ''Final Fantasy X-2'' for its status as the first direct sequel to a previous ''Final Fantasy'' game, taking a radical departure from the serious tone of ''Final Fantasy'' games (especially ''Final Fantasy X''), and for its supposed overreliance on [[fan service]], as the playable characters were frequently featured wearing revealing clothing (''Final Fantasy X-2'').
== See also ==
*[[Final Fantasy bestiary]]
*[[Final Fantasy character classes]]
*[[Final Fantasy magic]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy characters]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy locations]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy titles]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy weapons]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy Armor]]
*[[Races of Final Fantasy]]
==External links==
{{portal}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.square-enix.com/na/title/ff/ Square Enix]'s official ''Final Fantasy'' website (English)
*[http://www.square-enix.com/jp/title/finalfantasy/ Square Enix]'s official ''Final Fantasy'' website (Japanese)
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Roleplaying/F/Final_Fantasy_Games/ ''Final Fantasy'' sites]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,176/ ''Final Fantasy Series''] at [[MobyGames]]
*{{wikicities|finalfantasy|Final Fantasy Wiki}}
*[http://ffwiki.blueshinra.com/ Final Fantasy Wiki]
*[http://www.gamespot.com/features/vgs/universal/finalfantasy_hs/ History of Final Fantasy]
<!-- Please NOTE: In order to keep the size of this list manageable, please DO NOT add any external links without first making a discussion on the Talk page ( Talk:Final_Fantasy ). This article is NOT intended to be a comprehensive fanlisting (see What Wikipedia Is Not.. WP:NOT ). -->
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[[zh:最终幻想]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fatty acid</title>
<id>10975</id>
<revision>
<id>42147081</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:14:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Istvan</username>
<id>457803</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Essential fatty acids */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], especially [[biochemistry]], a '''fatty acid''' is a [[carboxylic acid]] (or organic acid), often with a long [[aliphatic]] tail ([[long chain|long chains]]), either [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] or unsaturated. Depending on the context, fatty acids may be assumed to have at least 8 carbon atoms, e.g., [[caprylic acid]] (octanoic acid). Most of the natural fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms, because their [[biosynthesis]] involves [[acetate]] which has two carbon atoms.
Industrially, fatty acids are produced by the [[hydrolysis]] of the [[ester]] linkages in a [[fat]] or biological oil (both of which are [[triglyceride]]s), with the removal of |
r other senses of the word "[[convention]]".
A '''convention''' is a set of [[agreement|agreed]], stipulated or generally accepted [[rule]]s, [[norm (philosophy)|norms]], standards or [[criterion|criteria]], often taking the form of a [[custom]].
Certain types of rules or customs may become [[law]], and regulatory [[legislation]] may be introduced to formalise or enforce the convention (eg. laws which determine which side of the [[road]] vehicles must be driven). In a [[social]] context, a convention may retain the character of an "unwritten" '''law''' of custom (eg. the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands).
In [[physical science]]s, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called '''conventional''' if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a '''convention''', for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values.
==General==
A '''convention''' is a rule or a selection from among two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants. Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community. For instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands. Some conventions are explicitly legislated; for example, it is conventional in [[United States|America]] and [[Germany]] that motorists [[rules of the road|drive on the right side of the road]], whereas in [[England]] and [[Barbados]] they drive on the left. The extent to which [[justice]] is conventional (as opposed to [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural]] or [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective]]) is historically an important debate among [[philosopher]]s.
The nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion. [[Willard van Orman Quine|Quine]], [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Davidson]] and [[David Lewis (philosopher)|David Lewis]] published influential writings on the subject. Lewis's account of convention received an extended critique in [[Margaret Gilbert]]'s ''On Social Facts''. Another view of convention comes from [[Ruth Millikan]]'s ''Language: A Biological Model'' (2005), once more against Lewis.
==Customary or social conventions==
In every field of [[art]], [[science]], or other human endeavor, there are '''conventions''' that may simply be expectations (strangers being introduced shake hands, [[painting]]s are rectangular) or stock devices (a [[comedy]] ends with a marriage, but a [[cowboy]] [[film]] can end with the hero riding off into the sunset). There are '''generic conventions''' which are very closely tied to a particular artistic ''[[genre]]'', and may even help to define what that genre is. Terms such as [[fan convention]]s and [[science fiction convention]]s could be interpreted in this manner, but more often refer to the meaning of "[[convention (meeting)|convention]]" as a gathering or the physical location of a gathering.
==Government==
In [[government]], '''''convention''''' is a set of unwritten rules which the participants in the government are expected to follow. These rules can be ignored only if justification is clear, or can be provided. Otherwise, consequences are sure to follow. Consequences may include ignoring some other convention that has until now been followed. According to the traditional doctrine (Dicey), conventions cannot be enforced in courts, because they are non-legal sets of rules. Convention is particularly important in the [[United Kingdom]] and other governments using the [[Westminster System]] of government (e g [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]) where many of the rules of government are unwritten.
==International law==
The term '''convention''' is also used in [[international law]] to refer to certain formal statements of principle such as the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]]. Conventions are adopted by international bodies such as the [[International Labour Organization]] and the [[United Nations]]. Conventions so adopted usually apply only to countries that ratify them, and do not automatically apply to member states of such bodies. These conventions are generally seen as having the force of international [[treaty|treaties]] for the ratifying countries.
==External links==
* [http://law-ref.org Law-Ref.org index of important international conventions]
* [http://www.conworld.net/ Global Business Events Portal]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cous cous</title>
<id>7831</id>
<revision>
<id>15905879</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-17T21:05:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marj Tiefert</username>
<id>27</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to existing, merged couscous article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[couscous]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complete space</title>
<id>7832</id>
<revision>
<id>38559362</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T02:47:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DYLAN LENNON</username>
<id>327463</id>
</contributor>
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For '''Cauchy completion''' in [[category theory]], see [[Karoubi envelope]].''
In [[mathematical analysis]], a [[metric space]] ''M'' is said to be '''complete''' (or '''Cauchy''') if every [[Cauchy sequence]] of points in ''M'' has a [[limit (topology)|limit]] that is also in ''M''.
Intuitively, a space is complete if it "doesn't have any holes", if there aren't any "points missing".
For instance, the [[rational number]]s are not complete, because &radic;2 is "missing" even though you can construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers that converge to it. (See the examples below.) It is always possible to "fill all the holes", leading to the ''completion'' of a given space, as will be explained below.
== Examples ==
The space '''Q''' of [[rational number]]s, with the standard metric given by the [[absolute value]], is not complete. Consider for instance the sequence defined by ''x''<sub>1</sub> := 1 and ''x''<sub>''n''+1</sub> := ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>/2 + 1/''x''<sub>''n''</sub>.
This is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, but it does not converge towards any rational limit; in fact, it converges towards the [[irrational number]] &radic;2, the [[square root]] of [[two]].
The [[interval (mathematics)|open interval]] (0,1), again with the absolute value metric, is not complete either.
The sequence (1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, ...) is Cauchy, but does not have a limit in the space.
However the closed interval [0,1] is complete; the sequence above has the limit 0 in this interval.
The space '''R''' of [[real number]]s and the space '''C''' of [[complex number]]s (with the metric given by the absolute value) are complete, and so is [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>.
Other [[normed vector space]]s may or may not be complete; those which are, are the [[Banach space]]s.
The space '''Q'''<sub>''p''</sub> of [[p-adic number|''p''-adic number]]s are complete for any [[prime number]] ''p''.
This space completes '''Q''' with the ''p''-adic metric in the same way that '''R''' completes '''Q''' with the usual metric.
If ''S'' is an arbitrary set, then the set ''S''<sup>'''N'''</sup> of all [[sequence]]s in ''S'' becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences (''x''<sub>''n''</sub>) and (''y''<sub>''n''</sub>) to be 1/''N'', where ''N'' is the smallest index for which ''x''<sub>''N''</sub> is [[distinct]] from ''y''<sub>''N''</sub>, or 0 if there is no such index.
This space is [[homeomorphic]] to the [[product topology|product]] of a [[countable]] number of copies of the [[discrete space]] ''S''.
== Some theorems ==
Every [[compact space|compact]] metric space is complete.
In fact, a metric space is compact if and only if it is complete and [[totally bounded]].
A subspace of a complete space is complete if and only if it is [[closed set|closed]].
If ''X'' is a [[set]] and ''M'' is a complete metric space, then the set B(''X'',''M'') of all [[bounded function]]s ''f'' from ''X'' to ''M'' is a complete metric space.
Here we define the distance in B(''X'',''M'') in terms of the distance in ''M'' as
:<math>d(f,g) := \sup\left\{\,d(f(x),g(x)) : x\in X \,\right\}.</math>
If ''X'' is a [[topological space]] and ''M'' is a complete metric space, then the set C<sub>b</sub>(''X'',''M'') consisting of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] bounded functions ''f'' from ''X'' to ''M'' is a closed subspace of B(''X'',''M'') and hence also complete.
The [[Baire category theorem]] says that every complete metric space is a [[Baire space]].
That is, the [[interior (topology)|interior]] of a [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[countable|countably many]] [[nowhere dense]] subsets of the space is [[empty set|empty]].
== Completion ==
For any metric space ''M'', one can construct a complete metric space ''M''' (which is also denoted as ''M'' with a bar over it), which contains ''M'' as a [[dense subspace]].
It has the following [[universal property]]: if ''N'' is any complete metric space and ''f'' is any [[uniformly continuous function]] from ''M'' to ''N'', then there exists a [[unique]] uniformly continuous function ''f' '' from ''M' '' to ''N'' which extends ''f''.
The space ''M''' is determined [[up to]] [[isometry]] by this property, and is called the ''completion'' of ''M''.
The completion of ''M'' can be constructed as a set of [[equivalence class]]es of Cauchy sequences |
[[neurotransmitter]] [[serotonin]]. DMT is created in small amounts by the human body during normal metabolism. Pure DMT at room temperature is a colorless waxy or crystalline solid. DMT was first [[Chemical synthesis|chemically synthesized]] in [[1931]]. It also occurs naturally in many species of [[plants]]. DMT-containing plants are used in several [[South America]]n [[shaman]]ic practices. It is one of the main active constituents of snuffs like [[yopo]] and of the drink [[ayahuasca]].
DMT is not orally active unless it is combined with a [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] (MAOI), such as [[harmaline]]. Without an MAOI, the body quickly metabolizes DMT, and it therefore has no significant hallucinogenic effect.
== Hallucinogenic properties ==
DMT is a powerful [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] substance. If DMT is smoked, injected, or orally ingested with an MAOI, it can produce powerful [[entheogen|entheogenic]] experiences including true [[hallucinations]] (perceived extensions of reality). A [[trip sitter]] is often employed to assist the drug user in staying physically and mentally healthy, and, in the case of smoked DMT, to catch the pipe when the user loses awareness of it.
'''Smoked''': If DMT is smoked, the maximal effects last for a short period of time (30 minutes +). The onset after inhalation is very fast (less than 45 seconds) and maximal effects are reached within about a minute.
'''Insufflation''': If DMT is insufflated (snorted through the nostrils) it will last slightly longer than if smoked and has less powerful effects.
'''Injection''': Injected DMT produces an experience similar to inhalation in duration, intensity, and characteristics, although by some accounts it is more emotionally clinical (versus spiritual).
'''Oral ingestion''': DMT, which is broken down by the digestive enzyme monoamine oxidase, is inactive if taken orally, unless combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). The shamanic potion ayahuasca, or yage, is a tea-like admixture of the boiled leaves, bark or roots of a variety of plants, usually including ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'', which contains high levels of DMT, and ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'', which contains harmala alkaloids that are powerful MAOIs. A common source in the western US is [[Reed canary grass]] or ''[[Phalaris arundinacea]]'', and [[Harding grass]] or ''[[Phalaris aquatica]]''. This invasive grass contains high levels of DMT and other alkaloids . Taken orally with an appropriate MAOI, DMT produces a long lasting (over 1 hour), slow onset, high intensity experience. MAOIs should be used with extreme caution as they can make common over-the-counter drugs and foods toxic.
Induced DMT experiences can include profound time-dilation, visual and audio hallucinations, percieved journeys to paranormal realms, and encounters with spiritual beings or other experiences that, by most first hand accounts, defy verbal or visual description.
In a 1988 study conducted at [[University of New Mexico|UNM]], psychiatrist [[Rick Strassman]] found that approximately 20% of volunteers injected with high doses of DMT had experiences identical to purported [[Abduction Phenomenon|alien abductions]].
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="250px" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[ATC code]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Metabolism
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Urine]]
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | US: I CA: III UK: 1/A
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Delivery
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Vaporized, injected, or orally in combination with MAO inhibitors
|-
|}
{| style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em" width="167px" border="1" cellpadding="3" align="right" bgcolor="#ffffff"
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''<br/>
*?
'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''<br/>
*[[Euphoria]]
*[[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|Hallucinations]]
'''[[Ethics|Unethical]] uses:'''<br/>
*?
'''Other uses:'''<br/>
* [[Mystic]]al Experience
* [[Shaman]]ic
* [[spirituality|spiritual]]/[[Religious]]
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''<br/>
* Potentially fatal if currently taking an MAO-Inhibitor, such as many common anti-depressants
* Do not use if suffering from [[Schizophrenia]] or similar conditions, or if such runs in your family.
|-
|}
== Chemistry ==
DMT is a derivative of [[tryptamine]] with two additional [[methyl]] groups at the [[amine]] nitrogen [[atom]]. DMT is often [[Chemical synthesis|synthesized]] by the [[Speeter-Anthony synthesis]] from [[indole]] using [[oxalyl chloride]], [[dimethylamine]], and [[lithium aluminium hydride]] as [[reagents]]. DMT is usually used in its [[Base (chemistry)|base]] form, but it is more stable as a salt, e.g. as a [[fumarate]]. In contrast to DMT's base, its salts are water-soluble. DMT in solution degrades relatively fast and should be stored protected from air and light in a freezer.
== Speculations ==
Several speculative and as yet untested hypotheses suggest that [[endogenous]] DMT, produced in the human [[brain]], is involved in certain [[psychology|psychological]] and [[neurology|neurological]] states. As DMT is naturally produced in small amounts in humans and other mammals[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/dmt_journal.shtml] (although the mechanism is not yet understood), some believe it plays a role in [[dream]]ing, [[near-death experience]]s and other mystical states. It has been speculated by the researcher [[Jace Callaway]] that DMT might be connected with visual [[dream]]ing. It is also speculated that DMT can be found in elevated amounts during times of visual dreaming or after near-death experiences.
Writers on DMT include [[Terence McKenna]] and [[Jeremy Narby]], though scientists who study psychedelic drugs treat their writings with skepticism. McKenna writes of his experiences with DMT in which he encounters entities he describes as "Self-Transforming [[Machine Elves]]". Other users report visitation from external intelligences attempting to impart information. These Machine Elf experiences are said to be shared by many DMT users. From a researcher's perspective, perhaps best known is [[Rick Strassman]]'s ''DMT: The Spirit Molecule'' (ISBN 0892819278); Strassman also proposed that DMT is made in the [[pineal gland]], although this is only speculation.
== Legal status ==
DMT is classified in the [[United States]] as a [[Controlled Substances Act | Schedule I]] drug. In December of 2004, the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] lifted a stay thereby allowing the Brazil-based [[Uniao do Vegetal]] church to use hoasca tea (containing DMT) in their Christmas services that year. In ''[[Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal]]'', the Supreme Court heard arguments on November 1st, 2005 and unanimously ruled in [[February]] [[2006]] that the U.S. federal government must allow the UDV to import and consume the tea for religious ceremonies under the 1993 [[Religious Freedom Restoration Act]].
DMT is classified in [[Canada]] as a Schedule III drug.
DMT, '''along with most of its plant sources''', is classified in [[France]] as a ''stupéfiant''.
DMT is classified in the [[United Kingdom]] as a Schedule I/Class A drug.
In [[Brazil]] there are a number of religious movements based on the use of Ayahuasca, usually in an [[spiritism|animistic]] context that may be shamanistic or, more often, mixed with [[Christian]] imagery; these were legalized recently after official inquiry into the tea.
== DMT in popular culture ==
The plot of the movie [[Blueberry (movie)|Blueberry]] (based on [[Blueberry (comic)]]) touches DMT practices of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The movie also features scenes of a DMT induced psychedelic experience. Recent web discussion with the creator of the film has indicated that the visions are meant to represent the use of various plants, the classic [[ayahuasca]] mixture being one of these. In addition, [[Datura]] and [[Mescaline]] related visions are conveyed.
At the start of chapter 15 of the book ''The Black Angel'' by John Connolly (copyright 2005), DMT is referenced as a drug used to control people through instilling and then relieving fear via hallucinations.
The first letters of the [[Shpongle|Shpongle's]] "Divine Moments of Truth" track from the ''Are You Shpongled?'' album stand for DMT.
Writer Warren Ellis mentions DMT in several of his works (including [[Global Frequency]])
William S. Burroughs' ''The Yage Letters'' is also related to his search for ayahuasca.
== External links ==
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/ Vaults of Erowid - DMT]
* [http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal06.shtml TiHKAL - DMT]
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/dmt_journal.shtml DMT Journal Articles & Abstracts]
* [http://ayahuasca.com/cgi-bin/viewdocument.pl?rowid=24 From Agony to Ecstacy: The Transformative Spirit of Yajé]
* [http://releasethereality.com/ Release The Reality - Web Journal: DMT & Ayahuasca info]
* [http://www.breakingopenthehead.com/ Breaking Open the Head - A shamanic journey into the heart of the psychedelic experience]
* [http://www.spiritplants.org/ Spirit Plants - Forum and other resources] |
e]]'''
|-
|<small>'''Chronological'''
|-
| [[Prehistoric Europe]]
|-
| [[Classical antiquity]]
|-
| [[Middle Ages]]
|-
| [[Renaissance]]
|-
| [[Early Modern Europe]]
|-
| [[Modern Europe]]
|}
This article gives an account of the [[history]] of the continent of [[Europe]].
==The origins==
{{main|Prehistoric Europe}}
''[[Homo erectus]]'' and [[Neanderthal]]s settled [[Europe]] long before the emergence of modern humans, ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]''. The bones of first Europeans are found in [[Dmanisi]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], dated 2,000,000 BC.
The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 35,000 BC. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 7th millennium BC in [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]] and [[Greece]]. The [[Neolithic]] reached [[Central Europe]] in the 6th millennium BC and parts of [[Northern Europe]] in the 5th and 4th millennium BC. There is no prehistoric culture that covers the whole of Europe. For short introductions to the various cultures, see [[Palaeolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]].
The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the [[Minoans]] of the island of [[Crete]] and later the [[Mycenae|Mycenean]]s in the adjacent parts of [[Greece]], starting at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Around 400 BC, the [[La Tene culture]] spread over most of the interior as far as the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), and later [[Anatolia]]. The [[Etruscans]] inhabited central Italy and Lombardy, where they were displaced by the [[Celts]], who mingled with earlier residents of Iberia to produce a unique [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian culture]]. As the Celts did not use a [[written language]], knowledge of them is piecemeal. The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] encountered them and recorded a great deal about them; these records and the archaeological evidence form our primary understanding of this extremely influential culture. The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the Roman state, that later colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.
==The Greeks==
{{main|ancient Greece}}
At the end of the [[Bronze Age]] the older Greek kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place. The [[Hellenic civilization]] took the form of a collection of city-states (the most important being [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]), having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more-or-less unprecedented developments in various governmental forms, [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[politics]], [[sports]], [[theatre]] and [[music]]. The Hellenic city-states founded a large number of colonies on the shores of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Mediterranean]] sea, [[Asia Minor]], [[Sicily]] and Southern Italy in [[Magna Graecia]], but in the 4th century BC their internal wars made them an easy prey for king [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] of [[Macedon]]. The campaigns of his son [[Alexander the Great]] spread Greek culture into [[Iran|Persia]], [[Egypt]] and [[India]], but also favoured contact with the older learnings of those countries, opening up a new period of development, known as [[Hellenism]].
==Rome==
{{main|Ancient Rome}}
Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from [[Italy]], taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only real challenge to Roman ascent came from the [[Phoenicia]]n colony of [[Carthage]], but its defeat in the end of the 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman [[hegemony]]. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the [[Roman Republic]]), [[Rome]] finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under [[Augustus]] and his [[authoritarian]] successors. The [[Roman Empire]] had its centre in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers; under emperor [[Trajan]] (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, including [[Roman Britain|Britain]], [[Romania]] and parts of [[Mesopotamia]]. The empire brought peace, civilization and an efficient [[Centralized Government|centralized government]] to the subject territories, but in the 3rd century a series of [[civil war]]s undermined its economic and social strength. In the 4th century, the emperors [[Diocletian]] and [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western and an Eastern part. Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted [[Christianity]], Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored [[persecution of Christians]] in [[313]] with the [[Edict of Milan]], thus setting the stage for the empire to later become officially Christian in about [[380]] (which would cause the [[Church]] to become an important institution).
==Early Middle Ages==
{{main|Early Middle Ages}}
[[Western Europe]] emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the [[fall of the Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century, as [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] people's conquered it, where the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] (a.k.a. [[Byzantine Empire]]) survived for another millennium. The Roman Empire was already divided in a [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking and a [[Latin]]-speaking part for centuries. In the 7th and 8th century the [[Arab]] expansion brought [[Islam|Islamic]] cultures to the southern Mediterranean shores (from [[Syria]] to [[Sicily]] and [[Spain]]), further enlarging the differences between the various Mediterranean civilizations. Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, trade languished and people returned to local [[agriculture|agrarian]] communities. In the same century, Bulgarians created the first [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] state in Europe - [[Bulgaria]]. [[Feudalism]] created a new order in a world without cities and replaced the centralized Roman administration which was based on cities and a highly organized army. The only institution surviving the collapse of the Western Roman Empire was the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which preserved part of the Roman cultural inheritance and remained the primary source of learning in its domain at least until the 13th century; the [[bishop]] of [[Rome]], known as the [[Pope]], became the leader of the western church (in the east his supremacy was not accepted in the end).
The [[Holy Roman Empire]] emerged around 800, as [[Charlemagne]], king of the [[Franks]], was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern [[France]] and [[Germany]] expanded into modern [[Hungary]], [[Italy]], [[Bohemia]], [[Lower Saxony]] and [[Spain]]. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the [[Lombards]]. The pope was officially a vasal of the [[Byzantine Empire]], but the Byzantine emperor did (could do) nothing against the Lombards.
In the late 9th century and 10th century, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the [[Viking]]s who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced sea-going vessels such as the [[longship]]s. The [[Hungary|Hungarians]] pillaged mainland Europe and the [[Arabs]] the south, so there were no safe havens for the roman-catholic 'Europeans.'
In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe, e.g. [[Poland]] and [[Hungary]]. Hungary had stopped its pillaging campaigns.
The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of [[feudalism]], which weakened the Holy Roman Empire.
==High Middle Ages==
{{main|High Middle Ages}}
After the [[East-West Schism]], [[Western Christianity]] was adopted by newly created kingdoms of [[Central Europe]]: [[Poland]], [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]].
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor.
The area of the roman catholic church expanded enormously due to conversions of pagan kings ([[Scandinavia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]]) and [[crusades]]. Most of Europe was roman-catholic in the 15th century.
==Later Middle Ages==
[[Image:Europein1328.png|thumb|200px|right|Europe in 1328.]]
{{main|Later Middle Ages}}
Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in [[western Europe]] began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in [[Italy]], leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent [[city states]] such as [[Venice, Italy|Venice]] and [[Florence, Italy|Florence]]; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as [[France]], [[England]], [[Spain]], and [[Portugal]], although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. (See [[Reconquista]] for the latter two countries.) On the other hand, the [[Holy Roman Empire]], essentially based in [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal.
One of the largest catastrophes to have hit Europe was the [[bubonic plague]], also known as the [[Black Death]]. There were numerous outbreaks, but the most severe was in the mid-1300s and is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population. Since many [[Jew]]s worked as money-lenders ([[usury]] was not allowed for Christians) and were generally more immune to disease (thanks to their [[kosher]] laws concerning hygiene), the Jews were often disliked by Europeans, so it was popular to blame them for the epidemic. This led to increased [[persecution of Jews]] in some areas. Thousands of Jews fled to [[Poland]] which, ironically, was spared by the first plague, but black death came back time after time.
Beginning in the 14th century, the [[Baltic Sea]] became one of the most important |
) seized power and was considered the leader of the entire clan.
==Heian period==
During the [[Heian period|Heian]] period of Japanese history, the Hokke managed to establish a hereditary claim to the position of [[regent]], either for an underage emperor (''sesshō'') or for an adult one (''kampaku''). Some prominent Fujiwaras occupied these positions more than once, and for more than one emperor. Lesser members of the Fujiwara were [[Royal court|court]] [[Nobility|nobles]], [[Provinces of Japan|provincial]] [[governor]]s and vice governors, members of the provincial [[aristocracy]], and [[samurai]]. The Fujiwara was one of the four great families that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period (794-1185), and the most important of them at that time. The others were [[Tachibana clan|the Tachibana]], [[Taira clan|the Taira]] and [[Minamoto clan|the Minamoto]]. The Fujiwara exercised tremendous power, especially during the period of regency governments in 10th and 11th centuries, having many emperors as practically [[puppet monarch]]s.
The Fujiwara dominated the government of Japan 794-1160. There is no clear starting point of their dominance. However, their domination of civil administration was lost by the establishment of the first shogunate under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192.
Fujiwara princes initially served as highest ministers of the imperial Court (''kampaku'') and regents (''sesshō'') for underage monarchs. The Fujiwara were the proverbial "power behind the throne" for centuries. Apparently they never aspired to supplant the imperial dynasty. Instead, the clan's influence stemmed from its matrimonial alliances with the imperial family. Because consorts of crown princes, younger sons, and emperors were generally Fujiwara women, the male heads of the Fujiwara house were often the father-in-law, brother-in-law, uncle, or maternal grandfather of the emperor. The family reached the peak of its power under Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1027), a longtime ''kampaku'' who was the grandfather of three emperors, the father of six empresses or imperial consorts, and the grandfather of seven additional imperial consorts; it is no understatement to say that it was Michinaga who ruled Japan during this period, not the titular Emperors.
===Fujiwara regime in the Heian period===
The Fujiwara Regency was the main feature of government of the entire Heian era. Kyoto (Heiankyō) was geopolitically a better seat of government; with good river access to the sea, it could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces.
Just before the move to the Heiankyō, the emperor had abolished universal conscription in [[792]], and soon local, private militaries came into being. The [[Fujiwara clan|Fujiwara]], [[Taira]], and [[Minamoto]] were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.
In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara.
Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family.
As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the [[sixth century]], the Fujiwara by the [[ninth century]] had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed ''[[kampaku]]'' (regent for an adult emperor). Toward the end of the [[ninth century]], several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of [[Emperor Daigo]] ([[897]]-[[930]]), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly.
Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Emperor Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger [[shoen|''shōen'']] and greater wealth during the early [[tenth century]]. By the early Heian period, the ''shōen'' had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the ''shōen'' they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.
Within decades of Emperor Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, [[Fujiwara no Michinaga | Fujiwara Michinaga]] was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators."
The Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Japanese writing had long depended on Chinese ideograms (''[[kanji]]''), but these were now supplemented by ''[[kana]]'', two types of phonetic Japanese script: ''[[katakana]]'', a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and ''[[hiragana]]'', a cursive form of ''katakana'' writing and an art form in itself. ''Hiragana'' gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late [[tenth century]] and early [[eleventh century]] women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in ''Kagero Nikki'' ("The Gossamer Years") by "the mother of Michitsuna," ''Makura no Sōshi'' ("[[The Pillow Book]]") by [[Sei Shonagon|Sei Shōnagon]], and ''Genji Monogatari'' ("[[Tale of Genji]]")--the world's first novel--by [[Murasaki Shikibu]]. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored ''yamato-e'' (Japanese style) paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.
Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the [[Fujiwara clan|Fujiwara]], [[Taira]], and [[Minamoto]] families--all of whom had descended from the imperial family--attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally broke the peace of Japan.
The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of [[Emperor Go-Sanjo|Emperor Go-Sanjō]] ([[1068]]-[[1073|73]]), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Emperor Go-Sanjō, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate [[Estate (house)|estate]] records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many ''shōen'' were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Emperor Go-Sanjō also established the ''Inchō'', or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or ''insei'' (cloistered government).
The ''Inchō'' filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from [[1086]] to [[1156]] was the age of supremacy of the ''Inchō'' and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.
A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. [[Fujiwara Yorinaga]] sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in [[1158]] against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto. In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the ''insei'' system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. Within a year, the Taira and Minamoto clashed, and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, [[Minamoto Yoritomo]] ([[1147]]&ndash;[[1199]]) rose from his headquarters at [[Kamakura]] (in the [[Kanto]] region, southwest of modern [[Tokyo]]) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor [[Emperor Antoku]] they controlled, in the [[Genpei War]] ([[1180]]&ndash;[[1185]]).
After this downfall, the younger branches of the Fujiwara clan turned their fo |
s and other [[mammal]]s mostly by [[hematophagy|hematophagous]] [[insect]]s of the subfamily [[Triatominae]] (Family [[Reduviidae]]). Those insects are known by numerous common names varying by country, including [[assassin bug]], benchuca, vinchuca, kissing bug, chipo, barbeiro, et cetera. The most common insect species belong to the genera ''[[Triatoma]]'', ''[[Rhodnius]]'', and ''[[Panstrongylus]]''. Other forms of transmission are possible, though, such as ingestion of food contaminated with [[parasite]]s, [[blood transfusion]] and [[fetus|fetal]] transmission.
''Trypanosoma cruzi'' is a member of the same [[genus]] as the infectious agent of African [[sleeping sickness]], but its clinical manifestations, geographical distribution, life cycle and insect [[vector (biology)|vectors]] are quite different.
[[Image:Trypanosoma cruzi crithidia.jpeg|thumb|right|250 px|Photomicrograph of [[Giemsa]]-stained ''Trypanosoma cruzi'' [[crithidia]] ([[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]])]]
==History==
The disease was named after the [[Brazil]]ian [[physician]] and [[Infectology|infectologist]] [[Carlos Chagas]], who first described it in 1909, but the disease was not seen as a major [[public health]] problem in humans until the 1960s. He discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae harbored a flagellate protozoan, a new species of the ''[[Trypanosoma]]'' genus, and was able to prove experimentally that it could be transmitted to [[marmoset]] monkeys which were bitten by the infected bug.
Chagas named the [[pathogen]]ic parasite that causes the disease ''Schizotrypanum cruzi'' (later renamed to ''Trypanosoma cruzi''), after [[Oswaldo Cruz]], the noted Brazilian physician and [[epidemiologist]] who fought successfully [[epidemics]] of [[yellow fever]], [[smallpox]], and [[bubonic plague]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]] and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century. Chagas’ work is unique in the [[history of medicine]], because he was the only researcher so far to describe completely a new [[infectious disease]]: its [[pathogen]], [[Vector (biology)|vector]], [[host]], clinical manifestations, and [[epidemiology]]. Nevertheless, he at least believed falsely until 1925, that the main infection route is by the sting of the insect and not by the [[feces]], as it was proposed by his colleague [[Emile Brumpt]] 1915 and assured by [[Dias]] 1932, [[Cardoso]] 1938 and Brumpt himself 1939.
On another historical point of view, it has been hypothesized that [[Charles Darwin]] might have suffered from this disease as a result of a bite of the so-called Great Black Bug of the [[Pampas]] (vinchuca) (see [[Illness of Charles Darwin]]). The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of [[the Voyage of the Beagle]] as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the [[Andes]] near [[Mendoza]]. Darwin was young and in general good health though six months previously he had been ill for a month near [[Valparaiso]], but in 1837, almost a year after he returned to [[England]], he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of [[symptom]]s, becoming very incapacitated for much of the rest of his life. Attempts to test Darwin's remains at the [[Westminster Abbey]] by using modern [[PCR]] techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey's [[curator]].
==Epidemiology and geographical distribution==
[[Image:Carte maladie Chagas.png|thumb|250px|Chagas in [[Latin America]] (A:Endemic zones)]]
Chagas disease currently affects 16-18 million people, killing around 20,000 people annually and with some 100 million at risk of acquiring the disease. Chronic Chagas disease remains a major health problem in many [[Latin America]]n countries, despite the effectiveness of hygienic and preventive measures, such as eliminating the transmitting insects, which have reduced to zero new infections in at least two countries of the region. With increased population movements, however, the possibility of transmission by blood transfusion has become more substantial in the United States [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/329/9/639]. Also, ''T. cruzi'' has already been found infecting wild [[opossum]]s and [[raccoon]]s as far as North Carolina [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1597808].
The disease is distributed in the [[The Americas|Americas]], ranging from the southern [[United States]] to southern [[Argentina]], mostly in poor, [[rural]] areas of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]].
The disease is almost exclusively found in rural areas, where the Triatominae can breed and feed on the [[natural reservoir]]s (the most common ones being [[opossum]]s and [[armadillo]]s) of ''T.cruzi''. Depending on the special local interactions of the vectors and their hosts, other infected humans, domestic animals like [[cat]]s, [[dog]]s, [[guinea pig]]s and wild animals like [[rodent]]s, [[monkey]]s, [[ground squirrel]]s (''[[Spermophilus beecheyi]]'') and many other could also serve as important parasite reservoirs. Though Triatominae bugs feed on birds, these seem to be immune against infection and therefore are not considered to be a ''T. cruzi'' reservoir, but they remain suspicious to be a constant feeding resource for the vectors in the surroundings of human stay.
The popular name of the vector insect in Brazil, ''barbeiro'' ("the barber"), so called because it sucks the blood at night by biting the face of its victims, reveals some of its habits. The insects, who develop a predominantly domiciliary and [[anthropophilic]] behaviour once they have infested a house [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15691011&query_hl=2], usually hide during the day in crevices and gaps in the walls and roofs of poorly constructed homes. More rarely, better constructed houses may harbor the insect vector, due to the use of rough materials for making roofs, such as [[bamboo]] and [[thatch]]. A [[mosquito net]], wrapped under the matress, will provide protection in these situations, when the adult insect might sail down from above, but one of the five nymphal stages ([[instars]]) could crawl up from the floor.
Even when the colonies of the insects are eradicated in the house and around (domestic animal shelters), they again can arrive (also by flying short distances) from nearby nature (possibly a [[palm tree]]), where animals and the insect which are part of the ancient, natural silvatic infection cycle use to live. This especially can happen in zones with mixed open savannah, clumps of trees, etc., interspersed by human habitation.
Dense vegetation, like in tropical [[rain forest]]s, and urban habitats, are not ideal for the establishment of the human transmission cycle. However, in regions where the sylvatic [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] and its fauna are thinned out by economical exploitation and human habitation, such as in newly [[deforestation|deforested]] areas of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] region, this may occur, when the insects are searching for a new prey.
==Clinical manifestations==
[[Image:Chagoma.jpg|thumb|right|This child from Panama is suffering from Chagas disease manifested as an acute infection with swelling of the right eye (Romaña's sign). Source: CDC.]]
The human [[disease]] occurs in two stages: the acute stage shortly after the [[infection]], and the chronic stage that may develop over 10 years.
In the acute phase, a local skin nodule called a ''chagoma'' can appear at the site of [[inoculation]]. When the inoculation site is the [[conjunctiva|conjunctival]] mucous membranes, the patient may develop unilateral periorbital edema, conjunctivitis, and preauricular lymphadenitis. This constellation of findings is referred to as '''Romaña's sign'''. The acute phase is usually [[asymptomatic]], but can present with manifestations that include [[fever]], [[anorexia]], [[lymphadenopathy]], mild [[hepatosplenomegaly]], and [[myocarditis]]. Some acute cases (10 to 20%) resolve over a period of 2 to 3 months into an asymptomatic chronic stage, only to reappear after several years.
The symptomatic chronic stage may not occur for years or even decades after initial infection. The disease affects the [[nervous system]], [[digestive system]] and [[heart]]. Chronic infections result in various neurological disorders, including [[dementia]], damage to the heart muscle ([[cardiomyopathy]], the most serious manifestation), and sometimes dilation of the [[digestive tract]] ([[megacolon]] and [[megaesophagus]]), as well as [[weight loss]]. [[Swallowing]] difficulties may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to [[malnutrition]]. After several years of an asymptomatic period, 27% of those infected develop cardiac damage, 6% develop digestive damage, and 3% present peripheral nervous involvement. Left untreated, Chagas disease can be fatal, in most cases due to the [[cardiomyopathy]] component.
==Infection cycle==
An infected triatomine insect vector takes a blood meal and releases [[trypomastigote]]s in its feces near the site of the bite wound. By scratching the site of the bite, the victim allows trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound, or through intact mucosal membranes, such as the [[conjunctiva]]. Inside the host, the trypomastigotes invade cells, where they differentiate into intracellular [[amastigote]]s. The amastigotes multiply by [[binary fission]] and differentiate into trypomastigotes, and then are released into the circulation as bloodstream trypomastigotes. Trypomastigotes infect cells from a variety of [[biological tissue]]s and transform into intracellular amastigotes in new infection sites. Clinical manifestations can result from this infective cycle and cell death at the target tissues. For example, it has been shown by Austrian-Brazilian pathologist Dr. [[Fritz Köberle]] in the 1950s at the [[Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão |
nagement of its affairs.
==IOC Members==
{{see|List of members of the International Olympic Committee}}
For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were co-opted, which means they were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members, others one or none. When named, they became not representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather to opposite, IOC members in their respective countries.
For a long time, members of the royalty were popular targets of co-option, and there are still some around, like Prince Albert de Monaco, and then former athletes. These last 10 years, the composition has evolved, in order to get a better representation of the sports world. Members seats have been allocated specifically to athletes, International Federations leaders and National Olympic Committees leaders.
===Membership===
IOC members are natural persons. The total number of IOC members may not exceed 115.
Each member of the IOC is elected for a term of eight years and may be re-elected for one or several further terms.
1. A majority of members whose memberships are not linked to any specific function or
office; their total number may not exceed 70; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country;
2. Active athletes, the total number of whom may not exceed 15, elected for eight years by their peers during the Olympic Games;
3. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within IFs, associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC, the total number of whom may not exceed 15;
4. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, or
world or continental associations of NOCs, the total number of whom may not exceed 15; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country within the IOC.
===Cessation of membership===
The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances:
1. Resignation: any IOC member may cease his membership at any time by delivering his written resignation to the President.
2. Non re-election: any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if he is not re-elected.
3. Age limit: any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which he reaches the age of 70.
4. Failure to attend Sessions or take active part in IOC work for two consecutive years.
5. Transfer of domicile or of main centre of interests to a country other than the
country that was his at the time of his election.
6. Members elected as active athletes cease to be a member upon ceasing to be a member of
the IOC Athletes’ Commission.
7. Presidents and persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, world or continental associations of NOCs, IFs or associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC cease to be a member upon ceasing to exercise the function he was exercising at the time of his election.
8. Expulsion: an IOC member may be expelled by decision of the Session if such member has betrayed his oath or if the Session considers that such
member has neglected or knowingly jeopardised the interests of the IOC or acted in a way which is unworthy of the IOC.
''See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004''
== Host city bids ==
Countries which wish to host the [[Summer Olympic Games]] or the [[Winter Olympic Games]] must bid for the organisation with the IOC, which has the ultimate authority of deciding where the Games will take place. The IOC members, representing most of the member countries, vote to decide where the Games will take place. Members from countries which have cities bidding to host the games are excluded from the voting process, up until the point where their city drops out of the contest.
== Olympic marketing ==
===Revenue===
The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) manages broadcast partnerships and the TOP worldwide sponsorship programme. The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes within the host country under the direction of the IOC.
The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US$4 billion in revenue during the most recent Olympic quadrennium (2001 – 2004). The following chart provides details of the revenue generated from each major programme managed by the IOC and the OCOGs during this period.
===Revenue distribution===
The IOC distributes approximately 92% of Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 8% of Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement.
===The Organising Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs)===
The IOC provides TOP programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Olympic Games and Olympic Winter Games:
*TOP Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the two OCOGs of each Olympic quadrennium generally share approximately 50% of TOP programme revenue and value-in-kind contributions, with approximately 30% provided to the summer OCOG and 20% provided to the winter OCOG.
*Broadcast Revenue to OCOGs; the IOC contributes 49% of the Olympic broadcast revenue for each Games to the OCOG. During the 2001 - 2004 Olympic quadrennium, the Salt Lake 2002 Organising Committee received US$443 million in broadcast revenue from the IOC, and the Athens 2004 Organising Committee received US$732 million.
*Domestic Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the OCOGs generate substantial revenue from the domestic marketing programmes that they manage within the host country, including domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing.
===National Olympic Committees (NOCs)===
The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need.
The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US$318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001 - 2004 quadrennium.
===International Olympic Sports Federations (IFs)===
The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Winter Games, respectively.
The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games. The seven winter sports IFs shared US$85.8 million in Salt Lake 2002 broadcast revenue. The contribution to the 28 summer sports IFs from Athens 2004 broadcast revenue has not yet been determined, but the contribution is expected to mark a significant increase over the US$190 million that the IOC provided to the summer IFs following Sydney 2000.
===Other organisations===
The IOC contributes Olympic marketing revenue to the programmes of various recognised international sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee, the Paralympic Organising Committee, and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
See [http://www.olympic.org official site of the IOC]
== Scandals ==
The IOC has been involved in a number of scandals, most involving members taking advantage of the bidding cities to extort financial and other rewards. [[2002 Winter Olympic bid scandal|The most widely publicised example]] occurred in relation to the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City]] but earlier stories, reported by British journalists [[Vyv Simson]] and [[Andrew Jennings]], date back decades. After the Salt Lake City scandal, efforts were made to clamp down on the most blatant misbehaviour of IOC delegates (who used their position as voters for the host city to extract favours from bidders for the games), and an advisory board of recently retired former athletes has been set up. Critics of the organisation believe more fundamental reform is required, for instance replacing the self-perpetuating system of delegate selection with a more democratic process.
==See also==
*[[List of members of the International Olympic Committee]]
*[[List of IOC meetings]]
*[[Olympic Congress]]
*[[International Paralympic Committee]]
*[[List of IOC country codes]]
*[[Olympic Order]]
==Reference==
*{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= The Lord of The Rings. Power, Money and Drugs in the Modern Olympics.| publisher= Shuster & Shuster | id=ISBN 0-671-71122-9 | url= | authorlink= | author= Simson & Jennings}}
==External links==
*[http://www.olympic.org/ IOC Official Website]
*[http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch]
*[http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml Overview of IOC-elections of hosting cities]
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[[ |
e digger's representative elected to the Legislative Council. The delegation rejected this, and returned to Ballarat empty handed.
==Escalation==
[[Image:Doudiet Swearing allegiance to the Southern Cross.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Swearing Allegiance to the Southern Cross on [[December 1]] [[1854]] - watercolour by [[Charles Doudiet]]]]
On [[28 November]], the reinforcements marching from Melbourne were attacked by a mob of miners. A number were injured and a drummer boy was allegedly killed. The rumour of the death of the drummer boy was perpetuated, even with a memorial erected to him in Ballarat Cemetery for many years, although historical research has shown that the boy, John Egan, continued military service until dying in 1860.[http://freepages.history.rootsweb.com/~garter1/drummerboy.htm]
At a meeting the following day ([[29 November]]) of about 12,000 'diggers', the Reform League delegation relayed to the miners its failure to achieve any success in negotiations with the authorities. The miners resolved to openly resist the authorities and burn the hated licences. A confrontation appeared unavoidable.
Most notably the [[Eureka Flag]], a blue flag designed by a [[Canada|Canadian]] miner, "Captain" [[Henry Ross]], and bearing nothing but the [[Crux|Southern Cross]], was flown for the first (recorded) time. As a gesture of defiance, it deliberately excluded the British [[Flag of the United Kingdom|Union Flag]], which appears on the official [[flag of Australia]]. The original Eureka flag is now housed at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery.
At the meeting on Bakery Hill miners swore an oath of allegiance:
: "We swear by the Southern Cross to stand truly by each other and fight to defend our rights and liberties"
Rede responded by ordering a large contingent of police to conduct a licence search on [[30 November]]. Although eight defaulters were arrested, most of the military resources available had to be summoned to extricate the arresting officers from the angry mob that had assembled.
This raid prompted a change in the leadership of the Reform League, to people who argued in favour of 'physical force' rather than the 'moral force' championed by Humffray and the old leadership.[http://www.takver.com/history/eureka.htm#aa522] In the rising tide of anger and resentment amongst the miners a more militant leader, [[Peter Lalor]], took control. In swift fashion a military structure was assembled. Brigades were formed and captains were appointed. Licences were burned, the rebel "Eureka" flag was unfurled and an oath of allegiance was sworn. An encampment at the Eureka Flat was set up and by Friday, [[1 December]], a stockade had been hastily constructed from timber and overturned carts. The miners vowed to defend themselves from licence hunts and harassment by the authorities.
During Saturday [[December 2]] some 1500 men trained in and around the stockade. A further two hundred Americans, the Independent Californian Rangers, under the leadership of James McGill, arrived about 4pm. The Americans were armed with revolvers and Mexican knives and possessed horses. In a fateful decision, McGill decided to take most of the Californian Rangers away from the stockade to intercept rumoured British reinforcements coming from Melbourne. Rede's spies observed these actions. That night many of the miners went back to their own tents after the traditional Saturday night carousing, with the assumption that the Queen's military forces would not be sent to attack on the sabbath, Sunday. A small contingent of about 150 miners remained at the stockade overnight, which the spies reported to Rede.
== Battle ==
[[Image:painting stockade.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The attack by forces of the British Army and both foot and mounted Ballarat police was short and deadly.]]Rede's inaction thus far did not reflect his true intent, and at 3 am on Sunday, [[3 December]], [[1854]], a party of 276 police and military personnel under the command of Captain J.W. Thomas approached the Eureka Stockade and a battle ensued.
[[Image:Map of eureka stockade 1854.jpg|left|thumb|Map of the stockade]]
There is no agreement as to which side fired first, but what was clear was that the battle was fierce, brief, and terribly one-sided. The ramshackle army of miners was hopelessly outclassed by a military regiment and was quickly routed in about 15 minutes. During the height of the battle Lalor was shot in his right arm, took refuge under some timber and was smuggled out of the stockade and hidden. His arm was later amputated.
According to accounts of that morning, after the initial battle had ended, mounted police and foot police carried out what some have described as a massacre, in which no quarter was given, for about two hours. Killing was indiscriminate, bodies mutilated, tents set on fire, the burning and pillaging of nearby stores occurred. (Store owners and others later received compensation for this destruction). The rampage by the police not only occurred in the Eureka Stockade but innocent people were attacked up to several hundred metres from the stockade. Stories tell how women ran forward and threw themselves over the injured to prevent further indiscriminate killing. The Commission of Inquiry would later say it was "''a needless as well as a ruthless sacrifice of human life indiscriminate of innocent or guilty, and after all resistance had disappeared''".
According to Lalor's report, fourteen miners (mostly Irish) died inside the stockade and an additional eight died later from injuries they sustained. A further dozen were wounded but recovered. Three months after the Eureka Stockade, Peter Lalor wrote: "As the inhuman brutalities practised by the troops are so well known, it is unnecessary for me to repeat them. There were 34 digger casualties at which 22 died. The unusual proportion of the killed to the wounded, is owing to the butchery of the military and troopers after the surrender."
By 7am Captain Pasley, the second in command of the British forces, sickened by the carnage, saved a group of prisoners from being bayoneted and threatened to shoot any police or soldiers who continued with the slaughter. One hundred and fourteen diggers, some wounded, were marched off to the Government camp about 2 kilometres away, where they were kept in an overcrowed lockup, before being moved to a more spacious barn on Monday morning.
Among the soldiers and military police, records indicate six were killed, including one Captain Wise. [[Martial law]] was imposed, and all armed resistance collapsed. News of the massacre spread quickly to Melbourne and other goldfield regions, turning a perceived Government military victory in repressing a minor insurrection into a public relations disaster with widespread condemnation of the Government's action, and support for the diggers requested reforms.
== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Eureka_Stockade.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A memorial stone.]]
For a few weeks it appeared that the [[status quo]] had been restored, and Rede ruled the camps with an iron fist. However, in [[Melbourne]] and much of rural Victoria, and to a lesser extent the other Australian colonies, there was tremendous public outcry over the military actions. Newspapers characterised it as a brutal overuse of force in a situation brought about by the actions of government officials in the first place, and public condemnation became insurmountable.
=== Trials for Sedition and High Treason ===
The first trial relating to the rebellion was a charge of [[Australian sedition law|sedition]] against [[Henry Seekamp]] of the ''Ballarat Times''. Seekamp was arrested in his newspaper office on [[4 December]] [[1854]], for a series of articles that appeared in the ''Ballarat Times''. Many of these articles were written by George Lang, the son of the prominent republican and Presbyterian Minister of Sydney - the Reverend [[John Dunmore Lang]]. The Chief Justice, Sir [[William à Beckett]], effectively told the jury that it must find Seekamp guilty. He was tried and convicted of seditious libel by a Melbourne jury on [[23 January]] [[1855]] and, after a series of appeals, sentenced to six months imprisonment on [[23 March]]. He was released from prison on [[28 June]] [[1855]], precisely three months early.
[[Image:Reward notice lalor black eureka.JPG|thumb|A reward of 400 pounds was issued for [[Peter Lalor]] and George Black.]]
Of the 120 odd 'diggers' detained after the rebellion, thirteen were brought to trial. They included:
* Timothy Hayes, Chairman of the Ballarat Reform League,
* James McFie Campbell a black man from Kingston Jamaica
* [[Raffaello Carboni]], an Italian and trusted lieutenant in charge of the diggers who spoke European languages
* Jacob Sorenson, a Jew
* John Manning, a ''Ballarat Times'' journalist, from Ireland
* John Phelan, a friend and business partner of Peter Lalor, from Ireland
* Thomas Dignum, born in Sydney,
* John Joseph, a black American from New York
* James Beattie, from Ireland
* William Molloy, from Ireland
* Jan Vannick, from Holland,
* Michael Tuohy, from Ireland
* Henry Reid
The first trial started on [[22 February]] [[1855]] with John Joseph brought before the court on charges of high treason. Joseph was one of three Americans arrested at the stockade, with the US Consul intervening for the release of the two Americans of caucasion complexion. The prosecution was handled by Attorney General [[William Stawell]] representing the Crown before Chief Justice [[William à Beckett]]. After hearing the evidence, the jury quickly returned a Not Guilty verdict with the court erupting in wild cheering. John Joseph was carried around the streets of Melbourne in a chair in triumph by over 10,000 people.
Under the auspices of Victorian Chief Justice [[Redmond Barry]], all subsequent trials were rapidly acquitted to great public acclaim. Rede himself was quietly removed from the camps and r |
e an option of carrying a pistol on the flight deck, as a last resort to thwart hijack attempts. Opponents proposed that shooting down the aircraft and killing everyone onboard would be more reasonable than a pilot firing a pistol in an airliner at a flight deck intruder. Explosive decompression in an aircraft, however, is a myth, and their objections are mostly hyperbole. [http://www.gadgetopia.com/post/2606]
Since "Hi, Jack" and "hijack" are [[homophones]] while aircraft are very vulnerable to any breaches to safety and security, this pronunciation is now widely regarded as a serious taboo in more airports. [[Los Angeles International Airport]] has reminded people not to say "Hi, Jack", but "Hello, Jack" is no problem.
== International law issues ==
===Tokyo Convention ===
{{Sect-stub}}
===Hague Aircraft Hijacking Convention===
{{Sect-stub}}
===Montreal Convention===
{{Sect-stub}}
==See also==
* [[Airport security]]
* [[D. B. Cooper]]
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<page>
<title>Acropolis, Athens</title>
<id>2076</id>
<revision>
<id>41777838</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:01:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Djordjes</username>
<id>88876</id>
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<minor />
<comment>[[sr:Акропољ (Атина)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.acropolis3.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the hill of the [[Pnyx]] to the west.]]
The '''Acropolis of Athens''' is the best known [[acropolis]] (high city) in [[Greece]]. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens such that it is commonly known as '''The Acropolis''' without qualification. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock which rises 150 metres (512 feet) above sea level in the city of [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], [[Greece]]. It was also known as '''Cecropia''' in honor of the legendary [[snake|serpent]]-man, Kekrops or [[Cecrops]], the first Athenian king.
'''Coordinates:''' {{coor dms|37|58|17|N|23|43|36|E|}}
==Geology of the rock==
[[Image:ac.acropolis4.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the north, with the restored [[Stoa of Attalus]] in the foreground]]
The Acropolis rises sharply from the plain of [[Attica]] with steep cliffs on three sides. It is accessible by foot only to the west, where it is linked by a low ridge to the hill of the [[Areopagus]]. It is formed by a layer of blue-grey [[limestone]], which is very hard but water-permeable. This rests on a layer of [[schist]]-[[sandstone]] [[marl]], softer than the limestone but water-impermeable. This arrangement leads to the ready formation of artesian springs, as well as sheltered caves at the hill's feet, which was also a factor that attracted human habitation on and around the rock from early on.
==Early human presence==
[[Image:ac.acropolis2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The south wall of the Acropolis of Athens, seen from the [[Theatre of Dionysus]].]]
The earliest artefacts from the area point to the Middle [[Neolithic]] era, although there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic ([[6000 BCE]]). Once into the [[Bronze Age]], there is little doubt that a [[Mycenaean]] [[megaron]] must have stood on top of the hill, housing the local potentate and his household, guards, the local cult facilities and a number of workshops and ordinary habitations. The compound was surrounded by a thick [[Cyclopean]] circuit wall (between 4.50 and 6onsisting of two [[parapet]]s built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called ''emplekton''. The wall follows typical Mycenaean convention in that its gate was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers' right-hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. [[Homer]] must refer to this state of affairs when he mentions the "strong-built House of [[Erechtheus]]" ([[Odyssey]] 7.81). It was during that time that an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge, one that ran all the way down to the marl layer and in which water duly collected. An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well was used as a protected source of drinking water during some portion of the Mycenaean period, as it was invaluable in times of siege.
==The Dark Ages==
[[Image:ac.acropolis2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus]] to the south-east.]]
It seems that the Acropolis might have been spared of the violent destruction of other Mycenaean palaces, as there are no signs of fire or other large-scale destruction in what few artefacts of that time survive. This ties with the standard Athenian folklore that the area resisted the Dorians successfully. Not much is known as to the precise state of building on the rock leading up to the archaic era, except that the Acropolis was taken over by [[Cylon (ancient Athenian)|Kylon]] in the Kylonian revolt, and twice by [[Pisistratus]]: all attempts directed at seizing political power by ''[[coup]]s d' etat''. Nevertheless it seems that a nine-gate wall, the ''Enneapylon'', had been built around the biggest water spring, the "[[Clepsydra]]", at the northwestern foot. It was [[Pisistratus]] who initially established a precinct for [[Artemis]] ''Brauronia'', the cult of his hometown, [[Brauron]], on the southwestern side of the rock, next to the circuit wall.
==Archaic Acropolis==
[[Image:Acropolis of Athens 31344.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Stairs leading up to the Propylea.]]
It is known with some certainty that a sizeable temple sacred to Athena Polias (Protectress of the City) was erected by mid-[[6th century BC]]. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the "Bluebeard" temple, named after the pedimental three-bodied man-serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or a mere sacred precinct or altar, is not known. In the late [[6th century BC]] yet another temple was built, usually referred to as the ''Archaios Naos'' (Old Temple). It is thought that the so-called ''Doerpfeld'' foundations might have belonged to this temple, which may have been sacred not to Polias but to Athena ''Parthenos'' (Virgin), at least for as long as the Polias "Bluebeard" temple stood. It is not known how long these temples coexisted. To confuse matters further, by the time the "Bluebeard" Temple had been dismantled, a yet newer and grander marble building, the "Older Parthenon", was started following the victory at [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]] in 490 BCE. To accommodate it, the south part of the summit was cleared of older remnants, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of [[Piraeus]] limestone, a foundation 11 meters deep at some points, and the rest filled with earth kept in place by the retaining wall. The Mycenaean gate was demolished and replaced with the ''Old Propylon'', a monumental colonnaded structure whose purpose was strictly ceremonial, rather than defensive. The Older Parthenon was caught unfinished by the invading Persians in [[480 BCE]], and was razed to the ground and burnt, along with the ''Archaios Neos'' and practically everything else on the rock. Once the [[Persian Wars]] were over, the Athenians put the place in order, first ceremonially burying objects of worship and art that were rendered unsuitable for further use. This "[[Perserschutt|Persian debris]]" is the richest archaeological treasure excavated on the Acropolis, as its burial had protected it from further destruction through the ages.
==The Periclean building program==
[[Image:Acropolis of Athens 01361.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The western side of the Parthenon.]]
Most of the major temples were rebuilt under the leadership of [[Pericles]] during the [[Golden Age]] of Athens (460–430 BC). [[Phidias]], a great Athenian sculptor, and [[Ictinus]] and [[Callicrates]], two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction.
During the [[5th century BC]], the acropolis gained its final shape. After winning at [[Battle of the Eurymedon|Eurymedon]] in [[468 BC]], [[Cimon]] and [[Themistocles]] ordered the reconstruction of southern and northern walls, and [[Pericles]] entrusted the building of the [[Parthenon]] to Ictinus and [[Phidias]]. In [[437 BC]] [[Mnesicles]] started building the [[Propylaea]], monumental gates with columns of [[Penteli]] [[marble]], partly built upon the old propylaea of Pisistratus. These colonnades were almost finished in the year [[432 BC]] and had two wings, the northern one serving as picture gallery. At the same time, south of the propylaea, the building of the small Ionic temple of [[Athena Nike]] started. After an interruption caused by the [[Peloponnesian War]], the temple was finished in the time of [[Nicias]]' peace, between [[421 BC]] and [[415 BC]].
At the same period they started the building of the [[Erechtheum]], a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of ''Athena Polias'', [[Poseidon]], Erechtheus, Cecrops, Erse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its so-called the ''Kore Porch'' (or ''[[Caryatid]]s' balcony''). Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon there was the [[temenos]] of [[Artemis]] Brauronia, the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the [[deme]] of Brauron. The archaic ''[[xoanon]]'' of the [[goddess]] and a statue made by [[Praxiteles]] in the [[4th century BC]] were both in the sanctuary. Behind the Propylaea, Phidias' gigantic bronze statue of ''[[Athena Promachos]]'' (&qu |
art critic, was one of the most outstanding [[Germany|German]] representatives of [[the Enlightenment]] era. With his plays and his theoretical writings he substantially influenced the development of German literature.
==Life==
<div style="float:right; margin-left: 7px; margin-bottom: 7px;">[[Image:Gotthold_Ephraim.jpg]]</div>
Lessing was born in [[Kamenz]], a little town in [[Saxony]]. His father was a clergyman and the author of theological writings. After visiting Latin School in Kamenz (from 1737 onwards) and the Fürstenschule St. Afra in [[Meissen]] (from 1741 onwards) he studied theology and medicine in [[Leipzig]] (1746-1748).
From 1748 to 1760 he lived in Leipzig and [[Berlin]] and worked as reviewer and editor for, amongst others, the ''Vossische Zeitung''. In 1752 he took his Master's degree in [[Wittenberg]]. From 1760 to 1765 he worked in [[Breslau]] (now Wroclaw) as secretary to a General Tauentzien. In 1765 he returned to Berlin, only to leave again in 1767 to work for three years as a dramaturge and adviser at the German National Theatre in [[Hamburg]]. There he met [[Eva König]], his future wife.
In 1770 Lessing became a [[librarian]] at the Herzog-August-Bibliothek in [[Wolfenbüttel]]. His tenure there was interrupted by many travels. For example, in 1775 he journeyed to [[Italy]] accompanied by Prince Leopold.
In 1776 he married Eva König, who was widowed now, in Jork (near Hamburg). She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son.
On [[15 February]], [[1781]], Lessing died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in [[Braunschweig (city)|Braunschweig]], aged 52.
==Work==
Lessing was a poet, philosopher and critic. As an outstanding representative of the [[German Enlightenment]] he became the leading figure for the new self-confidence of the [[bourgeoisie]]. His theoretical and critical writings are remarkable for their often witty and ironic style and their unerring polemics. Hereby the stylistic device of dialogue met with his intention of looking at a thought from different angles and searching for elements of truth even in the arguments made by his opponents. For him this truth was never solid or something which could be owned by someone but always a process of approaching.
He early showed interest in the theatre. In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject -- as in his own plays -- he tried to contribute to the development of a new bourgeois theatre in Germany. With this he especially turned against the then predominant [[literary theory]] of [[Gottsched]] and his followers. He particularly criticised the simple imitation of the French example and pleaded for a recollection of the classic theorems of [[Aristotle]] and for a serious reception of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s works. He worked with many theatre groups (e.g. the one of the [[Neuberin]]).
In Hamburg he tried with others to set up the German National Theatre. Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama. ''Miß Sara Sampson'' and ''[[Emilia Galotti]]'' are seen as the first [[bourgeois tragedy |bourgeois tragedies]], ''Minna of Barnhelm'' ('''Minna von Barnhelm''') as the model for many classic German comedies, ''Nathan the Wise'' ('''Nathan der Weise''') as the first ideological idea drama ("Ideendrama"). His theoretical writings '''Laokoon''' and '''Hamburgian Dramaturgy''' ('''Hamburgische Dramaturgie''') set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles.
In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought. He argued against the belief in revelation and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine. As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a "Christianity of Reason", which oriented itself by the spirit of religion. He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation.
In addition, he spoke up for [[tolerance]] of the other world religions in many arguments with representatives of the predominant schools of thought (e.g. within the "Anti-Goeze"). He also worked this position into his dramatic work (in '''Nathan der Weise''') when he was forbidden to publish further theoretical writings. In his writing ''The Education of Humankind'' ('''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts''') he extensively and coherently lays out his position.
The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life. Therefore he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming bourgeoisie from the nobility making up their minds for them.
In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence. But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced. His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with [[C.J. Bode]], failed.
==Select bibliography==
: ''The Young Scholar'' (''Der junge Gelehrte'') (1748)
: ''The Freethinker'' (''Der Freigeist'') (1749)
: ''The Jews'' (''Die Juden'') (1749)
: ''Miß Sara Sampson'' (1755)
: ''Philotas'' (1759)
: ''Fables'' (''Fabeln'') (1759)
: ''Laokoon oder Ueber die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie'' (1766)
: ''Minna of Barnhelm'' (''Minna von Barnhelm'') (1767)
: ''[[Emilia Galotti]]'' (1772)
: ''Anti-Goeze'' (1778)
: ''Nathan the Wise'' (''[[Nathan der Weise]]'') (1779)
: ''Ernst und Falk - Gespräche für [[Freemasonry|Freymäurer]]'' (1776-1778)
: ''The Education of Humankind'' (''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts'') (1780)
==See also==
* [[Greek revival]]
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Gotthold+Ephraim+Lessing | name=Gotthold Ephraim Lessing}}
* [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren/lessing.htm Lessing's works online (in German)]
[[Category:1729 births|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:1781 deaths|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:German dramatists and playwrights|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:German writers|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:German poets|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[da:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
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[[ka:ლესინგი, გოტჰოლდ ეფრაიმ]]
[[hu:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
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[[ja:ゴットホルト・エフライム・レッシング]]
[[no:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
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[[zh:戈特霍尔德·埃夫莱姆·莱辛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geotechnical engineering</title>
<id>12306</id>
<revision>
<id>42083070</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ruwanraj</username>
<id>708866</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Recommended Reading */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boston_CAT_Project-construction_view_from_air.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.]]
'''Geotechnical engineering''' is concerned with the [[engineering]] properties of earth materials. Geotechnical engineers investigate the [[soil]] and [[bedrock (geology)|bedrock]] below a site to confirm their engineering properties as they will relate to the proposed costruction. The geotechnical engineer determines and designs the type of foundations and pavements required for the intended man-made structures to be built. This includes such structures as high-rise buildings, bridges, highways, and tunnels but also include smaller structures such as a single family home built on a steep hillside. They also design structures built in or of soil or rock. The foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow [[foundation (architecture)|foundations]] (footings), deep foundations (driven [[pile]]s and drilled piers), and [[retaining wall]]s. [[Dam]]s and [[embankment]]s are structures built of soil or rock; [[tunnel]]s are structures built through soil or rock. Geotechnical engineers also assess the risk to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards such as [[earthquakes]], [[landslide]]s, debris flows, and rock falls (all involving natural materials). Geotechnical Engineering is also applicable to coastal and ocean engineering applications, such as construction of wharves, marinas, jetties, as well as foundation/anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms.
[[Karl Terzaghi]] is widely considered the father of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering. Foundations are of two types. Shallow foundations and deep foundations. Deep foundations could be piles, caissons and other structures that goes deep into the ground. Piles are usually made of timber, steel, fiber glass and other composite material. ''(Rajapakse 2004, see reference).
== Soil investigations ==
=== In Situ Methods ===
* SPT - [[Standard Penetration Test]]
* CPT - Cone Penetration Test
* CPM - Cone Pressuremeter Test
* DMT - Flat Plate Dilatometer Test
* PMT - Pre-bored Pressuremeter Test
* VST - Vane Shear Test
=== Geophysical Methods ===
* Mechanical waves (pressure, shear, and [[Rayleigh waves]])
** Crosshole method
** Downhole method (Seismic CPT)
** Surface wave methods (e.g., SASW and MASW)
** Seismic reflection
** Seismic refraction
* Electromagnetic (radar, resistivity)
* Optical/Acoustic Televiewer Survey
=== Lab tests ===
* [[Atterberg Limits]] (ASTM D 4318)
* Grain Size Analysis and Hydrometer Tests
* Compaction Tests - includ |
h take that function to local [[extremum|extrema]] will all have a first derivative of zero. However, not all critical points are local extrema; for example, ''f(x)=x<sup>3</sup>'' has a critical point at ''x=0'', but it has neither a maximum nor a minimum there. The [[first derivative test]] and the [[second derivative test]] provide ways to determine if the critical points are maxima, minima or neither.
In the case of multidimensional domains, the function will have a partial derivative of zero with respect to each dimension at local extrema. In this case, the Second Derivative Test can still be used to characterize critical points, by considering the [[eigenvalue]]s of the [[Hessian matrix]] of second partial derivatives of the function at the critical point. If all of the eigenvalues are positive, then the point is a local minimum; if all are negative, it is a local maximum. If there are some positive and some negative eigenvalues, then the critical point is a [[saddle point]], and if none of these cases hold then the test is inconclusive (e.g., eigenvalues of 0 and 3).
Once the local extrema have been found, it is usually rather easy to get a rough idea of the general graph of the function, since (in the single-dimensional domain case) it will be uniformly increasing or decreasing except at critical points, and hence (assuming it is [[continuity (mathematics)|continuous]]) will have values in between its values at the critical points on either side.
== Generalizations ==
{{see details|derivative (generalizations)}}
Where a function depends on more than one variable, the concept of a '''[[partial derivative]]''' is used. Partial derivatives can be thought of informally as taking the derivative of the function with all but one variable held temporarily constant near a point. Partial derivatives are represented as &part;/&part;x (where &part; is a rounded 'd' known as the 'partial derivative symbol'). Some people pronounce the partial derivative symbol as 'der' rather than the 'dee' used for the standard derivative symbol, 'd'.
The concept of derivative can be extended to more general settings. The common thread is that the derivative at a point serves as a [[linear approximation]] of the function at that point. Perhaps the most natural situation is that of functions between differentiable [[manifold]]s; the derivative at a certain point then becomes a [[linear transformation]] between the corresponding [[tangent space]]s and the derivative function becomes a map between the [[tangent bundle]]s.
In order to differentiate all [[continuous function|continuous]] functions and much more, one defines the concept of [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]].
For [[complex number|complex]] functions of a complex variable differentiability is a much stronger condition than that the real and [[imaginary part]] of the function are differentiable with respect to the real and imaginary part of the argument. For example, the function ''f''(''x''&nbsp;+&nbsp;''iy'')&nbsp;= ''x''&nbsp;+&nbsp;2''iy'' satisfies the latter, but not the first. See also the article on [[holomorphic function]]s.
== See also ==
* [[Derivative (examples)]]
* [[Derivative (generalizations)]]
* [[Partial derivative]]
* [[Total derivative]]
* [[Table of derivatives]]
* [[Smooth function]]
* [[Differintegral]]
* [[Automatic differentiation]]
==External links==
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/analysis/function.en WIMS Function Calculator] makes online calculation of derivatives; this software also enables interactive exercises.
==References==
*Spivak, Michael; ''Calculus'' (3rd edition, 1994) Publish or Perish Press. ISBN 0914098896. Explains why all this works.
*Thompson, Silvanus Phillips, ''Calculus made easy : being a very-simplest introduction to those beautiful methods of reckoning which are generally called by the terrifying names of the differential calculus and the integral calculus'' New York : St. Martin's Press, 1998 ISBN 0312185480. Introduced by [[Martin Gardner]]. "What one fool can do, another can."
* Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P.; and Edwards, Bruce H. (2003). ''Calculus of a Single Variable: Early Transcendental Functions'' (3rd edition). Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 061822307X.
* Anton, Howard (1980). ''Calculus with analytical [[geometry]].''. New York:John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-03248-4.
[[Category:Differential calculus|*]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[af:Afgeleide]]
[[ar:اشتقاق (رياضيات)]]
[[ca:Derivada]]
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[[ko:미분]]
[[io:Derivado]]
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[[he:נגזרת]]
[[lt:Išvestinė]]
[[hu:Differenciálhatóság]]
[[nl:Afgeleide (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:微分]]
[[no:Derivasjon]]
[[pl:Pochodna funkcji]]
[[pt:Derivada]]
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[[ru:Производная функции]]
[[simple:Derivative]]
[[sr:Извод]]
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[[th:อนุพันธ์]]
[[tr:Türev]]
[[zh:导数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dravidian languages</title>
<id>7922</id>
<revision>
<id>41139525</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T07:50:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khoikhoi</username>
<id>657950</id>
</contributor>
<comment>not relavant</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dravidian''' [[Language families and languages|family of languages]] includes approximately 26 languages that are mainly spoken in [[South India|southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], as well as certain areas in [[Pakistan]], [[Nepal]], and eastern and central [[India]], as well as in parts of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]].
Dravidian languages are spoken by more than 200 million people, and they appear to be unrelated to languages of other known families. A few scholars include the Dravidian languages in a larger [[Elamo-Dravidian language family]], which includes the ancient [[Elamite language]] of what is now southwestern Iran; but this is not accepted by most of the Dravidianists.
==History==
The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation, are unclear, and the situation is not helped by the lack of [[comparative linguistics|comparative linguistic]] research into the Dravidian languages. There are striking similarities between the Dravidian and [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] and [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language groups, which suggest prolonged contact between the language families at some stage although a common origin appears unlikely. Inconclusive attempts have also been made to link the family with the [[Japonic languages]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], the [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] and the relatively unknown language of the [[Indus valley civilisation]].
Legends common to many Dravidian-speaking groups speak of their origin in a vast, now-sunken continent far to the south. Many linguists, however, tend to favour the theory that speakers of Dravidian languages spread southwards and eastwards through the [[Indian subcontinent]], based on the fact that the southern Dravidian languages show some signs of contact with linguistic groups which the northern Dravidian languages do not. [[Proto-Dravidian]] is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian and Proto-South Dravidian around 1500 BC, although some linguists have argued that the degree of differentiation between the sub-families points to an earlier split.
The existence of the Dravidian language family was first suggested in [[1816]] by [[Alexander D. Campbell]] in his ''Grammar of the Teloogoo Language'', in which he and [[Francis W. Ellis]] argued that [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] were descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor. However, it was not until [[1856]] that [[Robert Caldwell]] published his ''Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages'', which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established it as one of the major language groups of the world. Caldwell coined the term "Dravidian" from the [[Sanskrit]] ''dr&#257;vida'', which was used in a 7th century text to refer to the languages of the south of India. The publication of the ''[[Dravidian etymological dictionary]]'' by [[T. Burrow]] and [[M. B. Emeneau]] was a landmark event in Dravidian linguistics.
==List of Dravidian languages==
[[List of national languages of India|National languages of India]] are in '''boldface''':
===Southern===
* '''[[Tamil language|Tamil]]'''
* '''[[Kannada language|Kannada]]'''
* '''[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]'''
* [[Tulu language|Tulu]]
* [[Bellari language|Bellari]]
* [[Toda language|Toda]]
* [[Kota language|Kota]]
* [[Koraga]]
* [[Badaga language|Badaga]]
* [[Kurumba]]
* [[Irula]]
* [[Kodava Takk]] ([[Kodagu]])
===South Central===
* '''[[Telugu language|Telugu]]'''
* [[Gondi language|Gondi]]
* [[Abujmaria language|Abujmaria]]
* [[Koya language|Koya]]
* [[Konda]]
* [[Manda language|Manda]]
* [[Pengo language|Pengo]]
* [[Kui language|Kui]]
* [[Kuvi]]
===Central===
* [[Kolami language|Kolami]]
* [[Naiki]]
* [[Parji]]
* [[Gadaba]]
===Northern===
*[[Brahui language|Brahui]] (the only Dravidian language not spoken in India, Sri Lanka, or Nepal; it is spoken in [[Balochistan|Baluchistan]] in Pakistan)
*[[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]
*[[Malto language|Malto]]
==Grammar==
Dravidian languages are [[agglutinative]] and exhibit the [[inclusive and exclusive we]] feature.
==Phonology==
Dravidian languages are noted for the lack of distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops. While some Dravidian languages (especially Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu) have large numbers of loan words from [[Sanskrit]] and other [[Indo-European langu |
hnologies v. Wiredata|Assessment Technologies v. WIREdata]] [http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/op3.fwx?submit1=showop&caseno=03-2061.PDF], which ruled that a copyright holder in a compilation of public domain data cannot use that copyright to prevent others from using the underlying public domain data, but may only restrict the specific format of the compilation, if that format is itself sufficiently creative.
In the late 1990s, Congress attempted to pass laws which would protect collections of [[data]], but these measures failed. By contrast, the [[European Union]] has a [[sui generis]] (specific to that type of work) intellectual property protection for collections of data.
=== Other countries ===
The subsistance of copyright in phone directories have come up in several other countries.
In Canada, the appeal-level case of ''[[Tele-Direct (Publications) Inc. v. American Business Informations Inc.]]'' (1997) 76 C.P.R. (3d) 296 (F.C.A.) reached a similar result to that of Feist. However, the Supreme Court backed away from the originality doctrine in ''[[CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada]]''.
In Australia, the Federal Court decision of ''[[Desktop Marketing Systems Pty Ltd v Telstra]]'' [2002] FCAFC 112 followed the UK approach in [[Walter v. Lane]] and ruled that subsistance in copyright did in-fact follow the "sweat of the brow" doctrine.
==Relation with treaties==
Congress has been considering whether to implement a [[treaty]] negotiated at the [[World Trade Organization]]. Part of the [[Uruguay Round|Uruguay Round Agreement]] resulted in text which states, in Part II, Section 1, Article 10:
:Compilations of data or other material, whether in machine readable or other form, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such. Such protection, which shall not extend to the data or material itself, shall be without prejudice to any copyright subsisting in the data or material itself.
The text mirrors that of Article 2(5) of the [[Berne Convention]], which applies to "collections of literary or artistic works".
This treaty provision is broadly in line with the [[United States Copyright Act]] and the Act's [[case law]], which protects compilations of data whose "selection and arrangement" is sufficiently original. ''See'' 17 U.S.C. § 101 ("compilation" as defined by the [[United States Copyright Act]] includes compilations of data). The standard for such originality is fairly low; for example, business listings have been found to meet this standard when deciding which companies should be listed and categorizing those companies required some kind of expert judgement. ''See Key Publ'ns, Inc. v. Chinatown Today Pub. Enters.'', 945 F.2d 509 (2d Cir. 1991) (applying ''Feist''). As such, implementation of this treaty would not overrule ''Feist''.
==References==
#{{note|citation}}[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=499&invol=340 The Feist v. Rural Decision]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court cases]]
[[Category:United States copyright case law]]
[[Category:1991 in law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fair use</title>
<id>10772</id>
<revision>
<id>41152789</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T10:55:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ta bu shi da yu</username>
<id>75749</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links and sources */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{intellectual property}}
The '''fair use''' doctrine is an aspect of [[United States copyright law]] that provides for the legal, non-licensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor balancing test. The term "fair use" is unique to the United States; a similar principle, [[fair dealing]], exists in some other [[common law]] jurisdictions. U.S. [[trademark]] law also incorporates a "fair use" defense. While the names are the same, the doctrines are quite different.
[[Philippines|Philippine]] [[Philippine copyright law|copyright law]] has a fair use doctrine based largely, or even exactly, on the doctrine adopted in the United States.
==Fair use under United States law==
The legal concept of "copyright" was first ratified by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]]'s [[Statute of Anne]] of [[1709]]. As room was not made for the unauthorized reproduction of copyrighted content within this newly formulated statutory right, the courts gradually created a doctrine of "fair abridgement", which later became "fair use", that recognized the utility of such actions. The doctrine only existed in the U.S. as [[Common law|common law]] until it was incorporated into the [[United States Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act of 1976]], {{UnitedStatesCode|17|107}}, excerpted here:
<blockquote>
Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include&mdash;
:# the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
:# the nature of the copyrighted work;
:# the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
:# the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.
The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.html]
</blockquote>
The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the classic opinion of Justice Story in ''Folsom v. Marsh'', [[Case citation|9 F.Cas. 342]] ([[1841]]), in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of [[George Washington]] in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own. The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation:
<blockquote>
[A] reviewer may fairly cite largely from the original work, if his design be really and truly to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism. On the other hand, it is as clear, that if he thus cites the most important parts of the work, with a view, not to criticise, but to supersede the use of the original work, and substitute the review for it, such a use will be deemed in law a piracy...
In short, we must often... look to the nature and objects of the selections made, the quantity and value of the materials used, and the degree in which the use may prejudice the sale, or diminish the profits, or supersede the objects, of the original work.
</blockquote>
It is important to note that once these factors were codified as guidelines in USC § 107, they were not rendered exclusive. The section was intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law. Courts are still entitled to consider other factors as well.
Fair use tempers copyright's exclusive rights to serve the purpose of copyright law, which the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] defines as the promotion of "the Progress of Science and useful Arts" (I.1.8).
Some commentators have also suggested that some form of fair use defense is required by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]'s protection of [[free speech]], because without some amount of copying, some things simply cannot be said. This analysis applies particularly well in the case of criticism. It also reads on various other limitations on copyright's exclusive rights, particularly the ''[[scenes a faire]]'' doctrine.
=== Purpose and character ===
The first factor questions whether the use under consideration helps fulfill the intention of copyright law to stimulate creativity for the enrichment of the general public, or whether it aims to only "supersede the objects" of the original for reasons of, say, personal profit. In order to justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new. A key consideration is the extent to which the use is interpreted as ''transformative'', opposed to as merely ''derivative''. When [[Tom Forsythe]] appropriated [[Barbie]] dolls for his photography project "Food Chain Barbie", [[Mattel]] lost its claims of copyright and trademark infringement against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents (cf. the 2003 9th Circuit case ''Mattel Inc. v. Walking Mountain Productions''). However, when [[Jeff Koons]] tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph "Puppies" in his sculpture "String of Puppies" with the same 'parody' defense, he lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but of society at large, which was deemed insufficiently justificatory (see ''[[Rogers v. Koons|Art Rogers v. Jeff Koons]]'', 960 F.2d 301). Thus, even if a secondary work proves transformative, it must be appropriately so.
The subfactor mentioned in the legislation above, "whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes," has recently been deemphasized in some Circuits "since many, if not most, secondary uses seek at least some measure of commercial gain from their use" (''Ame |
ina]] sign the [[Shanghai Communiqué]].
*[[1974]] - After seven years, the [[United States]] and [[Egypt]] re-establish diplomatic relations.
*[[1975]] - A major tube train crash at [[Moorgate station]], [[London]] kills 43 people.
*[[1983]] - The final episode of ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' is broadcast in the [[United States|USA]], becoming the most watched [[television]] episode in history, with 106&ndash;125 million viewers in the U.S. (estimate varies by source).
*[[1986]] - [[Olof Palme]], [[Prime Minister of Sweden]], is assassinated in [[Stockholm]].
*[[1993]] - [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] agents raid the [[Branch Davidian]] compound in [[Waco, Texas]] with a warrant to arrest [[cult]] leader [[David Koresh]]. Four BATF agents and five Davidians die in the initial raid, starting a 51-day standoff.
*[[1997]] - The [[North Hollywood shootout]] takes place.
*[[1998]] - [[Kosovo War]]: [[Serbia]]n police begin the offensive againt the [[KLA]] in [[Kosovo]].
*[[2001]] - An [[Nisqually earthquake|earthquake]] measuring 6.8 on the [[Richter Scale]] hits the Nisqually Valley area of the U.S. state of [[Washington]].
*[[2002]] - At least 55 are killed in [[Ahmadabad]], [[India]] when [[Hindu]]s burn [[Muslim]] homes.
*[[2004]] - Over 1 million [[Taiwan]]ese participating in the [[228 Hand-in-Hand Rally]] form a 500-kilometre (300-mile) long human chain to commemorate the [[228 Incident]] in [[1947]]
==Births==
*[[1155]] - [[Henry the Young King]], son of [[Henry II of England]] (d. [[1183]])
*[[1533]] - [[Michel de Montaigne]], French writer and philosopher (d. [[1592]])
*[[1552]] - [[Joost Bürgi]], Swiss clockmaker and mathematician (d. [[1632]])
*[[1612]] - [[John Pearson (scholar)|John Pearson]], English theologian (d. [[1686]])
*[[1670]] - [[Benjamin Wadsworth]], American President of Harvard University (d. [[1737]])
*[[1675]] - [[Guillaume Delisle]], French cartographer (d. [[1726]])
*[[1683]] - [[Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur|René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur]], French scientist (d. [[1757]])
*[[1704]] - [[Louis Godin]], French astonomer (d. [[1760]])
*[[1712]] - [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm]], French military commander (d. [[1759]])
*[[1724]] - [[George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend]], British field marshal (d. [[1807]])
*[[1820]] - [[John Tenniel]], English illustrator (d. [[1914]])
*[[1823]] - [[Ernest Renan]], French philosopher (d. [[1892]])
*[[1827]] - [[Blondin]], French tightrope walker (d. [[1897]])
*[[1833]] - [[Alfred von Schlieffen]], German field marshal (d. [[1913]])
*[[1865]] - [[Wilfred Grenfell]], medical missionary to [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] (d. [[1940]]).
*[[1878]] - [[Pierre Fatou]], French mathematician (d. [[1929]])
*[[1882]] - [[Geraldine Farrar]], American soprano (d. [[1967]])
*[[1882]] - [[José Vasconcelos]], Mexican writer and politician (d. [[1959]])
*[[1894]] - [[Ben Hecht]], American playwright and screenwriter (d. [[1964]])
*[[1896]] - [[Philip Showalter Hench]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1965]])
*[[1900]] - [[Wolfram Hirth]], German pilot and aircraft designer (d. [[1959]])
*[[1901]] - [[Linus Pauling]], American chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1903]] - [[Vincente Minnelli]], American director (d. [[1986]])
*[[1906]] - [[Bugsy Siegel]], American gangster (d. [[1947]])
*[[1908]] - [[Billie Bird]], American actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1909]] - [[Stephen Spender]], English poet (d. [[1995]])
*[[1915]] - [[Peter Medawar]], Brazilian-born scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1987]])
*1915 - [[Zero Mostel]], American actor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1923]] - [[Charles Durning]], American actor
*[[1926]] - [[Svetlana Alliluyeva]], Soviet defector, daughter of [[Joseph Stalin]]
*[[1929]] - [[Hayden Fry]], American football coach
*1929 - [[Frank Gehry]], Canadian-American architect
*[[1930]] - [[Leon Neil Cooper]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1930 - [[Gavin MacLeod]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[Dean Smith]], American basketball coach
*[[1932]] - [[Don Francks]], Canadian actor
*[[1933]] - [[Rein Taagepera]], Estonian politician
*[[1939]] - [[Daniel C. Tsui]], Chinese-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1939 - [[Tommy Tune]], American dancer, choreographer, and actor
*[[1940]] - [[Mario Andretti]], American race car driver
*1940 - [[Joe South]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1942]] - [[Frank Bonner]], American actor and director
*1942 - [[Brian Jones (musician)|Brian Jones]], English musician ([[The Rolling Stones]]) (d. [[1969]])
*1942 - [[Dino Zoff]], Italian footballer
*[[1944]] - [[Kelly Bishop]], American actress
*1944 - [[Sepp Maier]], German footballer
*1944 - [[Win Aung]], Burmese politician
*[[1945]] - [[Bubba Smith]], American football player and actor
*[[1946]] - [[Robin Cook]], British politician (d. [[2005]])
*1946 - [[Syreeta Wright]], American singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1947]] - [[Stephanie Beacham]], British actress
*[[1948]] - [[Steven Chu]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1948 - [[Mike Figgis]], English director, writer, and composer
*1948 - [[Bernadette Peters]], American actress and singer
*1948 - [[Mercedes Ruehl]], American actress
*[[1952]] - [[William Finn]], American composer and lyricist
*[[1955]] - [[Gilbert Gottfried]], American comedian and actor
*[[1956]] - [[Jimmy Nicholl]], Canadian-born Northern Irish footballer
*[[1957]] - [[John Turturro]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Dorothy Stratten]], Canadian actress and model (d. [[1980]])
*[[1961]] - [[Rae Dawn Chong]], Canadian actress
*1961 - [[Mark Latham]], Australian politician
*[[1967]] - [[Colin Cooper]], English footballer
*[[1969]] - [[Robert Sean Leonard]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Noureddine Morceli]], Algerian athlete
*1970 - [[Lemony Snicket]], American writer
*[[1971]] - [[Tristan Louis]], American writer
*[[1972]] - [[Rory Cochrane]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Eric Lindros]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1974]] - [[Lee Carsley]], Irish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Benjamin Raich]], Austrian Olympic skier
*[[1979]] - [[Primoz Peterka|Primo&#382; Peterka]], Slovenian ski jumper
*[[1980]] - [[Pascal Bosschaart]], Dutch footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Natalia Vodianova]], Russian Model
*[[1985]] - [[Jelena Janković]], Serbian tennis player
*[[1986]] - [[Daniel Broderick]], Australian musician
*[[2001]] - [[Smarty Jones]], American racehorse
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1261]] - [[Henry III, Duke of Brabant]]
*[[1326]] - Duke [[Leopold I of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold I of Austria]] (b. [[1290]])
*[[1453]] - [[Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine]] (b. [[1400]])
*[[1485]] - [[Niclas, Graf von Abensberg]], German soldier (b. [[1441]])
*[[1510]] - [[Juan de la Cosa]], Spanish cartographer and explorer
*[[1572]] - [[Aegidius Tschudi]], Swiss historian (b. [[1505]])
*[[1621]] - [[Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (b. [[1590]])
*[[1648]] - King [[Christian IV of Denmark and Norway]], (b. [[1577]])
*[[1746]] - [[Hermann von der Hardt]], German historian (b. [[1660]])
*[[1786]] - [[John Gwynn]], English architect and engineer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1788]] - [[Thomas Cushing]], American Continental Congressman (b. [[1725]])
*[[1857]] - [[André Dumont]], Belgian geologist (b. [[1809]])
*[[1916]] - [[Henry James]], American writer (b. [[1843]])
*[[1936]] - [[Charles Nicolle]], French bacteriologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1866]])
*[[1941]] - King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] (b. [[1886]])
*[[1942]] - [[Karel Doorman]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1889]])
*[[1959]] - [[Maxwell Anderson]], American playwright and film writer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1967]] - [[Henry Luce]], American publisher (b. [[1898]])
*[[1974]] - [[Bobby Bloom]], American singer/songwriter (b. [[1946]])
*[[1977]] - [[Eddie 'Rochester' Anderson]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1978]] - [[Philip Ahn]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*1978 - [[Zara Cully]], American actress (b. [[1892]])
*[[1985]] - [[David Byron]], British singer ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]]) (b. [[1947]])
*1985 - [[Ray Ellington]], British singer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1991]] - [[Reinhard Bendix]], German sociologist (b. [[1916]])
*[[1993]] - [[Ruby Keeler]], Canadian actress, singer, and dancer (b. [[1910]])
*[[1998]] - [[Dermot Morgan]], Irish actor and comedian (b. [[1952]])
*1998 - [[Arkady Shevchenko]], Soviet diplomat (b. [[1930]])
*[[2002]] - [[Mary Stuart (actress)|Mary Stuart]], American actress (b. [[1926]])
*2002 - [[Helmut Zacharias]], German violinist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2003]] - [[Chris Brasher]], British athlete (b. [[1928]])
*2003 - [[Fidel Sánchez Hernández]], [[President of El Salvador]] (heart attack) (b. [[1917]])
*2003 - [[Roger Michael Needham]], British cryptographer (b. [[1935]])
*[[2004]] - [[Daniel J. Boorstin]], American historian, writer, and [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1914]])
*2004 - [[Andres Nuiamäe]], Estonian soldier (killed in battle) (b. [[1982]])
*[[2006]] - [[Owen Chamberlain]], American physicist. [[Nobel prize]] recepient. (b. [[1940]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Day 3 of [[Ayyám-i-Há]] (Intercalary Days) - days in the Bah&aacute;'&iacute; calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
*[[Mardi Gras]] - [[2006]] [[Shrove Tuesday]].
*[[Day of Analucia]] - ''Día de Andalucía'' (also known as "F28").
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/28 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060228.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&da |
from all city vehicles, business cards, and police badges. However, the issue will be put on the November 2005 ballot [http://www.redlandsseal.org]. The ACLU/SC also threatened [[Los Angeles County, California]] if it did not remove an image of a cross from its seal. As in the Redlands case, the county board complied with the demands and voted to remove the cross from its seal as well. There was a petition against the changing of the seal, which ended on [[August 15]], [[2005]] [http://www.savetheseal.net/].
In [[1990]], [[Pat Robertson]] founded the [[American Center for Law and Justice]], as a counterweight to the ACLU, which is perceived by Robertson as "liberal" and "hostile to traditional [[American values]]"; another non-profit legal center, the [[Thomas More Law Center]], also bills itself as the "Christian answer to the ACLU."
After the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]], the Rev. [[Jerry Falwell]] remarked that the ACLU, by trying to "secularize America," had provoked the wrath of God, and therefore caused those terrorist attacks. (Falwell later apologized for the remark.) Other critics of the ACLU do not make such strong accusations, but claim that the organization pushes the concept of separation of church and state beyond its original meaning. The ACLU and Jerry Falwell sometimes find themselves on the same side. Notably, the ACLU filed an amicus brief supporting a suit by Falwell against the state of Virginia. The suit, which was successful, overturned the Virginia constitution's ban on the incorporation of Churches. In addition, the ACLU has defended the rights of a Christian church to run anti-Santa ads on Boston subways, the rights to religious expression by jurors, and the rights of Christian students to distribute religious literature in school. [http://www.aclu.org/ReligiousLiberty/ReligiousLiberty.cfm?ID=17598&c=38]
While the ACLU does oppose the use of crosses in public monuments [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040331/news_7m31soledad.html], [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=43799], there have been false allegations that the ACLU has urged the removal of cross-shaped [[headstone]]s from federal [[cemetery|cemeteries]] and has opposed prayer by [[soldier]]s; such charges have been deemed to be [[urban legend]]s. [http://www.snopes.com/politics/religion/cemetery.asp]
Many minority religious groups like [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Muslim]]s have at times been defended by the ACLU and are ardent supporters of it. In the [[Mormon]] community, the ACLU is viewed positively by some, who cite [[Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe]], a case litigated by the ACLU on behalf of a Mormon student concerning [[school prayer]] [http://wenger.blogspot.com/2003_08_10_wenger_archive.html#106087652143939285]. However, a good number of Mormons, including some local leaders, are strongly against the activities of the ACLU [http://www.timesandseasons.org/archives/000198.html].
Jehovah's Witnesses were involved in twenty-three Supreme Court rulings between 1938 and 1946 over religious objections to serving in the armed forces and over saluting the flag and reciting the pledge of allegiance [http://www.commondreams.org/views/022800-105.htm], over local and state ordinances prohibiting the Witnesses from publishing criticisms of the [[Roman Catholic]] church [http://www.commondreams.org/views/022800-105.htm], as well as over government reluctance to prosecute anti-Witness vigilantes; the ACLU was directly involved in these cases [http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/petjud.html]; the ACLU's involvement with Jehovah's Witnesses continues, and they joined the Witnesses in a 2002 case over doorbell-ringing [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/nation/1272268.html].
===Liberal critics===
The ACLU has also, though less frequently, been subject to criticism from the [[political left]]. Some critics object to the organization's advocacy for corporations' protection by the Bill of Rights known as [[corporate personhood]], as well as its stance against some campaign finance reform laws.
===Feminist & Left critics===
Some [[Anti-pornography movement|anti-pornography activists]], including [[Nikki Craft]] and [[Catharine MacKinnon]], who oppose pornography on [[feminist]] grounds, are also strong critics of the ACLU; in her lifetime, [[Andrea Dworkin]]'s positions on pornography also led her to similar stances. A group, started by Craft in the early 1990s, is called "Always Causing Legal Unrest (ACLU)"; the resultant acronym confusion led the then-director of the Union [[Dorothy M. Ehrlich]] to send a letter of protest [http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/aclu/Ehrlich.html], but the Union did not pursue legal action against Craft's group.
===Libertarian critics===
While some refer to the ACLU as a [[libertarian]] organization and while the ACLU has defended the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|US Libertarian Party]] in recent cases [http://www.aclu.org/VotingRights/VotingRights.cfm?ID=10305&c=32], a number of libertarians and [[objectivists]] oppose the ACLU for its support of laws that they view as distinctly anti-liberty, such as [[affirmative action]] and anti-discrimination laws that apply to private property. One objection held by some libertarians is the belief that private business owners have an inherent right to discriminate against serving customers, or hiring employees, based on criteria such as race or sex.
Former ACLU member [[Nat Hentoff]] has criticized the organization in a libertarian vein for promoting affirmative action and for supporting what he sees as government protected liberal speech codes enacted on college campuses and the workplace [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/hentoff092099.asp].
Law professor [[David Bernstein]]'s book "You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws" takes the ACLU to task for frequently seeking to undermine expressive rights when they conflict with antidiscrimination laws, as in the 2000 Supreme Court case of [[Boy Scouts of America v. Dale]]. Some libertarians have formed an organization they describe as the "libertarian ACLU" [http://www.lpws.org/spokane/why.htm], the [[Institute for Justice]].
==National affiliates==
Below are some of the ACLU's bigger affiliates:
* [http://www.aclu-sc.org/ ACLU of Southern California]
* [http://www.aclunc.org/ ACLU of Northern California]
* [http://www.aclu-nca.org/ ACLU of the National Capital Area (District of Columbia, and Prince George's and Montgomery Counties of Maryland)]
* [http://www.aclufl.org/ ACLU of Florida]
* [http://www.aclu-il.org/ ACLU of Illinois]
* [http://www.aclu-mass.org/ ACLU of Massachusetts]
* [http://www.aclumich.org/ ACLU of Michigan]
* [http://www.aclu-mn.org/ ACLU of Minnesota]
* [http://www.aclu-em.org/ ACLU of Eastern Missouri]
* [http://www.aclunebraska.org/ ACLU of Nebraska]
* [http://www.aclu-nj.org/ ACLU of New Jersey]
* [http://www.nhclu.org/ New Hampshire Civil Liberties Union]
* [http://www.nyclu.org/ New York Civil Liberties Union]
* [http://www.acluohio.org/ ACLU of Ohio]
* [http://www.aclupa.org/ ACLU of Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.acluva.org/ ACLU of Virginia]
* [http://www.aclu-wa.org/ ACLU of Washington]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.aclu.org Official website]
* [http://www.topix.net/news/aclu ACLU News from Topix.net]
* [http://www.aclu.org/SafeandFree/SafeandFree.cfm?ID=12666&c=206 Freedom Under Fire: Dissent in a Post-9/11 America]
* [http://www.stoptheaclu.org Stop the ACLU Main Site] (Critics of the ACLU)
[[Category:1917 establishments]]
[[Category:Civil rights]]
[[Category:Court cases litigated by the American Civil Liberties Union|*]]
[[Category:Government watchdog groups in the U.S.]]
[[Category:Legal defence organizations]]
[[de:American Civil Liberties Union]]
[[it:American Civil Liberties Union]]
[[ja:アメリカ自由人権協会]]
[[nl:American Civil Liberties Union]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aslan</title>
<id>1951</id>
<revision>
<id>41168035</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:07:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.23.84.125</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Christological aspects */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Narnia aslan.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Aslan in promotional artwork from the film ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'']]
'''Aslan''' the "Great Lion" is the main character in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by [[C. S. Lewis]]. He appears in all seven books of the series. The word ''aslan'' is [[Turkish Language|Turkish]] for "[[lion]]" and is used as a title for [[Ottoman Dynasty|Ottoman]]/[[Seljukids|Seljukid]] and [[Persian Empire]](Turkic) rulers. The figure of Aslan may have been suggested by a mysterious lion which suddenly appears and disappears at key moments in the novel [[The Place of the Lion]], by Lewis' close friend [[Charles Williams]].
==Christological aspects==
Throughout the series it is often repeated that he is "not a tame lion", since, despite his gentle and loving nature, he is powerful and can be dangerous. He takes the role of a [[Christ|Christ-like]] figure, though according to Lewis he is not an [[allegorical]] portrayal of Christ, but rather a different, hypothetical, [[incarnation]] of Christ himself:
:''If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality however he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, 'What might Christ become like if there really were a world like Narnia and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?' This is not allegory at all.''
Thus, Lewis claimed that the Chronicles were not Christian allegory because they are not allegory, not be |
e;"
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Alice'''
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | knows
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | doesn't know
|-
| p = 23
| b = 15
|-
| base g = 5
|
|-
| a = 6
|
|-
| 5<sup>6</sup> mod 23 = 8
|
|-
| 5<sup>b</sup> mod 23 = 19
|
|-
| 19<sup>6</sup> mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 8<sup>b</sup> mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 19<sup>6</sup> mod 23 = 8<sup>b</sup> mod 23
|
|-
| s = 2
|
|}
| valign="top" |
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;"
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Bob'''
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | knows
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | doesn't know
|-
| p = 23
| a = 6
|-
| base g = 5
|
|-
| b = 15
|
|-
| 5<sup>15</sup> mod 23 = 19
|
|-
| 5<sup>a</sup> mod 23 = 8
|
|-
| 8<sup>15</sup> mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 19<sup>a</sup> mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 8<sup>15</sup> mod 23 = 19<sup>a</sup> mod 23
|
|-
| s = 2
|
|}
| valign="top" |
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;"
| align="center" colspan="2" | '''Eve'''
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | knows
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | doesn't know
|-
| p = 23
| a = 6
|-
| base g = 5
| b = 15
|-
|
| s = 2
|-
| 5<sup>a</sup> mod 23 = 8
|
|-
| 5<sup>b</sup> mod 23 = 19
|
|-
| 19<sup>a</sup> mod 23 = s
|
|-
| 8<sup>b</sup> mod 23 = s
|
|-
| 19<sup>a</sup> mod 23 = 8<sup>b</sup> mod 23
|
|}
|}
Note: It should be difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key or for Bob to solve for Alice's private key. If it isn't difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key (or vice versa), Eve may simply substitute her own private / public key pair, plug Bob's public key into her private key, produce a fake shared secret key, and solve for Bob's private key (and use that to solve for the shared secret key. Eve may attempt to choose a public / private key pair that will make it easy for her to solve for Bob's private key).
==Security==
The protocol is considered secure against eavesdroppers if ''G'' and ''g'' are chosen properly. The eavesdropper ("[[Alice and Bob|Eve]]") must solve the [[Diffie-Hellman problem]] to obtain ''g''<sup>''ab''</sup>. This is currently considered difficult. An efficient algorithm to solve the [[Discrete logarithm problem|discrete logarithm problem]] would make it easy to compute ''a'' or ''b'' and solve the Diffie-Hellman problem, making this protocol insecure.
The [[Glossary of group theory|order]] of ''G'' should be prime or have a large prime factor to prevent use of the [[Pohlig-Hellman algorithm]] to obtain ''a'' or ''b''. For this reason, a [[Sophie Germain prime]] ''q'' is sometimes used to calculate ''p=2q+1'', called a [[safe prime]], since the order of ''G'' is then only divisible by 2 and ''q''. ''g'' is then sometimes chosen to generate the order ''q'' subgroup of ''G'', rather than ''G'', so that the [[Legendre symbol]] of ''g<sup>a</sup>'' never reveals the low order bit of ''a''.
If Alice and Bob use [[random number generator]]s whose outputs are not completely random but can be predicted to some extent, then Eve's task is much easier.
The secret integers ''a'' and ''b'' are discarded at the end of the [[session (computer science)|session]].
Therefore, Diffie-Hellman key exchange by itself trivially achieves [[perfect forward secrecy]] because no long-term private keying material exists to be disclosed.
===Authentication===
In the original description, the Diffie-Hellman exchange by itself does not provide [[authentication]] of the parties, and is thus vulnerable to [[man in the middle attack]]. The man-in-the-middle may establish two distinct Diffie-Hellman keys, one with Alice and the other with Bob, and then try to masquerade as Alice to Bob and/or vice-versa, perhaps by decrypting and re-encrypting messages passed between them. Some method to authenticate these parties to each other is generally needed.
A variety of cryptographic authentication solutions incorporate a Diffie-Hellman exchange. When Alice and Bob have a [[public key infrastructure]] they may digitally sign the agreed key, or ''g''<sup>''a''</sup> and ''g''<sup>''b''</sup>, as in [[MQV]], [[Station-to-Station protocol|STS]] and the [[Internet key exchange|IKE]] component of the [[IPsec]] protocol suite for securing [[Internet Protocol]] communications. When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a [[password-authenticated key agreement]] form of Diffie-Hellman.
==References==
* [http://www.mirrors.wiretapped.net/security/info/reference/cesg-publications/History/secenc.pdf Non-Secret Encryption Using a Finite Field] MJ Williamson, [[January 21]], [[1974]].
* [http://www.fi.muni.cz/usr/matyas/lecture/paper3.pdf Thoughts on Cheaper Non-Secret Encryption] MJ Williamson, [[August 10]], [[1976]].
* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/340126.html New Directions in Cryptography] W. Diffie and M. E. Hellman, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-22, Nov. 1976, pp: 644-654.
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=4200770.WKU.&OS=PN/4200770&RS=PN/4200770 Cryptographic apparatus and method] Martin E. Hellman, Bailey W. Diffie, and Ralph C. Merkle, U.S. Patent #4,200,770, [[29 April]] [[1980]]
* [http://www.cesg.gov.uk/site/publications/media/ellis.pdf The History of Non-Secret Encryption] [[James H. Ellis|JH Ellis]] [[1987]] (28K PDF file) ([http://www.jya.com/ellisdoc.htm HTML version])
* [http://cr.yp.to/bib/1988/diffie.pdf The First Ten Years of Public-Key Cryptography] Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 76, no. 5, May 1988, pp: 560-577 (1.9MB PDF file)
* [[Alfred Menezes|Menezes, Alfred]]; [[Paul van Oorschot|van Oorschot, Paul]]; [[Scott Vanstone|Vanstone, Scott]] (1997). ''[[Handbook of Applied Cryptography]]'' Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8523-7. ([http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/ Available online])
* [[Simon Singh|Singh, Simon]] (1999) ''[[The Code Book]]: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography'' New York: Doubleday ISBN 0-385-49531-5
* [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/ci1/public/anniv/pdfs/hellman.pdf An Overview of Public Key Cryptography] Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp:42-49. (123kB PDF file)
==See also==
* [[Portal:Cryptography |Cryptography portal]]
* [[Public-key cryptography]]
* [[ElGamal encryption]]
* [[Diffie-Hellman problem]]
* [[MQV]]
* [[Password-authenticated key agreement]]
==External links==
* '''RFC 2631''', ''Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method'' E. Rescorla June 1999. [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2631.txt Full text of RFC 2631]
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/encryption/kms/summary-x9-42.pdf ''Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography''] (64K PDF file) ([http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2306 Description of ANSI 9 Standards])
* [http://www.securitydocs.com/library/2978 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - A Non-Mathematician's Explanation] &mdash; by Keith Palmgren
* [http://www.xml-dev.com/blog/index.php?action=viewtopic&id=196 Diffie-Hellman explained visually]
{{Public-key cryptography}}
[[Category:Cryptographic protocols]]
[[Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems]]
[[de:Diffie-Hellman-Schlüsselaustausch]]
[[es:Diffie-Hellman]]
[[fr:Échange de clés Diffie-Hellman]]
[[he:פרוטוקול דיפי-הלמן]]
[[nl:Diffie-Hellman-sleuteluitwisselingsprotocol]]
[[pl:Diffie-Hellman]]
[[pt:Diffie-Hellman]]
[[fi:Diffie-Hellman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Designing Experiments</title>
<id>7904</id>
<revision>
<id>15905942</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-15T20:41:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[design of experiments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discrete Random Variable</title>
<id>7905</id>
<revision>
<id>30198736</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T06:46:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alan smithee</username>
<id>546086</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>double-redirect removal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrete probability distribution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Destry Rides Again</title>
<id>7906</id>
<revision>
<id>40405051</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T08:34:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bomkia</username>
<id>357508</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Destry Rides Again
| image = Destry Rides Again DVD cover.jpg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[George Marshall (director)|George Marshall]]
| producer = Joe Pasternak
| writer = [[Max Brand]] novel Destry Rides Again<br>Felix Jackson screenplay and story<br>Henry Myers<br>Gertrude Purcell
| starring =[[Marlene Dietrich]]<br>[[James Stewart]]<br>[[Mischa Auer]]
| music =[[Frank Skinner (composer)|Frank Skinner]]
| cinematography =
|
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