text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
on Earth.
== Notable characteristics ==
Argon is 2.5 times as [[solubility|soluble]] in water as [[nitrogen]] which is approximately the same solubility as [[oxygen]]. This highly stable chemical element is colorless and odorless in both its liquid and gaseous forms.
There are few known true chemical compounds that contain argon, which is one of the reasons it was formerly called an inert gas. The creation of argon hydrofluoride (HArF), a highly unstable compound of argon with [[fluorine]], was reported by researchers at the [[University of Helsinki]] in 2000, but has not been confirmed as of yet.
Although no ''chemical'' compounds of argon are presently confirmed, argon can form [[clathrates]] with [[water (molecule)|water]] when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules. Theoretical calculations on computers have shown several Argon compounds that should be stable but for which no synthesis routes are currently known.
== Applications ==
It is used in lighting since it will not react with the filament in a [[lightbulb]] even under high temperatures and other cases where diatomic nitrogen is an unsuitable (semi-)[[inert]] gas. Other uses;
*Argon is used as an inert gas shield in many forms of [[welding]], including [[metal inert gas welding|mig]] and [[Tungsten inert gas welding|tig]] (where the "'''I'''" stands for [[inert]]).
*as a non-reactive blanket in the manufacture of [[titanium]] and other reactive elements.
*as a protective atmosphere for growing [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] [[crystal]]s.
*as a gas for use in [[plasma globe | plasma globes]].
*as a gas for use in energy efficient [[window]]s.
*Argon-39 has been used for a number of applications, primarily [[ice core|ice coring]]. It has also been used for [[ground water]] dating.
*[[Cryosurgery]] procedures such as [[cryoablation]] uses liquefied argon to destroy [[cancer]] cells.
Argon is also used in technical [[SCUBA]] diving to inflate the dry suit, because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.
== History ==
Argon ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''argos'' meaning "inactive") was suspected to be present in air by [[Henry Cavendish]] in [[1785]] but was not discovered until [[1894]] by [[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Lord Rayleigh]] and Sir [[William Ramsay]].
== Occurrence ==
This gas is isolated through liquid air fractionation since the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] contains only 0.934% volume of argon (1.29% mass). The [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] atmosphere in contrast contains 1.6% of Ar-40 and 5 [[part per million|ppm]] Ar-36. In 2005, the ''[[Cassini-Huygens|Huygens]]'' probe also discovered the presence of Ar-40 on [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the largest moon of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMHB881Y3E_index_0.html].
== Compounds ==
Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were generally considered to be chemically inert and not able to form compounds. However, since then, scientists have been able to force the heavier noble gases to form compounds. In 2000, the first argon compounds were formed by researchers at the [[University of Helsinki]]. By shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride, they were able to form argon hydrofluoride (HArF): see http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/noblegases.html in its paragraph starting "''Many recent findings''". It is stable up to 40°[[kelvin|K]].
== Isotopes ==
The main [[isotope]]s of argon found on Earth are Ar-40, Ar-36, and Ar-38. Naturally occurring [[potassium|K]]-40 with a [[half-life]] of 1.250 x 10<sup>9</sup> years, decays to stable Ar-40 (11.2%) by [[electron capture]] and by [[positron emission]], and also transforms to stable Ca-40 (88.8%) via [[beta decay]]. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s.
In the Earth's atmosphere, Ar-39 is made by [[cosmic ray]] activity, primarily with Ar-40. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through [[neutron capture]] by K-39 or [[alpha decay|alpha emission]] by [[calcium]]. Argon-37 is created from the decay of calcium-40 as a result of subsurface [[nuclear testing|nuclear explosions]]. It has a half-life of 35 days.
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/18.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Argon]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Argon}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ar/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Argon]
*Diving applications: [http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Why_Argon.htm Why Argon?]
*[http://www.uigi.com/argon.html Argon Ar Properties, Uses, Applications]
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Argon Computational Chemistry Wiki]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Noble gases]]
[[af:Argon]]
[[ar:أرغون (عنصر)]]
[[bg:Аргон]]
[[bs:Argon]]
[[ca:Argó]]
[[cs:Argon]]
[[cy:Argon]]
[[da:Argon]]
[[de:Argon]]
[[et:Argoon]]
[[es:Argón]]
[[eo:Argono]]
[[fr:Argon]]
[[ko:아르곤]]
[[hr:Argon]]
[[io:Argono]]
[[id:Argon]]
[[is:Argon]]
[[it:Argon]]
[[he:ארגון (יסוד)]]
[[lv:Argons]]
[[lt:Argonas]]
[[hu:Argon]]
[[mi:Argon]]
[[ms:Argon]]
[[nl:Argon]]
[[ja:アルゴン]]
[[no:Argon]]
[[nn:Argon]]
[[oc:Argon]]
[[pl:Argon]]
[[pt:Argon]]
[[ru:Аргон]]
[[sh:Argon]]
[[simple:Argon]]
[[sl:Argon]]
[[sr:Аргон]]
[[fi:Argon]]
[[sv:Argon]]
[[th:อาร์กอน]]
[[uk:Аргон]]
[[vi:Agon]]
[[zh:氩]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arsenic</title>
<id>897</id>
<revision>
<id>42000482</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:30:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Viriditas</username>
<id>101805</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41605710 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=33 | symbol=As | name=arsenic | left=[[germanium]] | right=[[selenium]] | above=[[phosphorus|P]] | below=[[antimony|Sb]] | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[metalloid]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=15 | period=4 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | As,33| metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|74.92160]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 4p<sup>3</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 5 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 5.727 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 5.22 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1090 | c=817 | f=1503 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=[[sublimation (physics)|subl.]] 887 | c=614 | f=1137 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (gray) 24.44 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ? 34.76 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 24.64 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 553 | 596 | 646 | 706 | 781 | 874 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | ±'''3''', 5<br />(mildly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.18 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 947.0 | 1798 | 2735 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|115]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|114]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|119]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|185]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 333 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 50.2 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 8 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 22 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 3.5 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 1440 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-38-2 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=arsenic | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=73 | sym=As | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|80.3]] [[day|d]] | dm1=[[electron capture|ε]] | de1=- | pn1=73 | ps1=[[germanium|Ge]] | dm2=[[Gamma radiation|γ]] | de2=0.05[[Delayed nuclear radiation|D]], 0.01D, [[Conversion electron|e]] | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay4 | mn=74 | sym=As | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|17.78]] d | dm1=ε | de1=- | pn1=74 | ps1=[[germanium|Ge]] | dm2=[[Positron emission|β<sup>+</sup>]] | de2=0.941 | pn2=74 | ps2=[[germanium|Ge]] | dm3=γ | de3=0.595, 0.634 | pn3= | ps3=- | dm4=[[beta decay|β<sup>-</sup>]] | de4=1.35, 0.717 | pn4=74 | ps4=[[selenium|Se]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=75 | sym=As | na=100% | n=42 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
'''Arsenic''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''As''' and [[atomic number]] 33. This is a notoriously poisonous [[metalloid]] that has three [[allotropy|allotropic]] forms; yellow, black and grey. Arsenic and its compounds are used as [[pesticides]], [[herbicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s and various [[alloy]]s.
== Notable characteristics ==
Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor [[phosphorus]], so much so that it will partly substitute for [[phosphorus]] in biochemical reactions and is thus [[poison]]ous. When heated it rapidly [[oxidation|oxidizes]] to [[arsenic trioxide]], which has a garlic odor. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublime]] upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray/metallic, with [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively.
== Applications ==
[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] has been used, well into the [[20th century]], as an [[insecticide]] on [[fruit tree]]s (resulting in [[neurological damage]] to those working the sprayers), and [[Scheele's Green]] has even been recorded in the [[19 |
[[2004]] a BBC press release announced that the creatures would, after all, be appearing in the first season of the new series.
Rumours were rife about Dalek re-designs, ranging from cosmetic changes to the Dalek casing to radical ones like the multi-legged "[[Dalek variants#Spider Dalek|Spider Daleks]]" concept (first proposed for an early version of the [[Doctor Who (1996)|''Doctor Who'' television movie]], and later popular in fandom). However, none of these rumours were confirmed. An alleged "official BBC" sketch published in the British newspaper ''[[The Daily Mirror]]'' on [[October 30]] 2004 showed a soldier looking on at a conventional-looking Dalek that appeared to be either flying or hovering off the ground. At the press preview screening of the first episode of the new series on [[March 8]], 2005, it was revealed that the Daleks would be able to fly and hover on a kind of energy thruster.
In [[November 2004]], pictures showing a new Dalek prop began circulating on the internet, and the images also appeared in various newspapers. The photographs showed no major alterations to the Dalek design, except for an expanded base, an all over metallic brass finish and ear-bulbs that resembled the movie versions. In a trailer for the new series broadcast on [[March 15]], 2005, a quick glimpse of a Dalek of this design in chains was seen. Episodes of the [[Channel 4]] afternoon talk show ''[[Richard and Judy]]'' on [[April 21]] and [[April 29]] showed some clips from the episode as well.
===History within the show===
{{main|History of the Daleks}}
[[Image:Davros.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Davros]], creator of the Daleks.]]
As is common in long-running series whose backstories are not mapped out and which are also the product of many different writers over the course of years, Dalek history has seen many [[retcon|retroactive changes]] and these have caused some [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] problems.
When the Daleks first appeared in ''The Daleks'' (1963), they were the product of a brief nuclear war between the Dal and [[Thal (Doctor Who)|Thal]] races. However, in 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in the serial ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'', where the Dals were now called Kaleds (an [[anagram]] of Dalek), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the crippled Kaled chief scientist and evil genius [[Davros]].
Also, instead of a short nuclear exchange, the Kaled-Thal war was portrayed as a generations-long war of [[attrition warfare|attrition]], fought with nuclear, [[biological weapon|biological]] and [[chemical weapon]]s. The resulting mutations from the fallout were accelerated by Davros and placed in [[tank]]-like "travel machines" whose design was based on his own life-support chair.
''Genesis of the Daleks'' marked a new era for the depiction of the species, with most of their previous history either forgotten or barely referred to again. Future stories, which followed a rough [[story arc]], would also focus more on Davros, much to the dissatisfaction of some fans who felt that the Daleks should take centre stage, rather than becoming mere minions of their creator.
Davros made his last televised appearance in the serial ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'' (1988). ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' also marked the last on-screen appearance of the Daleks in the context of the programme until 2005, save for charity specials like ''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death]]'' and the use of Dalek voices in the [[Doctor Who (1996)|''Doctor Who'' television movie]] in 1996.
[[Image:Flyingdalek.jpg|thumb|300px|A Dalek flies, from ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]''.]]
The Daleks returned in the [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 1 (2005)|2005 series]]. ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'', written by [[Rob Shearman|Robert Shearman]], the sixth episode of the new series, was broadcast on [[BBC One]] on [[30 April]], 2005. The new Dalek exhibited abilities not seen before, including a swivelling mid-section that allowed it a 360-degree field of fire and a force field that disintegrated bullets before they struck it. In addition to the ability to fly, it was also able to regenerate itself by means of absorbing electrical power and the [[DNA]] of a time traveller. The "plunger" manipulator arm was also able to crush a man's skull in addition to the technology interfacing abilities shown by earlier models. A more sophisticated model of the Dalek mutant was also shown. This Dalek was apparently the sole survivor of a [[Time War (Doctor Who)|Time War]] that had destroyed both the Daleks and the Time Lords.
The two-part 2005 series finale, comprising ''[[Bad Wolf]]'' and ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'' saw the return of the [[Dalek variants#Dalek Emperor|Dalek Emperor]], who had also survived the Time War and had rebuilt the Dalek race. This Emperor came to see itself as a god, and built its new society around the Daleks' worship of itself. At the end of the story, the Daleks and their fleet were reduced to atoms.
The production team has stated that the Daleks will face the [[Tenth Doctor]] at some point, but not in the [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 2 (2006)|2006 series]]. However, the BBC press release for Series 2 mentions that the Doctor and Rose will battle various aliens and monsters, and "maybe even a Dalek".[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2005/12_december/06/1drama.shtml#doctor]
==Culture==
Daleks have little to no individual personalities and a strict command structure, conditioned to obey superior orders without question. Ultimately, the most fundamental feature of Dalek culture and psychology is an unquestioned belief in the superiority of the Daleks. Other species are either to be exterminated immediately, or enslaved and then exterminated later once they are no longer necessary. The default directive of a Dalek is to destroy all non-Dalek lifeforms.
This belief is thought to be the reason why Daleks have never significantly modified the designs of their mechanical shells to overcome its obvious physical limitations; any such modification would deviate from the Dalek ideal, and therefore ''must'' be inferior and deserving of extermination. The schism between the Renegade and Imperial Daleks seen in ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' is a prime example of this, with each faction considering the other to be a perversion despite the relatively minor differences between them. It also means, however, that Daleks are intolerant of such "contamination" even within themselves, as also shown in ''Dalek'', ''The Evil of the Daleks'' and in the [[Big Finish Productions]] [[radio drama|audio play]] ''[[The Mutant Phase]]''.
Another offshoot of this superiority complex is their complete ruthlessness and lack of compassion. It is because of this that it is nearly impossible to negotiate or reason with a Dalek and it is this single-mindedness that makes them so dangerous and not to be underestimated. However, their reliance on logic and machinery is also a weakness that they recognise. As a result, they also make use of non-Dalek species to compensate for these shortcomings (see [[Dalek variants#Dalek agents|Dalek agents]]).
As noted above, in ''The Parting of the Ways'', the Daleks that were resurrected through the manipulation and mutation of human genetic material by the Dalek Emperor were religious fanatics that worshipped the Emperor as their god.
[[Image:kafaraqgatri.jpg|thumb|300px|The Daleks face their bogeyman, the Doctor. From the comic strip ''Metamorphosis'', art by Lee Sullivan.]]
Although the Daleks are well known for their disregard of [[due process]], there have been two occasions on which they have taken enemies back to Skaro for a "trial" rather than killing them on the spot; the first was their creator, [[Davros]], in ''Revelation of the Daleks'', and the second was the renegade [[Time Lord]] known as [[Master (Doctor Who)|the Master]] in the [[Doctor Who (1996)|''Doctor Who'' television movie]]. Neither trial occurred on-screen, so it is not clear what was actually involved. The Master's trial presumably took place before the destruction of Skaro. The reasons for the Master's trial, and why the Doctor would be asked to retrieve the Master's remains, have never been explained on screen.
The spin-off novels contain several (tongue-in-cheek) mentions of Dalek poetry (and an anecdote about an opera based thereupon, which was lost to posterity when the entire cast was exterminated on opening night). Two stanzas are given in the novel ''The Also People'' by Ben Aaronovitch. Some of the more elaborate Dalek battlecries have an almost poetic quality about them (for example, "Advance and Attack! Attack and Destroy! Destroy and Rejoice!" from the televised story ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]''). In an [[parallel universe|alternate timeline]] portrayed in [[Big Finish Productions]] audio adventure ''[[The Time of the Daleks]]'', the Daleks show a fondness for the works of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]].
Due to their frequent defeats by the Doctor, he has become a sort of [[bogeyman]] in Dalek culture. They have standing orders to capture or exterminate the Doctor on sight, and are occasionally able to identify him despite his [[Doctor (Doctor Who)#Changing faces|regenerations]]. This is probably not an innate ability, but rather because of good record keeping. In the comic strips and novels the Daleks know the Doctor as the '''Ka Faraq Gatri''': "The Bringer of Darkness" or "Destroyer of Worlds" (this was first established in the novelisation of ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' by [[Ben Aaronovitch]]). In ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', the Doctor claims that the Daleks call him "The Oncoming Storm" — this name was used by the [[Draconian (Doctor Who)|Draconians]] to refer to the Doctor in the Virgin New Adventures novel ' |
e, Philippa, sister of the empress [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]]. The anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and Andronicus was compelled to flee.
He took refuge with [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the [[Principality of Galilee|Lordship of Beirut]]. In Jerusalem he saw [[Theodora Comnena|Theodora]], the beautiful widow of the late King [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] and niece of the emperor Manuel. Although Andronicus was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronicus to the court of the Sultan of [[Damascus]]; but not deeming themselves safe there, they continued their perilous journey through [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Turkestan]], round the [[Caspian Sea]] and across [[Mount Caucasus]], until at length they settled in the ancestral lands of the Comneni at [[Oinaion]], on the shores of the [[Black Sea]], between [[Trebizond]] and [[Sinope]].
While Andronicus was on one of his incursions, his castle was surprised by the governor of Trebizond, and Theodora with her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronicus made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, implored pardon. This he obtained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion.
In [[1180]] the emperor Manuel died, and was succeeded by his son [[Alexius II Comnenus]], who was under the guardianship of the empress Maria. Her conduct excited popular indignation, and the consequent disorders, amounting almost to civil war, gave an opportunity to the ambition of Andronicus. He left his retirement in [[1182]], secured the support of the army and marched upon Constantinople, where his advent was stained by a cruel massacre of the Latin inhabitants, which was focused on the [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants who virtually controlled the economy of the city. Alexius was compelled to acknowledge him as colleague in the empire, but was soon put to death.
Andronicus, now ([[1183]]) sole emperor, married [[Agnes of France]], widow of Alexius II and a child twelve years of age. Agnes was a daughter of [[Louis VII of France]] and his third wife [[Adèle of Champagne]].
His short reign was characterized by strong and wise measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses, but, above all things, to check [[feudalism]] and limit the power of the nobles. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice, and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors. The aristocrats, however, were infuriated against him, and summoned to their aid [[William II of Sicily]]. This prince landed in [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] with a strong force, and marched as far as [[Thessalonica]], which he took and destroyed; but he was shortly afterwards defeated, and compelled to return to [[Sicily]].
Andronicus seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with success. But in [[1185]], during his absence from the capital, his lieutenant ordered the arrest and execution of [[Isaac II Angelus|Isaac Angelus]], a descendant of the first Alexius. Isaac escaped and took refuge in the church of [[Hagia Sophia]]. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose which spread rapidly over the whole city. When Andronicus arrived he found that his power was overthrown, and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. Isaac delivered him over to his enemies, and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment. His punishments included flogging, being tied to the back of a sick camel and having boiling water thrown in his face. At last they hung him up by the feet between two pillars. His dying agonies were shortened by an [[Italy|Italian]] soldier, who mercifully plunged a sword into his body. He died on [[September 12]], 1185. Andronicus was the last of the [[Comnenus|Comneni]] to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons [[Alexius I of Trebizond]] and his brother [[David (co-emperorof Trebizond)|David]] founded the [[Empire of Trebizond]] in [[1204]].
== External links ==
{{Commons|Andronicus I Comnenus}}
{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Alexius II Comnenus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Isaac II Angelus]]}}
[[Category:1118 births]]
[[Category:1185 deaths]]
[[Category:Comnenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[de:Andronikos I. (Byzanz)]]
[[el:Ανδρόνικος Α']]
[[es:Andrónico I Comneno]]
[[eo:Androniko la 1-a]]
[[fr:Andronic Ier Comnène]]
[[hu:I. Andronikosz]]
[[ja:アンドロニコス1世コムネノス]]
[[pl:Andronik I Komnen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andronicus of Cyrrhus</title>
<id>1763</id>
<revision>
<id>28106208</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T10:49:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus of Cyrrhus''' was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomer]] who flourished about 100 BC.
He built a [[horologium]] at [[Athens]], the so-called [[Tower of the Winds]], a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, representing the eight principal winds. In antiquity a bronze figure of [[Triton (god)|Triton]] on the summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Greek and Roman astronomers]]
[[sl:Andronik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andronicus of Rhodes</title>
<id>1764</id>
<revision>
<id>28106223</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T10:49:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus of Rhodes''' (c. 70 B.C.), was the eleventh scholarch
of the [[Peripatetics]]. His chief work was the arrangement of
the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Theophrastus]] with materials
supplied to him by [[Tyrannion]]. Before his time, Aristotle's dialogues were widely known, but his treatises had been lost in obscurity. Besides arranging the works,
he seems to have written paraphrases and commentaries, none
of which is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously
attributed to him, one on the Emotions, the other a commentary
on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa
in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[hu:rhodoszi Andronikosz]]
[[fi:Andronikos Rhodoslainen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andronicus</title>
<id>1765</id>
<revision>
<id>21539173</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-22T01:33:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pumpie</username>
<id>22949</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>de & el</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Andronicus''' refers to several people:
* [[Livius Andronicus]] ([[284 BC|284?]]&ndash;[[204 BC]]) &mdash; introduced [[drama]] to the Romans and produced the first formal play in Latin in c. [[240 BC]]
*[[Andronicus of Cyrrhus]] &mdash; [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomer]] (c. [[100 BC]])
*[[Andronicus of Rhodes]] (c. [[70 BC]])
*[[Andronicus]], an early Christian mentioned in Romans 16
*Four [[Byzantine Emperors]]:
**[[Andronicus I Comnenus]] ([[1118]]&ndash;[[1185]])
**[[Andronicus II]] Palaeologus ([[1258]]&ndash;[[1332]])
**[[Andronicus III]] Palaeologus ([[1297]]&ndash;[[1341]])
**[[Andronicus IV]] Palaeologus ([[1348]]&ndash;[[1385]])
*Three [[Empire of Trebizond|Emperors of Trebizond]]:
**[[Andronicus I of Trebizond|Andronicus I Gidus Comnenus]] ([[1222]]&ndash;[[1235]])
**[[Andronicus II of Trebizond|Andronicus II Comnenus]] ([[1263]]&ndash;[[1266]])
**[[Andronicus III of Trebizond|Andronicus III Comnenus]] ([[1330]]&ndash;[[1332]])
*[[Titus Andronicus]] &mdash; main character in the play of the same name by [[William Shakespeare]], possibly named after one of the above-listed emperors
{{disambig}}
[[de:Andronikos]]
[[el:Ανδρόνικος]]
[[hu:Andronikosz]]
[[pl:Andronik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asteroid Belt</title>
<id>1766</id>
<revision>
<id>15900231</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-03T22:11:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>changing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asteroid belt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammianus Marcellinus</title>
<id>1767</id>
<revision>
<id>36166738</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T02:55:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GBWallenstein</username>
<id>607387</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External link */ link to the Latin Library</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammianus Marcellinus''' was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historian who wrote during [[Late Antiquity]].
He was born about [[325]]&#8209;[[330]], probably at [[Antioch]] (the probability hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a fellow citizen of Antioch). The date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived till [[391]], as he mentions [[Aurelius Victor]] as the city [[prefect]] for that year. The surviving books of his valuable history cover the years [[353]]&#8209;[[378]]; the work is sometimes referred to by a Latin title as ''Res Gestae'', a usage best avoided, |
ment]]. A pole for this activity is the [[Land Center for Human Rights]].
Despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal [[Muslim Brotherhood]] constitutes Mubarak's potentially most significant political opposition; Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned
==CIA Facts and Statistics==
'''Country name'''
''conventional long form:''
Arab Republic of Egypt
''conventional short form:''
Egypt.
''local long form:''
Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah (Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة).
''local short form:''
Misr (Arabic: مصر).
''former:''
[[United Arab Republic]] (with [[Syria]]).
'''Data code'''
[[EG]].
'''Government type'''
[[Republic]].
'''Capital'''
[[Cairo]] (Arabic: القاهرة, Romanization: Al-Qāhira(t))
'''Administrative divisions'''
[[Governorates of Egypt|26 governorates]] ''(muhafazat;'' singular &ndash; ''muhafazah):''
[[Ad Daqahliyah]], [[Al Bahr al Ahmar, Egpyt|Al Bahr al Ahmar]], [[Al Buhayrah]], [[Al Fayyum]], [[Al Gharbiyah]], [[Al Iskandariyah]], [[Al Isma'iliyah]], [[Al Jizah]], [[Al Minufiyah]], [[Al Minya]], [[Al Qahirah]], [[Al Qalyubiyah]], [[Al Wadi al Jadid]], [[Ash Sharqiyah, Egypt|Ash Sharqiyah]], [[As Suways]], [[Aswan]], [[Asyut]], [[Bani Suwayf]], [[Bur Sa'id]], [[Dumyat]], [[Janub Sina']], [[Kafr ash Shaykh]], [[Matruh]], [[Qina]], [[Shamal Sina']], [[Suhaj]].
'''Independence'''
[[28 February]] [[1922]] (from [[United Kingdom]])
'''National holiday'''
Anniversary of the Revolution, [[23 July]] (1952)
'''Constitution'''
[[11 September]] [[1971]]
'''Legal system'''
Based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations.
'''Suffrage'''
18 years of age; universal and compulsory<!-- ?turnout in the presidential election was about 20%-->.
'''Executive branch'''
''Chief of State:''
President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (حسني مبارك محمد)]] (since [[14 October]] [[1981]]).
''Head of Government:''
Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif (since July 2004).
''Cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president.
''Elections:''
President nominated by the People's Assembly for a six-year term, the nomination must then be validated by a national, popular referendum; national referendum last held [[26 September]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA October 2005); prime minister appointed by the president.
''Election results:''
national referendum validated President MUBARAK's nomination by the People's Assembly to a fourth term.
'''Legislative branch'''
bicameral system consists of the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura - which functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve NA-year terms)
''elections:''
People's Assembly - last held [[29 November]] [[1995]] (next to be held NA November 2000); Advisory Council - last held [[7 June]] [[1995]] (next to be held NA)
''election results:''
People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NDP 72%, independents 25%, opposition 3%; seats by party - NDP 317, independents 114, NWP 6, NPUG 5, Nasserist Arab Democratic Party 1, LSP 1; Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NDP 99%, independents 1%; seats by party - NA
'''Judicial branch'''
Supreme Constitutional Court
'''Political parties and leaders'''
[[Democratic Union Party (Egypt)|Democratic Unionist Party]] [[Mohammed 'Abd-al-Mun'im Turk]]; [[Egyptian Greens]] Party [[Kamal Kirah]]; [[Misr El-Fatah (Young Egypt) Party]] [[leader NA]]; [[Nasserist Party|Nasserist Arab Democratic Party]] [[Dia' al-din Dawud]]; [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] or NDP President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohammed Hosni Mubarak]], leader - governing party; [[National Progressive Unionist Party]] [[Khalid Muhi Al-Din]]; [[New Wafd Party]] or NWP [[Fu'ad Siraj Al-Din]]; [[The Social Justice Party|Social Justice Party]] [[Muhammad 'Abdal-'Al]]; [[The Socialist Labour Party]] or SLP [[Ibrahim Shukri]]; [[Liberal Party (Egypt)|Socialist Liberal Party]] or LSP [[Mustafa Kamal Murad]]; [[Umma Party (Egypt)|Umma Party]] [[Ahmad al-Sabahi]].
Note: the formation of political parties must be approved by the government.
'''Political pressure groups and leaders'''
Despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal [[Muslim Brotherhood]] constitutes Mubarak's potentially most significant political opposition; Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned. Egyptians have been living under emergency law since 1967, except for an 18-month break in 1980. Emergency laws have been continuously extended every three years since 1981.
'''Foreign Minister'''
[[Ahmad Abu El Gheet]]
'''International organization participation'''
[[ABEDA]], [[Arab Cooperation Council|ACC]], [[ACCT]] (associate), [[AfDB]], [[AFESD]], [[Arab League|AL]], [[AMF]], [[BSEC]] (observer), [[CAEU]],[[CTBT]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ESCWA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-15]], [[G-19]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Islamic Development Bank|IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[MINURSO]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[OAPEC]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]](observer), [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] (partner), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNAMSIL]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOP]], [[UNOMIG]], [[UNRWA]], [[UNTAET]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]],[[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
==Flag description==
:''See: [[Flag of Egypt]]''
It consists of three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with the national emblem (a shield superimposed on a golden [[eagle]] facing the hoist side above a scroll bearing the name of the country in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of [[Syria]], which has two green stars, and to the flag of [[Iraq]], which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band
==External links==
'''General government sites'''
*[http://www.egypt.gov.eg/ Official Egyptian Government Portal]
*[http://www.investment.gov.eg/ '''E'''gyptian '''I'''nvestment '''P'''ortal] official government site
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/ Egypt State Information Service] official government site
*[http://www.presidency.gov.eg/ The Egyptian Presidency]
*[http://www.parliament.gov.eg/EPA/en/Index.jsp The People Assembly of Egypt]
*[http://www.shoura.gov.eg/ Egyptian Shoura Council]
'''Ministries'''
*[http://www.idsc.gov.eg/ Council of Ministers]
*[http://www.agri.gov.eg/ Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.eg/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.emigration.gov.eg/ Ministry of Manpower and Emigration]
*[http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs]
*[http://www.mwri.gov.eg/ Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources]
*[http://www.alshabab.gov.eg/ Ministry of Youth]
*[http://www.mop.gov.eg/ Ministry of Planning]
*[http://www.mfti.gov.eg/ Ministry of Economy]
*[http://www.mof.gov.eg/ Ministry of Finance]
*[http://www.emp.gov.eg/ Ministry of Petroleum]
*[http://www.scc.gov.eg/ Ministry of Culture]
*[http://www.investment.gov.eg/ Ministry of Investment]
*[http://www.emoe.org/ Ministry of Education]
*[http://www.assembly.gov.eg/ Ministry of People's Assembly]
*[http://www.senate.gov.eg/ Ministry of Shura Council Affairs]
*[http://www.egypttourism.org/ Ministry of Tourism]
*[http://www.mohp.gov.eg/ Ministry of Health and Population]
*[http://www.egy-mhe.gov.eg/ Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research]
*[http://www.mld.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Local Development]
*[http://www.moft.gov.eg/ Ministry of Foreign Trade & Industry]
*[http://www.moee.gov.eg/ Ministry of Electricity and Energy]
*[http://www.mic.gov.eg/ Ministry of International Cooperation]
*[http://www.mcit.gov.eg/ Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (MCIT)]
*[http://www.minfo.gov.eg/ Ministry of Information]
*[http://www.ad.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Administrative Development]
*[http://www.nuca.com.eg/ Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and Urban Communities]
*[http://www.ngolaw.org.eg/ Ministry of Interior Affairs]
*[http://msht.tripod.com/ Ministry of Supply and Home Trade]
*[http://www.mmc.gov.eg/ Ministry of Defense and Military Production]
*[http://www.manpower.gov.eg/ Ministry of Manpower and Emigration]
'''Political parties'''
*[http://www.ndp.org.eg/ National Democratic Party (NDP)]
*[http://www.elghad.org/ El-Ghad Party]
*[http://www.alwafd.org/front/index.php/ New-Wafd Party (NWP)]
*[http://www.egyptiangreens.com/ Egyptian Greens]
|
[dictyostelid]]s, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk.
The Heterolobosea were first defined by [[Page (biologist)|Page]] and [[Blanton]] in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages. [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate ''[[Stephanopogon]]''. He maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms, but most others have expanded them to include the flagellates as well.
== References ==
* {{cite journal
| last = Page | first = F.C.
| coauthors = R.L. Blanton
| title = The Heterolobosea (Sarcodina: Rhizopoda), a new class uniting the Schizopyrenida and Acrasidae (Acrasida)
| journal = Protistologica
| year = 1985 | volume = 21 | pages = 121-132
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Cavalier-Smith | first = T.
| year = 1991
| chapter = Cell diversification in heterotrophic flagellates
| title = The Biology of Free-living Heterotrophic Flagellates
| editor = D.J. Patterson & J. Larsen
| pages = pp. 113-131
| publisher = Oxford University Press
}}
[[Category:Protista]]
[[Category:Amoeboids]]
[[Category:Flagellates]]
[[fr:Percolozoa]]
[[nds:Percolozoa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of India</title>
<id>13890</id>
<revision>
<id>42101253</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:06:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urshyam</username>
<id>390483</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
The '''[[history]] of [[India]]''' can be traced in fragments to as far back as 9,500 years ago. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]], one of the oldest in the world, dates back over 5,000 years. According to the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] hypothesis, the [[Aryan]]s, a semi-nomadic people, possibly from [[Central Asia]] or northern [[Iran]], migrated into the north-west regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] between [[2000 BCE]] and [[1500 BCE]]. Their merger with the earlier [[Dravidian]] cultures apparently resulted in classical [[Indian culture]], though the exact details of this process are controversial. The births of [[Mahavira]] and [[Buddha]] in [[6th century BC|6th century BCE]] mark the beginning of well-recorded Indian history. For the next 1500 years, [[India]] produced its classical civilisation, and is estimated to have had the largest [[Economic history of India|economy]] of the ancient world between the [[1st century|1<sup>st</sup>]] and [[15th century|15<sup>th</sup>]] centuries CE, controlling between one third and one quarter of the world's wealth up to the time of the [[Mughal empire|Mughals]], from whence it rapidly declined during European rule.
Incursions by [[Arab]] and [[Turkic peoples|Central Asian]] armies in the [[8th century|8<sup>th</sup>]] and [[12th century|12<sup>th</sup>]] centuries were followed by inroads by traders from [[Europe]], beginning in the late [[15th century]]. By the middle of the [[19th century]] ([[1858]]), the British Crown had assumed political control over virtually all of India. Indian armed forces in the British army played a vital role in both the [[World Wars]]. [[Nonviolent resistance]] to British colonialism led, by [[Mohandas Gandhi]], [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] brought independence in [[1947]]. The subcontinent was partitioned into the Secular Democratic Republic of [[India]] and the smaller [[Islam|Islamic]] Republic of [[Pakistan]]. A war between the two countries in [[1971]] resulted in [[East Pakistan]] becoming the separate nation of [[Bangladesh]]. In the [[21st century]], India has made impressive gains in economic investment and output, and stands as the world's largest democracy with a population exceeding 1 billion, is self sufficient in terms of food, and is a fast-growing, economically strong country, with the fourth largest [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|economy (PPP)]] in the world.
Human civilizations in [[India]] are some of the earliest recorded, and were contemporaries of civilizations in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]]. India's history essentially includes all of the [[Indian subcontinent]], including the more recent nations of [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. India is also inalienably linked with the history and heritage of the other [[South Asia|South Asian]] nations like [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]]. India's culture, economy and politics has influenced, and has been influenced in turn, by the history and culture of the nations in [[South East Asia]], [[East Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], such as [[Indonesia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], [[China]], [[Tibet]], [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Afghanistan]] over thousands of years. After [[Arab]] incursions into India during the early part of the 2nd Millennium AD, similar quests for access to India's fabled wealth strongly influenced the history of [[medieval Europe]], after the landing of [[Vasco Da Gama]]. [[Christopher Columbus]] discovered [[Americas|America]] whilst seaching for a new route to [[India]] and [[China]], and the [[British Empire]] gained much of its resources after the incorporation of India as the 'Jewel in the Crown', from the [[1700s]] to [[1947]].
==The Paleolithic era==
[[Image:Bhimbetka rock paintng1.jpg|thumb|280px|frame|[[Bhimbetka]] rock painting]]
Isolated remains of [[Homo Erectus]] in [[Hathnora]] in the [[Narmada Valley]] in [[Central India]] indicate that [[India]] might have been inhabited since at least the [[Middle Pleistocene]] era [http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm]. The precise date of these remains is unclear, and archaeologists put it anywhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years [http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050321/asp/knowhow/story_4481256.asp]. The fossils are the earliest human remains found in [[South Asia]]. Recent finds include a [[quarry]] along the [[Malaprabha]] and [[Ghataprabha]] rivers in the [[Kaladgi Basin]] in [[Karnataka]]. Modern humans seem to have settled the subcontinent towards the end of the last [[ice age|Ice Age]] about 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in [[Bhimbetka]] in modern [[Madhya Pradesh]].
==The Neolithic era==
Early [[Neolithic]] culture in South Asia is represented by the [[Mehrgarh]] findings ([[7000 BC]] onwards), in [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]]. The Mehrgarh community was mostly [[pastoral]], lived in mud houses, wove baskets and tended to [[goat]]s and their farms. By [[5500 BC]], pottery began to appear and later [[chalcolithic]] implements began to appear. By [[2000 BC]], the settlement was abandoned.
Traces of a [[Neolithic]] culture have been found submerged in the [[Gulf of Khambat]] in [[2002]] [http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul10/articles29.htm]. Many of the finds recovered from the area have been [[radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to [[7500 BC]].
Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 BC and 2000 BC (see [[History of India#The Bronze Age|below]]), and in southern India between 2800 BC and 1200 BC.
==The Bronze age==
[[Bronze age]] civilizations in the Indian subcontinent laid the foundations for modern Indian civilization, including urban settlements and the development of [[Vedic religion|Vedic beliefs]], which form the core of Hinduism. Many historians claim that the rise, and eventual decline of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], and the [[Indo-Aryan migration|migration]] of nomadic peoples from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent shaped its history during this period.
===Indus Valley Civilization===
{{main|Indus Valley Civilization}}
[[Image:IndusValleySeals.JPG|thumb|280px|Seals with the [[Indus script]]]]
The transition of settlements from agricultural to complex urban communities, a salient feature of all late Neolithic and early [[Bronze Age]] cultures, occurred in the Indian subcontinent sometime between the early settlements at Mehrgarh and c. [[3300 BC]]. This period marked the beginning of the earliest urban society in India, known as the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (or, the [[Harappa|Harappan]] Civilization), which thrived between [[3300 BC]] and [[1900 BC]]. It was centred along the [[Indus River]] and its tributaries, including the [[Ghaggar River|Ghaggar]]-[[Hakra River]], and extended into the [[Doab|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]], [[Gujarat]], and northern [[Afghanistan]].
The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storeyed houses. The earliest historic references to India may be those to the [[Meluhha]] in Sumerian records, possibly referring to the Indus Valley civilization. When compared to the contemporary civilizations of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Sumeria]], the Indus Civilization possessed unique urban planning techniques, covered the largest geographical area, and may have been a single state, as suggested by the amazing uniformity of its measurement systems.
The [[Mohenjo-daro]] ruins were once the centre of this ancient society. Indus Civilization settlements spread as far south as present-day [[Bombay]], as far east as [[Delhi]], as far west as the [[Iran]]ian border, and as far north as the [[Himalaya]]s. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of [[Harappa]] and Mohenjo-daro, as well as [[Dholavira]], [[Ganweriwala]], [[Lothal]], [[Kalibanga]] and [[Rakhigarhi]]. At its peak, some archaeologists opine that the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. To date, over 2,500 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region to the east of the Indus River in Pakistan along what is claimed by many to be the [[Saraswati River]] mentioned in the [[Vedas]]. It is thought by some that geological disturbances and c |
re tired of the pollution on Earth, and decide to move out. This time, instead of just their family, they try to secede from the planet. In a wagon they leave Earth for Mars. They find out that the Martians are scared of them, because earthlings pollute the environment, so they go back home. The story ends with Dad examining the suitcase which Calvin and Hobbes had carried to Mars.
|-
|''The Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes: A Calvin and Hobbes Treasury''
|[[Image:Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes.png|100px|"The Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes."]]
|October 1990
|ISBN 0836218221
|Treasury including cartoons from ''Yukon Ho!'' & ''Weirdos From Another Planet!''. Original content: Seven-page story in which Calvin becomes an elephant.
|-
|''The Revenge of the Baby-Sat''
|[[Image:Revenge of the Baby-Sat Calvin and Hobbes Book.jpg|100px|"The Revenge of the Baby-Sat."]]
|April 1991
|ISBN 0836218663
|Collection covering strips from Dec 5, 1988 to Sept 1989(?).
|-
|''Scientific Progress Goes "Boink"''
|[[Image:Scientific Progress Goes Boink Calvin and Hobbes Book.jpg|100px|Scientific Progress Goes "Boink."]]
|October 1991
|ISBN 0836218787
|Collection covering strips from Sept 1989(?) to Jul 7, 1990.
|-
|''Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons''
|[[Image:Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|"Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons."]]
|April 1992
|ISBN 0836218833
|Collection covering strips from Jul 8, 1990 to Apr 10, 1991.
|-
|''The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes''
|[[Image:The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|"The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes."]]
|October 1992
|ISBN 0836218981
|Treasury including cartoons from ''The Revenge of the Baby-Sat'' & ''Scientific Progress Goes "Boink"''. Original content: Several illustrated poems.
|-
|''The Days are Just Packed''
|[[Image:The Days are Just Packed Calvin and Hobbes.png|100px|"The Days are Just Packed."]]
|October 1993
|ISBN 0836217357
|Collection covering strips from Apr 11, 1991 to Nov 1, 1992.
|-
|''Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat''
|[[Image:Homicidal Psyco Jungle Cat Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|"Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat."]]
|October 1994
|ISBN 0836217691
|Collection covering strips from Nov 2, 1992 to Aug 29, 1993.
|-
|''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book''
|[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes 10th Anniversary Book.jpg|100px|"The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book."]]
|October 1995
|ISBN 0836204387
|Original content: Commentary by Watterson and annotations on individual strips.
|-
|''There's Treasure Everywhere''
|[[Image:Theres Treasure Everywhere Calvin and Hobbes.gif|100px|"There's Treasure Everywhere."]]
|March 1996
|ISBN 0836213122
|Collection covering strips from Aug 30, 1993 to Apr 8, 1995. (Some strips from March are in ''It's A Magical World''.)
|-
|''It's A Magical World''
|[[Image:Its A Magical World Clavin and Hobbes Book.png|100px|"It's A Magical World."]]
|October 1996
|ISBN 0836221362
|Final collection covering strips from Mar 20, 1995 to the last strip on Dec 31, 1995. (Some strips from April are in ''There's Treasure Everywhere''.)
|-
|''Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985-1995''
|[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes Sunday Pages 1985 to 1995.jpg|100px|"Calvin and Hobbes Sunday Pages 1985-1995."]]
|September 2001
|ISBN 0740721356
|Collection of favorite Sundays. Original content: Original sketches and commentary by Watterson.
|-
|''The Complete Calvin and Hobbes''
|[[Image:The Complete Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|"The Complete Calvin and Hobbes."]]
|October 2005
|ISBN 0740748475
|Three-volume set containing all strips. 22.5 lbs. Includes Spiff feature, the illustrated poems, and color prints of other cover art. Original content: Introduction and commentary.
|}
Early books were printed in smaller format in black and white that were later reproduced in twos in color in the "Treasuries" (''Essential'', ''Authoritative'', and ''Indispensable'')&ndash; except for the contents of ''Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons''. Those Sunday strips were never reprinted in color until the ''Complete'' collection was finally published in 2005. Every book since ''Snow Goons'' has been printed in a larger format with Sundays in color and weekday and Saturday strips larger than they appeared in most newspapers.
Remaining books do contain some additional content; for instance, ''The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book'' contains a long [[watercolor]] Spaceman Spiff epic not seen elsewhere until ''Complete'', and ''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book'' contains much original commentary from Watterson. ''Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985-1995'' contains 36 Sunday strips in color alongside Watterson's original sketches, prepared for an exhibition at The [[Ohio State University]] Cartoon Research Library.
An officially licensed children's textbook entitled ''Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes'' (ISBN 1878849158) was published in 1993.
==See also==
*[[Calvin and Hobbes in translation]]
*[[Comic and cartoon characters named after people]]
*[[Horrendous Space Kablooie]]
*[[List of fictional films#Fictional films from Calvin and Hobbes|List of fictional films in ''Calvin and Hobbes'']]
*[[References to Calvin and Hobbes|References to ''Calvin and Hobbes'']]
*[[Setting of Calvin and Hobbes|Setting of ''Calvin and Hobbes'']]
*[[Bill Watterson]]
==References==
:''The following links were last verified [[21 February]] [[2006]].
* {{note_label|Andrews|Andrews McMeel 2005|none}} {{Press release reference
| Organization = Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC
| Date = [[October 4]](?), 2005
| Title = Fans From Around the World Interview Bill Watterson
| URL = http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/interview.html
}}
* {{cite web
| authorlink = David Astor
| last = Astor | first = David
| year = [[February 8]], [[1986]]
| title = An overnight success after five years
| work = [[Editor & Publisher]]
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/covernight.html
| accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note_label|Astor1|Astor 1988|none}} {{cite web
| authorlink = David Astor
| last = Astor | first = David
| year = [[December 3]], [[1988]]
| title = Watterson knocks the shrinking of comics
| work = [[Editor & Publisher]]
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/cshrinking.html
| accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note_label|Astor2|Astor 1989|none}} {{cite web
| authorlink = David Astor
| last = Astor | first = David
| year = [[November 4]], [[1989]]
| title = Watterson and Walker differ on comics
| work = [[Editor & Publisher]]
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/cdiffer.html
| accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note_label|Christie|Christie 1987|none}} {{cite web
| last = Christie | first = Andrew
| year = January 1987
| title = An interview with Bill Watterson
| work = Honk Magazine
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/chonk.html
| accessdate = July 12
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note_label|Dean|Dean 1987|none}} {{cite web
| authorlink = Paul Dean
| last = Dean | first = Paul
| year = [[April 1]], [[1987]]
| title = ''Calvin and Hobbes'' creator draws on the simple life
| work = [[Los Angeles Times]]
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/csimple.html
| accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = NCS Reuben Award winners (1975-present)
| work = National Cartoonists Society
| url = http://www.reuben.org/ncs/archive/divisions/reuben2.asp
| accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note_label|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}} {{note_label|Watterson|Watterson 1995:184|b}} {{cite book
| authorlink = Bill Watterson
| last = Watterson | first = Bill
| title = The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book
| publisher = Andrews McMeel
| month = October
| year = 1995
| id = ISBN 0-836-20438-7
}}
* {{note_label|SundayPages|Watterson 2001|none}} {{cite book
| authorlink = Bill Watterson
| last = Watterson | first = Bill
| title = Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985-1995
| publisher = Andrews McMeel
| month = September
| year = 2001
| pages = page 15
| id = ISBN 0740721356
}}
* {{note_label|West|West, 1989|none}} {{cite journal
| last = West | first = Richard Samuel
| title = Interview: Bill Watterson
| journal = [[The Comics Journal]]
| year = February 1989
| issue = issue #127
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/ccomicsjournal.html
}}
* {{note_label|Williams|Williams 1987|none}} {{cite web
| last = Williams | first = Gene
| year = [[August 30]], [[1987]]
| title = Watterson: Calvin's other alter ego
| work = [[Cleveland Plain Dealer]]
| url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/calterego.html
| accessdate = July 12
| accessyear = 2005
}}
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{commons|Calvin and Hobbes}}
:''The following links were last verified [[23 February]] [[2006]].
*[http://www.ucomics.com/calvinandhobbes/ Official ''Calvin and Hobbes'' site]
*[http://home3.inet.tele.dk/stadil/calvin.htm ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Magical World]
*[http://www.calvinandhobbeshideout.com ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Hideout]
*[http://www.transmogrifier.org/ch/comics/list.cgi Calvin and Hobbes Browser]
*[http://www.simplych.com/ Simply ''Calvin and Hobbes'']
*[http://ignatz.brinkster.net/calvin.html ''Calvin and Hobbes''::Magic on Paper]
*[http://www.calvin-and-hobbes.org ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Resurrected]
*[http://www.theheartofgold.org/jumpstation/ The ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Jumpstation]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Calvin and Hobbes|*]]
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Fictional tigers|Hobbes]]
[[Category:Fictional pairs]]
[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Fictional cats|Hobbes]]
{{Link FA|it}}
[[da:Steen og Stoffer]]
[[de:Calvin & Hobbes]]
[[es:Calvin y Hobbes]]
[[fi:Lassi ja Leevi]]
[[fr:Calvin et Hobbes]] |
tence since the [[1870s]].
[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm]
Though popular and lucrative, the film drew significant protest upon its release. Premieres of the film were widely protested by the newly founded [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People|NAACP]]. Griffith was surprised by the harsh criticism and tried to address the issues raised in his next major project, ''[[Intolerance (movie)|Intolerance]]''. He later produced the other epic film that glorifies slavery, ''Gone With the Wind.''
''Gone With the Wind'' "presented, in the words of one critic, 'a reassuring portrayal of antebellum gentility, racial harmony, and black docility.' Although it did not use white actors in blackface, like ''Birth of a Nation'', its depiction of enslaved African Americans as loyal but scatter-brained house servants and cowering, clumsy field hands conformed to earlier stereotypes.'" [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm]
Until ''[[The Big Parade]]'' surpassed it in [[1925]], ''The Birth of a Nation'' was the highest grossing film, taking in more than $10 million at the box office (what would be $180 million in 2006). It is still studied by film and cultural historians alike, and in 1992 the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed it "[[culturally significant]]" and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]].
==Cast==
*[[Sam De Grasse]]
*[[Lillian Gish]]
*[[Robert Harron]]
*[[Mae Marsh]]
*[[Miriam Cooper]]
*[[Wallace Reid]]
*[[Henry B. Walthall]]
*[[Mary Alden]]
*[[Elmer Clifton]]
*[[Josephine Crowell]]
*[[Kevin Flavin]]
*[[Robert Cheek]]
*[[Hamilton Mitchell]]
==Production==
[[Image:Birth-of-a-nation-klan-and-black-man.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hooded Klansmen, hiding their faces, catch Gus, a black man whom the filmmaker, in stereotypical fashion, described as "a renegade, a product of the vicious doctrines spread by the carpetbaggers."]]
''The Birth of a Nation'' pioneered such techniques as [[deep focus]], [[jump-cut]], and facial [[close-up]], which are now considered integral to the industry. It also contains many new cinematic innovations, special effects, and artistic techniques, including a color sequence at the end. It shattered box office records at the time and was also the longest film to date. For these reasons, it was voted one of the "Top 100 American Films" (# 44) by the [[American Film Institute]] in [[1998]].
Griffith based the script on the novel ''[[The Clansman]]'' by [[Thomas Dixon]]. He agreed to pay $10,000 for the rights, but ran out of money and could only afford $2,500 of the original option. For the balance, he offered Dixon 25 percent interest in the picture. Dixon reluctantly agreed. At the time, Dixon's proceeds were the largest sum any author received for a motion-picture story - several million dollars.
Griffith filled the film with anti-black incidents; arrogant freedmen pushing whites off sidewalks, preaching marriage between the races, and killing blacks who remained loyal to their masters. The film's characters are stereotypes: loyal house servants; deluded and ignorant field hands; arrogant mulattoes lusting after Southern white women; and the Ku Klux Klan made up of gallant ex-Confederate officers. [[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm ]]
''The Birth of a Nation'' helped to justify the denial of civil rights to African Americans. The turn of the century witnessed the nadir of race relations in the United States. [[Lynching]] was widespread. Race riots directed against African Americans took place in many cities. African Americans in the South were relegated to separate schools, hotels, and restaurants and were denied the right to vote.
[[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm ]]
Although the film made use of some black actors, some were played in [[blackface]]. In particular, any actor who was to come in contact with a white actress was played in black face. For example, the Cameron's maid is both white and obviously male.
Griffith's budget started at $40,000, but the film ultimately cost $110,000 ($2,000,000 in 2006). As a result, Griffith constantly had to seek new sources of capital for his film. A ticket to the film cost a record $2 ($36 in 2006). However, it remained the most profitable film of all time until it was dethroned by ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' ([[1937]]).
West Point engineers provided technical advice on the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] battle scenes and provided Griffith with artillery. [Source: "When Hollywood's Big Guns Come Right From the Source" Katharine Q. Seelye, ''New York Times'', June 10, 2002]
==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The film was presented in two parts divided by an [[intermission]]. Part one depicts pre-[[American Civil War|Civil War]] [[United States|America]] introducing two juxtaposed families: the Northern '''Stonemans''', consisting of [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] Congressman [[Austin Stoneman]] (based on real-life [[Reconstruction]] [[US Senate|Senator]] [[Thaddeus Stevens]]), his two sons, and his daughter, [[Elsie Stoneman|Elsie]] and the Southern '''Camerons''', a family including two daughters (Margaret and Flora) and three sons, most notably [[Ben Cameron]].
The Stoneman boys visit the Camerons at their [[South Carolina]] estate, a pinnacle of the [[Old South]], and all it represents. The eldest Stoneman boy falls in love with Margaret Cameron, and Ben Cameron idolizes a picture of Elsie Stoneman. When Civil War begins, all of the boys join their respective armies. A Black militia (with a white leader) ransacks the Cameron house, almost despoiling all the Cameron women, who are rescued when Confederate soldiers rout the Black militia. Meanwhile, the youngest Stoneman and two Cameron boys are killed in the war. Ben Cameron is wounded and taken to a Northern hospital where he meets Elsie, a nurse. The war ends and [[Abraham Lincoln]] is assassinated at [[Ford's Theater]], allowing Austin Stoneman and other radical congressmen to punish the South for [[secession]] with [[Reconstruction]].
[[Image:Flora-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|frame|right|Flora Cameron runs away from Gus]]
Part two begins to depict Reconstruction. Stoneman and his [[mulatto]] sidekick [[Silas Lynch]] go to South Carolina to personally observe their agenda of empowering Southern blacks via election fraud. Meanwhile, Ben Cameron, inspired observing children pretending to be ghosts, devises a plan to reverse perceived powerlessness of Southern whites by forming the [[Ku Klux Klan]], although his membership in the group angers Elsie Stoneman. Then, Gus, a murderous former slave, with designs on white women, rudely proposes to marry Flora Cameron. She flees into the forest, pursued by Gus. Trapped on a precipice, Flora chooses death to avoid letting herself be touched by a Black man.
In response the Klan hunts Gus, lynches him, and leaves his corpse on Lieutenant Governor Silas Lynch's doorstep. In retaliation, Lynch orders a crackdown on the Klan. The Camerons flee the African-American militia and hide out in a country home. Meanwhile, with Austin Stoneman gone, Lynch tries to force Elsie to marry him. Disguised Klansmen discover her situation and leave to get reinforcements. The Klan, now at full strength, rides to her rescue and takes the opportunity to evict all of the Blacks. Simultaneously, Lynch's militia surrounds the Cameron's country home, but the Klan saves them just in time. Victorious, the Klansmen celebrate in the streets, and the film cuts to the next election where the Klan successfully [[disenfranchise]]s black voters. The film concludes with a double honeymoon of Phil Stoneman and Margaret Cameron and Ben Cameron with Elsie Stoneman. The final frame shows masses oppressed by a warlike ruler transformed into angelic figures under a [[Christ]]-like representation. The final title rhetorically asks: "Dare we dream of a golden day when the bestial War shall rule no more. But instead-the gentle Prince in the Hall of Brotherly Love in the City of Peace."
==Political influence==
[[Image:Naacp-birth-of-a-nation-protest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An NAACP protest against the film.]]
''The Birth of a Nation'' and ''Gone with the Wind'' were highly influential Hollywood films in that they both provide a positive view of [[slavery]] and helped shape the way Americans have thought about [[African American]] people whose ancestors were enslaved by the plantation owners glorified in both of these films.
[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/modules/slavery/]
''The Birth of a Nation'' created a craze among white people in favor of the violent activities of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. The film is widely credited with creating the cultural context for the rebirth of the Klan, whose membership shot up after it opened in theatres. At a preview in Los Angeles, actors dressed as Klansmen were hired to ride by as a promotional stunt, and real-life members of the newly reorganized Klan rode up and down the street at its later official premiere in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. In some cases, enthusiastic Southern audiences fired their guns into the screen.{{citationneeded}} Along with the lynching of [[Leo Frank]] in the same year, the film was one of the major factors that built momentum for the organization of the second [[Ku Klux Klan]] at [[Stone Mountain]], [[Georgia (U.S. state) |Georgia]], in [[1915]], after a period of dormancy that had lasted since federal suppression of the violently racist Klan in [[1877]].
[[Image:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Griffith film falsely attributes this statement to then U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]].]]
[[Woodrow Wilson]]'s ''History of the American People'' is repeatedly quoted in ''The Birth of a Nation''. Wilson saw the film in a special White House |
uot;text-align:left;" | {{NLD}}
| 522,853
| 31,990
| 38,321
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{UK}}
| 1,910,818
| 31,529
| 36,494
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{DEU}}
| 2,609,916
| 31,472
| 33,405
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{SWE}}
| 279,733
| 30,751
| 38,776
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{ITA}}
| 1,769,919
| 30,468
| 29,666
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{FRA}}
| 1,889,713
| 30,152
| 33,894
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{ESP}}
| 1,081,332
| 26,009
| 28,012
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{SVN}}
| 46,089
| 23,102
| 19,812
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{GRC}}
| 247,425
| 22,542
| 20,593
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{CYP}}
| 17,772
| 21,740
| 21,834
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{MLT}}
| 8,273
| 20,793
| 13,923
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{CZE}}
| 210,163
| 20,578
| 12,422
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{PRT}}
| 213,331
| 20,260
| 16,664
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{HUN}}
| 172,241
| 17,733
| 11,927
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{EST}}
| 23,875
| 17,672
| 10,252
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{SVK}}
| 93,432
| 17,266
| 9,252
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{LTU}}
| 53,434
| 15,657
| 8,006
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{POL}}
| 546,543
| 14,329
| 7,942
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | {{LVA}}
| 32,698
| 14,155
| 7,629
|-
! colspan=4 style="text-align:left;" | '''Acceding Countries:'''
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{BUL}}''
| 76,705
| 9,976
| 3,662
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{ROM}}''
| 196,263
| 8,873
| 4,054
|-
! colspan=4 style="text-align:left;" | '''Candidate Countries:'''
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{CRO}}''
| 59,334
| 13,185
| 8,832
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{TUR}}''
| 611,572
| 8,393
| 5,115
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{FYROM}}''
| 17,140
| 8,293
| 2,509
|-
! colspan=4 style="text-align:left;" | '''Other European Countries:'''
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{NOR}}''
| 201,817
| 43,481
| 67,587
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{ISL}}''
| 11,294
| 37,913
| 49,291
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{SUI}}''
| 251,381
| 34,498
| 49,306
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{UKR}}''
| 365,660
| 7,802
| 2,177
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{BLR}}''
| 74,849
| 7,715
| 3,102
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{BIH}}''
| 24,333
| 6,160
| 2,587
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{ALB}}''
| 20,481
| 5,707
| 2,635
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{SCG}}''
| 46,393
| 5,549
| 3,488
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{MDA}}''
| 8,574
| 2,377
| 929
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{AND}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{FRO}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{LIE}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{MCO}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{SMR}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | ''{{VAT}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
|}
<small>Source: [[CIA World Factbook]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html]</small><br>
<small>All other figures, source: [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] web site ([http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-964-182-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&S=PPPWGT&CMP=0&x=80&y=8 2006 GDP PPP], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-964-182-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&S=PPPPC&CMP=0&x=31&y=6 2006 per capita GDP PPP], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-918-964-182-968-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&S=NGDPDPC&CMP=0&x=41&y=14 2006 per capita GDP, current prices]).</small>
==Comparison with other regional blocs==
{{Most Active Regional blocs}}
==See also==
===Lists===
*[[:Category:European Union]] (hierarchical list of all EU articles)
*[[European Union Statistics]]
*[[Largest cities of the European Union by population]]
*[[List of extinct animals of Europe]]
*[[List of European Union-related topics]]
*[[EU Framework Program for Research and Technological Development]]
===Other===
*[[Council of Europe]]
*[[Citizenship of the European Union]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Economy of the European Union]]
*[[Pro-European]] and [[Euroscepticism]]
*[[Transatlantic relations]]
*[[United States of Europe]]
*[[Value-added tax]]
*[[Flat tax]]
*[[Latin Monetary Union]] '''(1865-1927)'''
*[[Międzymorze]]
*[[European Union legislative procedure]]
*[[Eurocentrism]]
==Partial bibliography==
*''[[The Economist]] Guide to the European Union'' (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 1861979304
*''Europe Recast: A History of European Union'' by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 0333987349
*''Understanding the European Union 2nd ed'' by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 033394867X
*''The Institutions of the European Union'' edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton (Oxford University Press, 2002) ISBN 0198700520
*''The Government and Politics of the European Union'' by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0333984617
*''The European Union: A Very Short Introduction'' by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN
*''The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy'' by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 1594200335
*''This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair'' by [[Hugo Young]] (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 0333579925
*''The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream'' by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 1585423459
*''The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union'' by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group - Academi, 2003) ISBN 0826471056
==External links and references==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks}}
===[http://www.europa.eu/ The European Union On-Line]===
Official EU website, europa.eu, in the [[Languages of the European Union|official languages]]. Some subpages:
*[http://www.europa.eu/comm/mediatheque/multimedia/select/maps_en.html European Commission - Maps of Europe]
*[http://www.europa.eu/comm/mediatheque/audio/index_en.html Press conferences and speech audio] ([[MP3]] and [[RealAudio]]).
*[http://www.europa.eu/eur-lex/en/index.html EUR-LEX - EU law and proposed legislation]
*[http://www.europa.eu/en/record/green/gp9611/index.htm Green Paper on a numbering policy for telecommunications (+3 country call code proposal)]
*[http://www.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/china/intro/ EU Policy on China]
===[http://www.eu2006.at/en/index.html?null Presidency of the European Union]===
===Other sites===
*{{gutenberg author| id=European+Union | name=The European Union}}
*[http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/europe/2003/inside_europe/ BBC News: Inside Europe] guide to the changing face of the EU
*[http://www.cafebabel.com/ café babel] European current affaires online magazine, published in six languages
*[http://www.zei.de/zei_startseite_neu/startseite_e.htm Center for European Integration Studies] ([[ZEI]]) - Research Institute focusing on the EU
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html CIA World Factbook entry]
*[http://www.dadalos-europe.org/ Dadalos, International UNESCO Education Server for Civic, Peace and Human Rights Education: Basic Course on the EU]
*[http://www.timbro.com/euvsusa/ EU versus USA] - Study comparing GDP and growth (available in PDF)
*[http://www.eurunion.org/ EU in the USA] - EU delegation to the US
*[http://eunews.euroesprit.org/ EU News] - European Union News
*[http://www.europeanlawmonitor.com/ European Law Monitor] - Monitors and tracks EU proposals
*[http://www.europeanvoice.com European Voice] - Independent Weekly Newspaper on EU Affairs
*[http://www.EUobserver.com/ EU Observer] - News website focusing on the EU
*[http://www.abhaber.com/] ABHaber.com - EU Turkey News Network
*[http://www.eufpc.org/ EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council] - Interdisciplinary Think-tank and Network
*[http://www.euractiv.com/ EurActiv.com] Independent media portal dedicated to EU affairs
*[http://www.euronews.net/ Euronews] - Multilingual public TV news channel <!--in the EU,--> run by [[ITN]] <!--(It is run by [[Eurovision]] and not by the EU)-->
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/eu/ Guardian Unlimited Special Report: European Union] guide and ongoing news
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us554374/us526499/us526505/us531057/ LookSmart - European Union] directory category
*[http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-eumember-map.htm Mapsofworld.com] - World Map of European Union Countries
*[http://www.oecd.org/eu OECD's EU country page] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/eu OECD's Economic Survey of the EU]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Government/Multilateral/Regional/European_Union/ Open Directory Project - European Union] directory category
*[http://europeansociety.tripod.com/ S.C. European Society - Oxford University (1950s)] World's oldest?
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Regions/Europe/Government/European_Union__EU_/ Yahoo - European Union] directory category
===European Union history===
*[http://www.eu-history.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=10&c=52 ''The Messina Declaratio |
d]] by the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He is later acquitted in the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
*[[1881]] - [[China]] and [[Russia]] sign the [[Sino-Russian Ili Treaty]].
*[[1899]] - [[Western Washington University]] is established.
*[[1909]] - The [[Hudson Motor Car Company]] is founded.
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: The [[United States|U.S.]] ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] is given the [[Zimmermann Telegram]], in which [[Germany]] pledges to ensure the return of [[New Mexico]], [[Texas]], and [[Arizona]] to [[Mexico]] if that country declares war on the [[United States]].
*[[1918]] - [[Estonia]]: [[Declaration of independence]] from [[Russia]].
*[[1925]] - A [[thermite]] ([[magnesium]]) bomb is used for the first time to break up a 250,000-ton ice jam clogging the [[St. Lawrence River]] near [[Waddington, New York]].
*[[1938]] - A [[nylon]]-bristle [[toothbrush]] becomes the first commercial product ([[DuPont]]) to be made with nylon yarn.
*[[1942]] - The [[Voice of America]] begins [[broadcast]]ing.
*[[1945]] - [[Egypt]]ian [[Premier]] [[Ahmed Maher Pasha]] is killed in [[Parliament]] after reading a decree.
*[[1946]] - [[Juan Perón]] is elected president of [[Argentina]].
*[[1948]] - [[Cold War]]: The [[Communist]] [[Party]] seizes control of [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1968]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Tet Offensive]] is halted; [[South Vietnam]] recaptures [[Hué]].
*[[1970]] - [[National Public Radio]] is founded.
*[[1975]] - [[Hard rock]] band ''[[Led Zeppelin]]'' release the classic [[double album]] ''[[Physical Graffiti]]''.
*[[1976]] - [[Cuba]] : national [[Constitution]] proclaimed.
*[[1981]] - [[Buckingham Palace]] announces the engagement of [[Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Lady Diana Spencer]].
*1981 - [[Jean Harris]] is convicted of murdering Dr. [[Herman Tarnower]], the author of the bestselling ''[[Scarsdale Diet|The Complete Scarsdale Medical Diet]]''.
*[[1983]] - A special commission of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] releases a report that condemns the practice of [[Japanese internment]] during [[World War II]].
*[[1988]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] sides with [[Larry Flynt]]'s ''[[Hustler]]'' magazine by overturning a lower court decision to award [[Jerry Falwell]] $200,000 for [[defamation]].
*[[1989]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] offers a [[USD]] $3 million bounty for the death of ''[[The Satanic Verses (novel)|The Satanic Verses]]'' author [[Salman Rushdie]].
*1989 - [[United Airlines Flight 811]], bound for [[New Zealand]] from [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], rips open during flight, sucking 9 passengers out of the business-class section.
*[[1992]] - ''[[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]'' singer [[Kurt Cobain]] marries [[Courtney Love]].
*[[1995]] - The [[Corona (satellite)|Corona]] [[reconnaissance satellite]] program, in existence from [[1959]] to [[1972]], is declassified.
*[[1996]] - The last occurrence of [[February 24]] as a [[leap day]] in the [[European Union]] and for the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
*[[1999]] - The [[U.S. State|State]] of [[Arizona]] executes [[Karl LaGrand]], a [[Germany|German]] national involved in an armed robbery, in spite of [[Germany]]'s legal action to attempt to save him.
*1999 - A [[China Southern Airlines]] [[Tupolev]] [[TU-154]] airliner crashes on approach to [[Wenzhou]] airport in eastern [[China]], killing 61.
*[[2002]] - The [[2002 Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympic Games]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah]] end.
*[[2006]] - [[Philippines|Philippine]] [[President of the Philippines|President]] [[Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo]] declares [[Proclamation 1017]] placing the country in a [[2006 state of emergency in the Philippines|state of emergency]] in attempt to subdue a possible military coup.
==Births==
*[[1103]] - [[Emperor Toba]] of Japan (d. [[1156]])
*[[1304]] - [[Ibn Battuta]], explorer
*[[1463]] - [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]], Italian humanist (d. [[1494]])
*[[1500]] - [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1558]])
*[[1547]] - [[Don John of Austria]], military leader (d. [[1578]])
*[[1557]] - [[Mathias, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1619]])
*[[1597]] - [[Vincent Voiture]], French poet (d. [[1648]])
*[[1619]] - [[Charles Le Brun]], French artist (d. [[1690]])
*[[1622]] - [[Johannes Clauberg]], German theologian and philosopher (d. [[1665]])
*[[1684]] - [[Matthias Braun]], Czech sculptor (d. [[1738]])
*[[1693]] - [[James Quin]], English actor (d. [[1766]])
*[[1709]] - [[Jacques de Vaucanson]], French inventor (d. [[1782]])
*[[1723]] - [[John Burgoyne]], British general (d. [[1792]])
*[[1774]] - [[Prince Adolphus, 1st Duke of Cambridge]] (d. [[1850]])
*[[1786]] - [[Wilhelm Grimm]], German philologist and folklorist (d. [[1859]])
*[[1836]] - [[Winslow Homer]], American artist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1842]] - [[Arrigo Boito]], Italian composer (d. [[1918]])
*[[1846]] - [[Luigi Denza]], Italian composer (d. [[1922]])
*[[1848]] - [[Andrew Inglis Clark]], Tasmanian politician (d. [[1907]])
*[[1852]] - [[George Moore (novelist)|George Moore]], English writer (d. [[1933]])
*[[1866]] - [[Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev]], Russian physicist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1874]] - [[Honus Wagner]], baseball player (d. [[1955]])
*[[1877]] - [[Ettie Annie Rout|Ettie Rout]], New Zealand activist (b. [[1936]])
*[[1885]] - [[Chester Nimitz]], U.S. admiral (d. [[1966]])
*1885 - [[Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz|Stanis&#322;aw Ignacy Witkiewicz]], Polish writer and painter (d. [[1939]])
*[[1890]] - [[Marjorie Main]], American actress (d. [[1975]])
*[[1909]] - [[August Derleth]], American writer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1914]] - [[Zachary Scott]], American actor (d. [[1965]])
*1914 - [[Ralph Erskine]], British architect ([[Byker Wall]]) (d. [[2005]])
*[[1921]] - [[Abe Vigoda]], American actor
*1921 - [[Douglass Watson]], American actor (d. [[1989]])
*[[1922]] - [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]], English painter
*1922 - [[Steven Hill]], American actor
*[[1923]] - [[David Soyer]], American cellist
*[[1932]] - [[Michel Legrand]], French composer
*1932 - [[John Vernon]], Canadian actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1934]] - [[Bettino Craxi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[2000]])
*1934 - [[Renata Scotto]], Italian soprano
*1934 - [[Linda Cristal]], Argentina-born actress
*[[1938]] - [[Phil Knight]], American sportswear manufacturer
*1938 - [[James Farentino]], American actor
*[[1940]] - [[Denis Law]] Scottish footballer
*[[1942]] - [[Joseph Lieberman]], American politician and vice presidential candidate
*[[1943]] - [[George Harrison]], British musician, Beatle (d. [[2001]])
*[[1943]] - [[Hristo Prodanov]], Bulgarian mountaineer
*[[1944]] - [[Nicky Hopkins]], British musician (d. [[1994]])
*[[1946]] - [[Barry Bostwick]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Rupert Holmes]], English musician
*1947 - [[Edward James Olmos]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[J. Jayalalithaa]], Indian politician
*1948 - [[Walter Smith]], Scottish football manager
*1948 - [[Dennis Waterman]], British actor
*[[1950]] - [[Pete Duel]], American actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1951]] - [[Debra Jo Rupp]], American actress
*1951 - [[Helen Shaver]], Canadian actress
*[[1955]] - [[Steve Jobs]], American computer pioneer
*1955 - [[Alain Prost]], French race car driver
*[[1956]] - [[Paula Zahn]], American journalist
*1956 - [[Eddie Murray]], former baseball player
*[[1958]] - [[Sammy Kershaw]], American musician
*1958 - [[Plastic Bertrand]], Belgian singer
*[[1962]] - [[Michelle Shocked]], American musician
*1962 - [[Teri Weigel]], American pornography actress
*[[1963]] - [[Mike Vernon]], Canadian ice hockey goalie
*[[1964]] - [[Andy Crane]], British childrens television presenter
*[[1966]] - [[Billy Zane]], American actor
*[[1968]] - [[Mitch Hedberg]], American comedian (d. [[2005]])
*[[1970]] - [[Jeff Garcia]], American football player
*[[1972]] - [[Stewart Isbell]], American photographer
*[[1973]] - [[Jordan Jovtchev]], Bulgarian gymnast
*1973 - [[Alexei Kovalev]], Russian hockey player
*[[1974]] - [[Chad Hugo]], American musician and producer ([[The Neptunes]])
*[[1975]] - [[Ashley MacIsaac]], Canadian fiddler
*[[1977]] - [[Jason Akermanis]], Australian footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Lleyton Hewitt]], Australian tennis player
*[[1982]] - [[Klára Koukalová]], Czech tennis player
*[[1987]] - [[Daniel Reilly]], British entrepreneur
*1987 - [[Mayuko Iwasa]], Japanese entertainer and model
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[616]] - King [[Ethelbert of Kent]]
*[[1525]] - [[Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet]], French soldier
*[[1563]] - [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], French soldier and politician (b. [[1519]])
*[[1588]] - [[Johann Weyer]], Dutch physician and occultist
*[[1666]] - [[Nicholas Lanier]], English composer (b. [[1588]])
*[[1674]] - [[Matthias Weckmann]], German composer (b. [[1616]])
*[[1685]] - [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Carlisle]], English politician and military leader (b. [[1629]])
*[[1704]] - [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]], French composer (b. [[1643]])
*[[1714]] - [[Edmund Andros]], English governor in North America (b. [[1637]])
*[[1721]] - [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]], English statesman and poet (b. [[1648]])
*[[1777]] - King [[Joseph I of Portugal]] (b. [[1714]])
*[[1779]] - [[Paul Daniel Longolius]], German encylopedist (b. [[1704]])
*[[1781]] - [[Edward Capell]], English critic (b. [[1713]])
*[[1799]] - [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg]], German physicist (b. [[1742]])
*[[1810]] - [[Henry Cavendish]], English scientist (b. [[1756]])
*[[1812]] - [[Etienne-Louis Malus]], French physicist and mathematician (b. [[1775]])
*[[1815]] - [[Robert Fulton]], American inventor (b. [[1765]])
*[[1825]] - [[Thomas Bowdler]], English physician and editor (b. [[1754]])
*[[1856]] - [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky]], Russian mathematician (b. [[1792]])
*[[1914]] - [[Joshua Chamberla |
he same show in the same moment of time is generating only 2.5 trps (being the target: women 25-45). This would mean that while the show has a large universe of viewers it is not necessarily reaching a large universe of women in the ages of 25 to 45 making it a less desirable location to place an ad for an advertiser looking for this particular demographic.
==Impact==
{{sect-stub}}
The impact of advertising has been a matter of considerable debate and many different claims have been made in different contexts. During debates about the banning of cigarette adervertising, a common claim from cigarette manufacturers was that cigarette advertising does not encourage people to smoke who would not otherwise{{ref|uk-parl-BAT}}. The (eventually successful) opponents of advertising, on the other hand, claim that advertising does in fact increase consumption{{ref|ash}}.
According to many media sources, the past experience and state of mind of the person subjected to advertising may determine the impact that advertising has. Children under the age of four may be unable to distinguish advertising from other television programs, whilst the ability to determine the truthfullness of the message may not be developed until the age of eight{{note|lawrence}}.
==Public service advertising==
The same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as [[AIDS]], political ideology, energy conservation, religious recruitment, and deforestation.
Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest - it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." - Attributed to Howard Gossage by [[David Ogilvy]]
[[Public service advertising]], [[non-commercial advertising]], public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the [[United States]], the granting of television and radio licenses by the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising.
Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of several U.S. government agencies.
==Social impact==
=== Regulation ===
{{main|Advertising regulation}}
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the reach of advertising. Some examples are the ban on television [[tobacco advertising]] imposed in many countries, and the total ban on advertising to children under twelve imposed by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the [[European Court of Justice]], which has found that Sweden was obliged to accept whatever programming was targeted at it from neighbouring countries or via satellite.
In Europe and elsewhere there is a vigorous debate on whether and how much advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested that food advertising targeting children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood [[obesity]] raging across the United States.
In many countries - namely New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European contries- the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organisations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes (like the [[Advertising Standards Authority|ASA]] in the UK).
===Critiques of the medium===
As advertising and marketing efforts become increasingly ubiquitous in modern Western societies, the industry has come under criticism of groups such as [[AdBusters]] via [[culture jamming]] which criticizes the media and [[consumerism]] using advertising's own techniques. The industry is accused of being one of the engines powering a convoluted [[economic]] [[mass production]] system which promotes [[consumption]]. Some advertising campaigns have also been criticized as inadvertently or even intentionally promoting [[sexism]], [[racism]], and [[ageism]]. Such criticisms have raised questions about whether this medium is creating or reflecting cultural trends. At very least, advertising often reinforces [[stereotype]]s by drawing on recognizable "types" in order to tell stories in a single image or 30 second time frame. Recognizing the social impact of advertising, [[MediaWatch]], a non-profit women's organization, works to educate consumers about how they can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators. It has developed educational materials for use in schools. The award-winning book, Made You Look - How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know , by former MediaWatch president Shari Graydon, provides context for these issues for young readers.
[[public interest|Public]] [[interest group]]s and free thinkers are increasingly suggesting that access to the mental space targeted by advertisers should be taxed, in that at the present moment that space is being [[externality|freely taken advantage of]] by advertisers with no compensation paid to the members of the public who are thus being intruded upon. This kind of tax would be a [[Pigovian tax]] in that it would act to reduce what is now increasingly seen as a public [[nuisance]]. Efforts to that end are gathering momentum, with [[Arkansas]] and [[Maine]] considering bills to implement such taxation. [[Florida]] enacted such a tax in [[1987]] but was forced to repeal it after six months, as a result of a concerted effort by national commercial interests, which withdrew planned conventions, causing major losses to the tourism industry, and cancelled advertising, causing a loss of 12 million dollars to the broadcast industry alone.
===Public perception of the medium===
Over the years, the public perception of advertising has become very negative. It is seen as a medium that inherently promotes a lie, based on the purpose of the advertisement - to encourage the target audience to submit to a cause or a belief, and act on it to the advertising party's benefit and consequently the target's disadvantage. They are either perceived as directly lying (stating opinions or untruths directly as facts), lying by omission (usually terms or conditions unfavorable to the customer), portraying a product or service in a light that does not reflect reality or even making up realities where their product has a new rol. It is this increased awareness of the intention of advertising, as well as advertising regulations that have increased the challenges that marketers face.
===Effects on communication media===
Another effect of advertising is to modify the nature of the communication media where it is shown. The most clear example is television. Channels that get most of their revenues from publicity try to make their medium a good place for communicating ads. That means trying to make the public stay for long times and in a mental state that will make spectators not to switch the channel through the ads. Programs that are low in mental stimulus and require light concentration and are varied are best for long sitting times and make for easier emotional jumps to ads, that can become more entretaining than regular shows.
A simple way to understand the objectives in [[television programming]] is to compare contents from channels paid and chosen by the viewer or channels that get their income mainly from advertisements.
==Future==
With the dawn of the Internet have come many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) abound. Recently, the advertising community has attempted to make the adverts themselves desirable to the public. In one example, [[Cadillac]] chose to advertise in the movie '[[The Matrix Reloaded]]', which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used.
Each year, greater sums are paid to obtain a commercial spot during the [[Super Bowl]]. Companies attempt to make these commercials sufficiently entertaining that members of the public will actually want to watch them.
Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advert enough that they wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their adverts to anyone wishing to see or hear them.
==See also==
* [[:Category:Advertising-free media|Advertising-free media]]
* [[:Category:Advertising magnates|Advertising magnates]]
* [[Bait and switch]]
* [[Brand]]
* [[List of advertising characters]]
* [[Marketing]]
* [[Geo (marketing)]]
* [[Promotion]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* [[Portrayals of the advertising industry in television and film]]
==References==
* {{note|uk-parl-BAT}} [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmhealth/27/0011313.htm ''Memorandum by British American Tobacco''] from The Tobacco Industry and the Health Risks of Smoking (TB 28) paragraph 272, ''"Cigarette advertising does not cause people to smoke"'', presented before the [[House of Commons]] Select Committee on Health [[13 January]] [[200 |
paid by their policyholders, with the difference allocated to [[overhead]] and [[profit]].
Insurance companies also earn [[investment]] profits. These are generated by investing premiums received until they are needed to pay claims. This money is called the 'float'. The insurer may make profits or losses from the value change in the float as well as [[interest]] or [[dividends]] on the float. In the [[United States]], the underwriting loss of [[property]] and [[casualty]] insurance companies was $142.3 billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $68.4 billion, at the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably [[Maurice R. Greenberg|Hank Greenberg]], do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held.
==Gambling analogy==
<!-- where to put this section? -->
Some people erroneously consider insurance a type of [[gambling|wager]] (particularly as associated with [[moral hazard]]) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an [[accident]] happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a [[horse-racing|racehorse]] (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of [[religion|religious]] groups, including the [[Amish]] and Muslims, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their [[community|communities]] when [[disaster]]s strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work.
However, most [[society|societies]] could not effectively support this type of system, and the system will not work for large risks. For very large risks, Western insurance can also run into difficulties. This is the reason why most [[home insurance|homeowner's insurance]] does not cover [[flood]]s. A company that sells homeowner's insurance in a given city can accurately estimate the number of claims it would have to pay due to fires, [[tornado]]es, and other smaller-scale disasters. However, a flood may impact a large percentage of the city and the company might be unable to deal with this. A prime example of this is the flooding in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] as a result of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. For the same reason, losses due to [[war]] and [[earthquake]]s are generally excluded. In the case of floods and earthquakes (which are smaller-scale than war) homeowners can purchase separate insurance from national companies with larger resources, which are able to distribute the risk across regions rather than individual buildings.
In gaming or gambling, the game is fixed at the start so that the odds are not affected by the players. However, to obtain certain types of insurance, such as fire insurance, policyholders are often required to conduct risk mitigation practices, such as installing [[Fire sprinkler|sprinkler]]s and using fireproof building materials to reduce the odds of loss to fire. In addition, after a proven loss, insurers specialize in providing rehabilitation to minimize the total loss.
While insurance is analogous to gambling in terms of risk and reward, the main difference is in the motivation behind the process (risk seeking vs. risk avoidance). When gambling, you are assuming risk that you would not otherwise be exposed to that has the possibility of either a loss or a gain (speculative risk). With insurance, you are managing risk that you could not otherwise avoid, and which does not present the possibility of gain (pure risk). [[Risk management]], the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and practice. Avoiding, mitigating and transferring certain risk creates greater predictability for consumers and business, and allows people and organizations to use risk intelligently to maximize their opportunities.
Historically, gambling has been considered an uninsurable risk. Recent developments, however, have lead to the invention and patenting of new types of insurance to protect against gambling losses. An example is United States Patent 6,869,362, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6869362.html "Method and apparatus for providing insurance policies for gambling losses"]
==History of insurance==
Early methods of transferring or distributing risk were practiced by [[Babylonia|Babylonian]] traders as long ago as the [[2nd millennium BCE]]. The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous [[Code of Hammurabi]], c. 1750 BC, and practiced by early [[Mediterranean]] sailing [[merchant]]s. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen.
A thousand years later, the inhabitants of [[Rhodes|Rhodes]] invented the concept of the 'general average'. Merchants whose goods were being shipped together would pay a proportionally divided premium which would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during storm or sinkage.
The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] introduced the origins of health and life insurance c. 600 AD when they organized guilds called "benevolent societies" which acted to care for the [[family|families]] and [[funeral]] expenses of members upon [[death]]. [[Guild]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] served a similar purpose. The [[Talmud]] deals with several aspects of insuring [[Good (economics)|goods]]. Before insurance was established in the late 17th century, "friendly societies" existed in England, in which people donated amounts of money to a general sum that could be used in case of emergency.
Insurance became far more sophisticated in post-[[Renaissance]] [[Europe]], and specialized varieties developed.
Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the growing importance of London as a center for trade led to rising demand for marine insurance. In the late 1680s, Mr. Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house which became a popular haunt of ship owners, merchants, and ships’ captains, and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news. It became the meeting place for parties wishing to insure cargoes and ships, and those willing to underwrite such ventures. Today, [[Lloyd's of London]] remains the leading market for marine and other specialist types of insurance, but it works rather differently than the more familiar kinds of insurance.
Insurance as we know it today can be traced to the [[Great Fire of London]], which in 1666 devoured 13,200 houses. In the aftermath of this disaster [[Nicholas Barbon]] opened an office to insure buildings. In 1680 he established England's first fire insurance company, "The Fire Office," to insure brick and frame homes.
The first insurance company in the [[United States]] provided fire insurance and was formed in Charles Town (modern-day [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]]), [[South Carolina]], in 1732.
[[Benjamin Franklin]] helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly against [[fire]] in the form of [[Perpetual Insurance|perpetual insurance]]. In 1752, he founded the [http://www.contributionship.com/ Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire]. Franklin's company was the first to make contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, it refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses.
In the United States, [[regulation]] of the insurance industry is highly [[Balkanization|Balkanized]], with primary responsibility assumed by individual [[U.S. state|State]] insurance departments. Whereas insurance markets have become centralized nationally and internationally, state insurance commissioners operate individually, though at times in concert through a national insurance [[commissioner]]'s organization. In recent years, some have called for a federal regulatory system for insurance similar to that of the banking industry.
In the State of [[New York]], which has unique laws in keeping with its stature as a global business center, Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]] has been in a unique position to grapple with major national insurance brokerages. Spitzer alleged that [[Marsh & McLennan Companies|Marsh & McLennan]] steered business to insurance carriers based on the amount of contingent commissions that could be extracted from carriers, rather than basing decisions on whether carriers had the best deals for clients. Several of the largest commercial insurance brokerages have since stopped accepting contingent commissions and have adopted new business models.
== Types of insurance ==
Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are:
*[[Auto insurance|Automobile insurance]], also known as ''auto insurance'', ''car insurance'' and in the [[UK]] as ''motor insurance'', is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal [[Liability#In law|liability]] claims against the [[driver]] and loss of or [[damage]] to the [[vehicle]] itself. Over most of the [[United States]] purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident |
which grew out of the union of [[biochemistry]] and genetics is widely known as [[molecular biology]].
The term "genetics" is often widely conflated with the notion of [[genetic engineering]], where the DNA of an organism is modified for some kind of practical end, but most research in genetics is aimed at understanding and explaining the effect of genes on phenotypes and in the role of genes in populations (see [[population genetics]] and [[ecological genetics]]), rather than genetic engineering.
==See also==
*[[List of genetics-related topics]]
*[[List of genetic engineering topics]]
*[[Central dogma of molecular biology]]
*[[Chimera (genetics)|Chimerism]]
*[[Gene regulatory network]]
*[[Genetic counseling]]
*[[Genetic screen]]
*[[Genetic testing]]
*[[List of publications in biology#Genetics| Important publications in genetics]]
*[[List of genetics research organizations]]
*[[List of geneticists & biochemists]]
*[[Mitochondrial genetics]]
*[[Reprogenetics]]
*[[Punnett square]]
==Journals==
*''[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]]''
*''[[Journal of Genetics]]''
*''[[Annals of Human Genetics]]''
*''[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]]''
==External links==
{{book|Genetics}}
===Related publications===
*''Advanced Genetics''
*[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/home.html ''American Journal of Human Genetics'']
*''Annual Reviews of Genetics''
*[http://www.nature.com/ejhg/ ''European Journal of Human Genetics'']
*''[http://www.genesdev.org/ Genes and Development]''
*[http://hmg.oupjournals.org/ ''Human Molecular Genetics'']
*''[http://jhered.oupjournals.org/ Journal of Heredity]''
*[http://www.bionews.in/index.php/archives/category/genetics// ''Latest Genetics News'']
*[http://www.nature.com/ng/ ''Nature Genetics'']
*''[[Nature Reviews Genetics]]'' ([http://www.nature.com/nrg/index.html journal home])
*[http://www.nature.com/genomics/ ''Nature Genome Gateway'']
*[http://www.jpharmacogenetics.com/ ''Pharmacogenetics'']
*''Journal of Medical Genetics''
=== Other ===
*[http://www.jbpub.com/connections Exploring the Way Life Works]
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu Genetic Science Learning Center]
*[http://www.jic.bbsrc.ac.uk/corporate/Library/letter.html Letter to Adam Sedgwick in 1905 from William Bateson]
*[http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/genetics.shtml The Virtual Library on Genetics]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]
*[http://geneticsmadeeasy.com Genetics made easy]
{{Genetics-footer}}
{{Biology-footer}}
[[Category:Genetics|*]]
[[af:Genetika]]
[[ar:علم الوراثة]]
[[bg:Генетика]]
[[bn:জিনতত্ত্ব]]
[[cs:Genetika]]
[[da:Genetik]]
[[de:Genetik]]
[[et:Geneetika]]
[[es:Genética]]
[[eo:Genetiko]]
[[fr:Génétique]]
[[ko:유전학]]
[[io:Genetiko]]
[[id:Genetika]]
[[is:Erfðafræði]]
[[it:Genetica]]
[[he:גנטיקה]]
[[la:Genetica]]
[[lt:Genetika]]
[[lb:Genetik]]
[[hu:Genetika]]
[[ms:Genetik]]
[[nl:Genetica]]
[[ja:遺伝学]]
[[no:Genteknologi]]
[[os:Генетикæ]]
[[pl:Genetyka]]
[[pt:Genética]]
[[ro:Genetică]]
[[ru:Генетика]]
[[simple:Genetics]]
[[sl:Genetika]]
[[sr:Генетика]]
[[su:Genetika]]
[[fi:Perinnöllisyystiede]]
[[sv:Genetik]]
[[tl:Henetika]]
[[ta:மரபியல்]]
[[th:พันธุศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Di truyền học]]
[[tr:Genetik]]
[[zh:遗传学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guitar/Slide</title>
<id>12267</id>
<revision>
<id>15909968</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Slide guitar]]
:''See also :'' [[Guitar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guitar/Steel</title>
<id>12268</id>
<revision>
<id>15909969</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-27T16:12:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.118.4.98</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pedal steel guitar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guitar/Classical</title>
<id>12269</id>
<revision>
<id>15909970</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical guitar]]
:''See also :'' [[Guitar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guitar/Bass</title>
<id>12270</id>
<revision>
<id>15909971</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bass guitar]]
:''See also :'' [[Guitar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Pappas</title>
<id>12272</id>
<revision>
<id>31979858</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T16:30:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.202.32.5</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Pappas''' is a professor of [[philosophy]] at [[Ohio State University]]. Pappas' specializations are [[epistemology]], [[17th-century philosophy]], [[philosophy of religion]], and [[metaphysics]].
He is author and editor of several books, including a new book about [[George Berkeley]], and a widely-used epistemology anthology, ''Essays on Knowledge and Justification''.
[[Category:American philosophers|Pappas]]
George Pappas is also an epic figuere in Greek modern history of Texas Holdem</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guy de Maupasant</title>
<id>12273</id>
<revision>
<id>15909974</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Guy de Maupassant]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guy de Maupassant]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guy de Maupassant</title>
<id>12274</id>
<revision>
<id>42112402</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:24:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sgt Pinback</username>
<id>596014</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Short Stories */ del "(sci-fi novell)"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GDMaupassant.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Guy de Maupassant]]
{{French literature (small)}}
Henri René Albert '''Guy de Maupassant''' ([[IPA]]: {{IPA|&#609;idəmopas&#771;&#593;}}) ([[5 August]] [[1850]] &ndash; [[6 July]] [[1893]]) was a popular 19th-century [[France|French]] [[writer]]. He is one of the fathers of the modern [[short story]].
==Biography==
Maupassant was born at the [[Chateau|Château]] de Miromesnil, near [[Dieppe, Seine-Maritime|Dieppe]] in the [[Seine-Maritime]] department. He became a writer of short stories and novels. His short stories are characterised by their economy of style and the efficient way in which the various threads within them are neatly resolved. Some of his stories would now be considered to be [[horror fiction]].
The Maupassants were an old [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] family who had settled in [[Normandy]] in the middle of the [[18th century]]. In [[1846]] his father had married a young lady of the well-to-do [[bourgeoisie]], Laure Le Poittevin. With her brother Alfred, she had been the playmate of [[Gustave Flaubert]], the son of a [[Rouen]] surgeon, who was destined to have a directing influence on her son's life. She was a woman of no common literary accomplishments, very fond of the classics, especially [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. Separated from her husband, she kept her two sons, Guy and his younger brother Hervé.
Until he was thirteen years old Guy lived with his mother at [[Étretat]], in the Villa des Verguies, where between the sea and the luxuriant country, he grew very fond of nature and outdoor sports; he went fishing with the fishermen off the coast and spoke patois with the peasants. He was deeply devoted to his mother. <br />
He first entered a seminary at [[Yvetot]], but deliberately managed to have himself expelled. From his early religious education he retained a marked hostility to [[religion]]. <br />
Then he was sent to the Rouen ''[[Lycée]]'', where he proved a good scholar indulging in poetry and taking a prominent part in theatricals.
The [[Franco-Prussian War]] broke out soon after his graduation from college in [[1870]]; he enlisted as a volunteer and fought gallantly.
After the war, in [[1871]], he left Normandy and came to [[Paris]] where he spent ten years as a clerk in the Navy Department. During these ten tedious years his only recreation was canoeing on the [[Seine]] on Sundays and holidays.
[[Gustave Flaubert]] took him under his protection and acted as a kind of literary guardian to him, guiding his debut in journalism and literature. At Flaubert's home he met [[Émile Zola]] and the Russian novelist [[Ivan Turgenev]], as well as many of the protagonists of the [[realism (arts)|realist]] and [[naturalism (literature)|naturalist]] schools. He wrote considerable verse and short plays.
In [[1878]] he was transferred to the Ministry of Public Instruction and became a contributing editor of several leading newspapers such as ''[[Le Figaro]], Gil Blas, [[Le Gaulois]] ''and ''l'Echo de Paris.'' He devoted his spare time to writing novels and short stories.
In [[1880]] he published his first masterpiece, "[[Boule de Suif]]", which met with an instant and tremendous success. Flaubert characterized it as "a masterpiece that will endure".
The decade from [[1880]] to [[1891]] was the most fertile period of Maupassant's life. Made famous by his first short story, he worked methodically and produced two or sometimes four volumes annually. He combined talent and practical business sense, which brought him affluence and wealth.
In [[1881]] he published his first |
layers such as [[Honus Wagner]]. Several other major leagues formed and failed, but the [[American League]], established in 1901 as a major league and originating from the minor Western League (1893), did succeed. While the two leagues were rivals who actively fought for the best players, often disregarding one another's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes, a modicum of peace was established in 1903, they began playing a [[World Series]] that year.
Compared to modern times, games in the early part of the 20th century were lower scoring and pitchers were more successful. The "inside game", whose nature was to "scratch for runs", was played rather more violently and aggressively than it is today. [[Ty Cobb]] said of his era especially, "Baseball is a war!" This period, which has since become known as the "[[dead-ball era]]", ended in the 1920s with several rule changes that gave advantages to hitters and the rise of the legendary baseball player [[Babe Ruth]], who showed the world what power hitting could produce and thus changed the nature of the game.
During the first half of the 20th century, a "gentlemen's agreement" in the form of the [[baseball color line]] effectively barred African-American players from the major leagues (though not Native Americans, oddly enough), resulting in the formation of several [[Negro Leagues]]. Finally in [[1947 in sports|1947]], Major League Baseball's color barrier was broken when [[Jackie Robinson]] was signed by the National League's [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]]. Although it was not instantaneous, baseball has since become fully [[racial integration|integrated]].
Baseball has often been a barometer of the fabled American "melting pot", as immigrants from different regions have tried to "make good" in various areas including sports. In the 19th century, baseball was populated with many players of Irish or German extraction. A number of Native Americans had successful careers especially in the early 1900s. Italians and Poles appeared on many rosters during the 1920s and 1930s. Black Americans came on strong starting in the late 1940s after the barriers had been lifted, and continue to form a significant contingent. By the 1960s, Hispanics had started to make the scene, and had become a dominant force by the 1990s. In the 21st century, East Asians have been appearing in increasing numbers.
The middle of the century led major league baseball to the West of the United States and also became a time when pitchers dominated. Scoring became so low in the American League, due to pitching dominance, that the [[designated hitter]] was introduced; this rule now constitutes the primary difference between the two leagues.
Despite the popularity of baseball, and the attendant high salaries relative to those of average Americans, the players have become unsatisfied from time to time, as they believed the owners had too much control—a stance that many baseball fans found objectionable. Various job actions have occurred throughout the game's history. Players on specific teams occasionally attempted strikes, but usually came back when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. The throwing of the [[1919 World Series]], the "Black Sox scandal", was in some sense a "strike" or at least a rebellion by the ballplayers against a perceived stingy owner. But the strict rules of baseball contracts tended to keep the players "in line" in general.
This began to change in the 1960s when former [[Steelworkers Union]] president [[Marvin Miller]] became the [[Major League Baseball Players Association|Baseball Players Union]] president. The union became much stronger than it had been previously, especially when the reserve clause was effectively nullified in the mid-1970s. A series of strikes and lockouts began in baseball, affecting portions of the 1972 and 1981 seasons and culminating in the infamous strike of 1994 that led to the cancellation of the World Series and carried over into 1995 before it was finally settled.
The players typically always got what they demanded, but the popularity of baseball diminished greatly as a result of the players' actions, and fans were slow to return. [[Cal Ripken, Jr.|Cal Ripken]]'s record-breaking 2131st consecutive game in 1995 was a feel-good moment that helped boost interest in the sport. The great home run race of [[1998 in sports|1998]] between [[Mark McGwire]] and [[Sammy Sosa]] really turned things around, captivating fans all summer. As with other times when adversity threatened the game, positive on-field events had triggered a renewed surge in baseball's popularity in America.
Professional baseball leagues began to form in [[History of baseball outside the United States|countries outside of America]] in the 1920s and 1930s, including the [[Netherlands]] (formed in 1922), [[Japan]] (1936), and [[Australia]] (1934). Today, Venezuela (1945), the whole of [[Europe]] (1953), [[Italy]] (1948), [[Korea]] (1982), [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] (1990), and [[People's Republic of China|mainland China]] (2003) all have professional leagues as well (however, the leagues in [[Australia]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have generally had a niche appeal compared to the leagues in [[Asia]] and [[Venezuela]] and only now is the sport beginning to broaden in scope in those nations, most notably in [[Australia]], who won a surprise silver medal in the [[2004 Olympic Games]]). [[Israel]] is trying to form a professional baseball league with the help of American emigres. [[Canada]] has a franchise in [[Major League Baseball]] as well. Competition between national teams, such as in the [[World Cup of Baseball]] and the [[Olympics|Olympic]] baseball tournament, has been administered by the [[International Baseball Federation]] since its formation in 1938. [[As of 2004]], this organization has 112 member countries. The new [[World Baseball Classic]], to be held in 2006, seems likely to have a much higher profile than previous tournaments, owing to the participation for the first time of a significant number of players from the United States Major Leagues.
The [[117th IOC Session|117th meeting]] of the [[International Olympic Committee]], held in [[Singapore]] in July 2005, voted not to hold baseball and [[softball]] tournaments at the [[2012 Summer Olympic Games]], but they will remain an [[Olympic sport]] during the [[2008 Summer Olympic Games]], and will be put to vote again for each succeeding Summer Olympics. The elimination of baseball and softball from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two other sports to the program instead, but no other sport received a majority of votes favoring its inclusion. While baseball's lack of major appeal in a significant portion of the world was a factor, a more important factor was the unwillingness of [[Major League Baseball]] to have a break during the Games so that it's players could participate, something that the [[National Hockey League]] now does during the [[Winter Olympic Games]].
==Organized leagues==
Baseball is played at a number of levels, by amateur and professionals, and by the young and the old. Youth programs use modified versions of adult and professional [[baseball rules]], which may include a smaller field, easier pitching (from a coach, a tee, or a machine), less contact, base running restrictions, limitations on innings a pitcher can throw, liberal balk rules, and run limitations, among others. Since rules vary from location-to-location and among the organizations, coverage of the nuances in those rules is beyond this article.
Following is a list of organized leagues:
* Youth Leagues
** [[Little League]], a youth program, headquartered in Williamsport, Pennsylvania (USA).
** [http://www.dizzydeanbbinc.org/ Dizzy Dean Baseball] a youth program in the USA.
** [http://www.baseball.legion.org American Legion Baseball], a youth program, headquartered in Indianapolis, IN.
** [http://www.usssa.com/sports/Home.asp?Sport=11 USSSA Baseball] a youth and adult program, headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri (USA).
** [http://www.ripkenbaseball.com/ Ripken Baseball], a youth program, headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland (USA).
** [http://www.baberuthleague.org/ Babe Ruth League], a youth program, headquarted in Trenton, New Jersey (USA).
* High School
** In the USA, the [http://www.nfhs.org/ScriptContent/Index.cfm National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS)] and each state association governs the play of baseball at the high school level.
* Collegiate Level
** [[List of Collegiate Summer Baseball Leagues]]
** [[NCAA]], including [[NCAA Division I]] and the [[College World Series]], are collegiate level baseball programs played in the USA.
* International Competition
** Many international baseball events are coordinated by the [[International Baseball Federation]], including [[World Cup of Baseball|The World Cup]] and The [[World Baseball Classic]].
** As an [[Olympic sport]], see earlier section on the status of baseball in the Olympic games, and the article "[[Baseball at the Summer Olympics]]."
* Semi-professional baseball
** [http://www.independent-baseball.com/ Independent Baseball]
* [[Professional baseball]]
** [[Major League Baseball]] (MLB) in the United States;
** [[Minor League baseball]] in the United States;
** [[Negro League baseball]], defunct since 1958, in the United States.
** [[All-American Girls Professional Baseball League]]
** [[Mexican Baseball]]
** [[Japanese Baseball]]
** [[Taiwan professional baseball]]
** [[Korean Baseball Organization]] (KBO)
** [[Australian Baseball]]
** There are also smaller professional leagues in [[China Baseball League|China]], Italy, [[Bundesliga (baseball)|Germany]], the [[Dutch Major League|Netherlands]] and many others.
==See also==
* [[Comparison between cricket and baseball]]
* [[Bas |
gelical (Christian) feminists]] sometimes argue that life-long monogamy ideally promotes egalitarianism in sex, especially when viewed in light of other common alternatives to monogamy (i.e. [[polygyny|polygamy]], [[prostitution]], or [[infidelity]]). On the other hand, [[Friedrich Engels]]'s essay ''[[Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]]'' -- sometimes considered an early feminist work -- argues that monogamy was originally conceived of as a way for men to control women. In addition, some modern feminists endorse [[polyamory]] as an egalitarian lifestyle (see [[sex-positive feminism]]).
===Effect on religion===
Feminism has had a great effect on many aspects of [[religion]]. In liberal branches of [[Protestant Christianity]] (and in some theologically conservative dominations as well, such as [[Assemblies of God]][http://ag.org/top/beliefs/position_papers/4191_women_ministry.cfm]), women are ordained as [[clergy]], and in [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] [[Judaism]], women are ordained as [[rabbi]]s and [[cantor]]s. Within these [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] groups, women have gradually become more nearly equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. In Islam women have historically contributed to all aspects of Islamic life, from religious edicts to aid on the battlefield. A large portion of the sayings of [[Muhammad]] are taken from his wife [[Aisha]], whom men often consulted on religious matters. In this day you will often see many women scholars on Arabic satellite television answering Islam-related questions, asked by both genders. One matter remains debatable nowadays, which is whether or not a woman can lead men in prayers. Although all classical Islamic scholars of jurisprudence rule that it is prohibited in Islamic Law, a small portion of contemporary Muslims believe that there is evidence leading to the contrary. The leadership of women in religious matters has also been resisted within [[Roman Catholicism]]. Roman Catholicism has historically excluded women from entering priesthood and other positions in clergy, allowing women to hold positions as nuns or as laypeople.
Feminism also has had an important role in embracing new forms of religion. [[Neopagan]] religions especially tend to emphasize the importance of [[Goddess]] spirituality, and question what they regard as traditional religion's hostility to women and the sacred feminine. In particular [[Dianic Wicca]] is a religion whose origins lie within [[radical feminism]]. Among traditional religions, feminism has led to self examination, with reclaimed positive Christian and Islamic views and ideals of [[Mary]], Islamic views of [[Fatima Zahra]], and especially to the Catholic belief in the [[Coredemptrix]], as counterexamples. However, criticism of these efforts as unable to salvage corrupt church structures and philosophies continues. Some argue that Mary, with her status as mother and virgin, and as traditionally the main role model for women, sets women up to aspire to an impossible ideal and also thus has negative consequences on human sense of identity and sexuality.
There is a separate article on [[God and gender]]; it discusses how monotheistic religions reconcile their theologies with contemporary gender issues, and how modern feminism has influenced the theology of many religions.
===Effect on moral education===
Opponents of feminism claim that women's quest for external power, as opposed to the internal power to affect other people's ethics and values, has left a vacuum in the area of [[moral]] training, where women formerly held sway. Some feminists reply that the education, including the moral education, of children has never been, and should not be, seen as the exclusive responsibility of women. Paradoxically, it is also held by others that the moral education of children at home in the form of [[homeschooling]] is itself a women's movement. Such arguments are entangled within the larger disagreements of the [[Culture Wars]], as well as within feminist (and anti-feminist) ideas regarding custodianship of societal morals and [[compassion]].
==Effects of feminism in the East==
{{expandsect}}
==Worldwide statistics==
{{sectNPOV}}
{| cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" border="1" valign="top" align=right
|+ '''Female share of seats in elected national chambers in November 2004 (percent)'''
|[[Rwanda]]||49.0
|-
|[[Sweden]]||45.3
|-
|[[South Africa]]||42.0
|-
|[[Namibia]]||42.0
|-
|[[Denmark]]||38.0
|-
|[[Finland]]||37.5
|-
|[[Norway]]||36.4
|-
|[[Spain]]||36.0
|-
|[[Netherlands]]||35.0
|-
|[[Pakistan]]||33.3
|-
|[[Germany]]||32.8
|-
|[[Iceland]]||30.2
|-
|[[New Zealand]]||28.3
|-
|[[Austria]]||27.5
|-
|[[Canada]]||21.1
|-
|[[China]]||20.2
|-
|[[United Kingdom|UK]](Commons)||17.8
|-
|[[Mauritius]]||17.0
|-
|[[United States]]||15.0
|-
|[[Japan]]||7.1
|}
The following is a sampling of statistics related to the relative status of women worldwide.
* According to the [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf United Nations Human Development Report 2004: Section 28, Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation], women work on average more than men, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for. In rural areas of the developing countries surveyed, women perform an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 98 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 18 minutes per day.
*Women own only 1 percent of the world's wealth, and earn 10 percent of the world's income, despite making up 49.5 percent of the population.
*Women are underrepresented in all of the world's major legislative bodies (see [http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm Women in National Parliaments, November 2004]). In [[1985]], [[Finland]] had the largest percentage of women in national legislature at approximately 32 percent (P. Norris, Women<nowiki>'s</nowiki> Legislative Participation in Western Europe, ''West European Politics''). Currently, [[Sweden]] has the highest number of women at 45 percent. The [[United States]] has just 14 percent. The world average is just 9 percent. In contrast, half of the members of the recently established [[Welsh Assembly Government]] are women.
==Perspective: the nature of the modern movement==
Most feminists believe discrimination against women still exists in North American and European nations, as well as worldwide. But there are many ideas within the movement regarding the severity of current problems, what the problems are, and how best to confront them.
Extremes on the one hand include some radical feminists such as [[Mary Daly]] who argues that human society would be better off with dramatically fewer men. There are also dissidents, such as [[Christina Hoff Sommers]] or [[Camille Paglia]], who identify themselves as feminist but who accuse the movement of anti-male prejudice.
On the other hand, many feminists question the use of the term ''feminist'' to groups or people who fail to recognize a fundamental equality between the sexes. Some feminists, like [[Katha Pollitt]] (see her book ''[[Reasonable Creatures]]'') or [[Nadine Strossen]] (President of the [[ACLU]] and author of ''Defending Pornography'' [a treatise on freedom of speech]), consider feminism to be, solely, the view that "women are people." Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these people to be ''sexist'' rather than ''feminist''.
There are also debates between [[difference feminism|difference feminists]] such as [[Carol Gilligan]] on the one hand, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes (which may or may not be inherent, but which cannot be ignored), and those who believe that there are no essential differences between the sexes, and that the roles observed in society are due to conditioning. There is debate among scientists and social scientists as to whether social and psychological differences between men and women are rooted in biology. Some scientists attribute many observed differences in men's and women's behavior to biological differences between the sexes, while others argue for a stronger focus on the effects of [[socialization]]. Still others believe that the complex interactions between [[genes]] and environment make it impossible to make a definite statement on the subject, given the current state of scientific knowledge.
In Marilyn French's seminal works analyzing [[patriarchy]] and its effects on the world at large--including women, men and children--she defines patriarchy as a system that values power over life, control over pleasure, and dominance over happiness. According to French, "it is not enough either to devise a morality that will allow the human race simply to survive. Survival is an evil when it entails existing in a state of wretchedness. Intrinsic to survival and continuation is felicity, pleasure. Pleasure has been much maligned, diminished by philosophers and conquerors as a value for the timid, the small-minded, the self-indulgent. "Virtue" involves the renunciation of pleasure in the name of some higher purpose, a purpose that involves power (for men) or sacrifice (for women). Pleasure is described as shallow and frivolous in a world of high-minded, serious purpose. But pleasure does not exclude serious pursuits or intentions, indeed, it is found in them, and it is the only real reason for staying alive" [http://www.fragmentsweb.org/stuff/10french.html| Beyond Power] This philosophy is what French offers as a replacement to the current structure where power has the highest value--and it is this feminism to which many (women and men) subscribe. However many believe this view is flaw |
a [[beta particle]] and has a half life of 0.8 second. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a [[gamma ray]]. Helium-7 and helium-8 are hyperfragments that are created in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 260 -->.
==Precautions==
The voice of a person who has inhaled helium temporarily sounds high-pitched, resembling those of the [[cartoon]] characters ''[[Alvin and the Chipmunks]]'' (although their voices were produced by shifting the pitch of normal voices). This is because the [[speed of sound]] in helium is nearly three times that in air. As a result, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the [[resonant frequency| resonant frequencies]] of the [[vocal tract]]<!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 177 -->. The higher perceived pitch is only due to a different frequency shaping of the voice, the [[fundamental frequency]] of the [[vocal cords]] remains more or less the same<!--http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html-->.
Although the vocal effect of inhaling helium may be amusing, it can be dangerous if done to excess. The reason is not due to toxicity or any property of helium but simply due to it displacing [[oxygen]] needed for normal [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]]. One must be aware that in [[mammals]] (with the notable exception of [[Pinniped|seal]]s) the breathing reflex is not triggered by insufficient oxygen but rather excess of [[carbon dioxide]]. [[Unconsciousness]], [[brain damage]] and even [[asphyxiation]] followed by [[death]] may result in extreme cases. Also, if helium is inhaled directly from pressurized cylinders the high flow rate can fatally rupture [[lung]] tissue.
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in [[human]] [[blood]]. At high pressures, a mixture of helium and oxygen ([[heliox]]) can lead to [[high pressure nervous syndrome]]; a small proportion of nitrogen can alleviate the problem<!--http://www.scuba-doc.com/HPNS.html-->.
Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be treated as if they have liquid inside<!-- ref: LANL.gov -->. This is due to the rapid and large increases in [[pressure]] and, if allowed, [[volume]] that occur when helium gas at that temperature is warmed to [[room temperature]].
[[Sulfur hexafluoride]] has the opposite effect on the speed of sound as helium. It slows down the speed of sound to about one third of the speed of sound in air. It is also non-toxic, like helium.
==References==
;Prose
<small>Specific references are indicated by comments in the article source</small>
*''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', edited by Cifford A. Hampel, "Helium" entry by L. W. Brandt (New York; Reinhold Book Corporation; 1968; pages 256-267) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-29938
*Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements'', by John Emsley (New York; Oxford University Press; 2001; pages 175-179) ISBN 0-19-850340-7
*Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL.gov): Periodic Table, "[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/2.html Helium]" (viewed [[10 October]] [[2002]] and [[25 March]] [[2005]])
*''Guide to the Elements: Revised Edition'', by Albert Stwertka (New York; Oxford University Press; 1998; pages 22-24) ISBN 0-19-512708-0
*''The Elements: Third Edition'', by John Emsley (New York; Oxford University Press; 1998; pages 94-95) ISBN 0-19-855818-X
*United States Geological Survey (usgs.gov): [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/heliumcs04.pdf Mineral Information for Helium] (PDF) (viewed [[31 March]] [[2005]])
*''[http://www.oma.be/BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.en.html The thermosphere: a part of the heterosphere]'', by J. Vercheval (viewed [[1 April]] [[2005]])
*''Isotopic Composition and Abundance of Interstellar Neutral Helium Based on Direct Measurements'', Zastenker G.N. ''et al.'', [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys/2002/00000045/00000002/00378626], published in [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys Astrophysics], April 2002, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 131-142(12)
*''[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/105558571/ABSTRACT Dynamic and thermodynamic properties of solid helium in the reduced all-neighbours approximation of the self-consistent phonon theory]'', C. Malinowska-Adamska, P. Sŀoma, J. Tomaszewski, physica status solidi (b), Volume 240, Issue 1 , Pages 55 - 67; Published Online: [[19 September]] [[2003]]
*''[http://www.yutopian.com/Yuan/TFM.html The Two Fluid Model of Superfluid Helium]'', S. Yuan, (viewed [[4 April]] [[2005]])
*''Rollin Film Rates in Liquid Helium'', Henry A. Fairbank and C. T. Lane, Phys. Rev. 76, 1209&ndash;1211 (1949), [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i8/p1209_1 from the online archive]
*''[http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html Introduction to Liquid Helium]'', at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (viewed [[4 April]] [[2005]])
* ''[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1983ApOpt..22...10E&amp;db_key=AST Tests of vacuum VS helium in a solar telescope]'', Engvold, O.; Dunn, R. B.; Smartt, R. N.; Livingston, W. C.. Applied Optics, vol. 22, [[1 January]] [[1983]], p. 10-12.
* {{cite book | author = Bureau of Mines | title = Minerals yearbook mineral fuels Year 1965, Volume II (1967) | publisher = U. S. Government Printing Office | year = 1967 }}
*''[http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html Helium: Fundamental models]'', Don L. Anderson, G. R. Foulger & Anders Meibom (viewed [[5 April]] [[2005]])
*''[http://www.scuba-doc.com/HPNS.html High Pressure Nervous Syndrome]'', Diving Medicine Online (viewed [[5 April]] [[2005]])
;Table
* ''[http://chartofthenuclides.com/default.html Nuclides and Isotopes] Fourteenth Edition: Chart of the Nuclides'', General Electric Company, 1989
*WebElements.com and EnvironmentalChemistry.com per the guidelines at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements Wikipedia's WikiProject Elements] (viewed [[10 October]] [[2002]])
== External links ==
{{Commons|Helium}}
;General
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/key.html WebElements: Helium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele002.html It's Elemental &ndash; Helium]
* [http://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/Elements/002/ Photos and applications of Helium]
* [http://www.fluidmech.net/msc/super/super-f.htm Fluidmech.net] about liquid Helium-II and low temperature phase diagram
;More detail
* [http://boojum.hut.fi/research/theory/helium.html Helium] at the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4.
;Miscellaneous
* [http://www.cganet.com/N2O/helium_safety.asp Helium Safety] regarding inhalation
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html Physics in Speech] with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch
* [http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/helium.htm Article about Helium and other noble gases]
* [http://www.fluidmech.net/msc/super/super-f.htm this article contains phase diagram for helium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Noble gases]]
[[Category:Coolants]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[af:Helium]]
[[ar:هيليوم]]
[[bg:Хелий]]
[[ca:Heli]]
[[cs:Helium]]
[[cy:Heliwm]]
[[da:Helium]]
[[de:Helium]]
[[el:Ήλιο]]
[[eo:Heliumo]]
[[es:Helio]]
[[et:Heelium]]
[[eu:Helio]]
[[fi:Helium]]
[[fr:Hélium]]
[[ga:Héiliam]]
[[gl:Helio (elemento)]]
[[gu:હીલિયમ]]
[[he:הליום]]
[[hr:Helij]]
[[hu:Hélium]]
[[id:Helium]]
[[io:Helio]]
[[is:Helín]]
[[it:Elio]]
[[ja:ヘリウム]]
[[ka:ჰელიუმი]]
[[ko:헬륨]]
[[ku:Helyûm]]
[[la:Helium]]
[[lb:Helium]]
[[lt:Helis]]
[[lv:Hēlijs]]
[[mi:Haumāmā]]
[[mk:Хелиум]]
[[ms:Helium]]
[[nl:Helium]]
[[nn:Helium]]
[[no:Helium]]
[[oc:Eli]]
[[pl:Hel (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Hélio]]
[[ru:Гелий]]
[[sh:Helij]]
[[simple:Helium]]
[[sk:Hélium]]
[[sl:Helij]]
[[sr:Хелијум]]
[[sv:Helium]]
[[th:ฮีเลียม]]
[[tr:Helyum]]
[[uk:Гелій]]
[[vi:Heli]]
[[zh:氦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrocarbon</title>
<id>13257</id>
<revision>
<id>42037865</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:48:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|thumb|right|340px|Hydrocarbons are refined at oil refineries and chemical plants]]
In chemistry, a '''hydrocarbon''' is any [[chemical compound]] that consists only of the elements '''[[carbon]]''' (C) and '''[[hydrogen]]''' (H). They all contain a carbon backbone, called a carbon skeleton, and have hydrogen atoms attached to that backbone. (Often the term is used as a shortened form of the term [[aliphatic]] hydrocarbon.)
== Examples ==
[[Image:Kalottenmodell_Benzol.png|thumb|right|180px|A model of an arene called [[Benzene]]]]The simplest hydrocarbon is [[methane]] ([[natural gas|swamp/marsh gas]]), a hydrocarbon with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms: CH<sub>4</sub>. [[Ethane]] is a hydrocarbon (more specifically, an alkane) consisting of two carbon atoms held together with a single bond, each with three hydrogen atoms bonded: C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>. [[Propane]] has three carbon atoms (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>) and [[butane]] has four carbons (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>).
== Three types of hydrocarbons ==
[[Image:Kalottenmodell_Hexan.png|thumb|right|180px|A model of the alkane known as [[Hexane]]]]There are essentially three types of hydrocarbons:
#[[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, which have at least one [[aromatic ring]]
#[[saturated hydrocarbon]]s, also known as [[alkane]]s, which don't have any double, triple or aromatic bonds
#[[unsaturated hydrocarbon]]s, which have one or more |
am finished in the lower half of the league, or the "second division", for the first time in its short history in Milwaukee.
The Milwaukee Braves have the distinction of being the only Major League club to never suffer a losing season.
===The Atlanta years===
By the early [[1960s]], a new group of owners (based out of Chicago) sought relocation to a larger television market. Keen to attract them, the City of Atlanta constructed a new ballpark, Atlanta Stadium, which was officially opened in 1965. The Braves announced their intention to move to Atlanta for the 1965 season, but a lawsuit filed in Wisconsin kept the Braves in Milwaukee for one final year. In 1966, the Braves completed the move to Atlanta. A .500 baseball team in the first few years (85-77, 77-85 and 81-81 respectively), they won the 1969 NL West pennant, before being swept by the "Miracle [[New York Mets|Mets]]" in the NLCS. They would not win it again until [[1982]], under [[Joe Torre]].
In the meantime, fans had to be satisfied with the achievements of [[Hank Aaron]]. In the relatively hitter friendly confines of Atlanta Stadium ("The Launching Pad"), he actually increased his offensive production, and by the end of the 1973 season had hit 713 home runs, one short of [[Babe Ruth]]'s record. Throughout the winter he received racially motivated death threats, but stood up well under the pressure. The next season, it was only a matter of time before he set a new record. On [[April 4]] he hit #714 in [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati]], and on [[April 8]], in front of his home fans, he finally beat Ruth's mark.
In 1976 the team was purchased by media magnate [[Ted Turner]], owner of [[superstation]] [[WTBS]]. It was then that Atlanta Stadium was re-named [[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium]]. Turner quickly gained a reputation as a quirky, hands-on baseball owner. On May 11, 1977, Turner appointed himself manager, but was ordered to relinquish that position after one game (the Braves lost 2-1 to the Pirates to bring their losing streak to 17 games). This is because MLB has not allowed owners to manage their teams since Connie Mack of the A's died.
After three straight losing seasons, [[Bobby Cox]] was hired for his first stint as manager of the franchise for the 1978 season. Cox promoted a 22-year-old slugger named [[Dale Murphy]] into the starting lineup. Murphy hit 77 home runs over the next three seasons, but struggled on defense, positioned at either catcher or first base while being unable to adeptly play either. However, in 1980, Murphy was moved to center field and demonstrated excellent range and throwing ability, while the Braves earned their first winning season since 1974. Cox was fired after the 1981 season and replaced with [[Joe Torre]], under whose leadership the Braves attained their first divisional title since 1969. Strong performances from [[Bob Horner]], [[Chris Chambliss]], pitcher [[Phil Niekro]], and short relief pitcher [[Gene Garber]] helped the Braves, but no Brave was more acclaimed than Murphy, who won both a [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|Most Valuable Player]] and a [[Gold Glove Award|Gold Glove]] award. Murphy also won a Most Valuable Player award the following season, but the Braves began a period of decline that defined the team throughout the 1980s. Murphy, excelling in defense, hitting, and running, was consistently recognized as one of the league's best players, but the Braves averaged only 65 wins per season between 1985-1990. The 1986 season saw the return of Bobby Cox to the Braves organization as general manager.
Cox was promoted to manager in the middle of the 1990 season, replacing Russ Nixon. Not only was this season a losing effort, the Braves traded Dale Murphy to the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] after it was clear he was becoming a less dominant player. However, pitching coach [[Leo Mazzone]] began training young pitchers [[Tom Glavine]], [[Steve Avery]], and [[John Smoltz]]. Perhaps the Braves' most important move, however, was not on the field, but in the front office. Immediately after the season, [[John Schuerholz]] was hired as general manager.
The following season, Glavine, Avery, and Smoltz would be recognized as the best young pitchers in the league, winning 52 games between them. Meanwhile, behind position players [[David Justice|Dave Justice]], [[Ron Gant]] and unexpected league Most Valuable Player and batting-average leader [[Terry Pendleton]], the Braves overcame a slow start to go 47-22 over the last three months of the season and win 8 of their last 9, edging the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] by one game in one of baseball history's more memorable playoff races. They defeated the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in a tightly contested seven-game [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]] only to lose the [[World Series]], also in seven games, to the [[Minnesota Twins]]. Despite the loss, the Braves' success would continue. In the 1992 season, the Braves would reach the NLCS again and defeat, once again, in seven games, the Pirates, only to lose in the World Series to a dominating [[Toronto Blue Jays]] team. In 1993, the Braves signed [[Cy Young Award]] winning pitcher [[Greg Maddux]], leading many baseball insiders to declare the pitching staff the best of all-time. The Braves would win a World Series in 1995, defeating the [[Cleveland Indians]] in six games. With this World Series victory, the Braves became the first team in Major League Baseball to win world championships in three different cities. With their strong pitching being a constant, the Braves would also appear in the 1996 and 1999 World Series, and have an ongoing streak of 14 straight division titles. Pitching is not the only constant in the Braves organization. At present, Cox is still the Braves' manager, and Schuerholz remains the team's GM, though Mazzone moved on to become the pitching coach of the Baltimore Orioles shortly after the 2005 season. Pendleton did not finish his playing career in Atlanta, but has returned to the Braves system as the hitting coach.
During the Braves' rise to prominence in the early [[1990s]], their long-standing ethnic nickname came under much closer scrutiny. The team was especially criticized for selling plastic and foam tomahawks, encouraging the so-called "tomahawk chop" and the accompanying war cry emitted by the fans. Ironically, many of those tomahawks were made by [[Cherokee]] manufacturers in [[North Carolina]]. Their response to the criticism was the pragmatic answer, "As long as they keep buying them, we'll keep making them."
In 2001, Atlanta won the [[National League]] East division, swept the [[National League Division Series|NLDS]] against the [[Houston Astros]], then lost to the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] in the [[NLCS]]. In 2002, 2003 and 2004, the Braves won their division again, but lost in the NLDS in all three years 3 games to 2 to the [[San Francisco Giants]], [[Chicago Cubs]], and [[Houston Astros]], respectively. In 2005, the Braves won their 11th consecutive division title. This pennant marked the first time any MLB team made the postseason with more than 4 rookies who each had more than 100 ABs. However, they lost the National League Division series to the Astros in 4 games with the final game being the longest game in playoffs history at 18 innings and 5 hours 50 minutes (it ended with a walk-off home run by [[Chris Burke]]).
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1871 in sports|1871]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] as the [[Boston Red Stockings]] of the [[National Association of Professional Baseball Players|National Association]]. The club became a charter member of the [[National League]] in [[1876 in sports|1876]] and has remained in the league without a break since then. The Braves are the oldest continuously operating sports franchise in North American sports. Arguably, they can trace their ancestry to the original [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Red Stockings]] of 1869-1870, baseball's first openly professional team. When the N.A. formed, Cincinnati's backers declined to field a team in the new league, and Red Stockings player-manager [[Harry Wright]] along with three of the best players from that team moved collectively to Boston and took the nickname with them.
:'''Formerly known as:''' [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston Braves]] ([[1912 in sports|1912]]-[[1952 in sports|1952]]), and [[Milwaukee|Milwaukee Braves]] ([[1953 in sports|1953]]-[[1965 in sports|1965]]). Prior to 1912, the Boston team had several unofficial nicknames: "Red Stockings" in the [[1870s]] and [[1880s]]; "Beaneaters" in the [[1890s]] and early [[1900s]]; "Doves" (when the Dovey family owned the franchise, [[1907 in sports|1907]]-[[1910 in sports|1910]]) and "Rustlers" (when [[William Russell (lawyer)|William Russell]] owned the franchise, [[1911 in sports|1911]]). Following the [[1935 in sports|1935]] season, after enduring bankruptcy and a series of poor seasons, new owner [[Bob Quinn (baseball)|Bob Quinn]] asked a team of sportswriters to choose a new nickname, to change the team's luck. The sportswriters chose "Bees", which was adopted in [[1936 in sports|1936]], though it never really caught on, with Quinn even refusing to use it, although their home uniforms in this interval were changed to feature a large block letter B ("bee"). The team dropped the nickname in [[1941 in sports|1941]], using only the official name "Braves" from 1941 on.
:'''Ownership:''' [[Time Warner]]
:'''Uniform colors:''' Navy blue, Garnet red, and White
:'''Logo design:''' The script word "Braves" above a [[Tomahawk (axe)|tomahawk]]
:'''Playoff appearances''' (20): 1914, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1969, 1982, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005
:'''National Association pennants won''' (4): [[1872 in sports|1872]], [[1873 in sports|1873]], [[1874 in sports |
images in himself, let him be anathema!"
# For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype--of the same substance--which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. Thus for iconoclasts the only true (and permitted) "icon" of Jesus was the Eucharist, which was believed to be his actual body and blood.
# Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed) and his human nature (which is possible). But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted (separating the natures was considered Nestorianism), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures was considered Monophysitism).
# Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an innovation in the Church, a Satanic misleading of Christians to return to pagan practice. "''Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity.''" (''Epitome'', Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754) It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposing religious images.
The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur ([[John of Damascus]]), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and [[Theodore the Studite]], who lived within the Empire.
John declared that he did not venerate matter, "but rather the creator of matter." However he also declared, "But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace." He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus.
The iconodule response to iconoclasm included:
# Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God had been superseded by the incarnation of Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. This became an attempt to shift the issue of the incarnation in their favor, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them.
# Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons. Essentially the argument was "all religious images not of our faith are idols; all images of our faith are icons to be venerated." This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of only offering burnt sacrifices to God, and not to any other gods.
# Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition (''parádosis'', sanctioned in Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to [[2 Thessalonians]] 2:15, [[Basil the Great]], etc.).
# Iconodules further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the issue also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the observation that it was foolish to deny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor.
Emperors had always intervened in ecclesiastical matters since the time of Constantine I; as Cyril Mango writes, "The legacy of Nicaea, the first universal council of the Church, was to bind the emperor to something that was not his concern, namely the definition and imposition of orthodoxy, if need be by force" (Oxford History of Byzantium, 2002). That practice continued from beginning to end of the Iconoclastic controversy and beyond, with some emperors enforcing iconoclasm, and two empresses regent enforcing the re-establishment of icon veneration. One distinction between the iconoclastic emperors and Constantine I is that the latter did not dictate the conclusion of the First Council of Nicaea before summoning it, whereas Leo III began enforcing a policy of iconoclasm more than twenty years before the Council of Hieria would endorse it.
== Islamic and Buddhist iconoclasm ==
Because of the prohibition against figural decoration in mosques &mdash; not, as is often said, a total ban on the use of images &mdash; some Muslim groups have on occasion committed acts of iconoclasm against the devotional images of other religions. A recent example of this is the 2001 destruction of [[fresco]]es and the [[Taliban#Buddhas_of_Bamiyan | monumental statues of the Buddha]] at [[Bamiyan Province|Bamiyan]] by a radical sect and nationalist group, the [[Taliban]].
Historically, despite a religious prohibition on destroying or converting houses of worship, conquering Muslim armies would use local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is the [[Hagia Sophia]], Church of the Holy Wisdom, in [[Istanbul]], formerly [[Constantinople]] which was converted into a mosque in [[1453]], when its mosaics were covered with plaster instead of being destroyed. The [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] was built on top of the remains of the Jewish [[Temple in Jerusalem]].
Similar acts of iconoclasm occurred in parts of north Africa.
In [[India]], a number of former Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples were conquered and rebuilt as mosques. In recent years, right-wing Hindu nationalists have torn down some of these mosques, such as the famous [[Babri Mosque | Babri Masjid]], and attempted to replace them with Hindu Temples.
== Reformation iconoclasm ==
Some of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] reformers encouraged their followers to destroy [[Christian]] art works by insisting that they were idols. [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]] promoted this approach to the adaptation of earlier buildings for Protestant worship. In [[1562]], some Calvinists destroyed the tomb of St. [[Irenaeus]] and the relics inside, which are said to have been under the altar of a church since his martyrdom in [[202]], though iconoclastic riots took place in [[Zürich]] (in [[1523]]), [[Copenhagen]] ([[1530]]), [[Münster]] ([[1534]]), [[Geneva]] ([[1535]]), [[Augsburg]] ([[1537]]) and [[Scotland]] ([[1559]]).
The [[Seventeen Provinces]] (now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]) were hit by a large wave of Protestant iconoclasm in the summer of [[1566]]. This is called the ''Beeldenstorm'' and included such acts as the destruction of the statuary of the Monastery of [[Saint Lawrence]] in [[Steenvoorde]] after a ''[[Hagenpreek]]'', or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte; and the sacking of the Monastery of [[Saint Anthony]] after a sermon by Jacob de Buysere. The ''Beeldenstorm'' marked the start of the [[Eighty Years' War|revolution]] against the Spanish forces and the Catholic church. See [[Flanders]] for more on its history.
In [[England]], Bishop Joseph Hall of [[Norwich]] described the events of [[1643]] when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and [[idolatry]], behaved thus:
:'Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together'.
==See also==
*[[aniconism]]
*[[Iconography]]
*[[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]
*[[Censorship by organized religion]]
==External links==
*[http://www.theandros.com/iconoclast.html What Was the Iconoclast Controversy About?]
*[http://www.helleniccomserve.com/victory_of_icons.html An Eastern Orthodox perspective]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Eighty Years' War]]
[[cs:Obrazoborectví]]
[[de:Ikonoklasmus]]
[[es:Iconoclasta]]
[[fr:Iconoclasme]]
[[ko:성상파괴운동]]
[[nl:Iconoclasme]]
[[ja:聖像破壊運動]]
[[pl:Ikonoklazm]]
[[pt:Iconoclastia]]
[[ru:Иконоборчество]]
[[fi:Ikonoklasmi]]
[[sv:Ikonoklasm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IWW</title>
<id>15086</id>
<revision>
<id>17929621</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-01T01:19:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lilath</username>
<id>300393</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industrial Workers of the World]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imbolc</title>
<id>15087</id>
<revision>
<id>40142796</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T13:17:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tequendamia</username>
<id>243158</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ +es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Imbolc''' is one of the four principal festivals of the pre-Christian [[Celtic calendar]], associated with fertility ritual, was subsequently adopted as [[Brigid of Ireland|St Brigid's Day]] in the Christian period, and in more recent times has been celebrated as a fire festival, one of eight holidays, festivals (4 Solar and 4 Fire/lunar) or [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|sabbat]]s of the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[wheel of the year]]. Imbolc is arguab |
nen bandages, embedded with religious amulets and tailsmans. In the case of royalty, this was usually then placed inside a series of nested coffins the outermost of which was a stone [[sarcophagus]]. The [[intestine]]s, [[lung]]s, [[liver]] and the [[stomach]] were preserved separately and stored in [[canopic jar]]s protected by the [[Four sons of Horus]]. Other creatures were also mummified, sometimes thought to be pets of Egyptian families, but more frequently or more likely they were the representations of the Gods. The [[ibis]], [[crocodile]], [[cat]]s, [[Nile Perch|nile perch]] and [[baboon]] can be found in perfect mummified forms.
The [[Book of the Dead]] were a series of almost two hundred sectional texts, songs and pictures written on papyrus, individually customised for the deceased, which were buried along with the dead in order to ease their passage into the underworld. In some tombs, the Book of the Dead has also been found painted on the walls. One of the best examples of the Book of the Dead is ''The Papyrus of Ani'', created around [[1240 BC]], which, in addition to the texts themselves, also contains many pictures of Ani and his wife on their journey through the land of the dead.
In later belief, the soul of the deceased is led into a hall of judgement in [[Duat]], by [[Anubis]],god of mummification, and the deceased's [[heart]], which was the record of the morality of the owner, is weighed against a single feather representing [[Maàt]]'s (the concept of truth, and order). If the outcome is favourable, the deceased is taken to [[Osiris]], god of the afterlife, in [[Aaru]], but the demon [[Ammit]] (''Eater of Hearts'') &ndash; part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus &ndash; destroys those hearts whom the verdict is against, leaving the owner to remain in Duat. [http://www.carnegiemuseums.org/cmnh/exhibits/egypt/funerary_customs.htm]
== The monotheistic period ==
[[Image:Aten_disk.jpg|right|333px|thumb|Pharaoh [[Akhenaten]] and his family adoring the [[Aten]].]]
A short interval of [[monotheism]] ([[Atenism]]) occurred under the reign of [[Akhenaten]], focused on the Egyptian sun deity [[Aten]]. Akhenaten outlawed the worship of any other god and built a new capital ([[Amarna]]) with temples for Aten. The religious change survived only until the death of Akhenaten, and the old religion was quickly restored during the reign of [[Tutankhamun]], most likely Akhenaten's son by a minor wife. Interestingly, Tutankhamun and several other post-restoration pharaohs were excluded from future king lists, as well as the heretics Akhenaten and [[Smenkhare]].
While most historians regard this period as monotheistic, some researchers do not regard [[Atenism]] as such. They state that people did not worship [[Aten]], but worshipped the royal family as a pantheon of gods who received their divine power from the Aten. That point of view is largely dismissed by the historical community. Some researches go as far as to suggest that Akhenaten or some of his viziers were the Biblical [[Moses]]; the scientific community dismisses these claims as wishful thinking, since none of the theories are based on proper research, and the well-documented worship of [[Aten]] has nothing in common with the religion of Moses.
After the fall of the Amarna dynasty, the original Egyptian [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] survived more or less as the dominant faith, until the establishment of [[Coptic Christianity]] and later [[Islam]], even though the Egyptians continued to have relations with the other monotheistic cultures (e.g. [[Judaism|Hebrew]]s). Egyptian mythology put up surprisingly little resistance to the spread of Christianity, sometimes explained by claiming that [[Jesus]] was originally a [[syncretism]] based predominantly on [[Horus]], with [[Isis]] and her worship becoming [[Mary]] and [[veneration]] (see [[Jesus myth]]).
== Temples ==
Many temples are still standing today. Others are in ruins from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. Pharaoh [[Ramses II]] was a particularly prolific builder of temples.
Some known temples include:
* [[Abu Simbel]] &ndash; Complex of two massive rock temples in southern Egypt on the western bank of the Nile.
* [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (Great Temple of Abydos) &ndash; Adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it.
* [[Ain el-Muftella]] ([[Bahariya Oasis]]) [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ain.htm] &ndash; Could have served as the city center of El Qasr. It was probably built around the 26th Dynasty.
* [[Karnak]] &ndash; Once part of the ancient capital of Egypt, [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]].
* [[Beni Hasan|Bani Hasan al Shurruq]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/banihasan.htm] &ndash; Located in Middle Egypt near to Al-Minya and survived the reconstruction of the New Kingdom.
* [[Edfu]] &ndash; Ptolemaic temple that is located between Aswan and Luxor.
* [[Temple of Kom Ombo]] &ndash; Controlled the trade routes from Nubia to the Nile Valley.
* [[Luxor temple|Luxor]] &ndash; Built largely by Amenhotep III and Ramesses II, it was the centre of the [[Opet Festival]].
* [[Medinet Habu]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/habu.htm] (Memorial Temple of Ramesses III)&ndash; Temple and a complex of temples dating from the New Kingdom.
* [[Hatshepsut|Temple of Hatshepsut]] &ndash; Mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri with a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony, built nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon.
* [[Philae]] &ndash; Island of Philae with Temple of Aset which was constructed in the 30th Dynasty.
* [[Ramesseum]] (Memorial Temple of Ramesses II) &ndash; The main building, dedicated to the funerary cult, comprised two stone pylons (gateways, some 60 m wide), one after the other, each leading into a courtyard. Beyond the second courtyard, at the centre of the complex, was a covered 48-column hypostyle hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary.
* [[Dendera Temple complex]] &ndash; Several temples but the all overshadowing building in the complex is the main temple, the [[Hathor temple]].
== External influences ==
Egypt exchanged ideas with [[Libya]] during its early unsettled period. Egypt was also influenced by the Greek [[Ptolemaic]] dynasties, which ruled Egypt for 300 years. [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] was the only Ptolemaic queen to rule on her own. Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire, and was ruled first from Rome and then from Constantinople (until the Arab conquest).
;Libyan period
''Main article'': [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt]]<br />
''22nd - 25th Dynasty''
Egypt has long had ties with Libya. After the death of [[Rameses XI]], the priesthood in the person of [[Herihor]] wrest control of Egypt away from the Pharaohs until they were superseded (without any apparent struggle) by the Libyan kings of the [[twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|22nd Dynasty]]. The first king of the new Dynasty, [[Shoshenq I]], served as a general under the last ruler of the 21st Dynasty. It is known that he appointed his own son to be the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was unsettled. There appear to have been many subversive groups which eventually led to the creation of the [[twenty-third dynasty of Egypt|23rd dynasty]] which ran concurrent with the [[twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|22nd]].
;Ptolemaic period
''Main article'': [[Ptolemaic Dynasty|Greek Egypt]]<br />
''304 BC - 30 BC''
Started with [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]] and ended with [[Cleopatra VII]]. As [[Ptolemy I of Egypt|Ptolemy I Soter]] ("Saviour"), he founded the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], which was to rule Egypt for 300 years. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name "Ptolemy". Because the Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, many of the kings ruled jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The last of the Ptolemies, the famous [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], was the only Ptolemaic queen to rule on her own, after the death of her brother/husband, [[Ptolemy XIII of Egypt|Ptolemy XIII]].
;Roman period
''Main article'': [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Roman Egypt]]<br />
''30 BC - 639 AD''
Egypt was incorporated into the [[Roman Empire]] and was ruled first from [[Rome]] and then from [[Constantinople]] (until the Arab conquest). The most revolutionary event in the history of Roman Egypt was the introduction of [[Christianity]] in the 2nd century. It was at first vigorously persecuted by the Roman authorities, who feared religious discord more than anything else in a country where religion had always been paramount. But it soon gained adherents among the Jews of Alexandria. From them it rapidly passed to the Greeks, and then to the native Egyptians, who found its promise of personal salvation and its teachings of social equality appealing.
==Notes on pronunciation==
A "received pronunciation" of the names of ancient Egyptian deities has formed. By and large, this pronunciation is acceptable for most consonants and utterly wrong for the vowels. Egyptologists developed a set of conventions to make it easier to talk about the terms they used. Two distinct different glottal consonants were both replaced with "a". A consonant similar to the "y" in the English word "yet" was replaced with "i". A consonant similar to the "w" in the English word "well" was replaced with "u". Then, "e" was inserted between other consonants. Thus, for example, the Egyptian king whose name is most accurately transcribed as '' |
ied, but at that time few people used adding machines, and having the 1 at the "start" (in European language reading order) led to fewer typing errors. In retrospect, many people consider that this was a mistake. With the widespread introduction of computers and bank machines, the phone keyboard has become "oddball", causing mistakes.
The engineers had also envisioned phones being used to access computers, and surveyed a number of companies to see what they would need for this role. This led to the addition of the [[number sign]] (#) and [[Asterisk|star]] (*) keys, as well as a group of keys for menu selection, A, B, C and D. In the end the lettered keys were dropped from most phones, and it was many years before the # and * keys became widely used, primarily for certain [[vertical service code]]s such as *67 in the United States to suppress [[caller ID]]. Many non-telephone applications still use the alphabetic keys, such as [[amateur radio]] [[repeater]] signaling and control (see also [[autopatch]]).
Public [[payphone]]s that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip.
The [[U.S. Military]] also used the letters, relabeled, in their now defunct [[Autovon]] phone system. Here they were used before dialing the phone in order to give some calls priority, cutting in over existing calls if need be. The idea was to allow important traffic to get through every time. The levels of priority available were Flash Override (A), Flash (B), Immediate (C), and Priority (D), with Flash Override being the highest priority. Pressing one of these keys gave your call priority, overriding other conversations on the network. Pressing C, Immediate, before dialing would make the switch first look for any free lines, and if all lines were in use, it would hang up any non-priority calls, and then any priority calls.
Present-day uses of the A, B, C and D keys on telephone networks are few, and exclusive to network control. For example, the A key is used on some networks to cycle through different carriers at will (thereby listening in on calls). Their use is probably prohibited by most carriers.
The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 4&times;4 [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], with each row representing a ''low'' frequency, and each column representing a ''high'' frequency. Pressing a single key such as '1' will send a sinusoidal tone of the two frequencies 697 and 1209 [[hertz]] (Hz). The two tones are the reason for calling it multifrequency. These tones are then decoded by the switching center in order to determine which key was pressed.
<table border=1>
<caption>DTMF Keypad Frequencies (with sound clips)</caption>
<tr><td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf1.ogg|1]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf2.ogg|2]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf3.ogg|3]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:DtmfA.ogg|A]]</td> <th>697 Hz</th></tr>
<tr><td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf4.ogg|4]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf5.ogg|5]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf6.ogg|6]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:DtmfB.ogg|B]]</td> <th>770 Hz</th></tr>
<tr><td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf7.ogg|7]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf8.ogg|8]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf9.ogg|9]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:DtmfC.ogg|C]]</td> <th>852 Hz</th> </tr>
<tr><td align=center>[[:Image:DtmfStar.ogg|*]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf0.ogg|0]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:Dtmf-.ogg|#]]</td> <td align=center>[[:Image:DtmfD.ogg|D]]</td> <th>941 Hz</th> </tr>
<tr><th>1209 Hz</th> <th>1336 Hz</th> <th>1477 Hz</th> <th>1633 Hz</th></tr>
</table>
<table border=1>
<caption>DTMF Event Frequencies</caption>
<tr><td>Event</td> <td>Low frequency</td> <td>High frequency</td></tr>
<tr><td>busy signal</td> <td align=center>480 Hz</td> <td align=center>620 Hz</td></tr>
<tr><td>dial tone</td> <td align=center>350 Hz</td> <td align=center>440 Hz</td></tr>
<tr><td>ringback (US)</td> <td align=center>440 Hz</td> <td align=center>480 Hz</td></tr></table>
The tone frequencies, as defined by the [[Precise Tone Plan]], are selected such that [[Harmonic series (music)|harmonics]] and intermodulation products will not cause an unreliable signal. No frequency is a multiple of another, the difference between any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies, and the sum of any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies. The frequencies were initially designed with a [[ratio]] of 21/19, which is slightly less than a [[whole tone]]. The frequencies may not vary more than ±1.5% from their nominal frequency, or the switching center will ignore the signal. The high frequencies may be the same volume or louder as the low frequencies when sent across the line. The loudness difference between the high and low frequencies can be as large as 3 [[decibel]]s (dB) and is referred to as "twist".
DTMF can be regarded as a simple form of [[orthogonal frequency division multiplexing]].
DTMF can be decoded using the [[Goertzel algorithm]].
Synonyms include '''multifrequency pulsing''' and '''multifrequency signaling'''.
==See also==
* [[pulse dialing]]
* [[rotary dial]]
* [[telephone keypad]]
==External links==
* [http://www.phreaksandgeeks.com Phreaks and Geeks]
* [http://www.livejournal.com/phonepost/ogg.bml Playing the DTMF ogg sound files]
* [http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/pdf/touchtone_hf.pdf Bell System Technical Journal: Human Factors Engineering Studies of the Design and Use of Pushbutton Telephone Sets (July 1960)]
[[category: telephony]]
[[da:DTMF]]
[[de:Mehrfrequenzwahlverfahren]]
[[es:Marcación por tonos]]
[[fr:Codes DTMF]]
[[ja:DTMF]]
[[pl:DTMF]]
[[pt:DTMF]]
[[ru:Тональный сигнал]]
[[fi:DTMF]]
[[sv:Dual Tone Multiple-Frequency]]
[[zh:双音多频]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deuterocanonical books</title>
<id>8489</id>
<revision>
<id>40577997</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T15:56:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palica</username>
<id>188933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca, sk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
The '''deuterocanonical books''' are the books that [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]]y, and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] include in the [[Old Testament]] that were not part of the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]. The word ''deuterocanonical'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] meaning 'second canon'. [[Biblical Canon|Canonization]] is the official acceptance of authority and standardization of a text. In Catholicism, deuterocanonical means that the canonicity of the books was definitively settled at a later date than the rest of the canon. Among Orthodox, the term is understood to mean that they were composed later than the [[Hebrew Bible]].
Like the Tanakh, most [[Protestant]] Bible versions exclude these books, although they were initially included in the [[KJV|King James version]]. Their acceptance among early Christians is generally well-testified. As early as the [[Council of Rome]] in [[382]], [[The Church]] published an official canon that included these books. The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Greek [[Septuagint]] which includes the deuterocanonical books. In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 refers to an event that was only explicity recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books (2 Macc. 7).
Using the word [[apocrypha]] (Greek: hidden away) to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies to some people that the writings in question should not be included in the [[Books of the Bible|Bible]]. This classification commingles them with certain other [[gospel|gospels]] and [[New Testament Apocrypha]]. The ''Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature'' recommends the use of the term ''deuterocanonical literature'' instead of ''Apocrypha'' in academic writing.
The 1611 [[King James Version of the Bible|KJAV]] separated these books and used the term ''Apocrypha'' in obedience to [[2 Esdras]] 14:45c-48 ''the Highest spake, saying, The first that thou hast written publish openly, that the worthy and unworthy may read it: But keep the seventy last, that thou mayest deliver them only to such as be wise among the people: For in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge. And I did so''
In the Catholic Church, the following books are considered deuterocanonical: [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]; as well as some additions to [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]. [[2 Esdras]] was included in the 1609 [[Douai Bible]] as a "commentary on the scripture" as 4 Esdras. It is not included in recent Catholic Bibles.
The various Orthodox churches include a few others, often including [[3 Maccabees]], [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Odes]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], and occasionally even [[4 Maccabees]]. This last book is often relegated to an appendix, because it has certain tendencies approaching pagan thought.
There is also a strong tradition of studying the [[Book of Enoch]] in [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], a denominational family in Oriental Orth |
s]]
*[[David Bradley]] - coder on the [[IBM PC]] project team who wrote the ''Control-Alt-Delete'' keyboard handler, embedded in all PC-compatible [[BIOS|BIOSes]]
*[[Andrew Braybrook]] - video games ''[[Paradroid]]'' and ''[[Uridium]]''
*[[Lawrence M. Breed|Larry Breed]] - co-developer of [[APL programming language|APL\360]]
*[[Dan Bricklin]] - co-creator of [[VisiCalc]], the first personal [[spreadsheet]] program
*[[Sergey Brin]] - co-creator of [[Google]]
*[[Richard Brodie]] - [[Microsoft Word]]
*[[Danielle Bunten Berry]] (Dani Bunten) - [[M.U.L.E.]], multiplayer video game
*[[Jim Button]] - author [[PC-File]] flatfile database; he is considered one of the fathers of [[shareware]]
==C==
*[[Steve Capps]] - co-creator of [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] and [[Apple Newton|Newton]]
*[[John Carmack]] - [[first person shooter]]s ''[[Doom]]'', [[Quake computer game|Quake]]
*[[Vinton Cerf]] - [[TCP/IP]], [[Network Control Program|NCP]]
*[[Steve Chamberlain]] - [[Binary File Descriptor|BFD]], [[Cygwin]]
*[[Alain Colmerauer]] - [[Prolog]]
*[[Mike Cowlishaw]] - [[REXX|REXX and NetRexx]], [[Oxford English Dictionary|LEXX editor]], image processing, [[decimal]] arithmetic packages
*[[Alan Cooper]] - [[Visual Basic]]
*[[Alan Cox]] - a developer of the [[Linux]] [[Kernel (computers)|kernel]]
*[[Brad Cox]] - [[Objective-C]]
*[[Mark Crispin]] &ndash; inventor of [[IMAP]], author of UW-IMAP, one of the reference implementations of [[IMAP4]]
*[[Ward Christensen]] - Wrote the first BBS (Bulletin Board System) system CBBS
*[[William Crowther]] - Colossal Cave Adventure
*[[Ward Cunningham]] - inventor of the [[Wiki|WikiWiki]] concept
*[[Dave Cutler]] - architect of [[Windows NT]], [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]]
==D - F==
*[[James Duncan Davidson]] - creator of [[Jakarta Tomcat|Tomcat]], now part of the [[Jakarta Project]]
*[[L. Peter Deutsch]] - [[Ghostscript]], [[Assembler]] for [[PDP-1]], [[XDS-940]] [[time-sharing|timesharing]] system, [[QED (text editor)|QED]] original co-author
*[[Edsger Dijkstra]] - contributions to [[ALGOL programming language|ALGOL]], [[Dijkstra's algorithm]], ''[[Goto|Go To Statement Considered Harmful]]''
*[[Matt Dillon (computer scientist)|Matt Dillon]], programmer of various software including DICE and [[DragonflyBSD]]
*[[Les Earnest]] - author of the [[Finger protocol|finger]] program
*[[Brendan Eich]] - creator of [[JavaScript]]
*[[Larry Ellison]] - co-creator of [[Oracle database]], co-founder of [[Oracle Corporation]]
*[[Marc Ewing]] - creator of [[Red Hat Linux]]
*[[Stuart Feldman]] - creator of [[make]], author of [[Fortran 77]] compiler, part of original group that created [[Unix]]
*[[Jay Fenlason]] - original [[hack (computer game)|hack]], [[GNU Assembler|GAS]]
*[[David Filo]] - co-creator of [[Yahoo!]]
*[[Andrew Fluegelman]] - author [[PC-Talk]] communications software; he is considered one of the fathers of [[shareware]]
*[[Brian Fox]] - creator of [[Bash]], [[Readline]], [[GNU Finger]], [[Meta-HTML]]
*[[Peter Fraser (programmer)|Peter Fraser]] - [[FRED text editor]]
*[[Jim Fruchterman]] founder of Arkenstone (now part of [[Freedom Scientific]]) created scanners for [[blindness|blind]] people
*[[Dan Farmer]] Creator of [[COPS]] and [[SATAN]] Security Scanners
==G - H==
*[[Bill Gates]] - [[Altair BASIC]], [[Apple II BASIC]], co-founded [[Microsoft]]
*[[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]] - [[GDB]]
*[[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]] - co-inventor of Smalltalk
*[[James Gosling]] - [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Gosling Emacs]], [[NeWS]]
*[[Bill Gosper]] - [[Macsyma]], [[Lisp machine]], [[hashlife]], helped [[Donald Knuth]] on Vol.2 of [[The Art of Computer Programming]] (Semi-numerical algorithms)
*[[Paul Graham]] - [[Yahoo! Store]], [[On Lisp]], [[ANSI Common Lisp]]
*[[John Graham-Cumming]] - author of [[POPFile]], a [[Bayesian filter]]-based e-mail classifier
*[[Richard Greenblatt]] - [[Lisp machine]], [[Incompatible Timesharing System]], [[MacHack]]
*[[Ralph Griswold]] - co-creator of [[SNOBOL]] and creator of [[Icon programming language]].
*[[Andi Gutmans]] - co-creator of [[PHP]] programming language
*Brian Harvey - UCB Logo, see [[Logo programming language]]
*[[Cecil Hastings]] - wrote the classic ''[[RAND|Approximations for Digital Computers]]'' [[1950s]] formulas for [[sin]], [[cos]], etc.
*[[Anders Hejlsberg]] - [[Turbo Pascal]], [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]], [[C Sharp|C#]]
*[[Ted Henter]] founder of Henter-Joyce (now part of [[Freedom Scientific]]) creator of [[Job Access With Speech|Jaws]], voice software for blind people
*[[Andy Hertzfeld]] - co-creator of [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], co-founder of [[General Magic]], co-founder of [[Eazel]]
*[[C. A. R. Hoare]] - first implementation of [[quicksort]], [[Algol 60]] compiler, [[Communicating sequential processes]]
*[[Joshua Holloway]] - Perl implementation of the MSN Messenger API
*[[Grace Hopper]] - [[Navy Mark I computer]], [[FLOW-MATIC]] (which heavily influenced [[COBOL]])
*[[Dave Hyatt]] - co-author of [[Mozilla Firefox]]
==I - J==
*[[Miguel de Icaza]] - [[GNOME]] project leader, initiator of the [[Mono development platform|Mono]] project
*[[Dan Ingalls]] - co-inventor of [[Smalltalk]], [[Bitblt]], and [[Pop-up Menus]]
*[[Kenneth E. Iverson|Ken Iverson]] - [[APL programming language|APL]], [[J programming language|J]]
*[[Toru Iwatani]] - creator of [[Pac-Man]]
*[[Bo Jangeborg]] - [[ZX Spectrum]] games
*[[Paul Jardetzky]] - author of the server program for the [[Trojan room coffee pot|first webcam]]
*[[Stephen C. Johnson]] - [[yacc]]
*[[Lynne Jolitz]] - [[386BSD]]
*[[William Jolitz]] - [[386BSD]]
*[[Bill Joy]] - [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], [[vi]]; founded [[Sun Microsystems]]
*[[Robert K. Jung]] - creator of [[ARJ]]
==K - L==
*[[Ted Kaehler]] - co-inventor of Smalltalk
*[[Pavel Kanzelsberger]] - creator of Pixel image editor
*[[Mitch Kapor]] - [[Lotus 1-2-3]], founded [[Lotus Development Corporation]]
*[[Phil Katz]] - creator of the [[ZIP file format]], author of [[PKZIP]]
*[[Mel Kaye]] [http://info.astrian.net/jargon/Hacker_Folklore/The_Story_of_Mel.html], a [[Real Programmer]]
*[[Stan Kelly-Bootle]] - [[Manchester Mark I]], ''[[The Devil's DP Dictionary]]''
*[[Brian Kernighan]] - co-creator of [[AWK programming language]] (the ''K'' in the name stands for Kernighan), author of [[ditroff]] text-formatting tool
*[[Gary Kildall]] - [[CP/M]]
*[[Tom Knight]] - [[Incompatible Timesharing System]]
*[[Donald E. Knuth]] - [[TeX]], [[CWEB]], [[Metafont]], ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]''
*[[Leslie Lamport]] - [[LaTeX]]
*[[Butler Lampson]] - [[QED (text editor)|QED]] original co-author
*[[Tom Lane]] - primary author of [[libjpeg]], major developer of [[PostgreSQL]]
*[[Richard H. Lathwell|Dick Lathwell]] - co-developer of [[APL programming language|APL\360]]
*[[Greg Lehey]] - FreeBSD developer, originator of the [[Vinum Volume Manager]]
*[[Rasmus Lerdorf]] - original creator of [[PHP]]
*[[Michael Lesk]] - [[Lex]]
*[[Graziano Liberati]] - co-author of [[ZNF]]
*[[Håkon Wium Lie]] - co-author of [[Cascading Style Sheets]]
*[[Robert Love]] - [[Linux kernel]] developer
*[[Ada Lovelace]] - First programmer (of [[Babbage Machine]]s)
==M==
*[[Raphael Manfredi]] - contributions to [[Perl]], software architect and maintainer of [[gtk-gnutella]]
*[[Yukihiro Matsumoto]] - [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]
*[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] - [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]
*[[Craig McClanahan]] - original author of [[Jakarta Struts]], architect of [[Tomcat Catalina]] servlet container
*[[Douglas McIlroy]] - [[pipes and filters]], concept of [[software componentry]], [[Unix]] tools (spell, diff, sort, join, graph, speak, tr, etc.)
*[[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] - [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]
*[[Bertrand Meyer]] - [[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]], ''[[Object-oriented Software Construction]]'', [[Design by contract]]
*[[Bob Miner]] - co-creator of [[Oracle database]], co-founder of [[Oracle Corporation]]
*[[Jeff Minter]] - Psychedelic, and often [[llama]]-related [[Computer and video games|video games]]
*[[Lou Montulli]] - creator of [[Lynx (browser)|Lynx]] browser, [[HTTP cookie|cookies]], the blink tag, server push and client pull, HTTP proxying, HTTP over SSL, browser integration with animated GIFs, founding member of HTML working group at [[W3C]]
*[[Bram Moolenaar]] - author of text-editor [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]]
*[[David Moon]] - [[Maclisp]], [[ZetaLisp]]
*[[Charles H. Moore]] - inventor of the [[Forth programming language]]
*[[Roger Moore (computer scientist)|Roger Moore]] - co-developer of [[APL programming language|APL\360]], creator of [[IPSANET]], co-founder of [[I. P. Sharp Associates|I.P. Sharp Associates]]
*[[Urban Müller]] - [[Brainfuck]] language
*[[Mike Muuss]] - author of [[Ping|ping]], network tool to detect hosts
==N - R==
*[[Col Needham]] - creator of the [[Internet Movie Database]] (IMDb)
*[[Peter Norton]] - programmer of the famous file manager program, [[Norton Commander]]
*[[Kristen Nygaard]] - [[SIMULA]]
*[[Ed Oates]] - co-creator of [[Oracle database]], co-founder of [[Oracle Corporation]]
*[[Jarkko Oikarinen]] - creator of [[Internet Relay Chat]] (IRC)
*[[Andrew Oliver|Andrew]] and [[Philip Oliver]], The Oliver Twins - Many [[ZX Spectrum]] games including [[Dizzy]]
*[[Lawrence E. Page|Larry Page]] - co-creator of [[Google]]
*[[Seymour Papert]] - [[Logo programming language]]
*[[Tim Paterson]] - [[QDOS]]
*[[Alexey Pajitnov]] - inventor of the game [[Tetris]] on the [[Electronica 60]]
*[[Charles Petzold]] - author of many [[Microsoft Windows]] programming books
*[[Rob Pike]] - Wrote first bitmaped window system for Unix, co-creator of [[UTF-8]] character encoding, author of text editor [[sam (program)|sam]] and programming environment [[acme (Plan 9)|acme]], main author of [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]] and [[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno]] operating systems
*[[Theo de Raadt]] - Founding member of [[NetBSD]], |
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.200.89.19|65.200.89.19]] ([[User talk:65.200.89.19|Talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|other uses|Coast (disambiguation)}}
[[image:Dauin_beach.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A coastal beach in the [[Philippines]].]]
The '''coast''' is defined as the part of the land adjoining or near the [[ocean]]. A '''coastline''' is properly, a line on a map indicating the disposition of a coast but the word is often used to refer to the coast itself. The adjective, '''coastal''' describes something as being on, near or having to do with a coast.
Coast is a very specific term and is only applied to that part of an island or continent that borders an ocean or its saltwater tributaries. A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a [[gulf]] or [[Headlands and bays|bay]]. A [[shore]] on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and [[lake]]s (lake shore). Similarly, the somewhat related term [[Stream bed|bank]] refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a [[river]] (river bank) or of a body of water smaller than a lake. ''Bank'' is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or [[pond]]. In other places this may be called a [[levee]].
While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term "coast", the delineation of the inland extents of a coast differ according to [[jurisdiction]], with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons. This is usually because defining lands as part of a coast may be seen to have environmental implications which would prevent development or attach regulations to their use.
==Environmental importance==
The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore is an important part of a local [[ecosystem]] as the mixture of fresh water and [[salt]] water in [[estuary|estuaries]] provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt [[marsh]]es and [[beach]]es also support a diversity of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[insect]]s crucial to the [[food chain]].
Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The earth's natural processes, particularly [[sea level rise]], [[wave|waves]] and various [[weather]] phenomena, have resulted in the [[erosion]] [[Accretion (geology)|accretion]] and reshaping of coasts as well as [[flood|flooding]] and creation of [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and drowned river valleys ([[ria]]s).
==Human impacts==
Coasts also face many environmental challenges relating to human-induced impacts. The human influence on [[Climate change|climate change]] is thought to be a contributing factor of an accelerated trend in [[sea level rise]] which threatens coastal habitat as natural systems struggle to adapt faster. Human development of coastal land, particularly for recreational or industrial uses are similarly threatened by sea level rise, but also contribute to [[aesthetic]] problems of land use and reduced natural coastal habitat.
Pollution is an ongoing concern along coasts with [[waste|garbage]] and industrial debris littering [[beach|beaches]] and sometimes entire coasts. The [[transport]]ation of [[petroleum]] in [[tanker (ship)|tankers]] is a major hazard both for the open ocean and along coasts, particularly when large [[oil spill|oil spills]] occur. Another major hazard for coastal marine life is the large number of small oil spills created by large and small vessels powered by petroleum which flush [[bilge]] water directly into the ocean.
Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region. For example, New Zealand's [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]], or the [[East Coast of the United States|East]] and [[West Coast of the United States|West Coasts of the United States]].
A large part of the global population inhabits areas near a coast, partly to take advantage of marine resources such as fish, but more importantly to participate in seaborne trade with other nations. Many of the world's major cities that have developed in recent centuries were built on or near good [[harbour]]s and have large [[port]] facilities to take advantage of marine transportation. Jurisdictions which are [[landlocked]] and have no coast are often at an economic disadvantage with overseas trade being more difficult; sometimes being forced to go to extravagant measures such as building [[canal]]s to permit ocean-going vessels to travel inland.
Coasts, especially those with [[beach]]es and warm water are also an important draw for [[tourists]]. In many [[island nation]]s such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism by those who come to enjoy the coast is central to the economy. Coasts are popular destinations because of recreational activities such as [[swimming]], [[fishing]], [[surfing]], [[boating]], and [[Sunlight#Sunbathing|sun bathing]].
Many tourists and residents also enjoy the salt air by the sea coast which some consider to have health benefits. Coastal weather is heavily influenced by the ocean and while this can sometimes result in dangerous storms such as [[Nor'easter|Nor'easters]] and [[hurricane|hurricanes]], the coastal climate is often cooler and more temperate than corresponding inland areas. Consequently tourists from areas experiencing extremely warm and humid weather seek coastal areas for these reasons.
The coast, especially for isolated nations such as [[Japan]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]] or the [[United States]] is often a crucial defensive frontier, both for warding off military invaders but also smugglers and illegal migrants. [[Coastal defenses]] have thus long been erected in many nations. Most coastal countries also have a [[navy]] and some form of [[coast guard]].
==Types of coast==
*[[emergent coastline]] - coast has risen or sea level has fallen from previous level.
*[[submergent coastline]] - coast has fallen or sea level has risen from previous level.
*[[concordant coastline]] - rock bands run parallel to shore.
*[[discordant coastline]] - rock bands run perpendicular to shore.
==See also==
=== Coastal [[landform]]s &amp; features ===
[[Image:Accreting coast Image6.png|frame|Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a bay would, in Britain, be called a cove. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay. Tombolo is not a British term.]]
*[[arch]] &mdash; [[archipelago]]
*[[bar (landform)|bar]] &mdash; [[barrier island]] &mdash; [[headlands and bays|bay]] &mdash; [[beach]] &mdash; [[boondock]]
*[[headlands and bays|cape]] &mdash; [[cave]] &mdash; [[cliff]] &mdash; [[cove]]
*[[river delta|delta]] &mdash; [[dune|dune system]]
*[[estuary]]
*[[fjord]]
*[[gulf]]
*[[headlands and bays|headland]]
*[[island]] &mdash; [[island arc]]
*[[lagoon]]
*[[mud flat]]
*[[peninsula]]
*[[raised beach]] &mdash; [[ria]]
*[[salt marsh]] &mdash; [[sea]] &mdash; [[spit (landform)|spit]] &mdash; [[Stack (geology)|stack]] &mdash; [[stump]]
*[[tombolo]]
*[[wave cut cliff]] &mdash; [[wave cut notch]] &mdash; [[wave cut platform]]
*[[Lewis_Fry_Richardson#Research_on_the_length_of_coastlines_and_borders|How long is a coastline?]]
===Processes===
*[[attrition]]
*[[current (water)|current]]s
*[[denudation]] &mdash; [[deposition (geology)|deposition]]
*[[erosion]]
*[[flooding]]
*[[longshore drift]]
*[[saltation (geology)|saltation]] &mdash; [[sea level change]] <small>([[eustatic]] &mdash; [[isostatic]])</small> &mdash; [[sedimentation]] &mdash; [[sediment transportation]] &mdash; [[solution]] &mdash; [[sub-aerial processes]] &mdash; [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]
*[[tide]]s
*[[wave]]s &mdash; [[weathering]]
===Related topics & articles===
*[[Reef|Coral reefs]]
*[[Earth science]]
*[[Geography]] &mdash; [[Geology]] &mdash; [[Geomorphology]]
*[[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]
*[[Marine biology]]
*[[Ocean]]
*[[geography]]
*[[Coastal management]]
===Famous coasts===
*[[Gold Coast (British Colony)|Gold Coast (Ghana)]]
*[[Grain Coast]] ([[Liberia]])
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Ivory Coast)
*[[Slave Coast]] ([[Benin]])
*[[Skeleton Coast]] of Namibia
*[[Barbary Coast]] in the [[Maghreb]], the coastal plain of North Africa
*[[Gold Coast, Australia]]
*[[Gold Coast, Florida]] and [[Long Island|"Gold Coast" of Long Island]], among other luxurious "Gold Coast" marine resorts
*[[French Riviera]] - [[France]], [[Monaco]]
*[[Italian Riviera]] - [[Italy]]
*[[Jurassic Coast]] ([[England]])
*[[West Coast, New Zealand]]
*[[East Coast of the United States]]
*[[West Coast of the United States]]
*[[Costa Brava]] and [[Costa del Sol]], the Mediterranean coasts of [[Spain]]
*[[Côte d'Azur]], the French Riviera of [[France]]
*[[Adriatic Coast]] of [[Croatia]] and neighbouring countries
*The [[North Slope]] of coastal Alaska
[[Category:Landforms]]
[[af:Kuslyn]]
[[an:Costa]]
[[bg:Бряг]]
[[da:Kyst]]
[[de:Küste]]
[[es:Costa]]
[[fr:Côte (géographie)]]
[[gl:Costa (xeografía)]]
[[is:Strönd]]
[[it:Costa]]
[[nl:Kust]]
[[ja:海岸]]
[[pl:Wybrzeże]]
[[sl:Obala]]
[[sv:Kust]]
[[zh:海岸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catatonia</title>
<id>5237</id>
<revision>
<id>41939520</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:38:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | |
me in Paris she studied under painters [[Tony Robert-Fleury]] and [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]].
[[Image:Clemenceau by Beaux 1920.jpg|thumb|left|[[Georges Clemenceau]] by Cecilia Beaux (1920)]]
In [[1890]] she exhibited at the Paris Exposition. Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in [[1893]] the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy, and later various other distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, in [[1902]]. Among her portraits are those of [[Georges Clemenceau]] ; [[Edith Roosevelt]] and her daughter; and [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Admiral Sir David Beatty]]. Her ''Dorothea and Francesca'', and ''Ernesta and her Little Brother'', are good examples of her skill in painting children.
==External links==
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/BAR_BEC/BEAUX_CECILIA_1863_.html Cecilia Beaux] from Online Encyclopedia
*[http://americanart.si.edu/search/artist_bio.cfm?StartRow=1&ID=300 Cecilia Beaux] from Smithsonian American Art Museum
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1855 births|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:1942 deaths|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:American painters|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:Portrait artists|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:Women in art|Beaux, Cecilia]]
{{US-painter-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chrysler Corporation</title>
<id>6882</id>
<revision>
<id>42040801</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:29:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.239.31.49</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chrysler_logo.png|right|Chrysler logo]]
The '''Chrysler Corporation''' was a [[United States]]-based [[automobile]] manufacturer that existed independently from 1925–1998. Chrysler and its subsidiaries became part of the [[Germany|German]]-American based [[DaimlerChrysler|DaimlerChrysler AG]] after being purchased by Daimler-Benz in 1998. Before being taken over in 1998, Chrysler Corporation traded under the "C" symbol on the NYSE. The U.S. operations are generally referred to today as the "Chrysler Group."
==History==
The company was formed by [[Walter Percy Chrysler]] on [[June 6]], [[1925]], with the remaining assets of [[Maxwell Motor Company]].
In 1928 Chrysler founded the [[Plymouth automobile|Plymouth]] brand at the low end, the [[DeSoto (automobile)|DeSoto]] brand at the low-medium end and purchased the [[Dodge Brothers]] automobile company; all of this was in order to set up a full range of brands similar to that of the [[General Motors]] corporation. This process reached its logical conclusion in 1955, when the [[Imperial (automobile)|Imperial]] was made a brand of its own and Chrysler marketed a GM-like five-brand lineup. Well before then, though, Chrysler Corporation had become noted both for its engineering features and its periodic financial crises. By the end of the 1930s, the DeSoto and [[Dodge]] divisions would flip-flop spots in the corporate pecking order making the lineup Plymouth, Dodge, [[DeSoto]], Chrysler, and [[Chrysler Imperial|Imperial]].
In the 1930s, the company introduced the [[Chrysler Airflow]], featuring an advanced streamlined body which was among the first to be designed according to scientific [[aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] principles. Chrysler also created the industry's first [[wind tunnel]] to develop them. Unfortunately, it was not well accepted by the public, and it was the humble Dodge and Plymouth divisions, which had not been given an Airflow model, which pulled the firm through the [[Great Depression|Depression]] years with its conventional but quite popular bodystyles. It was during this decade that the company created a formal parts division under the '''Mopar''' ('''Mo'''tor '''Par'''ts) brand, with the result that Chrysler products are still often called Mopars.
The unsuccessful Airflow had a chilling effect on Chrysler styling and marketing, which remained determinedly unadventurous through the 1940s and into the 1950s, with the single exception of the installation of hidden headlights on the very brief production run of the 1942 DeSotos. Engineering advances continued however, and in 1951 the firm introduced the first of a long and famous series of [[Hemi]] [[V8]]s. In 1955, things brightened after the questionable designs of the 1953 and 1954 Chryslers with the introduction of [[Virgil Exner]]'s successful ''Forward Look'' style. With these cars, Chrysler seized the industry's design leadership and produced several genuine classics, most notably the 1956 [[Plymouth Fury]] and the 1957 [[Chrysler 300C]]. With the inauguration of the second generation Forward Look cars for 1957, Torshion-Aire was introduced. This was not air suspension, but an indirect-acting-torsion-spring suspension system which drastically reduced unsprung weight and shifted the car's center of gravity downward and rearward, resulting in both a smoother ride and significantly improved handling. However, a rush to production led to quality-control problems (mostly related to body fitment and rust), and coupled with a national recession, soon the company was once again in financial recovery mode.
As the 1960s opened, the firm made both good and bad moves. In 1960, Chrysler introduced unibody construction in its cars, the first to offer it of the [[Big Three]], across the board, excepting the Imperial. This gave the body more rigidity and less rattles and would soon become an industry standard. Its new compact line, the [[Valiant]], opened strong and continued to gain market share for well over a decade. Valiant was introduced as a division of its own but would become adopted by Plymouth in 1961. [[Alternator]]s would replace [[generator]]s in the 1960 Valiant and then all of the 1961 models as standard equipment, an industry first. The DeSoto marque was axed after the introduction of the 1961 models due in part to the broad array of the Dodge lines being marketed. Plymouth would also suffer in the long run for Dodge creeping into Plymouth's price range. An ill-advised downsizing of the full-size Dodge and Plymouth lines in 1962 hurt sales and profitability for several years.
In April 1964, the [[Plymouth Barracuda]], which was technically a Valiant sub-series, was introduced. The huge glass rear window gave the impression of a [[hatchback]] with its "love-it-or-hate-it" styling. Beating the [[Ford Mustang]] to the market by almost two weeks, it could be argued that the Barracuda was really the first [[pony car]]. However, unlike the Mustang, it did not rob sales of other division's models. In spite of better build quality than the Mustang, the Mustang still outsold the Barracuda 10-to-1 between April 1964 and August 1965.
In 1966, Chrysler expanded into Europe, by taking over the British [[Rootes|Rootes Group]], and [[Simca]] of France to form [[Chrysler Europe]]. The former purchase unfortunately turned out to be a major mistake for the company, inheriting a major industrial relations problem which afflicted the British motor industry at the time, coupled to the archaic factories and outdated product range that Rootes manufactured. Chrysler retired all of the Rootes marques in favor of the Chrysler name. The Simca division was more successful, but in the end the various problems were overwhelming and the firm gained little from these ventures.
More successfully, at this same time the company helped create the [[muscle car]] market in the U.S., first by producing a street version of its Hemi racing engine and then by introducing a legendary string of affordable but high-performance vehicles such as the [[Plymouth GTX]], [[Plymouth Road Runner]], and [[Dodge Charger]]. The racing success of several of these models on the [[NASCAR]] circuit burnished the company's reputation for engineering.
The 1970s brought both success and crisis. The aging but stalwart compacts saw a rush of sales as demand for smaller cars crested after the first gas crisis of 1973. However, an expensive investment in an all-new full-size lineup went largely to waste as the new 1974 vehicles appeared almost precisely as [[gasoline]] prices reached a peak and large-car sales collapsed; that same year marked the end of Barracuda production — 10 years to the day. At mid-decade, the company scored a conspicuous success with its first entry in the [[personal luxury car]] market, the [[Chrysler Cordoba]]. However, the introduction of the [[Dodge Aspen]]/[[Plymouth Volare]] twins in 1976 did not repeat the success of the discontinued Valiant/[[Dodge Dart]] line, and the company had delayed in producing an entry in the now all-important subcompact market. Problems were mutliplying abroad as well, as Chrysler Europe essentially collapsed in 1977. It was offloaded to [[Peugeot]] the following year, ironically just after having helped design the new [[Plymouth Horizon]] and [[Dodge Omni]], on which the increasingly-desperate company was pinning its hopes. Shortly thereafter, [[Chrysler Australia]], which was now producing a [[badge engineering|rebadged]] [[Japan]]ese [[Mitsubishi Galant]], was sold to [[Mitsubishi Motors]]. The subcompact Horizon was just beginning to reach the U.S. market when the second gas crisis struck, devastating sales of Chrysler's larger cars and trucks, and the company now had no strong compact line to fall back on.
In desperation, the Chrysler Corporation on [[September 7]], [[1979]], petitioned the United States government for [[US dollar|US$]]1 [[billion]] in loan guarantees to avoid [[bankruptcy]]. At the same time, [[Lee Iacocca]], a former [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] executive, was brought in to take the position of [[Chief executive officer|CEO]], and proved a capable public spokesman for the firm. A somewhat reluctant Congress passed the "Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979" (Public Law 96-185) on |
placed for on-line bookmakers), capped at £425,000 with a minimum payable of 20% of the cap figure.
=== Import Duties ===
Levied on goods imported into Gibraltar, mostly at 12%.
=== Excise Duties ===
Levied mainly on spirits, wines, tobacco and mineral oils.
=== Social Insurance 2005 ===
Employed persons contributions
{|
|Contributor type
|Employee
|Employer
|Total
|-
|Men aged between 18 & 64
| 20.75
| 26.20
| 46.95
|-
|Women aged between 18 & 59
| 20.75
| 26.20
| 46.95
|-
|Persons aged between 15 & 17
| 19.02
| 24.48
| 43.50
|-
|Men age 65 and over
| 0
| 26.20
| 26.20
|-
|Women age 60 and over
| 0
| 26.20
| 26.20
|-
|}
=== Corporation Tax ===
Resident Companies Full Rate 35%
Small companies Rate 20%
Marginal relief 7.5%
Small companies’ rate applies if taxable profits do not exceed £35,000
and the company derives at least 80% of its turnover from trading.
Between £35,000 and £105,000 the full rate applies less marginal
relief on the difference between £105,000 and taxable profits.
=== Withholding Tax ===
On dividends 0%
On interest paid to resident individuals 30%
On interest paid to resident companies 35%
On interest paid to non-residents 0%
In addition, no tax is payable on dividends between Gibraltar companies
=== Companies Special Status ===
* Exempt Status Company
Tax rate/amount (irrespective of profits) Ordinarily resident Flat rate of £225 per annum
* Non Resident Company
Non-resident Flat rate of £200 per annum
* Non-resident owned and controlled
companies incorporated in Gibraltar which do not trade, earn or remit income to Gibraltar are not liable to corporation tax.
=== Taxation of Capital ===
* Estate Duty - There is no Estate duty in Gibraltar
* Capital Gains Tax - There is no Capital Gains Tax in Gibraltar.
* Other Capital Taxes - There are no wealth, gift or other capital taxes
=== Income Tax Rates ===
{|
|Bands £
|Tax Rate
|-
| 0 - 4,000
|17% (reduced rate)
|-
| 4,001 - 10,000
| 30% (standard rate)
|-
| 10,001 - 15,000
|35%
|-
| Over - 15,000
| 45%
|-
|}
=== Stamp Duty ===
Duty is on a scale as follows:-
* Property worth up to £160,000 - stamp duty abolished.
* Property work more than £160,000 but not exceeding £250,000 - duty stays at 1.26%.
* Property value above £250,000 but does not exceed £350,000 – duty rises to 1.6%.
* Property value exceeds £350,000 - duty rises to 2.5%.
* Stamp Duty on mortgages above £200,000 rises to 0.20%.
== External links ==
[http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi The Gibraltar Government website]
[http://www.fsc.gi The Financial Services Commission]
:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Gibraltar]]
[[fr:économie de Gibraltar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Gibraltar</title>
<id>12083</id>
<revision>
<id>35800617</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T10:55:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NFH</username>
<id>396845</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Telecommunications */ rephrased even further to clarify that roaming agreements are prevented in Spain - please revert if you don't agree</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
Until [[1990]], telephone services were operated by the Gibraltar Telephone Department. In that year, the Government of Gibraltar entered into two joint ventures with [[Nynex]] of the [[United States]], and [[British Telecom|BT]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. Gibraltar Nynex Communications (GNC) became responsible for fixed line telephony, and international calls to [[Spain]], while Gibtel (partly owned by BT) became responsible for all other international calls and mobile telephone services. In [[2002]], BT sold its 50 per cent stake in Gibtel, which merged with GNC to form '''Gibtelecom''', a joint venture between the Government of Gibraltar and Nynex's successor company, [[Verizon]].
Telecommunication services in Gibraltar have been subject to Spanish restrictions. Spain refuses to recognise Gibraltar's [[country calling codes|international dialling code]] +350, instead treating Gibraltar as part of the [[Cadiz]] province's telephone exchange, using the code 9567. This has restricted the expansion of Gibraltar's [[telephone numbering plan]], as only 30 000 numbers can be dialled directly from Spain.
This has also affected international calls from the rest of the world, because carriers using least cost routing, especially in the US, route calls to Gibraltar via Spain, which prevents calls dialled using the code +350 from terminating in Gibraltar. Consequently, the caller hears a recorded announcement saying that the number dialled does not exist. Even when calls routed via Spain are allowed to terminate in Gibraltar, under the 'sender keeps all' arrangement, [[Telefónica]] in Spain is able to keep revenue from these calls, instead of paying Gibtelecom's international termination charges. Although all other countries and territories recognise the +350 dialling code, not all networks block calls to Gibraltar made using the Spanish code +34 9567, which allows subscribers to call Gibraltar for the cost of a call to Spain.
Gibtelecom is also prevented from having roaming agreements with Spanish GSM networks, thereby preventing Gibtel mobile phones from working in Spain. Gibtelecom has roaming arrangements with local GSM networks in most other countries.
The telecommunications infrastructure in Gibraltar is modelled on that of the [[UK]]; for example; the [[ringing tone]] of fixed telephone lines is identical to that of the UK, although that of mobile phones may resemble that of mainland Europe, with long tones. Telephone jacks are also [[British Standard]] [[BS 6312]], as opposed to the [[RJ-11]] versions found in the rest of mainland Europe.
It is a popular myth among travel writers that Gibraltar still has traditional red British-style telephone boxes; very few are to be found in use.
'''[[Telephones]] - main lines in use:''' 24,070 (2002)
'''Telephones - mobile [[Cellular telephone|cellular]]:'''
8,000 (2002 estimate)
'''Telephone system:'''
adequate, automatic domestic system and adequate international facilities
<br>''domestic:''
Digital exchange facilities
<br>''international:''
[[radiotelephone]]; [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay; [[satellite]] earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
==Broadcasting==
The Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation operates Radio Gibraltar on both FM and AM, broadcasting a mix of local programming in [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and retransmissions of the [[BBC World Service]]. A local television channel, GBC TV is transmitted on VHF Channel 12 with UHF repeaters. Until [[1999]], GBC TV retransmitted [[BBC Prime]], but was relaunched as a community-based service focusing on local news and other items of local interest. Most homes have access to [[satellite television]] from the United Kingdom, and also receive television and radio from Spain.
GBC programming starts at around 19.30 and finishes before midnight
with the most popular programme being the local news at 20.30. During the day fillers and the sound of GBC radio is transmitted.
In December 2005, GBC started internet streaming of its radio service on the Internet.
Details, along with an up-to-date programme guide for TV and Radio can be found on the GBC [http://www.gbc.gi website]
The [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] (BFBS) operates two radio stations on FM, BFBS1 and BFBS2 and a private cable television network. BFBS1 and 2 are also available on the Internet, but are not actually streamed from Gibraltar.
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 0, Internet 1 (2005)
'''Radios:'''
37,000 (1997) - Radio licences now discontinued
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (plus three low-power repeaters) (2002)
'''Television Licences:'''
7,452 (2002)
==Internet==
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2
GibNet, a private company, began internet services in [[1996]],
in 2005 it merged with Broadband Gibraltar Limited to form Sappire Networks Limited.
GNC Networks, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Gibraltar Nynex Communications, commenced services in [[1997]]. GNC Networks was renamed Gibconnect in [[2002]]. [[ADSL]] services were not introduced until [[2002]]: the relatively high cost of the service had meant that take-up from residential customers and small businesses was initially slow, however by 2005, there are several thousand users.
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GI
'''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]:''' 350
'''GSM Network Identifier :''' GIBTEL
==External links==
*[http://www.gbc.gi Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation] - Radio streamed on the Internet.
*[http://www.ssvc.com/bfbs/radio/gibraltar BFBS Radio in Gibraltar]
*[http://www.gra.gi Gibraltar Regulatory Authority]
*[http://www.gibtele.com/ Gibtelecom]
*[http://www.gibnet.gi GibNet]
*[http://www.gibradio.net Amateur Radio in Gibraltar ]
:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Gibraltar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Gibraltar</title>
<id>12084</id>
<revision>
<id>33783954</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T00:12:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MindlessXD</username>
<id>481404</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>spelling correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Gibraltar has a large [[automobile|car]] population, in spite of its small size, with as many motor vehicles as people. Traffic in Gibraltar drives on the [[Rules of the road|right]], as it shares a land border with [[Spain]]. Originally traffic was on the left, but fearing accidents and disputes involving vehicles from Spain, the authorities ordered the change from 05:00 on [[16 June]] [[1929]].
Gibraltar's international vehicle regi |
an of the Parliamentary Labour Party".
* [[Keir Hardie]] [[1906]]&ndash;[[1908]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] [[1908]]&ndash;[[1910]]
* [[George Nicoll Barnes]] [[1910]]&ndash;[[1911]]
* [[Ramsay MacDonald]] [[1911]]&ndash;[[1914]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] [[1914]]&ndash;[[1917]]
* [[William Adamson]] [[1917]]&ndash;[[1921]]
* [[John Robert Clynes]] [[1921]]&ndash;[[1922]]
From [[1922]] until [[1970]], the leader was formally "Leader of the Labour Party" and "Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party". However these two posts were occasionally split, usually when the party was in government or when the leader of the party did not sit in the [[House of Commons]].
* [[Ramsay MacDonald]] [[1922]]&ndash;[[1931]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] [[1931]]&ndash;[[1932]]
Arthur Henderson lost his seat in the Commons a couple of months after becoming leader. For the remainder of his leadership, the Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party was [[George Lansbury]].
* [[George Lansbury]] [[1932]]&ndash;[[1935]]
* [[Clement Attlee]] [[1935]]&ndash;[[1955]]
* [[Hugh Gaitskell]] [[1955]]&ndash;[[1963]] (died in office)
* [[Harold Wilson]] [[1963]]&ndash;[[1976]]
In [[1970]], the posts of "Leader of the Labour Party" and "Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party" were split with the latter having no policy role.
* [[James Callaghan]] [[1976]]&ndash;[[1980]]
* [[Michael Foot]] [[1980]]&ndash;[[1983]]
* [[Neil Kinnock]] [[1983]]&ndash;[[1992]]
* [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] [[1992]]&ndash;[[1994]] (died in office)
* [[Margaret Beckett]] [[1994]] (acting)
* [[Tony Blair]] [[1994]]&ndash;present
==Deputy leaders of the Labour Party since 1922==
* [[John Robert Clynes]] [[1922]]&ndash;[[1931]]
* Jointly [[John Robert Clynes]] [[1931]]&ndash;[[1932]] and [[William Graham]] [[1931]]&ndash;[[1932]] (died in office)
* [[Clement Attlee]] [[1932]]&ndash;[[1935]]
* [[Arthur Greenwood]] [[1935]]&ndash;[[1945]]
* [[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] [[1945]]&ndash;[[1955]]
* [[James Griffiths]] [[1955]]&ndash;[[1959]]
* [[Aneurin Bevan]] [[1959]]&ndash;[[1960]]
* [[George Brown, Baron George-Brown|George Brown]] [[1960]]&ndash;[[1970]]
* [[Roy Jenkins]] [[1970]]&ndash;[[1972]]
* [[Edward Short]] [[1972]]&ndash;[[1976]]
* [[Michael Foot]] [[1976]]&ndash;[[1980]]
* [[Denis Healey]] [[1980]]&ndash;[[1983]]
* [[Roy Hattersley]] [[1983]]&ndash;[[1992]]
* [[Margaret Beckett]] [[1992]]&ndash;[[1994]]
* [[John Prescott]] [[1994]]&ndash;present.
==See also==
*[[History of British Socialism]]
*[[List of organisations associated with the British Labour Party]]
*[[List of members of the British Labour Party]]
*[[UK topics]]
==Further reading==
* Raymond Plant, Matt Beech and Kevin Hickson (2004), ''The Struggle for Labour's Soul: understanding Labour's political thought since 1945'', Routledge
* [[Roy Hattersley]], ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[May 10]], 2004, [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4687_133/ai_n6152909 'We should have made it clear that we too were modernisers']
==External links==
*[http://www.labour.org.uk Official website]
*[http://www.lambethlabour.com The Labour Party in the London Borough of Lambeth]
*[http://www.labourwandsworth.org.uk The Labour Party in the London Borough of Wandsworth]
*[http://www.labour-lini.org.uk Labour in Northern Ireland Campaign]
*[http://www.labour-party.org.uk/ Unofficial website, with an archive of Labour electoral manifestos from 1900-present and a directory of Labour Party websites, including constituency associations]
*[http://labhist.tripod.com Unofficial history website]
*[http://spinwatch.server101.com/modules.php?name=Encyclopedia&op=content&tid=320 SpinWatch profile - Labour Friends of Israel]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/labour/ Guardian Unlimited Politics - Special Report: Labour Party]
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us526499/us526505/us10234373/us703545/us671216/us671218/ LookSmart - ''Labour Party''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Labour/ Open Directory Project - ''Labour Party''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/United_Kingdom/Government/Politics/Parties/Labour_Party/ Yahoo! - ''Labour Party''] directory category
[[Category:UK Labour Party|*]]
[[Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]
[[Category:1900 establishments]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
{{British_political_parties}}
[[bg:Лейбъристска партия]]
[[cy:Plaid Lafur]]
[[da:Labour]]
[[de:Labour Party]]
[[es:Partido Laborista (Reino Unido)]]
[[eo:Brita Laborista Partio]]
[[fa:حزب کارگر (انگلیس)]]
[[fr:Parti travailliste (Royaume-Uni)]]
[[ko:노동당 (영국)]]
[[id:Partai Buruh (Britania Raya)]]
[[it:Partito Laburista (Regno Unito)]]
[[kw:Parti Lavur]]
[[lt:Leiboristų partija]]
[[nl:Labour Party]]
[[ja:労働党 (イギリス)]]
[[no:Arbeiderpartiet (Storbritannia)]]
[[nn:Det britiske arbeidarpartiet]]
[[pl:Partia Pracy (brytyjska)]]
[[pt:Partido Trabalhista do Reino Unido]]
[[ro:Partidul Laburist (Anglia)]]
[[sv:Labourpartiet]]
[[th:พรรคแรงงาน]]
[[zh:英国工党]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cell (biology)</title>
<id>4230</id>
<revision>
<id>40808346</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T03:42:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.143.49.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Origin of first cell */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Epithelial-cells.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Cells in culture, [[stain]]ed for [[keratin]] (red) and [[DNA]] (green)]]
The '''cell''' is the structural and functional unit of all [[life|living]] [[organism]]s, and <!--"are" is not correct: antecedent is "cell," which is SINGULAR-->is sometimes called the "building block of life." Some organisms, such as [[bacteria]], are [[unicellular]], consisting of a single cell. Other organisms, such as [[human]]s, are [[multicellular]], (humans have an estimated 100,000 billion or 10<sup>14</sup> cells).
The [[cell theory]], first developed in 1839 by [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden|Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann|Schwann]], states that all [[organism]]s are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from preexisting cells; all vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and cells contain the [[genetics|hereditary information]] necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.
The word ''cell'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''cella'', a small room. The name was chosen by [[Robert Hooke]] when he compared the [[cork (material)|cork]] cells he saw to small rooms monks lived in.
Some ([[Lynn Margulis]] and Dorian Sagan, 1995) have argued that the cell is the smallest unit of [[life]].
==Overview==
===Properties of cells===
[[Image:Cellsize.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Mouse cells grown in a culture dish. These cells grow in large clumps, but each individual cell is about 10 [[micrometre]]s across.]]
Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities.
All cells share several abilities:
*Reproduction by [[cell division]].
*[[cell metabolism|Metabolism]], including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting [[energy]], [[molecule]]s and releasing [[by-product]]s. The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This energy is derived from [[metabolic pathway]]s.
*[[protein biosynthesis|Synthesis]] of [[protein]]s, the functional workhorses of cells, such as [[enzyme]]s. A typical [[mammal|mammalian]] cell contains up to 10,000 different [[protein]]s.
*Response to external and internal [[signal transduction|stimuli]] such as changes in temperature, [[pH]] or nutrient levels.
*[[traffic (locational)|Traffic]] of [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s.
[[Image:celltypes.png|thumbnail|350px|'''The cells of eukaryotes and prokaryotes.''' - This diagram illustrates a typical human cell]]
==Subcellular components==
[[image:biological_cell.png|thumb|350px|Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. [[Organelle]]s: (1) [[nucleolus]] (2) [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] (3) [[ribosome]] (4) [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]],(5) rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER), (6) [[Golgi apparatus]], (7) [[Cytoskeleton]], (8) smooth ER, (9) [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], (10) [[vacuole]], (11) [[cytoplasm]], (12) [[lysosome]], (13) [[centriole]]s]]
[[Image:Plant cell structure.png|thumb|350px|Schematic of typical plant cell (see table 2 for a comparison between plant and animal cells)]]
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a [[cell membrane|membrane]], which envelopes the cell, separates its interior from its environment, controls what moves in and out, and maintains the [[cell potential|electric potential of the cell]]. Inside the membrane, a [[salt]]y [[cytoplasm]] takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess [[DNA]], the hereditary material of [[gene]]s, and [[RNA]], containing the information necessary to [[gene expression|build]] various [[protein]]s such as [[enzyme]]s, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of [[biomolecule]]s in cells. This article will list these primary components of the cell, then briefly describe their function.
===Cell membrane - a cell's protective coat===
''Main article:'' [[Cell membrane]]
The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a ''plasma membrane''. A form of plasma membrane is also found in prokaryotes, but is usually referred to as the ''ce |
rom the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''beryllos'' for the ''precious blue-green color of sea water''.
==Varieties==
Varieties of beryl have been considered [[gemstone]]s since prehistoric times. Green beryl is called [[emerald]], red beryl is [[bixbite]] or red emerald or scarlet emerald, blue beryl is [[aquamarine]], pink beryl is [[morganite]], white beryl is goshenite, and a clear bright yellow beryl is called [[golden beryl]]. Other shades such as yellow-green for heliodor and honey yellow are common.
==Deposits==
Beryl is found most commonly in [[granite|granitic]] [[pegmatite]]s, but also occurs in [[mica]] [[schist]]s in the [[Ural Mountains]] and is often associated with [[tin]] and [[tungsten]] orebodies. Beryl is found in certain European countries such as [[Austria]], [[Germany]], and [[Ireland]]. It also occurs in [[Madagascar]] (especially morganite).
The most famous source of emeralds in the world is at Muso and Chivor, [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]], [[Colombia]], where they make a unique appearance in [[limestone]]. Emeralds are also found in the [[Transvaal]], [[South Africa]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Brazil]], and near [[Mursinka]] in [[Urals]]. In the [[United States]] emeralds are found in [[North Carolina]]. [[New England]]'s pegmatites have produced some of the largest beryls found, including one massive crystal with dimensions 5.5 m by 1.2 m (18 ft by 4 ft) with a mass of around 18 metric tons. Other beryl locations include [[South Dakota]], [[Colorado]], [[Utah]], and [[California]].
==Applications==
Massive beryl is a primary [[ore]] of the metal beryllium.
The druids used beryl for scrying, while the Scottish called them “stones of power”. The earliest crystal balls were made from beryl, later being replaces by rock crystal.
== References and external links ==
*Sinkankas, John, 1994, ''Emerald & Other Beryls'', Geoscience Press, ISBN 0801971144
*Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, ''Manual of Mineralogy'', 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0471805807
*[http://www.minerals.net/mineral/silicate/cyclo/beryl/beryl.htm Minerals.net]
*[http://webmineral.com/data/Beryl.shtml Webmineral.com]
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/beryl/beryl.htm Mineral Galleries]
==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]
[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Beryllium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]
[[de:Beryll]]
[[fr:Béryl]]
[[hr:Beril]]
[[lt:Berilas]]
[[nl:Beryl]]
[[ja:緑柱石]]
[[pl:Beryl (minerał)]]
[[pt:Berilo]]
[[ru:Берилл]]
[[fi:Berylli]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Basel</title>
<id>4911</id>
<revision>
<id>41689351</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:59:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.57.245.11</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Swiss_town|subject_name=[[Image:Switzerland canton flag bs.png|95px|none|Basel-Stadt]]|
canton=Basel-Stadt|
district=n.a.|
nd=47|nm=34|ed=7|em=36|
postal_code=4000|
population=166120|populationof=December 2002|
area=22.75|altitude=260|
mayor=[[Ralph Lewin]] (<small>[[Basel-Stadt|Pres. of Cantonal exec.]]</small>)|
website=www.basel.ch|
map=map missing|
}}{{clearright}}{{CHdot|Basel}}
'''Basel''' (British [[English language|English]] traditionally: ''Basle'' {{IPA|[b&#593;&#720;l]}} and more recently '''Basel''' {{IPA|['ba:z&#601;l]}}, [[German language|German]]: ''Basel'' {{IPA|['ba:z&#601;l]}}, [[French language|French]]: ''Bâle'' {{IPA|[b&#593;l]}}, [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Basilea'' {{IPA|[bazi'le&#720;a]}}) is [[Switzerland]]'s third most populous city (166,563 inhabitants ([[2004]]); 690,000 inhabitants in the conurbation stretching across the immediate cantonal and national boundaries made Basel Switzerland's second-largest urban area as of [[2003]]).
Located in north-west Switzerland on the river [[Rhine]], Basel functions as a major industrial centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry. The city borders both [[Germany]] and [[France]]. The Basel region, culturally extending into German [[Baden-Württemberg|Baden]] and French [[Alsace]], reflects the heritage of its three [[state]]s in the modern Latin name: "[[Regio TriRhena]]". It has the oldest [[University of Basel | university]] of the Swiss Confederation ([[1460]]).
==Transportation==
Basel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine.
[[EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg]] is the only airport in the world operated jointly by three countries, France and Switzerland and Germany. Contrary to popular belief, the airport is located completely on French soil. The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent halves, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; there is a customs point at the middle of the airport so that people can "emigrate" to the other side of the airport.
Basel has long held an important place as a rail hub. Three railway stations &mdash; those of the German, French and Swiss networks &mdash; lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel [[SBB-CFF-FFS|SBB]]) and French (Basel [[SNCF]]) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities). A goods railway complex exists as well.
Basel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs. The green-colored local [[light rail|trams]] and buses are operated by the BVB ([http://www.bvb-basel.ch/ Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe]). The yellow-colored buses and trams are operated by the BLT ([http://www.blt.ch/ Baselland Transport]), and connect areas in the nearby half-canton of Basel-Land to central Basel. The trams are powered by [[overhead lines]], and the bus fleet is mix of electric and conventional fuel-powered vehicles. The BVB also shares commuter bus lines in cooperation with transit authorities in the neighboring Alsace region in France and Baden region in Germany.
[[Image:Basel Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|600px|A panoramic view of Basel, looking east over Kleinbasel (smaller Basel)]]
==Industry and trade==
[[Image:P4260257.JPG|thumb|300px|Marktplatz, Basel's market square.]]
An annual Federal Swiss trade fair (Mustermesse) takes place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine. Other important trade shows include "Basel" (watches and jewelry), Art, Orbit and Cultura.
The Swiss chemical industry operates largely from Basel, with [[Novartis]], [[Ciba Specialty Chemicals]], [[Clariant]], and [[Hoffmann-La Roche]] headquartered there. Pharmaceuticals and specialty chemicals have become the modern focus of the city's industrial production. Some of the chemical industry's most notable creations include [[DDT]], [[Araldite]] and [[LSD]].
[[UBS AG]] maintains central offices in Basel, giving finance a pivotal role in the local economy. The importance of banking began when the [[Bank for International Settlements]] located within the city in 1930. Basel's innovative financial industry includes institutions like the [[Basel Committee on Banking Supervision]]. Responsible for the Basel Accords (''[[Basel I]]'' and ''[[Basel II]]'') , this organization fundamentally changed [[Risk Management]] within its industry.
[[Image:28014445.rathaus.jpg|thumb|right|Rathaus, Basel's Town Hall.]]
Basel has Switzerland's tallest building, [[Basler Messeturm]].
==History and science==
Basel traces its history back to at least the days of the [[Roman Empire]] settlement of [[Augusta Raurica]] though even older Celtic settlements (including a "vitrified fort") have been discovered recently predating the roman castle. The city's position on the [[Rhine]] long emphasised its importance: Basel for many centuries possessed the only bridge over the river "between [[Lake Constance]] and the sea".
From [[999]], Basel was ruled by [[prince-bishop]]s (see [[Bishop of Basel]])
In [[1019]] the construction of the cathedral of Basel began under German Emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Heinrich II]].
In [[1225]]&ndash;[[1226]] the Bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun and lesser Basel (Kleinbasel) founded as a beachhead to protect the bridge.
In [[1356]] an earthquake caused extensive damage in the city destroying a vast number of castles in the vicinity, allowing the city to offer courts in the city to nobles as an alternative to rebuilding their castles in exchange for their protection of the city. The De Bâle family moves in and helps rebuild the city and surrounding country, but set up house in Basel-Land.
Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th-century [[Council of Basel]] ([[1431]] &ndash;[[1449]]), including the [[1439]] election of antipope [[Felix V]].
In [[1459]] Pope [[Pius II]] endowed the University of Basel where notables like [[Erasmus]] of Rotterdam, [[Paracelsus]] and [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] taught. At the same time printing was introduced in Basel by apprentices of [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]. The Schwabe publishing house was founded 1488 by Johannes Petri and is the oldest publishing house still in business. [[Johann Froben]] also operated his printing house in Basel and was notable for publishing works by Erasmus.
In [[1495]], Basel was incorporated in the Upper Rhenish [[Imperial Circle]], the bishop sitting on the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes.
In [[1500]] the construction of the cathedral of Basel (German: Münster) was finished.
In [[1501]] Basel de-facto separated from the Holy Roman Empire and joined the [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss Confederation]] as 11th state, and began of the construction of the city council building. The bishop continued to reside in Basel until the reformation of [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]] in [[1529]]. The bishop's [[crook]] was however retained as the city's [[Coat of Arms |
ntire Australian continent was claimed for Britain when [[Matthew Flinders]] proved [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]] and [[New South Wales]] to be a single land mass by completing a circumnavigation of it in 1803. The colonies later became [[self-governing colony|self-governing colonies]] and became profitable exporters of [[wool]] and [[gold]].
See also [[British colonisation of the Americas]], [[Colonial America|Colonial history of America]]
==Free trade and "informal empire"==
''Main article: ''[[Pax Britannica]]''.''
[[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|300px|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' ([[John Trumbull]], 1797). The loss of the American colonies marked the end of the "first British Empire".]]
The old British colonial system began to decline in the [[18th century]]. During the long period of unbroken [[Whig]] dominance of domestic political life (1714&ndash;[[1762|62]]), the Empire became less important and less well-regarded, until an ill-fated attempt (largely involving [[American Revolution|taxes, monopolies, and zoning]]) to reverse the resulting "salutary neglect" (or "benign neglect") provoked the [[American War of Independence]] ([[1775]]&ndash;[[1783|83]]), depriving Britain of her most populous colonies.
The period is sometimes referred to as the end of the "first British Empire", indicating the shift of British expansion from the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries to the "second British Empire" in Asia and later also Africa from the 18th century. The loss of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] showed that colonies were not necessarily particularly beneficial in economic terms, since Britain could still profit from trade with the ex-colonies without having to pay for their defence and administration.
[[Mercantilism]], the economic doctrine of competition between nations for a finite amount of wealth which had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, now gave way in Britain and elsewhere to the ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economic [[classical liberalism|liberalism]] of [[Adam Smith]] and successors like [[Richard Cobden]].
The lesson of Britain's North American loss &mdash; that trade might be profitable in the absence of [[colony|colonial]] rule &mdash; contributed to the extension in the 1840s and 1850s of [[self-governing colony]] status to white settler colonies in [[Canada]] and [[Australasia]] whose British or European inhabitants were seen as outposts of the "mother country". Ireland was treated differently because of its geographic proximity, and incorporated into the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] in 1801; due largely to the impact of the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]] against English rule.
During this period, Britain also outlawed the [[slave trade]] ([[1807]]) and soon began enforcing this principle on other nations. By the mid-19th century Britain had largely eradicated the world slave trade. [[Slavery]] itself was abolished in the British colonies in 1834, though the phenomenon of [[indentured labour]] retained much of its oppressive character until 1920.
The end of the old colonial and slave systems was accompanied by the adoption of [[free trade]], culminating in the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] and [[Navigation Acts]] in the 1840s. Free trade opened the British market to unfettered competition, stimulating reciprocal action by other countries during the middle quarters of the 19th century.
[[Image:Sadler, Battle of Waterloo.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Battle of Waterloo]] marked the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and the beginning of the ''[[Pax Britannica]]''.]]
Some argue that the rise of free trade merely reflected Britain's economic position and was unconnected with any true philosophical conviction. Despite the earlier loss of 13 of Britain's [[British colonisation of the Americas|North American colonies]], the final defeat in [[Europe]] of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] [[France]] in 1815 left Britain the most successful international [[power (international)|power]]. While the [[Industrial Revolution]] at home gave her an unrivalled economic leadership, the [[Royal Navy]] dominated the seas. The distraction of rival powers by European matters enabled Britain to pursue a phase of expansion of her economic and political influence through "[[informal empire]]" underpinned by [[free trade]] and strategic pre-eminence.
Between the [[Congress of Vienna]] of 1815 and the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, Britain was the world's sole industrialised power, with over 30% of the global industrial output in 1870. As the "workshop of the world", Britain could produce finished manufactures so efficiently and cheaply that they could undersell comparable locally produced goods in foreign markets. Given stable political conditions in particular overseas markets, Britain could prosper through free trade alone without having to resort to formal rule. The [[Americas]] in particular (especially in [[Argentina]] and the [[United States]]) were seen as being well under the informal British trade empire due to Britain's enforcement of the [[Monroe Doctrine]] keeping other European nations from establishing formal rule in the area.
==British East India Company==
''Main article: [[British East India Company]]''
The British East India Company was probably the most successful chapter in the British Empire's history as it was responsible for the colonisation of the [[Indian subcontinent]], which would become the British Empire's largest source of revenue, along with the conquest of [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]], [[Ceylon]], [[Malaya]] (which was also one of the largest sources of revenue) and other surrounding Asian countries, and were thus responsible for establishing Britain's Asian empire, the most important component of the British Empire.
The British East India Company originally began as a joint-stock company of traders and investors based in [[Leadenhall Street]], in the [[City of London]], which was granted a [[Royal Charter]] by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in [[History of India|India]]. The Royal Charter effectively gave the newly created ''Honourable East India Company'' a monopoly on all trade with the [[East Indies]]. The Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to one which virtually ruled India as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, along with a very large private army consisting of local Indian [[sepoys]], who were loyal to their British commanders and were probably the most important factor in Britain's Asian conquest. The British East India Company is regarded by some as the world's first [[multinational corporation]]. Its territorial holdings were subsumed by the British crown in 1858, in the aftermath of the events variously referred to as the Sepoy Rebellion or the Indian Mutiny. [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4718_133/ai_n8694155]
The Company also had interests along the routes to India from [[Great Britain]]. As early as 1620, the company attempted to lay claim to the [[Table Mountain]] region in [[South Africa]], later it occupied and ruled [[St Helena]]. The Company also established [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]]; employed [[Captain Kidd]] to combat [[piracy]]; and cultivated the production of [[tea]] in [[India]]. Other notable events in the Company's history were that it held [[Napoleon]] captive on [[Saint Helena]], and made the fortune of [[Elihu Yale]]. Its products were the basis of the [[Boston Tea Party]] in [[Colonial America]].
In 1615, Sir [[Thomas Roe]] was instructed by [[James I of England|James I]] to visit the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Mughal Emperor|Emperor]] [[Jahangir]] (who ruled over most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] at the time, along with parts of [[Afghanistan]]). The purpose of this mission was to arrange for a commercial treaty which would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and build factories in [[Surat]] and other areas. In return, the Company offered to provide to the emperor goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful and Jahangir sent a letter to the King through Sir Thomas. The British East India Company found itself completely dominant over the French, Dutch and Portuguese trading companies in the [[Indian subcontinent]] as a result. In 1634, the Mughal emperor [[Shah Jahan]] extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of [[Bengal]], which had the world's largest textile industry at the time. In 1717, the Mughal Emperor at the time completely waived customs duties for the trade, giving the Company a decided commercial advantage in the Indian trade. With the Company's large revenues, it raised its own armed forces from the 1680s, mainly drawn from the indigenous local population, who were Indian [[sepoys]] under the command of British officers.
===Expansion===
[[Image:Clive.jpg|250px|thumb|300px|[[Robert Clive]]'s victory at the [[Battle of Plassey]] established the Company as a military as well as a commercial power.]]
The decline of the [[Mughal Empire]], which had separated into many smaller states controlled by local rulers who were often in conflict with one another, allowed the Company to expand its territories, which began in 1757, when the Company came into conflict with the [[Nawab]] of [[Bengal]], [[Siraj Ud Daulah]]. Under the leadership of [[Robert Clive]], the Company troops and their local allies defeated the Nawab on [[23 June]] [[1757]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]], mostly due to the treachery of the Nawab's former army chief [[Mir Jafar]]. This victory, which resulted in the conquest of Bengal, established the British East India Company as a military as well as a commercial power, and marked the beginning of British rule in India. The wealth gained from the Bengal treasury allowed the Company to sign |
onventional address of the first floppy disk drive in [[CP/M]]-based [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]].
** A is a security division ("Verified Protection") in the [[TCSEC]].
* In [[education]], a [[Grade (education)|grade]] of '''A''' typically represents the highest score that students can achieve. This is sometimes coupled with a [[plus]]/[[minus]] sign, as in '''A+''' or '''A-''', or a number, as in '''A1'''. It is occasionally a grade one level below '''A*''' (pronounced "A Star").
* In [[electronics]],
** [[A battery|A]] is a standard size of [[battery (electricity)|battery]].
** A refers to the Anode, or filament, component of a [[vacuum tube]].
* In [[English language|English]], the word ''a'' is an indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]], see [[A, an]]
* In [[Esperanto#Grammar|Esperanto]], -a is the adjectival/attributive ending; A is commonly an abbreviation meaning English (language).
* In [[fiction]], the letter worn by Hester Prynne marking her as an adultress in the [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] novel ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' was an ''A''.
* In [[film]], ''A'' is an Italian film made in [[1969]]; see ''[[A (film)]]''.
* In [[finance]], A is the U.S. [[ticker symbol]] for [[Agilent Technologies]].
* In [[game]]s, the letter A is used to mark each of the [[Ace]]s in a deck of [[playing card]]s.
* In [[Greek language|Greek]], a- is a [[prefix]] (''alpha privativum'') meaning "not" or "devoid of," used in many borrowed words in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and [[Romance languages]].
* In [[India]] ''A'' is movie rating, given to those intended to be seen only by adults.
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], A stands for [[Austria]].
* In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], A is a series of sizes with an [[Paper size|aspect ratio]] of roughly 70% width to height, with A4 being an example popular size.
* In [[logic]],
**the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form "all x is y." The letters I, E, and O are used respectively for the particular affirmative "some x is y," the universal negative "no x is y," and the particular negative "some x is not y." The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two [[Latin]] [[verb]]s ''affirmo'' (or AIo), "I assert," and ''nego'', "I deny." The use of the symbols dates from the [[13th century]], though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians.
**In [[symbolic logic]], the symbol &forall; (an inverted letter A) is the [[universal quantifier]].
* In [[mathematics]],
**A is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[10 (number)|ten]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 11 or greater,
**[[blackboard bold]] <math>\mathbb{A}</math> (&#x1D504; in [[Unicode]]) sometimes represents the [[algebraic numbers]].
**In the [[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]], each sequence has an ID consisting of the letter A and six base 10 digits.
* In [[medicine]], '''A''' (also, '''A+''' or '''A-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s.
* In [[music]],
** A is a [[Pitch class]] or [[note]], see [[A (musical note)]].
** A, or "side A," refers to the top or first side of a [[vinyl record]].
** ''A'' is a [[British rock]] band; see ''[[A (band)]]''.
** ''A'' is an album by [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]]; see ''[[A (album)]]''.
* In [[nutrition]], A is a [[vitamin]].
* In [[photography]], most SLR cameras use A to signify aperture priority mode, where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed.
* In [[poetry]], [[A (poem)|A]] is the major work of influential 20th century author [[Louis Zukofsky]].
* In [[political science|political theory]], a circumscribed "A" is an [[anarchist symbolism|anarchist symbol]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], A stands for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]].
* On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, A identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]].
* In the [[SI]] system of units,
** A is the symbol for the [[ampere]] or amp, the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]].
** a, [[atto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10<sup>-18</sup>
** a is the symbol for the [[are]], a unit of surface area equal to 100 [[square metre]]s.
* As a [[timezone]], A is the military designation for [[Coordinated Universal Time]]+1, also known as CET or [[Central European Time]].
==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|A}}
{{Commons|A}}
* [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]]
* [[A (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic A]]
* <big>[[ª]]</big>
* [[À]]
* [[Á]]
* [[Â]]
* [[Ã]]
* [[Ä]] (Ae)
* [[Å]] (Aa)
* [[Æ]]
* [[A-breve|&#258;]]
* [[A-ogonek|&#260;]]
* [[∀]]
<br clear="all" />
{{AZsubnav}}
[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[Category:Vowels]]
[[als:A]]
[[ar:A]]
[[bs:A]]
[[ca:A]]
[[cs:A]]
[[da:A]]
[[de:A]]
[[et:A]]
[[el:A]]
[[es:A]]
[[eo:A]]
[[fr:A]]
[[gl:A]]
[[ko:A]]
[[hr:A]]
[[io:A]]
[[id:A]]
[[it:A]]
[[he:A]]
[[kw:A]]
[[la:A]]
[[hu:A]]
[[nl:A]]
[[ja:A]]
[[no:A]]
[[nn:A]]
[[pl:A]]
[[pt:A]]
[[ro:A]]
[[ru:А (буква)]]
[[sq:A]]
[[scn:A]]
[[simple:A]]
[[sl:A]]
[[sr:A (латиничко)]]
[[fi:A]]
[[sv:A]]
[[tl:A]]
[[vi:A]]
[[tr:A]]
[[yo:A]]
[[zh:A]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AnarchoCapitalism</title>
<id>291</id>
<revision>
<id>15899029</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AnarchoCapitalists</title>
<id>293</id>
<revision>
<id>15899031</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:47:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ActressesS</title>
<id>296</id>
<revision>
<id>15899034</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T12:13:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AnarchisM/AnarchyTalk</title>
<id>298</id>
<revision>
<id>15899036</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:47:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AnAmericanInParis</title>
<id>299</id>
<revision>
<id>15899037</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-19T16:44:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AutoMorphism</title>
<id>301</id>
<revision>
<id>15899038</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Automorphism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ActionFilm</title>
<id>302</id>
<revision>
<id>15899039</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T00:46:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Action movie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alabama</title>
<id>303</id>
<revision>
<id>42140365</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gregski711</username>
<id>704911</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Political Climate */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
<div style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin-left: 1em;">
{{US Confederate state |
Name = Alabama |
Fullname = State of Alabama |
Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama]] |
Seal = Alabama state seal.png|
Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Alabama.png |
Nickname = Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie[[#Notes|&sup1;]], Yellowhammer State|
Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
Languages = [[English language|English]] 96.7%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.2% |
LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |
Governor = [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] (R)|
Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R)
[[Jeff Sessions]] (R) |
PostalAbbreviation = AL |
AreaRank = 30<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 52,423 mi²/135,775 |
LandArea = 50,750 mi²/131,442 |
WaterArea = 1,673 mi²/4,333 |
PCWater = 3.19 |
PopRank = 23<sup>rd</sup> |
2000Pop = 4,447,100 |
DensityRank = 26<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 33.84 |
AdmittanceOrder = 22<sup>nd</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[December 14]], [[1819]] |
SecessionDate = [[January 11]], [[1861]] |
ReadmittanceDate = [[July 14]], [[1 |
bering]]
* [[List of streets and roads in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of airports in Hong Kong|List of airports and heliports in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hkpri.org.hk/bulletin/5/l-h-wang.html Wang L H, "In Search of a Sustainable Transport Development Strategy for Hong Kong"]
*[http://www.amspt.com AMS (public light minibus service provider) &mdash; Chinese only]
*[http://www.heliservices.com.hk/location.html Heliservice (Hong Kong) Limited]
*[http://www.hyd.gov.hk Hong Kong Highways Department]
*[http://www.hkpt.com Hong Kong public transport &mdash; unofficial website]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/td/trafficinfo Hong Kong Transport Department road traffic information service]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/td/eng/td29_flash.html Hong Kong Transport Department]
*[http://www.yp.com.hk/yptourist_e03/en/tips/tips_transportation.aspx Hong Kong Yellow Pages &mdash; public transport overview]
*[http://www.kcrc.com/eng/services/routemap/index.asp KCRC heavy rail and light rail map with stations, and MTR lines (in grey, not in legend) without numbers or stations]
*[http://www.mtr.com.hk/jplanner/images/maps/mtr_map2.jpg MTR website &mdash; MTR map with stations]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/statliteracy/etimes/et030929.htm Vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong]
[[Category:Transport in Hong Kong|*]]
[[ru:Транспорт в Гонконге]]
[[zh:香港交通]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Hong Kong</title>
<id>13412</id>
<revision>
<id>18819701</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-14T15:41:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Hong Kong</title>
<id>13413</id>
<revision>
<id>41197008</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:44:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Instantnood</username>
<id>148027</id>
</contributor>
<comment>no need to specify its internal, since it's mentioned Hong Kong is part of the PRC and is a special administrative region</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Hong Kong}}
[[Hong Kong]] is a [[special administrative region]] (SAR) of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). Its diplomatic relations and defence are the responsibility of the [[Central People's Government]] of the PRC. Nonetheless, Hong Kong has retained considerable [[autonomy]] in all aspects, including economic and commercial relations, customs control, except diplomatic relations and defence. Hong Kong continues to be an active, independent member of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum in the name of ''Hong Kong, China''.
==Overview==
Hong Kong was under [[colonial Hong Kong|British rule]] before 1997. Prior to the implementation of the ''Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office Act 1996'' enacted by the [[United Kingdom Parliament|British Parliament]], Hong Kong represented its interests abroad through the [[Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office]]s (HKETO) and via a special office in the British Embassies (or [[High Commissioner]]s), but the latter has ceased after the sovereignty of Hong Kong was [[transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|transferred to the PRC]] and became a special administrative region (SAR) of the PRC in 1997. At present, the ''Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices'' under the [[Hong Kong Government|Government]] of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in countries that are the major trading partner of Hong Kong, including [[Japan]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Singapore]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Belgium]], [[Switzerland]], the [[United States]] and the [[European Union]]. These offices serve as the official representative of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR in these countries. Its major functions include facilitating trade negotiations and handling trade related matters, inter-government relations with foreign governments; the promoting of investment in Hong Kong; and liaising with the media and business community. The Hong Kong Government has also set up the [[Hong Kong Tourism Board]] with offices in other countries and regions to promote tourism. Other countries, likewise, have set up consulates-general or consulates in Hong Kong that are subordinate to the [[embassy]] in [[Beijing]], the capital of the PRC.
The Hong Kong Government has also an liaison office in [[Beijing]], and an HKETO at [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]]. A few more HKETO will be set up in cities mainland China in future. The Central People's Government of the PRC also maintains a liaison office in Hong Kong. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has a representative office in Hong Kong.
Hong Kong makes strenuous law enforcement efforts, but faces serious challenges in controlling transit of [[heroin]] and [[methamphetamine]] to regional and world markets; modern banking system provides a conduit for [[money laundering]]; rising indigenous use of synthetic drugs, especially among young people.
Hong Kong has its own immigration policy and administration. PRC citizens who are [[permanent resident]]s of Hong Kong hold a different type of passports, called the [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passport]], which is different from that for PRC citizens in [[mainland China]]. Residents of Hong Kong and mainland China need a [[passport]]-like document (the [[Home Return Permit]] for Hong Kong residents and the [[exit endorsement]] for mainland residents) to cross the Hong Kong-mainland China [[border]]. Visitors from other countries and regions with no waiver programme are required to apply for visas directly through the Immigration Department of Hong Kong.
==International organization participation==
[[APEC]], [[AsDB]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|ESCAP]] (associate), [[ICFTU]], [[International Maritime Organization]] (associate), [[Interpol]] (subbureau), [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[WCL]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]]
==See also==
* [[Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China]]
==Reference==
* [[CIA World Fact Book|CIA - The World Factbook]] 2003
==External links==
* [http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PRC]
* [http://www.info.gov.hk/protocol Protocol Division of Hong Kong Government]
* [http://www.fmcoprc.gov.hk Office of the Commissioner of PRC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Hong Kong]
* [http://www.fmcoprc.gov.mo/eng Office of the Commissioner of PRC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Macao]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Hong Kong| ]]
[[ru:Международные отношения Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港外交]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Howland Island</title>
<id>13414</id>
<revision>
<id>41918445</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:43:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lomn</username>
<id>330864</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Earhart Light */ wikilink [[day beacon]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:howland_island_nasa.jpg|thumb|300px|Howland Island seen from space.]]
'''Howland Island''' is an uninhabited [[atoll]] located just north of the [[equator]] in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] at {{coor dm|0|48|N|176|38|W|}}, about 3,100 km (1,675 [[nautical mile]]s) southwest of [[Honolulu]]. It is about one-half of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[Australia]] and is an [[unincorporated territory|unincorporated]], [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States]], part of the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]].
'''Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge''' consists of the 455 acre (1.84 km&sup2;) island and the surrounding 32,074 acres (129.80 km&sup2;) of submerged land. The island is now a [[National Wildlife Refuge]] managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] as an [[insular area]] under the [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].
The atoll has no economic activity and is perhaps best known as the island [[Amelia Earhart]] never reached. Defense is the responsibility of the [[United States]] and the island is visited every two years by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
== History ==
Sparse remnants of trails and other artifacts indicate a sporadic early [[Polynesian culture|Polynesian]] presence but Howland Island was uninhabited when the United States took possession of it in [[1857]] through claims under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of [[1856]]. Its [[guano]] deposits were mined and thoroughly depleted by American and British companies during the second half of the [[19th century]].
In [[1935]] a brief attempt at colonization was attempted, part of a larger project administered by the [[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]] to establish a permanent U.S. presence on the equatorial [[Line Islands]]. It began with a rotating population of four alumni and students from Kamehameha School for Boys, a military school in [[Honolulu, Hawaii]]. Although the recruits had signed on as part of a scientific expedition and expected to spend a three month assignment collecting botanical and biological samples, once at sea they were told, "Your names will go down in history" and that the islands would be developed into "famous air bases in a route that will connect Australia with California." The settlement '''Itascatown''', near the beach on the island's western side, was a line of no more than half a dozen small wood-frame structures and tents named after the U.S. Coast Guard vessel that brought them and made regular cr |
''[[senate]]''). This reconciled the political parties but did not reconcile the army which, already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more so at the rumors that one of the two unpopular brothers of [[Queen Draga]], Lieutenant Nicodiye, was to be proclaimed heir-apparent to the throne.
Meanwhile, the independence of the [[senate]] and of the council of state caused increasing irritation to King Aleksandar. In yet another ''[[coup d'état]]'', he suspended (March [[1903]]) the [[constitution]] for half an hour, time enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators and councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new ones. This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction in the country. The general impression was that as much as the [[senate]] was packed with men devoted to the royal couple and the government obtained a large majority at the general elections, King Aleksandar would not hesitate any longer to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the [[heir]] to the throne.
Apparently to prevent this, but in reality to replace Aleksandar Obrenović with [[Peter I of Serbia|Petar Karađorđević I]], a military conspiracy by [[Black Hand]] was organized. Their palace was invaded and the Royal couple hid in a cupboard in the Queen's bedroom. The conspirators searched the palace and eventually discovered the royal couple and savagely murdered them in the early morning of [[June 11]], [[1903]]. King Aleksandar and Queen Draga were shot and their bodies mutilated and thrown from a window in the palace.
==References==
* {{1911}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Milan Obrenović IV]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Serbian monarchs|King of Serbia]]|years=[[1889]]—[[1903]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Peter I of Serbia|Peter I]]}}
[[Category:1876 births|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:1903 deaths|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:Assassinated kings|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:Serbian nobility|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:House of Obrenovic|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[de:Aleksandar Obrenović]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier de Serbie]]
[[nl:Alexander Obrenović]]
[[pl:Aleksander Obrenowić]]
[[sr:Краљ Александар Обреновић]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander III of Scotland</title>
<id>1596</id>
<revision>
<id>38308909</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T13:37:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv supercats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexander III.jpg|right]]'''Alexander III''' ([[September 4]], [[1241]] &ndash; [[March 19]], [[1286]]), [[King of Scots]], also known as '''Alexander the Glorious''', ranks as one of [[Scotland|Scotland's]] greatest kings.
Born at [[Roxburgh]], [[Scottish Borders|Borders]], as the son of [[Alexander II of Scotland]] by his second wife Marie de Coucy, he became king at the age of eight when his father died ([[6 July]] [[1249]]). His coronation took place on [[July 13]], [[1249]] at [[Scone Abbey]], [[Perthshire]].
The years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by [[Walter Comyn]], [[Earl of Menteith]], the other by Alan Durward, the [[justiciar]]. The former dominated the early years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of [[England]] in [[1251]], [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply. In [[1255]] an interview between the English and Scottish kings at [[Kelso]] led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties.
On attaining his majority at the age of 21 in [[1262]], Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the [[Western Isles]] which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Haakon IV of Norway | Haakon]]. Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion. Sailing round the west coast of Scotland he halted off the [[Isle of Arran]], and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific [[extreme weather|storm]] which greatly damaged his ships. The [[battle of Largs]] (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, he turned homewards, but died on the way on the Orkneys (15 December 1263). The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in [[1266]] Haakon's successor concluded the [[1266 Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]] by which he ceded the [[Isle of Man]] and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a money payment. Norway retained only [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] in the area.
Alexander had married Princess Margaret of England, a daughter of King [[Henry III of England]] and [[Eleanor of Provence]], on [[December 26]], [[1251]]. She died in [[1274]], having given him three children:
# Margaret ([[February 28]], [[1260]]-[[April 9]], [[1283]]), married King [[Eirik II of Norway]]
# Alexander ([[January 21]], [[1263]]-[[January 28]], [[1283]])
# David ([[March 20]], [[1272]]-June [[1281]])
According to the chronicle of [[Lanercost]], Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: "''he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise''."
Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In [[1284]] he induced the [[Scottish Parliament | Estates]] to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter [[Margaret I of Scotland | Margaret, the "Maid of Norway"]]. The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de [[Dreux]] on [[November 1]], [[1285]].
But the sudden death of the king dashed all such hopes. Alexander died in a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit the queen at [[Kinghorn]] in [[Fife]] on [[March 16|16th]] or [[March 19|19th]] of March [[1286]]. His death ushered in a time of political upheaval for Scotland.
See [[History of Scotland]]
==Source==
*Scott, Robert McNair. ''Robert the Bruce: King of Scots'', 1996
{{start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Scots]]|years=1249&ndash;1286}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]]}}
{{end}}
[[Category:1241 births]]
[[Category:1286 deaths]]
[[Category:Natives of the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]
[[de:Alexander III. (Schottland)]]
[[no:Alexander III av Skottland]]
[[ja:アレグザンダー3世 (スコットランド王)]]
[[pl:Aleksander III (król Szkocji)]]
[[pt:Alexandre III da Escócia]]
[[sv:Alexander III av Skottland]]
[[uk:Александр ІІІ (король Шотландії)]]
[[zh:亚历山大三世 (苏格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander of Greece</title>
<id>1597</id>
<revision>
<id>40764867</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:48:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Please see:
* [[Alexander of Greece (king)]] for the [[20th century]] [[monarch|king]] of [[Greece]]
* [[Alexander of Greece (rhetorician)]] for the ancient Greek [[rhetoric]]ian
Neither of the above should be confused with the Greek king and conqueror [[Alexander the Great]] king of [[Macedon]].
{{hndis}}
[[sl:Aleksander Grški]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Cornelius</title>
<id>1598</id>
<revision>
<id>15900065</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-20T13:50:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stan Shebs</username>
<id>7777</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Alexander Polyhistor]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alexander Polyhistor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander of Aphrodisias</title>
<id>1599</id>
<revision>
<id>40002252</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T12:14:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>correct lk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander of Aphrodisias''', pupil of [[Aristocles of Messene]], the most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the writings of [[Aristotle]], and styled, by way of pre-eminence, ''o exegetes'' ("the expositor"), was a native of [[Aphrodisias]] in [[Caria]].
He came to [[Athens]] towards the end of the [[2nd century]] AD, became head of the [[Lyceum]] and lectured on [[peripatetic]] [[philosophy]].
The object of his work was to free the doctrine from the [[syncretism]] of [[Ammonius Saccas|Ammonius]] and to reproduce the pure doctrine of Aristotle.
Commentaries by Alexander on the following works of Aristotle are still extant:
*the ''Analytica Priora'', i
*the ''Topica''
*the ''Meteorologica''
*the ''De Sensu''
*the ''Metaphysica'', i-v, together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the remaining books of the ''Metaphysica''.
His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the [[Arab]]ians, who translated many of them.
[[Alexander's band]], an [[optical phenomenon]], is named after him.
There are also several original writings by Alexander still extant.
The most important |
on|canonical]] only because of an allegorical reading. This tradition of Biblical interpretation was inherited by Christian writers, for whom allegorical similitudes are the basis of [[exegesis]], the origin of the arts of [[hermeneutics]]. The late Jewish and Early Christian visionary [[Apocalyptic literature]], with its base in the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'', presents allegorical figures, of which the [[Whore of Babylon]] and the Beast of ''Revelation'' are the most familiar.
In classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the cave of shadowy representations in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic]]'' (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa ([[Livy]] ii. 32); and several occur in [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]].'' In Late Antiquity [[Martianus Capella]] organized all the information a 5th-century upper-class male needed to know into an allegory of the wedding of Mercury and ''Philologia,'' with the seven [[liberal arts]] as guests, an allegory that was widely read through the Middle Ages.
Medieval thinking accepted allegory as having a ''reality'' underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as superficial facts. Thus, the bull ''[[Unam Sanctam]]'' (1302) presents themes of the unity of [[Christendom]] with the pope as its head in which the allegorical details of the metaphors are adduced as ''actual facts'' which take the place of a logical demonstration, employing the vocabulary of logic: "''Therefore'' of this one and only Church there is one body and one head—not two heads as if it were a monster... If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they ''necessarily'' confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ" [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Unam_sanctam (complete text)].
In the late 15th century, the enigmatic ''[[Hypnerotomachia]]'', with its elaborate woodcut illustrations, shows the influence of themed pageants and [[masque]]s on contemporary allegorical representation, as [[Renaissance humanism|humanist dialectic]] conveyed them.
Some elaborate and successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the following works, arranged in approximately chronological order:
* [[Aesop]] &ndash; ''[[Aesop's Fables| Fables]]''
* [[Plato]] &ndash; ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'' (''[[Plato's allegory of the cave]]'')
* [[Plato]] &ndash; ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' (''[[Chariot Allegory]]'')
* ''[[Book of Revelation]]'' (for allegory in Christian theology, see [[typology (theology)]])
* [[Martianus Capella]] &ndash; ''De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii''
* ''[[The Romance of the Rose]]''
* [[William Langland]] &ndash; ''[[Piers Plowman]]''
*[[Pearl (poem)|Pearl]]
* [[Dante Alighieri]] &ndash; ''[[The Divine Comedy]]''
* [[Edmund Spenser]] &ndash; ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''
* [[John Bunyan]] &ndash; ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]''
* [[Jean de La Fontaine]] &ndash; ''Fables''
* [[Jonathan Swift]] &ndash; ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]''
* [[Joseph Addison]] &ndash; ''Vision of Mirza''
* [[Edgar Allan Poe]] &ndash; ''[[The Masque of the Red Death]]''
Modern allegories in fiction tend to operate under constraints of modern requirements for [[verisimilitude]] within conventional expectations of [[realism (arts)|realism]]. Works of fiction with strong allegorical overtones include:
* [[William Golding]] &ndash; ''[[Lord of the Flies (novel)|Lord of the Flies]]''
* [[George Orwell]] &ndash; ''[[Animal Farm]]''
* [[Arthur Miller]] &ndash; ''[[The Crucible]]''
* [[Philip Pullman]] &ndash; ''[[His Dark Materials]]''
* [[Hualing Nieh]] &ndash; ''[[Mulberry and Peach]]''
* [[David Lindsay (novelist)|David Linday]] &ndash; ''A Voyage to Arcturus'
Where some requirements of "realism", in its flexible meanings, are set aside, allegory can come more strongly to the surface, as in the work of [[Bertold Brecht]] or [[Franz Kafka]] on one hand, or on the other in science fiction and fantasy, where an element of universal application and allegorical overtones are common, from ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' to ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''.
Allegorical films include:
* [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (movie)|Metropolis]]''
* [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s ''[[The Seventh Seal]]''
* ''[[El Topo]]'' etc.
Allegorical artworks include:
* [[Sandro Botticelli]] &ndash; ''La Primavera (Allegory of Spring)''
* [[Albrecht Dürer]] &ndash; ''[[Melancholia I]]''
* [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] &ndash; ''Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting''; ''Allegory of Inclination''
* [[Jan Vermeer]] &ndash; ''The Allegory of Painting''
==See also==
*[[Allegory in the Middle Ages]]
*[[Allegorical sculpture]]
*[[Roman à clef]]
==External links==
*[http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/allegory.html Good brief definition of Allegory]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-07 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Allegory in Literary history
*[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V1N5/levis.html ''Electronic Antiquity'', Richard Levis, "Allegory and the ''Eclogues''"] Roman definitions of ''allegoria'' and interpreting Vergil's ''[[Eclogue]]s''.
==Further reading==
*[[Northrop Frye|Frye, Northrop]], 1957. ''[[Anatomy of Criticism]]''
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[cs:Alegorie]]
[[da:Allegori]]
[[de:Allegorie]]
[[es:Alegoría]]
[[eo:Alegorio]]
[[fr:Allégorie]]
[[gl:Alegoría]]
[[io:Alegorio]]
[[ia:Allegoria]]
[[it:Allegoria]]
[[he:אלגוריה]]
[[hu:Allegória]]
[[nl:Allegorie (letterkunde)]]
[[no:Allegori]]
[[nn:Allegori]]
[[pl:Alegoria]]
[[sk:Inotaj]]
[[sv:Allegori]]
[[uk:Алегорія]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amazon river</title>
<id>1838</id>
<revision>
<id>15900301</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amazon River]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Allotropy</title>
<id>1839</id>
<revision>
<id>41612128</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:35:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.165.43.10|207.165.43.10]] ([[User talk:207.165.43.10|talk]]) to last version by Chobot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{Sections}}
[[Image:Allotropy.jpg|thumb|right|Example of allotropic materials: graphite vs. Diamond]]
'''Allotropy''' (Gr. ''allos'', other, and ''tropos'', manner), a name
applied by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] to the property possessed by certain
substances of existing in forms with different chemical structures; the various forms are known as ''allotropes''. Jöns Jakob Berzelius used the name in an entirely different sense (see Macmillan Encyclopedia of Chemistry, edited by J.J.Lagowski, 1997, Simon Schuster).
Some classic examples of elements that have allotropes are [[phosphorus]] (in "red", "white", "purple" etc. forms), [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>, [[ozone|O<sub>3</sub>]], and [[tetraoxygen|O<sub>4</sub>]]) and [[carbon]] (in the form of [[graphite]], [[diamond]], [[fullerenes]], and others - see [[allotropes of carbon]]). The term allotropes may also be used to refer to the molecular forms of an element (such as a diatomic gas), even if there is only one such additional form.
[[Sulfur]] is an additional example of an element with several allotropic forms. Amorphous (plastic sulfur) is produced by quickly cooling the crystalline form, generating helical structure with eight atoms per spiral.
Allotropy specifically refers to the chemical bond structure between atoms of the same kind and should not be confused with the existence of [[phases of matter|multiple physical states]], such as with [[water]], which can exist as a [[gas]] ([[steam]]), a [[liquid]] (water), or a [[solid]] ([[ice]]). These phases of water are not allotropes, since they are caused by changes in the physical bonding between water molecules, rather than changes in the chemical bonding of the water molecules themselves. Allotropes of an element can be in any state, gaseous, liquid, or solid.
Allotropy usually refers to pure elemental solids, while [[allotropy|polymorphism]] may refer to elemental solids or more generally to any material having multiple crystal structures.
As can be seen with the example of carbon allotropes, certain physical properties can vary dramatically from allotrope to allotrope. In diamond, carbon [[atom]]s are connected each to four other carbon atoms in a [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] lattice structure, whereas in graphite, each carbon atom is firmly bonded to just three other carbon atoms in [[hexagon]]al sheets. These hexagonal sheets are then more loosely coupled to one another in stacks. The structure of fullerenes (a [[carbon]] allotrope found in [[soot]]) resembles that of graphite, except that instead of hexagons of carbon atoms, smaller regular [[polygon]]s are formed, such as a mix of hexagons and [[pentagon]]s, such that the sheet can fold back onto itself into closed [[spheroid]]s, as with the seams of a [[soccer]] ball.
Allotropes not only show dramatic differences in physical properties but also
show differences in chemical properties. Graphite can be oxidized by [[nitric acid]] to give compounds related to [[benzene]] whereas diamond does not give compounds related to benzene.
==See also==
*[[Tin pest]]
*[[Allotropes of carbon]]
[[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]
[[ar:تآصل]]
[[ca:Al·lotropia]]
[[de:Allotropie]]
[[et:Allotroopia]]
[[es:Alotropía]]
[[eo:Alotropo]]
[[fr:Allotropie]]
[[ko:동소체]]
[[is:Fjölgervi]]
[[it:Allotropia]]
[[he:אלוטרופיה] |
s for elementals installed. The minor bosses are a ''Wolf-Man'' and a ''Bear-Man''; at deeper levels, the player fights the four giant kings, followed by the '''Demon Lord [[Surtur]]'''.
The buildings in the town are:
*A central keep, where the [[Jarl]] will not admit the player at first, but will provide advice and two enchanted items after specific bosses are killed.
*'''The Temple of Odin''', '''Olaf's Junk Store''', a '''sage''' and the '''First [[Bank]] of Crossroads'''.
*Ten merchants.
*A number of [[apartment]] buildings, mansions and a very large fountain.
{{endspoiler}}
==Other features==
The game keeps track of how much time has been spent in the game. Although story events are not triggered by time, it does determine when merchants change their stock. Also, victorious players are listed on the "[[Valhalla]]'s Champions" list in order of time taken (with the fastest wins listed first). Typical winning times
may be a few dozen days for the First part of the game, and
perhaps up to one or two hundred days for the Second part.
This game is much more suitable for children than most roguelikes.
It is simple to learn and fun to play.
==Graphics==
All terrain tiles, some landscape features, all monsters and objects, and some spell/effect graphics take the form of Windows icons. A tile is thus the size of an icon, 32 [[pixels]] square. This means that they can be applied to shortcuts, if desired, with no extraction process.
Multi-tile graphics, such as ball spells and town buildings, are bitmaps included in the executable file.
No graphics use colours other than the Windows standard 16-colour palette (plus transparent). They exist in monochrome versions as well, meaning that the game runs well even on monochrome monitors.
The map view is identical to the playing-field view, except for being scaled to fit on one screen. (This actually ''increases'' the size of some levels on high resolution screens.) A simplified map view is available to improve performance on even slower computers.
==References==
<references />
==External links==
{{wikibookspar||Castle of the Winds}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://vengeance.et.tudelft.nl/cow/ Unofficial ''Castle of the Winds'' Homepage], archived in the Wayback Machine. Broken in several places; would anyone like to adopt and fix it?
* [http://wind.prohosting.com/cotwrpg/index.html The Temple of Odin], another ''Castle'' site with downloads of the game available
* [http://www.castleofthewinds.cjb.net Castle of the Winds], a Castle of the Winds website.
* [http://www.digital-eel.com/deep.htm Part I and Part II in one zip file for easy download].
[[Category:Roguelikes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calvinism</title>
<id>6024</id>
<revision>
<id>41955959</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:41:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiki14840</username>
<id>990264</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Calvinism}}
'''Calvinism''' is a system of [[Christian theology]] and an approach to Christian life and thought, articulated by [[John Calvin]], a [[Protestant Reformation|Protestant Reformer]] in the [[16th century]], and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin and his interpretation of Scripture. The '''Reformed tradition''' is referred to by the roughly equivalent term ''Calvinism''.
The Reformed tradition was originally advanced by stalwarts such as [[Martin Bucer]], [[Heinrich Bullinger]] and [[Peter Martyr Vermigli]], and also influenced English reformers such as [[Thomas Cranmer]] and [[John Jewel]]. However, because of Calvin's great influence and role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the seventeenth century, this [[Reformed]] movement generally became known as [[Calvinism]]. Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the [[Reformed churches]], of which Calvin was an early leader. Though it is often over-emphasized by its detractors, Calvinism is perhaps best known for its doctrines of [[Predestination (Calvinism)|predestination]] and [[Unconditional election|election]]. In the area of [[soteriology]] Calvinism stands in contrast to [[Arminianism]].
==Historical background==
[[John Calvin]]'s international influence on the development of the doctrine of the [[Protestant]] [[Reformation]] began at the age of 25, when he started work on his first edition of the ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'' in [[1534]] (published [[1536]]). This work underwent a number of revisions in his lifetime, including an impressive French vernacular translation. Through it and together with his polemical and pastoral works, his contributions to confessional documents for use in churches, and a massive collection of commentaries on the Bible, Calvin had a direct personal influence on Protestantism. But he is only one of many, although eventually the most prominent influence, on the doctrine of the Reformed churches.
The rising importance of the Reformed churches, and of Calvin, belongs to the second phase of the [[Protestant Reformation]], when evangelical churches began to form after [[Martin Luther|Luther]] was excommunicated from the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Calvin was a French exile in [[Geneva]]. He had signed the Lutheran [[Augsburg confession]] in [[1540]] but his influence was first felt in the Swiss Reformation, which was not Lutheran, but rather followed [[Huldrych Zwingli]]. It became evident early on that doctrine in the [[Reformed churches]] was developing in a direction independent of [[Martin Luther|Luther]]'s, under the influence of numerous writers and reformers, among whom Calvin eventually became pre-eminent. Much later, when his fame was attached to the Reformed churches, their whole body of doctrine came to be called ''Calvinism''.
===The spreading of Calvinism===
Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly reformed church to many parts of Europe. [[Calvinism]] became the theological system of the majority in [[Scotland]] (see [[John Knox]]), the [[Netherlands]], and parts of [[Germany]] and was influential in [[France]], [[Hungary]] (especially in [[Transylvania]]) and [[Poland]].
Most settlers in the [[United States|American]] Mid-Atlantic and [[New England]] were Calvinists, including the [[Puritan]]s and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York). Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of [[South Africa]], beginning in the [[17th century]], who became known as [[Boer]]s or [[Afrikaners]].
[[Sierra Leone]] was largely colonised by Calvinist settlers from [[Nova Scotia]], who were largely [[Black Loyalists]], blacks who had fought for the [[British Empire|British]] during the [[American War of Independence]]. [[John Marrant]] had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the [[Huntingdon Connection]].
Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century]] [[missionary|missionaries]]; especially large are those in [[Korea]] and [[Nigeria]].
==General description==
[[Image:Interior of a Church.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Calvinism has been known at times for its simple, unadorned churches and lifestyles, as depicted in this painting by [[Emmanuel de Witte]] where the 17th century congregation stands to hear a sermon.]]
Given that its present form has multiple main tributaries, the name "Calvinism" is somewhat misleading if taken to imply that every major feature of the doctrine of the "Calvinist churches", or of all Calvinist movements, can be found in the writings of Calvin. Others are often credited with as much of a final formative influence on what is now called ''Calvinism'' as Calvin himself had: for example Calvin's successor [[Theodore Beza]], the Dutch theologian [[Franciscus Gomarus]], the founder of the [[Presbyterian church]], [[John Knox]], and any number of later writers such as the English Baptist [[John Bunyan]], the American [[Jonathan Edwards]], or neo-orthodox theologians like [[Karl Barth]].
But there is a simple central issue in ''Calvinism'' that often serves to represent the whole, and that is a particular [[soteriology]] (doctrine of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation#Protestantism|Salvation]]), which emphasizes that man is incapable of adding anything from himself to obtain salvation, and that God alone is the initiator at every stage of salvation, including the formation of faith and every decision to follow Christ. This doctrine was definitively formulated and codified during the [[Synod of Dort]] (1618-1619), which rejected the alternate system known as [[Arminianism]].
Calvinism is sometimes called "Augustinianism" because the central issues of Calvinistic soteriology were articulated by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] in his dispute with the [[Great Britain|British]] [[monk]] [[Pelagius]]. In contrast to the free-will decisionism advocated by [[Charles Finney]] and other dissenters, Calvinism places strong emphasis not only on the abiding goodness of the original creation, but also on the total ruin of man's accomplishments and the frustration of the whole creation caused by sin, and therefore views salvation as a new creating work of God rather than an achievement of those who are saved from sin and death.
More broadly, "Calvinism" is virtually synonymous with "Reformed Protestantism", encompassing the whole body of doctrine taught by [[Reformed churches]]. In addition to maintaining a Calvinist soteriology, one of the more important features of this system is "the [[regulative principle of worship]]" &mdash; which in principle rejects any form of worship not explicitly instituted for the early church in the [[Holy Bible]].
==Summaries of Calvinist |
age>
<title>Horse breeds</title>
<id>14066</id>
<revision>
<id>15911644</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-29T09:40:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hendrick Avercamp</title>
<id>14067</id>
<revision>
<id>40278946</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T13:23:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sparkit</username>
<id>194762</id>
</contributor>
<comment>commonscat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SCENEONICE.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Fun on the ice]]
'''Hendrick Avercamp''', ([[1585]] - [[May 15]], [[1634]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] painter.
Born in [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]] he was baptized on [[January 27]], [[1585]].
He was [[deaf]] and known as "de Stomme van Kampen" (the mute of Kampen). For his artistic training, Hendrick was sent to Amsterdam to study with the Danish portrait painter [[Pieter Isaacks]] (1569-1625).
As one of the first landscape painters of the 17th-century Dutch school, he specialized in painting The Netherlands in winter. Avercamp paintings are colorful and lively, with carefully crafted images of the people in the landscape.
Avercamp's work enjoyed great popularity and he sold his drawings, many of which were tinted with water-color, as finished pictures to be pasted into the albums of collectors. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] has an outstanding collection of his works at [[Windsor Castle]], [[England]].
Hendrick Avercamp died in [[Kampen, Netherlands|Kampen]], [[the Netherlands]] and was interred in the Sint Nicolaaskerk in Kampen.
On [[March 26]] [[2004]] a Grand Café, carrying Avercamp's name, opened her doors. The Grand Café is a salute to the early 17th-century painter and the walls are decorated with a couple reproductions of Hendrick Avercamp.
[[Image:Hendrick_Avercamp.JPG|left|frame|Winter Scene on a Canal]]
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Hendrick Avercamp}}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/avercamp/ Avercamp at the WebMuseum]
[[Category:1585 births|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[Category:1634 deaths|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[Category:Dutch painters|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[Category:Dutch Golden Age painters|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[cs:Hendrick Avercamp]]
[[de:Hendrick Avercamp]]
[[fr:Hendrick Avercamp]]
[[nl:Hendrick Avercamp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hans Baldung</title>
<id>14068</id>
<revision>
<id>41063959</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:51:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.129.42.204</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baldung Woman.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Three Ages of the Woman and the Death'' [[1510]] <br> Oil on limewood,48 x 32,5 cm <br> [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], [[Vienna]] ]]
'''Hans Baldung''' or '''Hans Baldung Grien/Grün''' (c. [[1480]] - [[1545]]). [[Germany|German]] ([[Alsace|Alsatian]]) [[Renaissance]] artist. He was considered the most gifted student of [[Albrecht Dürer]].
He was born at [[Schwäbisch Gmünd|Gmünd]] in [[Swabia]], and spent the greater part of his life at [[Strasbourg|Strassburg]] and [[Freiburg im Breisgau]].
The earliest pictures assigned to him are altar-pieces with the monogram '''H. B.''' interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near [[Baden-Baden]]. Another early work is a portrait of the [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|emperor Maximilian]], drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at [[Karlsruhe]]. "The Martyrdom of St Sebastian and the Epiphany" (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for the market-church of [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]] in Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, when he moved to Freiburg im Breisgau. There he began a series of large compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom of Strassburg in 1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a member of its great town council 1545.
Though nothing is known of Grün's youth and education, it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which Dürer was the chief. Gmünd is but 50 miles distant on either side from Augsburg and Nüremberg. Grün's prints were often mistaken for those of Dürer; and Dürer himself was well acauainted with Grün's woodcuts and copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands (1520). But Grün's prints, though Düreresque, are far below Dürer, and his paintings are below his prints.
Without absolute correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and baroque. Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade. Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines.
His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. We may pass lightly over the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the "Stoning of Stephen" of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force in the "Dance of Death" of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the Madonna of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grün's best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the Coronation of the Virgin, and the Twelve Apostles, the Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight into Egypt, and the Crucifixion, with portraits of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which [[Martin Schön]] bequeathed to the Swabian school.
As a portrait painter he is well known. He drew the likeness of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], as well as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden, as early as 1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at Karlsruhe. Like Dürer and [[Lucas Cranach the Elder|Cranach]], Grün became a hearty supporter of the Reformation. He was present at the [[diet of Augsburg]] in 1518, and one of his woodcuts represents [[Martin Luther|Luther]] under the protection of the Holy Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.
See also: [[Early Renaissance painting]]
==External links==
{{commonscat|Hans Baldung}}
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/baldung/ Biography and examples of work at the <nowiki>"WebMuseum"</nowiki> by Nicolas Pioch]
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/B/baldung/baldungbio.html Biography and examples of work at "Olga's gallery"]
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/B/baldung/baldung.html Works]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02220b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
[[Category:1480 births|Baldung, Hans]]
[[Category:1545 deaths|Baldung, Hans]]
[[Category:German painters|Baldung, Hans]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Baldung, Hans]]
[[de:Hans Baldung]]
[[fr:Hans Baldung]]
[[gl:Hans Baldung]]
[[it:Hans Baldung]]
[[pl:Hans Baldung]]
[[pt:Hans Baldung]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>How can I build a Wiki of my own</title>
<id>14069</id>
<revision>
<id>15911647</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T11:37:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wiki]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hammered dulcimer</title>
<id>14070</id>
<revision>
<id>39174384</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T05:28:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.144.144.164</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>m</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MasterworksHammeredDulcimer.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hammered dulcimers have two or sometimes three bridges, and are played by striking the strings with small "hammers". The hammers are sometimes covered with leather to create a softer sound.]]
The '''hammered dulcimer''' is a [[string instrument|stringed]] [[musical instrument]] with the strings stretched over a [[trapezoid]]al sounding board. The instrument is typically set at an angle on a stand in front of the musician, who holds a [[hammer]] in either hand with which to strike the strings (for the plucked Appalachian dulcimer, see [[Appalachian dulcimer]]). The hammered dulcimer comes in various sizes, identified by the number of strings that cross each of the bridges. A 15/14, for example, has two bridges and spans three [[octave|octaves]].
Versions of this instrument have been used throughout the world. In Eastern Europe a larger descendant of the hammered dulcimer called the [[cimbalom]] is played and has been used by a number of [[European classical music|classical]] [[composer]]s, including [[Zoltán Kodály]] and [[Igor Stravinsky]], and more recently by [[Blue Man Group]]. The [[khim]] is a [[Thailand|Thai]] hammered dulcimer. The [[China|Chinese]] [[yangqin]] is a type of hammered dulcimer that originated in [[Iran|Persia]]. The [[Santur]] and [[Sant |
' (1845)]]
==The Druidic Revival==
In the [[18th century]], England and Wales experienced a revival of interest in the Druids, inspired by the antiquaries [[John Aubrey]], [[John Toland]] and [[William Stukeley]]. The poet [[William Blake]] was involved in the revival and may have been an Archdruid; the [[Ancient Druid Order]], which existed from 1717 until it split into two groups in 1964, never used the title "Archdruid" for any member but credited Blake as having been its Chosen Chief from 1799 to 1827.
John Aubrey was the first modern writer to connect [[Stonehenge]] and other [[megalith|megalithic monuments]] with Druidry, a misconception that shaped ideas of Druidry during much of the 19th century. Some modern Druidry enthusiasts claim Aubrey was an archdruid in possession of an uninterrupted tradition of Druidic knowledge, even though Aubrey, an uninhibited collector of lore and gossip, never entered a corroborating word in his voluminous surviving notebooks. [[John Toland]] was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. Toland founded the Ancient Druid Order in [[London]] in [[1717]]; interestingly enough, modern Freemasonry was founded in the same year and the same location, Covent Garden's Apple Tree Tavern.
Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of [[Romanticism]]. [[François-René de Chateaubriand|Chateaubriand]]'s novel ''Les Martyrs'' (1809) narrated the doomed love of a Druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over pagan Druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. Opera provides a barometer of well-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: in 1817 [[Giovanni Pacini]] brought Druids to the stage in Trieste with an opera to a libretto by [[Felice Romani]] about a Druid priestess, ''La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul'' ("The Priestess of [[Irminsul]]"). The most famous Druidic opera,[[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]'s ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]'' was a fiasco at [[La Scala]], when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831, but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto [[Felice Romani]] reused some of the pseudo-Druidical background of ''La Sacerdotessa'' to provide color to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty that was related to [[Medea]], as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by [[Alexandre Soumet]]: the ''diva'' of ''Norma'''s hit aria, "Casta Diva", is the moon goddess, being worshipped in the "grove of the [[Irmin]] statue".
In the 19th, some dubious figures arose with outlandish claims and forged documents they claimed were historical. A central figure in this Druidic reinvention, inspired by [[Henry Hurle]], is Edward Williams, better known as [[Iolo Morganwg]]. His writings, published posthumously as ''The Iolo Manuscripts'' ([[1848]]) and ''Barddas'' ([[1862]]), are not considered credible by contemporary Druidic movements because it has become impossible to distinguish Williams' inventions from the genuine material. Williams claimed to have collected ancient knowledge in a "[[Gorsedd]] of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. Many scholars deem part or all of Williams's work to be fabrication, and purportedly many of the documents are of his own fabrication, but a large portion of the work has indeed been collected from meso-pagan sources dating from as far back as 600 A.D. Regardless, it has become impossible to seperate the original source material from the fabricated work, and the documents are considered irrelevant by most serious scholars.
An unfortunate result of the reinvention, which took place, ironically, just as modern archaeological and historical methods were being developed, is that it has shaped public perceptions of historical Druidry and continues to shape some modern forms of it. The [[British Museum]] website is suitably blunt:
:"Modern Druids have no direct connection to the Druids of the Iron Age. Many of our popular ideas about the Druids are based on the misunderstandings and misconceptions of scholars 200 years ago. These ideas have been superseded by later study and discoveries" [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/].
== Modern Druidism ==
{{Main|Neo-druidism}}
[[Image:Druids, in the early morning glow of the sun.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Modern druids in the early morning glow of the sun]]
Some strands of modern Druidism (a.k.a. Modern Druidry), such as the [[Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids]] (OBOD), are a continuation of the 18th-century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and later. Members may be [[Neo-Pagan]], [[Christian]], or non-specifically spiritual (monotheistic or polytheistic).
Other strands could be classified as eclectic neo-paganism, and may mix elements from other cultures such as [[Shamanism]] and Native American; they are typically more interested in modern experience than in scholarship.
A third strand, more akin to Celtic Reconstructionism, rejects the 18th-century revival entirely and tracks the latest scholarship on the relatively sparse Roman and early medieval written sources, archaeology, and comparative linguistics in an attempt to get as close as possible to Ancient Druidry.
Modern Druidism has two strands, the cultural and the religious. Cultural Druids hold a competition of poetry, literature and music known as the [[Eisteddfod]] amongst the Celtic peoples (Welsh, Irish, Cornish, Breton, etc).
It is not always easy to distinguish between the two strands, because religiously-oriented Druid orders may welcome members of any or no religious background while culturally-oriented orders may not inquire about the religious beliefs of members. Both types of Druid order, then, may contain both religiously-oriented and non-religiously oriented members. Many notable Britons have been initiated into Druidic orders, including [[Winston Churchill]]. Churchill's case illustrates the difficulty of distinguishing between the two strands, because historians are not even certain which order he joined, the [[Ancient Order of Druids]] or the [[Ancient and Archaeological Order of Druids]], let alone for what purpose he joined.
Fragments of a [[Celtic calendar|Druidic Lunar Calendar]] may be preserved in the [[Coligny calendar]], fragments of a calendar engraved on a bronze tablet, discovered in 1897.
==Further reading==
*S. Piggott, 1975. ''The Druids'' (London, Thames and Hudson)
* [http://earth-sea-and-sky.tripod.com/miranda.html Miranda J. Aldhouse-Green,1997]. ''Exploring the World of the Druids''
(London, Thames and Hudson)
*A.P. Fitzpatrick, 199. ''Who were the Druids?'' (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson)
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/rac/index.htm The Religion of the Ancient Celts] by J. A. MacCulloch (1911)
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/idr/index.htm Irish Druids And Old Irish Religions] by James Bonwick (1894)
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/motd/motd.htm ''The Veil of Isis; Or, Mysteries of the Druids''] by W. Winwood Reade (1861)
* [http://druidwiki.org/ DruidWiki.org] The DruidWiki offers an opportunity to investigate the feasibility and practicality of providing an oral-like communication mechanism for collaborative projects within the Druid community, using Wiki technology and principles.
* [http://druidnetwork.org/ The Druid Network] The aim of The Druid Network is to be a source of information and inspiration about the modern Druid tradition, Druidic practice and the history of Druidry.
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Druidism}}
*[http://realmagick.com/articles/05/1305.html John Patrick Parle, "Story of the Celts"] - a simple introduction
*[http://www.lugodoc.demon.co.uk/Druids/DRUIDS.htm Lugodoc's Guide to Druids]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/graphics/bl_druids.htm Images of Druids]
*[http://www.delteatro.it/hdoc/result_opera.asp?idopera=1518 ''Dizionario dell'Opera'']
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Druidry]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Shamanism]]
[[ca:Druida]]
[[da:Druide]]
[[de:Druide]]
[[es:Druida]]
[[fr:Druide]]
[[gl:Druída]]
[[io:Druidismo]]
[[it:Druido]]
[[he:דרואידיות]]
[[lt:Druidai]]
[[nl:Druïde]]
[[ja:ドルイド]]
[[no:Druide]]
[[pl:Druid]]
[[pt:Druida]]
[[ru:Друиды]]
[[sv:Druid]]
[[zh:德魯伊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Device driver</title>
<id>9101</id>
<revision>
<id>41621346</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:01:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ok.book.guy</username>
<id>1006217</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Virtual device drivers changed Host to Guest */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''device driver,''' often called a '''driver''' for short, is a [[computer program]] that enables another program, typically an [[operating system|operating system (OS)]], to interact with a [[computer hardware|hardware device]].
==Device driver philosophy==
The key design goal of device drivers is [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]]. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently.
Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, OSes essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these OS mandated [[function_(programming)|function calls]] into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver will ensure that the device appears |
h; with about a thousand Friends in prison by 1657 &mdash; hardened George Fox's opinions of traditional religious and social practices. In his preaching, he often emphasised the Quaker rejection of [[baptism]] by water; this was a useful way of highlighting how the focus of Friends on inward transformation differed from what he saw as the superstition of outward ritual. It was also deliberately provocative to adherents of those practices, providing opportunities for Fox to argue with them on matters of scripture. This pattern was also found in his court appearances: when a judge challenged him to remove his hat, Fox riposted by asking where in the Bible such an injunction could be found.
The Society of Friends became increasingly organised towards the end of the decade. Large meetings were held, including a three-day event in Bedfordshire, the precursor of the present [[Britain Yearly Meeting]] system. Fox also commissioned two Friends to travel around the country collecting the testimonies of imprisoned Quakers, as evidence of their persecution; this led to the establishment in 1675 of [[Meeting for Sufferings]], which has been in continuing existence to the present day. <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[#References|QFP]] &sect;7<nowiki>]</nowiki>
=== The Restoration ===
With the [[English Restoration|restoration of the monarchy]], the fate of the Quakers was uncertain. George Fox was again accused of conspiracy, this time against [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], and fanaticism &mdash; a charge he resented. Once again, Fox was released after demonstrating that he had no military ambitions. During imprisonment in Lancaster, he even wrote to the king offering advice on governance: Charles should refrain from war and domestic religious persecution, and discourage oath-taking, [[play]]s, and [[maypole]] games. These last suggestions reveal Fox's [[Puritan]] leanings, which continued to influence Quakers for centuries after his death.
At least on one point, Charles listened to George Fox. The seven hundred Quakers who had been imprisoned under [[Richard Cromwell]] were released, though the government remained uncertain about the group's links with other, more violent, movements. A 1661 revolt by the [[Fifth Monarchy men]] led to the suppression of that sect and the repression of other [[Nonconformism|nonconformists]], including Quakers [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch14.html].
Meanwhile, Quakers in [[New England]] had been banished, and Charles was advised by his councillors to issue a [[mandamus]] condemning this practice and allowing them to return. George Fox was able to meet some of the New England Friends when they came to London, stimulating his interest in the [[Colonial America|colonies]]. Fox was unable to travel there immediately: he was imprisoned again in 1663 for his refusal to swear oaths, and on his release in 1666 was preoccupied with organizational matters &mdash; he normalized the system of monthly and quarterly meetings throughout the country, and extended it to [[Ireland]].
Visiting Ireland also gave him the opportunity to preach against what he saw as the excesses of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], in particular the use of ritual. More recent Quaker commentators have noted points of contact between the denominations: both claim the actual presence of God in their meetings, and both allow the collective opinion of the church to augment Biblical teaching. Fox, however, did not perceive this, brought up as he was in a wholly [[Protestantism|Protestant]] environment hostile to "Popery". He was also more strict in his reliance on the Bible than most of his followers.
In 1669 Fox married [[Margaret Fell]] of [[Swarthmoor Hall]], [[Swarthmoor]], a lady of high social position, and one of his early converts. Her husband Thomas Fell had died in 1658, and she had been imprisoned in Lancaster alongside Fox for several years. Their shared religious work was at the heart of their life together, and they later collaborated on a great deal of the administration the Society required.
=== Travels in America and Europe ===
In 1671 he went to [[Barbados]] and the English settlements in America, where he remained two years. Fox's first landfall on the [[North America|North American continent]] was at [[Maryland]], where he participated in a four-day meeting of local Quakers. He remained there while various of his English companions travelled to the other colonies, because he wished to meet with some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] who were interested in Quaker ways &mdash; though he records that they had "a great debate" among themselves about whether to participate in the meeting. Fox was impressed by their general demeanour, which he said was "loving" and "respectful" [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch18.html].
Elsewhere in the colonies, Fox helped to establish organizational systems for the Friends there, along the same lines as he had done in Britain. He also preached to many non-Quakers, some of whom were converted; others, including Ranters and some Catholics, were unconvinced. He did not seem to mind this so much as he resented the suggestion (from a man in [[North Carolina]]) that "the Light and Spirit of God ... was not in the Indians", a proposition which Fox refuted [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch18.html#gf18i].
[[Image:AmsterdamDamsquar.jpg|thumb|right|Fox established a Yearly Meeting in [[Amsterdam]] for Friends in the Netherlands and German states.]]
Following extensive travels around the various American colonies, George Fox returned to England in 1673. He was soon imprisoned again, and his health began to suffer. Margaret Fell petitioned the king for his release; this took place, but Fox felt too weak to take up his travels immediately. He compensated by increasing his written output: letters, both public and private, as well as books and essays. Much of his energy was devoted to the topic of oaths, having become convinced of its importance to Quaker ideas. By refusing to swear, he felt that he could bear witness to the value of truth in everyday life, as well as to God, who he associated with truth and the [[inner light]].
In 1677 and 1684 he visited the Friends in [[the Netherlands]], and organized their meetings for discipline. He also made a brief visit to what is now [[Germany]]. Meanwhile, Fox was participating by letter in a dispute among Friends in Britain over the role of women in meetings, a struggle which took much of his energy and left him feeling exhausted. Returning to England, he stayed in the south in order to try to end the dispute. Fox's health became worse towards the end of 1684, but he continued his new, more restricted form of activities &mdash; writing to leaders in [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Denmark]], Germany, and elsewhere about his beliefs, and their treatment of Quakers.
In the last years of his life, Fox continued to participate in Yearly Meetings, and still made representations to Parliament about the sufferings of Friends. The 1689 [[Act of Toleration]] put an end to the uniformity laws under which Quakers had been persecuted, and in that year many Friends were released from prison.
<!-- don't delete this tag. See [[Wikipedia:Extended_image_syntax#Cancelling floating-around-image mode]] -->
<br style="clear:both;"/>
== Death and legacy ==
George Fox died on [[January 13]], [[1691]], and was interred in the Quaker Burying Ground at [[Bunhill Fields]] in [[London]].
His journal was first published in 1694, after editing by [[Thomas Ellwood]] &mdash; a friend of [[John Milton]] &mdash; and [[William Penn]]. As a religious autobiography, it has been compared to such works as [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s ''[[Confessions (book)|Confessions]]'' and [[John Bunyan]]'s ''Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners'' &mdash; an intensely personal work that nevertheless succeeds in appealing to readers. It has also been used by historians because of its wealth of detail on ordinary life in the 17th century, and the many towns and villages which Fox visited.
Hundreds of Fox's letters &mdash; mostly epistles intended for wide circulation, along with a few private communications &mdash; have also been published. Written from the 1650s onwards, with such titles as ''Friends, seek the peace of all men'' or ''To Friends, to know one another in the light'', the letters give enormous insight into the detail of Fox's beliefs, and show his determination to spread them. These writings have found an audience beyond Quakers, with many other church groups using them to illustrate principles of Christianity.
Fox is described by Ellwood as "graceful in countenance, manly in personage, grave in gesture, courteous in conversation." Penn says he was "civil beyond all forms of breeding." We are told that he was "plain and powerful in preaching, fervent in prayer," "a discerner of other men's spirits, and very much master of his own," skilful to "speak a word in due season to the conditions and capacities of most, especially to them that were weary, and wanted soul's rest;" "valiant in asserting the truth, bold in defending it, patient in suffering for it, immovable as a rock." <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[#References|1694 Journal]] front matter<nowiki>]</nowiki>
Fox's influence on the Society of Friends was of course tremendous, and his beliefs have largely been carried forward by that group. Not all of his beliefs were welcome to all Quakers, however; his Puritan-like opposition to the arts, and rejection of [[theology|theological]] study, prevented the development of these practices among Quakers for some time. The name of George Fox is often invoked by traditionalist Friends who dislike liberal attitudes to the Socie |
rule in England
|-
|'''1050'''
|The Norwegian King [[Harald Hardrada]] destroys Hedeby
|-
|'''1066'''
|Final destruction of Hedeby by a Slavic army.
|-
|'''1066'''
|Traditional end of the [[Viking Age]]
|}
===Origins===
Hedeby is first mentioned in the Frankish chronicles of [[Einhard]] ([[804]]) who was in the service of [[Charlemagne]],
but was probably founded around [[770]]. In [[808]] the Danish king [[Gudfred|Godfred]] (Lat. Godofredus) destroyed a competing [[Slavic peoples|Slav]] trade centre namied Reric ([[Rerik]]) and it is recorded in the Frankish chronicles that he moved the merchants from there to Hedeby. This may have given the town of Hedeby its initial impetus to develop. The same sources record that Godfred strengthened the [[Danevirke]] earthen wall which stretched across the south of the Jutland peninsular. The [[Danevirke]] joined the defensive walls of Hedeby to form an east-west barrier across the peninsular, from the marshes in the West to the Schlei inlet leading into the Baltic in the East.
The town itself was surrounded on its three landward sides (north, west, and south) by earthworks. At the end of the 9th century the northern and southern parts of the town were abandoned for the central section. Later a 9-metre (29-ft) high semi-circular wall was erected to guard the western approaches to the town. On the eastern side, the town was bordered by the innermost part of the [[Schlei]] inlet and the bay of [[Haddebyer Noor]].
===Rise===
Hedeby became a principal marketplace because of its geographical location on the major trade routes between the [[Frankish Empire]] and [[Scandinavia]] (north-south), and between the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and the [[North Sea]] (east-west). Between [[800]] and [[1000]] the growing economic power of the [[Vikings]] led to its dramatic expansion as a major trading centre.
The following indicate the importance achieved by the town:
* The town was described by visitors from England ([[Wulfstan]] - 9th C.) and the Mediterranean ([[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]] - 10th C.).
* Hedeby became the seat of a bishop ([[948]]) and belonged to the Archbishopric of [[Hamburg]] and [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]].
* The town minted its own coins (from [[825]]?).
* [[Adam of Bremen]] (11th C.) reports that ships were sent from this ''portus maritimus'' to Slavic lands, to [[Sweden]], [[Samland]] (''Semlant'') and even [[Greece]].
A Swedish dynasty founded by [[Olof the Brash]] is said to have ruled Hedeby during the last decades of the [[9th century]] and the first part of the [[10th century]]. This was told to [[Adam of Bremen]] by the Danish king [[Sweyn Estridsson]], and it is supported by three [[runestones]] found in Denmark. Two of them were raised by the mother of Olof's grand-son [[Sigtrygg Gnupasson]]. The third runestone is from Hedeby, the ''Stone of Eric'' ([[Swedish language|Swedish]]: Erikstenen) and it was discovered in [[1796]], which shows [[Runic alphabet#Younger Fuþark|Norwegian-Swedish runes]]. It is, however, possible that Danes also occasionally wrote with this version of the [[Runic alphabet#Younger Fuþark|younger futhark]].
===Lifestyle===
Life was short and crowded in Hedeby. The small houses were clustered tightly together in a grid, with the east-west streets leading down to jetties in the harbour. People rarely lived beyond 30 or 40, and archaeological research shows that their latter years were often painful due to crippling diseases such as tuberculosis. Yet make-up for men and rights for women provide surprises to the modern understanding.
The Arab traveller Ibrahim [[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]] (late 10th C.) provides one of the most colourful and often quoted descriptions of life in Hedeby. Al-Tartushi was from [[Cordova]] in [[Spain]], which had a significantly more wealthy and comfortable lifestyle than Hedeby. While Hedeby may have been significant by Scandinavian standards, Al-Tartushi is unimpressed:
:''"Slesvig (Hedeby) is a very large town at the extreme end of the world ocean.... The inhabitants worship Sirius, except for a minority of Christians who have a church of their own there.... He who slaughters a sacrificial animal puts up poles at the door to his courtyard and impales the animal on them, be it a piece of cattle, a ram, billygoat or a pig so that his neighbors will be aware that he is making a sacrifice in honor of his god. The town is poor in goods and riches. People eat mainly fish which exist in abundance. Babies are thrown into the sea for reasons of economy. The right to divorce belongs to the women.... Artificial eye make-up is another peculiarity; when they wear it their beauty never disappears, indeed it is enhanced in both men and women. Further: Never did I hear singing fouler than that of these people, it is a rumbling emanating from their throats, similar to that of a dog but even more bestial."'' {{ref|tartushi}}
===Destruction===
The town was sacked in [[1050]] by King [[Harold Hardrada]] of Norway during the course of a conflict with King [[Sweyn II of Denmark|Sweyn II]] of Denmark. Aa Norwegian ''[[skald]]'', himself quoted by [[Snorri Sturluson]], describes the sack as follows:
:''Burnt in anger from end to end was Hedeby [..]''
:''High rose the flames from the houses when, before dawn, I stood upon the stronghold's arm''
After the sack of Hedeby by Harold, [[Slavs]] plundered and again destroyed the town in [[1066]]. The inhabitants then abandoned Hedeby and moved across the [[Schlei]] inlet to the town of [[Schleswig]].
==Archaeology==
===20th century excavations===
After the settlement was abandoned, rising waters contributed to the complete disappearance of all visible structures on the site. It was even forgotten where the settlement had been. This proved to be fortunate for later archaeological work at the site.
[[Image:Haithabu_Museum_WT2005.jpg|thumb|right|View of the Viking Museum]]
Archaeological work began at the site in [[1900]] after the rediscovery of the settlement. Excavations were conducted for the next 15 years. Further excavations were carried out between [[1930]] and [[1939]]. Archaeological work on the site was productive due to two main factors: that the site had never been built on since its destruction some 840 years earlier, and that the permanently waterlogged ground had preserved wood and other perishable materials. After the Second World War, in [[1959]] archaeological work was started again and has continued intermittently ever since. The embankments surrounding the settlement were excavated and a partial dredging of the harbour was carried out. The wreck of a [[Viking ship]] was discovered in the harbour during these latter excavations. Despite all this work, today only 5% of the settlement (and only 1% of the harbour) has actually been investigated.
The most important finds resulting from the excavations are now on display in the adjoining Hedeby Viking Museum.
===21st century reconstructions===
In [[2005]] an ambitious archaeological reconstruction programme was initiated on the original site. Based on the results of archaeological analyses, exact copies of some of the original Viking houses have been built.
==Notes==
# {{note|Ribe}} The oldest town in modern Denmark is [[Ribe]], first mentioned in [[854]].
# {{note|Elsner}} Research opinions on the naming issues differ slightly. The version given is based primarily on {{cite book | first = Hildegard | last = Elsner | year = 1989 | title = Wikinger Museum Haithabu: Schaufenster einer frühen Stadt | chapter = | editor = | others = | pages = | location = Neumünster | publisher = Wachholtz | id = | url = | authorlink = }}, p.13
# {{note|timeline}} The timeline is primarily based on Elsner, op.cit.
# {{note|Tartushi}} {{Web reference |author=Consulate General of Denmark in New York | title=Factsheet | work= | url=http://www.denmark.org/about_denmark/factsheets_articles/factsheets_vikings.html | date=January 14 | year=2006}}
==Bibliography and media==
* A number of short archaeological films relating to Hedeby and produced by researchers during the 1980's are available on DVD from the ''[http://www.uni-kiel.de/cinarchea/neu/dvd-e.htm University of Kiel's Archaelogical Film Project.]''
* The known publications on Hedeby are mainly in the German language. See ''[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haithabu Wikipedia's German-language article on Hedeby.]''
* {{cite book | first = Ole | last = Crumlin-Pedersen | year = 1997 | title = Viking-Age Ships and Shipbuilding in Hedeby/ Haithabu and Schleswig. Ships and Boats of the North 2. | chapter = | editor = | others = | pages = | publisher = Schleswig and Roskilde: Archaologisches Landesmuseum der Christian-Albrechts-Universitat, Wikinger Museum Haithabu, The National Museum of Denmark, and The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde | id = | url = | authorlink = }}
==See also==
* [[Viking Age]]
* Towns: [[Jelling]], [[Birka]], [[Ribe]], [[Schleswig]], [[Reric]]
* People: [[Wulfstan of Hedeby]], [[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]], [[Adam of Bremen]], [[Harold Hardrada]], [[Rurik]], [[Gudfred|Godfred (Danish King)]]
* [[Schlei]]
==External links==
*[http://genealogy.euweb.cz/scand/norway1.html Genealogy of the Haithabu rulers]
*[http://www.clandonald.org.uk/genealogy/d0000/g0000012.html#I1325 Genealogy of Haithabu rulers predessors], mentioned in top link as unknown, listed here in great detail as deep as 10+ generations
*[http://www.schloss-gottorf.de/haithabu/frameset.htm Website of the Hedeby Viking Museum]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[Category:History of Denmark]]
[[da:Hedeby]]
[[de:Haithabu]]
[[fr:Hedeby]]
[[la:Heidiba]]
[[no:Hedeby]]
[[pl:Hedeby]]
[[sv:Hedeby]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hazara</title>
<id>14131</id>
<revision>
<id>42004758</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:09:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hadi1121</username>
<id>885898</id>
< |
condition and adjusting the price accordingly, as well as serving to track the credits of individual creators. Ancillary products have also developed, for example: storage bags, storage boxes, lamination services, (known as slabbing), and backing boards.
Numerous conventions and festivals are held around the world, the largest U.S. convention being the [[San Diego Comic Con]], held annually in July or August and boasting an attendance of some 80,000 fans over a four day period.
In the late nineties, the boom in personal computers and the growth of the internet has also seen the development of databases, notably [http://www.comicbookdb.com/ ComicBookDB.com], ComicBase and the web&#8211;based [http://www.comics.org/ Grand Comic-Book Database], allowing further tracking of creators and their individual credits as well as special character appearances and storylines.
Classically, [[comic book]]s tend to be like serialized television dramas or [[soap opera]]s, in that they have a flowing and continual plotline with numerous dynamic characters. They sell mostly to a younger audience, from grade school students through adults; although the medium at one point catered primarily to children, in the last several decades the market has contracted to the point that the majority of readers are adults in their twenties. Indeed, many comics now contain complex plots involving intelligent and well-developed characters, a development that has spurred more academic scholarship in the field. A new issue of any given series is typically produced on a monthly basis, though popularity dictates that the most popular characters appear more frequently. Those who read comic books in their youth but who stopped at some point and did not keep these books often want them back in their adulthood, largely for nostalgia's sake, and are willing to pay a comic book specialty dealer.
== The Speculator [[economic bubble|Bubble]] ==
The period of time from roughly 1985 through 1993 is seen as the point where the phenomenon known as comic book [[speculation]] reached its peak. This boom period began with the publication of revolutionary titles like ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' and ''[[Watchmen]]'' and the beginning of the "summer crossover epics" like ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'' and ''[[Secret Wars]]''. Mainstream attention came to the industry in 1989-1991 with the success of the first two ''Batman'' movies and the much-hyped "Death of Superman". Once aware of this niche market, the mainstream press focused on what made it notable to the public: its potential for making money. Articles appeared in newspapers, magazines and television newsmagazines pointing out how rare, high-demand comics such as ''Action Comics'' #1 (1st Appearance Superman) or ''Incredible Hulk'' #181 (1st Appearance Wolverine) could be sold for hundreds or even thousands of times what they originally cost on the newsstands. (Example: At one point after this boom period ended, director [[Kevin Smith]] purchased a copy of ''Superman'' #1 for $1,000,000--a sum he later admitted was more than it was worth.)
Comic book publishers took advantage of this environment of speculation by using several techniques specifically designed to exploit the collectors' market. Such techniques included selling a comic with multiple different covers (knowing that many collectors would buy one of each version), selling certain issues in sealed polybags (knowing that collectors would buy two copies, one to keep preserved in the bag, and one to open and read), and publishing comics with "gimmicks" such as glow-in-the-dark, hologram-enhanced, or foil-embossed covers. These gimmicks were almost entirely cosmetic in nature, and almost never extended to the actual content of the comics. However, many speculators would buy multiple copies of these issues, anticipating that demand would allow them to sell them for a substantial profit at some nebulous point in the future.
This period also saw a corresponding expansion in price guide publications, most notably [[Wizard (magazine)|Wizard Magazine]], which helped fuel the speculator boom with monthly columns such as the "Wizard Top 10" (highlighting the "hottest" back-issues of the month), "Market Watch" (which not only reported back-issue market trends, but also predicted future price trends), and "Comic Watch" (highlighting key "undervalued" back-issues).
Ironically, the speculators who made a profit or at least broke even on their comic book "investments" did so only by selling to other speculators. In truth, very few of the comics produced in the early 90's have retained their value in the current market; with hundreds of thousands (or, in several prominent cases, over ten million) copies produced of certain issues, the value of these comics has all but disappeared. "Hot" comics like ''X-Men'' #1 and ''Youngblood'' #1 can today be found selling for under a dollar apiece.
Veteran comic book fans pointed out an important fact about the high value of classic comic books that was largely overlooked by the speculators: original comic books of the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]] were genuinely ''rare.'' Most of the original comic books had not survived to the present era, having been thrown out in the trash or discarded as worthless children's waste by parents (stories of uncaring parents throwing out their kids' comic book collections are well known to the [[post-WW2 baby boom|Baby Boom]] generation). As a result, a comic book of interest to fans or collectors from the [[1940s]] through the [[1960s]], such as an original issue of ''Superman,'' ''Captain America,'' ''Challengers of the Unknown,'' or ''Vault of Horror,'' was often extremely difficult to find and thus highly prized by collectors, in a manner similar to coin collectors seeking copies of the [[1955 doubled die cent]]. In many ways, with an enormous supply of high-grade copies, the "hot" comics of the speculator boom were the complete opposite.
=== Bust ===
The comic book speculator market reached a saturation point in the early [[1990s]] and finally collapsed between [[1993]] and [[1997]]. Two-thirds of all comic book specialty stores closed in this time period, and numerous publishers were driven out of business. Even industry giant [[Marvel Comics]] was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1997, although they were able to continue publishing. [[Valiant Comics]]--at one point the 3rd largest comic book publisher--did not survive, and ceased publication in 1997. The miniseries ''[[Deathmate]]''&mdash;a crossover between [[Image Comics]] and [[Valiant Comics]]&mdash;is often considered to have been the final nail in the speculation market's coffin; although heavily hyped and highly anticipated when initially solicited, the series shipped so many months late that reader interest disappeared by the time the series finally materialized, leaving some retailers holding literally hundreds of unsellable copies of the various ''Deathmate'' crossovers.
== Post-bubble speculation ==
Since 1997, comic book sales have fallen to a fraction of early-90's levels, with print runs of many popular titles down as much as 90% from their peaks. Currently, most of the hype generated around the major companies' comics involves changes to the characters, well-known creators writing or illustrating a title, and buzz surrounding an adaptation to another media such as film or television. The one remaining bastion for comic speculation remains in online auction sites such as [[eBay]]; but even there, comic books remain a buyer's market.
==List of comics collections==
Many private collections of comics exist, and they have also started to find their way onto the shelves of public libraries. [[Museums]] and [[University|universities]] with notable collections of comics include:
*[http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/library/pcl/pcl18.html Allen and John Saunders Collection] at Bowling Green State University's Popular Culture Library.
*[http://www.bl.uk/collections/comics.html British Comics Collection] at The British Library.
*[http://www.loc.gov/ The United State's Library of Congress] holds many collections of comic strips, comic books and periodicals.
*[http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/ Comic art collection] of Michigan State University.
*[http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/comics/ Comics Collection, including the Sol Davidson Collection] at the University of Florida.
*[http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/comic/using.html Comic Book Research Guide] of The New York Public Library.
*[http://cartoons.osu.edu/ Cartoon Research Library] of Ohio State University
*[http://library.kent.ac.uk/cartoons/ CartoonHub] the website of the Centre for the Study of Cartoons and Caricature, University of Kent
*[http://www.museodelfumetto.it/ Foundation & Museum Franco Fossati] founded by Furio Fossati, Luigi F. Bona, Sergio Giuffrida, Alfredo Castelli, Gianfranco Goria and Liviano Riva to preserve the huge collection by the late Franco Fossati (wellknown journalist, comic-art expert and manager of Disney Comics in Italy). More than 500.000 objects (comics, originals etc.).
==External links==
* [http://www.heritagecomics.com/common/worth.php How To Figure Out How Much Your Comics Are Worth]
* [http://www.heritagecomics.com/common/auction/pricesrealized.php/ Comics Auction Results archive]
* [http://www.cgccomics.com/ Comics Guaranty Corp.] The leading third-party grading service for comic books. Site includes census data and message boards.
[[Category:Comic book collecting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross section (physics)</title>
<id>7480</id>
<revision>
<id>41491672</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:54:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shadow1</username>
<id>690159</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed link to dis |
ign="center" | Two
|}
==Facts & trivia==
[[Image:Giant Plane Comparison.jpg|thumb|right|A size comparison between four of the largest aircraft. Click to enlarge.]]
*A 747-400 has six million parts (half of which are fasteners) made in 33 different countries.
*Just one engine on a 747 produces more thrust than all four engines on an early model [[Boeing 707]] combined.
*When pressurized, a 747 fuselage holds over a ton of air.
*Early model 747s have more than 700lbs (300 kg) of [[depleted uranium]] molded into the engine nacelles. Its purpose is as ballast to prevent the wing from fluttering.
*At the time of its launch, the term "jumbo jet" had already been coined by the media to describe a general class of new wide-bodied airliners then being developed, including the [[Lockheed L-1011]] TriStar and [[Douglas DC-10]]. Boeing was quite keen to discourage the media and the public using the term "jumbo jet" for the 747, but their efforts were in vain, and now the term is synonymous with the 747.
*Due to its immense length, there is a very small flexure of the fuselage in flight. This effect was not anticipated in the design of the autopilot on early models, and so there is a very slow oscillation in yaw when flying on autopilot. This was first discovered on an overseas flight to the Paris Airshow, when some of the people in the rear got air sick. Upon return, the plane went through a shake test for two weeks to sort out the problem and adjust the yaw damper system. This solved the problem and the effect is now too small to be noticeable by passengers.
*To enable easy transportation of spare engines between sites by airlines, early 747s include the ability to attach a non functioning fifth-pod engine under the port wing of the aircraft, between the nearest functioning engine and the fuselage. Photographs of planes flying in this configuration are highly prized by aircraft enthusiasts. [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/783444/M/] [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/763404/M/]
*There are other aircraft with prominent humps on the upper fuselage including the [[Carvair]], which was built from 1961 to 1969. Its most notable appearance is in the 1964 [[James Bond]] movie ''[[Goldfinger]]''.
*In the 1970s 747 pilots nicknamed the Jumbo Jet, "The Queen of the Skies" because of its huge size and capacity.
*Although the upper deck might seem small compared to the size of the whole aircraft, it can seat a significant number of people: JAL has 86 seats on the upper deck of its B747-400D aircraft.
*The 747 is certified to fly on 3 of its 4 engines. A 747 can successfully take-off even if an engine fails after rotation, and in many cases the flight will continue to its destination.
==Preserved aircraft==
As increasing numbers of 'classic' 747-100 and 747-200 series are retired, some are finding their way into aircraft museums. They include:
* Boeing 747-100 [http://162.58.35.241/acdatabase/NNumSQL.asp?NNumbertxt=7470 N7470], "City of Everett", the first 747 prototype [[Museum of Flight]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]], [[USA]]
* [[KLM]] 747-200(SUD) PH-BUK "Louis Blériot" at [[National Aviation Theme Park Aviodrome]], [[Lelystad]], [[Netherlands]]
* [[Qantas]] 747-200 VH-EBQ "City of Bunbury" at [[Qantas Founders Outback Museum]], [[Longreach Airport]], [[Longreach]], [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]
* [[South African Airways]] 747-200 ZS-SAN "Lebombo" and 747SP ZS-SPC "Maluti" at [[Rand Airport]], [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]
* [[Lufthansa]] 747-200 D-ABYM "Schleswig-Holstein" at [[Technik Museum Speyer]], [[Speyer]], [[Germany]]
* [[Air France]] 747-100 F-BPVJ at [[Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace]], [[Le Bourget airport]], [[Paris]], [[France]]
* [[Iran Air]] 747SPs EP-IAA and EP-IAC and 747-200F EP-ICC at [[Tehran Aerospace Exhibition]], [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]
==Disasters==
===Specific accidents===
The 747 has been involved in a number of air disasters. However, very few have been due to design flaws in the aircraft itself: as with most air accidents, most have been because of human error, improper maintenance, or in a few cases, [[terrorism|terrorist]] or military action.
* [[Lufthansa flight 540]], Nairobi, 1974
* [[Tenerife disaster]], 1977
* [[Air-India flight 855]], Arabian Sea, 1978
* [[Korean Air flight 007]], Sea of Okhotsk, 1983
* [[Avianca flight 011]], Madrid, 1983
* [[Air-India flight 182]], Atlantic Ocean, 1985
* [[Japan Airlines Flight 123]], Tokyo, 1985
* [[South African Airways flight 295]], Indian Ocean, 1987
* [[Pan Am flight 103]], Lockerbie, 1988
* [[United Airlines Flight 811]]. Honolulu, 1989
* [[China Airlines flight 358]], Taiwan, 1991
* [[Bijlmermeer disaster|El Al cargo flight 1862]], Amsterdam 1992
* [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434]], Okinawa, 1994
* [[TWA Flight 800]], Long Island, 1996
* [[Saudia flight 763]], Delhi, 1996
* [[Korean Air flight 801]], Guam, 1997
* [[Singapore Airlines Flight 006]], Taipei, 2000
* [[China Airlines flight 611]], Penghu Islands, 2002
===Accident summary===
See [http://aviation-safety.net/database/type/type.php?type=104 Aviation Safety Network] for authoritative figures.
*Hull-loss Accidents: [http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?field=typecode&var=104%&cat=%1&sorteer=datekey&page=1 33] with a total of 2850 fatalities
*Other hull-loss occurrences: 6 with a total of 857 fatalities
*Hijackings: 30 with a total of 22 fatalities
==External links==
* [http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2006/02/14/204691/Boeing+747-8+vs+A380+A+titanic+tussle.html Flight International Compares Boeing 747-8 vs A380]
* [http://www.project-tenerife.com/ Two Boeing 747 collided on Tenerife]
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/ Boeing.com]
* [http://www.newairplane.com/747e-brochure/ Boeing 747 e-brochure] - [[Macromedia Flash|Flash animation]]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=97 Airliners.net - Boeing 747-100 & 200]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=99 Airliners.net - Boeing 747-300]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=100 Airliners.net - Boeing 747-400]
* [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?cnsearch=24741/787&distinct_entry=true Airliners.net 747 images]
* [http://www.747sp.com/ Boeing 747SP Website]
* [http://www.gocalipso.com/aircraft/boeing747/boeing747.php Calipso: Boeing 747 Information & History]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/boeing/747-400/ Aircraft-Info.net - Boeing 747-400]
* [http://www.planemad.net/data/list/Boeing/747/ Planemad.net - Boeing 747 Production Lists]
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/pf/pf_classics.html Boeing 747 Family - 747 Classics (100, 200 and 300)]
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/pf/pf_400er_prod.html Boeing 747-400ER]
* [http://airtransportbiz.free.fr/Aircraft/747-200X.html Boeing 747-200X, AirTransportBiz, Alain Mengus, October 2002]
==Related content==
{{Giant aircraft}}
{{commons|Boeing 747}}
{{aircontent|
|links=yes
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=no
|sequence=
* [[Boeing 727|727]] - [[Boeing 2707|733]] - [[Boeing 737|737]] - '''747''' - [[Boeing 757|757]] - [[Boeing 767|767]] - [[Boeing 777|777]] - [[Boeing 787|787]]
|related=
*[[Airborne Laser]]
*[[Boeing E-4|E-4]]
*[[Boeing VC-25|VC-25]]
*[[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]]
|similar aircraft=
*[[Airbus A340|Airbus A340-600]]
*[[Airbus A380]]
*[[Ilyushin Il-96]]
|has lists=no
|lists=
|see also=[[Boeing 747-400]]
}}
[[Category:U.S. airliners 1960-1969]]
[[Category:U.S. cargo aircraft 1960-1969]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[cs:Boeing 747]]
[[da:Boeing 747]]
[[de:Boeing 747]]
[[es:Boeing B747]]
[[et:Boeing 747]]
[[fi:Boeing 747]]
[[fr:Boeing 747]]
[[he:בואינג 747]]
[[hr:Boeing 747]]
[[hu:Boeing 747]]
[[id:Boeing 747]]
[[ja:ボーイング747]]
[[ms:Boeing 747]]
[[nl:Boeing 747]]
[[no:Boeing 747]]
[[pl:Boeing 747]]
[[pt:Boeing 747]]
[[sr:Боинг 747]]
[[sv:Boeing 747]]
[[vi:Boeing 747]]
[[zh:波音747]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Agincourt</title>
<id>4615</id>
<revision>
<id>41828968</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:35:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stbalbach</username>
<id>87883</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Popular Myths */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Agincourt
|partof=the [[Hundred Years' War]]
|image=[[Image:Agincour.JPG]]
|caption=The Battle of Agincourt, 15th century miniature
|date=[[25 October]] (St. Crispin's Day) [[1415]]
|place=[[Azincourt|Agincourt]], [[France]]
|result=Decisive English victory
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of England]]
|combatant2=[[France in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of France]]
|commander1=[[Henry V of England]]
|commander2=[[Jean Le Maingre]]<br>[[Charles d'Albret]]
|strength1=6,000-9,000 troops
|strength2=12,000-50,000 troops
|casualties1=100-500
|casualties2=5,000-8,000 with over 1,000 prisoners
}}
{{Campaignbox Hundred Years' War}}
The '''Battle of Agincourt''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bataille d'Azincourt'') was fought on [[25 October]] [[1415]] in northern [[France]] as part of the [[Hundred Years' War]]. The battle was fought on a rainy day, the [[feast day]] of [[Crispin|Saint Crispin]], between the [[Military history of Britain|English and Welsh army]] of [[Henry V of England|King Henry V]] and the [[Military history of France|French army]] of [[Charles VI of France|King Charles VI]]. The latter was not commanded by the incapacitated King himself, but by the [[Constable of France|Constable]], [[Charles d'Albret]], and various notable French noblemen of the [[Armagnac (party)|Armagnac]] party.
The battle is notable for the use of the [[English longbow]]. The battle was also immortalised (and somewhat fictionalised) by [[William Shakespeare]] in his [[Shakespearean histories|history play]] ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''. Though accordi |
17 February]] [[1900]] <br> to [[15 February]] [[2100]]
|13 days
|}
The difference grows by 3 days in every four centuries.
On average, 48,700 Gregorian years and 48,699 Julian years each equal 17,787,309.75 days. Any 194,800 consecutive Gregorian years and any consecutive 194,796 Julian years each have exactly 71,149,239 days. Approximately every 487 centuries, there is a period during which the difference between the calendars is approximately an integral number of years and the day of the year can be the same on both calendars. Every fourth one of these is a period that occurs exactly every 71,149,239 days (194,800 Gregorian years or 194,796 Julian years) and lasts 36,524 days (100 years on Gregorian calendar, and 99 years, 365 days on the Julian calendar), during which the difference between the calendars is an integral multiple of 1,461 days (four years) and the month and day of the month (but not the year) are the same on both calendars for the entire period. The remainder are periods of several centuries each, during which the day of the year coincides for approximately 25-75% of the months in each century.
==Months of the year==
The Gregorian calendar's year is divided into 12 months:
{| class="wikitable"
! No. || Name || Days
|-
| 1 || [[January]] || 31
|-
| 2 || [[February]] || 28 or 29
|-
| 3 || [[March]] || 31
|-
| 4 || [[April]] || 30
|-
| 5 || [[May]] || 31
|-
| 6 || [[June]] || 30
|-
| 7 || [[July]] || 31
|-
| 8 || [[August]] || 31
|-
| 9 || [[September]] || 30
|-
| 10 || [[October]] || 31
|-
| 11 || [[November]] || 30
|-
| 12 || [[December]] || 31
|}
English speakers sometimes remember the number of days in each month by the use of the traditional [[mnemonic]] verse: ''Thirty days hath September / April, June and November / All the rest have thirty-one / Excepting February alone / Which has but twenty-eight, in fine / Till leap year gives it twenty-nine.'' Alternate endings are: ''Which has eight and a score / Until leap year gives it one day more,'' or ''Which hath twenty-eight days clear / And twenty-nine in each leap year. or When short February's done / all the rest have thirty-one''
A language-independent alternative is to hold up your two fists with the index knuckle of your left hand against the index knuckle of your right hand. Then, starting with January from the little knuckle of your left hand, count knuckle, space, knuckle, space through the months. A knuckle represents a month of 31 days, and a space represents a short month (a 28- or 29-day February or any 30-day month).
==Accuracy==
The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the [[Julian calendar]] by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 [[solar time|mean solar day]]s long, which has an error of about one [[day]] per 3300 [[year]]s with respect to the [[mean tropical year]] of 365.2422 days but less than half this error with respect to the [[vernal equinox year]] of 365.2424 days. Both are substantially more accurate than the one day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days).
On timescales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the seasons drastically because the slowing down of the Earth's rotation makes each day slightly longer over time (see [[tidal acceleration]] and [[leap second]]) while the year maintains a more uniform duration. The equinox will occur earlier than now by a number of days approximately equal to [years into future/5000]<sup>2</sup>. This is a problem that the Gregorian calendar shares with any rule-based calendar.
==Calendar seasonal error==
[[Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png|nome|640px|Gregorian calendar seasons difference]]
This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the seasons.
The ''y''-axis is "days error" and the ''x''-axis is Gregorian calendar years.
Each point represents a single date on a given year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Years that are multiples of 100 but not 400 are ''not'' leap years. This causes a correction on years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300.
For instance, these corrections cause [[23 December]] [[1903]] to be the latest December solstice, and [[20 December]] [[2096]] to be the earliest solstice&mdash;2.25 days of variation compared with the seasonal event.
==Numerical facts==
When leap years and common years are taken into account, there are a total of 14 possible Gregorian calendars.
When different dates of Easter are also taken into account, there are a total of 70 possible Gregorian calendars.
An average year is 365.2425 days = 52.1775 weeks = 8,765.82 hours = 525,949.2 minutes = 31,556,952 seconds.
A common year is 365 days = 8,760 hours = 525,600 minutes = 31,536,000 seconds.
A leap year is 366 days = 8,784 hours = 527,040 minutes = 31,622,400 seconds.
(Some years may also contain a [[leap second]], which can be positive or negative.)
See also [[common year starting on Sunday]] and [[dominical letter]].
The 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar has 146,097 days and hence exactly 20,871 weeks. So, for example, the days of the week in Gregorian 1603 were exactly the same as for 2003. This also causes more months to begin on a Sunday (and hence have [[Friday 13]]) than any other day of the week. 688 out of every 4800 months (or 172/1200) begin on a Sunday, while only 684 out of every 4800 months (171/1200) begin on each of Saturday and Monday, the least common cases.
A smaller cycle is 28 years (1,461 weeks), provided that there is no dropped leap year in between. Days of the week in years may also repeat after 6, 11, 12, 28 or 40 years. Intervals of 6 and 11 are only possible with common years, while intervals of 28 and 40 are only possible with leap years. An interval of 12 years can occur with either type, but only when there is a dropped leap year in between.
The [[Doomsday algorithm]] is a method by which you can discern which of the 14 calendar variations should be used in any given year (after the Gregorian reformation). It is based on the last day in February, referred to as the Doomsday.
==Number of leap years starting on a given day of the week==
Because there are 97 leap years in every 400 in the Gregorian Calendar, there should, in each "cycle", be either 13 or 14 leap years starting on each day of the week. However, the effects of the "common" centennial years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 etc.) cause major alterations.
This is because the absence of an extra day in such years causes the following leap year (1704, 1804, 1904, 2104 etc.) to ''start on the same day of the week as the leap year twelve years before'' (1692, 1792, 1892, 2092 etc.). Similarly, the leap year eight years after a "common" centennial year (1708, 1808, 1908, 2108 etc.) starts on the same day of the week as the leap year ''immediately prior to the "common" centennial year'' (1696, 1796, 1896, 2096 etc.). Thus, those days of the week on which such leap years begin gain an extra year or two in each cycle. In each cycle there are:
* '''13''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Monday|Monday]]
* '''14''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Tuesday|Tuesday]]
* '''14''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Wednesday|Wednesday]]
* '''13''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Thursday|Thursday]]
* '''15''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Friday|Friday]]
* '''13''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Saturday|Saturday]]
* '''15''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Sunday|Sunday]]
==Days of the week==
[[January 1]] of any year whose number is a multiple of 400 is a [[Saturday]]. From this you can work out the day of the week of any date.
See also:
*[[Days of the week]]
*[[Calculating the day of the week]]
==Reference==
*''Gregorian reform of the calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary, 1582-1992'', ed. G. V. Coyne, M. A. Hoskin, and O. Pedersen (Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Specolo Vaticano, 1983).
==See also==
* [[Year zero]]
* [[List of calendars]]
* [[Calendar reform]]
* [[:Category:Unusual dates]]
* [[Old Style and New Style dates]]
==External links==
* [http://hermes.ulaval.ca/~sitrau/calgreg/bulle.html Inter Gravissimas, Gregory XIII's bull introducing the new calendar (Latin and French)]
* [http://www.bluewaterarts.com/calendar/NewInterGravissimas.htm Inter Gravissimas (Latin and French plus English)]
* [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-British.html British Calendar Act 1751]
* [http://www.tondering.dk/claus/calendar.html Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars]
* [http://www.norbyhus.dk/calendar.html The Perpetual Calendar] Gregorian Calendar adoption dates for many countries.
* [http://5ko.free.fr/jul-greg.php?e=en Synoptical Julian - Gregorian calendar] Compare Old and New Style dates 1582 - 2100.
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[af:Gregoriaanse kalender]]
[[als:Gregorianischer Kalender]]
[[ang:Gregorisc gerīmbōc]]
[[ar:تقويم غريغوري]]
[[bg:Григориански календар]]
[[be:Грэгарыянскі каляндар]]
[[bs:Gregorijanski kalendar]]
[[ca:Calendari gregorià]]
[[ceb:Kalendaryong Gregoryano]]
[[cs:Gregoriánský kalendář]]
[[cy:Calendr Gregoriaidd]]
[[da:Gregorianske kalender]]
[[de:Gregorianischer Kalender]]
[[et:Gregoriuse kalender]]
[[el:Γρηγοριανό ημερολόγιο]]
[[es:Calendario gregoriano]]
[[eo:Gregoria kalendaro]]
[[eu:Egutegi gregoriotar]]
[[fa:تقویم گرگوری]]
[[fo:Gregorianski kalendarin]]
[[fr:Calendrier grégorien]]
[[fy:Gregoriaanske kalinder]]
[[fur:Calendari Gregorian]]
[[gl:Calendario gregoriano]]
[[ko:그레고리력]]
[[io:Gregoriana kalendario]]
[[ilo:Calendario a Gregorian]]
[[id:Kalender Gregorian]]
[[is:Gregoríska tímatalið]]
[[it:Calendario gregoriano]]
[[he:הלוח הגרגוריאני]]
[[jv:Kalendher Gregorian]]
[[ka:გრიგორიანული კალენდარი]]
[[la:Calendarium Gre |
erious" (see [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A5%87 Wiktionary]).
*Spears' other tattoos include pink dice on her inner wrist (her husband, [[Kevin Federline]], has matching blue dice), a fairy on her lower back, a daisy on her right toe, a butterfly on her left foot, and a Japanese flower that she reportedly got "down there." Her foot is adorned with many symbols which represent freedom.
* She publicly declared her trust in [[President]] [[George W. Bush]], as reported in an interview on ''[[Crossfire (TV series)|Crossfire]]'' and featured in the film ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' by [[Michael Moore]]: "Honestly, I think we should just trust our president in every decision that he makes and we should just support that, you know, and be faithful in what happens." [http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0406/25/cf.00.html].
==Discography==
{{main|Britney Spears' discography}}
==Filmography==
{| border="2px" cellpadding="4px" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
!Year
!Film/Show
!Role
!Other notes
|-
| [[2007 in film|2007]] || ''[[In the Pink]]'' || Drew Heart || [[Pre-production]]
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'' || Herself || Cameo
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''[[Crossroads (2002 film)|Crossroads]]'' || Lucy Wagner || &mdash;
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[Longshot (film)|Longshot]]'' || Flight Attendant || Cameo
|-
| 1993/1994 || ''[[The New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' || Herself || &mdash;
|-
| 1990s || ''[[Ruthless!]]'' || Tina Denmark || Off-Broadway
|-
|}
==Miscellaneous==
===Books===
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Year !! Book
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Britney Spears's Heart-to-Heart|Britney Spears' Heart-to-Heart]]''
|-
| 2001 || ''[[A Mother's Gift]]''
|-
| 2002 || ''Stages''
|-
| 2003 || ''Britney Spears' Crossroads Diary''
|-
|}
===Official DVDs===
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Year !! DVD !! U.S. peak !! U.S. certification !! CAN certification
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Time Out with Britney Spears]]'' || 7 || 3x Platinum || Gold
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Britney Spears - Live and More!|Britney Spears: Live and More!]]'' || 4 || 3x Platinum ||
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Britney: The Videos]]'' || 1 (2 weeks) || 2x Platinum ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Britney Spears: Live from Las Vegas]]'' || 1 (6 weeks) || 2x Platinum ||
|-
| 2004 || ''[[In the Zone DVD|In the Zone]]'' || 1 (1 week) || Platinum ||
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative DVD|Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]'' || 1 (3 weeks) || 2x Platinum ||
|-
|}
===Select merchandise===
* In 1999, [[Play Along Toys]] released the [[Britney Spears Doll]]. It became one of the biggest-selling dolls of all time.
* ''[[Britney's Dance Beat]]'' is a [[dance game]] featuring five of her songs, for the [[PlayStation 2]], [[PC]] and [[Game Boy Advance]].
===Tours===
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Year !! Tour
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Hair Zone Mall Tour]]''
|-
| 1998 || Opened for [[*NSYNC]]
|-
| 1999 || ''[[...Baby One More Time Tour]]''
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Crazy 2K Tour]]''
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour]]''
|-
| 2001/2002 || ''[[Dream Within a Dream Tour]]''
|-
| 2004 || ''[[The_Onyx_Hotel_Tour|The Onyx Hotel Tour]]''
|-
|}
==See also==
* [[List of Britney Spears awards]]
* [[Britney Spears music videos]]
* [[Unreleased Britney Spears songs]]
* [[List of remixes of Britney Spears songs]]
* [[List of non album tracks by Britney Spears]]
* [[List of best-selling music artists]]
* [[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)|List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100]]
* [[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart|List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one in Ireland]]
==References==
* {{note|WWSales}} [http://www.time.com/time/photoessays/achievers_feature/ ''TIME'' Achievers]
* {{note|ROTN}} [http://www.rockonthenet.com/artists-s/britneyspears_main.htm Rock on the Net: Britney Spears]
* {{note|AlbumsCertifications}} [http://www.riaa.com/gp/database/default.asp RIAA Searchable Database (U.S. Certifications)]
* {{note|AlbumsSales2}}[http://www.billboardradiomonitor.com/radiomonitor/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1980227 ''Britney'' U.S. Sales Source]
* {{note|AlbumsSales3}}[http://www.billboardradiomonitor.com/radiomonitor/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1000947096 ''In the Zone'' U.S. Sales Source]
* {{note|Playboy}} [http://extratv.warnerbros.com/dailynews/extra/0404/04_19e.html ''Playboy'' Controversy]
* {{note|Curious}} [http://www.brandweek.com/bw/news/recent_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001097487 "Curious" Gross]
* {{note|AlbumSales4}} [http://www.mcarchives.com/news/?id=4870 America's Best-Selling Female Artists]
* {{note|Iraq}} [http://www.cnn.com/2003/SHOWBIZ/Music/09/03/cnna.spears/ ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' Quote]
* {{note|Lip-Synch}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12435-2004Oct30.html Lip-synching]
* {{note|Psychic}} [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9916528/ MSNBC Britney article]
* {{note|Yahoo!}} [http://tools.search.yahoo.com/top2005/ Yahoo!'s Most-Searched 2005]
* {{note|Fantasy}} [http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,17517616%255E2682,00.html ''The Advertiser'' article on "Fantasy".]
* {{note|SexTape}} [http://asia.news.yahoo.com/051220/afp/051220054404people.html Sex Tape.]
* {{note|Israel}} [http://www.israel-chart.com/charts/2004/m1.asp "''And Then We Kiss''" #1 peak.]
* {{note|USDance}} [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.vnuArtistId=290150&model.vnuAlbumId=743867 "''And Then We Kiss''" in US Hot Dance Airplay]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Britney Spears|Britney Spears}}
{{wikiquote}}
===Official===
* [http://www.britneyspears.com/ Britney Spears: The Official Web Site]
* [http://www.britney.com/ Britney Spears at Jive Records]
===Unofficial===
* {{imdb name|id=0005453|name=Britney Spears}}
* {{nndb name|id=049/000022980|name=Britney Spears}}
*[http://www.jasonrivera.com/viewarticle.php?art_id=318 Review of Britney & Kevin: Chaotic]
[[Category:1981 births|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Actor-singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American child actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American child singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American female singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American film actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American pop singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American television actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Austin Powers girls|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American soubrettes|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Baptists|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Britney Spears|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Dance Top 40 acts in United States|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:English Americans|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Kabbalah Centre followers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Living people|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Mouseketeers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:People from Louisiana|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Reality television stars|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Soubrettes|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actress Razzie|Spears, Britney]]
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Spears-Federline, Britney Jean
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Spears, Britney Jean
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Singer; occasional actor and songwriter
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 2]], [[1981]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[McComb, Mississippi|McComb]], [[Mississippi]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[ca:Britney Spears]]
[[da:Britney Spears]]
[[de:Britney Spears]]
[[es:Britney Spears]]
[[eo:Britney SPEARS]]
[[fr:Britney Spears]]
[[gl:Britney Spears]]
[[id:Britney Spears]]
[[it:Britney Spears]]
[[he:בריטני ספירס]]
[[hu:Britney Spears]]
[[nl:Britney Spears]]
[[ja:ブリトニー・スピアーズ]]
[[no:Britney Spears]]
[[pl:Britney Spears]]
[[pt:Britney Spears]]
[[ru:Спирс, Бритни]]
[[sq:Britney Spears]]
[[simple:Britney Spears]]
[[sl:Britney Spears]]
[[fi:Britney Spears]]
[[sv:Britney Spears]]
[[vi:Britney Spears]]
[[tr:Britney Spears]]
[[yi:בריטני ספיערס]]
[[zh:布蘭妮·斯皮爾斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brazil</title>
<id>3383</id>
<revision>
<id>42139358</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:03:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.51.244.119</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Regions and States */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = <big><big>'''República Federativa do Brasil'''</big></big>
|common_name = Brazil
|image_flag = Flag of Brazil.svg
|image_coat = Brasaorepublica.png
|image_map = LocationBrazil.png
|national_motto = ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]): Ordem e Progresso<br>(Translated: Order and Progress)''
|national_anthem = ''[[Hino Nacional Brasileiro]]''
|official_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|capital = [[Brasília]]
|latd=15 |latm=45 |latNS=S |longd=47 |longm=57 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]
|government_type = [[Democracy|Democratic]] [[Federal republic|federal republic]]
|leader_titles = • [[President of Brazil|President]]<br /> • [[Vice President of Brazil|Vice President]]
|leader_names =[[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]]<br />[[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]]
|area_rank = 5th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 8,547,403
|areami²= 3,299,298 <!-- Do not remo |
mically, and politically. Italy has the fifth-highest population density in [[Europe]] &mdash; about 194 persons per square kilometre (490 per square mile).
==Population==
'''Population''': 58,462,375 (December 2004) - 28,419,070 males and 29,683,963 females.
There are around 3 million immigrants living in Italy (est. Caritas census 2005), making up ca. 5% of the total population. World Alamanac suggests that Italy has 2.3 million immigrants or
4% of the total population.
However, numerous other sources point to less immigrants- about 2-3% of the population
'''Families''': 21,503,088 (55,920,840 Italians in a familiar status, 2.60 Italians per family)
*Most populated town (residents) [[Rome]] (RM) 2,553,873
*Least populated town (residents) Morterone (LC) 33
*Greatest human density (residents per km&sup2;) [[Portici]] (NA) 13,032.1
*Greatest town territory (km&sup2;) [[Rome]] (RM) 1,285.30
*Smallest town territory (km&sup2;) Fiera di Primiero (TN) 0.15
===Metropolitan Areas===
*[[Milan]] - around 6,500,000 to 7,000,000
*[[Naples]] - around 4,200,000
*[[Rome]] - around 3,800,000
*[[Turin]] - around 1,800,000
*Venetian Agglomeration - around 1,600,000 ([[Venezia]], [[Padova]], [[Mestre]], [[Treviso]])
*[[Bari]] - around 1,500,000
*[[Florence]] - around 1,300,000
*[[Palermo]] - around 1,000,000
*[[Genoa]] - around 1,000,000
*[[Catania]] - around 800,000
*[[Bologna]] - around 600,000
===Cities ranked by population===
not representing [[metropolitan area]]s:
from the December 2004 Istat report (www.istat.it):
{| border=1
! Name !! Population !! Region
|-
|[[Rome]] ||align=right| 2,553,873 || [[Lazio]]
|-
|[[Milan]] ||align=right| 1,299,439 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Naples]] ||align=right| 995,171 || [[Campania]]
|-
|[[Turin]] ||align=right| 902,255 || [[Piedmont]]
|-
|[[Palermo]] ||align=right| 675,277 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Genoa]] ||align=right| 605,084 || [[Liguria]]
|-
|[[Bologna]] ||align=right| 374,425 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Florence]] ||align=right| 368,059 || [[Tuscany]]
|-
|[[Bari]] ||align=right| 328,458 || [[Puglia]]
|-
|[[Catania]] ||align=right| 305,773 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Venice]] ||align=right| 271,251 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Verona]] ||align=right| 259,068 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Messina]] ||align=right| 247,592 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Padua]] ||align=right| 210,821 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Trieste]] ||align=right| 207,069 || [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]
|-
|[[Taranto]] ||align=right| 199,012 || [[Puglia]]
|-
|[[Brescia]] ||align=right| 192,164 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Reggio di Calabria]] ||align=right| 183,041 || [[Calabria]]
|-
|[[Prato]] ||align=right| 180,674 || [[Tuscany]]
|-
|[[Modena]] ||align=right| 180,110 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Parma]] ||align=right| 174,471 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Cagliari]] ||align=right| 161,465 || [[Sardegna]]
|-
|[[Livorno]] ||align=right| 155,986 || [[Toscana]]
|-
|[[Perugia]] ||align=right| 157,842 || [[Umbria]]
|-
|[[Reggio nell'Emilia]] ||align=right| 155,191 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Foggia]] ||align=right| 154,780 || [[Puglia]]
|-
|[[Ravenna]] ||align=right| 146,989 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Salerno]] ||align=right| 135,818 || [[Campania]]
|-
|[[Rimini]] ||align=right| 134,700 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Ferrara]] ||align=right| 131,907 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Sassari]] ||align=right| 124,929 || [[Sardegna]]
|-
|[[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] ||align=right| 123,332 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Pescara]] ||align=right| 122,577 || [[Abruzzo]]
|-
|[[Monza]] ||align=right| 122,263 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Bergamo]] ||align=right| 116,510 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Vicenza]] ||align=right| 113,483 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Latina]] ||align=right| 111,946 || [[Lazio]]
|-
|[[Forlì]] ||align=right| 111,495 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Trento]] ||align=right| 110,142 || [[Trentino-South Tyrol]]
|-
|[[Terni]] ||align=right| 108,999 || [[Umbria]]
|-
|[[Novara]] ||align=right| 102,746 || [[Piedmont]]
|-
|[[Ancona]] ||align=right| 101,797 || [[Marche]]
|}
==Immigration==
Traditionally a country of emigrants, in the last 20 years Italy has become a country of immigration, with about 2% of the population fitting that description.
156,179 foreigners were counted in the 1971 census, (Source: Italian Caritas); according to the last figure (Caritas est. 2005 [http://www.rassegna.it/2005/affarisociali/articoli/caritas2.htm], almost 3 million of immigrants live legally in Italy, while figure for undocumented immigrants vary from 0.8 million to 2 million. Italy is periodically legalizing unauthorized foreigners.
The largest group of foreigners are Moroccans, followed by Albanians.
<b>Net migration rate:</b> 9.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
==Languages==
The official and common language is [[Italian language|Italian]].
Officially recognized [[minority language]] groups are:
<table border=1>
<tr>
<td>'''Group'''</td><td align=right>'''Population'''</td><td>'''Native language'''</td><td>'''Region'''</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Sardinian</td><td align=right>1 269 000</td><td>[[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]</td><td>[[Sardinia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Friulian</td><td align=right>526 000</td><td>[[Friulian language|Friulian]]</td><td>[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Tyrolean</td><td align=right>290 000</td><td>[[German language|German]]</td><td>[[Trentino-South Tyrol]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Occitan</td><td align=right>178 000</td><td>[[Occitan language|Occitan]]</td><td>[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], [[Liguria]], [[Calabria]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Gipsy</td><td align=right>130 000</td><td>[[Romany language|Romany]]</td><td>the whole country</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Albanian</td><td align=right>98 000</td><td>[[Albanian language|Albanian]]</td><td>southern Italy, [[Sicily]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Franco-Provençal</td><td align=right>90 000</td><td>[[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]]</td><td>[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], [[Aosta Valley]], [[Apulia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Slovenian</td><td align=right>70 000</td><td>[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]</td><td>[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Ladin</td><td align=right>55 000</td><td>[[Ladin language|Ladin]]</td><td>[[Trentino-South Tyrol]], [[Veneto]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>French</td><td align=right>20 000</td><td>[[French language|French]]</td><td>[[Aosta Valley]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Greek</td><td align=right>20 000</td><td>[[Griko language|Griko]] ([[Greek language|Greek]])</td><td>[[Calabria]], [[Apulia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Catalan</td><td align=right>18 000</td><td>[[Alguerese]] ([[Catalan language|Catalan]])</td><td>[[Sardinia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Croatian</td><td align=right>2 600</td><td>[[Croatian language|Croatian]]</td><td>[[Molise]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Carinthian</td><td align=right>2 000</td><td>[[German language|German]]</td><td>[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Carnian</td><td align=right>1 400</td><td>[[Friulian language|Friulian]]</td><td>[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]</td></tr>
</table>
<small>Source: ''Ministero degli Interni del Governo Italiano''.</small>
Official status:
* [[German language|German]] is official in [[South Tyrol]], where in 1991 there were 287,503 German and 116,914 Italian speaking people.
* Standard [[French language|French]] is official only in the Valle d'Aosta, but the spoken dialects of this region and of some northern valleys of Piedmont are precisely French-Provencal, which reveals some differences from pure French).
==Religion==
Although [[Roman Catholic]]ism is the dominant religion &mdash; 97% of native-born citizens are nominally Catholic &mdash; there are mature [[Protestant]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] communities and a growing [[Islam|Muslim]] (see: [[Islam in Italy]]) immigrant community. The [[Constitution of Italy|Italian Constitution]] provides all religious faiths equal freedom before the law.
==Other statistical indicators==
''From the Istat "Demography in figures" 2005'', http://www.demo.istat.it/index_e.html
'''Population estimate:'''
58,462,375 (Istat 2005)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
14,3% (male 4,181,946; female 3,935,565)
<br>''15-64 years:''
66.9% (male 19,590,497; female 19,256,747)
<br>''65 years and over:''
18,9% (male 4,608,479; female 6,484,243)
'''Median age:'''
<br>''total:'' 41.4 years
<br>''male:'' 39.8 years
<br>''female:'' 43 years
(2004 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
9.7 births/1,000 population (Istat 2005)
'''Death rate:'''
9.4 deaths/1,000 population (Istat 2005)
'''Net migration rate:'''
9.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (Istat 2005)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.07 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.71 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.96 male(s)/female
(2004 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
<br>''total:'' 6.07 deaths/1,000 live births
<br>''male:'' 6.68 deaths/1,000 live births
<br>''female:'' 5.41 deaths/1,000 live births
(2004 est |
also point to [[somnambulism]] as an alternative explanation for this purported phenomenon. The most common sleep activity is [[sleepwalking]], but activities such as [[eat]]ing, dressing or even driving [[automobile|cars]] have also been recorded as taking place while the subjects are technically asleep.{{citation needed}}
== See also ==
* [[Fasting]]
* [[Esotericism]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[New Age]]
* [[Spirituality]]
== External links ==
=== Proponent sites ===
* [http://breatharian.info Breatharian.info] — Information and forum about Breatharianism
* [http://www.breatharian.com/ The Breatharian Institute Of America] — Wiley Brooks' organization
* [http://www.jasmuheen.com/ Jasmuheen.com] — Jasmuheen's organization
* [http://www.inedia.com/ Inedia Health] — Health information
=== Case studies ===
* [http://home.iae.nl/users/lightnet/health/breatharianslinks.htm A list of historical and contemporary breatharians]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3236118.stm BBC story: Fasting fakir flummoxes physicians] — article about Prahlad Jani, who claims to have not eaten anything in 68 years
* [http://www.amazingabilities.com/amaze5b.html Prahlad Jani — Ten Day Study Medical Case Summary]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/scotland/newsid_703000/703279.stm BBC story: Guru condemned as 'dangerous']
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/scotland/newsid_453000/453661.stm BBC story: Woman 'starved herself to death']
* [http://www.newsindia.com/breaking_news/34786.asp Scientist skips food, 'survives" by solar energy] — article about Dr. Michael Werner, who claims to have not eaten anything in four years
* [http://www.indianewengland.com/media/paper549/news/2004/11/15/Community/Sunlight.Water.Are.The.Only.Sustenance.He.Needs-805110.shtml Sunlight, water are the only sustenance he needs] — article about Hira Ratan Manek, who claims to have eaten no food since 1995
* [http://home.iae.nl/users/lightnet/health/lightresearch.htm Description of Hira Ratan Manek's fasting]
=== Criticism ===
* [http://skepdic.com/inedia.html Skeptic's Dictionary article about Breatharianism]
* [http://skepdic.com/prana.html Skeptic's Dictionary on prana, which breatharians claim to be sustained by]
* [http://www.rickross.com/groups/breat.html Breatharian information] from the [[Rick Ross]] Institute for Cults, Destructive Cults, Controversial Groups and Movements
[[nl:Breatharian]]
[[pl:niejedzenie]]
[[Category: Diets]]
[[Category: Cults]]
[[Category: Metaphysics]]
[[Category: Pseudoscience]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bihar (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5041</id>
<revision>
<id>34516764</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T18:38:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orioane</username>
<id>362844</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Bihar]]''' is a state in India
'''Bihar''' may also refer to:
*[[Bihar River]], India
*[[Bihar (county)]], a historic county of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]
*'''Bihar''', the [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] name of the [[Counties of Romania|Romanian county]] [[Bihor County|Bihor]]
*[[Bihar (Khazar)]], a [[khagan]] of the [[Khazars]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beast of bodmin</title>
<id>5044</id>
<revision>
<id>15903286</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Beast of Bodmin]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bashir Gemayel</title>
<id>5045</id>
<revision>
<id>15903287</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-14T21:42:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davidcannon</username>
<id>36171</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bachir Gemayel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belfast</title>
<id>5046</id>
<revision>
<id>42054077</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 2001 Census */ dab. Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city of '''Belfast''' in Northern Ireland. For other uses, see [[Belfast (disambiguation)]].''
{{Ireland_city_infobox |
city_name = City of Belfast |
crest_image = Image:Belfast city crest painting.png |
motto_latin = <font size=2.5>''Pro Tanto Quid Retribuamus''</font> |
motto_english = <font size=2.5>"what shall we give in return for so much"</font> |
map_image = Image:Ireland_map_County_Antrim.png |
pin_coords = left: 137px; top: 90px |
gps_coords = 54.596°N -5.914°W |
city_area = 115 km² |
city_county = [[County Antrim|Antrim]] |
city_pop = 276,459 |
city_province = [[Ulster]] |
protestant_pc = 42.4% |
catholic_pc = 56.2% |
}}
'''Belfast''' (''Béal Feirste'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) is a [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. It is the largest city in [[Northern Ireland]] (of which it is the [[capital city|capital]]) and the province of [[Ulster]], and is the second largest city on the island of [[Ireland]]. In the 2001 Census the population within the city limits (Belfast Urban Area) was 276,459, while 579,276 people live in the [[Greater Belfast]] area or Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area. The city is situated at the south-western end of [[Belfast Lough]], a long natural inlet ideal for the shipping trade that made the city famous, and near the mouth of the [[River Lagan]]. It is flanked by long stretches of hills, the [[Castlereagh Hills]] on the south and the [[Antrim Hills]] on the north. The city straddles the [[County Antrim]] and [[County Down]] boundary. The city recently gained the status of being the 2nd most popular city in the UK, above London and Glasgow, for short breaks.
The name Belfast originates from the [[Irish language|Irish]] ''Béal Feirste'', or the mouth of the [[River Farset|Farset]] (''feirste'' is the genitive of the word ''fearsaid'', "a spindle"), the river on which the city was built. Interestingly, the river Farset has been superseded by the [[River Lagan]] as the most important river; the Farset now languishes under the High Street in obscurity. Bridge Street indicates where there was originally a bridge across the Farset.
Belfast saw the worst of the [[Troubles]] in Northern Ireland. The Belfast/Good Friday Agreement has encouraged large-scale redevelopment, such as [http://www.victoriasquare.com Victoria Square], [http://www.titanic-quarter.com Titanic Quarter] and [http://www.laganside.com Laganside] including the new [[Odyssey (Belfast)|Odyssey]] complex and sports arena. Much of the [[Belfast City Centre|city centre]] has now been pedestrianised. The city has two airports: [[Belfast City Airport]] adjacent to Belfast Lough and [[Belfast International Airport]] which is near [[Lough Neagh]]. [[Queen's University Belfast]] is the main university in Belfast. The [[University of Ulster]] also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on [[fine art]] and [[design]].
==Geography==
Belfast is situated at {{coor dms|54|35|50|N|05|56|20|W|}}. A consequence of this latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. In the middle of the darkest period in December, local sunset is at 3.50 p.m. while sunrise is as late as 8.45 a.m. However, this is counterbalanced by the period from May to July. In mid-to-late June, sunset occurs after 10 p.m. and the daylight survives until 11 p.m. on fine nights.
To the north of Belfast are the [[Glens of Antrim]] in [[County Antrim]], and to the south, the [[Castlereagh Hills]] in [[County Down]]. Overlooking the city are Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and [[Cavehill]].
Like much of the country, Belfast has a temperate climate with significant rainfall. Average daily maximums are 19°C (66°F) in July, 8°C (46°F) in January. There is significant rainfall on over 200 days in an average year, and an annual rainfall total of approximately 850mm (33 inches), still barely half that received in Western Ireland and Scotland. While sleet and snow fall occasionally in Winter, as an urban, coastal, area, snow lies in Belfast on an average of only 2-3 days per year.
==Points of interest==
[[Image:Belfast panorama from queens tower.jpg|thumb|300px|Panorama of Belfast on a dreary day, as seen from a tower block of Queen's University.]]
The [[Belfast City Hall|City Hall]], dating from [[1906]], [[Queen's University, Belfast]] (1849), and other [[Victorian era|Victorian]] and [[Edwardian]] buildings display a large number of sculptures. Among the grandest buildings are two former banks: [[Ulster Bank]] ([[1860]]), in Waring Street and [[Northern Bank]] ([[1769]]), in nearby Donegall Street. Also notable is the [[Linenhall Library]] ([[1788]]), in Donegall Square North.
The world's largest [[dry dock]] is located in the city, and the giant cranes ([[Samson and Goliath (Cranes)|Samson and Goliath]]) of the [[Harland and Wolff]] shipyard, builders of the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']], can be seen from afar. Other long-gone industries included Irish [[linen]] and rope-making.
Sections of the city contain numerous sectarian murals, reflecting the political and religious allegiances of the communities living there: the [[Shankill Road]], [[East Belfast]], [[Sandy Row]], [[Glencairn]], [[Highfield]], [[Ballygomartin Road]], [[Ballysillan Road]], [[Upper Ardoyne]], and [[Rathcoole (Belfast)|Rathcoole]], which are almost entirely [[Protestant]], have murals depicting republican violence, loyalty to the [[British Crown]], the [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] and [[Ulster Defence Asso |
ng Live]].
==Creed==
Students at BJU recite the ''University Creed'' at chapel services four days a week and at the worship service on Sunday.
<blockquote>I believe in the inspiration of the [[Bible]] (both the [[Old Testament|Old]] and the [[New Testament|New Testaments]]); the [[Creationism|creation]] of man by the direct act of [[God]]; the incarnation and virgin birth of our Lord and Savior, [[Jesus]] Christ; His identification as the Son of God; His vicarious atonement for the [[sin|sins]] of mankind by the shedding of His blood on the cross; the [[resurrection]] of His body from the tomb; His power to save men from sin; the new birth through the regeneration by the [[Holy Spirit]]; and the gift of eternal life by the grace of God.</blockquote>
==History==
BJU was founded in 1927 by evangelist [[Bob Jones, Sr.]], in [[College Point, Florida]]. Jones was the son of an [[Alabama]] [[sharecropper]]. His stated purpose was to create a [[school]] where Christian students could receive a high-quality education in a strongly traditional Christian environment. The following is a direct quotation from the BJU homepage:
<blockquote>Established in 1927 by evangelist Bob Jones Sr., Bob Jones University is known as the citadel of biblical Christianity for its adherence to the Bible as mankind's only source of faith and Christian practice. Throughout his travels, Dr. Bob Jones Sr. saw students whose faith was shaken during college, and he recognized the need for a thoroughly Christian school to train America's youth. His vision was to establish a training center for Christians from around the world that would be distinguished by its academic excellence, refined standards of behavior, and opportunities to appreciate the performing and visual arts. At the same time, Dr. Jones's intent was to make a place where Christ would be the center of all thought and conduct.</blockquote>
The school moved to [[Cleveland, Tennessee]] in 1933, and to its present campus in Greenville, South Carolina in 1947. The former [[Cleveland, Tennessee]] campus currently serves as the home for [[Lee University]] operated by the [[Church of God (Cleveland)|Church of God]], which has its headquarters in the same town.
From its 1927 founding to 1971, [[African American]] people were prohibited from enrolling. From 1971 to 1975, only married black people were permitted to apply to the school. After the 1975 court decision of ''[[McCrary v. Runyon]]'', which prohibited racial exclusion from private schools, the policy was changed. A person of any race could apply to the school, but the school adopted a disciplinary rule prohibiting interracial dating or marriage:
:There is to be no interracial dating.
:#Students who are partners in an interracial marriage will be expelled. [461 U.S. 574, 581]
:#Students who are members of or affiliated with any group or organization which holds as one of its goals or advocates interracial marriage will be expelled.
:#Students who date outside of their own race will be expelled.
:#Students who espouse, promote, or encourage others to violate the University's dating rules and regulations will be expelled."
The former policies of Bob Jones University on interracial dating are indebted to the founder's view that the Bible forbids interracial dating and marriage; though today Bob Jones University sometimes claims that the policy is a product of a (1950s) legal threat on the part of the parents of a male Asian student who threatened legal action after learning that their son "nearly married" a white girl. [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/110/53.0.html]
The school lost its [[US Internal Revenue Service|Internal Revenue Service]] tax exemption in 1980 because of its anti-interracial dating policy. The school appealed all the way to the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], arguing that the school met the criteria for tax-exempt status on several counts, including that the school's racial discrimination was based on sincerely held religious beliefs. U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] supported the school's tax exempt status, but the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in favor of the IRS in 1983 (see ''[[Bob Jones University v. United States]]'', 461 U.S. 574) and the school does not intend to seek tax-exempt status again.
In 2000, following a national uproar prompted by the visit of presidential candidate George W. Bush, the policy was dropped entirely after some experimentation with a policy of parental consent for interracial dating.
The school's attitude toward gay and lesbian people has often caused outrage. In 1998, Wayne Mouritzen, a gay, 60-year-old alumnus, wrote seeking permission to come back to visit the school. The dean of students wrote back: ''With grief we must tell you that as long as you are living as a homosexual, you, of course, would not be welcome on the campus and would be arrested for trespassing if you did. We take no delight in that action. Our greatest delight would be in your return to the Lord.'' [http://ctlibrary.com/1504]
==Academics==
The University is composed of six colleges and schools that offer over 125 undergraduate majors. Among these majors are fourteen "trade school" programs that range from [[aircraft]] management to [[cosmetology]]. Classes are also offered by correspondence and through the University's live, interactive [[satellite]] system.
The University is currently a candidate for [[School accreditation|accreditation]] through the [[Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools]][http://www.tracs.org], which means that it has the potential to become accredited during the prescribed five year period but there is no guarantee that it will become accredited. Nonetheless, "School officials say they still won't accept federal student financial aid."[http://www.wciv.com/news/stories/0405/223962.html]
BJU also operates the ''[[Bob Jones University Press]]'', one of the two major publishers of curriculum for K-12 Christian schools in America (the other being [[A Beka Book]]s, which is affiliated with [[Pensacola Christian College]]).
==Extracurriculars==
The University has intramural sports programs in many different fields including [[soccer]], [[basketball]], [[softball]], [[athletics|track]], [[volleyball]], [[tennis]], [[badminton]], and [[table tennis]]. The highlight of the sports season is the Turkey Bowl, where the top two societies (the University's version of [[fraternities]] and [[sororities]]) compete in a soccer match before the Thanksgiving Break.
The University also competes in intercollegiate [[debate]] in the [[National Educational Debate Association]] and from time to time places very highly in their competitions.
==Achievements==
*In May 2004, its high school, Bob Jones Academy, won the [[National High School Mock Trial Championship]] [http://www.nationalmocktrial.org/results2004.cfm].
*On [[December 3]], [[2004]], the school broke the [[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness World Record]] for [[Christmas carol]]ing with 7,514 carolers.
*On [[April 2]], [[2005]], the school won the [[National Educational Debate Association|NEDA]] Debate [[List of NEDA Tournament Results|Nationals Tournament]], defeating [[Ball State University]] 2-1 in Varsity and 3-0 in Novice, and also taking 1st place Varsity Speaker.
==Art gallery==
[[Bob Jones, Jr.]], son of the founder, had an interest in art depicting scenes from the [[Bible]], especially those which had a highly illustrative nature rather than those relying on symbols. He began collecting after [[World War II]], and concentrated on Italian [[Baroque]] painters. This style was out of favor in the mid-20th century and the works were relatively inexpensive, and Jones built up an important collection. He donated his paintings to a museum at the University. The [http://www.bjumg.org BJU Museum & Gallery] now is now one of the largest collections of religious art in the Western Hemisphere.
==Controversial national recognition==
Largely due to the national attention received after the scuffle with the [[IRS]] and its ban on interracial dating, the school has been seen as a racist institution. The school has a number of international students and participates in the [[National Educational Debate Association]] intercollegiate debate format, a small association with a closed membership policy, not recognized by the mainstream [[American Forensic Association]].
===Biology===
The BJU [[biology]] department proclaims its support for [[creationism]]. Its Department of Biology's website states:
:Although Bob Jones University is primarily a teaching institution, the members of the science faculty have a long tradition of speaking, writing, and doing research related to defending the Bible's account of creation.
==Rules for students==
Bob Jones has a notably strict series of rules governing life while at the university. [http://www.bju.edu/prospective/expect/general.html][http://www.bju.edu/prospective/expect/dress.html][http://www.bju.edu/prospective/expect/rhall.html] As previously described, some of the rules have been retracted for various reasons throughout the schools history. The school asserts that its rules are in line with several other Fundamentalist Christian universities.
Such commentators as ''[[Christianity Today]]'' have argued that BJU focuses on rules rather than principles, saying that, "a recent BJU handbook prohibits students from promoting Calvinism or Arminianism, speaking in tongues, wearing beards, and listening to music recorded after 1960." (Incidentally, BJU does not forbid its students to listen to music recorded after the 1960s. In fact, the University choral and instrumental groups perform contemporary music, and SoundForth, BJU’s recording label, regularly releases CDs containing music composed in the twenty-first century.) According to the Boston Globe, BJU has a reputation for stringent rules even among oth |
llagen</title>
<id>6058</id>
<revision>
<id>40906492</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:31:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eleassar</username>
<id>294421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Types of collagen */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Collagentriplehelix.png|thumb|right|99px|Tropocollagen triple helix.]]
'''Collagen''' is the main [[protein]] of [[connective tissue]] in [[animal]]s and the most abundant protein in [[mammal]]s, making up about 1/4 of the total. It is one of the long, [[fibrous protein|fibrous structural proteins]] whose functions are quite different from those of [[globular protein]]s such as [[enzyme]]s. It is tough and inextensible, with great [[tensile strength]], and is the main component of [[cartilage]], [[ligament]]s and [[tendon]]s, and the main protein component of [[bone]] and [[tooth|teeth]]. Along with soft [[keratin]], it is responsible for [[skin]] strength and elasticity, and its degradation leads to [[wrinkle]]s that accompany [[ageing|aging]]. It strengthens [[blood vessel]]s and plays a role in [[biological tissue|tissue]] development. It is present in the [[cornea]] and lens of the [[eye]] in [[crystal]]line form. It is also used in [[plastic surgery|cosmetic surgery]] — for example [[lip enhancement]] — although [[Hyaluronan|hyaluronic acid]] is now often used instead.
==Composition and structure==
Collagen has an unusual [[amino acid]] composition and sequence. [[Glycine]] (Gly) is found at almost every third [[residue]], and collagen contains large amounts of [[proline]], (Pro) — as well as two uncommon derivative amino acids not directly inserted during [[translation (genetics)|translation]] of [[messenger RNA|mRNA]]: [[hydroxyproline]] (Hypro) and [[hydroxylysine]]. Prolines and [[lysine]]s at specific locations relative to glycine are modified post-translationally by different enzymes, both of which require [[vitamin C]] as a [[cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactor]]. Vitamin C deficiency causes [[scurvy]], a serious and painful [[disease]] in which defective collagen prevents the formation of strong [[connective tissue]]. [[Gingiva|Gums]] deteriorate and bleed, with loss of teeth; skin discolors, and [[wound]]s do not [[healing|heal]]. This was notorious in the British [[Royal Navy]], where [[sailor]]s were deprived of fresh [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s during long voyages. Depending on the type of collagen, varying numbers of hydroxylysines have [[disaccharide]]s attached to them.
The ''tropocollagen'' subunit is a rod about 300 nm long and 1.5 nm in diameter, made up of three [[polypeptide]] strands, each of which is a left-handed [[helix]]. They are twisted together into a right-handed coiled coil, a triple helix, a cooperative [[quaternary structure]] stabilized by numerous [[hydrogen bond]]s. Tropocollagen [[protein subunit|subunits]] spontaneously [[self-assembly|self-assemble]], with regularly staggered ends, into even larger arrays in the [[extracellular]] spaces of tissues. There is some [[covalent bond|covalent]] crosslinking within the triple helices, and a variable amount of covalent crosslinking between tropocollagen helices, to form the different types of collagen found in different mature tissues — similar to the situation found with the [[keratin|α-keratins]] in [[hair]]. Collagen's in[[soluble|solubility]] was a barrier to study until it was found that tropocollagen from young animals can be extracted because it is not yet fully [[cross-link|crosslinked]].
A distinctive feature of collagen is the regular arrangement of amino acids in each of the three chains of these collagen subunits. The sequence often follows the pattern Gly-X-Pro or Gly-X-Hypro, where X may be any of various other amino acid residues. Gly-Pro-Hypro occurs frequently. This kind of regular repetition and high glycine content is found in only a few other fibrous proteins, such as [[silk]] fibroin. 75-80% of silk is (approximately) -Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala- with 10% [[serine]] — and [[elastin]] is rich in glycine, proline, and alanine (Ala), whose [[side chain|side group]] is a small, inert [[methyl]]. Such high glycine and regular repetitions are never found in globular proteins. [[Chemical reaction|Chemically-reactive]] side groups are not needed in structural proteins as they are in enzymes and [[transport protein]]s. The high content of Pro and Hypro rings, with their geometrically constrained [[carboxyl]] and (secondary) [[amino]] groups, accounts for the tendency of the individual polypeptide strands to form left-handed helices spontaneously, without any intrachain hydrogen bonding. The triple helix tightens under tension, resisting stretching, making collagen inextensible.
Because glycine is the smallest amino acid, it plays a unique role in fibrous structural proteins. In collagen, Gly is required at every third position because the assembly of the triple helix puts this residue at the interior (axis) of the helix, where there is no space for a larger side group than glycine’s single [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]. For the same reason, the rings of the Pro and Hypro must point outward. These two amino acids thermally stabilize the triple helix — Hypro even more so than Pro — and less of them is required in animals such as [[fish]], whose [[thermoregulation|body temperatures]] are low.
In bone, entire collagen triple helices lie in a parallel, staggered array. 40 nm gaps between the ends of the tropocollagen subunits probably serve as nucleation sites for the deposition of long, hard, fine crystals of the mineral component, which is (approximately) [[hydroxylapatite|hydroxyapatite]], Ca<sub>5</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>(OH), with some [[phosphate]]. It is in this way that certain kinds of cartilage turn into bone. Collagen gives bone its elasticity and contributes to [[bone fracture|fracture]] resistance.
==Industrial uses==
If collagen is solubilized and heated, the three tropocollagen strands separate into globular, [[random coil]]s, producing [[gelatin]], which is used in many [[food]]s, including flavored [[dessert]]s. It is not a good [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]ary source for synthesizing bodily proteins in general because it lacks adequate amounts of most of the [[essential amino acid]]s.
Collagen means "[[animal glue|glue]] producer" (''kolla'' is Greek for glue), derived from the early process of boiling the skin, [[claw|hooves]] and [[tendon|sinews]] of [[horse]]s and other animals to obtain glue. Collagen adhesive was used by [[Egypt]]ians about 4,000 years ago, and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] used it in [[bow (weapon)|bows]] about 1,500 years ago. The oldest glue in the world, [[radiocarbon dating|carbon dated]] as more than 8,000 years old, was found to be collagen — used as a protective lining on rope baskets and [[embroidery|embroidered]] [[fabric]]s, and to hold [[list of eating utensils|utensils]] together; also in crisscross decorations on [[human]] [[skull]]s.[http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/glue.html] Collagen normally converts to gelatin, but survived due to the dry conditions. Animal glues are [[thermoplastic]], softening again upon reheating, and so they are still used in making [[musical instrument]]s such as fine [[violin]]s and [[guitar]]s, which may have to be reopened for repairs — an application incompatible with tough, [[chemical synthesis|synthetic]] [[plastic]] adhesives, which are permanent. Animal sinews and skins, including [[leather]], have been used to make useful articles for millennia.
Gelatin-[[resorcinol]]-[[formaldehyde]] glue (and with formaldehyde replaced by less-toxic pentanedial and [[glyoxal|ethanedial]]) has been used to repair experimental incisions in [[rabbit]] [[lung]]s. (''Ann Thorac Surg.'' 1994 Jun; 57(6): 1622-7)
==Types of collagen==
Collagen occurs in many places throughout the body, and occurs in different forms known as types, which include:
* Type I collagen - This is the most abundant collagen of the human body. It is present in [[scar tissue]], the end product when tissue [[healing|heals]] by repair. It is found in [[tendon|tendons]] and the organic part of [[bone]].
* Type II collagen - Articular cartilage
* Type III collagen - This is the collagen of [[granulation tissue]], and is produced quickly by young fibroblasts before the tougher type I collagen is synthesized.
* Type IV collagen - [[basal lamina]]; eye lens
* Type V collagen - most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I, associated with placenta
* Type VI collagen - most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I
* Type VII collagen - epithelia
* Type VIII collagen - some endothelial cells
* Type IX collagen - cartilage, assoc. with type II
* Type X collagen - hypertrophic and mineralizing cartilage
* Type XI collagen - cartilage
* Type XII collagen - interacts with types I and III
* Type XIII collagen - interacts with types I and II
There are 27 types of collagen in total
==Staining==
In [[histology]], the [[dye]] [[methyl violet]] is used to [[staining (biology)|stain]] the collagen in tissue samples.
==See also==
* [[Osteoid]]
* [[Trout pout]]
==External links and references==
* [http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/extracellularmatrix.html 12 types of collagen]
* [http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/glue.html Oldest glue discovered near Dead Sea]
* [http://www.le.ac.uk/genetics/collagen/ Database of type I and type III collagen mutations]
* Direct Science [http://www.directscience.info/biochemistry/collagen.php Collagen]
[[Category:Structural proteins]]
[[Category:Edible thickening agents]]
[[ar:كولاجين]]
[[bg:Колаген]]
[[ca:Col·lagen]]
[[cs:Kolagen]]
[[da:Collagen]]
[[de:Collagen]]
[[es:Colágeno]]
[[fr:Collagène]]
[[he:קולגן]]
[[lt:Kolagenas]]
[[nl:Collageen]]
[[ja:コラーゲン]]
[[pl:Kolagen]]
[[pt:Colágeno]]
[[sv:Kollagen]]
[[zh:膠原蛋白]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<p |
oxidation and rancidity==
{{see also|Rancidification}}
Fatty acids at room temperature undergo a chemical change known as [[autoxidation]]. The fatty acid breaks down into [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[ketone]]s, [[aldehyde]]s, and smaller amounts of [[epoxide]]s and [[alcohol]]s. Heavy metals present at low levels in fats and oils promote autoxidation. Fats and oils often are treated with [[chelation|chelating agents]] such as [[citric acid]].
==Sources==
# {{note|lawrence}} {{cite book
| first = Felicity
| last = Lawrence
| year = 2004
| title = Not on the Label
| chapter = 214
| editor = Kate Barker
| pages = 213
| publisher = Penguin
| id = ISBN 0-141-01566-7
}}
# {{note|durham}} {{cite web
| title = Using Fatty Acids for Enhancing Classroom Achievement
| url = http://www.durhamtrial.org/
| accessdate = January
| accessyear = 2004
}}
==See also==
{{Commons|Fatty acids}}
* [[Essential fatty acid]]
* [[Triglyceride]]
* [[Saturated fat]]
* [[Unsaturated fat]]
* [[Fatty acid metabolism]]
==External links==
* [http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.html Chemical Structure of Fats and Fatty Acids]
[[Category:Fatty acids| ]]
[[Category:Lipids]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[cs:Mastná kyselina]]
[[da:Fedtsyre]]
[[de:Fettsäuren]]
[[eo:Grasacido]]
[[es:Ácido graso]]
[[fr:Acide gras]]
[[he:חומצת שומן]]
[[ja:脂肪酸]]
[[nl:Vetzuur]]
[[pl:Kwas tłuszczowy]]
[[ru:Жирные кислоты]]
[[sl:Maščobna kislina]]
[[sv:Fettsyra]]
[[th:กรดไขมัน]]
[[uk:Жирна кислота]]
[[zh:脂肪酸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fearless (film)</title>
<id>10977</id>
<revision>
<id>40363469</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses3|Fearless}}
----
{{Infobox Film
| name = Fearless
| image = Fearlessmovieposter.jpeg
| caption =
| director = [[Peter Weir]]
| producer =
| writer = [[Rafael Yglesias]]<br>based on his novel
| starring = [[Jeff Bridges]]<br />[[Isabella Rossellini]]<br />[[Tom Hulce]]<br />[[Rosie Perez]]<br />[[Benicio del Toro]]<br />[[John Turturro]]
| music = [[Maurice Jarre]]
| cinematography = [[Allen Daviau]]
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = [[1993]]
| runtime = 122 min.
| language = [[English language|English]]
| budget =
| imdb_id = 0106881
}}
'''''Fearless''''' is a [[1993]] [[film|movie]] directed by [[Peter Weir]] and written by [[Rafael Yglesias]] from his [[Fearless (novel)|novel]].
Rosie Perez was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] for her role as Carla Rodrigo. She lost to [[Anna Paquin]]. The film features [[Henryk Górecki]]'s third symphony, subtitled ''Symphony of Sorrowful Songs''.
{{spoiler}}
Max Klein is a survivor of an [[airplane]] crash. Many died, including his [[business]] partner. The trauma transforms his entire life. He enters an altered state of consciousness; soon after the crash he even thinks he is dead, and begins rethinking [[life]], [[death]], [[God]], and the [[afterlife]]. Existential questions start to preoccupy his life. He moves away from his wife, son, and friends but, encouraged by an aircraft company [[psychiatrist]], he tries to break the [[clinical depression|depression]] and apathy of another survivor, Carla Rodrigo, who lost her baby son during the flight.
== Historical connections ==
The doomed flight in the movie bears many resemblances with the real-life crash landing of [[United Airlines Flight 232]] in [[1989]]:
*The plane suffered a failure in the hydraulics system, following an engine explosion.
*The crew attempted an emergency landing, and most of the passengers and crew survived.
*The speech given by the Captain to the passengers before impact resembles closely to the one Captain [[Al Haynes]] gave in real life, including his closing line "Good luck to us all."
*A man receives media coverage for saving the life of a small child. In the movie, the hero is Max Klein, a survivor. In real life, it was Colonel Dennis Nielsen, a rescuer.
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0106881|title=Fearless}}
{{Peter Weir Films}}
[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Peter Weir]]
[[ru:Бесстрашный (фильм)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franklin D. Roosevelt</title>
<id>10979</id>
<revision>
<id>42156130</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:44:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJII</username>
<id>141644</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The First New Deal, 1933-1934 */ devaluation was theft</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Franklin Delano Roosevelt
| nationality=american
| image=FDR in 1933.jpg
| order=32nd President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1933]]
| term_end=[[April 12]], [[1945]]
| predecessor=[[Herbert Hoover]]
| successor=[[Harry S. Truman]]
| birth_date=[[January 30]], [[1882]]
| birth_place=[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]
| death_date=[[April 12]], [[1945]]
| death_place=[[Warm Springs, Georgia]]
| spouse=[[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident=[[John N. Garner]]<br>[[Henry A. Wallace]]<br>[[Harry S. Truman]]
}}
{{redirect|FDR}}
'''Franklin Delano Roosevelt''' ([[January 30]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[April 12]], [[1945]]), 32nd [[President of the United States]], the longest-serving holder of the office and the only person to be elected President more than twice, was one of the central figures of 20th century history. He is best known for leading the U.S. through the [[Great Depression]], building a powerful political coalition that dominated American politics for decades, and leading the military alliance that defeated [[Nazi Germany]], [[Fascist Italy]] and the [[Empire of Japan]] in [[World War II]]. A child of economic and social privilege, he overcame crippling illness to place himself at the head of the forces of reform. Universally called FDR, he was both loved and hated in his day but today many consider him one of the greatest of American presidents.
==Early life==
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on [[January 29]], [[1882]], in [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], in the [[Hudson River]] valley in [[upstate New York|upstate]] [[New York]]. His father, [[James Roosevelt, Sr.|James Roosevelt]] (1828&ndash;1900), was a wealthy landowner and vice-president of the [[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]. The Roosevelt family (see [[Roosevelt family tree]]) had lived in New York for more than 200 years: [[Claes van Rosenvelt]], originally from [[Haarlem]] in the [[Netherlands]], arrived in New York (then called [[Nieuw Amsterdam]]) in about 1650. In 1788, [[Isaac Roosevelt]] was a member of the [[state convention]] in [[Poughkeepsie, New York|Poughkeepsie]] which voted to ratify the [[United States Constitution]] - a matter of great pride to his great-great-grandson Franklin.
In the 18th century the Roosevelt family had divided into two branches, the "Hyde Park Roosevelts", who by the late 19th century were [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]], and the "[[Oyster Bay, New York|Oyster Bay]] Roosevelts", who were [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]]. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], an Oyster Bay Republican, was Franklin's fifth cousin. Despite their political differences, the two branches remained friendly: James Roosevelt met his wife at a Roosevelt family gathering at Oyster Bay, and Franklin was to marry Theodore's niece.
Roosevelt's mother [[Sara Roosevelt|Sara Ann Delano]] (1854&ndash;1941) was of French Protestant ([[Huguenot]]) descent, her ancestor [[Phillippe de la Noye]] having arrived in [[Massachusetts]] in 1621. Her mother was a [[Lyman]], another very old American family. Franklin was her only child, and she was an extremely possessive mother. Since James was an elderly and remote father (he was 54 when Franklin was born), Sara was the dominant influence in Franklin's early years. He later told friends that he was afraid of her all his life.
Roosevelt grew up in an atmosphere of privilege. He learned to ride, to shoot, to row and to play [[polo]] and [[lawn tennis]]. Frequent trips to [[Europe]] made him conversant in [[German language|German]] and [[French language|French]]. The fact that his father was a Democrat, however, set him apart to some extent from most other members of the [[Hudson Valley]] aristocracy. The Roosevelts believed in public service, and were wealthy enough to be able to spend time and money on philanthropy.
Roosevelt went to [[Groton School]], an elite [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] boarding school near Boston. He was heavily influenced by the headmaster, [[Endicott Peabody (educator)|Endicott Peabody]], who preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Roosevelt graduated from Groton in 1900, and naturally progressed to [[Harvard University]], where he enjoyed himself in conventional fashion and graduated with an A.B. (arts degree) in 1904 without much serious study. While he was at Harvard, Theodore Roosevelt became President and his vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model. In 1903 he met his future wife [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], Theodore's niece, at a [[White House]] reception. (They had previously met as children, but this was their first serious encounter.)
Roosevelt next attended the [[Columbia University|Columbia Law School]]. He passed the [[bar exam]] and completed the requirements for a law degree in 1907 but did not bother to actually graduate. In 1908 he took a job with the prestigious Wall Street firm of [[Carter, Ledyard and Milburn]], dealing mainly w |
widely used in some circles .
==European system==
* In traditional [[Europe|European]] usage, one centillion is [[1 E600|10<sup>600</sup>]].
10<sup>600</sup> is a [[novemnonagintacentillion]] in the North American system.
10<sup>600</sup> is a thousand times more than a [[novemnonagintilliard]].
10<sup>600</sup> is a thousandth of a [[centilliard]].
10<sup>600</sup> is a million times more than a [[novemnonagintillion]].
10<sup>600</sup> is a millionth of a [[centuntillion]].
==Related terms==
*[[hundred]]
*[[million]]
*[[billion]]
*[[trillion]]
*[[decillion]]
*[[centilliard]]
== See also ==
* [[List of numbers]]
* [[Large numbers]]
{{num-stub}}
[[Category:Large numbers]]
[[fr:Centillion]]
[[ja:センティリオン]]
[[pl:Centylion]]
[[ru:Центиллион]]
[[sv:Centiljon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>RDX</title>
<id>7499</id>
<revision>
<id>40550064</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T10:17:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{explosivebox |
|image = Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine-structure.png
|IUPAC_name = 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine
|chemical_formula = C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>N<sub>6</sub>O<sub>6</sub>
|molecular_weight = 222.117 [[gram|g]]/[[mole (unit)|mol]]
|shock_sensitivity = Low
|friction_sensitivity = Low
|density = 1.82 [[gram|g]]/[[cubic centimetre|cm³]]
|explosive_velocity = 8,750 [[metre per second|metres per second]]
|RE_factor = 1.60
|melting point = 205.5[[Celsius|°C]]
|boiling_point = N/A
|appearance = colorless solid crystals
|CAS_number = 121-82-4
|PubChem = 8490
|SMILES = C1N(CN(CN1[N+](=O)[O-])<br>[N+](=O)[O-])[N+](=O)[O-]
}}
{{wikibookspar|Chemical synthesis|Cyclonite synthesis}}
'''Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine''', also known as '''RDX''', '''cyclonite''', '''hexogen''', and '''T4''', is an [[nitroamine]] and [[explosive material]] widely used by the military. The [[#History|origin]] of the acronym RDX is not wholly clear; from [[United Kingdom|UK]] perspective, it most probably stands for "Research Department Explosive".
In its pure, synthesised state RDX is a white, crystalline solid. As an explosive it is usually used in mixtures with other explosives and [[plasticizer]]s or desensitizers. It is stable in storage and is considered the most powerful and [[Brisance|brisant]] of the military high explosives.
RDX forms the base for a number of common military explosives: [[Composition A]] (wax-coated, granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing wax), composition A5 (mixed with 1.5% [[stearic acid]]), [[composition B]] (castable mixtures of RDX and [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]]), [[composition C]] (a plastic demolition explosive consisting of RDX, other explosives, and plasticizers), [[composition D]], [[HBX]] (castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride), H-6, [[Cyclotol]], and [[C4 explosive|C4]].
RDX is also used as a major component of [[plastic bonded explosive]]s used in [[nuclear weapons]].
==Properties==
The [[velocity of detonation]] of RDX at a density of 1.76 grams/cm<sup>3</sup> is 8,750 meters per second.
It is a colourless solid, of maximum theoretical density 1.82 g/cm³. It is obtained by reacting concentrated [[nitric acid]] on [[hexamine]].
(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub>N<sub>4</sub> + 4HNO<sub>3</sub> &rarr; (CH<sub>2</sub>-N-NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub> + 3HCHO + NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> + NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>
It is a [[heterocycle]] and has the molecular shape of a ring. It starts to decompose at about 170°C and melts at 204°C. Its structural formula is: hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine or (CH<sub>2</sub>-N-NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>.
At [[room temperature]], it is a very stable product. It burns rather than explodes and only detonates with a [[detonator]], being unaffected even by [[small arms]] fire. It is less sensitive than pentaerythritol tetranitrate ([[PETN]]). However, it is very sensitive when crystallized, below &minus;4°C.
Under normal conditions, RDX has a [[Figure of Insensitivity]] of 80.
The manufacture of RDX can easily pollute soil and groundwaters.
==History==
The discovery of RDX dates from the [[1890s]] when a German (Hans Henning) offered it as a medicine. Its explosive properties were not discovered until 1920 (Herz?). In the [[1920s]] RDX was produced by the direct nitration of [[hexamine]].
RDX was used by both sides in [[World War II]]. In the [[United Kingdom]] (UK) RDX was manufactured in pilot plants at [[Waltham Abbey]] in [[1938]] and at the Research Department at the [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]]. In [[1939]] a twin-unit industrial-scale plant was designed to be installed at a new site, [[ROF Bridgwater]], away from [[London]]; and production of RDX started at ROF Bridgwater in [[1941]]. The United Kingdom attempted to be [[self-sufficient]] in the early stages of the war, and at this time the [[United States]] (USA) was still a [[neutral country]]. [[Canada]], a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]], was looked upon to supply the UK with ammunition and explosives, including RDX. A different method of production, using para-[[formaldehyde]], [[ammonium nitrate]] and [[acetic anhydride]], was invented independently in Germany and by Ross and Schiessler in Canada, in [[1940]], possibly at the [[McGill University]] Department of Chemistry (Meissner?). Ross and Schiessler [[patent]]ed their process in the UK, in [[1947]], and in the USA, in [[1948]].
Urbanski provides details of five methods of production. The American Bachmann process for RDX, discovered in 1941, based on hexamine dinitrate, ammonium dinitrate and acetic anhydride, was found to be richer in [[HMX]] than the United Kingdom's RDX. There is a suggestion that this discovery later led to a HMX plant being set up at ROF Bridgwater in [[1955]].
RDX was widely used during [[World War II]], often in explosive mixtures with [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] such as Torpex (TNT (42%),RDX (40%) and aluminium (18%)). RDX was used in one of the first [[plastic explosive]]s.
There are many interpretations of its acronym including (but not limited to) Royal Demolition eXplosive, Research Department (Composition) X, and Research Department eXplosive. The former name is very unlikely, as a secret WWII military explosive it would not have been called "Royal", nor Demolition eXplosive. The latter is most likely correct. In the United Kingdom, new military explosives were given an identification number preceded by the letters 'RD' indicating 'Research Department No.'. For some reason, this explosive was unable to be given a number (the story goes that the department that issued the numbers had just blown itself up, but this may be apocryphal). Instead, the letter 'X' was appended to indicate 'unknown' with the intention of adding the number later. Although a number was issued, the term 'RDX' stuck.
==References==
* {{cite book | first = Paul W. | last = Cooper | title = Explosives Engineering | year = 1996 | location = New York | publisher = Wiley-VCH | id = ISBN 0471186368}}
* {{cite book | first = Tadeusz | last = Urbanski | title = Chemistry and Technology of Explosives, Vol. III | year = 1967 | location = Warszawa | publisher = Polish Scientific Publishers}}
* {{cite book | first = Rudolf | last = Meyer | title = Explosives | edition = 3rd Edition | year = 1987 | publisher = VCH Publishers | id = ISBN 0-89573-600-4}}
[[Category:Explosives]]
[[Category:Explosive chemicals]]
[[Category:Nitroamines]]
[[bg:Хексоген]]
[[cs:Hexogen]]
[[de:Hexogen]]
[[fr:RDX]]
[[it:Ciclotrimetilentrinitroammina]]
[[ja:RDX]]
[[lt:Heksogenas]]
[[lv:Heksogēns]]
[[nl:Cyclotrimethyleentrinitramine]]
[[pl:Heksogen]]
[[pt:RDX]]
[[ru:Гексоген]]
[[sl:Heksogen]]
[[sv:Hexogen]]
[[uk:Гексоген]]
[[zh:黑索金]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celebes</title>
<id>7500</id>
<revision>
<id>15905564</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sulawesi]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chairman of the board</title>
<id>7501</id>
<revision>
<id>42083144</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<comment>can't forget Carrot Top!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- '''Chairman of the Board''' refers to the [[chairperson]] of a [[board of directors]]. -->
'''Chairman of the Board''' may refer to:
* the chairperson of a [[board of directors]]
* [[Frank Sinatra]], frequently referred to as ''The Chairman of the Board''
* [[Chairman of the Board (film)|''Chairman of the Board'' (film)]], a 1998 Courtney Thorne-Smith/Carrot Top vehicle
* the 1985 winner of the [[Cane Pace]] race
* [[Whitey Ford]], nicknamed ''Chairman of the Board''
<!-- move to wiktionary, or toss -- sounds oddly like the etmology of "rule of thumb", cite please?
In medieval times the head of the household was the only member with a chair (with arms); all others sat on a bench. The "board" refers to the table.
-->
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Judaism and Christianity</title>
<id>7502</id |
uot; West (38.948351, -92.333779){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 138.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (53.3 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 137.5 km&sup2; (53.1 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.7 km&sup2; (0.3 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.51% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 84,531 people, 33,689 households, and 17,282 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 615.0/km&sup2; (1,592.8/mi&sup2;). There are 35,916 housing units at an average density of 261.3/km&sup2; (676.8/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 81.54% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 10.85% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.39% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.30% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.81% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.07% from two or more races. 2.05% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 33,689 households out of which 26.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 48.7% are non-families. 33.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.26 and the average family size is 2.92.
In the city the population is spread out with 19.7% under the age of 18, 26.7% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 16.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 27 years. For every 100 females there are 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $33,729, and the median income for a family is $52,288. Males have a median income of $34,710 versus $26,694 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,507. 19.2% of the population and 9.4% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 14.8% of those under the age of 18 and 5.2% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
*[http://www.visitcolumbiamo.com/ Columbia Convention & Visitors Bureau]
*[http://chamber.columbia.mo.us/v_community.html Columbia Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.columbiamissourian.com Columbia Missourian]
*[http://www.showmenews.com Columbia Daily Tribune]
*[http://www.themaneater.com The Maneater]
*[http://www.mymissourian.com MyMissourian]
*An [http://11.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CO/COLUMBIA_MO_.htm interesting historical look] can be found in the 1911 ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.948351|-92.333779}}
*[http://www.discoverthedistrict.com/mapsanddirections.html Map of '''''The District''''']
*[http://www.comomusic.com/ Comomusic]
*[http://www.discoverthedistrict.com/ '''''The District'''''] - Over 70 bars & restaurants, 110 unique shops and 40 live performances a week.
*[http://www.columbia360.com/ Digital Guide to Columbia MO]
*[http://www.johnhenrymusic.org/ John Henry]
{{Missouri}}
[[Category:Cities in Missouri]]
[[Category:Boone County, Missouri]]
[[es:Columbia (Missouri)]]
[[io:Columbia, Missouri]]
[[sk:Columbia (Missouri)]]
[[fi:Columbia (Missouri)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlton Athletic F.C.</title>
<id>6720</id>
<revision>
<id>42120712</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:27:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.43.100.173</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Charlton fans */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Charlton Athletic |
image = [[Image:Charlton_Athletic_crest_second.png|100px|Charlton Athletic crest]] |
fullname = Charlton Athletic Football Club |
nickname = [[The Addicks]] |
founded = [[1905]] |
ground = [[The Valley (stadium)|The Valley]],<br />[[Charlton, Greenwich|Charlton]], [[London]] |
capacity = 27,116 |
chairman = [[Image:England flag.svg|20px|English]] [[Richard Murray]] |
manager = [[Image:England flag.svg|20px|English]] [[Alan Curbishley]] |
league = [[FA Premier League]] |
season = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
position = Premier League, 11th |
shirtsupplier= |
shirtsponsors= |
pattern_la1=_whiteborder|pattern_b1=_thinwhitesides|pattern_ra1=_whiteborder|
leftarm1=FF0000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FF0000|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FF0000|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=000000|socks2=000000|
}}
'''Charlton Athletic Football Club''' are a [[Football (soccer)|football]] club from southeast [[London]]. The club was founded in [[1905]] and currently plays at [[The Valley (stadium)|The Valley]] in [[Charlton, Greenwich|Charlton]].
==History==
Charlton were formed in June 1905 - as a boys club in an area of Charlton which is no longer residential - near where the [[Thames Barrier|London Flood Barrier]] is now. During their formative years playing at the Valley there was a lack of facilities at the ground. They often used to use a local fishmonger/fish and chip shop as a place to get changed for games. This is where Charlton's famous nickname is derived from "addick" as a corruption of Haddock the main ware of this particular shop. Others claim the fishmonger nailed a haddock to a board and made a noise during games by slapping the two together this seems some what far fetched.
After success as a boys, amateur and semi-professional side, Charlton were elected to the Football League in 1921. They gained promotion to the First Division in [[1936]].
In [[1937]] Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in [[1938]] finished fourth and [[1939]] finished third. They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before [[World War II|WW2]]. This continued during the war years and they won the "war" cup and appeared in finals. They remained in the First Division, being finalists in the [[1946]] [[FA Cup]] and winning the [[FA Cup]] in [[1947]]. In this period of renewed football attendances - Charlton became one of only eleven English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season. The Valley was the largest football ground in the League, drawing crowds in excess of 70,000. In [[1957]], as their manager from 1932 Jimmy Seed was undermined by the then board, Charlton were relegated.
From the late [[1950s]] until the early [[1970s]], Charlton remained a mainstay of the Second Division. Relegation to the Third Division in [[1972]] caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in [[1975]] back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances.
However in 1974 and 1975 the Valley, Charlton's home ground hosted "[[The Who]]" in concerts attended by over 75,000 people.
In 1979/80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division winning immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980/81. Even though it did not feel like it; this was a turning point in the clubs history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile. A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems and the club looked like it would go out of business.
In [[1984]] financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd.
===Away from The Valley===
From 1985 Charlton played at [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]]'s football ground, Selhurst Park, as the team's financial situation prevented much-needed refurbishment of The Valley. Winning promotion to the First Division in [[1986]] did little to aid the failing club.
With the Valley falling in to disrepair
[[Image:Charlton7645Gallery.jpg|thumb|Valley In disrepair]]
In [[1990]], the club again faced relegation. That same year, club supporters formed their own political party in response to the [[London Borough of Greenwich]]'s refusal to allow the proposed stadium refurbishment. The Valley Party won 15,000 votes and was able to force the council to approve plans to renovate The Valley.
The next year, Charlton left [[Selhurst Park]] for [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]'s ground, [[Boleyn Ground|Upton Park]].
===Return to The Valley===
In [[1992]], at last, they returned to a new and improved Valley. Under the leadership of manager Alan Curbishley, Charlton returned to the top flight (now known as the [[FA Premier League|Premiership]]) in 1998, only to be relegated again on the last day of the season.
They returned to the Premiership in [[2000]], where they have remained since, having never finished below 14th place. After a poor start to the [[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002/03 season]], losing all of their first four home games, the team found its form with runs of four and five consecutive wins taking them up the table. Curbishley was rewarded for this success with the Manager of the Month award for February [[2003]]. In the same month the players [[Scott Parker (footballer)|Scott Parker]] and Paul Konchesky (both graduates of the club's youth academy) were selected for the [[England national football team|England]] squad for a friendly against [[Australia national football team|Australia]]. While only Konchesky actually played in the match, it was the first time ever that two Charlton players had been picked for the same England squad.
While Charlton remains a club with a reputation for spending its money sensibly, the current squad boasts an encouraging blend of quality players from home and abroad. In January 2004 Scott Parker was sold to |
trate that "the legal subordination of one sex to the other is wrong...and...one of the chief hindrances to human improvement."
Many countries began to grant women the [[suffrage|vote]] in the early years of the [[20th century]], especially in the final years of the [[World War I|First World War]] and the first years hence. The reasons varied, but they included a desire to recognize the contributions of women during the war, and were also influenced by rhetoric used by both sides at the time to justify their war efforts. For example, since [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s [[Fourteen Points]] recognized self determination as vital to society, the hypocrisy of denying half the population of modern nations the vote became difficult for men to ignore.
==Feminism in many forms==
Some forms of feminist theory question basic assumptions about gender, gender difference, and sexuality, including the category of "woman" itself as a [[holism|holistic]] concept, further some are interested in questioning the male/female binary completely (offering instead a multiplicity of genders). Other forms of feminist theory take for granted the concept of "woman" and provide specific analyses and critiques of [[gender]] [[inequality]], and most feminist social movements promote women's [[right]]s, interests, and issues. Feminism is not a single [[ideology]]. Over-time several sub-types of feminist ideology have developed. Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the [[first-wave feminism|first-wave feminists]], and feminists after about [[1960]] the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave feminists]]. More recently, a new generation of feminists have started [[third-wave feminism]]. Whether this will be a lasting evolution remains to be seen as the second-wave has by no means ended nor has it ceded to the third-wave feminists. Moreover, some commentators have asserted that the [[Silent Majority|silent]] majority of modern feminists have more in common ideologically with the first-wave feminists than the second-wave. For example, many of the ideas arising from [[Radical feminism]] and [[Gender feminism]] (prominent second-wave movements) have yet to gain traction within the broader community and outside of Gender Studies departments within the academy.
In her book ''A Fearful Freedom: Women's Flight from Equality'', [[Wendy Kaminer]] identifies another conflict between forms of feminism, the conflict between what she calls "egalitarian" and "protectionist" feminism. In her characterization, egalitarian feminists focus on promoting equality between women and men, and giving women and men equal [[rights]]. Protectionist feminists prefer to focus on legal protections for women, such as [[labor law|employment laws]] that specially protect female workers and [[divorce]] laws that seem to favor women, sometimes advocating restricting rights for men, such as [[free speech]] (specifically, the right to produce and consume pornography). Though the book predates third-wave feminism, Kaminer identifies both protectionist and egalitarian currents within first-wave feminism and second-wave feminism.
Some radical feminists advocate [[separatism]]&mdash;a complete separation of male and female in society and culture&mdash;while others question not only the relationship between men and women, but the very meaning of "man" and "woman" as well (see [[Queer theory]]). Some argue that [[gender role]]s, [[gender identity]], and sexuality are themselves [[social constructionism|social constructs]] (see also [[heteronormativity]]). For these feminists, feminism is a primary means to human liberation (i.e., the liberation of men as well as women.)
Other feminists believe that there may be social problems separate from or prior to patriarchy (e.g., racism or class divisions); they see feminism as one movement of liberation among many, each affecting the others.
The various types of feminism include:
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[Egalitarian]] forms:
** [[equity feminism]]
** [[individualist feminism]]
** [[liberal feminism]]
* [[Gynocentrism|Gynocentric]] forms:
** [[cultural feminism]]
** [[gender feminism]]
** [[radical feminism]]
* Belief in oppression by patriarchy:
** [[anarcha-feminism]]
** [[French feminism]]
** [[radical feminism]]
* Belief in oppression by capitalism:
**[[socialist feminism]]
** [[Marxist feminism]]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* Differences are solely or mostly cultural, not biological:
** [[Amazon feminism]]
** [[psychoanalytical feminism|psychoanalytic feminism]]
* Segregationalist:
** [[lesbian feminism]] ([[Lesbian separatism]])
** [[separatist feminism]]
* African-American
** [[Black Feminism]]
** [[Womanism]]
* non-Western:
** [[third-world feminism]]
** [[Postcolonial feminism|post-colonial feminism]]
* [[pro-sex feminism]] (also known as sexually liberal feminism, sex-positive feminism)
<p></p>
|}
===Subtypes of feminism===
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[Amazon feminism]]
* [[Anarcha-Feminism]]
* [[Anti-racist feminism]]
* [[cultural feminism]]
* [[ecofeminism]]
* [[equity feminism]]
* [[existentialist feminism]]
* [[French feminism]]
* [[gender feminism]]
* [[individualist feminism]] (also known as libertarian feminism)
* [[lesbian feminism]]
* [[liberal feminism]]
* male feminism or [[Pro-feminist men]]
* [[Marxist feminism]] (also known as socialist feminism)
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* [[material feminism]]
* [[pop feminism]]
* [[Postcolonial feminism|post-colonial feminism]]
* [[postmodern feminism]] which includes [[queer theory]]
* [[pro-sex feminism]] (also known as sexually liberal feminism, sex-positive feminism)
* [[psychoanalytical feminism|psychoanalytic feminism]]
* [[radical feminism]]
* [[separatist feminism]]
* [[socialist feminism]]
* [[spiritual feminism]]
* [[standpoint feminism]]
* [[third-world feminism]]
* [[transnational feminism]]
* [[transfeminism]]
* [[womanism]]
* Certain actions, approaches and people can also be described as [[proto-feminism|proto-feminist]] or [[post-feminism|post-feminist]].
<p></p>
|}
Although many leaders of feminism have been women, not all feminists are women. Some feminists argue that men should not take positions of leadership in the movement, because men, having been socialized to aggressively seek positions of power or direct the agendas within a leadership hierarchy, would apply this tendency to feminist organizations; or that women, having been socialized to defer to men, would be hindered in developing or expressing their own self-leadership in working too closely with men. However, some feminists do believe that men should be accepted as leaders in the movement. Compare [[pro-feminism]], [[humanism]], [[masculism]].
Today, some young women associate "feminism" with radical and gender feminism, and this has put off some of these women from being active in feminism, spurring a move away from [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] labels. However, the basic values of feminism (women's rights and gender equality for women) have become so integrated into Western culture as to be accepted overwhelmingly as valid, and non-conformity to those values characterized as unacceptable, by the same men and women who reject the label "feminist".
==Relationship to other movements==
Some feminists take a holistic approach to politics, believing the saying of [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], "A threat to justice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere". In that belief, some self-identified feminists support other movements such as the [[civil rights]] movement and the [[gay rights movement]]. At the same time, many black feminists such as [[bell hooks]] criticize the movement for being dominated by white women. Feminist claims about the alleged disadvantages women face in Western society are often less relevant to the lives of black women. This idea is the key in [[postcolonial feminism]]. Many black feminist women prefer the term [[womanism]] for their views.
Feminists are sometimes wary of the [[transgender]] movement because it challenges the distinctions between men and women. Transgender and [[transsexual]] individuals who identify as female are excluded from some "[[Women-only spaces|women-only]]" gatherings and events and are rejected by some feminists, who say that no one born male can fully understand the oppression that women face. This exclusion is criticized as "[[transphobic]]" by transgender people, who assert their political and social struggles are closely linked to many feminist efforts, and that discrimination against gender-variant people is another face of the so-called [[patriarchy]]. See [[transfeminism]] and [[gender studies]].
==Effects of feminism in the West==
Some feminists would argue that there is still much to be done on these fronts, while others would disagree and claim that the battle has basically been won.
===Effects on civil rights===
[[Image:Opposed to suffrage.jpg|right|frame|Securing women's suffrage has been a defining issue for the feminist movement.]]
Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including [[women's suffrage]]; broad employment for women at more equitable wages; the right to initiate [[divorce]] proceedings and the introduction of "no fa |
ie||4-sided die
|}
A large number of different [[probability distribution]]s can be obtained using these
dice in various ways; for example, [[10-sided dice|10-sided dice]] (or 20-sided dice labeled with single digits) are often used in pairs to produce a linearly-distributed random percentage. Summing multiple dice approximates a [[normal distribution]] (a "bell curve"),
while eliminating high or low throws can be used to skew the distribution in various ways.
Using these techniques, games can closely approximate the real probability distributions
of the events they simulate.
There is some controversy over whether manufacturing processes create genuinely "fair" dice (dice that roll with even distributions over their number span). [[Casino]] dice are legally required to be fair; those used by all others hold no such requirement.
Spherical dice also exist; these function like the plain cubic dice, but have an octahedral internal cavity in which a weight moves which causes them to settle in one of six orientations when rolled.
[[Cowry]] shells or [[coin]]s may be used as a kind of two-sided dice ("d2"). (Because of their shape, cowry shells probably do not yield a [[uniform distribution]].)
=== Standard variations ===
[[Image:BluePlatonicDice.jpg|frame|center|A matched Platonic-solids set of five dice, (from left) tetrahedron (d4), cube (d6), octahedron (d8), dodecahedron (d12) and icosahedron (d20).]]
The most common non-cubical dice &mdash; often sold in sets of five or six that are each differently shaped but with the same pair of background and marking colors &mdash; include one each of the five [[Platonic solid]]s, which are highly symmetrical. The six-die versions add the pentagonal [[trapezohedron]], in which the faces (identical to one another as to angles and edge lengths) each have two different lengths of side, and three different sizes of angle; the corners at which multiple faces meet are also of two different kinds.
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|-
!Type
! colspan="2"|Shape
![[Platonic solid|Platonic]]?!!Notes
|-
|[[Four-sided dice|d4]]||[[tetrahedron]]||[[image:Tetrahedron.jpg|30px|Tetrahedron]]
|Yes||Each face has three numbers: they are arranged such that the upright number (which counts) is the same on all three visible faces. Alternatively, all of the sides have same number in the lowest edge and no number on the top. This die does not roll well and thus it is usually thrown into the air instead.
|-
|d6||[[Cube (geometry)|cube]]||[[image:Hexahedron.jpg|30px|Cube]]||Yes||A common die. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is seven.
|-
|d8||[[octahedron]]||[[image:Octahedron.jpg|30px|Octahedron]]||Yes||Each face is triangular; looks something like two Egyptian [[pyramid]]s attached at the base. Usually, the sum of the opposite faces is 9.
|-
|[[Ten-sided die|d10]]||[[pentagonal trapezohedron]]||[[image:Trapezohedron5.jpg|30px|Pentagonal trapezohedron]]||No||Each face is [[Geometric kite|kite-shaped]]; five of them meet at the same sharp corner (as at the top of the diagram in this row), and five at another equally sharp one; about halfway between them, a different group of three faces converges at each of ten blunter corners. The ten faces usually bear numbers from zero to nine, rather than one to ten, and often all [[odd number]]ed faces converge at the same sharp corner, and the [[even number|even]] ones at the other.
|-
|d12||[[dodecahedron]]||[[image:Dodecahedron.jpg|30px|Dodecahedron]]||Yes||Each face is a regular pentagon.
|-
|d20||[[icosahedron]]||[[image:Icosahedron.jpg|30px|Icosahedron]]||Yes||Faces are [[equilateral triangle]]s. Typically, opposite faces add to twenty-one.
|}
=== Rarer variations ===
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|-
!Type!!Shape!!Notes
|-
|d2
|[[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]]
|A d2 is not really a die, and is nothing more than a coin shape with 1 marked on one side and 2 on the other. While some tasks in roleplaying require flipping a coin, it is usually refered to as such, and not as rolling a d2. It is possible, however, to find d2's of this sort for purchase, but they are rare, and can typically be found among other joke dice. More frequently, "d2" is rolled by rolling 1d6 with odd-numbered results representing "1" and even-numbered results representing "2".
|-
|d3
|[[Triangular prism]]
|An extremely rare type of die, the d3 is essentially a rounded-off triangular prism, intended to be rolled like a rolling-pin style die. The die is rounded-off at the edges to make it impossible for it to somehow land on the triangular sides, which makes it look a bit like a jewel. When the die is rolled, one edge (rather than a side) appears facing upwards. On either side of each edge the same number is printed (from 1 to 3). The numbers on either side of the up-facing edge are read as the result of the die roll. In addition to this type of "true" d3 it is also possible to find six-sided dice which just repeat the numbers from 1 to 3 twice. This type of die is just as fair, easier to roll, and much more common than "true" d3's. Another possible shape is the "[[American Football]]" or "[[Rugby ball]]" shape, where the ends are pointed (with rounded points) rather than just rounded. In most games a standard d6 is used with half of the value (rounded up) being used, effectively 1 and 2 being 1, 3 and 4 being 2 and 5 and 6 being 3.
|-
|d7
|[[Pentagonal prism]]
|A rare die type, thick enough to land either on its "edge" or "face". When landing on an edge, the topmost edge has pips for 1&ndash;5. The pentagonal faces are labeled with the digits 6 and 7. Such dice are used in a [[Seven-Sided Backgammon |seven-player variant]] of [[backgammon]]. Some variants have [[heptagon|heptagonal]] ends and rectangular faces. The faces are labeled 1 through 7.
|-
|d12
|[[rhombic dodecahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of a [[rhombus]].
|-
|d16
|[[octagon|octagonal]] [[bipyramid|dipyramid]]
|Each face is in the shape of an [[isosceles triangle]].
|-
|d24
|[[tetrakis hexahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of an [[isosceles triangle]].
|-
|d24
|[[deltoidal icositetrahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of a [[geometric kite]].
|-
|d30
|[[rhombic triacontahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of a [[rhombus]] (diamond-shaped).
|-
|d100<br />d%
|[[Zocchihedron]]
|This name is a trademark; true d100s are rare, and they are often [[nickname]]d [[death star]]s due to a passing resemblance to the ''[[Star Wars]]'' structure. Two d10s can substitute for a d100, especially if one has sides labeled 00, 10, 20, &hellip; 90. Use of this die, (or a replacement such as two different-colored d10s with there being a convention among players as to which of them will count as "tens" and which as "ones") is referred to as a [[percentile]] roll (d%).
|}
The full geometric set of "uniform fair dice" (with all congruent sides) are:
* [[Platonic solid]]s: 5 regular polyhedra: (4, 6, 8, 12, 20 sides)
* [[Catalan solid]]s: 13 [[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]] duals: (12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides)
* [[Bipyramid]]s: infinite set of [[Prism (geometry)|prism]] duals, triangle faces: (6, 8, 10, 12, ... sides)
* [[Trapezohedron]]s: infinite set of [[antiprism]] duals, kite faces: (6, 8, 10, 12, ... sides)
Often the names of the dice appear in formulas for calculating game parameters: e.g., hit points. '6d8+10', for example, will yield a number between 16 (6&times;1+10) and 58 (6&times;8+10), as it means 'Roll an eight-sided die six times and add ten to the total of all the rolls'. Occasionally they may be written '10&times;d6+20' or '1d6&times;10+20'; this means 'roll one six-sided die. Multiply it by ten and add twenty', and avoids boring repetitive dice-rolling at the expense of reducing the number of possible results (i.e., 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 are the only possible outcomes) compared to rolling the die 10 times (yielding any number between 30 and 80).
=== Application in role-playing games ===
[[Image:DnD Dice Set.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Full set of matching dice used in roleplaying: a d4, d6, d8, d12, d20, and two d10s for percentile: ones and tens.]]
The [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]] ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' introduced the use of polyhedral dice during modern times and paved the way for their use in other role-playing games, using 20, 12, 10, 8 and 4 sided dice in addition to the traditional 6 sided die.
Players use polyhedral dice together in a number of ways. For example, often a d10 is used in conjunction with a d6 instead of using a d20. If the d6 displays a 1, 2 or 3, the number on the d10 is resolved as 1&ndash;10. If the d6 displays a 4, 5 or 6, the number shown on the d10 is resolved to 11-20 ("1" is 11, "2" is 12, etc.). In cases like this, almost any sided die can be used as a "resolver".
Two d10 are often used to generate a number between 1 and 100. When tossing these dice, the player indicates which die is "high" (representing the tens position).
== Use of dice for divination ==
Some people believe that dice can be used for [[divination]]. Using dice for such a purpose is called [[cleromancy]]. A pair of standard 6-sided dice is generally used.
Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination, using the concepts of [[astrology]] and containing astrological symbols for the [[planets]], the [[zodiac]] signs and the [[astrological houses]]. The first die represents planets, the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], and two [[nodes]] (North Node and South Node). The second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses. In simplified terms, the planets, etc. co |
citation from the Lotus Sutra, where a large number of Bikkhus are said to have walked out of the discourse. We are told early on in the Sutra that there are more than 20,000 Bikshus and Bikhunis present (as well as many thousands of Bodhisattvas). Very early on 5,000 'haughty' Bikshus get up and leave. This shocking behaviour certainly represents something - but it cannot represent the Hinayana tradition, as the majority of Bikshus remain; what it probably represents were a minority of followers of Nikaya schools who were attempting to defame and denigrate the early Mahayana. It appears that there were many Nikaya practitioners who did not wish to criticise or denigrate the new Mahayana movement, indicated by the majority of Bikshus who remained throughout the discourse.
It is hard to come to a conclusion on the issue of pejorativeness. We can find Mahayana Sutras and traditions which repeatedly admonish the trainee Bodhisattva not to criticise any of the Buddhist schools. The mere fact that there is such a strong admonishment against criticising the Hinayana indicates a degree of defensiveness on behalf of the Mahayana regarding this issue.
Lotus Sutra (Ch.14):
:''A bodhisattva [...] does not hold other Buddhists in contempt, not even those who follow the Hinayana path, nor does he cause them to have doubts or regrets by criticizing their way of practice or making discouraging remarks.''
By the 3rd Century CE, in the ethics chapter of Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi, we find an explicit injunction not to criticise or reject the Hinayana texts or traditions, where Trainee Bodhisattvas are instructed not to "disparage the Hinayana, or over-encourage others to learn Mahayana".
Candragomin wrote a very influential twenty verse summary of Asanga's Ethics, written or summarised as a set of vows to be taken by a trainee Bodhisattve. The 15th Verse (derived from Asanga's chapter on ethics) cites "rejecting the Sravakayana" as a root downfall. Candragomin's vows were adopted by the Indo-Tibetan Mahayana tradition via [[Atisha]], and are still used today by the [[Gelugpa]] and [[Kagyupa]] schools.
The 18,000 verse perfection of wisdom sutra (an early Madhyamaka Mahayana sutra) states:
''Bodhisattvas should practice all paths - whatever is a path of a sravaka, a pratyeka or a Buddha - and should know all paths.''
in the opening verses of the Vimalakirti Sutra:
''Reverence to all Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Aryasravakas, and Pratyekabuddhas, in the past, the present, and the future'' and
''[...] Of bhikshus there were eight thousand, all arhats. They were free from impurities and afflictions, and all had attained self-mastery. Their minds were entirely liberated by perfect knowledge [...]''
So, certainly in the early centuries CE, the Mahayana tradition was doing its best not to criticise or condemn the Hinayana vehicles.
==Hinayana and Theravada==
Concerning the distinctions between Hinayana and Theravada, Dr. Rahula, a prominent buddhist teacher, says the following:
"''Between the 1st Century B.C. to the 1st Century A.D., the two terms Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law.''
''About the 2nd Century A.D. Mahayana became clearly defined. Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata and proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. About the 4th Century, there were Asanga and Vasubandhu who wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. After the 1st Century AD., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.''
''We must not confuse Hinayana with Theravada because the terms are not synonymous. Theravada Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century B.C. when there was no Mahayana at all. Hinayana sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hinayana sect in existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the World Fellowship of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped when referring to Buddhism existing today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief history of Theravada, Mahayana and Hinayana.''" -Dr. Rahula, ''Gems of Buddhist Wisdom''
==Etymology==
The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1899), gives a translation of 'Hinayana' as:
''Proper Noun: "simpler or lesser vehicle. Name of the earliest system of Buddhist doctrine (opposite to [[Mahayana]]; see [[Yana]])." and
'hīna' is defined in the same dictionary as follows:
:hīná mfn. left, abandoned, forsaken RV.
*left behind, excluded or shut out from, lower or weaker than, inferior to (abl.) Mn. MBh. &c. [Page 1296, Column 3]
*left out, wanting, omitted MBh.
*defeated or worsted (in a lawsuit) Yājñ.
*deficient, defective, faulty, insufficient, short, incomplete, poor, little, low, vile, bad, base, mean ŚBr. &c. &c
*bereft or deprived of, free from, devoid or destitute of, without (instr., abl., loc., acc., or comp
*prâṇair hīnaḥ, 'bereft of breath or life'
*mantrād or mantrato h○, 'devoid of sacred knowledge') MuṇḍUp. KātyŚr. Mn. MBh. &c
*lost or strayed from (a caravan) Pāṇ. i, 4, 23 Kāś.
*brought low, broken down in circumstances ŚrS.
*m. a faulty or defective witness (of five kinds, viz. anya-vādin, kriyā-dveṣin, nôpasthāyin, nir-uttara, āhūsa-prapalâyin) Yājñ. Sch.
*subtraction (= = vyavakalana) MW.
*Mesua Ferrea L.
*(ā), f. a female mouse (wṛ. for dīna) L.
*(am), n. deficiency, want, absence (velā-hīne 'before the right time', unseasonably') VarBṛS. Yājñ.''
According to Pali Text Society Dictionary, the word 'hina' is defined:
Hina:
1. inferior, low; poor, miserable; vile, base, abject, contemptible, despicable
2. deprived of, wanting, lacking
An argument used by those who consider Hinayana to be pejorative is based on the fact that if the term was to mean 'Small or Lesser vehicle', then the term chosen would have been, "Culla" or in Sanskrit "Ksulla=ksudra" giving us Ksudrayana - though 'ksudra' has also had a history of being used in a somewhat pejorative manner.
==See also==
*[[Early Buddhist Schools]]
*[[Nikaya Buddhism]]
*[[Mahayana]]
*[[Yana (Buddhism)|Yana]]
*[[Theravada]]
==Bibliography==
* [[Romila Thapar]], ''Early India from the Origins to AD 1300'' Penguin, 2001
* [[Tsongkhapa]], ''The great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment'', Snowlion, 2000
* Paul Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989
* Andrew Skilton, ''Concise history of Buddhism''. Windhorse, 1999
* Donald Lopez, "The H Word", ''Tricycle: The Buddhist Review'', Fall 1995, pp84-85
* R. S. Cohen, "Discontented Categories: Hinayana and Mahayana in Indian History", ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', 63(1):1-25, 1995
* Ryukan Kimura, ''A Historical Study of the Terms Hinayana and Mahayana and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism'', Indological Book Corp., 1978
==External links==
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/theramaya.html "Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism"] Dr. W. Rahula's article
* [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/ebdha140.htm "The myth of Hinayana"] discusses the origins of the term Hinayana and why it should be avoided
[[de:Hinayana]]
[[eo:Hinajano]]
[[fr:Bouddhisme hînayâna]]
[[nl:Hinayana]]
[[pl:Hinajana]]
[[ru:Хинаяна]]
[[fi:Hinajana]]
[[sv:Hinayana]]
[[vi:Tiểu thừa]]
[[zh:&#23567;&#20056;&#20315;&#25945;]]
[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Branches of Buddhism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical Wikipedia Pages</title>
<id>14037</id>
<revision>
<id>40654865</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T02:25:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CesarB</username>
<id>7410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>change to {{softredirect}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{softredirect|meta:Historical Wikipedia pages}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical Wikipedia Pages/OldWikiPediaLogo</title>
<id>14038</id>
<revision>
<id>15911619</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-31T08:47:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Historical Wikipedia pages/OldWikiPediaLogo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical Wikipedia Pages/WhichWikiShouldWeUse</title>
<id>14041</id>
<revision>
<id>15911620</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-31T08:51:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Historical Wikipedia pages/WhichWikiShouldWeUse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical Wikipedia Pages/ArbitratryLinkingDiscussion</title>
<id>14042</id>
<revision>
<id>15911621</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-31T08:55:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Historical Wikipedia pages/ArbitraryLinkingDiscussion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical Wikipedia Pages/WikiPediaReasonable</title>
<id>14043</id>
<revision>
<id>40654919</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T02:25:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CesarB</username>
<id>7410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>change to {{softredirect}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{softredirect|meta:Historica |
amp;nbsp;- Total (2005)
<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 50th]]
<br> 21,029,853
<br> 87/km&sup2;
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (PPP)
<br>&nbsp;- Total ([[Year]])
<br>&nbsp;- GDP/head
| [[List of countries by GDP|Ranked 73rd]]
<br>$54,330,000
<br> $2,601
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.520 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|138th]]) – <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[Cedi]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], no ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST]])
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''
| [[6 March]] [[1957]], from the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| "[[God Bless Our Homeland, Ghana]]"
|-
| '''[[National Motto]]'''
| "[[Freedom & Justice]]"
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.gh]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 233
|}{{wiktionarypar|Ghana}}
{{otheruses}}
The '''Republic of Ghana''' is a nation in [[Africa]]. It borders the [[Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] to the west, [[Burkina Faso]] in the north and [[Togo]] to the east. It was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient kingdoms, including an inland Ashanti kingdom and various Fante states along the coast. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established a crown colony, Gold Coast, in 1874. Ghana became independent in 1957. [[Accra]] is the capital and largest city. The country's population in 2005 was 21,029,853. It was the first African country to obtain its independence from the British Empire.
==Name==
Upon achieving independence from the [[United Kingdom]], the name "Ghana" was chosen for the new nation&mdash;a reference to the [[Ghana Empire]] of earlier centuries. This name is mostly symbolic, as the ancient Empire of Ghana was located to the north and west of current-day Ghana. The name was adopted as a reference to the descendants of the ancient Empire of Ghana who migrated south and east and currently reside in Ghana.
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Ghana]]''
Formed from the merger of the British colony [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] and the [[British Togoland]] trust territory by a U.N. sponsored plebiscite, Ghana in [[1957]] became the first sub-saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. In 1956 Sudan gained its independence, but it was actually considered Saharan even though it is part of sub-saharan Africa. Therefore, Sudan was actually the first to achieve independence from colonial powers, but Ghana is considered the first sub-saharan African country to gain independence. A long series of coups ended with the ascension to power of Lieutenant [[Jerry Rawlings]] in 1981. His changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in [[1981]] and the banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoring multiparty politics, was approved in [[1992]], and [[Rawlings]] was elected in free elections of that year and also in 1996. The constitution prohibited him from running for a third term. [[John Agyekum Kufuor|John Kufuor]], the current president, is now in his second term.
==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Ghana]]''
Ghana is a republic within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Its head of state is an elected president (currently John Kufuor) with executive powers. The [[Parliament of Ghana]] is [[wiktionary:unicameral|unicameral]] and dominated by two main parties, the [[New Patriotic Party]] and [[National Democratic Congress (Ghana)|National Democratic Congress]]. [[Kofi Annan]], the current Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]], is from Ghana.
* [[List of Presidents of Ghana]]
* [[List of political parties in Ghana]]
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Ghana]]''
Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in [[West Africa]]. Even so, Ghana remains heavily dependent on international financial and technical assistance. [[Gold]], [[timber]], and [[cocoa]] production are major sources of foreign exchange.
The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 40% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] and employs 60% of the work force, mainly small landholders. In 1995-97, Ghana made mixed progress under a three-year structural adjustment program in cooperation with the [[IMF]]. On the minus side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the [[cedi]], and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures.
==Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Ghana]]''
Ghana is divided into 10 [[region]]s:
{| border="0" cellspacing="5"
|-
|
* [[Ashanti (region)|Ashanti]]
|
* [[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong Ahafo]]
|
* [[Central Region, Ghana|Central]]
|
* [[Eastern Region, Ghana|Eastern]]
|
* [[Greater Accra Region|Greater Accra]]
|-
|
* [[Northern Region, Ghana|Northern]]
|
* [[Upper East Region|Upper East]]
|
* [[Upper West Region|Upper West]]
|
* [[Volta Region|Volta]]
|
* [[Western Region, Ghana|Western]]
|}
== Geography ==
[[Image:Ghana Map.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Ghana]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Ghana]]''
Ghana is located on the [[Gulf of Guinea]], only a few degrees north of the [[Equator]]. It is roughly the size of the state of [[Oregon]]. The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams. A tropical rain forest belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extends northward from the shore. North of this belt, the land is covered by low bush, park-like savanna, and grassy plains.
The climate is [[tropical climate|tropical]]. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry (see [[Dahomey Gap]]); the southwest corner, hot and humid; and the north, hot and dry. [[Lake Volta]], the largest reservoir in the world, extends through large portions of eastern Ghana.
The capital is [[Accra]]....
=== Main cities ===
Other cities include (see also [[:Category:Cities in Ghana|Cities in Ghana]]):
*[[Asamankese]]
*[[Sunyani]]
*[[Bolgatanga]]
*[[Cape Coast]] - home of [[Cape Coast Castle]] and [[University of Cape Coast]]
*[[Elmina]] - home of [[Elmina Castle]]
*[[Ho (Ghana)|Ho]]
*[[Kumasi]] - ([[Rail transport|rail]] [[Junction (rail)|junction]])
*[[Nsawam]] - (rail junction)
*[[Takoradi]] - port - [[railhead]]
*[[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]]
*[[Tarkwa]] - (rail junction)
*[[Tema]] - port - railhead
*[[Wa]]
*[[Odumase-Krobo]]
*[[Somanya]]
*[[Kpong]] -(Hydroelectric Dam)
*[[Akosombo]]-(Hydroelectric Dam)
*[[Akim-Manso]]
==Culture==
[[Image:kenteweaving.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A man weaves kente cloth using a traditional loom in Bonwire village, Ashanti region, Ghana.]]
Perhaps the most visible (and most marketable) cultural contribution from modern Ghana is ''[[Kente]]'' cloth, which is widely recognized and valued for its colors and symbolism. Kente cloth is made by skilled Ghanaian weavers, and the major weaving centers in and around [[Kumasi]] (Bonwire is known as the home of Kente, though areas of [[Volta]] Region also lay claim to the title) are full of weavers throwing their shuttles back and forth as they make long strips of Kente. These strips can then be sewn together to form the larger wraps which are worn by some Ghanaians (chiefs especially) and are purchased by tourists in [[Accra]] and Kumasi. The colors and patterns of the Kente are carefully chosen by the weaver and the wearer. Each symbol woven into the cloth has a special meaning within Ghanaian culture.
Kente is one of the symbols of the Ghanaian [[chieftaincy]], which remains strong throughout the country, particularly in the areas populated by members of the culturally- and politically-dominant [[Ashanti]] tribe. The Ashanti's chief, known as the Asantehene, is perhaps the most revered individual in the central part of the country. Like other Ghanaian chiefs, he wears bright Kente, gold bracelets, rings and [[amulets]], and is always accompanied by numerous ornate umbrellas (which are also a symbol of the chieftaincy itself). The most sacred symbol of the Ashanti people is the Golden Stool, a small golden [[throne]] in which the spirit of the people is said to reside. It is kept in safekeeping in Kumasi, the cultural capital of the Ashanti people and the seat of the Asantehene's palace. Though the chieftaincy across Ghana has been weakened by allegations of corruption and cooperation with colonial oppression, it remains a very vital institution in Ghana.
After Independence, the Ghanaian music scene flourished, particularly the up-tempo, danceable style known as ''[[high life]]'', which is still played consistently at the local clubs and bars, often called ''spots''. Many Ghanaians are adept drummers, and it is not unusual to hear traditional drum ensembles play at social events or performances.
==Education==
Ghana has 12,630 primary schools, 5,450 junior secondary schools, 503 senior secondary schools, 21 training colleges, 18 technical institutions, two diploma-awarding institutions and five universities serving a population of 17 million; this means that most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to good education. In contrast, at the time of independence in 1957, Ghana had only one university and a handful of secondary and primary schools. In the past decade, Ghana's spending on education has been between 28 percent and 40 percent of its annual budget.
Primary and middle school education is free and will be mandatory when enough teachers and facilities are available to accommodate all students. Students begin their 6-year primary education at age six. Under educational reforms implemented in 1 |
ader in the [[American Indian Movement]], has repeatedly stated that he is "an anarchist, and so are all [his] ancestors."
In 1793, in the thick of the [[French Revolution]], [[William Godwin]] published ''An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice'' [http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html]. Although Godwin did not use the word ''anarchism'', many later anarchists have regarded this book as the first major anarchist text, and Godwin as the "founder of philosophical anarchism." But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term ''anarchiste'' was known mainly as an insult hurled by the [[bourgeois]] [[Girondins]] at more radical elements in the [[French revolution]].
==The first self-labelled anarchist==
[[Image:Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon.jpg|110px|thumb|left|Pierre Joseph Proudhon]]
{{main articles|[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Mutualism (economic theory)]]}}
It is commonly held that it wasn't until [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] published ''[[What is Property?]]'' in 1840 that the term "anarchist" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In [[What is Property?]] Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "[[Property is theft]]." In this work he opposed the institution of decreed "property" (propriété), where owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish, such as exploiting workers for profit.<ref name="proudhon-prop">[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], Pierre-Joseph. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]"'' from ''"[[What is Property?]]"'', 1840</ref> In its place Proudhon supported what he called 'possession' - individuals can have limited rights to use resources, capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice.
Proudhon's vision of anarchy, which he called [[mutualism]] (mutuellisme), involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the products of their labor using ''labor notes'' which represented the amount of working time involved in production. This would ensure that no one would profit from the labor of others. Workers could freely join together in co-operative workshops. An interest-free bank would be set up to provide everyone with access to the means of production. Proudhon's ideas were influential within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the [[Revolution of 1848]] in France.
Proudhon's philosophy of property is complex: it was developed in a number of works over his lifetime, and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas. ''For more detailed discussion see [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|here]].''
==Max Stirner's Egoism==
{{main articles|[[Max Stirner]] and [[Egoism]]}}
In his ''The Ego and Its Own'' Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society - were mere illusions or ''ghosts'' in the mind, saying of society that "the individuals are its reality." He advocated egoism and a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." And, "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing."
Stirner never called himself an anarchist - he accepted only the label 'egoist'. Nevertheless, his ideas were influential on many individualistically-inclined anarchists, although interpretations of his thought are diverse.
==American individualist anarchism==
[[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]]
{{main articles|[[Individualist anarchism]] and [[American individualist anarchism]]}}
In 1825 [[Josiah Warren]] had participated in a [[communitarian]] experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called [[New Harmony]], which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren blamed the community's failure on a lack of [[individual sovereignty]] and a lack of private property. Warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called "the sovereignty of the individual" at [[Utopia (anarchist community)|Utopia]] and [[Modern Times]]. In 1833 Warren wrote and published ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published. Benjamin Tucker says that Warren "was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism." (''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1)
[[Benjamin Tucker]] became interested in anarchism through meeting Josiah Warren and [[William B. Greene]]. He edited and published ''Liberty'' from August 1881 to April 1908; it is widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language. Tucker's conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists: Greene's ideas on [[mutualism|mutual banking]]; Warren's ideas on [[cost the limit of price|cost as the limit of price]] (a [[heterodox economics|heterodox]] variety of [[labour theory of value]]); [[Proudhon]]'s market anarchism; [[Max Stirner]]'s [[egoism]]; and, [[Herbert Spencer]]'s "law of equal freedom". Tucker strongly supported the individual's right to own the product of his or her labour as "[[private property]]", and believed in a <ref name="tucker-pay">[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker]], Benjamin. ''"[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/tucker/tucker37.htm Labor and Its Pay]"'' Individual Liberty: Selections From the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker, Vanguard Press, New York, 1926, Kraus Reprint Co., Millwood, NY, 1973.</ref>[[market economy]] for trading this property. He argued that in a truly free market system without the state, the abundance of competition would eliminate profits and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor.
Other 19th century individualists included [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Victor Yarros]].
==The First International==
[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin 1814-1876]]]]
{{main articles|[[International Workingmen's Association]], [[Anarchism and Marxism]]}}
In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848. Twenty years later in 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]], sometimes called the 'First International', united some diverse European revolutionary currents including anarchism. Due to its genuine links to active workers movements the International became signficiant.
From the start [[Karl Marx]] was a leading figure in the International: he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association. The first objections to Marx came from the [[Mutualism|Mutualists]] who opposed communism and statism. Shortly after [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his followers joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. The clearest difference between the camps was over strategy. The anarchists around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." At that time Marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity.
Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[authoritarian]], and predicted that if a Marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref>[[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], Mikhail. ''"[http://www.litencyc.com/php/adpage.php?id=1969 Statism and Anarchy]"''</ref> In 1872 the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]]. This is often cited as the origin of the [[Anarchist_objections_to_marxism|conflict between anarchists and Marxists]]. From this moment the ''[[Social democracy|social democratic]]'' and ''[[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]]'' currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival [[List of left-wing internationals|'internationals'.]]
==Anarchist Communism==
{{main|Anarchist communism}}
[[Image:PeterKropotkin.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Peter Kropotkin]]
Proudhon and Bakunin both opposed [[communism]], associating it with statism. However, in the 1870s many anarchists moved away from Bakunin's economic thinking (called "collectivism") and embraced communist concepts. Communists believed the means of production should be owned collectively, and that goods be distributed by need, not labor. [http://nefac.net/node/157]
An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as "[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]".[http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/DejacqueJoseph.htm]<ref>[http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]])</ref> Unlike Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." He announced his ideas in his US published journal Le Libertaire (1858-1861).
Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. He felt co-operation is more beneficial than competition, illustrated in na |
used in commercial deep-sea [[breathing gas]] systems to reduce the risk of [[nitrogen narcosis]] (high pressure [[nitrogen]] having a [[narcotic]] effect on the [[brain]]) and [[oxygen toxicity]] at high pressures. Higher pressures require a greater proportion of helium and reduced amounts of nitrogen and oxygen (every ten-meter increase in depth yields a one atmosphere increase of pressure). ''[[Trimix]]'', a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and helium, and [[heliair]], a mixture of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] and helium, is also used in this way. Trimix is fast becoming the standard for technical diving deeper than 40 meters, and Heliox is now rarely used for non-commercial diving, due to the risk of [[high pressure nervous syndrome]]. Below 130 meters (430 ft) a mixture of hydrogen, helium, and oxygen called ''[[hydreliox]]'' is sometimes used to help prevent [[high pressure nervous syndrome]], but is quite rare, due to the explosive nature of hydrogen <!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 177 -->. All these uses rely on helium's very low solubility in water (the major component of blood).
The extremely low [[boiling point]] makes helium useful as a coolant in [[magnetic resonance imaging]], [[superconducting magnet]]s, [[cryogenics]], and to remove thermal noise from detectors used in [[astronomy]]. The extreme coldness of liquid helium is also used to produce [[superconductivity]] in some ordinary [[metal]]s such as [[lead]] (lead becomes superconductive at 7.3 K), allowing for a completely free flow of electrons in the metal.
Other uses:
* Because of its high thermal conductivity and inertness, helium is used as a coolant in some [[nuclear reactor]]s (for example, [[pebble-bed reactor]]s) and in [[arc welding]] air-sensitive metals that require heavy welds.
* The high thermal conductivity and sound velocity of helium is also desirable in [[thermoacoustic refrigeration]]. The inertness of helium adds to the environmental advantage of this technology over conventional refrigeration systems which may contribute to ozone depleting and global warming effects.
* Its inertness makes it useful as a protective gas in growing [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] crystals, in [[titanium]] and [[zirconium]] production, protecting important historical documents, and in [[gas chromatography]]. This property also makes it useful in pressurizing liquid fuel [[rocket]]s (see below) and in supersonic [[wind tunnel]]s.
* The [[laser construction| gain medium]] of the [[helium-neon laser]] (the first gas [[laser]]) most commonly used to scan [[bar code]]s is a mixture of helium and [[neon]]<!-- ref: ''Guide to the Elements'', page 24 -->.
*This gas' rate of [[diffusion]] through solids is three times that of normal air, making it an excellent component in leak detection in high-[[vacuum]] equipment and high pressure containers.
*In [[rocket]]ry, helium is used as an [[ullage motor|ullage]] medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and [[oxygen]] to make [[rocket fuel]]. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to precool liquid hydrogen in [[space vehicle]]s. For example, the [[Saturn 5]] booster used in the [[Apollo program]] needed about 13 million ft³ (370,000 m³) of helium to launch<!-- ref: LANL.gov -->.
*Physics researchers use [[alpha particle]]s (helium nuclei) in [[particle accelerator]]s and [[nuclear reaction]] experiments.
*Helium gas is used to fill the space between [[lens (optics)|lenses]] in some [[telescope]]s because its extremely low [[index of refraction]] reduces the distorting effect of temperature variations in the gas filling the telescope (some telescopes use [[vacuum]] in the telescope instead)<!--http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1983ApOpt..22...10E&amp;db_key=AST-->.
*[[Radioactive decay]] of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] produces [[alpha particle]]s that quickly become helium. This happens at a known constant rate so if the containing [[rock (geology)|rock]] or [[mineral]] can retain its helium then the [[ratio]] of helium to its radioactive parent [[atom]]s indicates its age. Alternatively, if the helium is not well-retained, the ratio of helium-3 to helium-4 contains some of the same information, since only helium-4 is produced by radioactive decay. Use of helium in this way is called [[helium dating]].
* Because helium alone is less dense than atmospheric air, it will increase the pitch of a person's voice when inhaled.
== History ==
===Discoveries===
Helium was [[discovery of the chemical elements| first detected]] on [[August 18]], [[1868]] as a bright yellow line with a [[wavelength]] of 587.49 nm in the [[spectroscopy| spectrum]] of the [[chromosphere]] of the [[Sun]], by French astronomer [[Pierre Janssen]] during a total [[solar eclipse]] in [[India]]. Janssen was at first ridiculed since no element had ever been detected in [[space]] before being found on [[Earth]]. [[October 20]]th the same year, English astronomer [[Norman Lockyer]] also observed the same yellow line in the solar spectrum and concluded that it was caused by an unknown element after unsuccessfully testing to see if it were some new type of hydrogen. Since it was near the Fraunhofer D line he later named the new line D<sub>3</sub>, distinguishing it from the nearby D<sub>1</sub> and D<sub>2</sub> double lines of [[sodium]]<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 256 -->. He and English chemist [[Edward Frankland]] named the element after the Greek word for the Sun god, ''[[Helios]]'', and, assuming it was a [[metal]], gave it an -ium ending (a mistake that was never corrected).
British chemist [[William Ramsay]] isolated helium on [[March 26]], [[1895]] by treating [[cleveite]] (now known to be [[uraninite]]) with mineral [[acid]]s. Ramsay was looking for [[argon]] but noticed the yellow D<sub>3</sub> line after he removed [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]] from the gas liberated by the [[sulfuric acid]] he put on the cleveite sample<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 -->. These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist [[William Crookes]]. It was independently isolated from cleveite the same year by Swedish chemists [[Per Teodor Cleve]] and [[Abraham Langlet]] in [[Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]]. They collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its [[atomic mass|atomic weight]]<!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 177 -->.
An [[oil drilling]] operation in [[Dexter, Kansas]] created a gas [[geyser]] in [[1903]] that would not burn. Two scientists from the University of Kansas, [[Erasmus Haworth]] and [[David McFarland]] took samples of the gas and found that it contained 72% nitrogen, 12% unknown gas, and only 15% combustible methane. Further analysis by McFarland and fellow chemist [[Hamilton Cady]] produced the astounding result that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium and they published a paper in [[1907]] saying that helium could be extracted from [[natural gas]]<!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 179 --> <!--ref: "http://acswebcontent.acs.org/landmarks/landmarks/helium/element.html"-->. Also in 1907, [[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Thomas Royds]] demonstrated that an [[alpha particle]] is a helium [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]].
Helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]] in [[1908]] in [[Leiden]] by cooling the gas to less than one [[kelvin]]. He tried to solidify it by reducing the temperature to 0.8 K but failed because helium does not have a [[triple point]] temperature where the solid, liquid and gas phases are at equilibrium<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 262 -->. It was first solidified in [[1926]] by his student [[Willem Hendrik Keesom]] who subjected helium to a similar amount of cooling as Kamerlingh Onnes but at 25 standard atmospheres of pressure.
In [[1938]], Russian physicist [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa]] discovered that liquid helium-4 has almost no [[viscosity]] at temperatures near [[absolute zero]], a phenomenon now called [[superfluid]]ity. In [[1972]], the same phenomenon was observed in liquid helium-3 by American physicists [[Douglas D. Osheroff]], [[David M. Lee]], and [[Robert C. Richardson]].
===Production and use===
Great quantities of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the American [[Great Plains]], putting the [[United States]] in a very good position to become the leading world supplier. Following a suggestion by Sir [[Richard Threlfall]], the [[United States Navy]] sponsored three small experimental helium production plants during [[World War I]]. The goal was to supply [[barrage balloon]]s with the non-flammable lifting gas. A total of 200,000 ft³ (5700 m³) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though only a few cubic feet (less than 100 liters) of the gas had previously been obtained<!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 -->. Some of this gas was used in the world's first helium-filled [[airship]], the U.S. Navy's [[C-7 (airship)|C-7]], which flew its maiden voyage from [[Hampton Roads, Virginia]] to [[Bolling Field]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[December 7]], [[1921]].
Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft. This use increased demand during World War II, as well as demands for shielded arc [[welding]]. Helium was also vital in the atomic bomb [[Manhattan Project]].
The [[government of the United States]] set up the [[National Helium Reserve]] in [[1925]] at [[Amarillo, Texas]] with the goal of supplying military [[airship]]s in time of [[war]] and commercial a |
ell as the history of the Holocaust.
==Content of the book==
In the foreword to this edition Finkelstein explains his aim:
:My concern in this book is not at all Swiss bankers or, for that matter, German industrialists. Rather, it is restoring the integrity of the historical record and the sanctity of the Jewish people's [[martyr]]dom. I deplore the Holocaust industry's corruption of history and memory in the service of an extortion racket.
The book's controversial thesis is that the memory of the Nazi genocide of Jews during WW-II was hijacked by a number of American Jewish organizations in the service of improper goals.
Among the specific charges Finkelstein documents are:
*That powerful Jewish groups are exploiting the tragedy of the Holocaust for political and financial gain.
*That numerous [[fraudsters]] are falsely claiming to be survivors of the Nazi Holocaust.
*That some attempts to redress the grievances of [[Judaism|Jewish]] Holocaust victims have been dishonest.
*That some agencies claiming to represent Holocaust survivors in [[reparations]] [[lawsuit|suit]]s have kept cash payments due the survivors.
*That many American Jews are not practicing [[Judaism]] but have replaced it with a dogma of [[fund-raising]] for Jewish causes.
A new, expanded [[edition]] of the book has been published.
==Reviews and critiques==
The critical response has been varied. In addition to prominent supporters, such as [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Alexander Cockburn]], especially notable is [[Raul Hilberg]], one of the most famous and distinguished [[Holocaust]] historians, whose multi-volume ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]'' is widely regarded as the first seminal study on the [[Jewish]] [[Holocaust]], has praised Finkelstein's book.
:When I read Finkelstein's book, The Holocaust Industry, at the time of its appearance, I was in the middle of my own investigations of these matters, and I came to the conclusion that he was on the right track. I refer now to the part of the book that deals with the claims against the Swiss banks, and the other claims pertaining to forced labor. I would now say in retrospect that he was actually conservative, moderate and that his conclusions are trustworthy. He is a well-trained political scientist, has the ability to do the research, did it carefully, and has come up with the right results. I am by no means the only one who, in the coming months or years, will totally agree with Finkelstein's breakthrough. [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20050711/wiener/2]
Others have said that Finkelstein misrepresents history, and that he promotes anti-Semitic stereoypes. Some prominent historians have denounced the book in harsh terms, though few have written detailed reviews.[http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=3&ar=11] However, in his review of ''The Holocaust Industry'' for ''[[The New York Times]]'', Omer Bartov, Professor of History and European History at Brown University, wrote:
:What I find so striking about ''The Holocaust Industry'' is that it is almost an exact copy of the arguments it seeks to expose. It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts, inner contradictions, strident politics and dubious contextualizations; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority.
: "There is something sad in this warping of intelligence, and in this perversion of moral indignation. There is also something indecent about it, something juvenile, self-righteous, arrogant and stupid...
:This book is, in a word, an ideological fanatic's view of other people's opportunism... Like any conspiracy theory, it contains several grains of truth; and like any such theory, it is both irrational and insidious. Finkelstein can now be said to have founded a Holocaust industry of his own.[http://www.anti-rev.org/textes/Bartov00a/index.html]
Andrew Ross [http://edition.cnn.com/2000/books/reviews/09/06/salon.review.holocaust/ reviewed] the book in Salon magazine and said about Finkelstein:
:On the issue of reparations, he barely acknowledges the wrongs committed by the Swiss and German institutions &mdash; the burying of Jewish bank accounts, the use of slave labor &mdash; that gave rise to the recent reparations drive. The fear that the reparations will not wind up in the hands of those who need and deserve them most is a legitimate concern. But the idea that survivors have been routinely swindled by Jewish institutions is a gross distortion. The chief reason why survivors have so far seen nothing of the $1.25 billion Swiss settlement, reached in [[1998]], is that U.S. courts have yet to rule on a method of distribution. On other reparations and compensation settlements, the Claims Conference, a particular bete noire of Finkelstein, says that it distributed approximately $220 million to individual survivors in [[1999]] alone.
Finkelstein responded to his critics in the foreword to the second edition:
:Mainstream critics allege that I conjured a "[[conspiracy theory]]" while those on the [[Left-wing politics|Left]] ridicule the book as a defense of "the [[bank]]s". None, so far as I can tell, question my actual findings.
==See also==
*[[Norman Finkelstein|Finkelstein's biography]] for more controversies surrounding both the book and his related statements.
*[[Nazi gold]]
*[[Claims Conference]]
[[Category:2000 books|Holocaust Industry, The]]
[[Category:Holocaust|Industry]]
[[Category:Political books|Holocaust Industry, The]]
[[Category:Books critical of Zionism|Holocaust Industry, The]]
[[es:La industria de Holocausto]]
[[pl:Przedsiębiorstwo Holocaust]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</title>
<id>13787</id>
<revision>
<id>41969827</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:21:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.181.48.47</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>revert: "magick" is not the proper spelling in the context of the GD.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article relates to the historical Golden Dawn of 1888. For modern groups and offshoots, see [[Golden Dawn tradition]].''
[[image:Slmathers.jpg|frame|[[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]], in [[Egypt]]ian costume, performs a ritual of [[Isis]] (not a Rite of the Golden Dawn).]]
The '''Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn''' (or "'''Golden Dawn'''", as it is commonly referred to) is a tradition of magical [[theurgy]] and spiritual development. It is probably the single greatest influence on [[20th century]] [[western civilization|western]] [[occultism]]. Concepts of magic and ritual that became core elements of many other traditions, including [[Wicca]], [[Thelema]] and other forms of magical [[spirituality]] popular today, are drawn from the Golden Dawn traditions.
Influences on Golden Dawn concepts and work include: [[Christian mysticism]], [[Kabbalah]], [[Hermeticism]], [[Paganism]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Theurgy]], [[Freemasonry]], [[Alchemy]], [[Theosophy]], [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Papus]], [[Enochian Magic]], and medieval [[grimoire]]s.
===Origins===
The original "Order of the Golden Dawn" was a [[magical organization|magical fraternity]] founded in [[London]] in [[1888]] by Dr. William Wynn Westcott, a London physician and municipal coroner. His partners were another physician, Dr. William R. Woodman, and [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]]. All three men were Freemasons. (However, sometime after becoming a member of the Golden Dawn, S.L. Macgregor Mathers became inactive in Freemasonry.) Dr. Woodman was the head of a reputable Rosicrucian fellowship made up of well respected, high ranking Masons in London. The three founders were also members of the [[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]] (S.R.I.A.), an exclusive lodge founded by the noted Grand Lodge Freemason Kenneth MacKenzie, author of The Royal Masonic Encyclopedia. The S.R.I.A. was established in 1866 with Lord Bulwer-Lytton as honorary patron. Important members included Frederick Hockley, who collected esoteric writing and engaged in practical experimentation; he is reliably known to have been taught by a pupil of Francis Barrett, and was a teacher of Kenneth MacKenzie. The Christian spiritualist leader Rev. William Stainton Moses was also a member of the S.R.I.A.
Westcott, also a member of the [[Theosophy|Theosophical]] Society, seems to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn. Woodman, as Supreme Magus of the S.R.I.A., was undoubtedly recruited to lend credibility to the new organization. Mathers was an antiquarian, translator, researcher and had a great talent for composing ritual works and integrating occult symbolism. In addition, Mathers insisted on women being allowed to participate in the Order in "perfect equality" with men. This was a marked change from the men-only tradition of Masonry. And unlike the S.R.I.A., which required its members to be Christian, the Golden Dawn was open to any man or woman who professed "belief in a Supreme Being or Beings".
===The Cipher Manuscripts===
According to its founders, the Golden Dawn was based on a charter from a supposedly ancient German Rosicrucian Lodge, which had written a coded record of their secret occult rituals into a document dubbed the [[Cipher Manuscripts]]. Westcott claimed to have acquired these mysterious manuscripts in 1886, from the effects of Reverend A. F. A. Woodford, an elderly Masonic scholar. Copies of these records were subsequently discovered by Westcott among assorted papers of the [[Swedenborgianism|Swedenborgian]] Rite that MacKenzie had left to Woodford after his death in 1886, which were turned over by Woodford's widow to Westcott, in his capacity as an Officer of the S.R.I.A |
, with Bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the similarities in the language as such.
==Standard German in Austria==
With German being a [[pluricentric language]], Austrian dialects should not be confused with the variety of [[Standard German]] spoken by most Austrians, which is distinct from that of [[Germany]] or [[Switzerland]]. Distinctions in vocabulary persist, for example, in [[culinary]] terms, where communication with Germans is frequently difficult, and [[administration|administrative]] and [[law|legal]] language, which is due to Austria's exclusion from the development of a German [[nation-state]] in the late [[19th century]] and its manifold particular traditions.
Austrians speaking Standard German can almost always be recognised by their accent, much more so than speakers from most regions of [[Germany]].
When Austria became a member of the European Union, the Austrian variety of the German language (limited to 23 agricultural terms) was “protected” in the so-called Protocol no. 10 regarding the use of specific Austrian terms of the German language in the framework of the European Union, which forms part of the Austrian EU accession treaty. Austrian German is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognised under international law / EU primary law. All facts concerning “Protocol no. 10” are documented in Markhardt, Heidemarie: Das österreichische Deutsch im Rahmen der EU, Peter Lang, 2005.
==Influence of popular culture==
Dialects are receding in Austria as they are in some other areas of [[Europe]], but it can safely be said that they are more persistent than in most of Germany. Dialects are frequently used in TV series or movies in situation where it is appropriate for the particular character and situation. A classic example of a strong form of Viennese working-class dialect, for example, would be ''[[Ein echter Wiener geht nicht unter]]''. However, strong varieties of dialect are not used quite as much as, for example, in Switzerland. For example, educated people in Vienna usually speak a very slight form of dialect or simply Standard German, but with the characteristic Viennese accent and, where it exists, particular Austrian and Viennese vocabulary.
A good reference for the Austrian, Bavarian and other German dialects are the dialect ("Mundart") editions of [[Asterix]] and [[Obelix]] comic books which are available in [[Viennese language|Viennese]] (three editions with different dialects from inside [[Vienna]]) and at least one for the common Tyrolean dialect and one for a deep Styrian dialect.
==See also==
*[[Austro-Bavarian]]
*[[Viennese German]]
[[Category:High Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria|*]]
[[de:Sprachgebrauch in Österreich]]
[[it:Differenze tra tedesco e austriaco]]
[[lt:Austriacizmas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Geography</title>
<id>826</id>
<revision>
<id>15899340</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T10:32:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Geography of Austria</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/People</title>
<id>827</id>
<revision>
<id>15899341</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T14:14:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Government</title>
<id>828</id>
<revision>
<id>15899342</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T10:19:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Economy</title>
<id>829</id>
<revision>
<id>15899343</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T10:34:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Economy of Austria</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Communications</title>
<id>830</id>
<revision>
<id>15899344</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T10:19:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Transportation</title>
<id>831</id>
<revision>
<id>15899345</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T10:19:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Transnational issues</title>
<id>832</id>
<revision>
<id>15899346</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T10:20:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Military</title>
<id>833</id>
<revision>
<id>15899347</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T10:37:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Military of Austria</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/Foreign relations</title>
<id>834</id>
<revision>
<id>15899348</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T10:37:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of Austria</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Austria/History</title>
<id>835</id>
<revision>
<id>15899349</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Austria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acronym/List</title>
<id>836</id>
<revision>
<id>15899350</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-06T15:24:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of acronyms and initialisms]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acronym/Medical List</title>
<id>837</id>
<revision>
<id>15899351</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:18:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_medical_abbreviations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anglican Church</title>
<id>839</id>
<revision>
<id>15899353</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-07T17:05:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>oops</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Anglican Communion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Axiom of choice</title>
<id>840</id>
<revision>
<id>42010989</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:06:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sikon</username>
<id>293268</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Results requiring ¬AC */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''axiom of choice''', or '''AC''', is an [[axiom]] of [[set theory]]. It was formulated in [[1904]] by [[Ernst Zermelo]]. While it was originally controversial, it is now used without embarrassment by most mathematicians. However, there are still schools of mathematical thought, primarily within set theory, that either reject the axiom of choice, or even investigate consequences of axioms inconsistent with AC.
Intuitively speaking, AC says that given a collection of bins, each containing at least one object, then exactly one object from each bin can be picked and gathered in another bin - even if there are [[infinite]]ly many bins, and there is no "rule" for which object to pick from each.
== Statement ==
The axiom of choice states:
:Let ''X'' be a [[set]] of [[non-empty]] sets. Then we can [[choice function|choose]] a member from each set in ''X''.
Stated more formally:
:Let ''X'' be a set of non-empty sets. Then there exists a [[choice function]] ''f'' defined on ''X''. In other words, there exists a function ''f'' defined on ''X'', such that for each set ''s'' in ''X'', ''f''(''s'') is an element of ''s''.
Another formulation of the axiom of choice states:
:Given any set of mutually disjoint non-empty sets, there exists at least one set that contains exactly one element in common with each of the non-empty sets.
== Usage ==
Until the late 19th century, the axiom of choice was often used implicitly. For example, after having established that the set ''X'' contains only non-empty sets, a mathematician might have said "let ''F(s)'' be one of the members of ''s'' for all ''s'' in '' |
s the head of state, the [[Prime Minister]], whose power derives directly or indirectly from elections, is [[Head of Government|head of government]].
Although current constitutional monarchies are mostly representative democracies, this has not always historically been the case.
There have been monarchies which have coexisted with constitutions which were [[fascist]] (or quasi-fascist), as was the case in [[Italy]], [[Japan]] and [[Spain]], or with [[military dictatorships]], as was the case in [[Thailand]].
Some constitutional monarchies are [[hereditary]] but others, such as that of [[Malaysia]] are [[elective monarchies]].
==Differences between constitutional and absolute monarchies==
During the sixteenth form of government. Two of these types were [[absolutism]] and constitutional monarchies.
===Absolute Monarchy===
Absolutism is a government in which a king or queen rules with total power, in other words as a [[dictator]]. The initiation of absolutism was made possible because countries were experiencing turmoil under existing governments. Religious wars, the decline of the church, and a growing middle class created a situation that demanded a leader to rule with complete power so as to restore order. Under absolutism many monarchs that ruled a country kept total control because they believed they had a “divine right” which was given to them by God and bestowed upon them the power to control the country totally. They often defended their abuse of power by saying that it was God’s will for them to rule. Also in an absolute monarchy the monarch makes all economic decisions. For example, [[Louis XIV of France]] abused his control of money by spending it on his [[Palace of Versailles]]. According to ''Early Modern France, 1560-1715'' (Robin Briggs, 1998, [[ISBN|ISBN13: 9780192892843]]), at the end of Louis XIV reign, the French Royal Family was in debt 2 billion livres or about 21 billion dollars. This type of carelessness has the power to destroy countries, and it almost did so to France. Although having a monarch in total control over the economy can be dangerous, it also can be advantageous if the monarch is responsible and knowledgeable on the subject of economics. When one monarch has total control, their personal values may overrule core ethics. This can cause a reduction of personal freedoms when the monarch favors one group over another. King Louis XIV demonstrated this when he kicked the [[Huguenots]] out of France by canceling the [[Edict of Nantes]]. Many people supported forms of absolutism, including [[Thomas Hobbes]].
===Constitutional Monarchy===
A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a king or queen rules with limits to their power along with a governing body (i.e. [[Parliament]]). A constitutional monarchy was able to form in England across different periods of history for a complex combination of reasons: sometimes due to a lack of strong leadership, and at other times due to strong leaders short of funding, who needed to raise money to prosecute wars, and needed to address public grievances to ensure this money was forthcoming. Historically, the English had not believed in the "Divine Right of Kings": ever since Magna Carta in 1215, the monarchy had been regarded as a contractual political instrument. In the 17th Century, abuse of power by the Stuart dynasty, and their attempts to import the doctrine of "Divine Right" from Scotland, caused the English to question the royal authority and revive earlier safeguards against executive power. Parliament took several key steps to limit the power of the King. They revived the English instrument of impeachment, which held the King's ministers to be responsible for his actions; hence the King's servants could be executed for implementing unpopular policies. They forced [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] to sign the [[Petition of Right]] that re-affirmed that the King must go through Parliament to enact new laws, taxes, etc. After signing the Petition of Right, Charles I immediately ignored it, precipitating the [[English Civil War]]s, and the eventual beheading of the King for treason. This sent a message to future monarchs of England that they did not have absolute power. During [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] reign Parliament passed the [[Habeas Corpus Act 1679|Habeas Corpus]]. The Habeas Corpus Act said that any prisoner taken by the King would be given a trial. This prevented the King from simply removing his enemies by sending them to jail. When [[James II of England|James II]] took the throne many people did not appreciate it when he flaunted his Catholicism. Therefore Parliament flexed its muscles once again by asking [[William III of England|William of Orange]] to overthrow the king. William and his wife Mary came from the [[Netherlands]] and overthrew James II without bloodshed. This was called the “[[Glorious Revolution]]”. Once William and Mary had gained control of the throne, they completely supported the constitutional monarchy. Together they signed the [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]], which severely limited the power of the king, and gave more freedom to his subjects. One supporter of constitutional monarchy was [[John Locke]]. He wrote in his “[[Two Treatises of Civil Government|Treatises on Government]]” that a direct democracy is the best form of government. He wrote that people are able to improve and rule themselves, and that people have three main rights. These rights are life, liberty, and property, and it is the government’s job to protect these rights. He also wrote that if the government is unjust the people have the right to overthrow it, a doctrine that was invoked during the American Revolution.
This evolution in thinking would eventually spawn such movements as [[universal suffrage]] and [[political parties]]. By the mid 20th Century, the political culture in Europe had shifted to the point where all constitutional monarchs had been reduced to the status of effective [[figurehead (political)|figurehead]]s, with no effective power at all. Instead, it was the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the [[prime minister]] who had become the true rulers of the nation. In many cases even the monarchs themselves, who once sat at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of "servants of the people" to reflect the new, egalitarian reality.
The United Kingdom is a contitutional monarchy.
Boukary, Karima B. "Contitutional Monarchy." Wikipedia. 2005. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_monarchy& action=edit&section=1> (Date Veiwed)
==Constitutional Monarchies Today==
===Popularity===
The most significant family of constitutional monarchies in the world today are the sixteen Realms of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], all independent parliamentary democracies under Elizabeth II. Unlike the United Kingdom, almost all of the other countries in this family have written constitutions with complex processes for constitutional change. Through political crises, peaceful constitutional drafting and international debate, the Westminster conventions concerning the constitutional monarch have gained much clearer definition in the other fifteen Realms than in the United Kingdom. In many of these constitutions the monarch or her representative have been regarded as an integral part of the Executive and Legislative processes, and their positions are explicitly protected, at least in part, by the written constitution.
Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Westminster monarch and her representatives retain significant "reserve" or "prerogative" powers, to be wielded only in times of extreme emergency (e.g. Australia 1975, Granada 1983, Solomon Islands 1994), usually to uphold parliamentary government. On these occasions a lack of understanding by the public of the relevant constitutional conventions can cause controversy: for example, in the 1975 Dismissal of the Whitlam Government in Australia, Governor-General Sir John Kerr was blamed for his intervention over the Supply crisis (much to the bewilderment of British and Canadian constitutional commentators). Instead the blame for the crisis and its outcome should have been directed at the then Leader of the Opposition, Malcolm Fraser, who was politically responsible for refusing Supply and causing the immediate crisis, and who was formally responsible for the Whitlam Dismissal under the Westminster conventions concerning exercise of the reserve powers.
With the exception of post-war [[Italy]], no modern, democratic constitutional monarchy has voted to abolish itself.
Though many of Europe's past and present [[leftist]] parties contain anti-monarchy factions, to date few have openly declared a preference for flat-out monarchial abolition, and instead use their powers to curtail and reform alleged "un-democratic" or "prejudiced" elements of the monarchy. For example, in recent years the age-old tradition of "males first" [[order of succession]] to the throne has been abolished in some European constitutional monarchies, allowing for eldest daughters to assume the throne before their brothers.
One common view why modern constitutional monarchies continue to survive is that the individual royal families themselves have remained popular. Today, most contemporary royal families go out of their way to project a modern image to the citizenry of a monarchy that is both caring and interested in the people and their country. Many members of modern [[royal family|royal families]] frequently make donations or participate in [[charity]] events, visit poor or sick citizens, and make public appearances at high profile [[sport]]ing or [[art]]s events. Such moves can help make a monarchy seem contemporarily relevant, especially when the royals t |
us awareness in the global community about homosexual issues. The film stars [[Heath Ledger]] and [[Jake Gyllenhaal]] as two male ranchers who fall in love in the 1960s. The film was directed by [[Ang Lee]], adapted from the short story by [[Annie Proulx]]. Homosexuality also presents itself in musicals, such as [[Rent]] and [[Bare, a Pop Opera]].
==See also==
*[[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
*[[Gay]]
*[[Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health]]
*[[Ex-gay]]
*[[Historical pederastic couples]]
*[[Homophobia]]
*[[Homosexuality and transgender]]
*[[Homosexuality in Iran]]
*[[Human Rights Campaign]]
*[[Lawrence v. Texas]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual composers]]
*[[List of gay-related topics]]
*[[List of LGBT publications]]
*[[Metrosexual]]
*[[Mythology of same-sex love]]
*[[Sexual minority cultures]]
*[[Sexual orientation]]
*[[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]
===Categories===
*[[:Category:Sexual orientation and science|Sexual orientation and science]], including determinants and demographics of sexual orientation, other scientific studies, and medical opinions
*[[:Category:Ex-gay movement|Organisations which advocate changing one's sexual orientation]]
*[[:Category:LGBT history|LGBT history]]
*[[:Category:LGBT organizations|LGBT organisations]]
*[[:Category:LGBT civil rights|LGBT civil rights]]
*[[:Category:Same-sex marriage|Same-sex marriage]]
*[[:Category:Sexual orientation and identity|Sexual orientation and identity]]
*[[:Category:Sexual orientation and society|Sexual orientation and society]], including moral and political debate and social attitudes
*[[:Category:LGBT issues and religion|LGBT issues and religion]]
*[[:Category:LGBT culture|Gay and lesbian culture]]
==External links==
* [http://www.apa.org/topics/sbehaviorsub1.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality] The American Psychological Association
* [http://www.androphile.org/ The Androphile Project - History, literature and art of other homosexual cultures]
* [http://www.glbtq.com/ Encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender & queer culture]
* [http://www.aboutgaymovies.info/gay%20movie%20history.htm Gay movie history]
* [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/gayhist.htm Gay History & Literature (Rictor Norton)]
* [http://www.glsen.org/ GLSEN: Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/ Halsall's Gay History Page]
* [http://www.leaderu.com/jhs/reisman.html Kinsey and the Sexual Revolution] - by Dr. [[Judith Reisman|Judith A. Reisman]]
* [http://www.ohsu.edu/news/2004/030504sheep.html OHSU]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/sexual.htm Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/homosexuality/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Same-sex Orientation]
* [http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/readings/homofinger/homo_finger.html The Breedlove Study]
* [http://gaypaintings.com/magazine gay art magazine Articles about contemporary gay art today]
* [http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/rapidpdf/en.2003-1098v1.pdf The Sheep Study]
* [http://www.oneinstitute.org One National Gay & Lesbian Archives]
* [http://gayinfo.tripod.com Gayinfo: famous gays, lesbians and bisexuals]
* [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Peder.htm Pederasty & Pedagogy in Archaic Greece]
==References==
{{sisterlinks|homosexuality}}
#{{note|exit_polls}} [http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html CNN 2004 Exit Polls]. ''See [[Sexual minority cultures]].''
#{{note|Central_Park_penguin}} [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL "Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate"] by Dinitia Smith, ''San Francisco Chronicle'', February 7, 2004
#{{note|Auckland_penguin}} [http://www.chorley-pct.nhs.uk/documents/projoscaug04news.pdf "Penguin Partners"], ''News from Oscar'', August 2004
#{{note|Bagemihl}} {{note_label|Bagemihl|3|a}} {{note_label|Bagemihl|3|b}} [http://web.archive.org/web/20041010062748/http://www.wholeearthmag.com/ArticleBin/338.html Left-Handed Bears & Androgynous Cassowaries] by Bruce Bagemihl, ''Whole Earth'', Spring 2000
#{{note|sheep_study}} [http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478 "The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference"] by Charles E. Roselli, et al., The Endocrine Society, October 2, 2003
# {{note|Kinsey_male}} Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'', 1948, ISBN 0721654452 (o.p.), ISBN 0253334128 (reprint).
# {{note|Kinsey_female}} Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', 1953, ISBN 0721654509 (o.p.), ISBN 0671786156 (o.p. pbk.), ISBN 025333411X (reprint).
# {{note|Kinsey}} Tom Bethell (April 2005). "Kinsey as Pervert".</cite> ''American Spectator'', '''38''', 42-44. ISSN: 0148-8414.
# {{note|revisiting}} Julia A. Ericksen (May 1998). "With enough cases, why do you need statistics? Revisiting Kinsey's methodology".</cite> ''The Journal of Sex Research'' '''35''' (2): 132-40, ISSN: 0022-4499.
# {{note|sex_survey}} [http://cloud9.norc.uchicago.edu/faqs/sex.htm The National Health and Social Life Survey ("The Sex Survey")]
# {{note|army_pride}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4189634.stm "Army marches with Pride parade"], ''BBC News'', August 27, 2004
# {{note|catechism}} [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm "Catechism of the Catholic Church"], see the "Chastity and homosexuality" section.
# {{note|criteria}} [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20051104_istruzione_en.html Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders], Congregation for Catholic Education, [[November 04]], [[2005]]
# {{note|islam}} [http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm "Homosexuality in the Light of Islam"], [[September 20]], [[2003]]
# {{note|rocke}} Rocke, Michael, (1996), ''Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence'', ISBN 0-91-512292-5
# {{note|ruggiero}} Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), ''The Boundaries of Eros'', ISBN 0-91-505696-5
# {{note|sydney}} [http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/afghan-tribesman-faces-death-for-wedding-to-teenage-boy/2005/10/06/1128562943177.html# Afghan tribesman faces death for wedding to teenage boy], Peter Foster, ''Sydney Morning Herald'', October 7, 2005
# {{note|daily_times}} [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_6-10-2005_pg1_5 Man weds boy in Khyber Agency], ''Daily Times'', October 6, 2005
# {{note|fabricated}} [http://www.khyber.org/articles/2005/GayMarriageReportFabricated.shtml Gay Marriage Report Fabricated], Kashmir Khan Afridi
# Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", ''Journal of Homosexuality'', Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18.
# Lester G. Brown, ''Two Spirit People'', 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
# Kenneth J. Dover, ''Greek Homosexuality'', 1979, Gerald Duckworth &amp; Co. Ltd., London, ISBN 0674362616 (o.p. hardcover), ISBN 0674362705 (pbk.).
# Bret Hinsch, ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China'', The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.
# Norman Roth. ''The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry.'' IN: Lazar & Lacy. ''Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages''. George Mason University Press, 1989.
# Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies''. Haworth Press, 1992.
# LeVay, S., Science, 1991, 253, 1034?1037.
# Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, ''Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities,'' 1998, ISBN 031221216X.
# Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815312873.
# Foucault, Michel (1990). ''The History of Sexuality'' vol. 1: ''An Introduction'', p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.
# James Davidson, ''[[London Review of Books]]'', [[2 June]] 2005, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/davi02_.html "Mr and Mr and Mrs and Mrs"] - detailed review of ''The Friend'', by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds
# [http://usrainbowpages.com/scientificgay/index.php?cat=50 Scientific Gay]
# [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3735668.stm Genetics of homosexuality]
# [http://www.hiddensexdirectory.com Homosexuality and Transgender Surgery]
# [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/55169.stm Fingerprints Study]
# [http://my.webmd.com/content/article/22/1728_56075?src=Inktomi&condition=Home%20&%20Top%20Stories Androgen Link]
# [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/325979.stm Doubt cast on 'gay gene']
# Robert T. Michael, John H. Gagnon, Edward O. Laumann, and Gina Kolata. Sex in America: A definitive survey. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. ISBN 0316075248
# [http://www.williamapercy.com Percy, William A] [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Peder.htm ''Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece.''] University of Illinois Press, 1996.
# Bullough, Vern L. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Stonewall.htm ''Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context,''] Harrington Park Press, 2002.
# Johansson, Warren and [http://www.williamapercy.com Percy, William A]. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence,''] Harrington Park Press, 1994.
# Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm ''The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality''] New York and London, Garland Publishing, 1990
[[Category:LGBT]]
[[ |
with a person who is under 18 (in an attempt to escape the state's AOC or without permission from the minor's legal guardian), or any sex with a person who is under 16 and at least 4 years younger than the perpetrator in Federal territories ([http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/casecode/uscodes/18/parts/i/chapters/109a/sections/section_2243.html 18 U.S.C. 2243], [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/casecode/uscodes/18/parts/i/chapters/117/sections/section_2423.html 18 U.S.C. 2423]). Federal and various state laws makes it is illegal to produce [[pornography]] featuring those under 18 and prosecutions have been commenced for cases where both partners are over the age of consent and under 18 years old, where they were making material solely for their own consumption or that of their lawful partner. The constitutionality of these cases is uncertain.
** [[Alaska]], [[Arkansas]], [[Connecticut]], [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], [[Delaware]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Hawaii]], [[Kansas]], [[Maine]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]] [http://www.lawlib.state.ma.us/sex.html#16], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Mississippi]], [[Montana]], [[Nebraska]], [[Nevada]], [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]], [[Ohio]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Dakota]], [[Vermont]], [[West Virginia]], [[Alabama]]: 16
** [[Illinois]], [[Louisiana]], [[New York]]: 17
** [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[North Dakota]], [[Oregon]], [[Tennessee]], [[Utah]], [[Wisconsin]]: 18
** [[Virginia]]: 18, 15-17 falls under [http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-371 18.2-371 contributing to the delinquency of a minor] if partner is over 18, 13-14 falls under [http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-63 18.2-63]
** [[Colorado]]: 15 (17 if partner 10 years older and not spouse)
** [[Florida]]: 16 (If partner under 24), 18 (all other adult partners)
** [[Idaho]]: 16 or 17 (if partner less than 5 years older), 18 (all other adult partners)
** [[Indiana]]: 14 (if partner under 18), 16 (all other adult partners)
** [[Iowa]]: 14 or 15 (if partner less than 5 years older), 16 (all other adult partners) State law imposes a mandatory lifetime banishment from most [[Iowa]] cities for a person who violates any state's age of consent law. Iowa's ban applies to conduct that occurs in other states regardless if it was legal in those states. Said persons would not be allowed to legally live in most Iowa cities, and would generally be restricted to rural areas. Federal courts have upheld this law, and the US Supreme Court has refused to review it.
** [[Kentucky]]: 16 (if under 21, a person's partner can legally be no more than 5 years of age younger; i.e. 20 and 15 or 18 and 13)
** [[Missouri]]: 14 (if partner under 21), 17 (all other adults)
** [[New Hampshire]]: 16 [http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/rsa/html/LXII/632-A/632-A-4.htm RSA 632-A:4], 18 (person in position of authority [http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/rsa/html/LXII/632-A/632-A-2.htm RSA 632-A:6])
** [[New Mexico]]: 13 if partner is four or less years older, 18 otherwise (NM Statute 30-9-11 Criminal sexual penetration)
** [[South Carolina]]: 14 (Under state constitution)/16 (Under state law - appears to conflict with state constitution).
** [[Texas]]: 14 if the other partner is within 3 years in age, otherwise 17.
** [[Washington]]: 16 (18 if partner is at least 59 months older, OR in a significant supervisory relationship and uses that relationship to engage in sex with the minor).
** [[Wyoming]]: 16/18 (conflicting laws appear to set two different ages of consent)
** Military: equal to the state the base is located in; homosexuality grounds for dismissal regardless where the base is located.
* [[Venezuela]]: 16
* [[Vietnam]]: 18 according to most sources
==See also==
*[[Marriageable age]]
*[[Age disparity in sexual relationships]]
*[[Criminal law]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ageofconsent.com/ageofconsent.htm Age Of Consent chart] (last updated 2003)
*[http://www.omaha-neb.com/iowa.htm Iowa's lifetime banishment for violating age of consent laws in any state.] (Law applies even for two teens close in age.)
*[http://womhist.binghamton.edu/aoc/doclist.htm Age of Consent Campaign, 1886-1914] (in the USA)
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/REage.htm Age of Consent] campaigns in the U.K.
* [http://www.avert.org/aofconsent.htm Chart of ages of consent around the world] (welcomes suggested updates from readers, if they can provide good sources)
*[http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/Default.asp Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children]
* [http://www.state.hi.us/ag/pdf_documents/Report_Age_of_Consent_Task_Force.pdf Hawaii Age of Consent Task Force Report] (pages 65-68 of this report offer graphical charts of the 50 states showing their ages of consent, especially in the context of age differentiation)
* [http://www.moraloutrage.net Current AOC information and statutory rape law reform] (in the USA)
==References==
#{{note|posner}} Posner, Richard, A Guide to America's Sex Laws, The University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-67564-5. Page 45. The case cited is <i>Michael M. v. Superior Court</i>, 450 U.S. 464 (1981).
[[Category:Statutory law]]
[[Category:Legal fictions]]
[[Category:LGBT civil rights]]
[[Category:Sex crimes]]
[[Category:Sexuality and age]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[da:Seksuel lavalder]]
[[de:Schutzalter]]
[[fr:Majorité sexuelle]]
[[he:גיל ההסכמה]]
[[hu:Beleegyezési korhatár]]
[[ru:Возраст согласия]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alypius of Antioch</title>
<id>1654</id>
<revision>
<id>41724186</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:22:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tagishsimon</username>
<id>51294</id>
</contributor>
<comment>links & addition of the word "and"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Alypius of Thagaste]] is also the name of an early [[Christian]] [[Saint]].''
'''Alypius of Antioch''' was a [[geographer]] of the mid [[4th century]] who
was sent by the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] into [[Roman Britain|Britain]] as [[vicarius]]. He ruled during a difficult period and he was probably considered suitable for the post because he came from the far east of the empire and had no associations with the west. He may have had to deal with the insurrection of the usurper named '[[Carausius II]].'
Alypius was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] as part of Julian's systematic attempt to reverse the [[Christianization]] of the [[Roman Empire]] by restoring [[pagan]] and, in this case, [[Judaism|Jewish]] practices. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to [[Rome]], the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient geographers]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Britain]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amalasuntha</title>
<id>1655</id>
<revision>
<id>32697024</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T18:42:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The One True Fred</username>
<id>263909</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalasuntha''' (also known as '''Amalasuentha''' or '''Amalaswintha''') (d. [[535]]) was a queen of the [[Ostrogoth]]s.
A daughter of Ostrogothic king [[Theodoric the Great]], she secretly married a slave named [[Traguilla]]. When her mother [[Audofleda]] found them together Traguilla was killed.
She was married in [[515]] to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth noble of the old Areal line, who had previously been living in [[Visigoth]]ic [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]]. Her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, [[Athalaric]] and [[Matasuentha]]. On the death of her father in [[526]], her son succeeded him, but she held the power as [[regent]] for her son. Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death, three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor [[Justinian I]] with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to [[Constantinople]]. Her son's death in [[534]] made little change in the posture of affairs.
Now queen, Amalasuntha made her cousin [[Theodahad]] partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living), with the intent of strengthening her position. The choice was unfortunate, for Theodahad, in spite of a varnish of literary culture, was a coward and a scoundrel. He fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was murdered in her bath.
The letters of [[Cassiodorus]], chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of [[Procopius]] and [[Jordanes]], give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:535 deaths]]
[[Category:Goths]]
[[Category:Regents]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]
[[de:Amalasuntha]]
[[ko:아말라순타]]
[[it:Amalasunta]]
[[nl:Amalasuntha]]
[[sv:Amalasuntha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amalric of Bena</title>
<id>1656</id>
<revision>
<id>33241388</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T11:18:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor |
ument (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[et:Argument (täpsustus)]]
[[es:Argumento]]
[[fr:Argument]]
[[ia:Argumento]]
[[io:Argumento]]
[[nl:Argument]]
[[pl:Argument]]
[[sl:Argument]]
[[fi:Argumentti]]
[[sv:Argument]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apollo 11</title>
<id>662</id>
<revision>
<id>42127572</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.166.229.83</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Launch and lunar landing */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=2 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0.25em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<font size="+1">'''''Apollo 11'''''</font>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo_11_insignia.jpg|center|233px|''Apollo 11'' insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||''Apollo 11''
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command module]]:<br />''Columbia''<br />[[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar module]]:<br />''Eagle''
|-
|'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[July 16]], [[1969]]<br />13:32:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]], Florida<br />LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar<br />landing:'''||[[July 20]], 1969<br />20:17:40 UTC<br />[[Mare Tranquillitatis|Sea of Tranquility]]<br />0° 40' 26.69" N,<br />23° 28' 22.69" E [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1969-059C]<br />(based on the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]]<br />Mean Earth Polar Axis<br />[[coordinate system]])
|-
|'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||2 h 31 min 40 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||21 h 36 min 20 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 21.55 kg (47.5 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[July 24]], [[1969]]<br />16:50:35 UTC<br />{{coor dm|13|19|N|169|9|W|}}
|-
|'''Time in<br />lunar orbit:'''||59 h 30 min 25.79 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||''(see [[#Mission parameters|mission<br />parameters]])''
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew Picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:ap11-s69-31740.jpg|center|225px|Apollo 11 crew portrait (L-R: Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin)]]<br><small>L-R: Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin</small>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|''Apollo 11'' Crew
|}
{|align=right
|-
|[[Image:First step on moon.jpg|thumb|center|160px|Neil Armstrong takes first step onto the Moon]]
|-
|align=center width=160|'''''"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."'''''<br>-Neil Armstrong
|}
'''''Apollo 11''''' was an [[United States|American]] space mission, part of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the first manned mission to land on the [[Moon]]. It launched on [[July 16]], [[1969]]. On [[July 20]], mission commander [[Neil Armstrong]] and pilot [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin]] became the first humans to set foot on the Moon.
==Crew==
*[[Neil Armstrong]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 8]]'' & ''Apollo 11''), commander
*[[Edwin Aldrin|Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 12]]'' & ''Apollo 11''), lunar module pilot
*[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 10]]'' & ''Apollo 11''), command module pilot
===Backup crew===
*[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 13]]''), commander
*[[Fred Haise]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 13]]''), lunar module pilot
*[[Bill Anders]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 8]]''), command module pilot
===Support crew===
*[[Ron Evans]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 17]]'')
*[[Ken Mattingly]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-4]]'', ''[[STS-51-C]]'')
*[[Jack Swigert]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 13]]'')
*[[William Pogue|Bill Pogue]] (flew in ''[[Skylab 4]]'')
==Mission highlights==
===Launch and lunar landing===
The ''Apollo 11'' mission launched from the
[[Kennedy Space Center]] on [[July 16]], [[1969]] at 13:32 UTC (9:32 A.M. local time) and entered Earth orbit 12 minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon. About 30 minutes later, the command/service module pair separated from the last remaining Saturn V stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the [[Apollo spacecraft#Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter .28SLA.29|Lunar Module Adaptor]]
''Apollo 11'' passed behind the Moon on [[July 19]] and soon after fired its main rocket, entering into lunar orbit. In the several orbits that followed, the crew got passing views of their landing site.
The first ''Apollo'' landing site, in the southern [[Mare Tranquilitatis|Sea of Tranquility]] about 20 km (12 mi) southwest of the crater Sabine D, was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated ''[[Ranger 8]]'' and ''[[Surveyor 5]]'' landers, as well as by ''[[Lunar Orbiter]]'' mapping spacecraft, and therefore unlikely to present major landing or [[Extra-vehicular activity|Extra-vehicular activity (EVA)]] challenges. Armstrong bestowed the name [[Tranquillity Base]] on the landing site immediately after touchdown.
[[Image:Apollo 11 bootprint.jpg|thumb|233px|left|Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar [[regolith]].]]
On [[July 20]], [[1969]], while on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the Moon, the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]], called ''Eagle'', separated from the Command Module, named ''Columbia''. Collins, now alone aboard ''Columbia'', carefully inspected ''Eagle'' as it pirouetted before him. Soon after, Armstrong and Aldrin fired ''Eagle'''s engine and began their descent. They soon saw that they were "running long"; ''Eagle'' was 4 seconds further along its descent trajectory than planned, and would land miles west of the intended site. The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|LM navigation and guidance computer]] reported several unusual "program alarms" as it guided the LM's descent. These alarms tore the crew's attention away from the scene outside as the descent proceeded. In NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, a young [[Flight controller| controller]] named Steve Bales told the [[Flight controller| flight director]] that it was safe to continue the descent in spite of the alarms. Once they returned their attention to the view outside, the astronauts saw that their computer was guiding them toward a landing site full of large rocks scattered around a large crater. Armstrong took manual control of the lunar module at that point, and guided it to a landing at 20:17 UTC on [[July 20]] with about 30 seconds' worth of fuel left[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.landing.html].
[[Image:ap11-KSC-69PC-442.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Saturn V]] carrying ''Apollo 11'' took several seconds to clear the tower on [[July 16]], [[1969]].]]
The program alarms were "executive overflows", indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted. The cause was later determined to be the LM rendezvous radar being left on during the descent, causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar. Steve Bales received a [[Medal of Freedom]] for his "go" call under pressure. Although Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, they also encountered a premature low fuel warning. It was later found caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant 'slosh', uncovering a fuel sensor; extra baffles in the tanks were subsequently added.
At 2:56 UTC on [[July 21]], six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong made his descent to the Moon surface and took his famous "one giant leap for mankind." Aldrin joined him, and the two spent two-and-a-half hours drilling core samples, photographing what they saw and collecting rocks.
{{video|filename=A11v 1094228.ogg|title=Buzz Aldrin steps onto the Moon|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
They planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through ''Eagle'''s twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation
required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his [[Portable Life Support System|PLSS]]. According to veteran moonwalker [[John W. Young|John Young]], a redesign of the [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from ''Apollo'' astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.
[[Image:As11-40-5903HR.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Buzz Aldrin]] poses on the [[Moon]] allowing [[Neil Armstrong]] to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection.]]
The Remote Control Unit controls on Armstrong's chest prevented him from seeing his feet. While climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against ''Eagle'''s side and activate the TV camera. The first images used a [[Slow-scan television]] system and were picked up at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone]] in the USA but with better fidelity by [[Honeysuckle Creek]] in Australia. Minutes later the TV was switched to normal television, and the feed was switched to the more sensitive [[radio tel |
us''. So ''Scotland'' or ''Scotia'' originally meant ''Land of the Gaels''. Moreover, until late in the [[15th century]], it was solely the Gaelic language used in Scotland which in English was called ''Scottish'' or - more authentically - ''Scottis''. ''Scottis'' continued to be the English name for the language, although it was gradually superseeded by the word ''Erse'', an act of cultural disassociation which contributed to the language's declining status. In the early [[16th century]] the dialects of [[Middle English]] which had developed in Lothian and had come to be spoken elsewhere in the Kingdom of Scotland themselves appropriated the name [[Scots Language|Scots]]. By the [[seventeenth century]] Gaelic speakers were restricted largely to the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and the [[Hebrides]]. Furthermore, the culturally repressive measures taken against the rebellious highland communities by the British crown following the 2nd [[Jacobite Rebellion]] of [[1746]] caused still further decline in the language's use - to a large extent by enforced emmigration. Even more decline followed in the [[nineteenth century|19th]] and early [[twentieth century|20th]] centuries
The [[Scottish Parliament]] has afforded the language a secure statutory status and ''equal respect'' (but not full equality in legal status within Scots Law [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/4467769.stm]) with [[English language|English]], sparking hopes that Scottish Gaelic can be saved from extinction and perhaps even revived.
==Manx==
{{main|Manx language}}
Manx is technically extinct, although attempts to revive it continue and it is still used in ceremonies such as [[Tynwald Day]]. A small minority of the Manx people, estimated to be not more than 2,000, can speak the language, although the person considered to be the last true native speaker, [[Ned Maddrell]], died in [[1974]]. Although a Gaelic language, closely related to its Irish and Scottish sister languages, the Manx language also borrowed heavily from the [[Old Norse]] language introduced by Viking raiders centuries ago, as well as middle English and Welsh.
==Other Celtic languages==
All the other living Celtic languages belong to the [[Brythonic]] branch of Celtic, which includes [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (''Cymraeg''), [[Breton language|Breton]] (''Brezhoneg''), and [[Cornish language|Cornish]] (''Kernowek''). [[Pictish language|Pictish]] was the ancient language of much of modern day [[Scotland]], but it is not clear that Pictish was a Celtic language. These are sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Gaelic". For extinct Celtic languages of the European mainland, see [[Continental Celtic languages]].
There are also two [[mixed language]]s that are not specifically Goidelic languages as such, but have a strong input from them:
*[[Bungee language]] in [[Canada]], a [[Métis]] mix of Scottish Gaelic and [[Cree language]]
*[[Shelta]], a mix of Irish language and English
==See also==
* [[Canadian Gaelic]]
* [[Gaelicization]]
* [[Highland Clearances]]
* [[Highland Land League]]
* [[Irish Land League]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90049 Ethnologue file on Goidelic languages]
* [[:gd:|Scottish Gaelic Wikipedia]]
* [[:ga:|Irish language Wikipedia]]
* [[:gv:|Manx Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ga-ge/coimeas.html Comparison of Irish and Scottish Gaelic]
[[Category:Goidelic languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages]]
[[be:Гайдэльскія мовы]]
[[ca:Goidèlic]]
[[da:Goidelisk]]
[[de:Goidelische Sprachen]]
[[eo:Gaela lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langue gaélique]]
[[ga:Teangacha Gaelacha]]
[[it:Lingua gaelica]]
[[kw:Goedhelek]]
[[nl:Goidelisch]]
[[ja:ゲール語]]
[[pt:Língua gaélica]]
[[sco:Gaelic leid]]
[[wa:Goydelike]]
[[zh:蓋爾亞支]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gnosticism</title>
<id>12471</id>
<revision>
<id>42144715</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.108.194.0</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The development of the Persian school */ m Manicheism link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{split}}
{{toobig}}
[[Image:Flammarion.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The [[Flammarion Woodcut]] can be taken to illustrate the Gnostics' search for spiritual worlds by circumventing the constraints of materiality.]]
'''Gnosticism''' is a historical term for various mystical initiatory [[religion]]s, [[sect]]s and knowledge schools which were most active in the first few centuries of the [[anno Domini|Christian]]/[[Common Era]], around the [[Mediterranean]] and extending into central [[Asia]]. These systems typically recommend the pursuit of special knowledge (''[[gnosis]]'') as the central goal of life. They also commonly depict creation as a [[mythology|mythological]] struggle between competing forces of light and dark, and posit a marked division between the material realm, which is typically depicted as under the governance of malign forces, and the higher spiritual realm from which it is divided. As a result of these common traits, allegations of [[dualism]], [[acosmism|anticosmism]] and body-hatred are often raised against Gnosticism as a whole; this, however, fails to acknowledge the variety, subtlety and complexity of the traditions involved.
It should be noted that the term 'Gnosticism' and the adjectival form 'Gnostic' are also applied to modern revivals of these groups and, sometimes, its inappropriate extension to include ''any and all'' religious movements incorporating a doctrine of secret or special, initiatory knowledge can lead to categorical confusion; this has recently lead to the usefulness of the term being called into question.
==Overview==
The complex nature of Gnostic teaching and the fact that much of the material relating to the schools comprising Gnosticism has traditionally come from critiques by orthodox [[Christianity|Christians]] make it difficult to be precise about early Christian gnostic systems. [[Irenaeus]] in his ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' described several different schools of 2nd century gnosticism in disparaging and often sarcastic detail while contrasting them with Christianity to their detriment. Despite these problems, scholarly discussion of Gnosticism at first relied heavily on Irenaeus and other heresiologists, which arguably has led to an 'infiltration' of heresiological agendas into modern scholarship; in fairness to the first investigators this was not by choice, but because of a simple lack of alternative sources.
This state of affairs continued through to modern times; in [[1945]], however, there was a chance discovery of a cache of 4th century Gnostic manuscripts near [[Nag Hammadi]], [[Egypt]]. The texts, which had been sealed inside earthen jars, were discovered by a local man called Mohammed Ali, and are now known as the ''[[Nag Hammadi library]]''; these allowed for the modern study of undiluted 'Gnostic scripture' for the first time. The translation of the texts from [[Coptic language|Coptic]], their language of composition, into [[English language|English]] and other modern languages took place in the years approaching [[1977]], when the full Nag Hammadi library was published in English translation. This has immensely clarified more recent discussions of gnosticism in [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], though many would agree that the topic still remains fraught with difficulties.
At the same time, modern movements referencing ancient gnosticism have continued to develop, from origins in the popular [[Occultism|occultic movements]] of the 19th century. Thus 'Gnosticism' is often erroneously ascribed to many modern sects where only initiates have access to certain [[arcana]]. However, the strict usage of the term remains a historical one, to specifically indicate a set of related ancient religious movements; the application of the antiquated term to these distinctly modern movements, far from being a clarification of the nature of Gnosticism, further occludes its true nature.
==Etymology and philosophical context==
===The meaning of 'gnosis'===
The word 'Gnosticism' is a modern construction, though based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word meaning 'knowledge', ''[[gnosis]]'' (γνώσις). However, ''gnosis'' itself refers to a very specialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in [[Plato|Platonist]] [[philosophy]].
Unlike modern [[English language|English]], ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several different forms of knowing. These different forms may be described in English as being "propositional knowledge", being indicative of knowledge acquired ''indirectly'' through the reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as "I know ''of'' Wikipedia" or "I know Berlin ''is in'' Germany"), and knowledge acquired by ''direct participation'' or ''acquaintance'' (such as "I know Wikipedia well" or "I know Berlin, having visited").
''Gnosis'' (γνώσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind. Therefore, in a religious context, to be 'Gnostic' should be understood as being reliant not on [[knowledge]] in a general sense, but as being specially receptive to ''mystical'' or ''esoteric experiences of direct participation'' with the divine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this 'knowledge of' ('acquaintance with') the divine. This is commonly identified with a process of inward 'knowing' or self-exploration, comparable to that encouraged by [[Plotinus]] (''[[Circa|ca]].'' [[205]]&ndash;[[270]] [[Common Era|CE]]). However, as may be seen, the term 'gnostic' also had precedent usage in several ancient [[philosophy|philosophical]] traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of its appellation to a set of ancient religious gro |
iberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center between the 94th and 98th floors. This was the first crash in the attacks of the day. The plane was carrying 81 passengers (including the five hijackers) and 11 crew. All on board were killed, along with many hundreds in the building, and the tower later collapsed, killing hundreds more.
Although the impact itself caused extensive structural damage, it was the long-lasting fire, starting with burning jet fuel, which is blamed for the structural failure of the North Tower. Many have speculated that this is why the hijackers chose to use this fully fueled transcontinental flight. The centralized-support design (in the center core and exterior walls, instead of throughout) of the towers also contributed to the collapse. In a later recording, [[Osama bin Laden]] seemed to take credit for the attack, and stated that he did not expect the towers would collapse.
The [[flight route designation]] (flight number) for future flights on the same route at the same takeoff time was changed to "Flight 25," to disassociate other planes from the one used in the attack and out of respect for those who had died in the attack. An American flag now flies on the jet bridge that Flight 11 departed from at Logan Airport.
The pilot on the flight was John Ogonowski, 52, of Dracut, Massachusetts.
==Initial Suspects==
*[[Adnan Bukhari]]
*[[Ameer Bukhari]]
*[[Amer Kamfar]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
*[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&day_of_911=aa11 AA Flight 11: Minute by Minute]
*[[:sep11:American Airlines Flight 11 victims|American Airlines Flight 11 manifest]]
[[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks]]
[[fr:Vol 11 d'American Airlines]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Airlines Flight 77</title>
<id>1902</id>
<revision>
<id>41530274</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:45:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.216.18.180</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pentagonfireball.jpg|230px|thumb|right|Security Camera image of the moment that American Airlines Flight 77 hit the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]].]]
{{Sep11}}
'''[[American Airlines]] Flight 77''' was a morning flight that routinely flew from [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax]] and [[Loudoun County, Virginia|Loudoun Counties, Virginia]], near [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[Los Angeles International Airport]] (IAD-LAX). On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the [[Boeing 757-223]], N644AA, was hijacked as part of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 attacks]]. The hijackers were reported to have been [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], [[Majed Moqed]], [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]], [[Salem al-Hazmi]], and the suicide pilot [[Hani Hanjour]].
The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10 AM EDT, but actually departed at 8:20. It was later determined that three of the hijackers had been stopped before boarding the flight because they failed the metal detector test, but were nonetheless allowed to enter the plane.
[[Image:911 commission AA77 path.png|thumb|left|AA 77 flight path from Dulles to Pentagon (to east of Dulles).]]
The flight was probably hijacked between 8:51 to 8:54. The assailants used knives and box-cutters to gain entrance to the [[cockpit]]. By 8:56, the flight was turned around, and the [[transponder]] had been disabled. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] was aware at this point that there was an emergency aboard the plane. (By this time, [[American Airlines Flight 11]] had already crashed into the [[World Trade Center]], and [[United Airlines flight 175]] was known to have been hijacked as well.)
According to the 9/11 Commission Report, two passengers made phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 9:12, passenger Renee May was reported to have called her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas. She said her flight was being hijacked by six individuals and they had been moved to the rear of the plane. [[Barbara K. Olson]], another passenger, called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson]] at the [[Justice Department]] twice to tell him about the hijacking and to report that the passengers and pilots were held in the back of the plane. After the call was cut off, Theodore Olson tried unsuccessfully to contact [[Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]].
Flight 77 crashed into the western side of [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]], just south of [[Washington, D.C.]] at 9:37 AM EDT, killing all of its 58 passengers (including the hijackers) and 6 crew (but see [[#Disputes about the final destination of Flight 77|Disputes]] below). The section of the Pentagon hit consisted mainly of recently renovated, unoccupied offices, and was damaged by the crash and the ensuing violent fire. The crash and subsequent fire penetrated three outer ring sections of the western side. The outermost ring section was largely destroyed, and a large section collapsed. One hundred twenty-five people in the Pentagon died from the attack.
After the crash, the [[flight route designation]] for future flights on the same route was renumbered Flight 149.
Among American Airlines Flight 77 were 3 young schoolchildren, embarking on an educational trip to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California, as part of a program funded by the National Geographic Society. The student names were Bernard Brown, 11, Asia Cotton, 11, and Rodney Dickens, also 11 years old. Their chaperones; Sarah Clark, 65; James Debeuneure, 58; Ann Judge, 45; Hilda Taylor and Joe Ferguson also died.
In total 5 passengers were under 12 years old.
==Disputes about the final destination of Flight 77==
{{main|9/11 conspiracy theories#The Pentagon}}
Some dispute the claim that Flight 77 struck the Pentagon. Claims that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757 have been raised based on photographs taken from the highway (hundreds of feet from the building) in which there is a seeming lack of debris and a lack of damage to the building or the lawn. Those who believe that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757 allege that no pieces of a commercial aircraft were found, that the footage was confiscated, and other factors. However, many of these claims have been refuted[http://911review.com/errors/pentagon/index.html],[http://911research.wtc7.net/essays/pentagontrap.html],[http://www.oilempire.us/pentagon.html]. Additionally, all of these theories must by definition ignore most of the [http://eric.bart.free.fr/iwpb/witness.html over 100 eyewitness testimonies] documented online which describe a commercial jet impacting the building. None of these theories account for the fate of the aircraft after the above mentioned in-flight calls made by the passengers to their loved ones describing the hijacking. Though some express doubts concerning the ability of making a successful cellphone call above 30,000 ft, others point out that cell phones are regularly used on private and corporate planes thousands of times every day without incident.
==External links==
* [[:sep11:Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks: plane passengers|Flight manifest for American Airlines flight 77]]
* [[sep11:American Airlines flight 77|Memorial wiki tribute to those killed in this flight]] (with flight manifest)
*[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&day_of_911=aa77 CooperativeResearch.org] - 'Project: Complete 911 Timeline' (Open-Content project)
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html GPOAccess.gov] - 'The 9-11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, Official Government Edition' [[2005]])
*[http://www.oilempire.us/pentagon.html Oilempire.us] - A list of detailed analyses that argue for complicity but against the "no plane" claims.
[[Category:History of Virginia]]
[[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks]]
[[fr:Vol 77 d'American Airlines]]
[[id:American Airlines Penerbangan 77]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Airlines flight 77</title>
<id>1903</id>
<revision>
<id>15900363</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "American_Airlines_Flight_77"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American_Airlines_Flight_77]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Airlines flight 11</title>
<id>1904</id>
<revision>
<id>15900364</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to "American_Airlines_Flight_11"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American_Airlines_Flight_11]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambush</title>
<id>1905</id>
<revision>
<id>41072536</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:51:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.154.243.30</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Avalon Hill]] board game, see [[Ambush!]].''
:''For the [[breakcore]] record label, see [[Ambush records]].''
An '''ambush''' is a long established [[military tactics|military tactic]] in which an ambushing force uses [[concealment]] to attack an enemy that passes its position. Ambushers strike from concealed positions such as among dense [[underbrush]] or behind [[hill]]tops. The [[tactic]] is generally used to gather intelligence or to establish control over an area. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from [[ancient warfare|ancient]] to [[modern warfare|modern]] [[warfare]].
==Procedure==
In modern warfare, an ambush |
e won support due to their opposition to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|war on Iraq]], and Charles Kennedy has expressed his intention for his party to replace the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] as the main opposition. The party won seats from [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] in [[by-election]]s in [[Brent East by-election, 2003|Brent East]] (2003) and [[Leicester South by-election, 2004|Leicester South]] in 2004, and narrowly missed taking others in [[Birmingham Hodge Hill by-election, 2004|Birmingham Hodge Hill]] and [[Hartlepool by-election, 2004|Hartlepool]].
However the Liberal Democrats are currently engaged in a debate on their future national direction. The party's increased support in recent years has come from both former Labour and former Conservative voters, due to the Lib Dems' positions on issues that unite the Labour left with liberal Conservatives: [[civil liberties]], [[electoral reform]], the [[War in Iraq]] and matters of ''trust'' and ''open government''. However, whilst these two groups of potential supporters might agree with the party on these 'Lib Dem issues' (and disagree with the perceived authoritarianism of the government and main opposition), matters of economic policy present an obvious gap between the two groups that the party are still debating how and whether to bridge.
At the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]], the Liberal Democrats gained their highest share of the vote since the days of the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]], and got 62 seats (their highest since [[United Kingdom general election, 1923|1923]]). However, many had anticipated that this election would prove to be the Lib Dem's great breakthrough at Westminster, with some party activists even hoping to reach 100 MPs. From this perspective, 2005 could be considered a wasted opportunity for the Liberal Democrats, although many commentators point to the unfairness of an [[first-past-the-post|electoral system]] that lets the party get around one-quarter of the total votes but only one-tenth of the parliamentary seats.
One of the more interesting trends observed at the election was the Lib Dems replacing the Conservatives as Labour's main opponents in many urban areas. Many of the party's gains came in previously Labour-held urban constituencies (e.g. [[Manchester Withington (UK Parliament constituency)|Manchester Withington]], [[Cardiff Central (UK Parliament constituency)|Cardiff Central]], [[Birmingham Yardley (UK Parliament constituency)|Birmingham Yardley]]), and the party also notably achieved over 100 second-place finishes behind Labour candidates. The long-term implications of this trend in British politics could be profound, since the British electoral system makes it nearly impossible for the Conservatives to return a government without winning some city seats (such as the now Lib Dem [[Bristol West (UK Parliament constituency)|Bristol West]] constituency, which the Conservatives held until 1997, but where they finished third last time).
Though the 2005 elections seemed to mark a resurgence in the fortunes of the Liberal Democrats as a political force, commentators from both left and right have seen in those results the unusual combination of a weak Conservative opposition and an unpopular Labour government which voters nevertheless wanted returned to power; the importance of the invasion of Iraq as a political issue is often quoted as contributing to Labour voters defecting to the Lib Dems. The very real threat posed by the Lib Dems to the Conservative Party also contributed to the election of a new Conservative leader in late 2005 who is perceived to be more 'liberal' and dynamic than any of his recent predecessors. With the Conservatives now ahead of the Labour Party in opinion polls, and the likelihood of a new Labour leader in the coming years, the leadership of Charles Kennedy was called into question by a number of Liberal Democrats in Parliament.
In a personal statement on [[5 January]] [[2006]] Charles Kennedy admitted a long personal battle with alcoholism, and announced a [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006|leadership election]]. Kennedy resigned on January 7th with immediate effect and confirmed that he will not be standing in this election. Sir [[Menzies Campbell]], in his then role as deputy leader, became acting leader and was the eventual victor of the [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006]] anounced on March 2nd 2006.
==Electoral results==
In post-war [[United Kingdom general elections]] they have emerged as the third most popular party behind [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]]. In recent elections, the Liberal Democrats (or their precursor Alliance) have gained between 15% and 25% of the national vote.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Election'''
| '''Name'''
| '''Share of Votes'''
| '''Seats'''
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]]
| SDP-Liberal Alliance
| 25.4%
| 23
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987]]
| SDP-Liberal Alliance
| 22.6%
| 22
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|1992]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 17.8%
| 20
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 16.8%
| 46
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 18.3%
| 52
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 22.0%
| 62
|}
The British [[first past the post electoral system]] does not reward parties whose vote is evenly divided across the nation with many seats in Parliament, and the Liberal Democrats and their forerunners have suffered in particular. This was especially true in 1983 and 1987 when their popular electoral support was greatest; their increase in the number of seats in 1997 and 2001 was largely due to the weakness of the Conservative Party in the later elections.
The Liberal Democrats have generally performed better in local elections, and are a more significant force in local government, with 27 councils under Liberal Democrat majority control, and Lib Dems in joint control of many others. They have generally performed more poorly in elections to the [[European Parliament]]: for example in elections on [[10 June]] [[2004]], the LibDem national share of the vote was 29% (giving them second place, ahead of Labour) in the local elections that day but only 15% in the simultaneous [[European Parliament Election 2004|European elections]] (putting them in fourth place behind the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]]).
They have been coalition partners with Labour in the [[Scottish Parliament]] since its re-establishment in 1999, and were also in [[Lib-Lab Pact|coalition]] with Labour in the [[National Assembly for Wales]] from 1999 to 2003.
==Ideology==
The Liberal Democrats describe their ideology as giving "power to the people". They state they are against the undemocratic concentration of power in unaccountable bodies. They propose decentralisation of power, out of Westminster and into the hands of the people. They would also create a system of tiered government structures to make decisions at what they see as the right level, including regional assemblies, the European Union, and international organisations.
In keeping with the principle of decentralisation of power, the Liberal Democrats are keen protectors of [[civil liberties]] and oppose intervention of the state in personal affairs. For this reason, they have been popular amongst [[gay rights]] campaigners and campaigners for the decriminalisation of recreational drugs. However, a [[YouGov]] poll shows support for the Lib Dems fell [http://www.yougov.com/archives/pdf/trackerPolitical_060127.pdf] after the [[Mark Oaten]] affair.
Their opponents point to their support for the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], even when its theories on [[separation of powers]] leads to more power being given to judges and regulatory bodies rather than elected politicians. They point to the Lib Dem desire for local decision making, and their complaints that different decisions in different locations can lead to a "[[postcode lottery]]" in the provision of public services. They also express surprise that the Lib Dems are so [[Pro-European|supportive of the European Union]], even when that results in decisions being taken at a higher rather than a lower level. They are also criticised for not calling for reform of the [[European parliament]] despite the fact that different countries are not represented equally, which contradicts their ideology of 'giving power to the people'.
===Left wing or right wing?===
Since the governments of [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] and [[David Lloyd George]] the Liberal Democrats and their precursor Liberal party have been seen as the centrist party of British politics. However, with [[Tony Blair]]'s repositioning of Labour to the right, some now view the Lib Dems as being the most left-wing of the United Kingdom's mainstream parties and many classify the Lib Dems as [[centre left]]. Lib Dems opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]], although they were the strongest advocates of the [[Kosovo War]] and before that, intervention in [[Bosnian War|Bosnia]]. They favour a higher top rate of tax, but have also advocated 'pro-market' policies such as [[post office]] [[privatization]] and banning [[strike action|strikes]] in [[emergency service]]s.
Some claim that attempting to place the Liberal Democrats within the [[left-right politics|'left wing'-'right wing']] model does not accurately represent their ideology. For example, when Lib Dems oppose the power of the trade unions, they are seen as right wing. When they oppose the power of the corporations, they are seen as left wing. Whilst this is an opposition to unaccountable [[power (sociology)|power]], it is sometimes argued that they do not fit well inside the left-right axis of twentieth century British politics.
However, others argue that t |
PR and a few of its customers.
Since its launch in 1999, the Holiday Train program has raised more than $2.3 million (CDN) and 506 tons of food for North American food banks. All donations collected in a community remain in that community for distribution.
===Royal Canadian Pacific===
On [[June 7]], [[2000]], the CPR inaugurated the Royal Canadian Pacific, a luxury excursion service that operates between the months of June and September. It operates along a 1,050 km (650 mile) route from Calgary, through the [[Columbia River]] Valley and Crowsnest Pass, and returning back to Calgary. The trip takes six days and five nights. The train consists of up to eight luxury passenger cars built between 1916 and 1931 and is powered by first-generation diesel locomotives.
===Steam Train===
In 1998, the CPR repatriated one of its former passenger steam locomotives that had been on static display in the United States following its sale in January 1964, long after the close of the steam era. CPR Hudson 2816 was redesignated "Empress 2816" following a 30-month restoration that cost in excess of one million dollars. It was subsequently returned to service to promote public relations. It has operated across much of the CPR system, including lines in the United States. It has been used for various charitable purposes, the most significant of which has been to raise awareness of the need to provide children with a nourishing breakfast to aid their learning in school. One hundred percent of the money raised goes to the nation-wide charity [[Breakfast For Learning]] — the CPR bears all of the expenses associated with the operation of the train.
==Locomotives==
===Steam locomotives===
In the CPR's early years, it made extensive use of American [[4-4-0]] [[steam locomotive]]s. Use was also made of [[4-6-0]] and [[2-8-0]] locomotives, particularly in the mountains.
Starting in the 20th century, the CPR used a large number of [[4-6-2]] Pacific locomotives and [[4-6-4]] Hudson locomotives, which were used both in both freight and passenger service. The CPR bought Pacifics between 1906 and 1948. The CPR's best-known Hudsons were the class H1 Royal Hudson, semi-[[streamline]]d locomotives that were given their name because one of their class hauled the Royal Train carrying King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1939 across Canada without change or failure. That locomotive, No. 2850, is preserved in the Exporail exhibit hall of the Canadian Railway Museum in St. Constant (Delson) Quebec. One of the class, No. 2860, was restored by the [[British Columbia]] government and used in excursion service on the [[British Columbia Railway]] between 1974 and 1999.
[[Image:CP Selkirk 5915.jpg|thumb|250px|right|CPR Selkirk locomotive No. 5915]]
In 1929, the CPR received its first [[2-10-4]] [[Selkirk locomotive]]s, the largest steam locomotives to run in Canada. Named after the Selkirk Mountains where they served, these locomotives were well suited for steep grades. They were regularly used in passenger and freight service. The CPR would own 37 of these locomotives, including number 8000, an experimental high pressure engine. The last steam locomotives that the CPR received, in 1949, were Selkirks, numbered 5930-5935.
===Diesel locomotives===
In 1937, the CPR acquired its first [[diesel-electric locomotive]], a custom built one-of-a-kind switcher numbered 7000. This locomotive was not successful and was not repeated. Production model diesels were imported from [[American Locomotive Company]] (Alco) starting with five model S-2 yard switchers in 1943 and followed by further orders. In 1949 Alco FA1 road locomotives (8 A and 4 B units)and 5 RS-2 road switchers were all delivered. In 1948 [[Montreal Locomotive Works]] began production of Alco designs. In 1949, the CPR acquired 13 [[Baldwin Locomotive Works|Baldwin]] locomotives for its isolated Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, and Vancouver Island was quickly dieselised. Following that successful experiment, the CPR started to dieselise its main network. Dieselisation was completed eleven years later, with its last steam locomotive running on [[November 6]], [[1960]]. The CPR's first-generation locomotives were mostly made by [[General Motors Diesel]] and [[Montreal Locomotive Works]], with some made by the [[Canadian Locomotive Company]].
CP was the first railway in North America to pioneer [[alternating current|AC]] traction locomotives, in 1984. In 1995 CP turned to General Electric [[GE Transportation Systems]] for the first production AC traction locomotives in Canada, and now has the highest percentage of AC locomotives in service of all North American Class I railways. [[As of 2004]], 507 of the CPR's 1,622 locomotives are AC.
==The Canadian Pacific Railway in Canadian culture==
The construction of this railway is celebrated in the popular song by [[Gordon Lightfoot]], ''[[Canadian Railroad Trilogy]]''. The story of the railway's construction was most famously told in popular history books by [[Pierre Berton]], ''The National Dream'' and ''The Last Spike'', which were adapted into a popular [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] [[television series]] called ''The National Dream''. The railway is also the subject of a song by [[Stompin' Tom Connors]], "The Flying CPR".
The formation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was voted as the second most important event in forming Canada as a country by a survey of Canadians in 2004.
[[The Arrogant Worms]], in their song "[[The Last Saskatchewan Pirate]]", referenced that before the narrator became a pirate, he was a farmer with land along the CP Line.
==Facilities==
* [[CPR Agincourt Marshalling Yard]] in [[Toronto]]
==References==
* {{cite book | author = Berton, Pierre | title = The National Dream: The Great Railway, 1871-1881 | publisher = McClelland and Stewart, Toronto | year = 1970 | id = ISBN 0771013264 }}
* {{cite book | author = Berton, Pierre | title = The Last Spike | publisher = McClelland and Stewart, Toronto | year = 1971 | id = ISBN 0771013272 }}
* Canadian Pacific Railway ([[October 31]] [[2005]]), ''[http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/English/Media/News/General/2005/Senior+Executive+Appointments.htm CPR Announces Senior Executive Appointment ]''. Retrieved [[November 30]] [[2005]].
* {{cite book | author = Cruise, David and Alison Griffiths | title = Lords of the Line | publisher = Viking, Markham, Ontario | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0670814377 }}
* {{cite book | author = Innis, Harold A. | title = A History of the Canadian Pacific Railway | publisher = University of Toronto Press, Toronto | year = 1923, 1971 | id = ISBN 0802017045 }}
* {{cite book | author = Leggett, Robert F. | title = Railways of Canada | publisher = Douglas & McIntyre, Vancouver, British Columbia | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0888945817 }}
* {{cite book | author = Sandford, Barrie | title = The Pictorial History of Railroading in British Columbia | publisher = Whitecap Books, Vancouver, British Columbia | year = 1981 | id = ISBN 0920620272 }}
* The Premier's Funeral (June 11, 1891). ''The Woodstock Evening Sentinel Review'', p. 1.
* [http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/NR/rdonlyres/e7mxbkfsikoun6lsnedyiqvng4t4sz6zxzselashac2uq2gjhg3ntyiwhxk3neidco5yy6s2y4gs6kgosjnnwtj5vvd/2004%2bCorporate%2bProfile%2band%2bFact%2bBook.pdf Canadian Pacific Railway 2004 Corporate Profile and Fact Book]. Retrieved February 2, 2005.
* http://www.collectionscanada.ca/trains/kids/h32-4000-e.html. Retrieved March 8, 2005.
==See also==
*[[List of presidents of the Canadian Pacific Railway Limited]]
*[[Canadian culture]]
*[[History of Chinese immigration to Canada]]
*[[List of subsidiary railways of the Canadian Pacific Railway]]
*[[Canadian Pacific Airlines]]
*[[Canadian Pacific hotels]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cpr.ca Canadian Pacific Railway Official Website]
*[http://www.trainweb.org/oldtimetrains Canadian Railway History and Stories]
*[http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/English/General+Public/Heritage/A+Brief+History.htm Official CPR brief history]
*[http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/NR/rdonlyres/e7mxbkfsikoun6lsnedyiqvng4t4sz6zxzselashac2uq2gjhg3ntyiwhxk3neidco5yy6s2y4gs6kgosjnnwtj5vvd/2004%2bCorporate%2bProfile%2band%2bFact%2bBook.pdf Canadian Pacific Railway 2004 Corporate Profile and Fact Book]
*[http://www.cprstore.com/ Station 29 - CPR Store]
*[http://www.railserve.com/railnews/canadianpacific_news.html Canadian Pacific Railway News]
*[http://www.scenic-railroads.com www.scenic-railroads.com] A gallery of CPR and other rail images.
*[http://www.trainweb.org/galt-stn/stlh.htm The unofficial St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway website]
*[http://www.bridge-line.org/blhs/blhsmain.html The Bridgeline Historical Association (with interest in the Delaware and Hudson Railway and the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway)]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_18_EN.html CPR, from Sea to Sea: The Scottish Connection] — Historical essay, illustrated with photographs from the CPR Archives and the McCord Museum's Notman Photographic Archives
*[http://www.mountainrailway.com Canadian Pacific Railway in Western Canada as well as all-time CPR Diesel Locomotive Roster
{{NERR}}
{{North America class 1}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Canadian Pacific Railway|*]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[de:Canadian Pacific Railway]]
[[es:Ferrocarriles del Pacífico de Canadá]]
[[fr:Canadien Pacifique]]
[[nl:Canadian Pacific Railway]]
[[no:Canadian Pacific Railway]]
[[pl:Kolej Transkanadyjska]]
[[pt:Canadian Pacific Railway]]
[[fi:Canadian Pacific Railway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Codon</title>
<id>5960</id>
<revision>
<id>15904129</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-23T23:51:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting, as discussed in talk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[genetic code]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
r House. [[Sheeana]]--in charge of the Worm project--expects a sandworm soon.
The Honored Matres conquest destroyed the [[Bene Tleilaxu]], who falsely assumed that their control of [[melange|spice]] production guaranteed their protection. The Matres, we come to see, are surprisingly impulsive in their use of violence. A single Tleilaxu Master remains, albeit in Bene Gesserit captivity. He yields a secret of the Tleilaxu: [[Ghola]] Production. The technology compromises Bene Gesserit ethics; the Tleilaxu method requires a human womb--turning women into "tanks" fit for Ghola production. The first ghola produced is that of [[Miles Teg]], the great military commander introduced in ''[[Heretics of Dune]]''.
The Bene Gesserit have four important prisoners on Chapter House, held in a [[no-ship]]: Ghola Miles Teg, Scytale, [[Duncan Idaho]] and [[Murbella]] (the Matre introduced in ''Heretics''). The Bene Gesserit considers them valuable keys to the present predicament. This mode of thinking--that people are tools fit for a task--makes the prisoners uncooperative, despite the shared threat of the Matres.
The Bene Gesserit intend to wring more secrets of the Tleilaxu from Scytale--namely, how to create spice from the axolotl tanks. Scytale bitterly regrets supplying the Bene Gesserit with ghola technology, but he must barter with them; he is their prisoner. Within Scytale's chest is a nullentropy tube, containing the cells of all Tleilaxu masters and various figures of the last few millennia, including many [[House Atreides|Atreides]]. Capable of recreating the Bene Tleilax, he retains his sense of destiny. Additionally, Scytale also wields the mind-controlling whistling language imprinted in all gholas; what ends could Duncan Idaho achieve for Scytale?
Duncan Idaho and Murbella are living together. The bond created by their mutual imprinting in ''Heretics'' has made them somewhat reluctant lovers. The Bene Gesserit have accepted Murbella as a novice and are training her to be a Sister, despite their belief that she intends to steal their secrets and escape back to the Honored Matres.
The Bene Gesserit wonder about Idaho's capabilities and potential; they suspect he remembers more than this ghola existence because they see signs of his being a [[mentat]], a talent not taught to him. They also wonder why [[Leto II]] consistently resurrected Duncan; is it his genetic potential? Indeed, he remembers his serial Ghola lives, which mystifies him. His mentat awareness tells him that the Bene Tleilaxu could not have accomplished this, implying that his awareness is linked beyond genetics.
===Body===
[[Lampadas]], a center for Bene Gesserit education, has fallen to the Honored Matres.
One Sister, [[Lucilla (Bene Gesserit)|Lucilla]], manages to escape the disaster of Lampadas. She carries the salvation of destroyed Lampadas: the shared-minds of the [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mothers]] of Lampadas. Unfortunately, Lucilla's ship is damaged by a mine and she makes a forced landing on [[Giedi Prime|Gammu]].
Lucilla seeks refuge with an underground group whom she knows will be sympathetic to the Bene Gesserit: [[Jews]]. Long ago, Jews went underground from the repeated pogroms against them, continuing to practice their religion in secret, under cover as "religious revivalists," to conceal their unbroken connection to ancient history. They were so successful that they have survived for 26,000 years while history believed them long since annihilated. The Bene Gesserit--with their memories of the past--were not deceived and have developed a relationship with the Jews.
The [[Rabbi]], trapped in the web of mutual obligation, gives Lucilla temporary sanctuary, but in order to save his organization he must deliver Lucilla to the Matres. To Lucilla's shock he reveals Rebecca, a "wild" Reverend Mother, ''ie'' a Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memories without Bene Gesserit training. Lucilla shares with Rebecca, who promises to take the shared minds of Lampadas safely back to the sisterhood. Lucilla is then "betrayed" to the Honored Matres.
Back on Chapter House, Odrade's plans are reaching fruition. She confronts Duncan Idaho and forces him to admit that he is a mentat, proving he retains memories of many ghola lives. To some degree this is a relief to Duncan, as he no longer has to disguise his abilities, but he realizes this makes his position still more precarious.
Lucilla is taken before the Great Honored Matre, and to her surprise she is not killed outright. A game of words begins, and the Matre tries to persuade her to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets. It becomes known that the Matres dearly want to learn to modify their biochemistry as the Bene Gesserit do. It is speculated that the Matres were driven from the Scattering by an enemy who used biological weapons.
Meanwhile, Murbella collapses under the pressure of Bene Gesserit training and pregnancy--giving in to "word weapons" that the Bene Gesserit planted to undermine her earlier Honored Matre identity. Murbella realizes that she really admires and wants to be Bene Gesserit and sees her former matres as ignorant children. The words of her initiation are repeated with an emphasis not in the original.
[[Dortujla]], the head of a sisterhood keep on Buzzell, arrives on Chapter House reporting that Handlers and [[Futars]]--genetic creations similar to Tlielaxu masters and face-dancers--have offered alliance, though Dortujla's Mentat analysis suggests they intend dominance. She speculates that if the Handlers found Buzzell then Matres may too--smugglers would have sold their information indiscriminately. Why have the Honored Matres not already attacked? Odrade sees an opportunity and orders Dortujla to return to Buzzell with the Sisterhood's offer of surrender. Dortujla is to set up a meeting at Junction--the old [[Spacing Guild]] complex above Gammu--which the Matres control. Little to their knowledge, Miles Teg has intimiate experience with Junction from his human life.
Lucilla's word battles continue for weeks, ending in her death when she reveals to [[Dama]] that although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy. Dama's desire to destroy the sisterhood is redoubled--they teach dangerous knowledge and believe in ridiculous ideas like democracy.
Odrade decides that the task of awakening Teg's human memory is best suited to Duncan Idaho, and so he and Murbella take over Teg's training. It is a job that Duncan excels at, but he is not satisfied with the traditional way of awakening a ghola, remembering the pain he went through to release his own memories.
Odrade and Tamalane tour Chapter House and visit to [[Sheeana]] to consider promotion. Arriving at the inland sea of Chapter House, Odrade is dismayed to see how small it has become. As she swims, she accepts the ruthlessness of some decisions, and returns to the shore with the decision to accelerate the terraforming by removing the last sea on the planet.
Arriving at Desert Watch station, Odrade confronts Sheeana as a test of her suitability for promotion. But Odrade is undermined by her lingering affection for Sheeana and so does not force the full truth out of her, but discovers that Duncan and Sheeana have been allied together for some time and have exchanged much information. Sheeana does not reveal that they have been considering the option of reawakening Teg's memory through imprinting, nor does Odrade discover that Sheeana has the keys to the no-ship prison of Duncan.
While Odrade is away, [[Bellonda]]--a chief advisor to Odrade--decides to get rid of Duncan Idaho, who she believes is too dangerous. However, she underestimates Duncan's capabilities; when she confronts him he protects himself with Teg, since Teg would never serve them after witnessing the murder of his teacher and friend. With his centuries of awareness--his serial lives--Duncan manipulates Bellonda by revealing his genius as a mentat. He chides the sisterhood by focusing on things that they refuse to face, arguing that their emergency plan of Scattering is flawed. Nobody sent to the Scattering has ever returned; ergo they are being trapped. Bellonda leaves realizing not only is Duncan too useful to kill, but that Odrade probably manipulated her into this precise situation. She releases the blocks on Duncan's information flow. "If you have a tool, use it properly," she admits to herself.
Odrade's moulding of Scytale continues apace. She points out to him that his dream of Scytale's great revival is fatally flawed, because the Tleilaxu who scattered are no longer true to his beliefs and indeed serve the Matres. Scytale is amazed and terrified when Sheeana arrives with a baby [[Sandworm (Dune)|sandworm]]. The Bene Gesserit now have their long term supply of spice, destroying Scytale's main bargaining card.
Teg is awakened by Sheeana using imprinting techniques at Duncan's suggestion. His mother had implanted in him a resistance to imprinting and so under Sheeana's sensual assault his old conditioning triggers and his memories are awakened. In his awakening he can't help but reveal the new physical abilities given to him by the T-Probe--his torture device in ''Heretics.'' She frees and appoints him again as Bashar of the military forces of the sisterhood for the assault on the Honored Matres.
Finally it is decided that Murbella is ready to become a Reverend Mother. Odrade relaxes the strictures, and for the first time ever a man--Duncan--is allowed to watch a spice ceremony. Duncan is filled with trepidation, firstly because he fears Murbella will not survive the ceremony, and secondly because he wonders whether she will still love him after going through such a life changing experience. Odrade watches with equal trepidation because Murbella is vi |
Hardfloor]], [[Sven Väth]] and [[Koxbox]].
== See also ==
* [[List of record labels]]
* [[List of electronic music record labels]]
==External links==
* [http://www.harthouse.com/ Official site]
* [http://www.discogs.com/label/Harthouse Harthouse] at [[Discogs]].com
{{record-label-stub}}
[[Category:Electronic music record labels]]
[[Category:German record labels]]
[[de:Harthouse]]
[[ja:ハートハウス]]
[[sl:Harthouse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hermann Hesse</title>
<id>13578</id>
<revision>
<id>41074792</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:06:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hermann Hesse 1927 Photo Gret Widmann.jpg|thumb|Hermann Hesse in 1927]]
'''Hermann Hesse''' ([[2 July]] [[1877]] &ndash; [[9 August]] [[1962]]) was a [[Germany|German]]-[[Switzerland|Swiss]] poet, novelist, and painter. In 1946, he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. His best known works include ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'', ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]'', and ''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'' (also known as ''Magister Ludi'').
==Life==
===Youth===
[[Image: Hermann Hesse Geburtshaus Calw 1977.jpeg|thumb|Hesse's birthplace in Calw]]
Hermann Hesse was born on July 2, 1877 in the [[Black Forest]] town of [[Calw]] in [[Württemberg]], [[Germany]] to a [[Christian]] [[Missionary]] family. Both of his parents served with a Basel Mission to [[India]], where Hesse's mother [[Marie Gundert]] was born in 1842. Hesse's father, [[Johannes Hesse]], was born in 1847 in [[Estonia]] as the son of a doctor. The Hesse family had lived in Calw since 1873, where they operated a missionary publishing house under the direction of Hesse's grandfather, [[Hermann Gundert]].
Hermann Hesse spent his first years of life surrounded by the spirit of [[Swabia|Swabian]] piety. In 1881 the family moved to [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]] for five years, then returned to Calw. After successful attendance at the Latin School in [[Göppingen]], Hesse began to attend the Evangelical Theological Seminary in [[Maulbronn]] in 1891. Here in March 1892, Hesse showed his rebellious character: he fled from the Seminary and was found in a field a day later.
During this time, Hesse began a journey through various institutions and schools, and experienced intense conflicts with his parents. He experienced the depression of a bipolar condition and mentioned suicidal thoughts in a letter from March 20, 1892. In May, after an attempt at suicide, he spent time at an institution in [[Bad Boll]] under the care of theologian and minister [[Christoph Friedrich Blumhardt]]. Later he was placed in a mental institution in [[Stetten im Remstal]], and then a boys' institution in Basel.
At the end of 1892, he attended the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] in [[Cannstatt]]. In 1893, he passed the One Year Examination, which concluded his schooling.
After this, he began a bookshop apprenticeship in [[Esslingen am Neckar]], but after three days he left. Then in the early summer of 1894, he began a fourteen month mechanic apprenticeship at a clock tower factory in Calw. The monotony of soldering and filing work made him resolve to turn himself toward more spiritual activities. In October 1895, he was ready to begin wholeheartedly a new apprenticeship with a bookseller in [[Tübingen]]. This experience from his youth he returns to later in his novel, ''Beneath the Wheel''.
===Toward a writer===
On October 17, 1895, Hesse began working in the bookshop [http://www.heckenhauer.de/ Heckenhauer] in Tübingen, which had a collection specializing in theology, philology, and law. Hesse's assignment there consisted of organizing, packing, and archiving the books. After the end of each twelve hour workday, Hesse pursued his own work further, and he used his long, free Sundays with books rather than social contacts. Hesse studied theological writings, and later Goethe, Lessing, Schiller, and several texts on [[Greek mythology]]. In 1896, his poem 'Madonna' appeared in a [[Vienna|Viennese]] periodical.
In 1898, Hesse had a respectable income that enabled his financial independence from his parents. During this time, he concentrated on the works of the [[German Romantics]], including much of the work from [[Clemens Brentano]], [[Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff]], [[Friedrich Holderlin]] and [[Novalis]]. In letters to his parents, he expressed a belief that "the morality of artists is replaced by aesthetics."
In the fall, Hesse released his first small volume of poetry, ''Romantic Songs'' and in the summer of 1899, a collection of prose, entitled ''One Hour After Midnight''. Both works were a business failure. In two years, only 54 of the 600 printed copies of ''Romantic Songs'' were sold, and ''One Hour After Midnight'' received only one printing and sold sluggishly. Nevertheless, the [[Leipzig]] publisher [[Eugen Diederichs]] was convinced of the literary quality of the work and from the beginning regarded the publications more as encouragement of a young author than as profitable business.
Beginning in the fall of 1899, Hesse worked in a distinguished antique book shop in Basel. There the contacts of his family with the intellectual families of Basel helped open for him a spiritual-artistic environment with rich stimuli for his pursuits. At the same time, Basel offered the solitary Hesse many opportunities for withdrawal into a private life of artistic self-exploration through journeys and wanderings. In 1900, Hesse was exempted from compulsory military service due to an [[Amblyopia|eye condition]], which, along with [[Neuralgia|nerve disorders]] and persistent headaches, affected him his entire life.
In 1901, Hesse undertook to fulfill a grand dream and travelled for the first time to Italy. In the same year, Hesse changed jobs and began working at the antiquarium Wattenwyl in Basel. Hesse had more opportunities to release poems and small literary texts to journals. These publications now provided honorariums. Shortly the publisher [[Samuel Fischer]] became interested in Hesse, and with the novel ''Peter Camenzind'', which appeared first as a pre-publication in 1903 and then as a regular printing by Fischer in 1904, came a breakthrough: From now on, Hesse could live as a free author.
===Between Lake Constance and India===
[[Image:Hermann Hesse Desk Museum Gaienhofen.jpeg|thumb|Hesse's writing desk, pictured at the Museum Gaienhofen]]
With the literary fame, Hesse married [[Maria Bernoulli]] in 1904, settled down with her in [[Gaienhofen]] on [[Lake Constance]], and began a family, eventually having three sons. In Gaienhofen, he wrote his second novel ''[[Beneath the Wheel]]'', which appeared in 1906. In the following time he composed primarily short stories and poems. His next novel, ''[[Gertrud (novel)|Gertrude]]'', published in 1910, revealed a production crisis &mdash; he had to struggle through writing it, and he later would describe it as a miscarriage.
During this time, there also was increased dissonance between him and Maria, and in 1911, Hesse left alone for a long trip to [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Indonesia]]. Any spiritual or religious inspiration, for which he hoped, did not find him, but the journey made a strong impression on his literary work. Following Hesse's return, the family moved to [[Bern]] in 1912, but the change of environment could not solve the marriage problems, as he himself confessed in his novel ''[[Rosshalde]]'' from 1914.
===The First World War===
At the outbreak of the [[First World War]] in 1914, Hesse registered himself as a voluntary with the [[German Empire|German]] government, saying that he could not sit inactively by a warm fireplace while other young authors were dying on the front. He was found unfit for combat duty, but was assigned to service involving the care of war prisoners.
On November 3, 1914 in the ''Neuen Züricher Zeitung'', Hesse's essay ''O Friends, Not These Tones'' (''O Freunde, nicht diese Töne'') appeared, in which he appealed to German intellectuals not to fall for nationalism. What followed from this, Hesse later indicated, was a great turning point in his life: For the first time he found himself in the middle of a serious political conflict, attacked by the German press, the recipient of hate mail, and distanced from by old friends. He did receive continued support from his friend [[Theodor Heuss]], and also from the French writer [[Romain Rolland]], whom Hesse visited in August 1915.
This public controversy was not yet resolved, when a deeper life crisis befell Hesse with the death of his father on March 8, 1916, the difficult sickness of his son Martin, and the break out of [[schizophrenia]] of his wife. He was forced to leave his military service and begin receiving psychotherapy. This began for Hesse a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know [[Carl Jung]] personally, and was challenged to new creative heights: During a three week period during September and October 1917, Hesse penned his novel ''[[Demian]]'', which would be published following the armistice in 1919 under the pseudonym Emil Sinclair.
===Casa Camuzzi===
[[Image:Hermann Hesse 1925 Photo Gret Widmann.jpeg|thumb|Hermann Hesse in 1925]]
When Hesse returned to civilian life in 1919, his marriage was shattered. His wife had a severe outbreak of psychosis, but even after her recovery, Hesse saw no possible future with her. Their home in Bern was divided, and Hesse resettled alone in the middle of April in [[Ticino]], where he occupied a small farm house near [[Minusio bei Locarno]], and later lived from April 25 until May 11 in [[Sorengo]]. On May 11, he moved to the town [[Montagnola]] and rented four small rooms in a strange castle-like building, the 'Casa Camuzzi'.
Here he explored his writing |
]]
==External links==
*[http://www.startcomposting.co.uk/ Start Composting - Beginner's Composting]
*[http://www.compost-bin.org/ The Compost Bin - Learn about Composting]
*[http://www.rolypigusa.com/composting_info/composting-lessons.php Lesson Plans and Composting]
Projects for Schools
*[http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Organics/HomeCompost/ Home Composting]
*[http://www.mastercomposter.com/ Master Composter]
*[http://compost.css.cornell.edu/Note.html Cornell Composting--Science and Engineering]
*[http://www.ehow.com/how_3541_begin-compost-pile.html How to Begin a Compost Pile]
*[http://weblife.org/humanure The Humanure Handbook]
*[http://s14.invisionfree.com/The_Compost_Froup/index.php? The Compost Froup: composting community and forums]
*[http://www.aeromasterequipment.com/ Midwest Bio-Systems]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3991027428756658231 Composting in your garden]
{{waste}}
[[Category:Biodegradation]]
[[Category:Composting]]
[[Category:Gardening]]
[[Category:Organic gardening]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Waste]]
[[bg:Компостиране]]
[[ca:Compost]]
[[cs:Kompost]]
[[da:Kompostering]]
[[de:Kompostierung]]
[[el:Κόμποστ]]
[[es:Compost]]
[[eo:Kompoŝtado]]
[[fr:Compost]]
[[it:Compost]]
[[he:רקבובית]]
[[nl:Compost]]
[[ja:堆肥]]
[[pl:Kompost]]
[[fi:Komposti]]
[[sv:Kompostering]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer-generated music</title>
<id>5968</id>
<revision>
<id>40452555</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:39:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.17.198.133</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Computer-generated compositions performed by computers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer-generated music''' is [[music]] [[musical composition|composed]] by, or with the extensive aid of, a computer. Although any music which uses computers in its composition or realisation is computer-generated to some extent, the use of computers is now so widespread (in the editing of pop songs, for instance) that the phrase '''computer-generated music''' is generally used to mean a kind of music which could not have been created ''without'' the use of computers.
We can distinguish two groups of computer-generated music: music in which a computer generated the score, which could be performed by humans, and music which is both composed and performed by computers.
==Computer-generated Scores for Performance by Human Players==
Many systems for generating musical scores actually existed well before the time of computers. One of these was Mozart&rsquo;s [[Musikalisches Würfelspiel]], a system which used throws of the dice to randomly select measures from a large collection of small phrases. When patched together, these phrases combined to create musical pieces which could be performed by human players. Although these works were not actually composed with a computer in the modern sense, Mozart uses, though in rudimentary form, the same algorithmic techniques that composers now often use with the electronic binary digital computers in existence since the Second World War.
The world's first digital computer music was generated in Australia by programmer Geoff Hill on the [[CSIRAC]] computer which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Subsequently, one of the first composers to write music with a computer was [[Iannis Xenakis]]. He wrote programs in the [[FORTRAN]] language which would automatically produce scores to be played by traditional [[musical instrument]]s. An example is ''ST/48'' of 1962. Although Xenakis could well have composed this music by hand, the intensity of the calculations needed to transform probabilistic mathematics into musical notation was best left to the number-crunching power of the computer.
Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart| Mozart]]. A present exponent of this technique is [[David Cope]]. He wrote computer programs that analyse works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. He has used this program to great effect with composers such as Bach and Mozart (his program ''Experiments in Musical Intelligence'' is famous for creating "Mozart's 42nd Symphony"), but also on his own pieces, combining his own creations with that of the computer.
Some critics claim that computers are unable to produce music of the same quality as the great composers, though others would ask whether or not this is really the point of producing music in this way.
==Music Composed and Performed by Computers==
Later, composers such as [[Gottfried Michael Koenig]] had the computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig originally produced algorithmic composition programs which were similar to Xenakis', in that they translated the calculation of mathematical equations into musical notation which could be performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the Institute of Sonology in [[Utrecht|Utrecht, Holland]] in the [[1970s]].
Procedures such as those used by Koenig and Xenakis are still in use today. Since the invention of the [[MIDI]] system in the early [[1980s]], for example, some people have worked on programs which map MIDI notes to an [[algorithm]] and then can either output sounds or music through the computer's [[sound card]] or write an [[audio file format|audio file]] for other programs to play.
Some of these simple programs are based on [[fractal geometry]], and can map midi notes to specific [[fractal]]s, or fractal equations. Although such programs are widely available and are sometimes seen as clever toys for the non-musician, some professional musicians have given them attention also. The resulting 'music' can be more like noise, or can sound quite familiar and pleasant. As with much algorithmic music, and algorithmic art in general, more depends on the way in which the parameters are mapped to aspects of these equations than on the equations themselves. Thus, for example, the same equation can be made to produce both a lyrical and melodic piece of music in the style of the mid-nineteenth century, and a fantastically dissonant cacophony more reminiscent of the avant-garde music of the 1950's and 1960's.
Other programs can map mathematical formulae and constants to produce sequences of notes. In this manner, an [[irrational number]] can give an infinite sequence of notes where each note is a digit in the decimal expression of that number. This sequence can in turn be a composition in itself, or simply the basis for further elaboration.
Operations such as these, and even more elaborate operations can also be performed in computer music programming languages such as [[Csound]], PD, Max/MSP, and [[ChucK]]. These programs now easily run on most personal computers, and are often capable of more complex functions than those which would have necessitated the most powerful mainframe computers several decades ago.
Another 'cybernetic' approach to computer composition uses specialized hardware to detect external stimuli which are then mapped by the computer to realize the performance. Examples of this style of computer music can be found in the middle-80's work of [[David Rokeby]] (Very Nervous System) where audience/performer motions are 'translated' to MIDI segments. Computer controlled music is also found in the performance pieces by the Canadian composer [[Udo Kasements]] (1919-) such as the Marce(ntennia)l Circus C(ag)elebrating Duchamp (1987), a realization of the [[Marcel Duchamp]] process piece Music Errata using an electric model train to collect a hopper-car of stones to be deposited on a drum wired to an Analog:Digital converter, mapping the stone impacts to a score display (performed in Toronto by pianist Gordon Monahan during the 1987 Duchamp Centennial), or his installations and performance works (eg Spectrascapes) based on his Geo(sono)scope (1986) 15x4-channel computer-controlled audio mixer. In these latter works, the computer generates sound-scapes from tape-loop sound samples, live shortwave or sine-wave generators.
==See also==
*[[Algorithmic composition]]
*[[Trackers]]
*[[Max Mathews]]
==External links==
===Works composed by computers for human performance===
* [http://www.algorithmic.net algorithmic.net] - a lexicon of systems and research in computer aided algorithmic composition
*Samples of David Cope's music:
**[http://www.spectrumpress.com/cope-mp3.html Miscellaneous samples]
**[http://www.music.gla.ac.uk/~tfowler/articles/Computer.html Roll over Beethoven]
*[http://www.charlesfox.org.uk Charles Fox's computer cross-breeding of Bach with the Spice Girls]
*[http://www.soundclick.com/bands/4/marcfrasermusic.htm Marc Fraser - composer of fractal-generated MP3s]
===Computer-generated compositions performed by computers===
*[http://chuck.cs.princeton.edu/ ChucK] (language)
*[http://www.csounds.com/ Csound] (language)
*[http://www.cycling74.com/ Max/MSP] (language)
*[http://www.puredata.info/ PD] (language)
*[http://supercollider.sourceforge.net/ SuperCollider] (language)
*[http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/mmmusic.html Metamath Music]
*[http://www.synestesia.fi/ Synestesia:] Music generated from pictures
*[http://home.comcast.net/~chtongyu/Thesis.html#downloads Sharle, a thesis]
*[http://www.essl.at/works/Lexikon-Sonate.html Lexikon-Sonate:] Karlheinz Essl's realtime composition for computer-controlled piano
[[Category:Electronic music]]
[[Category:Multimedia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capitol</title>
<id>5970</id>
<revision>
<id>40881045</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:07:37Z</ |
er than having a binary representation. Each output will go high in turn, starting over after ten outputs have occurred. This type of circuit finds applications in [[multiplexer]]s and demultiplexers, or wherever a scanning type of behaviour is useful. Similar counters with different numbers of outputs are also common.
A Johnson counter is a special case of [[shift register]], where the output from the last stage is inverted and fed back as input to the first stage. A pattern of bits equal in length to the shift register thus circulates indefinitely. These counters are sometimes called "walking ring" counters, and find specialist applications, including those similar to the decade counter, digital to analogue conversion, etc.
''See also'': [[Frequency counter]]
== Counters in computer science ==
In [[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]], a '''counter''' is considered a type of memory. A counter stores a single [[natural number]] (initially [[0 (number)|zero]]) and can be [[bignum|arbitrarily-many digits long]]. A counter is usually considered in conjunction with a [[finite state machine]] (FSM), which can perform the following operations on the counter:
* Check whether the counter is zero
* Increment the counter by one
* Decrement the counter by one (if it's already zero, this leaves it unchanged).
==Power==
The following machines are listed in order of power, with each one being strictly more powerful than the one below it:
# Deterministic or Non-deterministic FSM plus two counters
# Non-deterministic FSM plus one [[Stack (computing)|stack]]
# Non-deterministic FSM plus one counter
# Deterministic FSM plus one counter
# Deterministic or Non-deterministic FSM
For the first and last, it doesn't matter whether the FSM is deterministic or non-deterministic (see [[determinism]]). They have equivalent power. The first two and the last one are levels of the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].
The first machine, an FSM plus two counters, is equivalent in power to a [[Turing machine]]. This equivalence can be shown in three steps. First, a Turing machine can be simulated by two stacks. Then, a stack can be simulated by two counters. Finally, four counters can be simulated by two counters.
===Step 1: A Turing machine can be simulated by two stacks.===
A Turing machine consists of an FSM and an infinite tape, initially filled with zeros, upon which the machine can write ones and zeros. At any time, the read/write head of the machine points to one cell on the tape. This tape can be conceptually cut in half at that point. Each half of the tape can be treated as a [[Stack (computing)|stack]], where the top is the cell nearest the read/write head, and the bottom is some distance away from the head, with all zeros on the tape beyond the bottom. Accordingly, a Turing machine can be simulated by an FSM plus two stacks. Moving the head left or right is equivalent to popping a bit from one stack and pushing it onto the other. Writing is equivalent to changing the bit before pushing it.
===Step 2: A stack can be simulated by two counters.===
A stack containing zeros and ones can be simulated by two counters, when the bits on the stack are thought of as representing a binary number, with the top being the least significant bit. Pushing a zero onto the stack is equivalent to doubling the number. Pushing a one is equivalent to doubling and adding 1. Popping is equivalent to dividing by 2, where the [[remainder]] is the bit that was popped. Two counters can simulate this stack, in which one of the counters holds a number whose binary representation represents the bits on the stack, and the other counter is used as a scratchpad. To double the number in the first counter, the FSM can initialize the second counter to zero, then repeatedly decrement the first counter once and increment the second counter twice. This continues until the first counter reaches zero. At that point, the second counter will hold the doubled number. Halving is performed by decrementing one counter twice and increment the other once, and repeating until the first counter reaches zero. The remainder can be determined by whether it reached zero after an even or an [[odd number]] of tries.
===Step 3: Four counters can be simulated by two counters.===
As before, one of the counters is used as scratchpad. The other, real counter holds an [[integer]] whose [[prime number|prime]] [[factorization]] is 2<sup>''a''</sup>3<sup>''b''</sup>5<sup>''c''</sup>7<sup>''d''</sup>. The exponents ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', and ''d'' can be thought of as four virtual counters that are being simulated. If the real counter is set to zero then incremented once, that is equivalent to setting all the virtual counters to zero. If the real counter is doubled, that is equivalent to incrementing ''a'', and if it's halved, that's equivalent to decrementing ''a''. By a similar procedure, it can be multiplied or divided by 3, which is equivalent to incrementing or decrementing ''b''. Similarly, ''c'' and ''d'' can be incremented or decremented. To check if a virtual counter such as ''c'' is equal to zero, just divide the real counter by 5, see what the remainder is, then multiply by 5 and add back the remainder. That leaves the real counter unchanged. The remainder will have been nonzero if and only if ''c'' was zero.
As a result, an FSM with two counters can simulate four counters, which are in turn simulating two stacks, which are simulating a Turing machine. Therefore, an FSM plus two counters is at least as powerful as a Turing machine. A Turing machine can easily simulate an FSM with two counters, therefore the two machines have equivalent power.
=== See also ===
*[[Time to digital converter]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[da:Tæller (digital elektronik)]]
[[de:Zählwerk]]
[[es:Contador]]
[[he:מונה]]
[[nl:Teller (breuk)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calendar method</title>
<id>7648</id>
<revision>
<id>22152141</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-30T04:29:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Icarus3</username>
<id>282222</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fertility awareness]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cervical mucus method</title>
<id>7649</id>
<revision>
<id>41972844</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lyrl</username>
<id>408908</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''Cervical mucus method'' may refer to a specific school of [[fertility awareness]] or [[natural family planning]]:
*[[Billings ovulation method]]
*[[Creighton Model]]
*Two-Day Method
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coleridge</title>
<id>7651</id>
<revision>
<id>15905711</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbium</title>
<id>7652</id>
<revision>
<id>15905712</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Niobium]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civil rights history</title>
<id>7653</id>
<revision>
<id>15905713</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-13T05:33:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postdlf</username>
<id>29695</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting per vfd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Civil rights]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clay Mathematics Institute</title>
<id>7655</id>
<revision>
<id>41469969</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:46:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Predawn</username>
<id>330338</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Clay Mathematics Institute''' ('''CMI''') is a private, non-profit foundation, based in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], and dedicated to increasing and disseminating [[mathematics|mathematical]] knowledge. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 by businessman [[Landon T. Clay]], who financed it, and [[Harvard University|Harvard]] mathematician [[Arthur Jaffe]].
==The Millennium Prize problems==
The institute is best known for its establishment on [[May 24]], [[2000]] of the '''Millennium Prize problems'''. These seven problems are considered by CMI to be "important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years". The first person to solve each problem will be awarded $1,000,000 by CMI - thus solving all the problems will amount to $7,000,000. In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to [[Hilbert's problems]], which were proposed in [[1900]], and had a substantial impact on [[20th century]] mathematics. Of the initial twenty-three Hilbert problems, the only one which is still unsolved (or unproven) is The Riemann hypothesis, which was formulated in 1859 and is today one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems.
The seven Millennium Prize problems are:
* [[Complexity classes P and NP|P versus NP]]
* [[Hodge conjecture|The Hodge conjecture]]
* [[Poincaré conjecture|The Poincaré conjecture]]
* [[Riemann hypothesis|The Riemann hypothesis]]
* [[Yang-Mills existence and mass gap]]
* [[Navier-Stokes equations|Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness]]
* [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture|The Birch and Swi |
. The hugely popular Thomas became in many ways the face of the franchise, and won back-to-back MVP's in 1993 and 1994. A player who hit for power as well as a high average, Thomas was generally considered to be destined for the Hall of Fame before a series of injuries derailed his career in the early 2000's.
The team reached the ALCS in [[1993 in baseball|1993]]. The White Sox were led by Thomas, Cy Young Award winner McDowell and All-Star closer [[Roberto Hernandez]] and won the last AL West before realignment with a 94-68 record. However, the White Sox were a big disappointment in the ALCS, losing to the eventual World Champion [[Toronto Blue Jays]] in six games.
The White Sox led the new AL Central Division at the time of the [[1994 baseball strike|1994 players' strike]], and also reached the [[American League Division Series]] in [[2000 in baseball|2000]].
On [[July 31]], [[1997 in baseball|1997]], with the White Sox only 3.5 games back of the [[Cleveland Indians]] for the division lead, they traded veteran pitchers [[Wilson Alvarez]], [[Danny Darwin]], and [[Roberto Hernández (baseball player)|Roberto Hernández]] to the [[San Francisco Giants]] in exchange for six minor leaguers, most notably [[Keith Foulke]]. Many fans saw this as their ownership (led by [[Jerry Reinsdorf]]) betraying them and trading away their chance to win the division in exchange for next to nothing. This trade was deemed as the "White Flag Trade" by the Chicago newspapers due to the perception that the White Sox organization essentially surrendered to the Indians without a fight that year. This trade did considerable harm to the already struggling White Sox fan base. The team's unpopular manager that year, [[Terry Bevington]], while enduring a rocky relationship with the Chicago media, did nothing to help the situation &ndash; on one occasion signalling to the bullpen for a relief pitcher when no one was warming up. He was replaced by [[Jerry Manuel]] following the 1997 season.
Under Manuel, the White Sox fielded a talented but chronically under-achieving team. In the year [[2000 in baseball|2000]], however, the White Sox had one of their best teams since the 1983 club. This team, whose slogan was "The Kids Can Play," won 95 games en route to an AL Central division title. The team scored runs at a blistering pace, which enabled them to win all of these games despite a mediocre pitching staff led by [[Mike Sirotka]]. Frank Thomas nearly won his third MVP award with his offensive output; he was helped by good offensive years from [[Magglio Ordóñez]], [[Paul Konerko]], [[Carlos Lee]] and [[Jose Valentin]].
A big key for this team was that they seemed always to get a clutch hit whenever they needed it. The pitching staff, however, was beset by injuries before the playoffs began. As in 1983 and 1993, this team could not carry its success over into the postseason, getting swept by the wild-card [[Seattle Mariners]] in the Division Series. Despite new club records for hits (1,615), runs scored (978), RBI (926), home runs (216), and doubles (325), the Sox managed to hit only .185 in the ALDS and failed to score a run after the third inning in any of the three games. They were eliminated when Mariners pinch-hitter [[Carlos Guillen]] drove in the winning run with a squeeze bunt.
Over the next four years, the White Sox were in contention for the division title, normally finishing in second place under pitchers [[David Wells]], [[Mark Buehrle]], [[Bartolo Colon]], and hitters [[Magglio Ordonez]], [[Carlos Lee]], and [[Paul Konerko]]. Thomas was injured early in 2001, and has been unsteady ever since.
==="Win Or Die Trying"===
In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], the White Sox hired former team shortstop [[Ozzie Guillén]] as manager. Later that year, general manager [[Ken Williams (baseball executive)|Ken Williams]] vowed to change the makeup of the team from one that relies on the [[home run]] to one that has good pitching and defense. They traded outfielder [[Carlos Lee]] for center fielder [[Scott Podsednik]], and also signed outfielder [[Jermaine Dye]] and former Yankee pitcher [[Orlando Hernandez]] to complete a rotation that included [[Freddy Garcia]], [[Mark Buehrle]], [[Jose Contreras]] and [[Jon Garland]]. Additionally, former Minnesota Twin and San Francisco Giant [[A.J. Pierzynski]] was signed to fill the catching spot. Finally, to complete the make-over, Williams signed Japanese second baseman [[Tadahito Iguchi]] to a contract.
The changes made an immediate impact on the team. In [[2005 in baseball|2005]], the White Sox posted the best record in the major leagues for much of the year, before a late season slump saw the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] overtake them (100 wins vs. 99 wins). Though a serious challenge for their dominance of the division was mounted late in the year by the [[Cleveland Indians]] (the Tribe actually reduced what was once a 15 1/2-game lead for the Sox down to 1 1/2 games at one point), Chicago scored a 4-2 victory over the [[Detroit Tigers]] on [[September 29]] to win their first AL Central Division title since 2000. Finishing at 99-63 (.611) tied their 1983 record, and won the division by six games. The last time they had a higher percentage than that was [[1920]], when they finished second in the league thanks to the late-season "Black Sox" suspensions. The combination of the league's best record with the American League victory in the All-Star Game gave the White Sox the home field advantage throughout the 2005 post-season; perhaps unnecessary as the White Sox won every post-season road game they played in 2005. By the end of the 2005 season, most of their starting pitchers had their careers changed. Such guys were Contreras and Garland.
In the [[2005 American League Division Series|first round]] of the 2005 playoffs, the White Sox took on the wild-card winning [[Boston Red Sox]], the defending World Series champions. However, the ChiSox overpowered the BoSox, defeating the Red Sox in a three-game sweep. They won the first two games (scoring a 14-2 victory in the first game &ndash; their first postseason win at home since [[1959 World Series|1959]] &ndash; and 5-4 in the second) of the series at home before going to [[Fenway Park]] and claiming a 5-3 victory.
The ALDS also set the tone for what would be an unusually suspenseful post-season; while their first game was considered a blow-out, the remaining games saw the White Sox making the most of rare opportunities and hanging on to narrow leads. In Game 2, the White Sox were actually down 2-4 when Red Sox second baseman Tony Graffanino let Juan Uribe's potential inning-ending, double-play grounder go through his legs; one out later, Tadahito Iguchi hit a three-run homer to left that clinched the game for the White Sox. In Game 3, Orlando Hernandez entered the game with the bases loaded and nobody out with the White Sox ahead by only one run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Based on their regular season performance, it was later calculated that the Red Sox's probability of winning at that point was .662, even though they were trailing by one run. Instead, the first two batters, Jason Varitek and Tony Graffanino, both popped out, and Johnny Damon struck out swinging on a breaking ball. Hernandez went on to retire six of the next seven batters, and the White Sox's rookie reliever Bobby Jenks closed out the game.
The Sox then moved on to face the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]] in the [[2005 American League Championship Series|ALCS]]. The Angels won Game 1 3-2 despite making three cross-country airplane trips in three days.
In Game 2 on [[October 12]], 2005, the teams were involved in one of the most controversial endings in baseball playoff history. With the score tied 1-1 with two outs in the bottom of the ninth, A.J. Pierzynski apparently struck out to end the inning. At first Pierzynski headed back to the dugout but ran to first base upon realizing that umpire [[Doug Eddings]] had ruled that Angels catcher [[Josh Paul]] did not field the ball cleanly, meaning he would have to either tag the batter or throw to the first baseman to record the out (see [[dropped third strike]]). Despite vehement protests from various members of the Angels, including manager [[Mike Scioscia]], Pierzynski was awarded first base. Pinch-runner [[Pablo Ozuna]] replaced Pierzynski and stole second base. Third baseman [[Joe Crede]] then delivered a base hit on the third pitch to give the White Sox a controversial 2-1 win. Overshadowed by that play was the 1-run, 5-hit complete game pitched by [[Mark Buehrle]]. Buehrle's excellent effort allowed the White Sox to capture their first-ever home victory in ALCS history.
Buoyed by their win, the White Sox travelled to Anaheim, where starters [[Jon Garland]], [[Freddy Garcia]], and [[Jose Contreras]] (who had dropped Game 1 to the Angels in Chicago) pitched three more complete game victories consecutively over the Angels, giving the Sox their first American League pennant since 1959. Sox slugger [[Paul Konerko]] was named the ALCS MVP, on the strength of his two home runs, 7 RBI, and .286 average.
Especially in light of the evolution of the game, the White Sox' four straight complete games was considered an unbelievable achievement. The last time four consecutive complete games had been pitched in a championship series was in the [[1956 World Series]] between the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] and [[New York Yankees]], and the [[1928 World Series|1928 Yankees]] were the last team to win four consecutive complete games in a championship series. In fact, the last time any major league pitching staff had hurled four straight complete game victories was near the end of the 1983 regular season, when the [[Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29|Texas Rangers]] accomplished the feat.
The Sox now advanced to the [[2005 World Series|World Series]], where they would take on |
eld (novel)|David Copperfield]]'', the story of another orphan cast into the world to live by his wits, would remain a lifelong favorite.
==Education==
[[Image:1893-7-tn.jpg|left|thumb|Hoover (seated, left) and other members of the Stanford surveying squad, [[1893]].]]
In the fall of 1891, Hoover was a member of the first entering class of students at the new [[Stanford University|Leland Stanford Junior University]] in California. Cutting a wider swath outside the classroom than in, Hoover managed the baseball and football teams, started a laundry, and ran a lecture agency. Teaming up with other students from less wealthy backgrounds against campus "swells," the reluctant candidate was elected student body treasurer on the "Barbarian" slate, then wiped out a student-government debt of $2,000.
Hoover [[Academic major|majored]] in [[geology]] and studied with Professor [[John Casper Branner]], who also got him a summer job mapping terrain in Arkansas' [[Ozark Mountains]]. It was in Branner's lab that he met [[Lou Henry Hoover|Lou Henry]], a banker's daughter born in [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]], Iowa, in 1874. Lou shared her fellow Iowan's love of the outdoors and self-reliant nature. "It isn't so important what others think of you as what you feel inside yourself", she told college friends.
Hoover graduated in May 1895. In 1899, he married Lou Henry and they had 2 sons.
[[Image:boxer.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Boxer forces in Tianjin.]]
He worked as a mining engineer in [[Coolgardie]] and [[Kalgoorlie]]'s [[gold]] mines in [[Australia]] for [[mine]] owners [[Bewick, Moreing and Company]] of London. They went to [[China]], where he developed coal mines. In June 1900, the [[Boxer Rebellion]] caught the Hoovers in [[Tianjin]]. For almost a month, the settlement was under heavy fire. While his wife worked in the hospitals, Hoover directed the building of barricades, and once risked his life rescuing Chinese children.
Between 1907 and 1912, Lou and Hoover combined their talents to create a translation of one of the earliest printed technical treatises: [[Georg Agricola]]'s '''De re metallica''', originally published in 1556. At 670 pages, with 289 [[woodcuts]], the Hoover translation remains the definitive English language translation of Agricola's work.
==Humanitarian years==
Bored with making money, the Quaker side of Hoover yearned to be of service to others. When [[World War I]] started in August 1914, he helped organize the return home of 120,000 American tourists and businessmen from Europe. Hoover led five hundred volunteers to distribute food, clothing, steamship tickets and cash. "I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914 my engineering career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life." The difference between dictatorship and democracy, Hoover liked to say, was simple: dictators organize from the top down, democracies from the bottom up.
[[Image:HerbertHooveratOWU.jpg|left|thumb|Hoover seated (left) with [[Arthur Flemming]] at [[Ohio Wesleyan University]] ]]
Invaded by Germany, [[Belgium]], in the fall of 1914, faced a food crisis. Hoover undertook an unprecedented relief effort as head of the [[Commission for the Relief of Belgium]] (CRB). The CRB became, in effect, an independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills and railroads. Its $12-million-a-month budget was supplied by voluntary donations and government grants. In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea 40 times seeking to persuade the enemies in London and Berlin to allow food to reach the war's victims. Long before the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice of 1918]], he was an international hero. The Belgian town of [[Leuven]] named a prominent square after him.
After the United States entered the war in April 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] appointed Hoover head of the American [[Food Administration]], with headquarters in Washington. He succeeded in cutting consumption of food needed overseas and avoided rationing at home, yet kept the [[Allies]] fed. After the end of the war, Hoover, a member of the [[Supreme Economic Council]] and head of the [[American Relief Administration]], organized shipments of food for starving millions in [[Central Europe]]. To this end, he employed a newly formed Quaker organization, the [[American Friends Service Committee]] to carry out much of the logistical work in Europe. He extended aid to famine-stricken [[Bolshevist Russia]] in 1921. When a critic inquired if he was not thus helping [[Bolshevism]], Hoover retorted, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"
In 1919, Hoover co-founded the [[Hoover Institute|The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace]] at Stanford. The Institute is a conservative/libertarian public policy think tank and library that, over time, has amassed a huge archive of documentation related to Hoover, World War I, and World War II, specifically focusing on the root causes of these wars.
==Commerce Secretary==
Hoover was touted as a possible Democratic presidential candidate in 1920, but he announced his support for [[Warren G. Harding]]. As [[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]], Hoover became one of the most visible men in the country, often overshadowing presidents Harding and [[Calvin Coolidge]]. His major achievement was in pushing progressive ideals in the business world, especially in the areas of standardization and international trade. He led relief efforts in the wake of the [[Great Mississippi Flood of 1927]].
==Election of 1928==
Hoover won the [[U.S. presidential election, 1928|Republican Presidential nomination in 1928]]. He campaigned against [[Al Smith]] on the basis of efficiency and prosperity. Although Smith was the target of anti-Catholicism from the Baptist and Lutheran communities, Hoover avoided the religious issue. (Quakers for that matter were under some attack as pacifists.) He supported prohibition tentatively (calling it a "noble experiment"). Historians agree that Hoover's national reputation, and the booming economy, combined with the deep splits in the Democratic party over religion and prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory.
On poverty he promised: "We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land." Within months, the [[Stock Market Crash of 1929]] occurred, and the nation's economy spiraled downward into what became known as the [[Great Depression]].
==Presidency 1929-1933==
===Policies===
Even if the Hoover presidency has a negative imprint on it, it must be noted that there were some important reforms under the Hoover administration.
The President expanded civil service protection, cancelled private oil leases on government lands and led the way for the prosecution of gangster [[Al Capone]]. He appointed a commission which set aside 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of [[national park]]s and 2.3 million of national forests; he appointed a [[Federal Farm Board]] that tried to fix farm prices; advocated tax reduction for low-income Americans; doubled the numbers of veteran hospital facilities; negotiated a treaty on St. Lawrence Seaway (which failed in the Senate); signed an act that made ''[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]'' the [[national anthem]]; wrote a Children's Charter that advocated protection of every child regardless of race or gender; built the [[San Francisco Bay Bridge]]; created an antitrust division in the [[Justice Department]]; required air mail carriers to improve service; proposed federal loans for urban slum clearances; organized the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]; reorganized the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]; proposed a federal Department of Education; advocated fifty-dollar-a-month [[pension]]s for Americans over 65; chaired White House conferences on child health, protection, homebuilding and homeownership. He also signed the [[Norris-La Guardia Act]] that limited judicial intervention in labor disputes.
In the foreign arena, he helped to pave the way for [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s "Good Neighbor Policy" by withdrawing American troops from [[Nicaragua]] and [[Haiti]]; he also proposed an arms embargo on Latin America and a one-third reduction in the world's naval forces--the [[Hoover Plan]]. He and Secretary of State [[Henry Stimson]] outlined the [[Stimson Doctrine|Hoover-Stimson Doctrine]] that said the United States would not recognize territories gained by force.
===Hoover and the economy===
{{main|Great Depression}}
After the crash, Hoover announced that while he would keep the Federal budget balanced, he would cut taxes and expand public-works spending. However, he signed the [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act]], which raised tariffs on over 20,000 dutiable items, and, later, the 1932 Revenue Act, which hiked taxes and fees (including postage rates) across the board. These acts are often blamed for deepening the depression, and being Hoover's biggest political blunders. Moreover, the Federal Reserve System's tightening of the money supply (for fear of inflation) is also regarded by most modern economists as a mistaken tactic, given the situation. Hoover's [[Secretary of the Treasury]] was [[Andrew Mellon]], a holdover from the Coolidge administration.
Hoover's stance on the economy was based on [[volunteerism]]. From before his entry to the presidency, he was among the greatest proponents of the concept that public-private cooperation was the way to achieve high long-term growth. Hoover feared that too much intervention or coercion by the government would destroy individuality and self-reliance, which he considered to be important [[American values]]. Though he was not averse to taking action which he considered was in the public good, such as regulating radio broadcasting and aviation, he preferred a voluntary, non-g |
er purity and safety, they are also extremely expensive, and not generally available in the developing world. In many cases, factor products of any sort are difficult to obtain in developing countries.
==History==
Haemophilia figured prominently in the history of European royalty. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] passed the mutation to her son Leopold and, through several of her daughters, to various royals across the continent, including the royal families of [[House of Bourbon|Spain]], [[Hohenzollern|Germany]] and [[Romanov|Russia]]. For this reason it was once popularly called "the royal disease".
Victoria appears to have been a ''de novo'' case, as her mother's family is not known to have had the disease, and it is improbable that Victoria's mother had had a hemophiliac-suffering man siring her child: her husband, the Duke of Kent, was not hemophiliac, and the probability of the Duchess to have had a lover suffering from hemophilia is minuscule (in those centuries male hemophiliacs tended not to sire children, as they usually died early).
The disease was passed on to:
*[[Princess Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine|Princess Alice]], who passed it onto at least three of her children:
**Princess Irene, who passed it onto two of her three sons: Waldemar and Henry
**Prince Friedrich
**[[Alexandra Fedorovna of Hesse|Princess Alix]], who passed onto her only son, [[Tsarevich Alexei of Russia|Alexei]]. Alexei's hemophilia was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of Imperial Russia during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. One of Alexandra's daughters, [[Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia|Maria]] is thought to have been a symptomatic carrier, due to the fact that she haemorrhaged during a tonsilectomy.
** It does not appear that Princess Alice's oldest daughter Victoria, maternal grandmother to [[Prince Philip]], inherited the mutation, or if she did, that she passed it on to her descendants. One of Alice's daughters, Princess Elizabeth, remained childless, while another, Princess May, died in childhood, so it is unknown if either would have been a carrier.
*[[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]], a sufferer (one of the rare male hemophiliacs of such early era who himself had children), who passed it onto his daughter, [[Princess Alice of Albany|Alice]], who in turn passed it onto her older son, Rupert. The younger son, Maurice, died in infancy, so it is not known if he was a sufferer.
*[[Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg|Princess Beatrice]], who passed it on to at least two, if not three of her four children:
**[[Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg|Princess Victoria Eugenie]], who passed it onto Infante Alfonso, Prince of Asturias) and Infante Gonzalo. Her two daughters, Infanta Beatrice and Infanta Maria Cristina, may be carriers, but none of their descendants have had the disease as of [[2004]].
**Prince Leopold
**Prince Maurice (this is disputed by various sources, although the fact that he was killed in flight in 1914 suggests that he was allowed to fly - unlikely for a known haemophiliac)
[[Image:haemophilia_family_tree.GIF]]
Those who suffered from or carried haemophilia are enclosed in a box.
== External links ==
*[http://www.hemophilia.ca Hemophilia Society of Canada]
*[http://www.hemophilia.org National Hemophilia Society]
{{Hematology}}
[[Category:Blood disorders]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[de:Hämophilie]]
[[es:Hemofilia]]
[[eo:Hemofilio]]
[[fr:Hémophilie]]
[[id:Hemofilia]]
[[ia:Hemophilia]]
[[he:המופיליה]]
[[nl:Hemofilie]]
[[ja:血友病]]
[[pl:Hemofilia]]
[[pt:Hemofilia]]
[[fi:Verenvuototauti]]
[[sv:Blödarsjuka]]
[[ta:இரத்தம் உறையாமை]]
[[zh:血友病]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hemophilia</title>
<id>14007</id>
<revision>
<id>15911588</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-18T08:16:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arno</username>
<id>3371</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Hemophilia moved to Haemophilia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Haemophilia]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hickory (disambiguation)</title>
<id>14008</id>
<revision>
<id>41195647</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:33:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robert Weemeyer</username>
<id>47347</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[pl:Hickory]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Hickory}}
'''Hickory''' may refer to:
* [[Hickory]], a type of tree (''Carya'' species) found in North America and East Asia.
* Places in the United States:
** [[Hickory, Alabama]]
** [[Hickory, Kentucky]]
** [[Hickory, Louisiana]]
** [[Hickory, Maryland]]
** [[Hickory, Mississippi]]
** [[Hickory, North Carolina]]
** [[Hickory, Oklahoma]]
** [[Hickory, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Hickory, Tennesse]]
** [[Hickory, Virginia]]
** ''see also: [[Hickory Township]]''
* [[Hickory cloth]], a hard-wearing cotton [[twill]] similar to [[denim]], used for North American workshirts and coveralls.
* [[Hickory Dickory Dock]], a popular [[nursery rhyme]].
* [[Old Hickory]], the nickname of [[Andrew Jackson]] (1767-1845), the seventh President of the United States.
* [[Old Hickory Furniture]], a historically notable company, original makers of "rustic" furniture, furnishing, for example, nearly all of the original U. S. National Park lodges, including the [[Old Faithful Inn]] at [[Yellowstone National Park]].
{{disambig}}
[[pl:Hickory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hemicellulose</title>
<id>14009</id>
<revision>
<id>29853083</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T23:22:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>167.136.235.247</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A [[hemicellulose]] can be any of several [[heteropolymer]]s ([[matrix polysaccharide]]s) present in almost all cell walls along with [[cellulose]].
Their [[molecular weight]]s are usually lower than that of cellulose and they have a weak undifferentiated structure compared to crystalline cellulose. But the chains form a '[[Matrix (biology)|ground]]' - they bind with [[pectin]] to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres.
Hemicelluloses include [[xylan]], [[glucuronoxylan]], [[arabinoxylan]], [[glucomannan]], and [[xyloglucan]].
As percent content of hemicellulose increases in animal feed the voluntary feed intake decreases.
Hemicellulose is represented by the difference between NDF and ADF.
[[category:cell biology]]
[[da:Hemicellulose]]
[[de:Hemicellulose]]
[[es:Hemicelulosa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hillbillies</title>
<id>14010</id>
<revision>
<id>15911591</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.128.90.172</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[hillbilly]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hillbilly</title>
<id>14011</id>
<revision>
<id>41760419</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:27:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.14.211.241</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hillbilly''' is a term for people who dwell in remote, [[rural]], mountainous areas. In particular the term refers to residents of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachia]] and later the [[Ozarks]] in the [[United States]]. Usage of the term "Hillbilly" generally differs from [[Redneck]] and [[White Cracker|Cracker]], because Rednecks/Crackers reject or resist assimilation into the dominant culture, while Hicks and Hillbillies theoretically are isolated from the dominant culture. The term is often considered [[derogatory]].
==History==
It is believed that the term "hillbilly" originally referred to [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] immigrants of mainly [[Presbyterian]] origin, who brought their cultural traditions with them when they moved to the United States. Many of their stories, songs and ballads dealt with the history of their [[Ulster]] and [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowland Scot]] homelands, especially relating the tale of the [[Protestant]] King [[William III of England|William III]], [[Prince of Orange]], who defeated the [[Roman Catholic]] King [[James II of England|James II]] at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] in [[1690]].
Supporters of King William came to be known as [[Orangemen]] and Billy Boys (Billy being an abbreviation of William; the term "Billy Boy" is still used today, mainly in [[Northern Ireland]]). When considerable numbers of these Scots-Irish immigrants settled in hilly regions during the early 18th Century, they were nicknamed "hill billies" by the occupying [[United Kingdom|British]] soldiers.
Others have speculated that this "Billy" refers to [[William Wallace]], a Scottish national hero.
Alternatively, it is also speculated that the term emerged as a derogatory nickname given by the coastal plain dwelling Anglo-Saxon Southerners for the hill-dwelling settlers of eastern Tennessee, western Virginia and Kentucky, many of whom were ambivalent to the Confederacy during the [[American Civil War]]. Billy Yank was the common term for Union soldiers, the nemesis of the Confederate Johnny Reb.
The use of the word was probably most apt (and relatively inoffensive) during the period between the [[Manifest Destiny|western expansion]] of the early-to-mid [[nineteenth century]] and the post-[[World War II|war]] period of the [[1940s]]. The advent of the [[interstate highway]] system and [[television]] brought many previously isolated communities into mainstream [[United States]] culture in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], but many communities with relatively traditional lifestyles remain throughout the region.
Strangely enough, early editions of |
<id>3535</id>
<revision>
<id>23660132</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-21T07:35:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
3,071 million (2003)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2.349 million (2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly
<br>''domestic:''
local - [[Minsk]] has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational
<br>''international:''
Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to [[Latvia]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], and [[Ukraine]]; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; [[Intelsat]], [[Eutelsat]], and Intersputnik earth stations
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
3.02 million (1997)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
17 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
2.52 million (1997)
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)
'''[[Country code]]:''' BY
==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''
[[Category:Communications in Belarus| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Belarus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Belarus</title>
<id>3536</id>
<revision>
<id>23659912</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-21T07:30:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CalJW</username>
<id>233571</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed from superfluous parent cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
<br>''total:''
5,563 km
<br>''broad gauge:''
5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)
City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Minsk]]
=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Poland|Poland]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] 1524mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in Lithuania|Lithuania]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Latvia|Latvia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Russia|Russia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Ukraine|Ukraine]] - yes
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
63,355 km
<br>''paved:''
60,567 km
<br>''unpaved:''
2,788 km (1998 est.)
== Waterways ==
NA km; note - [[Belarus]] has extensive and widely used canal and river systems
== Pipelines ==
crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)
== Ports and harbors ==
* [[Mazyr]]
== Airports ==
118 (1996 est.):
* [[Minsk International Airport]]
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
36
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
18
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
<br>''under 914 m:''
11 (1996 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
82
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
6
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
9
<br>''under 914 m:''
62 (1996 est.)
== National air-carrier ==
*[[Belavia]]
== Reference ==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''
[[Category:Transportation in Belarus| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armed Forces of Belarus</title>
<id>3537</id>
<revision>
<id>41667484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:12:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redline</username>
<id>578139</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Equipment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin-left:1em"
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=#8888dd | Armed Forces of Belarus
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military manpower'''
|-
| Military age || 18 years of age
|-
| Availability
| males age 15-49: 2,164,923 (2004 est.)
|-
| Reaching military age annually || males: 86,716 (2004 est.)
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military expenditures'''
|-
| Dollar figure || $176.1 million (FY2002 est.)
|-
| Percent of GDP || 1.4% (FY2002 est.)
|}
The turbulent history of [[Belarus]], as well as its close relationship with [[Russia]], have played a large role in its military structure and deployment. The armed forces of Belarus consist of the [[Army]] and the [[Air Force]], all under the command of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus.
== Organization ==
[[Image:Ministry of Defense Republic of Belarus.jpg|thumb|130px|Symbol of the [[Belarusian Ministry of Defense]].]]
Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union there were 180,000 Russian soldiers stationed in Belarus, who answered directly to Moscow High Command and not Belarusian Military Commanders. In May 1992 the Military District of Belarus was abolished, and on [[1 January]], [[1993]] all service personnel on Belarusian soil were required to either take an oath of loyalty to Belarus, or leave. This oath however did not alleviate concerns regarding loyalty to Russia in time of crisis, especially since nearly 50% of all military personnel were ethnically Russian at the end of 1992.
The current personnel levels in the armed forces are numbered at 82,900, although a reduction to 60,000 is planned. Most soldiers are [[conscripts]] serving for a period 12 months (with higher education) or 18 month (without). The branches are as follows (2004):
* '''Army''': 43,357 (two motor divisions, one artillery division, one airborne brigade, two anti-tank brigades)
* '''Air Force''': 22,466 (two interceptor regiments, three strike regiments, one reconnaissance regiment)
* '''Ministry of Defense''': 17,077 (72-1 Guard Unit Training Center, one special duties brigade)
== Equipment ==
The military forces of Belarus are exclusively armed with Soviet-era equipment acquired during the [[Cold War]] from Russia. Although large in numbers, the equipment is in questionable condition, and outdated by Western standards. The MBTs are of Russian type [[T-72]], [[T-62]], and [[T-54]], and AFVs are of Russian type [[MT-LB]], [[BMP-2]], [[BMP-1]], and the [[BMD-1]]. The Air Force is equipped with [[Mig-23]], [[Mig-25]], [[Mig-29]] [[Su-27]] fighters, [[Mig-27]], [[Su-17]], [[Su-24]], [[Su-25]] bombers, as well as [[Mi-8]], [[Mi-24]], and the [[Poland|Polish]] built [[Mi-2]] attack helicopters. Equipment statistics are as follows (including equipment held in storage and reserves) (2004):
* '''Army''': 1800 MBT, 2600 AFV/APC.
* '''Air Force''': 260 FGA/training, 80 Attack Helicopters.
== Military Doctrine ==
The military goals of the armed forces of Belarus are to defend the interests of the Belarusian state. This however is at times ambiguous, and is made even more complex with the various agreements that have been recently signed with Russia. Membership in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], as well as the Treaty on Russia-Belarus Union (1997), and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State (1999), have seemingly returned Belarus back into the heavy sphere of influence by Russia. Much of the Air Defense system is integrated into the Russian defense network, thus making Belarus heavily dependent on Russian resources and aid. It is unclear what the future will hold for Belarusian Military Forces, and what their role in the world will be.
==External links==
* [http://www.mod.mil.by/ Official Website of the Ministry of Defense of Belarus]
[[Category:Militaries|Belarus]]
[[Category:Military of Belarus]]
[[ru:Вооружённые силы Белоруссии]]
[[lt:Baltarusijos karinės pajėgos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Belarus</title>
<id>3538</id>
<revision>
<id>34766196</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T16:03:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Belarus}}
== History (until 2000) ==
Beside [[Ukrainian SSR]], [[Byelorussian SSR]] was the only [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republic that were members of the [[United Nations]]. Both republics and the [[Soviet Union]] joined the UN when the organization was founded in [[1945]].
Since the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], after gaining its independence, Belarus became a member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS), the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE), [[NATO]]'s [[Partnership for Peace]], the [[North Atlantic Cooperation Council]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], and the [[World Bank]]. It is also [[Union of Russia and Belarus|politically united with Russia]] since [[April 2]] [[1996]].
=== Belarus-Russia relations ===
The introduction of [[free trade]] between [[Russia]] and Belarus in mid-[[1995]] led to a spectacular growth in bilateral trade, which was only temporarily reversed in the wake of the [[History of post-Soviet Russia#The crises of 1998|financial crisis of 1998]]. President [[Alexander Lukashenko]] sought to develop a closer relationship with Russia. The framework for the [[Union of Russia and Belarus]] was set out in the Treaty On the Formation of a Community of Russia and Belarus (1996), the Treaty on Russia-Belarus Union, the Union Charter (1997), and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State (1999). The integration treaties contained commitments to [[mo |
vated G-proteins==
[[G_protein-coupled_receptor|Receptor]] activated G-proteins are bound to the inside surface of the [[cell membrane]]. They consist of the G<sub>&alpha;</sub> and the tightly associated G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> subunits. When a [[ligand]] activates the [[G-protein coupled receptor]], the G-protein binds to the receptor, releases its bound GDP from the G<sub>&alpha;</sub> subunit, and binds a new molecule of [[GTP]]. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G<sub>&alpha;</sub> subunit, the G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> dimer, and the receptor. Both, G<sub>&alpha;</sub>-GTP and G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub>, can then activate different 'signalling cascades' (or 'second messenger pathways') and effector proteins, while the receptor is able to activate the next G-protein. The G<sub>&alpha;</sub> subunit will eventually [[Hydrolysis|hydrolize]] the attached GTP to GDP by its inherent [[enzyme|enzymatic]] activity, allowing it to reassociate with G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> and starting a new cycle.
A well characterized example of a G-protein triggered signalling cascade is the cAMP pathway. The enzyme [[adenylate cyclase]] is activated by G<sub>&alpha;s</sub>-GTP and synthesizes the second messenger [[cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) from [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Second messengers then interact with other proteins downstream to cause a change in cell behavior.
===Alpha subunits===
G<sub>&alpha;</sub> subunits consist of two domains, the GTPase domain, and the [[Alpha_helix|alpha-helical]] domain. There exist at least 20 different alpha subunits, which are separated into several main families:
*G<sub>&alpha;s</sub> or simply G<sub>s</sub> (stimulatory) - activates adenylate cyclase to increase cAMP synthesis
*G<sub>&alpha;i</sub> or simply G<sub>i</sub> (inhibitory) - inhibits adenylate cyclase
*G<sub>olf</sub> (olfactory) - couples to [[olfactory receptor]]s
*G<sub>t</sub> ([[transducin]]) - transduces visual signals in conjunction with [[rhodopsin]] in the [[retina]]
*G<sub>q</sub> - stimulates [[phospholipase]] C
*The G<sub>12/13</sub> family - important for regulating the [[cytoskeleton]], cell junctions, and other processes related to movements
===Beta-gamma complex===
The &beta; and &gamma; subunits are closely bound to one another and are referred to as the ''beta-gamma complex''. The G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> complex is released from the G<sub>&alpha;</sub> subunit after its GDP-GTP exchange. The free G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> complex can act as a signaling molecule itself, by activating other second messengers or by gating [[ion channel]]s directly. For example, the G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> complex, when bound to [[histamine]] receptors, can activate [[phospholipase]] A<sub>2</sub>. G<sub>&beta;&gamma;</sub> complexes bound to [[muscarine|muscarinic]] [[acetylcholine]] receptors, on the other hand, directly open G-protein coupled inward rectifying [[potassium]] (GIRK) channels.
==References==
* [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0838577016
*Lodish et al. 2000. ''Molecular Cell Biology'' 4th ed. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York.
* Voet, Donald and Judith G. Voet. 1995. ''Biochemistry'' 2nd ed. John Wilely & Sons, New York.
[[Category:G proteins|*]]
[[Category:Membrane biology]]
[[de:G-Protein]]
[[fr:Protéine G]]
[[he:חלבון G]]
[[fi:G-proteiini]]
[[ja:Gタンパク質]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grigory Efimovich Rasputin</title>
<id>12842</id>
<revision>
<id>15910499</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-10T14:06:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.49.193.178</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grigori Rasputin]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grooved Ware People</title>
<id>12846</id>
<revision>
<id>15910502</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-30T00:48:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[grooved ware people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[grooved ware people]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gary Gygax</title>
<id>12848</id>
<revision>
<id>41917645</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:36:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.1.173.87</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GaryGygax2.jpg|frame|Ernest Gary Gygax, 2004]]
<!-- Gary Gygax claims to be author of D&D and references, Different Worlds #3 -->
'''Ernest Gary Gygax''' (born [[July 27]] [[1938]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], son of a Swiss immigrant father and an American mother ) is best known as the author of the well known fantasy [[role-playing game]] ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' (''D&amp;D''), co-created with [[Dave Arneson]] and co-published with [[Don Kaye]] in [[1974]] under the company [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]].
==Biography==
[[Image:CNExpo 2005 006 Gary signing...EGADS! a 3.5E PHB!.JPG|thumb|220px|Toronto Expo, 2005]]
[[Image:CNExpo 2005 020 Finishing LA Thanks Gary!.JPG|thumb|220px|Toronto Expo, 2005]]
His gaming experiences began at the age of five and six with playing [[pinochle]] and [[chess]] as well as early developments of what is now considered to be [[live action role-playing]] together with [[Jim Rasch]] as [[referee]]/[[game master]], [[John Rasch]] and [[Don Kaye]] as fellow participants. At about the same time Gary began educating himself in [[Science Fiction|Sci-Fi]] novels with [[Ray Bradbury]]'s ''The Veldt'' in Bluebook and [[Robert E. Howard]]’s ''Conan the Conqueror''.
<blockquote>"I've been reading fantasy since 1950." <ref name="gamespy">[http://pc.gamespy.com/articles/538/538817p1.html Gamespy interview with Gary Gygax Interview]", interview by Allen Rausch (URL accessed on [[January 3]], [[2005]])</ref></blockquote>
It was in [[1953]] that Gary Gygax first started playing [[Miniature wargaming|miniature war games]] with Don Kaye.
The game ''[[Gettysburg (game)|Gettysburg]]'' from the [[Avalon Hill]] company captured Gygax's attention. It was from the same company that he placed an order for the first blank hexagon mapping sheets that were available. He was also looking for new ways to generate random numbers. [[Platonic solid|Platonic Solids]] would be his new dice.
In [[1966]], the ''International Federation of Wargamers'' would be created by Gary Gygax and others.<ref name="history">"<cite>1966 * International Federation of Wargamers formed by Gary Gygax and other wargamers.</cite>" [http://www.wizards.com/dnd/DnDArchives_History.asp The History of TSR], [[Wizards of the Coast]] (URL accessed on August 20, 2005)</ref>
In [[1967]], a 20-person gaming-get-together was organized by Gary Gygax at his home including the basement sand table. This was later called "''Gen Con 0''" as it led to the start of the annual [[Gen Con]] [[gaming convention]] the following year, which is now the world's largest and longest-running annual hobby-game gathering. {{mn|GaryLONGBio|1}} Gen Con is also where Gary Gygax would meet [[Brian Blume]] and Dave Arneson. Brian Blume would later enter into TSR as partner with Don Kaye and Gary.
<blockquote>"I'm very fond of the Medieval period, the Dark Ages in particular. We started playing in the period because I had found appropriate miniatures. I started devising rules where what the plastic figure was wearing was what he had. If he had a shield and no armor, then he just has a shield. Shields and half-armor = half-armor rules; full-armor figure = full armor rules. I did rules for weapons as well." <ref name="gamespy"/></blockquote>
Gygax and Jeff Perren wrote ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'', a [[Miniature wargaming|miniature wargame]] from which ''D&D'' was developed, in [[1969]]. <ref name="history"/>
Together with Don Kaye, Mike Reese and Leon Tucker, a military miniatures society would be created under the name ''Lake Geneva Tactical Studies Association'' (LGTSA) which at the time also met in Gary's basement. <ref name="longbio">Gary Gygax, "''LONG BIOGRAPHY of E(rnest) GARY GYGAX''", revision 6-05, ©2005</ref>
Gygax and Kaye founded the publishing company [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]] (TSR) and published the first version of ''D&amp;D'' in [[1974]]. For the spell systems, Gygax would be inspired by [[Jack Vance]], but also draw upon such renowned fantasy authors as [[Robert E. Howard]], [[L. Sprague de Camp]] and [[Fritz Leiber]]. The hand assembled print run of 1000 copies would sell out in nine months. <ref name="longbio"/> In the same year, Gary Gygax hired Tim Kask to help make the transition of ''The Strategic Review'' (progenitor of DRAGON magazine) to the fantasy periodical today known as [[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]] with Gary Gygax as author and later as columnist. <ref name="longbio"/>
After the death of Kaye in 1976, his widow sold her shares to Gygax. Gygax then controlling the whole partnership Tactical Studies Rules created ''[[TSR, Inc.|TSR Hobbies, Inc]]''. He sold it soon after to Brian Blume and his father Kevin because of money problems. The Blume family owned roughly two-thirds of TSR Hobbies by late 197 |
tatus of all of the various nuclear facilities. Homer's job includes replacing most of the burnt out lightbulbs on the map.
*The wall that Homer faces in his work station changes between episodes. In some episodes the wall is a window showing [[Nuclear reactor|reactor]] piping; in others it is a map of nuclear sites around the country, or a solid wall.
==The Future==
The episodes [[Future-Drama]] and [[Lisa's Wedding]] reveal that the plant will eventually upgrade the number of cooling towers (and possibly reactors) from two to at least five, perhaps as a response to the future growth of Springfield.
In Lisa's Wedding, set a decade in the future, we also discover that Lenny and Carl have been promoted to the executive board while [[Milhouse Van Houten]] has become a supervisor. The plant is operated mainly by [[robots]] but Homer still retains his familiar position at Sector 7G.
==See also==
*[[List of characters from The Simpsons]]
[[Category: The Simpsons]][[Category:Fictional companies]]
[[fr:centrale nucléaire de Springfield]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Music</title>
<id>5287</id>
<revision>
<id>15903502</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-11T12:14:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robin klein</username>
<id>70975</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical music era</title>
<id>5288</id>
<revision>
<id>41705880</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:44:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ejgm</username>
<id>60162</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of European art music}}
{{Classicism}}
The '''Classical period''' in [[Western world|Western]] [[music]] occurred from about 1730 and 1820, but there was considerable overlap at both ends with preceding and following periods, as is true for all musical eras. Although the term ''[[European classical music|classical music]]'' is used as a blanket term meaning ''all'' kinds of music in this tradition, it can also occasionally mean this particular era within that tradition.
The Classical period falls between the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] and the [[Romantic period in music|Romantic]] periods. Among its [[composers]] were [[Muzio Clementi]], [[Johann Ladislaus Dussek]] and [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]], though probably the best known composers from this period are [[Joseph Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] (as they all worked in Vienna, Austria, this period is often referred to as "Viennese Classic") - with Beethoven also being listed as either a Romantic composer, or a composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic.
== History of the Classical period ==
=== The Classical style as part of a larger artistic change ===
In the middle of the [[18th century]], Europe began to move to a new style in [[architecture]], literature, and the arts generally, known as [[Classicism]]. While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style, one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity. The remarkable development of ideas in "natural philosophy" had established itself in the public consciousness, with [[Isaac Newton|Newton's]] physics taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in axioms, and articulated and orderly. This taste for structural clarity worked its way into the world of music as well, moving away from the layered [[polyphony]] of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period, and towards a style where a melody over a subordinate harmony &ndash; a combination called [[homophony]] &ndash; was preferred. This meant that playing of chords, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part, became a much more prevalent feature of music, and this in turn made the [[tonality | tonal]] structure of works more audible. (See also [[counterpoint]] and [[harmony]].)
The new style was also pushed forward by changes in the economic order and in social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility more and more became the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there was a rise in the public taste for comic [[opera]]. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups, and the reduction in the importance of the "[[basso continuo|continuo]]", the harmonic fill beneath the music, often played by several instruments. One way to trace this decline of the continuo and its [[figured_bass|figured]] chords is to examine the decline of the term "[[obbligato]]", meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of [[chamber music]]. In the Baroque world, additional instruments could be optionally added to the continuo; in the Classical world, all parts were noted specifically, though not always ''notated'', as a matter of course, so the word "obbligato" became redundant. By 1800, the term was virtually extinct, as was the practice of conducting a work from the keyboard.
The changes in economic situation just noted also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in the late Baroque a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the forces available at a hunting lodge were smaller, and more fixed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the [[Mannheim]] orchestra. In addition, the appetite for a continual supply of new music, carried over from the Baroque, meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one rehearsal. Indeed, even after 1790 Mozart writes about "the rehearsal", to imply that his concerts would have only one.
Since polyphonic texture was no longer the focus of music, but rather a single melodic line with accompaniment, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]] and phrasing. The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.
This led to the Classical style's gradual breaking with the Baroque habit of making each movement of music devoted to a single "[[affect]]" or emotion. Instead, it became the style to establish contrasts between sections within movements, giving each its own emotional coloring, using a range of techniques: opposition of major and minor; strident rhythmic themes in opposition to longer, more song-like themes; and especially, making movement between different harmonic areas the principal means of creating dramatic contrast and unity. Transitional episodes became more and more important, as occasions of surprise and delight. Consequently composers and musicians began to pay more attention to these, highlighting their arrival, and making the signs that pointed to them, on one hand, more audible, and on the other hand, more the subject of "play" and subversion &ndash; that is, composers more and more created false expectations, only to have the music skitter off in a different direction.
===Beginnings of the Classical style (1730-1760)===
At first the new style took over Baroque forms &ndash; the ternary "[[da capo aria|aria da capo]]" and the "[[sinfonia]]" and "[[concerto]]" &ndash; and composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic layouts changed. (See [[History of sonata form]].) Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornament, and focused on the points of [[Modulation (music)|modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these episodes he used changes in instrumentation, melody, and [[mode]]. Among the most successful composers of his time, [[Gluck]] spawned many emulators, one of whom was [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility was hugely successful in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance, and hence enjoyed greatest success in the public estimation.
The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and "worldview", goes by many names. It is sometimes called "[[Galant]]", "[[Rococo]]", or "pre-Classical", or at other times, "early Classical". It is a period where composers still working in the Baroque style are still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present &ndash; Bach, Handel and Telemann all compose well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons C.P.E. Bach was held in such high |
use the Internet, and generally do a number of other things that an average canine shouldn't be able to do, but he never talks in English during the show. He does, however, speak during one of the previews. He also 'speaks' to a cow (subtitled bark of 'Thanks', to which the cow has a subtitled moo back of 'No Problem') in episode 17, "Mushroom Samba". Ein is apparently also able to hack computers via a brain wave interface (demonstrated in episode 23, "Brain Scratch"), further indication of his abnormal capabilities. It is likely that Ed is the only crew member with any idea of Ein's capabilities, as the other crew members are quick to dismiss Ein, and never seem to acknowledge him as more than a pet. Ein initially takes a shine to Jet, but when Ed joins the crew, he comes around to her as well. Frequently the two trade roles, with Ein expressing very human sentiments via facial expression and Ed regressing to a feral state. He went with Ed after she left the crew, probably because of his attachment to her. His name is a pun on the Japanese word for "dog" (''inu'') but is also German for "one" (possibly because he is the only dog featured in the show, or because he is the first new character to be added to the series). 'Ein' may also be short for 'Einstein', after [[Albert Einstein]], because of the extraordinary intelligence he expresses. It should also be noted, however, that "ein" is also Japanese for the [[perineum]], but this epithet is highly doubtful, as the [[German language|German]] pronunciation (which in Japanese would technically be phoeneticized as ''ain'') is used.
=== Vicious ===
[[Image:Vicious001.jpg|right|thumb|Vicious]]
Vicious is a veteran of the war on Titan, and was Spike's partner in the Red Dragon crime syndicate until they fell into conflict over Julia. Vicious lives up to his name: he is ruthless, bloodthirsty, cunning and ambitious, willing to do anything in order to secure a position of power. He is often referred to or depicted as a poisonous snake. His weapon of choice is not a firearm, but a [[katana]] which he uses quite skillfully, even during the war on [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. The blood feud between Spike and Vicious is an ongoing storyline throughout ''Cowboy Bebop''. Vicious believes that he is the only one who can kill, or "awaken" Spike, as Spike is the only one who can do the same for Vicious.
Vicious is voiced by [[Norio Wakamoto]] in the Japanese version and [[Skip Stellrecht]] (as Henry Douglas Grey) in the English version.
=== Julia ===
[[Image:CB-Julia001.jpg|right|thumb|Julia]]
Julia is a beautiful and mysterious woman from both Spike and Vicious' pasts. A love triangle among the three caused Spike to leave the syndicate. Spike had wanted to take her with him when he left the syndicate, but she was blackmailed by Vicious to stay. Julia herself only appears in flashbacks until the final two episodes of the series. Julia acts as a stark contrast to the world around her — her blonde hair and her bright red umbrella and automobile standing out in the otherwise drab environs that she inhabits. She really does love Spike, but doesn't want to spend her life on the run from Vicious.
Julia is voiced by [[Gara Takashima]] in the Japanese version and [[Mary Elizabeth McGlynn]] (as Melissa Williamson) in the English version. McGlynn also directs the voices in the English version, also as Melissa Williamson.
=== Punch and Judy ===
Punch and Judy are the characters of the TV show ''Big Shot''. The show provides information on various bountyheads, but is often unreliable. The ''Bebop'' crew often has the show playing in the background, but seldom pays close attention (they usually get their information from close contacts). Punch and Judy play the "cowboy" persona in a characteristic, "over the top" fashion. Punch adopts a mid-western drawl mixed with a [[Mexico|Mexican]] accent (both faked), and uses random old-West sayings. Judy plays the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] [[dumb blonde]], and always appears in an open bolero jacket with nothing underneath. ''Big Shot'' gets cancelled towards the end of the series, and Punch (lacking accent and costume) makes a brief cameo revealing his and Judy's fates.
Punch and Judy are voiced by [[Tsutomu Tareki]] and [[Miki Nagasawa]] in the Japanese version, respectively, and [[George C. Cole]] and [[Lia Sargent]] in the English version, respectively.
The character names and the loose concept of ''Big Shot'' are most likely a tongue-in-cheek reference to the British puppet-show ''[[Punch and Judy]]''.
===The Three Old Men===
Throughout the series and the movie three old men make frequent appearances, as speaking characters, or in the background during scenes. They make various claims about what they did before becoming oldtimers, including bounty-hunting, building the stargates, farming, piloting planes in a war, and crop-dusting. They seem on speaking terms with many supporting characters, and though they run into the main characters often there is not much attention paid to them (or even that the main characters have seen them before). According to the movie credits, they are called Antonio, Carlos, and Jobim (a reference to the Brazilian musician [[Tom Jobim]]). This is a common concept in some anime, also occuring in [[Love Hina]].
==Sessions (episodes)==
{{details|List of Cowboy Bebop media#Session (episode) list}}
The ''Cowboy Bebop'' series consists of 26 episodes, referred to as "sessions." Also included in the continuity is the ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie, placed between sessions 22 and 23. Many episodes are named explicitly for famous songs — "[[Honky Tonk Woman]]," "[[Heavy Metal Queen]]," "[[Jamming with Edward]]," "[[Sympathy for the Devil]]," "[[Bohemian Rhapsody]]," "[[My Funny Valentine]]," "[[Speak Like a Child]]," "[[Wild Horses]]," "[[Hard Luck Woman]]," and "[[The Real Folk Blues]]," the show's ending theme. Titles which do not name a specific song generally combine some plot element of the episode with a broader musical style — "Jupiter Jazz Pt. 1", "Jupiter Jazz Pt. 2", "Mushroom Samba," "Cowboy Funk," and "Waltz for Venus," for example.
The ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie carries the subtitle ''[[Knockin' on Heaven's Door (song)|Knockin' on Heaven's Door]]''. However, due to a trademark dispute over the title, Columbia Tristar released it in America with the shortened title ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie''.
The title of session 2, "Stray Dog Strut", references the song "Stray Cat Strut."
The title refers to Ein's daring escape of the lab and running throughout the city, Spike in pursuit.
== Soundtrack ==
{{main|The Seatbelts}}
One of the most notable elements of ''Cowboy Bebop'' is its music, mostly performed by [[Yoko Kanno]] and her band, [[The Seatbelts]]. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the jazz-and-blues-themed soundtrack defines the series as much as the characters, writing, or animation; many fans find the soundtracks enjoyable to listen to as albums on their own merits.
Besides the three original soundtracks (''Cowboy Bebop'', ''No Disc'' and ''Blue'') there is a mini-album (''Vitaminless'') and a greatest-hits collection (''TANK! The! Best''). The remix compilation, ''Music for Freelance'', purports to be a broadcast from the [[pirate radio]] station [[Radio Free Mars]]. Finally, there is a CD box set, which includes a variety of tracks from the first original soundtracks, as well as rare/new versions of certain songs and dialogue tracks from the Japanese version of the show.
[[Yoko Kanno]] and [[The Seatbelts]] team with [[Tim Jensen]] for lyrics on songs:
*"[[Ask DNA]]" sung by [[Raj Ramayya]]
*"Gotta knock a little harder" sung by [[Mai Yamane]]
*"Call me, call me" sung by [[The Seatbelts|Steve Conte]]
== Staff ==
The series was created by "[[Hajime Yatate]]," a collective pseudonym for members of the staff at [[Sunrise (Japanese company)|Sunrise]], the [[animation studio]] that also developed ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'', ''[[Big O (anime)|Big O]]'', ''[[Outlaw Star]]'' and ''[[Vision of Escaflowne]]''. ''Cowboy Bebop'' was directed by [[Shinichiro Watanabe]], who also directed ''[[Macross Plus]]'', ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'' and the two short films ''[[A Detective Story]]'' and ''[[Kid's Story]]'' from the ''[[Animatrix]]''. The music of ''Cowboy Bebop'' was all composed by [[Yoko Kanno]], who also composed music for ''[[Earth Girl Arjuna]]'', ''[[Macross Plus]]'', ''[[Vision of Escaflowne]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]'' and ''[[Wolf's Rain]]''.
The ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie was animated by [[Studio BONES]], a new studio created by many former employees of Sunrise, and was one of their first projects. They have since developed other popular series like ''[[RahXephon]]'', ''[[Wolf's Rain]]'', and ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]''.
== Influences ==
''Cowboy Bebop''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s influences are many and varied.
* ''Cowboy Bebop'' is heavily influenced by American culture: from cinema, including mobster movies, [[film noir]], and [[western movie|western]]s, to the jazz music out of the [[Harlem]] nightclubs of the 1940s. It is referred to as Space Jazz by its creators - as opposed to [[Space Opera]], although it has strong similarities to the character-centered action-packed genre - probably for its lighter side, as it is more humorous than the standard Space Opera, often poking fun at the genre.
* ''Cowboy Bebop'' has marks of [[Bruce Lee]] and his martial arts movies. Spike's fighting style ([[Jeet Kune Do]]) is borrowed directly from [[Bruce Lee]]. Also, the name of the bounty in the second episode is Abdul Hakim, borrowed from the Bruce Lee film ''[[Game of Death]]'' that |
php?pid=18095 1990],[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=19253 1991],[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=20544 1992]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php Inaugural Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16610 1989]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Presidential Elections]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1988 1988],[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1992 1992]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/medialist.php?presid=41 61 Audio/Video Clips of George Bush]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data.php Academic Data Related to the Bush Administration]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=BushGHW Audio recordings of Bush's speeches]
* [http://www.snopes.com/history/american/bushscan.htm Page discussing the scanner story]
* [http://www.tarpley.net/bushb.htm George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography] by Webster G. Tarpley & Anton Chaitkin
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/George_HW_Bush.php George Bush's political donations]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gb41.html White House biography]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g41.htm Medical and Health History of George H. W. Bush]
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Bush | name=George Bush}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States House of Representatives, Texas District 7|U.S. Congressman for the 7th District of Texas]]|before=[[John V. Dowdy]]|after=[[Bill Archer]]|years=1967 &ndash; 1971}}
{{succession box | before = [[Charles W. Yost]] | title = [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]] | years = 1971 &ndash; 1973| after = [[John A. Scali]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Chairman of the Republican National Committee]]|before=[[Bob Dole]]|after=[[Mary Louise Smith (1914-1997)|Mary Louise Smith]]|years=1973 &ndash; 1974}}
{{succession box | before = [[William E. Colby]] | title = [[Director of Central Intelligence]] | years = 1976 &ndash; 1977| after = Adm. [[Stansfield Turner]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Bob Dole]] | title = [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|U.S. Republican Party Vice Presidential Nominees]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1984|1984]] (won)| after = [[Dan Quayle]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Walter Mondale]] | title = [[Vice President of the United States]] | years=[[January 20]], [[1981]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[1989]]<br/>[[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]]: [[July 13]], [[1985]]| after = [[Dan Quayle]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Ronald Reagan]] | title = [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|U.S. Republican Party Presidential Nominees]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1988|1988]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] (lost)| after = [[Bob Dole]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Ronald Reagan]] | title = [[President of the United States]] | years=[[January 20]], [[1989]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[1993]]| after = [[Bill Clinton]]}}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents | before=[[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] | after=[[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]| years=1989&ndash;1993}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{DCIA}}
{{USUNambassadors}}
{{RNCchairmen}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}
<!--categories for career/source of notability-->
<!--categories for other accomplishments/notable relationships-->
<!--categories for biographical trivia-->
<!--self-defined category-->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Bush, George Herbert Walker
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Bush, George Sr.
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=41st [[president of the United States]] (1989-1993)
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[12 June]] [[1924]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[Category:1924 births|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of the United States|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Bonesmen|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Bush family|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Delta Kappa Epsilon brothers|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:George H.W. Bush| ]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Living people|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Naval aviators|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:People from Maine|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:United States Senate candidates|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Kappa members|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Pro-life politicians|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:RNC Chairmen|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Texas politicians|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Trilateral Commission member|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Texas|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:United States Navy officers|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category: Phillips Academy alumni|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[ar:جورج ه. و. بوش]]
[[bg:Джордж Хърбърт Уокър Буш]]
[[cs:George H. W. Bush]]
[[cy:George H.W. Bush]]
[[da:George H.W. Bush]]
[[de:George H. W. Bush]]
[[eo:George H. BUSH]]
[[es:George H. W. Bush]]
[[et:George H. W. Bush]]
[[fa:جورج هربرت واكر بوش]]
[[fi:George H. W. Bush]]
[[fr:George Herbert Walker Bush]]
[[gl:George Herbert Walker Bush]]
[[he:ג'ורג' הרברט ווקר בוש]]
[[hu:George H. W. Bush]]
[[id:George H. W. Bush]]
[[it:George H. W. Bush]]
[[ja:ジョージ・H・W・ブッシュ]]
[[ko:조지 H. W. 부시]]
[[la:Georgius H. W. Bush]]
[[ms:George H. W. Bush]]
[[nl:George H.W. Bush]]
[[nn:George H.W. Bush]]
[[no:George H.W. Bush]]
[[pl:George H. W. Bush]]
[[pt:George H. W. Bush]]
[[ru:Буш, Джордж Герберт Уолкер]]
[[simple:George H. W. Bush]]
[[sk:George H. W. Bush]]
[[sq:George H. W. Bush]]
[[sr:Џорџ Х. В. Буш]]
[[sv:George H.W. Bush]]
[[th:จอร์จ เอช. ดับเบิลยู. บุช]]
[[uk:Джордж Буш Старший]]
[[zh:乔治•赫伯特•沃克•布什]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GPS (disambiguation)</title>
<id>11956</id>
<revision>
<id>39822725</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T02:36:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Settinghead</username>
<id>193564</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''GPS''' can refer to:
* [[Global Positioning System]]
* [[GNAT Programming Studio]]
* [[Generalized Processor Sharing]]
* [[General Problem Solver]]
* [[New South Wales, Australia|New South Wales]] [[GPS Schools|Great Public Schools]]
* [[Queensland, Australia|Queensland]] [[Queensland Great Public Schools|Great Public Schools]] Association Inc.
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:GPS (flertydig)]]
[[de:GPS]]
[[sl:GPS (razločitev)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guyana</title>
<id>11957</id>
<revision>
<id>41978037</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:27:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CPMcE</username>
<id>785933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv test (?)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Guyana infobox}}
The '''Co-operative Republic of Guyana''' is a [[nation]] on the northern coast of [[South America]], just above the Equator and a part of the western part of the wider region of [[Guiana]]. The country is bordered to the east by [[Suriname]], to the south by [[Brazil]], to the west by [[Venezuela]] and to the north by the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. It is the third smallest country in South America and approximately the size of [[Great Britain]] or [[Idaho]].
''Guyana'' is an [[Amerindian]] word meaning ''Land of Many Waters'', and the country is mostly characterized by vast unspoiled rain forests dissected by numerous rivers, creeks and beautiful waterfalls. It is also famous for being a proposed location of [[El Dorado (legend)|legendary El Dorado]], the inspiration for The Lost World, for its friendly multicultural society, high [[Biodiversity|biodiversity]], prize-winning rum, wooden architecture, and [[Demerara (sugar)|Demerara sugar]]. Guyana's water walls is known to be one of the most popular attraction because it is inspired by the many waters of Guyana.
Though physically part of South America, culturally, Guyana is more Caribbean than Latin American&mdash;demonstrated by the fact that English is the main language. Other languages include Portuguese, Guyanese Creole English, Spanish, Hindustani, Waiwai, Arawak and Macushi.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Guyana]]''
At the time the first [[Europe]]ans arrived in the area around 1500, Guyana was inhabited by [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] tribes of [[Amerindian]]s. European invasion/settlement began in the early [[17th century]] with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], who established three separate colonies; [[Essequibo]] ([[1616]]), [[Berbice]] ([[1627]]), and [[Demerara]] ([[1752]]). The [[United Kingdom|British]] assumed control in the late [[18th century]] and the Dutch formally ceded the area in [[1814]]. The three became a single British colony known as [[British Guiana]] in [[1831]].
The abolition of [[slavery]] in [[1834]] led to black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured laborers from [[Madeira]] (Portugal) (beginning in 1834), [[Germany]] (first in 1835), [[Ireland]] (1836), [[Scotland]] (1837), [[Malta]] (1839), [[China]] and [[India]] (b |
lign=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
| Polish language
| język polski, <br> polszczyzna
| ['jɛ̃z<strike>i</strike>k 'pɔlski] <br> [pɔl'ʃʧ<strike>i</strike>zna]
| [[Media:jezyk_polski.ogg|listen]] <br> [[Media:Polszczyzna.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| hello
| cześć
| ['ʧɛɕtɕ]
| [[Media:Czesc.ogg|listen]]
| informal, used both for greeting and good-bye, lit. "honour"
|- valign=top
| good morning, good afternoon
| dzień dobry
| ['dʑɛɲ ,dɔbr<strike>i</strike>]
| [[Media:Dzien_dobry.ogg|listen]]
| lit. "good day"
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| good-bye
| do widzenia
| [dɔvi'ʣɛɲa]
| [[Media:Do_widzenia.ogg|listen]]
| lit. "until seeing"
|- valign=top
| good night
| dobranoc
| [dɔ'branɔʦ]
| [[Media:Dobranoc.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| please
| proszę
| ['prɔʃɛ̃]
| [[Media:prosze.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| you're welcome
| proszę bardzo
| [ˌprɔʃɛ̃'barʣɔ]
| [[Media:prosze_bardzo.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| don't mention it
| nie ma za co
| [ˌɲɛma'zaʦɔ]
| [[Media:niezamaco.ogg|listen]]
| lit. "(there's) nothing for it"
|- valign=top
| thank you
| dziękuję
| [dʑɛ̃'kujɛ̃]
| [[Media:Dziekuje.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| this one
| ''[[masculine|m]]:'' ten <br> ''[[feminine|f]]:'' ta <br> ''[[neuter|n]]:'' to
| [tɛn] <br> [ta] <br> [tɔ]
| [[Media:Ten_ta_to.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| that one
| ''[[masculine|m]]:'' tamten <br> ''[[feminine|f]]:'' tamta <br> ''[[neuter|n]]:'' tamto
| ['tamtɛn] <br> ['tamta] <br> ['tamtɔ]
| [[Media:Tamten_tamta_tamto.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| how much?
| ile?
| ['ilɛ]
| [[Media:ile.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| English language
| język angielski
| ['jɛ̃z<strike>i</strike>k aŋ'gɛ´lski]
|
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| yes
| tak
| [tak]
| [[Media:tak.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| no
| nie
| [ɲɛ]
| [[Media:nie.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don't understand
| Nie rozumiem
| [ɲɛrɔ'zumiɛm]
| [[Media:nie_rozumiem.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| where's the bathroom?
| Gdzie jest łazienka?
| [ˌgdʑɛjɛst wa'ʑeŋka]
| [[Media:Gdzie_lazienka.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| generic toast:
| Na zdrowie!
| [na zdrɔv'ɛ]
| [[Media:Na_zdrowie.ogg|listen]]
| lit. "to health"
|-
| do you speak English?
| Czy mówi Pan po angielsku? <br> Czy mówi Pani po angielsku? <br> Czy mówisz po angielsku?
| [ʧ<strike>i</strike>'muvipan poaŋ'gɛ´lsku] <br> [ʧ<strike>i</strike>'muvipani poaŋ'gɛ´lsku] <br> [ʧ<strike>i</strike>'muviʃ poaŋ'gɛ´lsku]
| [[Media:Czy mowi pan.ogg|listen]] <br> [[Media:Czy mowi pani.ogg|listen]] <br> [[Media:Czy_mowi_sz.ogg|listen]]
| ''Pan'' - sir, mr.; ''Pani'' - mrs.; the third form is both impersonal and informal
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| what is it?
| Co to jest?
| [ʦɔtɔ'jɛst]
| [[Media:Co_to_jest.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| Welcome to Poland!
| Witamy w Polsce
| [vi'tam<strike>i</strike> 'fpɔlsʦɛ]
| [[Media:witamy.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I love you
| Kocham cię
| ['kɔxamtɕɛ̃]
|
|
|}
== [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" style="font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode"
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|phrase
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Pronunciation
|-
|Portuguese:
|''Português''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /purtu'geʃ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /portu'gejʃ/
|por-too-GAYS
|-
|Hello:
|''Olá / Oi ( more usual )''
|/ɔ'la/
|oh-LAA
|-
|Is everything all right?:
|''Está tudo bem?''
|-
|I Love You:
|''Eu te amo.''
|-
|Welcome to Brazil:
|''Bem vindo[male]/vinda[female] ao Brasil.''
|-
|Can I take your picture ?
|''Posso tirar sua foto ?''
|-
|What's this/that ?
|''O que é isto/aquilo?''
|-
|Where do you come from ?
|''De onde você é?''
|-
|Where can I find a restaurant?
|''Onde eu posso encontrar um restaurante?''
|-
|Hotel, hospital, police station.
|''Hotel, hospital, delegacia''
|-
|I am gonna miss you !
|''Vou sentir saudades de você/vocês[plural] !''
|-
|Good-bye:
|''Tchau''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /NA/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /NA/
|CHAO
|-
|Please:
|''Por favor''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /puɾ fɐ'voɾ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /poɾ fa'vo:/
|POH FAH-vor
|-
|Excuse me:
|''Com licença''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /NA/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /NA/
|CON lee-CEN-sah
|-
|Thank you:
| ''Obrigado'' (man speech);
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /obɾi'gaðu/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /obɾi'gado/
|oh-bree-GAH-doo
|-
|
|''Obrigada'' (woman speech)
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /obɾi'gaðɐ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /obɾi'gada/
|oh-bree-GAH-dah
|-
|You're Welcome:
| ''De nada''
|/NA/
|JEE NA-dah
|-
|Sorry:
|''Desculpe-me'' (formal)
|/NA/
|dis-COO-pee ME
|-
|
|''Desculpa'' (informal)
|/NA/
|dis-COO-pa;
|-
|That one:
|''Aquele'' (refering to a male person or thing)
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /ɐ'kelɨ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /a'keli/
|ah-KEL-ee
|-
|
|''Aquela'' (refering to a female person or thing)
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /ɐ'kɛlɐ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /a'kɛla/
|ah-KEL-ah
|-
|How much does it costs?:
|''Quanto custa?''
|/NA/
|KWAN-too CUHS-tah
|-
|Yes:
|''Sim''
|/sĩ/
|SEE
|-
|No:
|''Não''
|/nãw̃/
|NA-o
|-
|I didn't understand:
|''Eu não entendi''
|/NA/
|EO NA-o ehn-TEN-ji
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|Brazil: ''Onde fica o banheiro?''
|/õdi fika u baɲɛjɾu/
|OHN-jee FEE-ca OO ban-YAY-ro
|-
|
|Portugal, others: ''Onde fica a casa de banho''
|/õdɨ fikɐ a caza dɨ baɲu/
|OHN-jee FEE-ca AH KAH-zah jee BAN-yoo
|-
|Generic toast:
|''Saúde''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /sɐuðɨ/ [[Brasil|BR.]] /saudZi/
|sa-OO-ji
|-
|Do you speak English?:
|''Você fala Inglês?''
|/NA/
|vo-CEH FAH-lah eeng-LES
|}
== [[Rivaansa]] ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
| Rivaansa || ''rivaansa'' || (ree-VAHN-sah)
|-
| hello || ''asava'' || (ah-SAH-vah)
|-
| good morning || ''tamatus'' || (tah-MAH-tooss)
|-
| good afternoon || ''talentus'' || (tah-LENT-tooss)
|-
| good evening || ''tehâ'' || (te-hee-YAH)
|-
| good night || ''tanosta'' || (tah-NOS-tah)
|-
| goodbye || ''laarmelas, laamas'' || (LAHR-me-las,LAH-mas)
|-
| thank you || ''medalat'' || (me-DAH-laht)
|-
| you're welcome || ''kaspe medala'' || (kAHS-pe me-DAH-la)
|-
| here you are || ''posenakanta, posen'' || (poh-SE-nah-kahn-tah, poh-SEN)
|-
| please || ''nimaahytla'' || (ni-MAH-huht-la)
|-
| excuse-me || ''marvelantos'' || (mar-ve-LAHN-tos)
|-
| do you speak English? || ''ây Anla kai ?'' || (YAH-uh AHN-la KAH-i)
|-
| I don't understand || ''re panamasy'' || (re pah-nah-MAH-suh)
|-
| that one || ''naka-ga'' || (NAH-kah-gah)
|-
| how much? || ''arâ kyra?'' || (ah-RYAH KUH-ra)
|-
| where's the bathroom? || ''dyr a hyltalo ?'' || (duhr ah huhl-TAHL-o)
|-
| generic toast || ''ruiha!'' || (ROO-i-hah)
|}
== [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| cellpadding="2" class="wikitable"
! English || Romanian || [[IPA]] pronunciation
|-
| Romanian (language) || (limba) română || {{IPA|/('lim.ba) ro'mɨ.nə/}}
|-
| Hello! || Bună ziua! || {{IPA|/bu.nə'zi.ǔa/}}
|-
| Good bye! || La revedere! || {{IPA|/la.re.ve'de.re/}}
|-
| Please. || Vă rog || {{IPA|/və'rog/}}
|-
| Thank you. || Mulţumesc || {{IPA|/mul.ʦu'mesk/}}
|-
| How much? || Cât? || {{IPA|/kɨt↘/}}
|-
| English || (limba) engleză || {{IPA|/('lim.ba) eŋ'gle.zə/}}
|-
| Do you speak English? || Vorbiţi engleza || {{IPA|/vor'biʦʲ.eŋ'gle.za↗/}}
|-
| Yes. || Da. || {{IPA|/da/}}
|-
| No. || Nu. || {{IPA|/nu/}}
|-
| I don't understand. || Nu înţeleg. || {{IPA|/'nu.ɨn.ʦe.leg↘/}}
|-
| Cheers! || Noroc! || {{IPA|/no'rok/}}
|-
| Where is the bathroom? || Unde e toaleta? || {{IPA|/'un.de.ǐe.to.a.le.ta↘/}}
|}
== [[Russian language|Russian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! Translation !! Phrase !! Transcription !! Literal translation
|-
| Russian
| русский
| /{{IPA|ˈruskʲəj}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - russkij.ogg|listen]])
|-
| hello
| здравствуйте
| /{{IPA|ˈzdrastvujtʲə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - Zdravstvujte.ogg|listen]])
| be healthy ([[imperative]] 2nd person singular/plural polite)
|-
| good-bye
| до свидания
| /{{IPA|də sviˈdanjə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - do svidania.ogg|listen]])
| until seeing
|-
| please
| пожалуйста
| /{{IPA|paˈʒalustə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - pozhalujsta.ogg|listen]])
|-
| thank you
| спасибо
| /{{IPA|spaˈsibə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - Spasibo.ogg|listen]])
|-
| that one
| тот
| /{{IPA|tot}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - tot.ogg|listen]])
|-
| how much?
| сколько?
| /{{IPA|ˈskolʲkə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - skol'ko.ogg|listen]])
|-
| English
| английский
| /{{IPA|aŋˈglijskʲəj}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - anglijskij.ogg|listen]])
|-
| yes
| да
| /{{IPA|da}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - da.ogg|listen]])
|-
| no
| нет
| /{{IPA|nʲet}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - net.ogg|listen]])
| "there isn't" (short for не есть)
|-
| sorry
| извините
| /{{IPA|izviˈnitʲə}}/
|-
| I don't understand
| я не понимаю
| /{{IPA|ja nʲə pəniˈmaju}}/
|-
| generic toast
| за здоровье
| /{{IPA|zə zdaˈrovjə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - za zdorovje.ogg|listen]])
| for health
|-
| Do you speak English?
| Вы говорите по-английски?
| /{{IPA|vy gəvaˈritʲə pa.aŋˈglijskʲə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - vi govorite.ogg|listen]])
|-
| where's the bathroom?
| где здесь туалет?
| /{{IPA|gdʲe zdʲesʲ tuaˈlʲet}}/
| where here (is) (the) toilet?
|-
| I love you
| я тебя люблю
| /{{IPA|ja tʲəˈbʲa lʲuˈblʲu}}/
|}
== [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit ]] ([[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | transliteration
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
|Sanskrit||संस्कृतम्||{{IPA|saṁs |
the east retreated to the American-held lines and surrendered there instead of following Hitler's orders to make what would have been a suicidal effort to hold off the Soviets from Berlin.
Speer even confessed to Hitler shortly before the dictator's suicide that he had disobeyed, and indeed actively hindered, Hitler's "scorched-earth" decree.
According to Speer's autobiography, Speer visited the [[Führerbunker]] towards the end and stated gently but bluntly to Hitler that the war was lost and expressed his opposition to the systematic destruction of Germany while reaffirming his affection and faith in Hitler. This conversation, it is said, brought Hitler to tears. In disfavor, Speer was excluded from the new cabinet Hitler outlined in his [[Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler | final political testament]], where Speer was to be replaced by his subordinate, [[Karl-Otto Saur]].
==After the war==
[[Image:Albert-Speer-72-929.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Speer at the Nuremberg Trials]]
===Nuremberg trials===
Immediately after the war, there seemed to be little indication that Speer would be charged with [[war crimes]]. Speer traveled unprotected and openly participated in the so-called [[Flensburg government]] for weeks, in the presence of Allied officers. Upon request, he actually held a series of widely-attended lectures for officials of the Allied occupying powers on various topics, including the mistakes made by the Nazi government in industrial and economic affairs (although he never during these lectures spoke about slave labor) and the effectiveness of the Allied [[strategic bombing]] campaigns. Some [[journalists]] and spectators even expected that Speer would be appointed by the occupying powers to help restore Germany's economy. However, any such speculation ended when, after one of these lectures, he was arrested and sent to Nuremberg for trial.
At the [[Nuremberg trials]] after the war Speer was one of the few officials to express remorse and plead guilty, but was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment in [[Spandau Prison]], [[West Berlin]], largely for his use of slave labor. At the trials, the prosecution introduced as evidence a photograph of Speer visiting the [[Mauthausen]] [[concentration camp]], where he is clearly shown surrounded by emaciated prisoners. The prosecution claimed this proved Speer was well aware of [[The Holocaust|the Holocaust]]. However, Speer held that he was only given a "V.I.P." tour of the concentration camp, meaning he was never shown the more vile side of the camp's purpose.
According to interviews after his imprisonment, as well as his memoirs, Speer adopted a "see no evil" attitude towards the Nazi atrocities. For example, through one of his friends, [[Karl Hanke]], he learned of [[Auschwitz (concentration camp)|Auschwitz]] and the large number of deaths taking place there. He then purposely avoided visiting the camp or trying to get more information on what was taking place. In his autobiography, he claims that he had no direct involvement or knowledge of the Holocaust, although he faults himself for blinding himself to its existence. He certainly was aware, at least, of harsh conditions for the slave labor and some critics believe that his books understate his role in the atrocities of the era. [http://news.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/05/11/wspeer11.xml Newly released documents] suggest that Speer knew a lot more about the atrocities than he was telling, but hard evidence for that remains very thin.
One problem with assessments of Speer's complicity in the Holocaust comes from his status in post-war Germany - he became a symbol for people who were involved with the Nazi regime yet did not have (or claimed not to have had) any part in the regime's atrocities. Even today, German historians such as [[Joachim Fest]] tend to have a high opinion of him, while non-German historians take a lower view. As [[film director]] [[Heinrich Breloer]] remarked in the above-linked article:
::''[Speer created] a market for people who said "believe me, I didn't know anything about [the Holocaust]. Just look at the Führer's friend, he didn't know about it either."''
===Imprisonment===
:''Main article: [[Spandau Prison]]''
His time in prison, painstakingly documented in his secret prison diary which was later released as ''[[The Spandau Diaries]]'', was described as consisting mainly of a mind-numbing and pedantically enforced daily routine, incessant petty personal rivalry between the seven prisoners, a pervasive and bloated prison [[bureaucracy]], and the passing of many false hopes of premature release. After some time Speer, and most of the others, had established secret lines of communication to the outside world via sympathetic prison staff. Speer made full use of this by, amongst other things, writing innumerable letters to his family (which were restricted to one outgoing page per month under official regulation) and even having money spent on his behalf from a special bank account for a variety of benign purposes.
Speer, as recounted in his diary, made a deliberate effort to make as productive use of his time as possible. In the first decade, this took the form of putting on paper the first draft of his tell-all [[memoirs]], an act Speer considered to be his "duty" to history and his people, he being the sole surviving member of Hitler's inner circle and in possession of knowledge and a degree of objectivity that no other had. As the prison directors both forbade the writing of a memoir and recorded each sheet of paper given to the prisoners, he wrote much of his memoir secretly on toilet paper, tobacco wrappings, and any other material he could get his hands on, and then had the pages systematically smuggled out.
All the while Speer devoted much of his energy and time towards reading books from the prison library, which was organized by fellow prisoner and ex-[[Grand Admiral]] [[Erich Raeder]]. Speer was, more so than the others, a voracious reader and he completed well over 500 books in the first three years alone.{{ref|spandau}} His tastes ranged from Greek drama to famous plays to architectural books and journals, partly from which he collected information for a book he intended to write on the history and function of windows in architecture.
Later, Speer took to the prison garden for enjoyment and work. Heretofore the garden was divided up into small personal plots for each prisoner with the produce of the garden being used in the prison kitchen. When regulations began to slacken in this regard, Speer was allowed to build an ambitious garden, complete with a meandering path, [[rock garden]], and a wide variety of flowers. The garden was even, humorously, centered around a "north-south axis", which was to be the core design element of Speer and Hitler's new Berlin. Speer then took up a "walking tour of the world" by ordering geography and travel books from the local library and walking laps in the prison garden visualizing his journey. Meticulously calculating every metre traveled, he began in northern Germany, went through the [[Balkans]], [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]], and [[Siberia]], then crossed the [[Bering Strait]] and continued southwards, finally ending his sentence in central [[Mexico]].
===Release===
His release from prison in [[1966]] was a world-wide media event. He then revised and published the several semi-[[autobiography|autobiographical]] books he had begun in prison. His books, most notably ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'' and ''The Spandau Diaries'', which were secretly written during his incarceration and systematically smuggled out, provide a unique and personal look into the personalities of the Nazi era and have become much valued by historians. Speer died of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] in [[London]], [[England]], on [[September 1]], [[1981]] — exactly 42 years after World War II began.
Speer's son, also named Albert, became a successful [[architect]] in his own right, and was responsible for the design of [[Expo 2000]] (the [[world exposition]] that took place in [[Hanover]] in the year 2000), design of the [[Shanghai]] International Automobile City and the Beijing Olympic complex. His daughter [[Hilde Schramm]] became a noted left-wing parliamentarian.
==See also==
* [[Inside the Third Reich]]
* [[List of Adolf Hitler books]]
* [[Nazi architecture]]
==Notes==
#{{note|spandau}}{{cite book
| last = Fishman | first = Jack
| title=Long Knives and Short Memories: The Spandau Prison Story
| publisher=Breakwater Books
| year=1986
| id=ISBN 0920911005
| pages = pg 129
}}
==Resources==
===Works===
* {{cite book
| last = Speer | first = Albert
| authorlink = Albert Speer
| year = 1970
| title = [[Inside the Third Reich]]
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| id = ISBN 0684829495
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Speer | first = Albert
| authorlink = Albert Speer
| year = 1976
| title = Spandau: The Secret Diaries
| publisher = Macmillan
| id = ISBN 0026995018
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Speer | first = Albert
| authorlink = Albert Speer
| year = 1981
| title = Infiltration: How [[Heinrich Himmler]] Schemed to Build an SS Industrial Empire
| publisher = Macmillan
| id = ISBN 0026128004
}}
===Biographies===
* {{cite book
| author = [[Joachim Fest]], [[Ewald Osers]] (translator), [[Alexandra Dring]]
| year = 2002
| title = Speer: The Final Verdict
| publisher = Harcourt
| id = ISBN 0151005567
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Dan | last = van der Vat
| authorlink = Dan van der Vat
| year = 1997
| title = The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer
| publisher = George Weidenfeld & Nicholson
| id = ISBN 0297817213
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Gitta | last = Sereny
| authorlink = Gitta Sereny
| year = 1995
| title = Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth
| publisher = Knopf
| id = ISBN 0394529154
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Matthias | las |
Dewey. '' National Problems: 1880-1897'' (1907)]
* H. Wayne Morgan, ''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896'' (1969)
* Harry J.Sievers, ''Benjamin Harrison'': v1 ''Hoosier Warrior, 1833-1865''; v2: ''Hoosier Statesman From The Civil Was To The White House 1865-1888'' (1959); v3: ''Benjamin Harrison. Hoosier President. The White House and After'' (1968)
Homer E. Socolofsky, ''The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison'' (1987) (ISBN: 0700603204)
===Primary Sources===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99596344 Albert T. Volwiler, ed. ''The Correspondence between Benjamin Harrison and James G. Blaine, 1882-1893'' (1940)]
==Trivia==
*[[Benjamin Harrison]] might be the first President whose voice was recorded. This recording, which was originally made on a [[phonograph cylinder]], can be accessed [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/mediaplay.php?id=196&admin=23 here].
*Harrison was the last President to wear a beard while in office, but not the last to sport facial hair. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[William Howard Taft]] both had [[moustache|moustaches]].
*Harrison had [[electricity]] installed in the White House for the first time, but he and his wife reportedly would not touch the light switches for fear of [[electrocution]].
*On [[June 7]], [[1892]] Harrison became the first president to ever attend a baseball game.
<!-- No supporting references, and a broken link.: *Harrison has [[African-American]] descendants residing in the [[Washington D.C.]] suburbs. See [[L.M.]]-->
==Media==
{{Listen|title=Recording of Harrison|filename=Benjamin Harrison speech.ogg|description=The only known recording of President Harrison, presumably made after his presidency sometime between 1894 and 1899 by Giuseppe Bettini.}}
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1888]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1892]]
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]
== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bh23.html Official White House biography]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/bharrison.html Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.lib.msu.edu/vincent/presidents/harrison.htm Audio clip of Benjamin Harrison's voice]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-1.html First State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-2.html Second State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-3.html Third State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-4.html Fourth State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.presidentbenjaminharrison.org/ The Indianapolis Home of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g23.htm Benjamin Harrison's Health and Medical History]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Benjamin+Harrison | name=Benjamin Harrison}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[List of United States Senators from Indiana|U.S. Senator from Indiana]]|
before=[[Joseph E. McDonald]]|
after=[[David Turpie]]|
years=[[1881]]-[[1887]]}}
{{succession box|
title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party Presidential candidate]]|
before=[[James G. Blaine]]|
after=[[William McKinley]]|
years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1888|1888]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1892|1892]] (lost)}}
{{succession box|
title=[[President of the United States]]|
before=[[Grover Cleveland]]|
after=[[Grover Cleveland]]|
years=[[March 4]], [[1889]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1893]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->|}}
{{end box}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USpresidents}}
[[Category:1833 births|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Miami University alumni|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Indiana|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:First Families of Virginia|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[bg:Бенджамин Харисън]]
[[ca:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[da:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[de:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[es:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[eo:Benjamin HARRISON]]
[[fr:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[ga:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[gl:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[ko:벤저민 해리슨]]
[[hr:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[id:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[it:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[he:בנג'מין הריסון]]
[[ka:ჰარისონი, ბენჯამინ]]
[[nl:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[ja:ベンジャミン・ハリソン]]
[[no:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[nn:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[pl:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[pt:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[sq:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[simple:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[fi:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[sv:Benjamin Harrison]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Binary and</title>
<id>4090</id>
<revision>
<id>15902390</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-25T23:32:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zigger</username>
<id>42667</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ See also & links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">If two conditions are combined by '''''and''''', they must both be true for the compound condition to be true as well.
Likewise, two [[bit]]s may be combined with ''and'':
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">
<tr><th>x <th>y <th>x AND y
<tr><td> 0 <td>0 <td align="center">0
<tr><td> 0 <td>1 <td align="center">0
<tr><td> 1 <td>0 <td align="center">0
<tr><td> 1 <td>1 <td align="center">1
</table>
I.e. the result is 1, if both x and y are 1, and 0 otherwise. If 0 is equated with ''false'', and 1 with ''true'' the ''bit and'' operation works like our ''logical and''.
''Binary and'' can work on [[binary numeral system|binary]] numbers of any size, the numbers are simply ''and''ed digit by digit. For example:
x: 10001101
y: 01010111
x AND y: 00000101
(Only in the first, and third column from the right, both operands had 1 digits.)
''and'' is often called ''[[mask (computing)|mask]]ing'', because y can be seen as a mask which is transparent (1) in some places (x will shine through), and black (0) in others (x will be blocked).
==See also==
*[[Bitwise operation]]
*[[Logical conjunction]]
[[Category: Computer arithmetic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bartolomeo Ammanati</title>
<id>4091</id>
<revision>
<id>37287165</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T00:52:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sailko</username>
<id>824323</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bartolomeo Ammanati''' (Settignano, a hill of [[Florence]] [[1511]] - [[Florence]] [[1592]]) was a Florentine [[architect]] and [[Sculpture|sculptor]].
Ammanati studied under [[Baccio Bandinelli]] and [[Jacopo Sansovino]] (assisting on the Library of [[St. Mark's]] ,Venice) and closely imitated the style of [[Michelangelo]].
He was more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture. He designed many buildings in [[Rome]], which included work at the [[Villa Giulia]] complex (in collaboration with [[Vignola]] and [[Vasari]]), also at [[Lucca]] and [[Florence, Italy|Florence]]. His work at the completion of [[Pitti Palace]], commissioned by Eleonora of Toleda, wife of [[Cosimo I]], is one of his most celebrated achievements (1558-1570), respecting the original style of [[Filippo Brunelleschi]].
He was also employed in [[1569]] to build the beautiful bridge over the [[Arno]], known as Ponte della Trinità--one of his celebrated works. The three arches are elliptic, and though very light and elegant, have resisted the fury of the river, which has swept away several other bridges at different times. It was destroyed in 1944 during WW II and rebuilt in 1957.
[[Image:Firenze.Neptune01.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Fountain of Neptune]]
Another of his most important works was the marble and bronze fountain of Neptune for the [[Piazza della Signoria]]. The assignment was originally given to the ageing [[Bartolommeo Bandinelli]]. On his death, Ammanati won the competition for the continuing of this assignment over other famous sculptors, such as [[Benvenuto Cellini]] and [[ Vincenzo Danti ]]. He worked between 1563 and 1565 on the original block of marble (chosen by Bandinelli), together with his assistants, among which [[Giambologna]]. He took Grand Duke [[Cosimo I]] as model for Neptune's face. When the work on the ungainly sea god was finished, [[Michelangelo]] scoffed at Ammanati that he had ruined a beautiful piece of marble. Ammanati continued working on this fountain for another ten years, adding, in a [[mannerist]] style, around the perimeter suave bronze reclining river gods, laughing [[satyr]]s and marble sea horses emerging from the water. The whole gives nevertheless a coherent impression. The fountain served as an example for future fountain-makers.
Other famous sculptures by Ammanati :
* the marble statue ''Victory'' (1540), Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
* the marble statue ''Leda with the Swan'' in the Museo Nazionale del Bargello in Florence.
* the marble statue ''Parnassus (''1563), Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
* the stone statue ''Allegory of Winter'' (1563-65), Villa Medici, Castello
* the bronze statue ''Goddess Opi'' (1572-75), Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
In [[1550]] Ammanati married Laura Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman. Later in his life he had a religious crisis, influenced by [[Counter-Reformation]] piety |
WiMAX]]
*[[IEEE 802.16]]
*[[HIPERMAN]]
==External links==
*[http://www.alcatel.com/publications/abstract.jhtml?repositoryItem=tcm%3A172-261821635 Universal Broadband Access - Going Wireless and Mobile ] Strategy White Paper from Alcatel
{{wireless-stub}}
[[Category:Network access]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beryllium aluminium meta-silicate</title>
<id>4597</id>
<revision>
<id>15902859</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-28T19:52:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Beryl]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Beryl]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boleslav I</title>
<id>4599</id>
<revision>
<id>29259139</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T03:34:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect into disambig, too general</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boleslaus I]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boleslaw III</title>
<id>4600</id>
<revision>
<id>32964510</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T05:50:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Björn Borg</title>
<id>4601</id>
<revision>
<id>42115680</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:48:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.103.243.199</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Career Overview */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 width=280 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%; clear:right"
|+<big>'''Björn Borg'''</big>
|-
| align=center colspan="2" |
{| style="background:#f9f9f9;" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|- align=center
| <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BjornBorg.jpg|200 px|Björn Borg]] -->
|}
|-
| '''Country:''' || Sweden
|-
| '''Residence:''' || Monte Carlo, MON
|-
| '''Height:''' || 180 cm (5 ft 11 in)
|-
| '''Weight:''' || 73 kg (160 lb)
|-
| '''Plays:''' || Right
|-
| '''Turned&nbsp;pro:''' || 1973
|-
| '''Retired:''' || 1981
|-
| '''Highest&nbsp;singles&nbsp;ranking:''' || 1 (8/23/1977)
|-
| '''Singles&nbsp;titles:''' || 57
|-
| '''Career prize money:''' || US$3,655,751
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | Grand Slam Record<br>Titles: 11
|-
| Australian Open
| 3rd (1974)
|-
| French Open
| '''W''' (1974-5, 1978-81)
|-
| Wimbledon
| '''W''' (1976-80)
|-
| US Open
| F (1976, 1978, 1980-1)
|}
{{Audio|sv-Björn Borg.ogg|'''Björn Rune Borg''' }} ([[June 6]] [[1956]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]) is a former '''[[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|World No. 1]]''' [[tennis]] player. Entering the professional ranks as somewhat of a teenage prodigy, Borg retired early after an unusally brief eight-year career. After his rookie season, he opted to participate in only three grand slam tournaments per year, skipping the [[Australian Open]] in his final seven years of competition. Despite these things, he still managed to collect numerous records and 11 [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles – five at [[Wimbledon championships|Wimbledon]] and a record six at the [[French Open]] – leading some to consider him the greatest male tennis player of all time.
== Career Overview ==
As a child growing up in [[Södertälje]], a town near Stockholm, Borg became fascinated by a tennis racket which his father had won as a prize at a [[ping pong]] tournament. His father gave him the racket, beginning one of the brightest careers in tennis history.
In [[1972]], at the age of 15, Borg became one of the youngest players ever to represent his country in the [[Davis Cup]], and won his debut singles rubber in five sets over seasoned pro [[Onny Parun]] of New Zealand. Later that year, he won the Wimbledon junior singles title.
In [[1974]], aged 17 years and 11 months, Borg won his first top-level singles title at the [[Rome Masters|Italian Open]]. Two weeks later, he won his first Grand Slam title at the French Open. In the final, he came back from two sets down to defeat [[Manuel Orantes]] in five sets 2&ndash;6, 6&ndash;7, 6&ndash;0, 6&ndash;1, 6&ndash;1. At the time, Borg was the youngest-ever male French Open champion (though the record has since been lowered by [[Mats Wilander]] in [[1982]], and [[Michael Chang]] in [[1989]]).
Borg quickly gained a reputation for his strong base-line game, with powerful ground-strokes and a punishing doubled-fisted backhand. His great endurance and calm court demeanor earned him the nickname of the "Ice Man". He hit the ball hard and high from the back of the court and brought it down with excessive top-spin, making it very difficult for opponents to attack him. In many ways, Borg developed the style of play which has come to dominate the game in the decades that followed.
Borg retained his French Open crown in [[1975]], when he beat [[Guillermo Vilas]] in straight sets in the final.
1975 also saw Borg help Sweden to win its first ever Davis Cup title. He won two singles and one doubles rubber in the final as Sweden beat [[Czechoslovakia]] 3&ndash;2. With his two singles wins in the final, Borg had put together a run of 19 consecutive wins in Davis Cup singles rubbers going back to [[1973]]. That was already a record at the time. But Borg never lost another Davis Cup singles rubber, and by the end of his career he had stretched that winning streak to 33 - a Davis Cup record which still stands.
With two French Open wins and a Davis Cup under his belt, Borg set his sights on winning Wimbledon. Borg did not make much of an impact at Wimbledon prior to [[1976]], and many people doubted whether his strong base-line game could be adapted to be successful on Wimbledon's fast-playing grass courts. But after two weeks of solid practice in serve-and-volley tactics, Borg swept through Wimbledon in 1976 without losing a set, defeating the much-favoured [[Ilie Năstase]] in straight sets in the final. Borg became the youngest male Wimbledon champion of the modern era at 20 years and 1 month (a record later broken by [[Boris Becker]] who won Wimbledon aged 17 in [[1985]]). Borg also reached the final of the 1976 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]], where he lost to [[Jimmy Connors]]. Some speculate that Borg surviving the first week of Wimbledon, when the courts were slick and fast, was the key to his success. The courts played slower in the second week which suited Borgs baseline game.
Borg repeated his Wimbledon triumph in [[1977]], although this time he was pushed much harder. He won a thrilling five-set victory over [[Vitas Gerulaitis]] in the semi-finals 6-4, 3-6, 6-3, 3-6, 8-6 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742097.stm]. In the final he was also pushed to five sets by Connors.
The end of the [[1970s]] and the start of the [[1980s]] saw Borg at the height of his powers. He won both the French Open and Wimbledon for three years running in [[1978]], [[1979]] and [[1980]]. He also won the season-ending [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters]] title in 1979 and 1980. Borg was also runner-up at the US Open in 1978 (lost to Connors) and 1980 (lost to McEnroe).
Borg's fifth consecutive Wimbledon title was won in an all-time great final in 1980 against the new up-and-coming star of men's tennis [[John McEnroe]]. In a 34-point fourth-set tie-breaker, Borg saved six sets-points and McEnroe saved five match-points before McEnroe finally won the tie-break 18-16. In the end, Borg's renowned mental toughness prevailed in the decisive fifth set, which he won 8-6.
Borg won what turned out to be his final Grand Slam title at the French Open in [[1981]]. In the final, he beat another of tennis' up-and-coming stars, [[Ivan Lendl]], in five sets. Borg's six French Open titles remains a record for a male player.
In making the final at Wimbledon in 1981, Borg stretched his winning streak at the All England Club to a record 41 matches. But it finally came to an end in the 1981 final, where McEnroe beat him in four sets.
Borg's last Grand Slam final was a four-set defeat to McEnroe at the 1981 US Open. The US Open was undoubtedly Borg's "bogey tournament". He reached the final four times but never won. (Borg chose to make the journey to the [[Australian Open]] only once, in 1974, where he lost in the third round.) The U.S. open final is always played at night, to catch the prime-time sports viewing TV audience and Borg reputedly found himself hampered by playing under electric lights. He tried unsuccessfully to lobby U.S. representatives to shift the tournament to the afternoon.
The spark seemed to have burned out of Borg's game by the end of 1981, and he was on the brink of burn-out. But Borg's announcement in [[1982]] that he was retiring from the game at the age of just 26 was a shock to the tennis world.
After retiring, Borg suffered a [[drug overdose]], was rumoured to have attempted [[suicide]] and had a turbulent relationship with his then-wife, the Italian singer [[Loredana Bertè]]. He later bounced back as the owner of the Björn Borg fashion label, whose most noted advertising campaigns asked Swedes (from the pages of a leading national newspaper) to "Fuck for the Future".
In the early-[[1990s]] (possibly pushed by financial difficulties with his fashion label, which was not doing very well at the time), Borg attempted a comeback on the men's professional tennis tour. Howeve |
s of the B737. An important project of these years was the [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]], to which Boeing contributed with its experience in space rockets acquired during the Apollo era, in which the company also participated. Boeing participated also with other products in the space program, and was the first contractor for the [[International Space Station]]. At the same time, several military projects went into production, like the [[RAH-66 Comanche]] helicopter, the Avenger air defense system and a new generation of short-range missiles. During these years, Boeing was very active upgrading existing military equipment and developing new ones.
[[Image:Boeing777.jpg|frame|The Boeing 777-200.]]
=== 1990s ===
In 1994, Boeing introduced its most modern commercial jet aircraft, the twin-engine [[Boeing 777|B777]], with a [[seating capacity]] of 390 passengers, in between the B767 and the B747. The longest range twin in the world, the B777 is one of a number of aircraft certified to fly routes over oceans and deserted zones (see [[ETOPS]]), and is being sold very successfully. This aircraft, affectionately known as the "triple seven," reached an important milestone by being the first airliner to be designed "entirely by computer," i.e. by using [[computer-aided design|CAD]] techniques. Also in the mid-1990s, the company developed the revamped version of the [[Boeing 737|B737]], known as the "Next-Generation 737." It has since become the fastest-selling version of the B737 in history. The "Next-Generation 737" includes the 737-600, the 737-700, the 737-800, and the 737-900.
In 1996, Boeing merged with [[Rockwell|Rockwell International Corp.]]&rsquo;s aerospace and defense units. The Rockwell products became a subsidiary of Boeing, named Boeing North American, Inc. One year later, Boeing merged with [[McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas Corp.]] Following the merger between Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 was renamed the Boeing 717, and the production of the MD-11 was stopped. Boeing introduced a new corporate identity with completion of the merge incorporating the Boeing typeface and a simplified version of the McDonnell Douglas logo.
===2000s===
In recent years Boeing has faced an increasingly competitive [[Airbus]], which offers some commonality between models and the latest [[fly-by-wire]] technology. From the 1970s Airbus has increased its family of aircraft to the point where they can now offer an aircraft in almost every class Boeing does. Indeed Airbus is now competing in markets that Boeing once had a monopoly over, e.g. the [[Airbus A320|A320]] has been selected by two [[low cost carrier|low-cost operators]] (the aircraft used by these airlines has traditionally been the 737) and the very large aircraft market, the [[Airbus A380|A380]]. The 747 is being cannibalized by healthy sales of Boeing's own competitor, the [[Boeing 777|777-300 Series]].
Currently, Boeing is planning to introduce five new aircraft, the [[Boeing 787|787 "Dreamliner"]], the ultra-long-range 777-200LR, the 737-900ER, 737-700ER and the [[Boeing 747|747-8]]. The Boeing 787 was formerly known as the Boeing 7E7, but the designation has since been changed. The Boeing 777-200LR has the longest range of any commercial aircraft, and is the first airliner to able to fly halfway across the planet with a commercially viable payload. The 777-200LR has completed flight-testing and certification, with the first aircraft due to be delivered to [[Pakistan International Airlines]] in 2006. The 737-900ER, previously designated as the 737-900X is an improvement to the 737-900. The current 737-900 model has limited range, and is limited in capacity such that it can not be flown in a high-density configuration, rather requiring a solidly two-class configuration. The 737-900ER will extend the range of the 737-900ER to a similar range as the successful 737-800 with the capability to fly more passengers. The 747-8 will offer better efficiency and longer range. The passenger and cargo versions will be 12ft and 18ft longer respectively.
In 2004, Boeing canceled production of the 757 after more than a thousand were produced, with the last airplane going to Shanghai Airlines, in China. More advanced versions of the 737 were beginning to compete against the older design. Boeing also soon canceled the production of 717 due to slow sales, and the 767 is likely to cease production soon. However, if Boeing manages to win the contract for new USAF tankers, the 767 program might be saved. Boeing also is building an advanced version of the 747, the 747-8 [http://www.newairplane.com/], which will compete more closely with the Airbus A380. The aircraft was informally announced at the 2005 [[Paris Airshow]].
== Recent history ==
[[Image:787icelandair.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Boeing 787]] "Dreamliner" is the company's newest commercial aircraft design.]]
After several decades of numerous successes, Boeing lost ground to Europe's Airbus and subsequently lost its position as market leader in 2003. Multiple Boeing projects were pursued and then cancelled due to doubt for such projects in the market. The [[Boeing Sonic Cruiser]] is among these projects. It responded by running a huge [[advertising]] campaign to promote its new motto, "Forever New Frontiers," and rehabilitate its image. Hopes are now focused on the newly-launched [[Boeing 787|787]] as a platform of total fleet rejuvenation. The plan almost worked and by the end of 2005 Boeing had re-established itself as a fierce competitor to [[Airbus]], narrowly loosing by less than 50 jets sold.
On [[October 10]] [[2001]], against fierce competition for the contract to the [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter|JSF]], Boeing lost to rival [[Lockheed Martin]] in the multi-billion dollar contract. Boeing's plane was the [[X-32]], which lost out to Lockheed's [[F-35]] entrant. The X-32 may have been hampered by the requirement for a redesign after several flaws were found in the original concept.
In Early May 2004 Boeing announced that the 717, the last plane to be designed by McDonnell-Douglas, would cease termination by 2006.
On [[August 2]] [[2005]] Boeing sold its [[Rocketdyne]] rocket engine division to [[Pratt & Whitney]].
In May 2005 Boeing announced its intent form a new company, [[United Launch Alliance]] with its competitor [[Lockheed Martin]]. The new company will be the sole provider of rocket launch services to the US government. The joint venture is expected to be gain regulatory approval and be complete near the end of 2005.
=== "Unethical conduct" ===
In May 2003 the [[US Air Force]] announced it would lease 100 [[KC-767]] tankers to replace the oldest 136 of its [[KC-135]]s. The 10 year lease would give the USAF the option to purchase the aircraft at the end of the contract. In September 2003, responding to critics who argued that the lease was vastly more expensive than an outright purchase, the DOD announced a revised lease of 74 aircraft and purchase of 26.
In December 2003 the Pentagon announced the project was to be frozen while allegations of corruption by one if its former procurement staffers, [[Darleen Druyun]] (who had moved to Boeing in January) was investigated. The fallout of this resulted in the resignation of Boeing [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] [[Philip M. Condit]] and the termination of [[Chief financial officer|CFO]] [[Michael M. Sears]]. [[Harry Stonecipher]], former McDonnell Douglas CEO, replaced Condit.
Druyun pleaded guilty to inflating the price of the contract to favor her future employer and to passing information on the competing [[Airbus A330 MRTT]] bid (from [[EADS]]). In October 2004 she was sentenced to nine months in jail for corruption, fined $5,000, given three years of supervised release and 150 hours of community service.
In March 2005 the Boeing board forced [[President]] and CEO Harry Stonecipher to resign. Boeing said an internal investigation revealed a "consensual" relationship between Stonecipher and a female executive that &#8220;violated the company's Code of Conduct&#8221; and "would impair his ability to lead the company." [[James A. Bell]] served as interim CEO (in addition to his normal duties as Boeing's [[Chief financial officer|CFO]]) until the appointment of [[Jim McNerney]] as the new [[Chairman]], President, and CEO on [[June 30]], [[2005]].
=== Industrial espionage ===
In June 2003 Lockheed Martin sued Boeing alleging the company had resorted to [[industrial espionage]] in 1998 to win the [[Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle]] (EELV) competition. Lockheed alleged that a former employee; Kenneth Branch, who went to work for McDonnell Douglas and Boeing, passed 25,000 proprietary documents to his new employers. Lockheed argued that these documents allowed Boeing to win 21 of the 28 tendered military satellite launches.
In July 2003 Boeing was penalized, with the Pentagon stripping $1 billion worth of contracts away from the company and awarding them to Lockheed. Furthermore, the company was forbidden to bid for rocket contracts for a 20 month period which expired in March 2005.
In early September 2005 it was reported that Boeing was negotiating a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice in which it would pay up to $500 million to cover this and the Darleen Druyun scandal. [http://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/stories/2005/09/05/daily53.html?from_rss=1]
=== Airbus subsidy dispute ===
In October 2004, Boeing filed a complaint at the [[World Trade Organization]], claiming that Airbus had violated a 1992 bilateral accord when it received what Boeing deems as "unfair" subsidies from several European governments. Airbus retaliated by filing another complaint, contesting that Boeing had also violated the accord when it received tax breaks from the U.S. Government. Moreover, the E.U. al |
t Baron Holles]], English statesman and writer (b. [[1599]])
*1680 - [[Jan Swammerdam]], Dutch scientist (b. [[1637]])
*[[1715]] - [[Antoine Galland]], French archaeologist (b. [[1646]])
*[[1732]] - [[Louis Marchand]], French organist and harpsichordist (b. [[1669]])
*[[1768]] - [[Arthur Onslow]], English politician (b. [[1691]])
*[[1780]] - [[Andreas Felix von Oefele]], German historian and librarian (b. [[1706]])
*[[1841]] - [[Ferdinando Carulli]], Italian [[guitarist]]
*[[1854]] - [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]], English painter (b. [[1789]])
*[[1856]] - [[Heinrich Heine]], German writer (b. [[1797]])
*[[1883]] - [[Napoleon Coste]], French guitarist and composer (b. [[1806]])
*[[1909]] - [[Geronimo]], Apache leader (b. [[1829]])
*[[1919]] - [[Wilfrid Laurier]], seventh [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1841]])
*[[1934]] - King [[Albert I of Belgium]] (b. [[1875]])
*[[1934]] - [[Siegbert Tarrasch]], German chess player (b. [[1862]])
*[[1939]] - [[Willy Hess (violinist)|Willy Hess]], German violinist (b. [[1859]])
*[[1943]] - [[Armand J. Piron]], American jazz violinist and composer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1961]] - [[Nita Naldi]], American actress (b. [[1897]])
*[[1962]] - [[Bruno Walter]], German conductor (b. [[1876]])
*[[1970]] - [[Shmuel Yosef Agnon]], Israeli writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]])
*1970 - [[Alfred Newman]], American film composer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1977]] - [[Janani Luwum]], Ugandan Archbishop (shot) (b. [[1922]])
*[[1982]] - [[Thelonious Monk]], American jazz pianist (b. [[1917]])
*1982 - [[Lee Strasberg]], Austrian-born actor (b. [[1901]])
*[[1990]] - [[Erik Rhodes]], American actor (b. [[1906]])
*[[1994]] - [[Randy Shilts]], American author and activist (AIDS) (b. [[1951]])
*[[1998]] - [[Ernst Jünger]], German author (b. [[1895]])
*[[2001]] - [[Khalid Abdul Muhammed]], American Nation of Islam spokesman (brain aneurysm) (b. [[1948]])
*[[2004]] - [[José López Portillo]], [[President of Mexico]] (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Dan O'Herlihy]], Irish actor (b. [[1919]])
*2005 - [[Omar Sivori]], Argentine football player (b. [[1935]])
*[[2006]] - [[Ray Barretto]], Puerto Rican musician ([[congas]]) (b. [[1929]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Empire]] - [[Quirinalia]] in honor of [[Quirinus]].
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Tanis Diena]] observed.
*World [[Cabbage]] Day.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/17 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060217.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=17 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[February 16]] - [[February 18]] - [[January 17]] - [[March 17]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:17 Februarie]]
[[ar:17 فبراير]]
[[an:17 de frebero]]
[[ast:17 de febreru]]
[[bg:17 февруари]]
[[be:17 лютага]]
[[bs:17. februar]]
[[ca:17 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 17]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 17]]
[[co:17 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:17. únor]]
[[cy:17 Chwefror]]
[[da:17. februar]]
[[de:17. Februar]]
[[et:17. veebruar]]
[[el:17 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:17 de febrero]]
[[eo:17-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 17]]
[[fo:17. februar]]
[[fr:17 février]]
[[fy:17 febrewaris]]
[[ga:17 Feabhra]]
[[gl:17 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 17일]]
[[hr:17. veljače]]
[[io:17 di februaro]]
[[id:17 Februari]]
[[ia:17 de februario]]
[[is:17. febrúar]]
[[it:17 febbraio]]
[[he:17 בפברואר]]
[[jv:17 Februari]]
[[ka:17 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:17 gromicznika]]
[[ku:17'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 17]]
[[lb:17. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 17]]
[[mk:17 февруари]]
[[ms:17 Februari]]
[[nap:17 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:17 februari]]
[[ja:2月17日]]
[[no:17. februar]]
[[nn:17. februar]]
[[oc:17 de febrièr]]
[[os:17 февралы]]
[[pl:17 lutego]]
[[pt:17 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:17 februarie]]
[[ru:17 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 17.]]
[[sco:17 Februar]]
[[sq:17 Shkurt]]
[[scn:17 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 17]]
[[sk:17. február]]
[[sl:17. februar]]
[[sr:17. фебруар]]
[[fi:17. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:17 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 17]]
[[tt:17. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 17]]
[[th:17 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:17 tháng 2]]
[[tr:17 Şubat]]
[[uk:17 лютого]]
[[wa:17 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 17]]
[[zh:2月17日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 17]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fractal Compression</title>
<id>11165</id>
<revision>
<id>15908929</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-01T01:54:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rade Kutil</username>
<id>1632</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[fractal compression]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[fractal compression]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Feminist</title>
<id>11166</id>
<revision>
<id>15908930</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feminism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flåklypa Grand Prix</title>
<id>11167</id>
<revision>
<id>41182110</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:31:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.249.160.180</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Flåklypa Grand Prix |
image = Flaaklypa_grand_prix_large.gif |
director = [[Ivo Caprino]] |
producer = [[Ivo Caprino]] |
writer = [[Kjell Aukrust]], [[Ivo Caprino]] |
starring = [[Frank Robert]], [[Kari Simonsen]], [[Toralv Maurstad]], [[Rolf Just Nilsen]] [[Harald-Heide Steen Jr.]], [[Helge Reiss]], [[Wenche Foss]], [[Per Theodor Haugen]], [[Henki Kolstad]], [[Leif Juster]], | ))
music = [[Bent Fabricius Bjerre]] |
editing = [[Ivo Caprino]] |
camera = [[Charles Patey]] |
sound assistance = [[Jacob Trier]] |
sound design = [[Jacob Trier]], [[Petter Fladeby]] |
distributor = [[Sandrew Metronome]] |
released = [[August 28]], [[1975]] |
runtime = 88 min |
language = Norwegian |
imdb_id = 0073000 |
}}
'''''Flåklypa Grand Prix''''' (released under the English title "Pinchcliffe Grand Prix") is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[puppet]] film, directed by [[Ivo Caprino]]. The [[1975]] film is based on the literary characters of Norwegian author [[Kjell Aukrust]].
The movie is about the inventor Theodor Rimspoke and his friends Ludvig and Solan, who decide to create the racecar ''Il Tempo Gigante'' to compete against the wicked racecar driver Rudolf Blodstrupmoen. Il Tempo Gigante has a spinning radar, which turns out to be useful when Blodstrupmoen starts engaging in smoke warfare during the race. The car also has an extremely big engine, and the body is made out of copper.
The pod race in [[Star Wars I: The Phantom Menace]] borrows many elements from ''Flåklypa'', which, according to the Internet Movie Database [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120915/trivia], was in turn inspired by the movie [[Grand Prix (movie)|Grand Prix]].
The film was made in five years by a very small crew, with Caprino as the sole animator. [[Bjarne Sandemose]] built most of the props, sets and cars and was in charge of the technial aspects of making the film, while Charley Patey was the camera man, Gerd Alfsen made the costumes and Ingeborg Riiser designed the puppets.
Americans got to see the film for the first time on the cable television channel Showtime. Michael Rambousek, a local American Government Official raised in West Allis, WI, USA, can recall the early days of American cable television and how it related to foreign movies like the Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. "I remember getting cable TV as a child and the idea of 50-plus channels to watch was so fascinating as it really opened the possibilities to a wide variety of programming never before seen in America. The first program I can ever remember watching when we got cable TV in 1981 was Gerry Anderson's "Thunderbirds" from the United Kingdom, which was on the Showtime channel. This type of detailed puppet animation with advanced storylines was something that I had never seen before, and a genre of animation never prevalent in America. The closest thing to it at the time on American television was the Muppet Show, sans the descriptive stories, authentic accessories, realistic puppet faces, and believable expressions, which aired on ABC Television. Yet, as fascinated as I was about the "Thunderbirds" as a young boy, it was Ivo Caprino's "Pinchcliffe Grand Prix" that captivated me unlike any other childhood film I have ever seen. Even today, there aren't many regular American movies that measure up to this masterpiece. Immediately, I connected with the lead character Reodor Felgen (Theodore Rimspoke in English), who was very likeable and I forgot was really a puppet as I watched the film. From my childhood perspective, Theodore lived my dream life; living in a cozy little home in the mountains with his two best friends, an inventor, being a bicycle shop expert, and having the ability to build a race car of his own. His personality was extremely humble and he was content with his own life, which to me is a goal of any person; Reodor was the luckiest man in the world. It is amazing to me how a puppet was able to provoke all of these feelings, a traditional sign of a great movie. I remember thinking that had my parents not subscribed to cable TV that I would have never scene this Norwegian masterpiece. When I told my parent about the movie and the quality, they actually renewed the cable subscription because they realized how exposure to great artists like Caprino could be beneficial to my intellectual development," said Rambousek.
As of [[2004]], it is t |
the water and their sense of [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]] is superior to that of humans. Though they have a small ear opening on each side of their head it is believed hearing underwater is also if not exclusively done with the lower jaw which conducts the vibrations to the [[middle ear]] via a fat filled cavity in the lower jaw bone. Hearing is also used for [[echolocation]] which seems to be an ability all dolphins have. The dolphin's sense of touch is also well-developed.
However, dolphins lack an olfactory nerve and thus have no [[sense of smell]], but they can [[taste]] and do show preferences for certain kinds of fish. Since dolphins spend most of their time below the surface in the wild, just tasting the water could act in a manner analogous to a sense of smell.
==Feeding==
Dolphins are predators, chasing their prey at high speed. The dentition is adapted to the animals they hunt: Species with long beaks and many teeth forage on [[fish]], whereas short beaks and lesser tooth count are linked to catching squid. Some dolphins may take crustaceans. Usually, the prey is swallowed whole. The larger species, especially the [[orca]], are capable of eating marine mammals, even large whales. There are no known reports of [[cannibalism]] amongst dolphins.
Individual species may employ a number of methods of hunting:
* '''Herding''' - where a superpod will control a school of fish while individual members take turns plowing through the herd, feeding.
* '''Corralling''' - where fish are chased to shallow water where they are more easily captured.
* '''Fish Wacking''' - where the dolphin uses its fluke to strike the fish, stunning it and sometimes sending it clear out of the water.
* '''Stunning''' - using the echolocation melon, very loud clicks are directed at prey, stunning them.
* '''Foraging''' - A recent study reported that wild [[bottlenose dolphins]] (''Tursiops'') in Western Australia use sponges to forage in the sea bed for food.[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0500232102v1]
* '''Mudding''' - Coastal bottlenose dolphins in South Carolina have been observed to drive fish onto mud banks and retrieve them from there.
==Dolphin lore==
*The popular television show ''[[Flipper (1964 television)|Flipper]]'', created by [[Ivan Tors]], portrayed a dolphin in a friendly relationship with two boys, Sandy and Bud; a kind of sea going [[Lassie]], Flipper understood English unusually well and was a marked hero: "Go tell Dad we're in trouble, Flipper! Hurry!" The show's theme song contains the lyric ''no one you see / is smarter than he''. The television show was based on a [[Flipper (1963 movie)|1963 film]], and remade as a [[Flipper (1996 film)|feature film in 1996]] starring [[Elijah Wood]] and [[Paul Hogan (actor)]], as well as a [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0111964 television series running from 1995-2000] starring [[Jessica Alba]].
*In ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', dolphins are the second most intelligent creatures on Earth (after mice) and tried in vain to warn humans of the impending destruction of the planet. However, their behavior was misinterpreted as playful [[acrobatics]]. Their story is told in ''[[So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish]]''. ''See [[Races from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''
*After study at the Dolphins Plus research center in Key Largo, Florida, fantasy author [[Ken Grimwood]] wrote dolphins into his 1995 novel ''Into the Deep'', including entire chapters written from the viewpoint of his dolphin characters.
*''[[Ecco the Dolphin]]'' stars in a series of games for the [[Sega Genesis]]/[[Sega Mega Drive|Mega Drive]], [[Game Gear]], [[Sega Dreamcast]] and [[PlayStation 2]].
*A book called ''The Music of Dolphins'' was written by Karen Hesse, about a girl who had lived with dolphins since the age of four.
*An American [[National Football League]] (NFL) team is named the [[Miami Dolphins]]. Their logo depicts an aqua-colored [[bottlenose dolphin]] wearing an [[American football]] helmet and jumping in front of a coral-colored sunburst.
*In the ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' episode "Devil Fish," Mike and the 'Bots mock dolphins. While doing so, the SOL gets blasted by a ship that turns out to be piloted by dolphins. Mike and the 'Bots then quickly apoligize.
*In ''[[seaQuest DSV|seaQuest]]'', Darwin the dolphin could communicate with English speakers using a vocoder, an invention that translated the clicks and whistles to English and back.
*In ''[[The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou]]'', marine researcher Zissou (played by [[Bill Murray]]) has trained reconaissance dolphins which apparently are temperamental and rarely follow their instructions. In one scene, the dolphins' misbehavior elicits the following quote from Zissou: ''"Son of a bitch, I'm sick of these dolphins."''
*In the book ''[[Startide Rising]]'' by author [[David Brin]], the spaceship ''Streaker'' is manned by neo-dolphins ([[dolphins]] [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] to match [[human]] intelligence). One of the mates of the ship is named [[Akeakamai]], in honor of the real-life dolphin from [[Louis Herman|Louis Herman's]] [[animal language]] research.
*In the [[William Gibson]] short story ''[[Johnny Mnemonic]]'' and the film by the same name (starring [[Keanu Reeves]]), cyborg dolphins were used in war-time by the military to find submarines and, after the war, by a group of revolutionaries to decode encrypted information.
==See also==
* [[Dolphin (mythology)]]
* [[List of dolphin species]]
* [[Wolphin]]
* [[John Lilly]] &ndash; Dolphin intelligence researcher
* [[Louis Herman]]&ndash; Scientist studying dolphin cognition and sensory processes
* [[Cetacean intelligence]] &ndash; Article about dolphin intelligence
* ''[[The Day of the Dolphin]],'' a fictional movie about dolphins being used for [[assassination]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Dolphin}}
* [http://www.allaboutdolphins.net All About Dolphins: A site written about dolphins for elementary-level children, containing images and facts]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4034383.stm Dolphins help lifeguards from sharks]
* [http://www.cetacea.org/ Cetacea.org site]
* [http://www.robins-island.org/ Facts and Information on Dolphins]
* [http://www.robertosozzani.it/Delfini/cont.html Red Sea Spinner Dolphin - Photo gallery]
* [http://www.tursiops.org/ Tursiops.org: Current Dolphin-related news]
* [http://www.wilddolphin.org/dolphinpictures.htm Wild Dolphin Foundation; Hawaiian Spinner Dolphin pictures, videos, information and conservation]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/dolphins/index.html PBS NOVA: Dolphins: Close Encounters]
*[http://www.accobams.org/download/articles/population/Agazzi_etal_2004.pdf Common dolphin prey species in the eastern Ionian Sea]
* [http://www.omplace.com/omsites/discover/DOLPHINS/ OM Place] A pictorial comparative chart.
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Dolphins/ Project website on Dolphins which discusses the different Types of Dolphins, Dolphin Behavior, as well as a Fact File about Dolphins and images.]
[[Category:Toothed whales]]
[[ast:Toliña]]
[[bg:Делфинови]]
[[ca:Dofí]]
[[cy:Dolffin]]
[[da:Delfiner]]
[[de:Delfine]]
[[eo:Delfeno]]
[[es:Delphinidae]]
[[fi:Delfiinit]]
[[fr:Delphis]]
[[gl:Golfiño]]
[[he:דולפין]]
[[id:Lumba-lumba]]
[[io:Delfino]]
[[it:Delfino]]
[[ja:イルカ]]
[[ko:돌고래]]
[[ku:Yûnis]]
[[la:Delphinus]]
[[li:Dolfiene]]
[[nl:Dolfijnen]]
[[pl:Delfin (zwierzę)]]
[[pt:Golfinho]]
[[ru:Дельфины]]
[[simple:Dolphin]]
[[sv:Delfiner]]
[[tr:Yunus]]
[[uk:Дельфіни]]
[[zh:海豚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan</title>
<id>9062</id>
<revision>
<id>36806819</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T16:37:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{History of Afghanistan}}
==Daoud's Republic ([[July 17]], [[1973]] - [[April 28]], [[1978]])==
The welcome [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] received on returning to power on
[[July 17]], [[1973]] reflected the citizenry's disappointment with the
lackluster politics of the preceding decade. [[Zahir Shah]]'s "New Democracy" had promised much but had delivered little. Daoud's comeback was a return to traditional strongman rule and he was a particularly appealing figure to military officers. As prime minister, Daoud had obtained large supplies of modern arms from the [[Soviet Union]] and he had been a former army officer himself. Also, his strong position on the [[Pashtunistan]] issue had not been forgotten by conservative [[Pashtun]] officers.
Daoud discussed rebellion for more than a year with various opposition elements - both moderates and leftists, including military officers who were members of both the Khalqi and
[[Parcham | Parchami]] factions of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]]. Certainly the [[communist]]s had worked vigorously to undermine Zahir Shah's experiment in
constitutional democracy. Their inflammatory speeches in
parliament and organized street riots were tactics which alarmed
Zahir to the degree that he refused to sign the law legalizing
political parties. [[Babrak Karmal]]'s Parcham faction became integrally
involved in planning the coup. There is general agreement that
Daoud had been meeting with what he called various "friends" for
more than a year. The coup itself was carried out by junior
officers trained in the Soviet Union. Some Afghans suspected that
Daoud and Karmal had been in touch for many years and that Daoud
had used him as an informant on the leftist movement. No strong
link can be cited to support this, however, other than the
closeness between Karmal's father, an army general, and Daoud. At
the time of the July [[1973]] coup, which took place when the king
was in [[I |
rsity Press, 1978. ISBN 0521217555, ISBN 0521292654
===Biography and historical context===
*Beck, Lewis White. "Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
::''a survey of Kant's intellectual background''
*Beiser, Frederick C. "The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
*Kuehn, Manfred. ''Kant: A Biography.'' Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521497043
*Pinkard, Terry. ''German philosophy, 1760-1860: The Legacy of Idealism.'' Cambridge, 2002.
*Sassen, Brigitte. ed. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy'', 2000.
===Collections of essays===
*Guyer, Paul. ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Kant.'' Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0521365872, ISBN 0521367689
::''an excellent collection of papers that covers most areas of Kant's thought''
*Mohanty, J.N. and Robert W. Shahan. eds. ''Essays on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Norman : University of Oklahoma Press, 1982. ISBN 0806117826
*''Proceedings of the International Kant Congresses.'' Several Congresses (numbered) edited by various publishers.
*Förster, Eckart ed. "Kant's Transcendental Deductions: The Three 'Critiques' and the 'Opus Postumum.'" Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989.
::''includes an important essay by Dieter Henrich'
*Cohen, Ted and Paul Guyer eds. ''Essays in Kant's Aesthetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
::''essays on Kant's Critique of Judgment''
*Phillips, Dewi et al. ''Kant and Kierkegaard on Religion.'' Palgrave Macmillian, 2000, ISBN 0312232349
::''A collection of essays about Kantian religion and its influence on Kierkegaardian and contemporary philosophy of religion.''
===On Kant's theoretical philosophy===
*Allison, Henry. ''Kant’s Transcendental Idealism.'' New Haven : Yale University Press, 1983, 2004. ISBN 0300036299, ISBN 0300030029
::''very influential defense of Kant's idealism, recently revised''
*Ameriks, Karl. "Kant's Theory of Mind: An Analysis of the Paralogisms of Pure Reason." Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.
::''one of the first detailed studies of the Dialectic in English''
*Gram, Moltke S. ''The Transcendental Turn: The Foundation of Kant's Idealism.'' Gainesville : University Presses of Florida, 1984. ISBN 0813007879
*Guyer, Paul. "Kant and the Claims of Knowledge." Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
::''a modern defense of the view that Kant's theoretical philosophy is a "patchwork" of ill-fitting arguments''
*Henrich, Dieter. ''The Unity of Reason: Essays on Kant’s Philosophy.'' Edited and with an introduction by Richard L. Velkley ; translated by Jeffrey Edwards ... [et al.]. Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0674929055
*Kemp Smith, Norman. "A Commentary to Kant's ‘Critique of Pure Reason.’" London: Macmillan, 1930.
::''a somewhat dated, but influential commentary on the first Critique, recently reprinted''
*Kitcher, Patricia. "Kant's Transcendental Psychology." New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
*Longuenesse, Béatrice. ''Kant and the Capacity to Judge.'' Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0691043485
::''argues that the notion of judgment provides the key to understanding the overall argument of the first Critique''
*Melnick, Arthur. "Kant's Analogies of Experience." Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.
::''an important study of Kant's Analogies, including his defense of the principle of causality''
*Paton, H. J. "Kant’s Metaphysic of Experience: A Commentary on the First Half of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft." Two volumes. London: Macmillan, 1936.
::''an extensive study of Kant's theoretical philosophy''
*Pippin, Robert B. Kant's Theory of Form: An Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
::''an influential examination of the formal character of Kant's work''
*Strawson, P.F. ''The Bounds of Sense: an essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Routledge, 1989.
::''the work that revitalized the interest of contemporary analytic philosophers in Kant''
*Wolff, Robert Paul. ''Kant's theory of mental activity: A commentary on the transcendental analytic of the Critique of Pure Reason.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963.
::''a detailed and influential commentary on the first part of the Critique of Pure Reason''
===On Kant's practical philosophy===
*Banham, Gary. ''Kant's Practical Philosophy: From Critique to Doctrine'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
*Michalson, Gordon E. ''Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration.'' Cambridge University Press, 1990.
*Michalson, Gordon E. ''Kant and the Problem of God.'' Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
*Rawls, John. ''Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy. '' Cambridge, 2000.
*Wolff, Robert Paul. ''The Autonomy of Reason: A Commentary on Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.'' New York: HarperCollins, 1974. ISBN 0061317926.
===On Kant's aesthetics===
*Guyer, Paul. ''Kant and the Claim of Taste''. Cambridge MA and London, 1979.
*Crawford, Donald. ''Kant's Aesthetic Theory''. Wisconsin, 1974.
*Makkreel, Rudolf, ''Imagination and Interpretation in Kant''. Chicago, 1990.
*McCloskey, Mary. ''Kant's Aesthetic.'' SUNY, 1987.
*Schaper, Eva. ''Studies in Kant's Aesthetics''. Edinburgh, 1979.
===Other work on Kant===
*Caygill, Howard. ''A Kant Dictionary''. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., USA : Blackwell Reference, 1995. ISBN 0631175342, ISBN 0631175350
::''a very useful resource''
===Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence===
* Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends.'' Cambridge ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521496446, ISBN 0521499623 (pbk.)
::''not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''
* McDowell, John. ''Mind and World.'' Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0674576098
::''offers a Kantian solution to a dilemma in contemporary epistemology regarding the relation between mind and world''
* Wood, Allen. ''Kant's Ethical Thought.'' Cambridge ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN: 052164836X
:: A comprehensive, in depth study of Kant's ethics, with emphasis on formula of humanity as most accurate formulation of the categorical imperative (according to similar arguments as Korsgaard).
[[Category:1724 births|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:1804 deaths|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Natives of Kaliningrad Oblast|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Deontological ethics|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Idealists|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Kantian philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Kantianism]]
[[Category:Philosophy of sexuality|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Kant, Immanuel]]
{{Link FA|pl}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[ar:إيمانويل كانت]]
[[ast:Immanuel Kant]]
[[bg:Имануел Кант]]
[[be:Імануіл Кант]]
[[bn:ইমানুয়েল কান্ট]]
[[bs:Immanuel Kant]]
[[ca:Immanuel Kant]]
[[cs:Immanuel Kant]]
[[da:Immanuel Kant]]
[[de:Immanuel Kant]]
[[et:Immanuel Kant]]
[[es:Immanuel Kant]]
[[eo:Immanuel KANT]]
[[eu:Immanuel Kant]]
[[fa:امانوئل کانت]]
[[fr:Emmanuel Kant]]
[[gl:Immanuel Kant]]
[[ko:이마누엘 칸트]]
[[hr:Immanuel Kant]]
[[io:Immanuel Kant]]
[[id:Immanuel Kant]]
[[ia:Immanuel Kant]]
[[is:Immanuel Kant]]
[[it:Immanuel Kant]]
[[he:עמנואל קאנט]]
[[jv:Immanuel Kant]]
[[la:Immanuel Kantius]]
[[lv:Imanuels Kants]]
[[lt:Imanuelis Kantas]]
[[li:Immanuel Kant]]
[[hu:Immanuel Kant]]
[[mk:Имануел Кант]]
[[nl:Immanuel Kant]]
[[ja:イマヌエル・カント]]
[[no:Immanuel Kant]]
[[pl:Immanuel Kant]]
[[pt:Immanuel Kant]]
[[ro:Immanuel Kant]]
[[ru:Кант, Иммануил]]
[[sh:Immanuel Kant]]
[[simple:Immanuel Kant]]
[[sk:Immanuel Kant]]
[[sl:Immanuel Kant]]
[[sr:Имануел Кант]]
[[fi:Immanuel Kant]]
[[sv:Immanuel Kant]]
[[th:อิมมานูเอิล คานท์]]
[[tr:Immanuel Kant]]
[[uk:Кант Іммануїл]]
[[zh:伊曼努尔·康德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IBM</title>
<id>14632</id>
<revision>
<id>41870056</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:47:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garglebutt</username>
<id>284140</id>
</contributor>
<comment>and operating and net income and fix arrow to template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Big Blue redirects here. For the movie, see [[The Big Blue]].'' {{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = International Business Machines |
company_type = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=IBM IBM]) |
company_logo = [[Image:IBM_logo.svg|180px|IBM logo]] |
company_slogan = On Demand Business |
foundation = [[1888]], incorporated [[1911]] |
location = [[Armonk, New York]], [[USA]] |
key_people = [[Samuel J. Palmisano|Sam Palmisano]], Chairman & CEO<br />[[Dan Fortin]], President (Canada)<br />[[Frank Kern]], President (Asia Pacific)<br />[[Nick Donofrio]], EVP (Innovation & Technology)<br />[[Colleen Arnold]], President IOT EMEA North-East<br />[[Dominique Cerutti]], President IOT EMEA South-West <br /> [[Mark Loughridge]] SVP & CFO |
num_employees = 329,373 (2005) |
revenue = {{loss}} $91.1 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Fiscal year|2005]]) |
operating_income = $13.7 billion USD (2005) |
net_income = $7.9 billion USD (2005) |
industry = [[Computer hardware]], [[IT Services]], [[Consulting]] |
products = [[List of IBM products|See complete products listing.]] |
homepage = [http://www.ibm.com/ www.ibm.com] |
footnotes =
}}
'''International Business Machines Corporation''' ('''IBM''', or colloquially, '''Big Blue''') {{nyse|IBM}} (incorporated [[June 15]], [[1911]], in operation since [[1888]]) is |
[[ja:アルベルト・ジャコメッティ]]
[[he:אלברטו ג'קומטי]]
[[nl:Alberto Giacometti]]
[[pl:Alberto Giacometti]]
[[ro:Alberto Giacometti]]
[[sr:Алберто Ђакомети]]
[[sv:Alberto Giacometti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aristotles theory of universals</title>
<id>2434</id>
<revision>
<id>15900847</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-18T20:06:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karada</username>
<id>6817</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Aristotle's theory of universals]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aristotle's theory of universals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Achilles</title>
<id>2435</id>
<revision>
<id>15900848</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed entire article following the redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abstinence</title>
<id>2436</id>
<revision>
<id>41660964</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:15:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.106.0.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Environmentalism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Abstinence''' refers to a voluntary forbearance from indulging a desire or appetite for certain bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to abstention from sexual intercourse, alcohol, or food. The practice can arise from religious prohibitions or practical considerations.
Abstinence has diverse forms. In its oldest sense it is sexual, as in the practice of [[continence]], [[chastity]], and [[celibacy]]. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, as in fasting. Because the regimen is intended to be a conscious act, freely chosen to enhance life, abstinence is sometimes distinguished from the psychological mechanism of [[repression (psychological)|repression]]. The latter is an unconscious state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channelling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities "sublimation".
==Abstinence in religion==
It may arise from an ascetic element present in most religions, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the normal life of desire, to a chosen ideal, by following a path of renunciation.
For Jews, the principal fast day is [[Yom Kippur]], the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the whole month of [[Ramadan]], from dawn to dusk. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet. Among Christians, Roman Catholics have traditionally abstained from food and drink prior to taking [[Holy Communion]]. They distinguish between [[fasting]] and abstinence; the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying a meatless meal on fast days, such as Fridays during [[Lent]]. Many Protestants have preferred to abstain from imbibing alcohol and the use of tobacco. [[Mormon]]s and [[Seventh Day Adventist]]s abstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns.
In India, [[Buddhist]]s and [[Jain]]s, and a number of Hindus abstain from eating meat on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of [[Hinduism]].
==Environmentalism==
The environmental movement does not necessarily advocate abstinence from bodily pleasures such as sex, but it does promote a lifestyle in harmony with the simplicity of nature, due to the limitations of non-renewable resources. Echoes of the temperance movement, organized by women such as [[Susan B. Anthony]] to persuade people to abstain--fully or partially--from alcoholic drink, can be seen in the organization [[Mothers Against Drunk Driving]] (MADD).
==See also==
===Types of abstinence===
*[[Fasting]]
*[[Sexual abstinence]]
*[[Smoking cessation]]
*[[Sobriety]]
*[[Straight edge]]
*[[Teetotalism]]
*[[Veganism]]
*[[Vegetarianism]]
===Organizations===
*[[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
*[[GreySheeters Anonymous]]
*[[Pagans In Recovery]]
===Other related topics===
*[[Addiction]]
*[[Asceticism]]
*[[Chastity]]
*[[Chastity ring]]
*[[Promiscuity]]
*[[Rhythm method]]
[[Category:Human sexuality]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[Category:Asceticism]]
[[da:Abstinens]]
[[de:Abstinenz]]
[[et:Abstinents]]
[[fr:Abstinence]]
[[id:Pantang]]
[[ja:小斎]]
[[sv:Abstinens]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anemophobic</title>
<id>2437</id>
<revision>
<id>15900850</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-09T13:58:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Francs2000</username>
<id>22841</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[-phobia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anthem</title>
<id>2439</id>
<revision>
<id>35176319</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-14T19:18:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wahoofive</username>
<id>204565</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv removal of references -- maybe they don't belong there, but some explanation is required</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novella by Ayn Rand, see [[Anthem (novella)]].''
:''For the geographical location see [[Anthem, AZ]].''
An '''anthem''' is a choral composition to an English religious text sung in church services. The term has evolved to mean a song of celebration, usually acting as a symbol for a certain group of people, as in the term "[[national anthem]]". ''See below for other uses.''
==History==
The word "anthem" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&nu;&tau;&iota;&phi;&omega;&nu;&alpha; through the Saxon
''antefn'', a word which originally had the same meaning as [[antiphony]].
It is now, however, generally restricted to a form of church music, particularly in the service of the [[Church of England]], in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning and evening prayer. It is just as usual in this place to have an ordinary [[hymn]] as an anthem, which may be a more elaborate composition than the congregational hymns. Several anthems are included in the [[Coronation of the British monarch|English coronation service]]. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy, and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Though the anthem of the Church of England is analogous to the [[motet]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Lutheran Church]]es, both being written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as a musical form essentially English in its origin and development.
The anthem developed as a replacement for the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] "votive antiphon" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] or other saints. Though anthems were written in the Elizabethan period by [[William Byrd|Byrd]], [[Thomas Tallis|Tallis]] and others they are not mentioned in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] until [[1662]], when the famous rubric ''In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem'' first appears.
Early anthems tend to be simple and [[homophony|homophonic]] in texture, in order that the words could be clearly heard. Late in the [[16th century]] the "verse anthem," in which passages for solo voices alternated with passages for full choir, began to evolve. This became the dominant form in the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] period, when composers such as [[Henry Purcell]] and [[John Blow]] wrote elaborate examples for the [[Chapel Royal]] with orchestral accompaniment. In the [[19th century]] [[Samuel Sebastian Wesley]] wrote anthems influenced by contemporary [[oratorio]] which could stretch to several [[movement (music)|movements]] and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the same century [[Charles Villiers Stanford]] composed examples which used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been produced on this model since his time, generally by [[organ (music)|organists]] rather than professional [[composer]]s and often in a conservative style. Major composers have tended to compose anthems only in response to commissions and for special occasions; examples include [[Edward Elgar]]'s ''Great is the Lord'' and ''Give unto the Lord'' (both with orchestral accompaniment), [[Benjamin Britten]]'s ''Rejoice in the Lamb'' (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem and today heard mainly as a concert piece) and (on a much smaller scale) [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]' ''O taste and see'', written for the [[coronation]] of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]. With the relaxation of the rule, in [[England]] at least, that anthems should be only in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertory.
==References==
* Peter Le Huray "Anthem" in Stanley Sadie, ed. ''The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians'' (London: Macmillan, 1980) ISBN 0333231112
* {{1911}}
==See also==
''The following is a list of articles on other anthems:''
*[[Company song]]s (corporate anthems)
*[[La Espero]] (anthem of the language [[Esperanto]])
*[[European anthem]]
*[[Hail to the Chief]] (American Presidential anthem)
*[[The Internationale]] ([[Communism|Communist]] anthem)
*[[National anthem]]s
*[[Rock and roll anthem]]s
*[[Dance an |
m, he hoped that a show of support from a hand-picked Assembly of Notables would restore confidence in French finances, and allow further borrowing until the land tax began to make up the difference and allow the beginning of repayment of the debt.
Although Calonne convinced the king of the necessity of his reforms, the Assembly of Notables refused to endorse his measures, insisting that only a truly representative body, preferably the [[French States-General|Estates-General]] of the Kingdom, could approve new taxes. The King, seeing that Calonne himself was now a liability, dismissed him and replaced him with [[Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne]], the Archbishop of Toulouse, who had been a leader of the opposition in the Assembly. Brienne now adopted a thorough-going reform position, granting various civil rights (including freedom of worship to Protestants), and promising the convocation of the Estates-General within five years, but also attempted in the meantime to go ahead with Calonne's plans. When the measures were opposed in the ''Parlement'' of Paris (due in part to the King's tactlessness), Brienne went on the attack, attempting to disband the parlements entirely and collect the new taxes in spite of them. This led to massive resistance across many parts of France, including the famous "Day of the Tiles" in [[Grenoble]]. Even more importantly, the chaos across France convinced the short-term creditors on whom the French treasury depended to maintain its day-to-day operations to withdraw their loans, leading to a near-default, which forced Louis and Brienne to surrender.
The king agreed on [[August 8]], [[1788]] to convene the Estates-General in May [[1789]], for the first time since [[1614]]. Brienne resigned on [[August 25]], [[1788]], and Necker again took charge of the nation's finances. He used his position not to propose new reforms, but only to prepare for the meeting of the nation's representatives.
== History ==
=== The Estates-General of 1789 ===
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[August 8]] [[1788]]&ndash;[[June 17]] [[1789]], see [[Estates-General of 1789]]''
The calling of the Estates-General led to growing concern on the part of the opposition that the government would attempt to [[gerrymander]] an assembly to its liking. In order to avoid this, the ''Parlement'' of Paris, having returned in triumph to the city, proclaimed that the Estates-General would have to meet according to the forms observed at its last meeting. Although it would appear that the magistrates were not specifically aware of the "forms of 1614" when they made this decision, this provoked an uproar. The [[1614]] Estates had consisted of equal numbers of representatives of each estate, and voting had been by order, with the [[First Estate]] (the clergy), the [[Second Estate]] (the nobility), and the [[Third Estate]] (everybody else) each receiving one vote.
Almost immediately the "Committee of Thirty", a body of liberal Parisians, began to agitate against this, arguing for a doubling of the Third Estate and voting by head (as had already been done in various provincial assemblies). Necker, speaking for the government, conceded further that the third estate should be doubled, but the question of voting by head was left for the meeting of the Estates themselves. However, the resentments brought forward by the dispute remained powerful, and pamphlets, like [[Abbé Sieyès|Abbé Sieyès's]] ''What is the Third Estate?'' which argued that the privileged orders were parasites and the Third Estate was the nation itself, kept these resentments alive.
When the Estates-General convened in [[Versailles]] on [[May 5]] [[1789]], lengthy speeches by Necker and Lamoignon, the keeper of the seals, did little to give guidance to the deputies, who were remanded to separate meeting places to credential their members. The question of whether voting was ultimately to be by head or by order was again put aside for the moment, but the Third Estate now demanded that credentialing itself should take place as a group. Negotiations with the other estates to achieve this, however, were unsuccessful, as a bare majority of the clergy and a large majority of the nobility continued to support voting by order.
=== The National Assembly ===
[[Image:TennisCourtOath.jpg|thumb|right|Sketch by [[Jacques-Louis David]] of the National Assembly making the Tennis Court Oath]]
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[June 17]] [[1789]]&ndash;[[July 9]] [[1789]], see [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]]''
On [[May 28]] 1789, the Abbé [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] moved that the [[Third Estate]], now meeting as the ''Communes'' (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, completing the process on [[June 17]]. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.
[[Louis XVI]] shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the [[Tennis Court Oath]] ([[June 20]], 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a [[constitution]]. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By [[June 27]] the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around [[Paris]] and [[Versailles]]. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities. On [[July 9]], the Assembly reconstituted itself as the [[National Constituent Assembly]].
=== The National Constituent Assembly ===
[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'']]
==== The Storming of the Bastille ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Storming of the Bastille]]''
On [[July 11]] 1789, King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles of his [[privy council]], as well as his wife, [[Marie Antoinette]], and brother, the [[Charles X of France|Comte d'Artois]], banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral.
On [[July 14]] 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the [[Bastille]] [[prison]], killing the governor, Marquis [[Bernard de Launay]], and several of his guards. Although the Parisians released only seven prisoners; four forgers, two lunatics, and a dangerous sexual offender, the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the ''[[ancien régime]]''. Returning to the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] (city hall), the mob accused the ''[[Provost (civil)|prévôt]] des marchands'' (roughly, mayor) [[Jacques de Flesselles]] of treachery; his assassination took place ''en route'' to an ostensible trial at the [[Palais Royal]].
The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. [[Marquis de la Fayette|Lafayette]] took up command of the National Guard at Paris. [[Jean-Sylvain Bailly]], president of the National Assembly at the time of the [[Tennis Court Oath]], became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the ''commune''. The king visited Paris, where, on [[July 27]], he accepted a [[tricolore]] [[cockade]], as cries of ''vive la Nation'' "Long live the Nation" changed to ''vive le Roi'' "Long live the King".
Nonetheless, after this violence, nobles, little assured by the apparent and, as it proved, temporary reconciliation of king and people, started to flee the country as ''[[émigré]]s'', some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France.
Necker, recalled to power, experienced but a short-lived triumph. An astute financier but a less astute politician, he overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour in his moment of apparent triumph.
By late July insurrection and the spirit of [[popular sovereignty]] spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of [[chateau|châteaux]], as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the [[Great Fear]]). In addition, plotting and agitation by the ''[[émigré]]s'' led to wild rumours and paranoia (particularly in the rural areas) that caused widespred unrest and civil disturbances and contributed to the [[Great Fear]] (Hibbert at 93).
==== The Abolition of Feudalism ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The Abolition of Feudalism|The Abolition of Feudalism]].''
On [[August 4]], 1789, the National Assembly abolished [[feudalism]], sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the [[tithe]]s gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.
While there would follow retreats, regrets, and much argument over the ''rachat au denier 30'' ("redemption at a thirty-years' purchase") specified in the legislation of [[August 4]], the course now remained set, although the full process would take another four years.
==== Dechristianisation ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution]].' |
e first [[Shepherds' Crusade]] in 1251.
===Eighth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Eighth Crusade]]''
The eighth Crusade was organized by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in [[1270]], again sailing from [[Aigues-Mortes]], initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the Crusader states in Syria. However, the crusade was diverted to [[Tunis]], where Louis spent only two months before dying.
=== Ninth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Ninth Crusade]]''
The future [[Edward I of England]] undertook another expedition in [[1271]], after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. He accomplished very little in Syria and retired the following year after a truce. With the fall of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]] ([[1268]]), [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]] ([[1289]]), and [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Acre]] ([[1291]]) the last traces of the Christian rule in [[Syria]] disappeared.
=== Crusades in Baltic and Central Europe ===
[[Image:nevsky2.jpg|thumb|275px|The Teutonic knights in [[Pskov]] in [[1240]], screenshot from [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Alexander Nevsky]]'' (1938).]]
''Full article: [[Northern Crusades]]''
The Crusades in the [[Baltic Sea]] area and in [[Central Europe]] were efforts by (mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to Christianity. These Crusades ranged from the [[12th century]], contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, to the [[16th century]].
Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the [[Stedingen|Stedingers]]. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were no heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free [[Frisian]] farmers resented attempts of the count of [[Oldenburg (state)|Oldenburg]] and the archbishop [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen-Hamburg]] to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them and the pope declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.
==Crusade legacy==
The Crusades had profound and lasting historical impacts.
===Europe===
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European [[Middle Ages]]. At times much of the continent was united under a powerful [[Papacy]], but by the 14th century the old concept of [[Christendom]] was fragmented, and the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern [[nation-state]]) was well on its way in [[France]], [[England]], [[Burgundy]], [[Portugal]], [[Castile]], and [[Aragon]] partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era. Although [[Europe]] had been exposed to [[Islamic culture]] for centuries through contacts in [[Spain]] and [[Sicily]], much [[Islam|Islamic]] thought, such as science, medicine, and architecture, was transferred to the west during the crusades. The military experiences of the crusades also had their effects in Europe; for example, European [[castle]]s became massive stone structures, as they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been in the past. The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades ''prepared'' Europe for travel, but rather that many ''wanted'' to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] in Italy, as various Italian [[city-states]] from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the [[Holy Land]] and later in captured [[Byzantine]] territory. Despite the ultimate defeat in the Middle East, the Crusaders slowed down the military expansion of Islam, helped regaining the Iberian Peninsula and bought Europe some precious time before it faced the next invading force of Islam - the Ottoman Empire.
===Islamic world===
The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the equivalents of "Franks" and "Crusaders" remained expressions of disdain. Muslims traditionally celebrate [[Saladin]], the [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] warrior, as a hero against the Crusaders. In the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the [[Arab independence movement]] and [[Pan-Islamism]] movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle East a "crusade." The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and savage onslaughts by European Christians.
===Jewish community===
[[Image:FirstCrusade.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable by [[Judenhut]]) being massacred by Crusaders]]
The Crusaders' atrocities against [[Jew|Jews]] in the German and Hungarian towns, later also in those of France and England, and in the massacres of non-combatants in Palestine and Syria have become a part of [[history of anti-Semitism]]. They ultimately resulted in excommunication and similar ecclesiastical penalties against their perpetrators, as no Crusade was declared against Jews, and left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They prepared the way for anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]] and formed the turning-point in medieval [[anti-Semitism]].
===The Caucasus===
Many of the Crusaders did not return home to Europe, and instead crossed Asia Minor and settled throughout the Caucasus, where several dozen small Caucasian dialects bear traces of the medieval variants of French, German, Latin and English. Many modern village dwellers count their descent from these Crusaders "gone native", and as late as the early 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities.
==Usage of the term "crusade"==
:''For other uses of the term "crusade", see [[Crusade (disambiguation)]].''
{{wiktionarypar|Crusade}}
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including ''fideles Sancti Petri'' (the faithful of St. Peter) or ''milites Christi'' (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an ''iter'', a journey, or a ''peregrinatio'', a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a ''votus''), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (''crux'') to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the ''crux'', eventually became associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the French ''croisade'', the Italian ''crociata'', or the Portuguese ''cruzada'') developed from this.
Since the 17th century, the term "crusade" has carried a connotation in the [[Western world|West]] of being a righteous campaign, usually to "root out [[evil]]", or to fight for a just cause. In a non-historical common or theological use, "crusade" has come to have a much broader emphatic or religious meaning &mdash;substantially removed from 'armed struggle.'
In a broader sense, "crusade" can be used, always in a [[Rhetoric|rhetorical]] and [[Metaphor|metaphorical]] sense, to identify as righteous any [[war]] that is given a [[religion|religious]] justification (''"Gott mit uns,"'' "God with us").
Ardent activists may also refer to their causes as "crusades," as in the "Crusade against Adult Illiteracy," or a "Crusade against Littering." In recent years, however, the use of "crusade" as a positive term has become less frequent in order to avoid giving offense to Muslims or others offended by the term. The term may also sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the [[zealotry]] of agenda promoters, for example with the monicker "Public Crusader" or the campaigns "Crusade for a women's right to choose," and the "Crusade for prayer in public schools."
== Popular reputation ==
[[Image:Crusade.JPG|thumb|right|150px|[[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''Crusades'', 1935]]
In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the "[[Saracen]]" adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of [[Saladin]]; his adversary [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] is, in the English-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while [[Frederick Barbarossa]] (''illustration, below left'') and [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] fill the same symbolic niche in German and French culture. Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the ''[[Chanson d'Antioche]]'' was a [[chanson de geste]] dealing with the First Crusade, and the [[Song of Roland]], dealing with the era of the similarly romanticized [[Charlemagne]], was directly influenced by the experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic [[Basque people|Basque]] opponents with Muslims. A popular theme for [[troubador]]s was the knight winning the love of his lady by going on crusade in the east.
[[Image:Barbarossa.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The ever-living Frederick Barbarossa, in his mountain cave: a late 19th century German woodcut]]
In the 14th century, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] was united with the [[Trojan War]] and the adventures of [[Alexander the Great]] against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics of the [[Nine Worthies]] who stood as popular secular [[culture hero]]es into the 16th century, when more cr |
System]] and [[Mac OS]], and were largely supplanted by GUIs when Microsoft introduced Windows. A significant minority of computer users prefer to use CLIs, some due to visual disability, and others because they feel that CLIs provide an environment with enhanced productivity. They are most often used in scientific, engineering, and technical environments, by programmers, especially in [[Unix]]-based operating systems.
In its simplest form, a CLI displays a [[command prompt|prompt]], the user types a command on the keyboard and terminates the command (usually with the Enter key), and the computer executes the command, providing textual output.
A program that implements such interface is often called a [[command line interpreter]] or '''[[shell (computing) | shell]]'''. Examples include the various [[Unix shell]]s (sh, ksh, csh, tcsh, bash, etc.), the historical [[CP/M]], and [[DOS]]'s [[command.com]] ("Command Prompt"), the latter two based heavily on [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[RSX]] and [[RSTS]] CLIs. [[Microsoft]]'s next operating system, [[Windows Vista]], will include support for a new command line interface named [[MSH (shell)|MSH]] (Microsoft Shell, codename ''Monad''), which hopes to combine features of traditional Unix shells with the their object oriented [[.NET Framework|.NET framework]]. Windows current CLI programs like [[DOS]] and [[Windows Script Host]] are commonly considered inadequate or insecure. [[MinGW]] is a third-party software for Windows that offers a true Unix CLI.
Some applications provide both a CLI and a GUI. One example is the CAD program [[AutoCAD]]. The engineering/scientific numerical computation package [[Matlab]] provides no GUI for some calculations, but the CLI can handle any calculation. The three-dimensional-modelling program Rhinoceros 3D (used to design the cases of most cell phones, as well as thousands of other industrial products) provides a CLI (whose language, by the way, is distinct from Rhino's scripting language). In some computing environments, such as the [[Oberon operating system|Oberon]] or [[Smalltalk]] user interface, most of the text which appears on the screen may be used for giving commands.
The commands given to a CLI are often of the form
[doSomething] [how] [toFiles]
or
[doSomething] [how] < [inputFile] > [outputFile]
''doSomething'' is in effect to a [[verb]], ''how'' an [[adverb]] (for example, should the command be executed "verbosely" or "quietly") and ''toFiles'' an object or objects (typically one or more files) on which the command should act. The '>' in the second example is a redirection character, telling the command line interpreter to send the output of the command not to the screen but to the file named on the right of the '>'. Another redirection character is the [[Vertical bar|pipe]] ('|'), which tells the CLI to use the output of one command as the input to the next command; this "operator-stream" mechanism can be very powerful, as explained under [[pipeline (Unix)]].
==See also==
* [[Graphical user interface]]
* [[Text user interface]]
* [[In the Beginning...was the Command Line]], an essay by [[Neal Stephenson]]
==External links==
*[http://www.commandline.org.uk Command Line Warriors] — an open site about Command Line Computing.
* The Interaction-Design.org Encyclopedia entry on [http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/interaction_styles.html Interaction Styles, comparing Command Line Interfaces with other Interaction Styles]
*[http://www.developer.com/net/net/article.php/3286851 ''Coming Soon to Windows: The Microsoft Shell (MSH)'' by Jason Nadal]
*[http://www.igeek.com/articles/OS/CommandLines.txt Command lines versus GUIs]
*[http://getpot.sourceforge.net/ "GetPot. Object oriented command line parsing."] Library available for C++, Python, Java, and Ruby.
[[Category:User interface]]
[[Category:Software engineering]]
[[Category:Software architecture]]
[[cs:P&#345;&#237;kazov&#253; &#345;&#225;dek]]
[[de:Kommandozeile]]
[[es:Línea de comandos]]
[[fr:Invite de commande]]
[[ko:&#47749;&#47161; &#49440; &#44277;&#50857;&#50689;&#50669;]]
[[hu:Parancssoros felhasználói felület]]
[[nl:Opdrachtlijn Interface]]
[[ja:&#12461;&#12515;&#12521;&#12463;&#12479;&#12540;&#12518;&#12540;&#12470;&#12452;&#12531;&#12479;&#12540;&#12501;&#12455;&#12540;&#12473;]]
[[pl:Wiersz polece&#324;]]
[[sk:Príkazový riadok]]
[[fi:Komentoliittymä]]
[[zh:命令行界面]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of common phrases in various languages</title>
<id>6708</id>
<revision>
<id>41917786</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:38:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.74.61.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Hindi language|Hindi]] ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{ConvertIPA}}
:''For other specific lists of common phrases, see [[Common phrases (disambiguation)]]''
This is a list of '''common phrases in various languages''', for a general overview of ten to fifteen basic phrases in all of the major world languages, and certain interesting minor ones.
<!-- should this list get too large, a split between major and minor languages may be an appropriate solution -->
[[tourism|Tourists]] to a foreign country often get along with a surprisingly short list of phrases, combined with pointing, miming, and writing down numbers on paper. This list is intended to serve as a comprehensive basic introduction to those languages.
:''Note:'' The [[language families and languages|language family]] of each language is listed in parentheses.
<!-- For editors // You are invited to add more languages to the list. Please use the minimum number of words that would be understandable and put the pronunciation in slashes according to International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription if possible. If desired, also add a pseudo-English pronunciation guide for those not familiar with IPA. However, actual pronunciations of the pseudo-English spellings will vary from speaker to speaker. Enclose the "pronunciation guide" in parentheses, separate syllables with dashes, use English words that sound like the syllables if possible, and render the stressed syllable in ALL CAPS. -->
== [[English language|English]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
As a sample, here's English, according to British [[Received Pronunciation]], followed by [[American English|Standard American English]], if different:
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|English
|''English''
|{{IPA|/ˈɪŋ.glɪʃ/}}
|-
|hello
|''hello''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/hɛˈləʊ/}} <br>
[[United States|US]] {{IPA|/hɛˈloʊ/}}
|-
|good-bye
|''good-bye''
|{{IPA|/ˌgʊdˈbaɪ/}}
|-
|please
|''please''
|{{IPA|/pliːz/}}
|-
|thank you:
|''thank you''
|{{IPA|/ˈθæŋk juː/}}
|-
|sorry
|''sorry''
|[[Canada]] {{IPA|/ˈsoːɹi/}}<br>[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/ˈsɒɹi/}}<br>[[United States|US]] {{IPA|/ˈsɔːɹi/}}
|-
|that one
|''that one''
|{{IPA|/ˈðæt wʌn/}}
|-
|how much?
|''how much?''
|{{IPA|/haʊ ˈmʌʧ/}}
|-
|yes
|''yes''
|{{IPA|/jɛs/}}
|-
|no
|''no''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/nəu/}}<br> [[United States|US]] {{IPA|/noʊ/}}
|-
|I don't understand
|''I don't understand''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/aɪ ˈdəʊnt ʌn.dəˈstænd/}}<br> [[United States|US]] {{IPA|/aɪ ˈdoʊnt ʌn.dɚˈstænd/}}
|-
|Where's the toilet? (American/British usage respectively)
|''Where's the bathroom?''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/wɛəz ðə ˈbɑːθˌɹʊm/}} <br>[[United States|US]] {{IPA|/wɛɹz ðə ˈbæθˌɹum/}}
|-
|generic toast
|''Cheers!''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/tʃiːəz/}}<br> [[United States|US]] {{IPA|/tʃiːɚz/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?
|''Do you speak English?''
|{{IPA|/duː juː spiːk ˈɪŋglɪʃ/}}
|}
== [[Armenian language|Armenian]] ([[Indo-European languages#Subgroup|Armenian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Translation
|- valign=top
|-
|''Ayo''
|Yes
|-
|''Votch''
|No
|-
|''Shenorhagal em''
|Thank you
|-
|''Pari yegar''
|You're welcome
|-
|''Hadjiss''/ ''Khntrem''
|Please
|-
|''Neroghoutioun''
|Excuse me
|-
|''Parev''/ ''Barev''
|Hello
|-
|''Menak parov''/ ''Hajoghutyun''
|Goodbye
|}
== [[Afrikaans]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|Afrikaans
|''Afrikaans''
|{{IPA|/aːfrɪkaːns/}}
|-
|hello
|''hallo''
|{{IPA|/hɑloˌ/}}
|-
|How are you?
|''hoe gaan dit?''
|{{IPA|/huˌ xaˌn dɪt/}}
|-
|good day
|''goeie dag''
|{{IPA|/xuˌjə dɑx/}}
|-
|good morning
|''goeie more''
|{{IPA|/xuˌjə mɔˌrə/}}
|-
|good-bye
|''totsiens''
|{{IPA|/tɔʦiˌns/}}
|-
|please
|''asseblief''
|{{IPA|/ɑsəbliˌf/}}
|-
|thank you
|''dankie''
|{{IPA|/dɑŋkiˌ/}}
|-
|sorry
|''jammer''
|{{IPA|/jaɪ mer/}}
|-
|that one
|''daardie''
|{{IPA|/diˌ/}}
|-
|how much?
|''hoeveel''
|{{IPA|/huˌfeˌl/}}
|-
|yes
|''ja''
|{{IPA|/jaˌ/}}
|-
|no
|''nee''
|{{IPA|/neˌ/}}
|-
|I don't understand
|''ek verstaan nie''
|{{IPA|/ɛk fərstaˌn niˌ/}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|''waar is die toilet''
|{{IPA|/βaˌr ɪs diˌ tojlɪt/}}
|-
|generic toast
|''gesondheid!''
|{{IPA|/xəsɔntejt/}}
|-
|English
|''Engels''
|{{IPA|/ɛŋgəls/}}
|}
== [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Sound
|- valign=top
|-
| Albanian || ''shqip'' || {{IPA|/ʃkʲip/}} || (shkEEp) || ([[Media:Albanian_shqip.ogg|listen]])
|-
| hello || ''tungjatjeta'' (abbrev. ''tung'') || {{IPA|/tungʲatjɛta/}} |
the locative), and the [[ablative absolute]].
In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the ablative case is the sixth of the locative cases with the meaning "from off of", e.g. ''pöytä &mdash; pöydältä'' "table &mdash; off from the table". It is an outer locative case, used just as the [[adessive]] and [[allative]] cases to denote both being on top of something and "being around the place" (as opposed to the inner locative case, the [[elative]], which means "from out of" or "from the inside of").
The other locative cases in Finnish are:
*[[Inessive case]] ("in")
*[[Elative case]] ("out of")
*[[Illative case]] ("into")
*[[Adessive case]] ("on")
*[[Allative case]] ("onto")
== Latin usage ==
The case also exists in three kinds besides its direct purpose and [[Ablative absolute|''Ablativus absolutus'']]:
* ''Ablativus separationis'' with meaning of separation, e.g. ''movere loco'' - "to put aside", ''educere castris'' - "to bring out from camp" or ''domo'' - "from home", ''Roma'' - "from Rome";
* ''Ablativus causae'' means the reason, e.g. ''ira clamare'' - "to shout because of anger", ''morbo abesse'' - "to absent because of disease";
* ''Ablativus comparativus'' which is used in comparisons, e.g. ''vilius argentum'' '''auro''' - "the silver is cheaper than gold";
[[Category:Grammatical cases]]
[[cs:Ablativ]]
[[de:Ablativ]]
[[es:Caso ablativo]]
[[eo:ablativo]]
[[fr:Ablatif]]
[[gl:Ablativo]]
[[id:Ablativus]]
[[it:Ablativo]]
[[ja:奪格]]
[[la:Ablativus]]
[[nl:Ablatief]]
[[pl:Ablatiwus]]
[[ro:Cazul ablativ]]
[[fi:Ablatiivi]]
[[sv:Ablativ]]
[[zh:离格]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adamic language</title>
<id>2335</id>
<revision>
<id>40359765</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:21:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Adamic language''' is a term for the hypothetical [[proto-language]] believed spoken by [[Adam and Eve]] in [[paradise]], either identical with the language used by [[God]] to address Adam, or invented by Adam as '''nomothete''' (name-giver, [[Genesis]] 2:19). It is unclear whether the Bible assumes that this language was preserved by Adam's descendents until the [[confusion of tongues]] (Genesis 11:1-9), or that it began to evolve naturally as a consequence of [[Original sin]] (Genesis 10:5).
In previous centuries, many scholars believed that the Adamic language was [[Biblical Hebrew]], and that all languages are descended from it. The Bible does not make a direct claim to that extent, however, and some [[Early Modern]] scholars based on Genesis 10:5 have assumed that the [[Japhetite]] languages are rather the direct descendents of the Adamic language, having separated before the confusion of tongues, by which also Hebrew was affected.
The modern concept corresponding to that of the Adamic language is that of the [[Proto-World language]], but rather than positing divine inspiration, linguists assume that it arose from [[proto-linguistic]] forms of communication.
==The Adamic language in Mormonism==
In [[Mormonism]], the Adamic language has been thought by some [[Latter Day Saints]] to be the language of [[God]]. Though different from Hebrew, the Hebrew language was thought to contain remnants of this ancient language, including the words [[Elohim]] and [[Jehovah]]. According to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]]'s translation of the ''Bible'', this language was "pure and undefiled" ([[Book of Moses]] 6:6).
Some early leaders of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], including founder Joseph Smith, Jr. ([[Journal of Discourses|JD]] 2:342), and [[Latter-day Saint]] leaders [[Brigham Young]] ([[History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (book)|HC]] 1:297) and [[Elizabeth Ann Whitney]] (7 Woman's Exponent 83 (Nov. 1, 1878)) claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language in revelations. Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world.
The name of the [[Mormon]] settlement "[[Adam-ondi-Ahman]]" in Daviess County, [[Missouri]], US, is said to be in the Adamic language. Also, some allegedly Adamic words were used in the [[Endowment (Mormonism)|Temple Endowment]] prior to [[1990]]. While no written copy of them is available, they were pronounced the same as the English words "Pay Lay El". The given English translation was "Oh God, hear the words of my mouth." The English translation is used in the rite today.
Other words thought by some Mormons to derive from the Adamic language include ''[[deseret]]'' ("honey bee", see [[Book of Ether|Ether]] 2:3), ''Ahman'' ("God"), ''son Ahman'' ("Son of God", see LDS [[Doctrine and Covenants|D&C]] 78:20, 95:17), ''sons Ahman'' ("sons of God"), and ''shelem'' ("height", see [[Book of Ether|Ether]] 3:1). ''[[Nauvoo]]'' ("beautiful") is also often popularly attributed to Adamic, but it is actually a [[Sephardi Hebrew]] word ([[Standard Hebrew]] &#1504;&#1488;&#1493;&#1493; ''navu'').
==See also==
*[[History of linguistics]]
*[[Proto-World Language]]
*[[confusion of tongues]]
==Reference==
* John S. Robertson, 1 ''[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]]'', "Adamic Language".
==External links==
* [http://www.meridianmagazine.com/sci_rel/010808adamic.html In Search of the Adamic Language, Meridian Magazine]
[[Category:Proto-languages]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:Languages whose existence is uncertain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny</title>
<id>2338</id>
<revision>
<id>36804312</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T16:17:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny''''' (''Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny'') is a political-satirical [[opera]] composed by [[Kurt Weill]] to a [[German language|German]] [[libretto]] by [[Bertolt Brecht]]. It was first performed in [[Leipzig]] on [[March 9]] [[1930]].
== Plot ==
The story is that three criminals (Leokadja Begbick, Trinity Moses and Fatty) create the city of Mahagonny. Drinking, gambling, prize-fights and similar activities are the sole occupation of the inhabitants, and money rules. There are only two main characters, Jenny, a prostitute, and Jim Mahoney, a lumberjack. Mahagonny is threatened by a [[tropical cyclone|hurricane]] at the end of Act 1, which despite much anticipation & causing much distress simply bypasses the city. In Act 2 following the hurricane nothing is forbidden and various scenes of debauchery occur. Jenny and Jim try to leave but Jim cannot pay his debts and is arrested. Another character [[arraignment|arraigned]] for [[murder]], [[bribery|bribe]]s his way out of it, but Jim has no money and is condemned to death for not paying for his whisky. The opera ends with discontent destroying the city, which burns as the inhabitants march away.
The music uses a number of styles, including [[ragtime|rag-time]], [[jazz]] and formal [[counterpoint]], notably in the ''[[Alabama Song]]'' (covered by [[The Doors]]). The lyrics for the ''Alabama Song'' and another song, the ''Benares Song'' are in English (albeit specifically idiosyncratic English) and are performed in that language even when the opera is performed in its original ([[German language|German]]) language.
== History ==
It had its premiere in [[Leipzig]] in March [[1930]] and played in [[Berlin]] in December of the following year. The opera was banned by the [[Nazis]] in [[1933]] and did not have a significant production until the 1960s. It has played in opera houses around the world. Never achieving the popularity of Weill and Brecht's ''[[Threepenny Opera]],'' ''Mahagonny'' is still considered a work of stature with a haunting score. Herbert Lindenberger in his book ''Opera in History'', for example, views ''Mahagonny'' alongside Schoenberg's ''[[Moses und Aron]]'' as indicative of the two poles of modernist opera.
[[Category:Operas by Kurt Weill]]
[[Category:German-language operas]]
[[Category:Satirical opera]]
[[Category:Operas]]
[[Category:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[de:Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny]]
[[it:Ascesa e caduta della città di Mahagonny]]
[[sv:Staden Mahagonnys uppgång och fall]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Avery Hopwood</title>
<id>2339</id>
<revision>
<id>36763344</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T08:13:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IstvanWolf</username>
<id>496966</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hopwood.jpeg|thumb|130px|right|WPA Poster of a Hopwood play]]
'''Avery Hopwood''' ([[May 28]], [[1882]] - [[July 1]], [[1928]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]] who wrote [[farce]]s such as ''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' ([[1927]]). He established the [[Hopwood Award]] at the [[University of Michigan]], an award later won by [[Arthur Miller]] for his first play.
He was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio]] and he died in [[Juan-les-Pins]], [[France]]. He is the only playwright to ever have four plays running simultaneously on Broadway ([[Neil Simon]] once had three).
==Further reading==
*''Avery Hopwood : his life and plays'', by [[Jack Sharrar]] (1989)
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Avery+Hopwood | name=Avery Hopwood}}
*[http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp? |
://www.saunalahti.fi/animato Hints and tips for the animation hobbyist]
* [http://www.acmeanimation.org ACME Animation]
* [http://www.awn.com Animation World Network]
* [http://www.animationarena.com/principles-of-animation.html 28 Principles of Animation]
* [http://www.animationmeat.com Animationmeat.com - Notes Model Sheets and Reference material by Professional Animators]
* [http://www.writer2001.com/animtech.htm Media & Techniques in Animation]
[[Category:Animation|Animation]]
[[Category:Film]]
[[bs:Animacija]]
[[cs:Animovaný film]]
[[de:Animation]]
[[eo:animacio]]
[[es:Animación]]
[[et:Animatsioon]]
[[fa:پویانمایی]]
[[fi:Animaatio]]
[[fr:Animation]]
[[gl:Cine de animación]]
[[he:אנימציה]]
[[hu:Animáció]]
[[it:Cartone animato]]
[[ja:アニメーション]]
[[ko:애니메이션]]
[[lv:Multiplikācija]]
[[mk:Анимација]]
[[nl:Animatie]]
[[pl:Film animowany]]
[[pt:Animação]]
[[ru:Мультипликация]]
[[simple:Animation]]
[[sq:Animation]]
[[sv:Animering]]
[[th:แอนิเมชัน]]
[[zh:动画]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apollo</title>
<id>594</id>
<revision>
<id>41703674</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:13:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom Lougheed</username>
<id>450264</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed typeo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image: Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Statue of Apollo at the [[British Museum]].]]
In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &#913;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#969;&#957;, '''''Apóll&#333;n'''''; or &Alpha;&pi;&epsilon;&lambda;&lambda;&omega;&nu;, ''Apell&#333;n'') was a god of light, healing and poetry. Apollo was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin brother of [[Artemis]], goddess of the hunt. As the prophetic deity of the [[Delphic Sibyl|Delphic Oracle]], Apollo was one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. In [[Etruscan mythology]], he was known as [[Aplu]].
In later times, Apollo became partly confused or equated with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|god of the moon]], particularly in religious contexts. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts.
==Domains and symbols==
[[Image:Apollo II (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Apollo, the son of [[Zeus]] and the mortal [[Leto]].]]
Apollo was considered to have dominion over disease, beauty, light, healing, [[colony|colonists]], [[medicine]], [[archery]], [[poetry]], [[prophecy]], [[dance]], [[reason]], [[intellectualism]], and [[shaman]]s, and was the patron defender of herds and flocks.
Apollo's most common attributes were the lyre and the bow. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]) and [[plectrum]]. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[laurel tree|laurel]] bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm-tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins and roe, swans and grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows and snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice, and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin.
As god of colonization, Apollo gave guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, [[750 BC|750&ndash;550 BC]]. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists find the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of ''Wilusa'', which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Illios]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]).
Apollo popularly (e.g., in [[literary criticism]]) represents harmony, order, and reasons&mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who popularly represents emotion and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives ''[[Apollonian]]'' and ''[[Dionysian]]''. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphi Oracle to Dionysus.
==Worship==
Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in [[Delphi]], and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. Apollo is known as the leader of the [[Muse]]s ('''''musagetes''''') and director of their choir. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[Paean]]s.
The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]]. In [[430]], a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence. During the [[Second Punic War]] in [[212]], the Ludi Apollinares were instituted in his honor. In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, His worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the [[battle of Actium]], Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace composed his ''Carmen Saeculare'', to Apollo and [[Diana]].
The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the [[Carneia]], [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. The [[Ludi Apollinares]] were solemn games held to honor him.
The worship of Apollo has returned with the rise of [[revivalism|revivalist]] [[Hellenic polytheism]], and the contemporary Pagan movement. One example of this revival is the group [http://winterscapes.com/kyklosapollon Kyklos Apollon]. Also, together with Athena, Apollo (under the name Phevos) was controversially designated as a mascot of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens.
==Etymology==
The name ''Apollo'' might have been derived from a Pre-Hellenic compound ''Apo-ollon'',{{fact}} likely related to an archaic verb ''Apo-ell-'' and literally meaning "he who elbows off", that is "the Dispelling One." Indeed, he seems to have personified dispelling power, which would relate to his association with the darkness-dispelling power of the morning sun and the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance.
In addition:
* The apparent expelling character of city walls and doorways as bulwarks against trespassers
* The people-dispelling nature of disembarkations and [[expatriation]]s to colonies
* The disease-dispelling character of healing
* The predator-dispelling character of a shepherd tending his flocks
* The pest-dispelling nature of a farmer growing crops
* The power of music and the arts to dispel discord and [[barbary]]
* The highly important power of fit and skilled young men to dispel intruders and invading armies
* The ability of foresight into the future
An explanation given by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' is that Apollon signified a [[unity]], since ''pollon'' meant "many," and the [[prefix]] ''a-'' was a negative. Thus, Apollon could be read as meaning "deprived of multitude." Apollo was consequently associated with the [[monad]].
[[Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric &alpha;&pi;&epsilon;&lambda;&lambda;&alpha;, which means assembly, so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation &sigma;&eta;&kappa;&omicron;&sigmaf; ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.
[[Image:Apollonmosaic.jpg|thumb|366px|right|Apollo with a radiant [[halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, lare 2nd century]]
== Apollo in art ==
In art, Apollo is usually depicted as a handsome beardless young man and often with a lyre or bow in hand. In the late 2nd century floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman Thysdrus, (''illustration, right''), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Anther haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse [http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html].The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed.
== Appellations ==
[[Epithet]]s applied to Apollo include:
*'''Phoebus''' ("shining one"), for Apollo in the context of the god of light
*'''Smintheus''' ("mouse-catcher") and '''Parnopius''' ("grasshopper"), as god of the plague and defender against rats and locusts.
*'''Delphinios''' ("delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", associating Apollo with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s.
*'''Archegetes''', (&qu |
sible. Exxon sent it back to court, to be considered in regard to a recent supreme court ruling in a similar case, resulting in Judge Holland actually upping the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest. Exxon is again appealing, some seventeen years after the incident. The case currently sits in the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|9th Circuit appelate court]], and oral arguments have been scheduled for January 27, 2006. The Exxon Valdez damages assessment is notably important in that it was the first which assessed the [[existence value]] of the environmental resource in question, an assessment which was done through the use of [[contingent valuation]] techniques.
The tanker was towed to [[San Diego]], arriving on [[July 10]] and repairs began in [[July 30]], [[1989]]. Around 1,600 tons of steel was removed and replaced. In June [[1990]] the tanker, renamed ''SeaRiver Mediterranean'' left harbor after $30 million of repairs. The ship was banned from Valdez by a new regulation that prohibited vessels that had caused oil spills of more than 1 million US gallons (3,800 m&sup3;). In April [[1998]] the company argued in a legal action against government that the ship should be allowed back to Valdez, since the regulation was unfairly directed at Exxon alone (no other ships meet this criterion.)
[[Image:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|250px|left|Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shoreline.]]
==Environmental impact==
Both the long and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied comprehensively. Thousands of animals died immediately; the best estimates include 250,000 sea birds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles, up to 22 orcas, and billions of salmon and herring eggs. Despite a thorough cleanup, and little visual evidence apparent even only one year later, the effects of the spill continue to be felt today. In the long term, reductions in population have been seen in various ocean animals, including stunted growth in pink salmon populations. Sea otters and ducks also showed higher death rates in following years, partly because they ingested contaminated creatures. The animals also were exposed to oil when they dug up their prey in dirty soil. Researchers said some shoreline habitats, such as contaminated mussel beds, could take up to 30 years to recover. While it will take years for a solid long term study, some interim effects have already been noted;
*Rockweed - The Rockweed is once again growing on boulders where the spill occurred.
*Salmon - Pink Salmon Harvests have varied in the years since the spill.
==Social impact==
In additional to the environmental effects of the spill, the disruption to the lives of the people affected is noteworthy. Native American groups in the area were impacted, and the fishing industry also experienced serious changes as a result. For example, commercial fishing was closed for the remainder of 1989, so many fishermen went elsewhere to work. Unfortunately for the local industry, many seafood markets also turned elsewhere to purchase product, and some never returned. In the years following the spill, a very high percentage of the fishermen and associated companies declared bankruptcy. The promise of a punitive damages award from Exxon was not realized in the difficult years that followed the spill, and caused much frustration. For example, the mayor of [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]], a nearby fishing community, committed suicide, and requested that his ashes be scattered on [[Bligh Reef]], where the Exxon Valdez grounded. [http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/oil/usatoday/page2.htm]
==External links==
*[http://whyfiles.org/168oil_spill/ Oil, out of control] &mdash; Reports on various oil spills worldwide, including the Exxon Valdez spill.
[[Category:Disasters in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental disasters]]
[[Category:ExxonMobil]]
[[Category:Oil spills]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edouard de Pomaine</title>
<id>10244</id>
<revision>
<id>38807552</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T20:05:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+[[category:Year of death missing]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edouard de Pomaine''' was a French scientist, [[radio]] [[broadcaster]] and [[Food writing|food writer]] in the early 20th century.
His best known works to have been translated into English are ''Cooking in Ten Minutes'' and ''Cooking with Pomaine''. His writing was remarkable in its time for its directness (he frequently uses a strange second-person voice, telling you -- the reader -- what you are seeing and smelling as you follow a recipe) and for his general disdain for "traditional" elaborate [[French cuisine]]. He travelled widely and quite a few of his recipes are from abroad. His recipes often take pains to demystify cooking by explaining the chemical processes at work.
==Books==
*''Cooking in Ten Minutes'' ISBN 0571135994
*''Cooking with Pomaine'' ISBN 0340599375
{{France-writer-stub}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing|Depomaine, Edoard]]
[[Category:French chefs|Depomaine, Edoard]]
[[Category:French food writers|Depomaine, Edoard]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward VI of England</title>
<id>10245</id>
<revision>
<id>42053725</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:03:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jtmichcock</username>
<id>253304</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Death */ not his name, add death</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox" style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-size:90%;clear:right;" cellspacing="5"
|+ style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | '''His Majesty King Edward VI'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:1em;text-align:center;" | [[Image:Edward VI of England.png|200px]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Reign'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[28 January]] [[1547]] - [[6 July]] [[1553]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Predecessor'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Successor'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Lady Jane Grey]] <br> [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Spouse'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | none
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Issue'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | None
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Royal House'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[House of Tudor|Tudor]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Father'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Mother'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[Jane Seymour]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Born'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[12 October]], [[1537]]
|-
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;" | '''Died'''
| style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;" | [[6 July]], [[1553]]
|}
:'''''Edward Tudor''' redirects here; for another (though unlikely) Edward Tudor, see a putative younger son of [[Henry VII of England]], who, if existed, would be the uncle of this Edward''
'''Edward VI''' ([[12 October]] [[1537]] &ndash; [[6 July]] [[1553]]) was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] and [[King of Ireland]] from [[28 January]] [[1547]] until his death. Edward, the third monarch of the [[Tudor dynasty]], was England's first [[Protestantism|Protestant]] ruler. Although his father and predecessor, [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], had broken the link between the English church and Rome, it was during Edward's reign that the decisive move was made from Catholicism to a form of [[Protestantism]] which came to be known as [[Anglicanism]].
==Early life==
Edward was born at the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich, London]]. He was the son of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] by his wife, [[Jane Seymour]], who died twelve days afterwards from [[puerperal fever]]. It is sometimes asserted that Jane sacrificed her life by the performance of a [[Caesarean section]], but such assertions are without basis. Edward automatically became [[Duke of Cornwall]] upon his birth; he was, however, never created [[Prince of Wales]], as was (and still is) customary for the heir-apparent to the Throne.
Henry VIII was extremely pleased by the birth of a male heir. He had left his two previous wives, [[Catherine of Aragon]] (mother of [[Mary I of England| Mary]]) and [[Anne Boleyn]] (mother of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]), because of their failure to produce male heirs. Both marriages had been [[annulment|annulled]], and Anne Boleyn was also executed; Mary and Elizabeth were deemed [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]]. Despite their illegitimacy, however, they were reinserted into the [[order of succession|line of succession]] after Edward VI in [[1544]].
Edward VI was an extremely sickly child. It has been theorised that he suffered from [[congenital syphilis]] or from [[tuberculosis]]. His frailty led Henry VIII to quickly seek to remarry; the King's last three marriages, however, did not produce any children. Edward's physical difficulties did not |
:8 d'abiento]]
[[ast:8 d'avientu]]
[[bg:8 декември]]
[[be:8 сьнежня]]
[[bs:8. decembar]]
[[ca:8 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 8]]
[[cv:Раштав, 8]]
[[co:8 di decembre]]
[[cs:8. prosinec]]
[[cy:8 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:8. december]]
[[de:8. Dezember]]
[[et:8. detsember]]
[[el:8 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:8 de diciembre]]
[[eo:8-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 8]]
[[fo:8. desember]]
[[fr:8 décembre]]
[[fy:8 desimber]]
[[ga:8 Nollaig]]
[[gl:8 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 8일]]
[[hr:8. prosinca]]
[[io:8 di decembro]]
[[id:8 Desember]]
[[ia:8 de decembre]]
[[is:8. desember]]
[[it:8 dicembre]]
[[he:8 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:8 Desember]]
[[ka:8 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:8 gòdnika]]
[[ku:8'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:8 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 8]]
[[lb:8. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 8]]
[[mk:8 декември]]
[[ms:8 Disember]]
[[nap:8 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:8 december]]
[[ja:12月8日]]
[[no:8. desember]]
[[nn:8. desember]]
[[oc:8 de decembre]]
[[pl:8 grudnia]]
[[pt:8 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:8 decembrie]]
[[ru:8 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 8.]]
[[sco:8 December]]
[[sq:8 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:8 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 8]]
[[sk:8. december]]
[[sl:8. december]]
[[sr:8. децембар]]
[[fi:8. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:8 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 8]]
[[tt:8. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 8]]
[[th:8 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:8 tháng 12]]
[[tr:8 Aralık]]
[[uk:8 грудня]]
[[wa:8 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 8]]
[[zh:12月8日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 8]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dante</title>
<id>8195</id>
<revision>
<id>15906209</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-29T16:48:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Number 0</username>
<id>86732</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dante Alighieri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dr Who</title>
<id>8196</id>
<revision>
<id>15906210</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Doctor Who]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desmond Morris</title>
<id>8197</id>
<revision>
<id>39950250</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T01:00:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.152.194.119</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr Desmond Morris''' (born [[24 January]] [[1928]] in the village of [[Purton]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]) is most famous for his work as a [[zoology|zoologist]] and [[ethology|ethologist]]. He first came to attention in the 1960s as a presenter of [[ITV]] television's ''[[Zoo Time]]''. His studies focus on animal and human behaviour, explained from a zoological point of view. He has written a number of books and produced a number of television shows. His examination of humans from a bluntly zoological point of view has attracted controversy. Although he is a [[sociobiologist]] himself, many others in the field consider Morris to be something of a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientist]], or merely a populariser. His [[Savanna Theory]] has been known to be questioned by [[Elaine Morgan (writer)|Elaine Morgan]] with the [[aquatic ape hypothesis]].
In addition to his scientific pursuits, he is an [[artist]] in the [[Surrealist]] tradition. Morris has contributed significantly to the British Surrealist movement. He had his first solo show in 1948, and has shown regularly ever since.
In 1951 having obtained a First Class Honours Degree in [[Zoology]] from [[Birmingham University]] he begins research for his doctorate in animal behaviour at Oxford
In 1954 he was awarded a [[D.Phil]] from [[Oxford University]] for his doctoral thesis on the Reproductive Behaviour of the Ten-spined Stickleback.
In 1957 he curated an exhibition of chimpanzee paintings and drawings at the [[Institute of Contemporary Arts]], London, including paintings by a young [[chimpanzee]] called Congo. [[Pablo Picasso]] indicated his support for Morris and the ape by biting a reporter who suggested to him that the chimp's work was not art. Picasso is reported to have purchased a painting by Congo.
== Selected books ==
* ''The Mammals A Guide to the Living Species'' ([[1965]]) &ndash; a comprehensive listing of all mammal genera, all non-rodent non-bat species, and additional information on select species.
* ''[[The Naked Ape]]'' ([[1967]]) &ndash; an unabashed look at the human species. The book is notable for its focus on humanity's animal-like qualities and our similarity with apes. Reprinted many times and in many languages, it continues to be a best-seller.
* [[The Human Zoo (book)|The Human Zoo]] ([[1969]]) &ndash; a further, deeper look into mankind and its animal roots.
* ''Intimate Behaviour'' ([[1971]])
* ''Manwatching'' ([[1977]]) reprinted as ''Peoplewatching'' ([[2002]])
* ''Gestures: Their Origin and Distribution'' ([[1979]])
* ''Animal Days'' ([[1979]])
* ''Soccer Tribe'' ([[1981]])
* ''Pocket Guide to Manwatching'' ([[1982]])
* ''Inrock'' ([[1983]])
* ''Bodywatching &ndash; A Field Guide to the Human Species'' ([[1985]]) &ndash; Hundreds of photos analyzing the human body from hair down to the feet.
* ''Catwatching'' ([[1986]]) &ndash; a study of one of the most popular of household pets across the centuries.
* ''Dogwatching'' ([[1986]]) &ndash; an in-depth study of "man's best friend".
* ''Animalwatching'' ([[1990]])
* ''Babywatching'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[The Human Animal]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''The Naked Eye'' ([[2001]])
* ''Dogs: The Ultimate Dictionary of over 1000 Dog Breeds'' ([[2001]])
* ''Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[The Naked Woman]]'' ([[2004]])
== External links ==
* His [http://www.desmond-morris.com official site] contains more information and a complete biography.
* [http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/zootime.htm ''Zoo Time'']
* [http://mypage.direct.ca/w/writer/Desmond.html Biomorphic Surrealism by Desmond Morris]
[[Category:1928 births|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Living people|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Science writers|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Zoologists|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:University of Birmingham alumni|Morris, Desmond]]
[[de:Desmond Morris]]
[[es:Desmond Morris]]
[[fr:Desmond Morris]]
[[io:Desmond Morris]]
[[it:Desmond Morris]]
[[ja:デズモンド・モリス]]
[[nl:Desmond Morris]]
[[fi:Desmond Morris]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 28</title>
<id>8198</id>
<revision>
<id>42014427</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:42:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable, removed redundant year link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 28]]''' is the 362nd day of the year (363rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 3 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[418]] - [[Pope Boniface I|St. Boniface I]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1065]] - [[Westminster Abbey]] is consecrated.
*[[1308]] - The reign of [[Emperor Hanazono]], [[emperor of Japan]], begins.
*[[1612]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] becomes the first [[astronomer]] to observe the [[planet]] [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] when it was in [[astronomical conjunction|conjunction]] with [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], yet he mistakenly catalogued it as a [[fixed star]] because of its extremely slow motion along the [[ecliptic]] at that time. Neptune was not truly discovered until [[1846]], about 234 years after Galileo first sighted it with his [[telescope]].
*[[1832]] - [[John C. Calhoun]] becomes the first [[Vice President of the United States]] to resign.
*[[1835]] - [[Osceola]] led his [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] warriors in [[Florida]] into the [[Seminole Wars|Second Seminole War]] against the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]].
*[[1836]] - [[South Australia]] and [[Adelaide]] are founded.
*1836 - [[Spain]] recognizes independence of [[Mexico]].
*[[1846]] - [[Iowa]] is admitted as the 29th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1869]] - William E. Semple of [[Mt. Vernon, Ohio]] patents [[chewing gum]].
*[[1879]] - [[The Tay Bridge Disaster]]: The central part of the [[Tay Rail Bridge]] in [[Dundee, Scotland]] collapses as a train passed over it, killing 75.
*[[1895]] - The [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] have their first paying audience at the Grand Cafe in ''Boulevard des Capucines'' marking the debut of the [[movie theater|cinema]].
*[[1897]] - The play ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (play)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'', by [[Edmond Rostand]], premieres in [[Paris]].
*[[1902]] - The first indoor professional [[American football]] game is played in [[New York City]] at [[Madison Square Garden]].
*[[1908]] - An [[earthquake]] rocks [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], [[Sicily]] killing over 75,000.
*[[1928]] - The first municipally owned [[streetcar]]s take to the streets in [[San Francisco]].
*[[1945]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] officially recognizes the [[Pledge of Allegiance]].
*[[1950]] - The [[Peak District]] becomes the United Kingdom's first [[List of national parks of England and Wales|National Park]].
*[[1973]] - [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]] publishes [[Gulag Archipelago]].
*[[1974]] - [[Senegal]]ese [[marxist]] group ''[[Reenu-Rew]]'' founds the political movement [[And-Jëf]] at a clandestine congress.
*[[1981]] - The first American [[test-tube baby]], [[Elizabeth Jordan Carr]], is born in [[Norfolk, Virginia]].
*1981 - The [[HBO]] pay [[cable television]] service expanded its schedule offering to 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
*[[1984]] - After 28 seasons, [[soap opera]] [[The Edge of Night]] broadcasts its final show.
*[[1989]] - A magnitude 5.6 [[earthquake]] hits [[Newcastle, New South Wales]], [[Australia]], killing 13 people.
*[[1991]] - Nine are crushed while a crowd pushes their way into a [[basketball]] game at |
gma; 2) Enigma T; 3) Enigma G; 4) Unidentified; 5) Luftwaffe (Air Force) Enigma; 6) Heer (Army) Enigma; 7) Kriegsmarine (Naval) Enigma &mdash; M4.]]
|}
===Commercial Enigma===
[[Image:Scherbius-1928-patent.png|right|thumbnail|320px|Scherbius' Enigma patent &mdash; {{US patent|1,657,411}}, granted in 1928]]
On [[February 23]], [[1918]], German engineer [[Arthur Scherbius]] applied for a patent for a cipher machine using rotors, and, with E. Richard Ritter, founded the firm of Scherbius &amp; Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither were interested. They then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on [[9 July]] [[1923]]; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.
[[Image:Enigma-logo.jpg|180px|thumbnail|left|The Enigma logo]]
Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine &mdash; '''Enigma model A''' &mdash; which was exhibited at the Congress of the [[International Postal Union]] in 1923 and 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a [[typewriter]]. It measured 65×45×35&nbsp;cm and weighed about 50 kg. A '''model B''' was introduced, and was of a similar construction<ref>[http://www.armyradio.com/publish/Articles/The_Enigma_Code_Breach/Pictures/enigma_type_b.jpg]</ref>. While bearing the Enigma name, both models A and B were quite unlike later versions: they differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector.
The reflector &mdash; an idea suggested by Scherbius' colleague [[Willi Korn]] &mdash; was first introduced in the '''Enigma C''' (1926) model. The reflector is a key feature of the Enigma machines.
[[Image:Enigma-8-rotor.jpg|left|thumbnail|A rare 8-rotor printing Enigma.]]
Model C was smaller and more portable than its predecessors. It lacked a typewriter, relying instead on the operator reading the lamps; hence the alternative name of "glowlamp Enigma" to distinguish from models A and B. The Enigma C quickly became extinct, giving way to the '''Enigma D''' (1927). This version was widely used, with copies going to [[Sweden]], the [[Netherlands]], [[England]], [[Japan]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[USA]] and [[Poland]].
===Military Enigma===
The German Navy were the first branch of the German military to adopt Enigma. This version, named '''Funkschlüssel C''' (''Radio cipher C''), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926<ref name="early-mil-enigma">Kahn, 1991, pp. 39-41, 299</ref>. The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters &mdash; A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü &mdash; which were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZU ordering<ref>Ulbricht, 2005, p.4</ref>. The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter <tt>X</tt> wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted<ref name="Stripp">Stripp, 1993</ref>. Three rotors were chosen from a set of five<ref>Kahn, 1991, pp. 40, 299</ref> and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ<ref>Bauer, 2000, p. 108</ref>. The machine was revised slightly in July 1933<ref>Hinsley and Stripp, 1993, plate 3</ref>.
By [[15 July]] [[1928]]<ref>Kahn, 1991, pp. 41, 299</ref>, the German Army (''[[Reichswehr]]'') had introduced their own version of the Enigma &mdash; the '''Enigma G''', revised to the '''Enigma I''' by June 1930<ref name="dc-97">Deavours and Kruh, 1985, p. 97</ref>. Enigma I is also known as the '''Wehrmacht''', or '''Services''' Enigma, and was used extensively by the German military services and other government organisations, both prior to and during [[World War II]]. The major difference between Enigma I and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing the cryptographic strength of the machine. Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector, and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings<ref name="dc-97">. The machine measured 28×34×15&nbsp;cm (11"×13.5"×6") and weighed around 12&nbsp;kg (26 pounds)<ref name="Stripp"/>.
[[Image:four-rotor-enigma.jpg|right|thumb|280px|An Enigma model T (Tirpitz) &mdash; a modified commercial Enigma K manufactured for use by the Japanese.]]
By 1930, the Army had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications<ref name="kahn-43">Kahn, 1991, p. 43</ref>. The Navy eventually agreed and in 1934<ref>Kahn (1991, p. 43) says August 1934. Kruh and Deavours (2002, p. 15) say October 2004.</ref> brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated '''Funkschlüssel M''' or '''M3'''. While the Army used only three rotors at that time, for greater security the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five<ref name="dc-98">Deavours and Kruh, 1985, p. 98</ref>. In December 1939, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five<ref name="dc-97"/>. In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight<ref name="dc-98"/>. In August 1935, the Air Force also introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications<ref name="dc-97"/>. A four rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on [[1 February]] [[1942]], called '''M4''' (the network was known as ''Triton'', or ''Shark'' to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.
There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the '''Enigma II'''. During 1933, Polish codebreakers detected that it was in use for high-level military communications, but that it was soon withdrawn from use after it was found to be unreliable and jam frequently<ref>Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 28</ref>.
[[Image:Enigma-G.jpg|left|thumbnail|Enigma G, used by the [[Abwehr]], had four-rotors, no plugboard, and multiple notches on the rotors.]]
The [[Abwehr]] used the '''Enigma G''' (the '''Abwehr Enigma'''). This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter which incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the '''counter machine''' or the '''Zahlwerk Enigma'''.
[[Image:Swiss enigma.jpg|thumb|220px|The four-wheel Swiss Enigma K, made in Germany, used re-wired rotors.]]
Other countries also used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as "Navy Cipher D"; the Spanish also used commercial Enigma during their [[Spanish Civil War|Civil War]]. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard. The Swiss used a version of Enigma called '''model K''' or '''Swiss K''', for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to the commercial Enigma D. The machine was broken by a number of parties, including Germany, France, Britain and the United States (the latter codenamed it INDIGO). An '''Enigma T''' model (codenamed '''Tirpitz''') was manufactured for use by the Japanese.
It has been estimated that 100,000 Enigma machines were constructed<ref name="Bauer-112">Bauer, 2000, p. 112</ref>. After the end of the Second World War, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to a number of developing countries<ref name="Bauer-112"/>.
===Enigma derivatives===
The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, and a number of other rotor machines are derived from it. The British [[Typex]] was originally designed from the Enigma patents &mdash; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. Due to the need for secrecy about its cipher systems, no royalties were paid for the use of the patents by the British government. A Japanese Enigma clone was codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers. Little-used, it contained four rotors mounted vertically. In the US, cryptologist [[William Friedman]] designed the [[M-325]], a machine similar to Enigma in logical operation, although not in construction.
A unique rotor machine was constructed in 2002 by [[Netherlands]]-based Tatjana van Vark<ref>[http://www.tatjavanvark.nl/index.html]</ref>. This unusual device is inspired by Enigma, but makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation; each rotor contains 509 parts<ref> [http://www.tatjavanvark.nl/tvv1/pht10.html]</ref>.
<!-- I've deliberately excluded discussion of machines like the SIGABA, NEMA and so forth, which seem to be not directly based on Enigma (although they are, of course, rotor machines) -->
{| style="margin:1em auto 0 auto"
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| [[Image:Japanese-enigma.jpg|thumb|none|306px|<!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height.
--><div style="height:3.5em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;"><!--
--></div>The Japanese developed an Enigma clone, codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers, although it was little used.]]
| [[Image:Tatjavanavark-machine.jpg|thumb|none|320px|<!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height.
--><div style="height:3.5em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;"><!--
--></div>Tatjana van Vark's Enigma-inspired rotor machine, constructed in 20 |
veloped from a number of articles that Butler had contributed to a local periodical while in New Zealand. Butler was the first to write about the possibility that machines develop consciousness. To him it was a joke, but today scientists and philosophers are seriously debating whether computers and robots could develop the same kind of intelligence ([[artificial intelligence]], AI) and consciousness ([[artificial life]]) as human beings. It is also a popular theme in science-fiction novels and movies; some raise the same question ([[Dune]]'s [[Butlerian Jihad]], for example), while others wonder what the relationship between human beings and machines with artificial intelligence would be and whether AI is desirable at all.
===The rest of the book===
Erewhon has many more curious aspects, such as the notion that children choose their parents. His "Musical Banks" chapter is an attack on religious hypocrisy. Banks of that era were few and quite magnificent, but the satire does not end with their comparison to cathedrals in these characteristics.
In that chapter, he mentions that these banks have their own currency, which is not honored by the ''other'' banks. This refers to a forgotten practice. During the age when the whole point of money was that it was made of precious metal, there was frequent trimming or shaving of coins once they were released to the public, even though people were expected to accept the diminished coins at their face value. These bits were sold under the counter to an assayer. There was also widespread counterfeiting.
It would not do for churches to be implicated in these activities. Thus, churches actually had money-changing tables at which each coin would be examined separately and a ''token'' of actual worth given to the layperson so that he or she could be seen by the other parishoners as putting money in the basket during that part of the service. These tokens had religious images upon them; this also prevented pilferage. The money-changing not done at the same time as the service itself. (Some distinguished Protestant churches in the US had this practice in the [[19th century]], besides the [[Church of England]] and the [[Presbyterian Church]] of Scotland.) The practice goes back to the days of temple of [[Jerusalem]], but then it was done for the different reason &mdash; that money offered to the temple did not have the images of pagan gods on it.<!-- the relevance of all of this is quite unclear, but I don't know the book well enough to make it so -->
==Reception==
At its first release, this book sold far better than any of Butler's other works &mdash; perhaps because the British public assumed that the anonymous author was some better-known figure. In 1901 Butler published a sequel, ''Erewhon Revisited,'' alongside a revised and expanded edition of ''Erewhon.''
==External links==
*{{gutenberg|no=1906|name=Erewhon}} - Revised 1901 edition of "Erewhon" at Project Gutenberg
[[Category:1872 books]]
[[Category:Fictional countries]]
[[Category:Utopian novels]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ectopia</title>
<id>9665</id>
<revision>
<id>38566967</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:54:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Miguel Andrade</username>
<id>569674</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[medicine]] an '''ectopia''' is a displacement or malposition of an [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]] of the body. Most ectopias are [[Congenital disorder|congenital]] but some may happen later in life.
*[[Ectopia lentis]] is the displacement of the crystalline lens of the eye
*[[Ectopia cordis]] is the displacement of the heart outside the body during [[fetus|foetal]] development
*[[Renal ectopia]] occurs when both kidneys occur on the same side of the body
*[[Ectopic pregnancy]] occurs when the fertilized egg implants anywhere other than the uterine wall.
{{med-stub}}
[[da:Ektopi]]
[[de:Ektopie]]
[[it:ectopia]]
In [[molecular biology]] a gene is [[ectopic expression|ectopically expressed]] when it is expressed in an abnormal place.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EC</title>
<id>9666</id>
<revision>
<id>42035303</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:11:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.45.139.29</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''EC''' may stand for:
*'''EC''' is the IATA code for [[Avialeasing Aviation]], an airline
*[[Early childhood education|Early childhood]] education
*[[Eastern Caribbean dollar]], sometimes referred to as the ([[East Caribbean dollar|EC$]])
*[[EC Comics]], a now defunct comic book company
*[[EC number]]s (Enzyme Commission numbers) are used for the numerical classification of [[enzyme]]s
*[[EC-No|EC number]] or EC# codes are determined by the European Commission for identifying chemicals
*EC-10, a rating given to items for emotional content in the film ''[[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]]''
*[[Ecuador]] ([[country code]])
*[[Electron capture]] - a [[decay mode]] for [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]
*[[Electrical conductivity]] (EC values)
*Electronic Cash (formerly eurocheque), a debit system still used in continental Europe, but which is now combined with the [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] system
*[[Elimination Chamber]]
*[[Embedded C Plus Plus|Embedded C++]]
*[[Emergency contraception]]
*Emulsifiable Concentrate
*[[Entertaining Comics]]
*[[Entorhinal cortex]] - important [[memory]] center in the [[brain]]
*[[Environment Canada]]
*[[Eric Clapton]]
*[[European Commission]]
*[[European Community]]
*[[European Council]]
*[[Evolutionary computation]]
*[[Exacoulomb]], an [[SI]] unit for electric charge equal to 10<sup>18</sub> coulomb
*[[Executive Commitee]]
*[[Extended coverage]] - an [[insurance]] term
*[[Eye contact]]
{{2CC}}
[[de:EC]]
[[eo:Ec]]
[[fr:EC]]
[[it:Ec]]
[[ja:EC]]
[[ko:EC]]
[[nl:EC]]
[[sl:EC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Entorhinal cortex</title>
<id>9667</id>
<revision>
<id>41733171</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:26:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Torkel</username>
<id>1005556</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''entorhinal cortex (EC)''' is an important [[memory]] center in the [[brain]]. The EC forms the main input to the [[hippocampus]] and is responsible for the pre-processing (familiarity) of the input signals. In the [[eyeblink reflex]], the association of impulses from the [[eye]] and the [[ear]] occurs in the entorhinal cortex. The [[EC-hippocampus system]] plays an important role in [[memory consolidation]] and [[memory optimization]] in [[sleep]].
Entorhinal cortex is one of the first areas to be affected in Alzheimer's Disease, and one of the first symptoms are impaired sense of direction. In 2005, it was discovered that entorhinal cortex contains a neural map of the spatial environment ([http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v436/n7052/abs/nature03721.html Hafting et al., 2005]).
The entorhinal cortex show a modular organization, with different properties and connections in different areas.
Neurons in the lateral entorhinal cortex exhibit little spatial selectivity (Hargreaves et al., 2005) while neurons of the medial entorhinal (MEA) cortex exhibit multiple "place fields" that are arranged in an hexagonal pattern, and are therefore called "[[grid cells]]". These fields and spacing between fields increase from the dorso-lateral MEA to the ventro-medial MEA (Fyhn et al., 2004; Hafting et al., 2005).
== Anatomy ==
In rodents, EC is located at the [[caudal]] end of the [[temporal lobe]] and is usually divided into [[medial]] and [[lateral]] regions (with three bands with distinct properties and connectivity running perpendicular across the whole area). A distinguishing characteristic of EC is the lack of cell bodies where layer IV should be; this layer is called the ''lamina dissecans''.
== Inputs and outputs ==
The superficial layers - layers II and III - of EC project to the [[dentate gyrus]] and [[hippocampus]]: Layer II primarily projects to [[dentate gyrus]] and hippocampal region CA3; layer III primarily projects to hippocampal region CA1 and the [[subiculum]]. These layers receive input from other cortical areas, especially associational, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices, as well as [[prefrontal cortex]]. EC as a whole, therefore, receives highly-processed input from every sensory modality, as well as input relating to ongoing cognitive processes, though it should be stressed that, within EC, this information remains at least partially segregated.
The deep layers, especially layer V, receive one of the three main outputs of the [[hippocampus]], and, in turn, reciprocate connections from other cortical areas that project to superficial EC.
==External links==
* {{BrainInfo|hier|150}}
* {{MeshName|Entorhinal+Cortex}}
{{med-stub}}
{{Prosencephalon}}
[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Limbic system]]
[[Category:Cerebrum]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ernst Haeckel</title>
<id>9668</id>
<revision>
<id>41893430</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:30:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cyde</username>
<id>6511</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fixing Social Darwinism link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{mergefrom|embryo drawings}}
[[image:ErnstHaeckel.jpg|thumb|Ernst Haeckel]]
'''Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel''' ([[February 16]], [[1834]] — [[August 8]], [[1919]]), also written '''von Haeckel''', was an eminent German [[biologist]] and [[philosopher]] who promoted [[Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin's]] work in [[Germany]]. Haeckel was a [[zoologist]], an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a [[professor]] of [[comparative anatomy]]. He was one of the first to consider [[psycho |
]). The debate tended to veer between those who believed Dodgson to have been asexually obsessed with children and those who believed this obsession to have been pedophilic.
The issue was rekindled in [[1995]] with the authoritative ''[[Lewis Carroll, a Biography]]'' by [[Morton Cohen]]. Cohen writes:
<blockquote>''"We cannot know to what extent sexual urges lay behind Charles's preference for drawing and photographing children in the nude. He contended the preference was entirely [[aesthetic]]. But given his emotional attachment to children as well as his aesthetic appreciation of their forms, his assertion that his interest was strictly artistic is naïve. He probably felt more than he dared acknowledge, even to himself. Certainly he always sought to have another adult present when nude prepubescents modelled for him."''</blockquote>
Cohen further notes that the children's mothers were encouraged to be present, and asks if these precautions were the result of Dodgson "insuring himself against slip-ups." (p 228&ndash;229) Cohen concedes that Dodgson "apparently convinced many of his friends that his attachment to the nude female child form was free of any [[erotic]]ism," but adds that "later generations look beneath the surface" (p 229).
The only recorded instance of trouble associated with the nudes of children was Dodgson's experience with the Mayhew family. In [[1879]], Dodgson wrote what have been called by Cohen "several curious letters ... to the family of [[Andrew Mayhew]], an Oxford colleague ... He asked permission to take nude photographs of the three Mayhew daughters, ages 6, 11, and 13, with no other adults present." The Mayhew parents, who had previously allowed Dodgson to photograph their children, refused, and Cohen notes this same period saw a "sudden break in the friendship" between Dodgson and the Mayhew family (p. 170). Leach suggests that the problem lay with his desire to study the older daughters in frontal positions and not with the younger children.
===Karoline Leach's work and the 'Carroll Myth'===
A new analysis of Dodgson's sexual proclivities (and indeed the evolution of the entire process of his biography) appears in [[Karoline Leach]]'s [[1999]] book, ''In the Shadow of the Dreamchild''. She claims that the image of Dodgson's alleged pedophilia was built out of a failure to understand Victorian morals, as well as the mistaken idea that Dodgson had no interest in adult women which evolved out of the minds of various biographers. She termed this simplified, often frankly fictional image 'the Carroll Myth'.
According to Leach, who cites much [[prima facie]] evidence, Dodgson's real life was very different from the accepted biographical image. He was in fact keenly interested in adult women and apparently enjoyed several relationships with women, married and single. Some of these were his child friends with whom he retained good relations into adulthood (in complete refutation of the mythic idea that he 'lost interest' in any girl over the age of 14), but others &mdash; like [[Catherine Lloyd]], [[Constance Burch]], [[Edith Shute]], [[Gertrude Thomson]] (to name but a few) &mdash; were women he met as adults and with whom he shared very close and meaningful friendships. Suggestions of pedophilia only evolved many years after his death, when his well-meaning family had suppressed all evidence of these adult friendships in order to try to preserve his reputation, thus giving a false impression of a man only interested in little girls. This may serve to repudiate
some of the classical evidence for the claims of pedophilia, though some pedophiles are sexually interested in both adults and children.
Dodgson's problems with societal disapproval, Leach says, stemmed not from his usage of nude child models but his attempts to get slightly older models to pose in 'bathing dress' and other immodest clothing. These studies of scantily-dressed older models have all disappeared, leaving commentators only the photos of young girls to comment on.
In a review of the title in ''[[Victorian Studies]]'' (Vol.43, No.4) reviewer [[Donald Rackin]] wrote, "As a piece of biographical scholarship, [[Karoline Leach]]'s [[In the Shadow of the Dreamchild]] is difficult to take seriously". However, for all the emotional intensity of his attack, he visibly failed to detail any actual errors in her work. Nor have any errors been pointed out so far by any other authorities, and many now regard her work as an important step towards a better understanding of Carroll. Her work has been paralleled by that of [[Hugues Lebailly]] whose studies of Dodgson's artistic and social interests also support the idea that the image of his 'obsession' with little girls was largely simplistic or mythic in origin.
==Jack the Ripper theories==
Many wild theories have been woven around the life of Lewis Carroll. Perhaps the most extreme emerged in [[1996]] when author [[Richard Wallace (author)|Richard Wallace]] published a book titled ''[[Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend]]'' accusing Lewis Carroll and his colleague [[Thomas Vere Bayne]] of being [[Jack the Ripper]]. It was largely based upon [[anagram]]s Wallace constructed from Carroll's writing. Carroll and Bayne have strong alibis for most of the nights of the Ripper murders, and Wallace's theory has not found support from other scholars.
Carroll did show some interest in the Jack the Ripper case, but this is hardly unusual, given the profound publicity surrounding the crimes. A passage in his [[diary]] dated [[August 26]], [[1891]], reports that he spoke that day with an acquaintance of his about his "very ingenious theory about 'Jack the Ripper'". No other information about this theory has been found.
==Inventions==
Lewis Carroll seems to have thought a lot about how to solve some common technical problems of the day. The fact that he was able to understand and use new technologies is amply demonstrated by his use of the camera, which was not as user-friendly as it is today.
One such invention, as cited in his journal on [[September 24]], [[1891]] and as published in, was a system of writing called [[Nyctography]] and a tool called the [[Nyctograph]]. He invented this because he would be unable to sleep at night and would want to write down his ideas to clear his head. But, wanting to go quickly back to bed, he did not want to go through all the mechanical steps involved in lighting a lamp. He designed a card with square holes in a regular grid. One would always make a dot in the upper-left corner and then make other dots and/or strokes. These symbols were designed to look somewhat like the letters or numbers they represented. This did not seem to be used for any longer writings, since no writings with these symbols survive. But it is probable that Lewis Carroll himself would use this to make short notes to jog his memory, and then he would probably write the idea out in his journal.
He also invented the pencil and paper game [[Word Ladder]].
==References==
*''Lewis Carroll'' by Richard Kelly, Twayne, 1990.
*''Lewis Carroll: A Biography'' by Morton Cohen, Vintage, 1996.
*[http://shadowofthedreamchild.wild-reality.net In the Shadow of the Dreamchild] by Karoline Leach.
*[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/carroll/bioov.html Victorian Web]'s detailed biography section on Carroll.
*"[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.11.011 Did all those famous people really have epilepsy?]" by John R. Hughes. Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago. ''Epilepsy & Behavior'', Volume 6, Issue 2, p.115&ndash;139. March 2005.
*''The Raven and the Writing Desk'' by Francis Huxley, 1976. (ISBN 0060121130).
*''Inventing Wonderland'' by Jackie Wullschläger, (ISBN 0743228928) &mdash; also looks at [[Edward Lear]] (of the "nonsense" verses), [[J. M. Barrie]] (''[[Peter Pan]]''), [[Kenneth Grahame]] (''[[The Wind in the Willows]]''), and [[A. A. Milne]] (''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'').
* ''Dreaming in Pictures: The Photography of Lewis Carroll''. Yale University Press & SFMOMA, 2004. (Places Carroll firmly in the [[art photography]] tradition).
* Roger Taylor & Edward Wakeling. ''Lewis Carroll, Photographer''. 2002. (Has a definitive list of every Carroll photograph that is still in existence.
*''Rare book by Alice author makes £4,800'', by Paul James. The Sunderland Echo page 9, Saturday 28th January, 2006.
== See also ==
* [[Lewis Dodgson]]
* [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]
* [[Barbershop paradox]]
* [[Through the Looking-Glass]]
* [[PHANTASMAGORIA: The Visions Of Lewis Carroll]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
;Official websites
:*[http://lewiscarrollsociety.org.uk/ The Lewis Carroll Society]
:*[http://www.lewiscarroll.org/ Lewis Carroll Society of North America]
:*[http://www.lookingforlewiscarroll.com/ Looking for Lewis Carroll], website of the Association for New Lewis Carroll Studies
;Additional information
:*LCSNA: [http://www.lewiscarroll.org/carroll.html Lewis Carroll Home Page]
:*Victorian Web: [http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/carroll/carrollov.html Lewis Carroll]
:*[http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/LewisCarroll.shtml Lewis Carroll] - an introduction to his fiction
:*[http://www.elisanet.fi/markus.lang/lewis/carroll-music.html Musical Compositions Inspired by Lewis Carroll]
:*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/carroll.htm Lewis Carroll]
:*[http://wiredforbooks.org/edwardguilino/ 1982 audio interview with Edward Guilino, biographer of Lewis Carroll. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
:* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Dodgson}}
;The Internet Movie Database
:*{{imdb name|id=0140902|name=Lewis Carroll}}
:*[http://www.imdb.com/Find?select=Characters&for=Lewis+Carroll IMDb Character name search for Lewis Carroll]
===Electronic texts |
ng a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.
Sometimes there is disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool.
To be successful, most ethicists would suggest that an ethics policy should be:
*Given the unequivocal support of top management, by both word and by example.
*Explained in writing and orally, with periodic reinforcement.
*Doable....something employees can both understand and perform.
*Monitored by top management, with routine inspections for compliance and improvement.
*Backed up by clearly stated consequences in the case of disobedience.
*Remain neutral and nonsexist.
===Ethics officers===
Ethics officers (sometimes called "compliance" or "business conduct officers") have been appointed formally by organizations since the mid-1980s. One of the catalysts for the creation of this new role was a series of fraud, corruption and abuse scandals that afflicted the U.S. defense industry at that time. This led to the creation of the Defense Industry Initiative (DII), a pan-industry initiative to promote and ensure ethical business practices. The DII set an early benchmark for ethics management in corporations. In 1991, the [http://www.eoa.org Ethics Officer Association] was founded at the [http://www.bentley.edu/cbe Center for Business Ethics](at Bentley College, Waltham, MA) as a professional association for those responsible for managing organizations' efforts to achieve ethical best practices. The membership grew rapidly (the EOA now has over 1,100 members) and was soon established as an independent organization. Another critical factor in the decisions of companies to appoint ethics/compliance officers was the passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991, which set standards that organizations (large or small, commercial and non-commercial) had to follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense. Although intended to assist judges with sentencing, the influence in helping to establish best practices has been far-reaching.
In the wake of numerous corporate scandals between 2001-04 (affecting large corporations like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco), even small and medium-sized companies have begun to appoint ethics officers. They often report to the Chief Executive Officer and are responsible for assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations regarding the company's ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees. They are particularly interested in uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This trend is partly due to the [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]] in the United States, which was enacted in reaction to the above scandals. A related trend is the introduction of risk assessment officers that monitor how shareholders' investments might be affected by the company's decisions.
The effectiveness of ethics officers in the marketplace is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect the efficacy to be minimal, at least, over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behavior, a culture and climate that usually emanates from the top of the organization. The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behaviour: a more systemic programme with consistent support from general management will be necessary.
The foundation for ethical behavior goes well beyond corporate culture and the policies of any given company, for it also depends greatly upon an individual's early moral training, the other institutions that affect an individual, the competitive business environment the company is in and, indeed, society as a whole.
==Religious views on business ethics==
Many faiths have extensive literature and legal code on the accumulation and use of wealth; and many businesses rely on these ethical guidelines, both as a result of the religious beliefs of owners and managers, and as a way of ensuring that their actions meet the otherwise unwritten ethical standards of local communities.
=== Christian business ethics ===
In [[Christianity]], the basis of this [[theology]] is the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]].
For example, [[Jesus]] asked his disciples, "If you lend to those from whom you hope to receive, what credit is that to you?" [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 6:34. Although this may be a general injunction to disinterested benevolence, it has also been read as a condemnation of [[interest]] or [[usury]]. Jesus referenced this especially when one lends to another believer, the idea being that, as a Christian with an eternal mindset, ultimately [[God]] is our rewarder and lending to a fellow believer should be left to god to reward over collecting nominal interest.
=== Jewish business ethics ===
The basis of all [[halakha|Jewish law]] is the [[Torah]]; here there are more [[mitzva|commandments]] concerning the [[kashrut]] (fitness) of one's money than the kashrut of food (see [[613 Mitzvot]]). These laws are developed and expanded upon in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] (particularly in Order [[Nezikin]]), and are then delineated in the major [[Halakha#Codes of Jewish law|codes of Jewish law]] (e.g. ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', 12th c.; ''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'', particularly ''[[Choshen Mishpat]]'', 16th c.). A wide array of topics on business ethics are discussed in the [[responsa]] literature.
The literature also addresses the ethical dimension. [[Rabbi]] [[Yisrael Lipkin Salanter]] (19th century), founder of the [[Mussar]] movement in Eastern European, taught that just as one checks carefully to make sure their food is kosher, so too should one check to see if their money is earned in a kosher fashion ([[Yisrael Meir Kagan|Chofetz Chaim]], ''Sfat Tamim'', chapter 5). The teachings go much further: there is a widely quoted [[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism | tradition]] (see for e.g. ''[[Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh]]'' 62:1; originating in ''[[Talmud]] Shabbat'' 31a) that in one's judgement in [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba .28the world to come.29|the next world]], the ''first'' question asked is: "were you honest in business?"
:''See the related discussion of Judaism's approach to "livelihood", under [[Torah im Derech Eretz#Earning a livelihood|Torah im Derech Eretz]] and [[Divine Providence#Contemporary Orthodox thought|Divine Providence]].''
=== Muslim business ethics ===
For [[Islam]], the basis of these laws is the [[Qur'an]], and they are amplified in the [[Hadith]].
Muslim wealth ethics include avoidance of the exploitation of people in need through lending them money at interest ([[riba]]) and prohibitions against [[false advertising]]; under Islamic law, if a vendor sells an item by making false claims about it, the customer has the right to have the transaction cancelled.
==Related disciplines==
[[Business]] ethics should be distinguished from the [[philosophy of business]], the branch of [[philosophy]] that deals with the philosophical, political, and [[ethics|ethical]] underpinnings of business and [[economics]]. Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible -- those who dispute that premise, such as [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialists]], (who contend that "business ethics" is an [[oxymoron]]) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper.
The philosophy of business also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the [[social responsibility|social responsibilities]] of a business; [[business management]] [[theory]]; theories of [[individualism]] vs. [[collectivism]]; [[free will]] among participants in the [[marketplace]]; the role of [[self interest]]; [[invisible hand]] theories; the requirements of [[social justice]]; and [[natural rights]], especially [[property rights]], in relation to the business enterprise.
Business ethics is also related to '''[[political economy]],''' which is [[economic analysis]] from political and [[economic history|historical]] perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions. It asks who gains and who loses from [[economic activity]], and is the resultant [[distribution of wealth|distribution]] fair or just, which are central ethical issues.
==Notes==
<!-- How to add a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the footnote numbered-list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3. No need to re-number anything!
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to, if you don't succeed by simply following the pattern.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
-->
<!--
Useful templates
{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }}
{{cite journal | author= | title= (required) | journal= | year= | volume= | issue= | pages= &ndash; | url= }}
{{N |
for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.
=== Regulation ===
Biosynthesis of cholesterol is directly regulated by the cholesterol levels present, though the [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] mechanisms involved are only partly understood. A higher intake from food leads to a net decrease in endogenous production, while lower intake from food has the opposite effect. The main regulatory mechanism is the sensing of [[intracellular]] cholesterol in the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] by the [[protein]] SREBP (Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein 1 and 2). In the presence of cholesterol, SREBP is bound to two other proteins: SCAP (SREBP-cleavage activating protein) and Insig-1. When cholesterol levels fall, Insig-1 dissociates from the SREBP-SCAP complex, allowing the complex to migrate to the [[Golgi apparatus]], where SREBP is cleaved by S1P and S2P (site 1/2 protease), two enzymes that are activated by SCAP when cholesterol levels are low. The cleaved SREBP then migrates to the nucleus and acts as a [[transcription factor]] to bind to the [[SRE]] ([[Sterol regulatory element]]) of a number of genes to stimulate their [[transcription]]. Among the genes transcribed are the [[LDL receptor]] and [[HMG-CoA reductase pathway|HMG-CoA reductase]]. The former scavenges circulating LDL from the bloodstream, whereas HMG-CoA reductase leads to an increase of endogenous production of cholesterol. An excess of cholesterol can build up in the bloodstream and accumulates on the walls of arteries. This build up is what can lead to clogged ateries and eventually to heart attacks and strokes.
A large part of this mechanism was clarified by Dr [[Michael S. Brown]] and Dr [[Joseph L. Goldstein]] in the [[1970s]]. They received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for their work in [[1985]].
The average amount of blood cholesterol varies with age, typically rising gradually until one is about 60 years old. A study by Ockene ''[[et al.]]'' showed that there are seasonal variations in cholesterol levels in humans, more, on average, in winter.
=== Excretion ===
Cholesterol is excreted from the [[liver]] in [[bile]] and reabsorbed from the intestines. Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the [[gallbladder]], it crystallises and is the major constituent of most [[gallstone]]s, although [[lecithin]] and [[bilirubin]] gallstones also occur less frequently.
== Role in atheromatous disease ==
''See also the main article [[hypercholesterolemia]]''
In conditions with elevated concentrations of LDL particles, especially small LDL particles, cholesterol promotes [[atheroma]] plaque deposits in the walls of [[artery|arteries]], a condition known as ''[[atherosclerosis]]'', which is a major contributor to [[coronary heart disease]] and other forms of [[cardiovascular disease]]. (In contrast, HDL particles have been the only identified mechanism by which cholesterol can be removed from [[atheroma]]. Increased concentrations of large HDL particles, not total HDL particles, correlate with lower rates of atheroma progressions, even regression.)
There is a world-wide trend to believe that lower total cholesterol levels tend to correlate with lower atherosclerosis event rates. Due to this reason, cholesterol has become a very large focus for scientific researchers trying to determine the proper amount of cholesterol needed in a healthy diet.However, the primary association of atherosclerosis with cholesterol has always been specifically with cholesterol transport patterns, not total cholesterol per se. For example, total cholesterol can be low, yet made up primarily of small LDL and small HDL particles and atheroma growth rates are high. In contrast, however, if LDL particle number is low (mostly large particles) and a large percentage of the HDL particles are large (HDL is actively reverse transporting cholesterol), then atheroma growth rates are usually low, even negative, for any given total cholesterol concentration.
Multiple human trials utilizing HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors or ''statins'', have repeatedly confirmed that changing lipoprotein transport patterns from unhealthy to healthier patterns significantly lower cardiovascular disease event rates, even for people with cholesterol values currently considered low for adults; However, ''no'' statistically significant mortality benefit has been derived to date by lowering cholesterol using medications in ''asymptomatic'' people, i.e., no heart disease, no history of heart attack, etc.
Some of the better recent randomized human outcome trials studying patients with coronary artery disease or its risk equivalents include the [[Heart Protection Study]] (HPS), the PROVE IT trial, and the TNT trial. In addition, there are trials that have looked at the effect of lowering LDL as well as raising HDL and atheroma burden using intravascular ultrasound. Small trials have shown prevention of progression of coronary artery disease and possibly a slight reduction in atheroma burden with successful treatment of an abnormal lipid profile.
The [http://www.americanheart.org/cholesterol/about.jsp American Heart Association] provides a set of guidelines for total (fasting) blood cholesterol levels and risk for heart disease:
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1 style="border-collapse:collapse"
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Level''' [[Milligram|mg]]/[[Decilitre|dL]]
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Level''' [[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]]
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Interpretation'''
|-
| <200
| <5.2
| Desirable level corresponding to lower risk for heart disease
|-
| 200-239
| 5.2-6.2
| Borderline high risk
|-
| >240
| >6.2
| High risk
|}
However, as today's testing methods determine LDL ("bad") and HDL ("good") cholesterol separately, this simplistic view has become somewhat outdated. The desirable LDL level is considered to be less than 100 mg/dL (2.6 [[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]]), although a newer target of <70 mg/dL can be considered in higher risk individuals based on some of the above-mentioned trials. A ratio of total cholesterol to HDL &mdash;another useful measure&mdash; of far less than 5:1 is thought to be healthier. Of note, typical LDL values for children before [[fatty streaks]] begin to develop is 35 mg/dL.
Patients should be aware that most testing methods for LDL do not actually measure LDL in their blood, much less particle size. For cost reasons, LDL values have long been estimated using the formula: Total-cholesterol &minus; total-HDL &minus; 20% of the [[triglyceride]] value = estimated LDL.
Increasing clinical evidence has strongly supported the greater predictive value of more-sophisticated testing that directly measures both LDL and HDL particle concentrations and size, as opposed to the more usual estimates/measures of the total cholesterol carried within LDL particles or the total HDL concentration. There are three commercial labs in the United States that offer more-sophisticated analysis using different methodologies. As outlined above, the real key is cholesterol transport, which is determined by both the proteins that form the [[lipoprotein]] particles and the proteins on cell surfaces with which they interact.
== Hypocholesterolemia ==
Although relatively rare, an excessively low cholesterol level ([[hypocholesterolemia]]) (readings below 160 mg/dL) can increase the risk of depression, cancer, hemorrhagic stroke, respiratory diseases.
Possible causes of low cholesterol are:
*[[hyperthyroidism]], or an overactive thyroid gland
*[[liver disease ]]
*[[malabsorption ]]
*inadequate absorption of nutrients from the [[intestines]]
*[[malnutrition]]
Manganese deficiency has also been linked to low cholesterol levels.
== Cholesteric liquid crystals ==
Some cholesterol derivatives, (among others simple cholesteric lipids) are known to generate [[liquid crystal|liquid crystalline]] phase called ''cholesteric''. The cholesteric phase is in fact a [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] [[nematic phase]], and changes colour when its temperature changes. Therefore, cholesterol derivatives are commonly used as temperature-sensitive [[dye|dyes]], in liquid crystal [[thermometer]]s, and in temperature-sensitive paints.
==See also==
* [[triglyceride]]s
== Sources ==
* Anderson RG. Joe Goldstein and Mike Brown: from cholesterol homeostasis to new paradigms in membrane biology. Trends Cell Biol 2003:13:534-9. PMID 14507481.
* Haines, TH. Do sterols reduce proton and sodium leaks through lipid bilayers? Prog. Lipid Res. 2001:40:299–324.
* Ockene IS, Chiriboga DE, Stanek EJ 3rd, Harmatz MG, Nicolosi R, Saperia G, Well AD, Freedson P, Merriam PA, Reed G, Ma Y, Matthews CE, Hebert JR. ''Seasonal variation in serum cholesterol levels: treatment implications and possible mechanisms.'' Arch Intern Med 2004;164:863-70. PMID 15111372.
== External links ==
* [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/ Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults ] US National Institutes of Health Adult Treatment Panel III
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4700E/V4700E08.htm Aspects of fat digestion and metabolism - UN/WHO Report 1994]
* [http://www.americanheart.org/cholesterol/about.jsp American Heart Association]
[[Category:Steroids]][[Category:Nutrition]]
[[bg:Холестерол]]
[[de:Cholesterin]]
[[es:Colesterol]]
[[fr:Cholestérol]]
[[it:Colesterolo]]
[[he:כולסטרול]]
[[lt:Cholesterolis]]
[[nl:Cholesterol]]
[[ja:コレステロール]]
[[pl:Cholesterol]]
[[pt:Colesterol]]
[[ru:Холестерин]]
[[simple:Cholesterol]]
[[sk:Cholesterol]]
[[sr:Холестерол]]
[[fi:Kolesteroli]]
[[sv:Kolesterol]]
[[th:คอเลสเตอรอล]]
[[vi:Cholesterol]]
[[tr:Kolesterol]]
[[uk:Холестерин]]
[[zh:膽固醇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chromosome</title>
<id>6438</id>
<revision>
<id>41998509</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:12 |
f [[2005]]: [[1972]] under chancellor [[Willy Brandt]], [[1982]] under chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] and 2005 under chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]]. All candidates must be at least eighteen years old; there are no term limits. The election uses the [[Mixed member proportional representation|MMP electoral system]], a hybrid of the [[first-past-the-post election system]] and [[party-list proportional representation]]. In addition, the ''Bundestag'' has a minimum threshold of either 5% of the national party vote or three (directly elected) constituency representatives for a [[political party|party]] to gain additional representation through the system of proportional representation; thus, small (and often extremist) minority parties cannot so easily prevent the formation of stable majority governments as they could under the Weimar constitution. The additional member system results in a varying number of seats; since the 2002 elections, there have been 603 seats. The distribution of the seats is calculated by the [[Largest remainder method]]. The additional seats are distributed to ensure that the combined total of direct and additional seats is proportional to the vote; this is calculated separately for each [[States of Germany|state]] . Sometimes parties win more seats directly than what their proportional share would entitle them to - these are known as [[overhang seat]]s. Unlike the situation in some German state parliaments, overhang seats are not compensated in the Bundestag
==Election result==
{{German_federal_election,_2005}}
==Seats by party (16th Bundestag, since general election on September 18th, 2005)==
[[Image:German federal election, 2005 - Final.png|frame|left|Distribution of seats in the 16th Bundestag.]]
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td style="background-color: black; color: black">+</td>
<td>[[Christian Democratic Union|CDU]] and [[Christian Social Union|CSU]]:</td>
<td align="right">226</td>
<td align="right">(36.8%)</td>
<td>including 7 [[overhang seat]]s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background-color: red; color: red">+</td>
<td>[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]:</td>
<td align="right">222</td>
<td align="right">(36.2%)</td>
<td>including 9 overhang seats</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background-color: yellow; color: yellow">+</td>
<td>[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]]:</td>
<td align="right">61</td>
<td align="right">(9.9%)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background-color: #DD0066; color: #DD0066">+</td>
<td>[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]:</td>
<td align="right">54</td>
<td align="right">(8.8%)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background-color: green; color: green">+</td>
<td>[[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance '90/Greens]]:</td>
<td align="right">51</td>
<td align="right">(8.3%)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</table>
For a list of current members, see the [[List of Bundestag Members]].
==List of Bundestage by Session==
===Historic seat distribution in the German Bundestag===
{||border=0 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1"
| style="background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="10" align="center" | '''Historic seat distribution in the German Bundestag (at the beginning of each session)'''
|- style="background:#FFDEAD;"
! width="32" | '''&nbsp;'''
! width="100" | '''Session'''
! width="32" | '''Seats'''
! width="100" | '''[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]]'''
! width="100" | '''[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]'''
! width="100" | '''[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]]'''
! width="100" | '''[[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance '90 /<br>The Greens]]'''<sup>1</sup>
! width="100" | '''[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]'''<sup>2</sup>
! width="100" | '''[[German Party]]'''
! '''Others'''
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''1st'''
| align="center" |'''1949 – 1953'''
| align="center" |402
| align="center" |139
| align="center" |131
| align="center" |52
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |17
| align="center" |[[Bavarian Party]] 17, [[Communist Party of Germany]] 15, [[Economic Development Coalition]] (WAV) 12, [[Centre Party (Germany)|German Centre Party]] 10, [[DKP-DRP]] 5, [[South Schleswig Voter Federation]] 1, Independent 3
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''2nd'''
| align="center" |'''1953 – 1957'''
| align="center" |487
| align="center" |243
| align="center" |151
| align="center" |48
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |15
| align="center" |[[All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights]] (GB-BHE) 27, [[Centre Party (Germany)|German Centre Party]] 3
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''3rd'''
| align="center" |'''1957 – 1961'''
| align="center" |497
| align="center" |270
| align="center" |169
| align="center" |41
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |17
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''4th'''
| align="center" |'''1961 – 1965'''
| align="center" |499
| align="center" |242
| align="center" |190
| align="center" |67
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''5th'''
| align="center" |'''1965 – 1969'''
| align="center" |496
| align="center" |245
| align="center" |202
| align="center" |49
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''6th'''
| align="center" |'''1969 – 1972'''
| align="center" |496
| align="center" |242
| align="center" |224
| align="center" |30
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''7th'''
| align="center" |'''1972 – 1976'''
| align="center" |496
| align="center" |225
| align="center" |230
| align="center" |41
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''8th'''
| align="center" |'''1976 – 1980'''
| align="center" |496
| align="center" |243
| align="center" |214
| align="center" |39
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''9th'''
| align="center" |'''1980 – 1983'''
| align="center" |497
| align="center" |226
| align="center" |218
| align="center" |53
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''10th'''
| align="center" |'''1983 – 1987'''
| align="center" |498
| align="center" |244
| align="center" |193
| align="center" |34
| align="center" |27
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''11th'''
| align="center" |'''1987 – 1990'''
| align="center" |497
| align="center" |223
| align="center" |186
| align="center" |46
| align="center" |42
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''12th'''
| align="center" |'''1990 – 1994'''
| align="center" |662
| align="center" |319
| align="center" |239
| align="center" |79
| align="center" |8
| align="center" |17
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''13th'''
| align="center" |'''1994 – 1998'''
| align="center" |672
| align="center" |294
| align="center" |252
| align="center" |47
| align="center" |49
| align="cent |
pen2.net/science/mscstudents/kroto/kroto_ind.htm Professor Harry Kroto]
*[http://www.vega.org.uk/ Vega Science Trust]
*[http://www.kroto.info/ Harry Kroto personal website]
*[http://www.fsu.edu/profiles/kroto/ Florida State University page]
[[Category:1939 births|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Atheists|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:British academics|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Humanists|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Living people|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Kroto, Harold]]
[[de:Harold Kroto]]
[[pt:Harold Walter Kroto]]
[[sv:Harold Kroto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heimskringla</title>
<id>14468</id>
<revision>
<id>27775022</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-09T01:09:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fix redlink. Using the name of the article on him.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heimskringla''' is the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] name of a collection of [[sagas]] recorded in Iceland around [[1225]] by the poet and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]] (1179-1242). The collection contains tales about the [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norwegian kings]], beginning with the legendary Swedish dynasty of the [[House of Yngling]]s, followed by accounts of more historical Norwegian rulers of the [[10th century|10th]] to [[12th century|12th]] centuries, up to the death of [[Eystein Meyla]] in [[1177]].
The Heimskringla traces [[Odin]] and his followers from the East, from [[Asaland]] and [[Asgard]], its chief city, to their settlement in [[Scandinavia]]. It narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdoms of [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]], the [[Viking]] expeditions and the conquests of [[England]]. The stories are told with a life and freshness, giving a picture of human life in all its reality. Some of the [[Sagas]] of the "Heimskringla" are romances, full of adventures, while at the same time they lie completely within the range of history and may be regarded as authentic. The Saga of [[Olav II of Norway|Olaf Haraldson]] is the main part. His 15 year long reign takes up about one third of the entire work. That of [[Harold Hardrada]] narrates his expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in [[Constantinople]], [[Syria]], and [[Sicily]], his scaldic accomplishments, and his battles in [[England]] against [[Harold]], the son of [[Earl Godwin]], where he fell at [[Battle of Stamford Bridge|Stamford Bridge]] in [[1066]] only a few days before Harold himself fell at the [[battle of Hastings]]. This Saga is a splendid epic in prose, and is also of particular relevance to the history of [[England]]. The first part of the Heimskringla is rooted in [[Norse mythology]]; as it advances, fable and fact all curiously intermingle, and it terminates in factual history. The Heimskringla was translated into English by [[Samuel Laing]] in [[1844]].
The Heimskringla contains the following sagas (see also [[List of Norwegian monarchs]]):
# [[Ynglinga saga]]
# Saga of [[Halfdan the Black|Halfdan]] Svarte (the Black)
# Saga of [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Hårfagre]] (died ca. [[931]])
# Saga of [[Haakon I of Norway|Hakon the Good]] (died [[961]])
# Saga of King [[Harald II of Norway|Harald Grafeld]] (died [[969]])
# Saga of King [[Olaf Tryggvason]] (died [[1000]])
# Saga of [[Olav II of Norway|Olaf Haraldson]] (died [[1030]]), excerpt from [[conversion of Dale-Gudbrand]]
# Saga of [[Magnus the Good]] (died [[1047]])
# Saga of [[Harald III of Norway|Harald Hardrade]] (died [[1066]])
# Saga of [[Olaf III of Norway|Olaf Kyrre]] (died [[1093]])
# Saga of [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus Barefoot]] (died [[1103]])
# Saga of [[Sigurd Jorsalfar|Sigurd the Crusader]] (died [[1130]]) and his brothers
# Saga of [[Magnus IV of Norway|Magnus the Blind]] (dethroned [[1135]]) and of [[Harald IV of Norway|Harald Gille]] (died [[1136]])
# Saga of [[Sigurd Haraldson|Sigurd]] (died [[1155]]), [[Eystein Haraldson|Eystein]] (died [[1157]]) and [[Inge Haraldson|Inge]] (died [[1161]]), the sons of Harald
# Saga of [[Hakon II of Norway|Hakon Herdebreid]] (died [[1162]])
# Saga of [[Magnus V of Norway|Magnus Erlingson]] (died [[1184]])
==External links==
*[http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/index.php Heimskringla] in Old Norse from «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» Norway.
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Heimskringla Heimkringla in Modern Icelandic on Wikisource]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Heimskringla Heimkringla in English on Wikisource]
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ Berkeley page on Snorri Sturluson's text]
----
'''Heimskringla''' is also the name of a weekly [[newspaper]] published in [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]]. It contains articles written in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] of interest to Icelandic Canadians.
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Sagas of Iceland]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[de:Heimskringla]]
[[fr:Heimskringla]]
[[ko:헤임스크링라]]
[[lv:Heimskringla]]
[[no:Heimskringla]]
[[nn:Heimskringla]]
[[sv:Heimskringla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HAM</title>
<id>14469</id>
<revision>
<id>18391127</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-08T11:31:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved to disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ham (disambiguation)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hamar</title>
<id>14470</id>
<revision>
<id>41281670</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:52:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Williamborg</username>
<id>222080</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Ethiopian tribe of this name, see [[Hammer (tribe)]]''.
{{Infobox_Kommune|
name=Hamar|
idnumber=0403|
county=[[Hedmark]]|
landscape=[[Hedemarken]]|
capital=Hamar|
governor=Einar Busterud (''By- og bygdelista'' - The City and Rural areas Party)|
governor_as_of=2004|
arearank=257|
area=351|
arealand=338|
areapercent=0.11|
population_as_of=2004|
populationrank=30|
population=27,245|
populationpercent=0.60|
populationdensity=81|
populationincrease=4.3|
language=[[Norwegian language|Neutral]]|
lat_deg=60| lat_min=49| lat_sec=33| lon_deg=11| lon_min=9| lon_sec=35|
utm_zone=32V| utm_northing=6745332 |utm_easting=0617436| geo_cat=adm2nd|
coatofarms=[[Image:Hamar_komm.png|70px]]|
map=[[Image:Hamar_kart.png]]|
munwebpage=www.hamar.kommune.no|
}}
'''Hamar''' is a town and [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]] in the [[counties of Norway|county]] of [[Hedmark]], [[Norway]].
Hamar is located on the shores of [[Mjøsa]], Norway's largest lake, and is the principal city of the [[Hedmark]] county. It is bordered to the northwest by [[Ringsaker]], to the north by [[Åmot]], to the east by [[Løten]], and on the south by [[Stange]].
==History==
Between [[500]]AD and [[1000 AD|1000]]AD, the farm Aker was probably one of the most important power centres in Norway, located just a few kilometres outside today's Hamar. After the christening of Norway in 1030, Hamar began to gain influence as a centre for trade and religion, until the episcopal representative [[Pope Adrian IV|Nikolaus Breakspear]] in [[1152]] founded Hamar Kaupangen as one of five dioceses in medieval Norway. It remained an important religious and political centre in Norway, organized around the cathedral and the bishop's manor until the [[Reformation|reformation]] in [[1536]], when it lost its status as a bishopric. The cathedral and manor were destroyed in the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] with [[Sweden]] in [[1567]], and in [[1568]] the [[Market town|market]] was disbanded, under pressure from citizens of [[Oslo]]. Since then, Hamar gradually lost its importance as a trading centre. The site of the medieval town fell into disrepair and was taken over by a farm.
==The modern city==
The modern city of Hamar was founded a kilometer or so south of the medieval city in [[1849]] by [[King Oscar]] as a trading center.
[[Image:hamar-walkingstreet.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Hamar's pedestrian street]]
[[Image:Domkirkeruinene-Hamar.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Domkirkeruinene (cathedral ruins)]]
The [[Hedmark museum]], located on [[Domkirkeodden]] is an important historical landmark in Hamar, an out-door museum with remains of the medieval church, in a protective glass housing, the episcopal fortress, and a collection of old farm houses. The museum is a combined medieval, ethnological and archaeological museum and has received architectural prizes for its approach to conservation and exhibition. It also houses a vast photographic archive for the Hedmark region.
[[Image:Vikingskipet-Hamar.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The Viking Ship]]
Hamar is also known for its indoor [[speed skating]] arena, the ''Olympia Hall'', better known as [[Vikingskipet Olympic Arena|Vikingskipet]] ("The [[Viking]] ship") for its shape. It was built to host the speed skating competitions of the [[1994 Winter Olympics]] that were held in nearby [[Lillehammer]].
The centre of Hamar is the pedestrian walkway in the middle of town, with the library, cinema and farmer's market on Stortorget (the big square) on the western side, and Østre Torg (the eastern square) on the eastern side.
Hamar is an important [[railway]] junction between two different lines to [[Trondheim]]. [[Rørosbanen]], the old railway line, branches off from the mainline [[Dovrebanen]]. The Norwegian national railway museum (''Norsk Jernbanemuseum'') is also situated in Hamar.
==External links==
{{commons|Hamar}}
* |
what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.
In the [[20th century]] [[supermarket]]s were born. Supermarkets brought with them a [[self service]] approach to shopping using [[shopping cart]]s (or Trollies in [[Commonwealth English]]) and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through [[economies of scale]] and reduced staffing costs. This was sometimes known as '[[pile it high]]' In the latter part of the [[20th century]], this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast [[warehouse]] sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world.
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large [[Corporation|companies]] control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, in [[2000]] only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers.
Recent technological innovations such as [[point of sale]] technology - [[barcode]]s. This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales.
===Food sufficiency===
Food deprivation leads to [[malnutrition]] and ultimately [[starvation]]. This is often connected with [[famine]], which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. In [[2003]] it was estimated that each [[year]], 40 million people die of [[hunger]] worldwide. [[Rationing]] is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.
Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] and is measured using [[famine scales]].
====Food aid====
[[Food aid]] can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. Conversely, badly managed food aid can like problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices and discouraging food production. Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the [[politics]] of the destination country. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the [[World Food Programme]].
:''See also: [[Fair trade]], [[food security]]''.
===Food safety===
[[Foodborne illness]], commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[toxin]]s, [[virus]]es and [[prion]]s. [[Food poisoning]] has been recognised as a disease of man since as early as [[Hippocrates]]. Murder by food poisoning was used during the [[Roman Empire]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] all [[Noble court|Royal Court]]s had food tasters.
The sale of [[Rancidity|rancid]], contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of [[hygiene]], [[:w:refrigerate|refrigeration]], and [[vermin]] controls in the [[19th century]]. Discovery of techniques for killing [[bacterium|bacteria]] using [[heat]] and other [[microbiology|microbiological]] studies by scientists such as [[Louis Pasteur]] contributed to the modern sanitation standards that we enjoy today. This was further underpinned by the work of [[Justus von Liebig]] whose work led to the development of modern [[food storage]] and [[food preservation]] methods.
The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control.
Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. For example, pests (or their feces), hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, metal shards, plasters etc. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as [[HACCP]] which can, if properly implemented, identify and eliminate many, but not all, possible risks. HACCP is well suited to identifying and controlling these potential food safety risks.
====Food allergies====
Some people have [[food allergy| food allergies]] or sensitivities to foods which are otherwise wholesome to the majority of people.
The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a susceptible individual can be [[minute]]. For instance, tiny amounts of food in the air, too minute to be smelled, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in sufficiently sensitive individuals. In theory, any food may provoke a reaction, however, this most commonly involves [[gluten]], corn, shellfish (mollusks), [[peanut]]s, and [[soy]].
Most patients present with [[diarrhea]] after ingesting certain [[food]]stuffs, skin symptoms ([[rash]]es), bloating, [[vomit]]ing and [[regurgitation]]. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the [[allergen]].
Rarely, food allergy can lead to [[anaphylactic shock]]: [[hypotension]] (low blood pressure) and loss of consciousness. This is a [[medical emergency]]. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is [[peanut]], although [[latex]] products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an [[Epi-pen]].
Food allergy is thought to develop easier in patients with the [[atopic syndrome]], a very common combination of diseases: [[allergic rhinitis]] and [[allergic conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]], [[eczema]] and [[asthma]]. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of these diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.
===Dietary habits===
[[Diet (nutrition)|Dietary habits]] play a significant role in the [[health]] and [[mortality]] of all humans. For example:
*[[Eating disorder]]s are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. They often affect people with a negative [[body image]];
*13[[%]] of the world's population suffer from [[Iodine]] deficiency;
*In 2003 it was estimated that [[vitamin A]] deficiency causes [[blindness]] in up to 500,000 children each year;
*[[Vitamin C]] deficiency results in [[scurvy]];
*[[Calcium]], [[Vitamin D]] and [[Phosphorus]] are inter-related. The consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
*[[Kwashiorkor]] and [[marasmus]] are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary [[protein]].
*[[Obesity]], a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing [[heart disease]], [[diabetes]], and many other diseases.
Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet. Traditionally humans have learned to avoid foods that induce [[acute]] illness. Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements. Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see [[vegetarianism]], [[veganism]], [[fruitarianism]], [[living foods diet]], and [[Raw foodist|raw foodism]].
The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more [[animal fat]], [[sugar]], [[energy]], [[ethanol|alcohol]] and less [[dietary fiber]], [[carbohydrate]]s and [[antioxidant]]s. Contemporary changes to [[career|work]], [[family]] and [[exercise]] patterns, together with concerns about the effect of [[nutrition]] and overeating on human [[health]] and mortality are all having an effect on traditional eating habits. [[Physician]]s and [[alternative medicine]] practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for treatment.
More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about the [[chronic]] impact on health that arise through the consumption of [[genetically modified food]]. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming on [[animal welfare]], human health and the [[Ecology|environment]] are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a [[counterculture]] with a preference for [[organic food|organic]] and [[local food]].
:''See also: [[Food faddism]], [[Health claims on food labels]], [[list of diets]], [[Slow Food]].''
===[[Nutrition|Nutrients]] in food===
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means [[fat]], [[protein]], and [[carbohydrate]]s. Micronutrients are the [[dietary mineral|minerals]] and [[vitamins]]. Additionally food contains [[water]] and [[dietary fiber]]. See the appropriate section for further details.
==See also==
* [[Food politics]]
[[Category:Food and drink| ]]
[[de:Mahlzeit]]
[[es:Comida]]
[[fr:Repas]]
[[gl:Comida]]
[[he:מזון]]
[[ja:食事]]
[[mk:Храна]]
[[pt:Comida]]
[[sl:Hrana]]
[[fi:Ruoka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fish</title>
<id>10648</id>
<revision>
<id>42081124</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:20:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aaron Walden</username>
<id>288712</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+Cherokee link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:herring2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Atlantic herring]], ''Clupea harengus'': the most abundant species of fish in the world.]]
A '''fish''' is a [[poikilothermic]] (cold-blooded) water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] with [[gill]]s. There are over 25,000 [[species]] of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a [[paraphyletic]] group whose exact relationships are much debated; a common division is into the [[jawless fish]] (class [[Agnatha]], 75 species including [[lamprey]]s and [[hagfish]]), t |
might be jeopardized, increased the number of ''advisers'' in Afghanistan.
Amin worked to broaden his base of support and purged the PDPA of his perceived enemies. His regime was still under pressure from the insurgency in the country and he tried to gain [[Pakistan]]i or American support and refused to take Soviet advice.
Because of or in spite of this, Amin attempted to solidify his hold on the country militarily. This display of independent nationalism was not tolerated by [[Moscow]], and on [[December]] [[1979]], the Soviets began their invasion of Afghanistan.
==Soviet invasion==
[[Image:Evstafiev-40th army HQ-Amin-palace-Kabul.jpg|thumb|right|The HQ of the Soviet 40th Army in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1987. Before the invasion it was the Presidential Palace where Amin was killed. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Islamic]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]]s in the mountainous countryside harassed the Afghan army to the point where the government of President [[Hafizullah Amin]] turned to the Soviet Union for increasingly large amounts of aid.
The [[Soviet Union]] decided to increase its military aid to Afghanistan in order to maintain the [[Communist]] government, but was dissatisfied with Amin as the [[Afghan]] leader capable of accomplishing this goal. Soviet leaders, based on the information from [[KGB]], thought that Amin destabilized the situation in Afghanistan.
The last arguments to overthrow Amin were obtained by the [[KGB]] from its agents in Kabul, that two of Amin's guards killed the former president [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] and that Amin was supposedly a [[CIA]] agent. There were, however, some sceptics among the Soviet military advisors of Afghan army, principaly '''General Vasily Zaplatin''', a political advisor at that time, who claimed that four of the young Taraki's ministers were responsible for the destabilization.
Amin feared the [[Soviet]] troops would be used to depose him. Fearing for his survival and uncertain of whom he could trust, he started putting his relatives into positions of power. Amin put one of his nephews in charge of the secret police, but that nephew was assassinated. Amin moved his headquarters out of [[Kabul]] in concern for his own safety.
===Assassination===
On [[December 22]], the Soviet advisors to the Afghani Armed Forces advised them to undergo maintenance cycles for tanks and other crucial equipment. Meanwhile, Telecommunications links to areas outside of Kabul were severed, isolating the capital. Viewing this, Amin moved the offices of the president to the [[Tajbeg Palace]], believing this location to be more defensible during invasion.
Five days later, on [[December 27]], elements of the [[KGB]] [[Spetsnaz]] ([[Alpha Group]]), in Afghan uniforms stormed the Presidential Palace in [[Kabul]], taking relatively few casualties, killing President [[Hafizullah Amin]] and his 200 [[elite]] guards in the process.
The Soviet [[Spetsnaz]] blew up Kabul's communications hub, paralyzing the Afghani military command, at 7:00 P.M. By 7:15, they had seized the '''Ministry of Interior'''. The Soviet military command at [[Termez]] did not wait until Amin's capture to announce on Radio Kabul (in a broadcast prerecorded by [[Babrak Karmal]]) that Afghanistan had been liberated from Amin's rule.
According to the [[Soviet]] [[Politburo]], they were only complying with the 1978 '''Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness''' that former President Taraki signed. The execution of '''Hafizullah Amin''' was, according to the Soviets, the action of the '''Afghan Revolutionary Central Committee'''. That committee then elected as head of government [[Babrak Karmal]], who was in exile in [[Moscow]].
===Accusations of being a CIA agent===
The Soviet government and press repeatedly referred to Amin as a "[[CIA]] agent", a charge which was greeted with great skepticism in the [[United States]] and elsewhere. One strong argument against that belief, was that he always and everywhere showed official friendliness to the Soviet Union. And even after the assassination of Amin and two his sons, his wife claimed that she and her remaining sons only wanted to go to the Soviet Union, because her husband was loyal to them until the end.
She did eventually go to the [[Soviet Union]] to live. However Zaplatin failed to emphasize this enough [http://zavtra.ru/cgi/veil/data/zavtra/99/316/61.html]. However, enough circumstantial evidence supporting the charge exists so that it perhaps should not be dismissed entirely out of hand.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]]|
title=[[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister of Afghanistan]] |
years=March [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]] |
after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before= None - Position Created |
title= Head of the AGSA |
years=April [[1978]] &ndash; September [[1979]] |
after= Asadullah Amin
('''as Head of the KAM''') |
}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Mohammad Aslam Watanjar]] |
title= [[Afghan Defense Ministry|Minister of Defense]]|
years= July 1979 &ndash; December 1979 |
after= [[Mohammed Rafie]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]] |
title=[[President of Afghanistan|President of Afghanistan]] |
years=September [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]] |
after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]] |
title=General Secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] |
years=September [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]] |
after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]] |
title=Chairman of the Revolutionary Council |
years=September [[1979]] &ndash; December [[1979]] |
after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
* [http://www.alternativeinsight.com/Afghan_War.html Soviet Documentation gathered before the Soviet Invasion]
==Further reading==
* ''Red Flag Over Afghanistan: The Communist Coup, the Soviet Invasion, and the Consequences'' - Thomas T. Hammond - ISBN 0-86531-444-6
[[Category:1929 births|Amin, Hafizullah]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Amin, Hafizullah]]
[[Category:Afghan people|Amin, Hafizullah]]
[[Category:Murdered politicians|Amin, Haifullah]]
[[ps:حفيظ الله امين]]
[[de:Hafizullah Amin]]
[[et:Ḩāfiz̧ullāh Amīn]]
[[ja:ハーフィズッラー・アミーン]]
[[nl:Hafizullah Amin]]
[[no:Hafizullah Amin]]
[[zh:哈菲佐拉·阿明]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hypothesis</title>
<id>14281</id>
<revision>
<id>42042731</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:56:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>60.234.226.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>expand, ed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hypothesis''' (from ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] ''hypotithenai'' meaning "to put under" or "to suppose") offers a proposed explanation for a [[phenomenon]]. A '''scientific hypothesis''' must be [[testable]] and based on previous [[observation]]s or extensions of [[Theory|scientific theories]].
==Usage==
In early usage, scholars often referred to a a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a ''hypothesis''; it did not necessarily have any real meaning. [[Robert Bellarmine|Cardinal Bellarmine]] gave a famous example of the older sense of the word in the warning issued to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the [[Earth]] as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.
In common usage at present, a ''hypothesis'' refers to a provisional idea whose merit needs evaluation. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed theory may become part of a [[theory]] or grow to become a theory itself.
Reference to the [[Riemann hypothesis]] misuses the term ''hypothesis'': one would more properly refer to Riemann's formulations as a [[conjecture]].
== Types of hypotheses ==
=== Propositions ===
Propositions follow a [[causal]] order ("A causes B").
=== Empirical generalizations ===
[[Empirical]] generalizations base themselves on observed regularities, but they don't stipulate the [[cause and effect]] themselves, only stating that 'A is related to B'. Proven empirical hypotheses consider [[law of nature | law]]s.
==Evaluating hypotheses==
The [[hypothetico-deductive method]] demands [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by [[observation]]). (Note that, if confirmed, the hypothesis is not necessarily proven, but remains provisional.)
As an example: someone who enters a new country and observes only white sheep might form the hypothesis that all sheep in that country are white. It can be considered a hypothesis, as it is falsifiable. Anyone could falsify the hypothesis by observing a single black sheep. Provided that the experimental uncertainties are small (for example, provided that one can fairly reliably distinguish the observed black sheep from (say) a goat), and provided that the experimenter has correctly interpreted the statement of the hypothesis (for example, does the meaning of "sheep" include rams?), finding a black sheep falsifies the "white sheep only" hypothesis.
According to Schick and Vaughn (2002), researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:
* Testibility (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
* Simplicity (as in the application of "[[Occam's razor]]", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of [[entity | entities]])
* Scope - the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
* Fruitfulness - the prospect that a hypothesis may explai |
tour was documented in a film by [[D.A. Pennebaker]], notable for its portrayal of fan interaction. An album release of the concert, titled ''[[101 (album)|101]]'' (the show was the 101st and final stop on the tour) became a bestseller in 1989.
Later that year, after Martin Gore had made a brief detour to record his "Counterfeit EP", with six cover versions of some of his favourite songs, the band recorded the bluesy country-western-influenced "[[Personal Jesus]]", in Milan. Prior to its release, advertisements were placed in the personal columns of UK regional newspapers with the words "Your own personal Jesus." Later, the ads included a phone number which, if dialed, played the song. The ensuing controversy helped propel the single to number 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of their biggest sellers and their first gold single in the U.S.
[[Image:DepecheMode1993.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1993.]]
In February 1990, "[[Enjoy the Silence]]", one of Depeche Mode's most successful singles to date, reached #8 in the U.S. charts (#6 in the UK). It won 'Best Single' at the Brit Awards. To promote their new album ''[[Violator (album)|Violator]]'', they held an in-store autograph signing in Los Angeles, which attracted 17,000 fans. The album (Top Ten in the UK and U.S.) and the subsequent World Violation Tour were further successes. To date, the album has gone triple platinum in the U.S., selling over three million units. Notably, 40,000 tickets for the (New York) Giants Stadium show sold within 8 hours, and 48,000 tickets for the (Los Angeles) Dodger Stadium show sold within an hour of going on sale.
By 1991, Depeche Mode had emerged as one of the world's most successful acts, relying on a proto-[[techno]] sound to distinguish themselves. A one-off contribution to the Wim Wenders film, "Until the End of the World", entitled "Death's Door" and another solo album released by Alan Wilder under the Recoil moniker bridged the gap between albums.
The band changed pace in 1993 with ''[[Songs of Faith and Devotion]]'', a rock-oriented album that hardened the group's sound. The album moved away from keyboards and synthesizer influences, for the first time introducing live drums (by Wilder) and outside musicians into the music.
The album debuted at number 1 in both the U.S. and the UK; highlights included the country-blues/techno "[[I Feel You]]", the soulful "[[Walking in My Shoes]]", and the gospel-tinged "[[Condemnation (single)|Condemnation]]". The 14-month "Devotional" world tour followed. Strains became apparent when Fletcher declined to participate in the second "exotic" leg of the tour, due to "mental instability." During that period, [[Daryl Bamonte]], who worked with the band as personal assistant for many years, filled in for him.
[[Image:DepecheMode1997.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1997.]]
In June 1995 after the tour [[Alan Wilder]] left the band citing "unsatisfactory internal working conditions"; he continued to work on his personal project, [[Recoil (band)|Recoil]]. Contributing factors that have been suggested include the [[drug addiction]] issues of [[David Gahan|Dave Gahan]], [[Martin Gore]]'s admission of "battling his own [[demon]]s" at this time, and growing tensions between Wilder and [[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]]. Wilder had stated that he contributed a lion's share of work while receiving the least credit on past albums. His departure was quickly followed by news of Gahan overdosing at his home in L.A.; he later entered a [[drug rehabilitation]] program to battle a heroin addiction.
In 1996, with Gahan out of rehab, Depeche Mode held recording sessions with producer Tim Simenon; the next year, the album ''[[Ultra (album)|Ultra]]'' and its two preceding singles, "[[Barrel of a Gun]]" and "[[It's No Good]]", were released to critical acclaim. The album again debuted at #1, but the band declined to tour, perhaps on account of the results of the 'Devotional' tour. They did, however, perform a series of Ultra 'Parties' for the music press and selected attendees designed to highlight the key tracks on the album.
A second singles compilation ''[[The Singles (86-98)|The Singles 86>98]]'' followed in 1998, with the new track "[[Only When I Lose Myself]]". The band set off on a 4 month tour that cemented their place as a quasi-permanent attraction, with a large touring attendance regardless of album sales. ([[U2]], the [[Rolling Stones]], and [[Rod Stewart]] are some others in this category).
Also in 1998, a tribute album ''[[For the Masses]]'' was released. It featured songs from the [[Smashing Pumpkins]], [[The Cure]], [[The Deftones]], and even [[Rammstein]]. It is the most well known Depeche Mode tribute album, but most certainly not the only.
==Depeche Mode today==
[[Image:DepecheMode2001.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 2001.]] While Depeche Mode remains quite popular in the [[United States|U.S.]], Western Europe and Australia, its most loyal fan base and widest appeal seems to lie in Central Europe and Eastern Europe fed by the timely confluence of several key events in this part of the world in the early 90's: the then world-wide popularity of Depeche Mode and synthesized dance music in general (which has since waned in the U.S.), the collapse of communism, and the rise of the [[Internet]] with the instant access this brought to a region thirsting for western music and ideals. Today there are countless fan-created web sites, in nearly every language, propelling the band to perpetual fame.
In 2001, Depeche Mode released ''[[Exciter (album)|Exciter]]'', which did not place well in the charts outside of Continental Europe. Although it spawned several dance club hits such as [[Danny Tenaglia]]'s remixes of "[[I Feel Loved]]", many fans felt the album was uninspired and underproduced, although the record was noted as containing some of the strongest vocal stylings of [[Dave Gahan]] since joining the band. Web blogs from L.A. to [[Sydney]] questioned if this wasn't a manifestation that indeed Depeche Mode had in essence broken up with the departure of [[Alan Wilder]] in 1995. Shortly after the Exciter tour, Martin and Dave seemed to sense that this would be a good time to busy themselves with new solo efforts.
2003 saw the release of [[Dave Gahan]]'s solo album, ''[[Paper Monsters]]'', followed by a worldwide tour and a [[DVD]] taken from it, titled ''[[Live Monsters]]''; [[Martin Gore]] continued his solo career with the release of ''[[Counterfeit²]]'' (additional covers of some of Martin's most beloved and influential songs first canonised in his 1989 release ''[[Counterfeit (album)|Counterfeit]]''); and Andrew Fletcher launched his own label, ''[[Toast Hawaii]]'' (the most notable outcome of which has so far been the female synth-pop duo,''[[Client]]'').
In August, 2004, Mute released the [[DVD]] version of "Devotional," filmed during their world tour in 1993, and a new remix compilation album ''Remixes 81-04'' that covers some new & unreleased promo mixes of the singles from 1981 to 2004, highlighted with a re-release and new renditions of their timeworn classic ''[[Enjoy the Silence 04|Enjoy the Silence]]''. The single peaked at #7 in the [[UK]], but did poorly in the [[United States|U.S.]]. On [[October 18]], the Depeche Mode fansite Depechemode.tv ([http://www.depechemode.tv]) took top honours at the BT 2005 Digital Music Awards, further reflecting the enduring popularity of the band. It was also during this time that Martin, in an interview on [[BBC Radio]]'s Stuart Maconie show on [[September 5]]th, revealed that he was currently going through a divorce.
On [[October 17]], [[2005]], the band released their long awaited 11th studio album ''[[Playing the Angel]]'' to mixed, but mostly positive reviews. [[Image:dm2005.jpg|right|190px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 2005.]] Produced by [[Ben Hillier]], this top ten hit (peaking at #1 in several [[European]] countries) featured the hit single "[[Precious (single)|Precious]]", peaking at #4 in the [[UK]] charts. The album was backed by the band's first in-store signing since 1990, on the day of release in [[New York City]]. Worthy of note is that this was the first DM album to feature songs written by frontman [[David Gahan]]. Several months prior to its official release, a prototype of the video for "Precious" was leaked onto the internet, resulting in the arrest of a [[Poland|Polish]] citizen. Meanwhile, the official video was released on [[September 12]] on the Depeche Mode website, www.depechemode.com. To promote the album, the band launched a five-month worldwide tour in [[November]], taking them to fans in [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. Rumours of an additional leg in the Summer of 2006 have now been confirmed. It will include more European dates, North American dates (Depeche Mode will be the headliners for the 2006 Coachella Valley Music & Arts Festival) and possibly even [[South America]]. The second single from the album, "[[A Pain That I'm Used To]]", was released on [[December 12]], and the third single from the album will be "[[Suffer Well]]", the first Depeche Mode single ever to have been written by lead vocalist David Gahan. (To see information on "Touring the Angel" and other Depeche Mode tours, view ''[[Depeche Mode Tours]]'')
According to fan websites, all ten pre-''Playing the Angel'' Depeche Mode albums are set to be re-released with remastered audio and extra tracks in 2006. In addition, there will be a "Best Of" compilation at the end of the year, and a ''Playing the Angel'' live DVD.
To date, Depeche Mode has sold nearly 70.5 million albums worldwide (releasing a new studio albu |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.