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us biological phenomena which do not conform to this model, such as [[anabolism]].
== Other fields ==
The term has come to be used in other fields, as well.
An [[actuary]] may refer to "risk homeostasis", where (for example) people who have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because they unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less-safe driving habits. Previously certain manoeuvres involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback and behaviour patterns expand into the no-longer punitive area.
Sociologists and psychologists may refer to "stress homeostasis", the tendency of a population or an individual to stay at a certain level of stress, often generating artificial stresses if the "natural" level of stress is not enough.
===Examples===
*[[Thermoregulation]]
**The [[skeletal muscle]]s can [[shivering|shiver]] to produce heat if the body temperature is too low.
**[[Non-shivering thermogenesis]] involves the decomposition of [[fat]] to produce heat.
**[[Sweat]]ing cools the body with the use of [[evaporation]].
*[[Chemical regulation]]
**The [[pancreas]] produces [[insulin]] and [[glucagon]] to control blood-sugar concentration.
**The [[lung]]s take in [[oxygen]] and give off [[carbon dioxide]].
**The [[Renal physiology|kidney]]s remove [[urea]], and adjust the concentrations of [[water]] and a wide variety of [[ion]]s.
Most of these organs are controlled by [[hormone]]s secreted from the [[pituitary gland]], which in turn is directed by the [[hypothalamus]].
== Cultural Referencecs ==
Ecological homeostasis is a major plot element in the 1996 [[Pauly Shore]] film ''[[Bio-Dome]]''.
== See also ==
* [[Acclimatization]]
* [[Biological rhythm]]
* [[Metabolism]]
* [[Apoptosis]]
* [[Senescence|Aging]]
* [[Balance]]
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Self-organization]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
{{Cybernetics}}
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Systems theory]]
[[Category:Motivation]]
[[bg:Хомеостаза]]
[[da:Homøostase]]
[[de:Selbstregulation]]
[[et:Homöostaas]]
[[es:Homeostasis]]
[[fr:Homéostasie]]
[[hr:Homeostaza]]
[[he:הומאוסטזה]]
[[io:Regulademo]]
[[it:Omeostasi]]
[[lt:Savireguliacija]]
[[nl:Homeostase]]
[[ja:恒常性]]
[[pl:Homeostaza]]
[[pt:Homeostase]]
[[ru:Гомеостаз]]
[[sv:Homeostas]]
[[th:ภาวะธำรงดุล]]
[[vi:Cân bằng nội môi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hockey</title>
<id>13981</id>
<revision>
<id>42103676</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:23:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.59.162.161</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>revert edit by 204.14.14.177</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Field hockey.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Field hockey game at [[Melbourne University]].]]
[[Image:The Colts applying pressure at the Battalion net.JPG|right|250px|thumb|The [[Barrie Colts]] applying pressure at the [[Brampton Battalion]] net in an [[ice hockey]] game.]]
'''Hockey''' is any of a family of [[sport]]s in which two teams compete by trying to maneuver a ball or hard round disc, called a [[hockey puck|puck]], into the opponent's net or [[goal (sport)|goal]], past the goaltender or goalkeeper (often abbreviated ''goalie''), using a hockey stick.
The major forms of hockey are:
* [[Ice hockey]], played on ice with a small, 7- to 8-[[ounce]] rubber disc called a [[hockey puck|puck]]. Most widely played in the United States, Canada, and Northern Europe. Its most famous league is the [[National Hockey League]].
* [[Field hockey]], played with a ball on gravel-, grass-, sand- or water-based [[artificial turf]]s, most widely played in Western Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.
* [[Roller hockey]], played in an indoor rink with a ball or a plastic puck, with two of its variants [[Rink hockey]], played with [[Roller skates#Quad Skating|roller skates]] and [[Inline hockey]], played with [[inline skates]].
The dominant version of hockey in a particular region tends to be known simply as ''hockey'', other forms being more fully specified. For example, in North America, ''hockey'' refers to ice hockey, the most common form of the sport in the region, whereas in the UK the same word denotes field hockey.
Ice hockey is played almost exclusively in the northern hemisphere and predominantly in colder regions such as [[Canada]], [[Russia]], the [[United States|U.S.]], and [[Northern Europe]] (particularly in [[Scandinavia]]). Some assert that the game was started in the early 19th century, in [[Nova Scotia]], by Scottish immigrants to Canada, who played on Skinner's Pond with sticks and skates, using cow dung as the puck. Others argue that ice hockey started in Montréal, Québec, other parts of Canada, or Europe.
[[Field hockey]] is popular among women at U.S. high schools and colleges, men in East Asia, and both sexes in Western Europe and Australia. Field hockey sticks are smaller than ice hockey sticks. Modern ones have a hooked blade and are only curved right, whereas ice hockey sticks have a long blade that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can be curved both ways. Rink hockey sticks have a curled "L" shape, and are about the same size as those in field hockey.
In southern European countries (such as [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Italy]]) and certain South American countries, especially [[Brazil]] and [[Argentina]]), the dominant form of hockey is what was above described as rink hockey. In Italy it is spread in the Northern regions, above all in [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], [[Veneto]] and [[Lombardy]]
Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following:
* [[Mini Sticks]] is a form of hockey which is played in basements of houses. Players get down on their knees, using a miniature plastic stick, usually about 15 inches (38 cm) long and a small blue ball. They shoot into miniature goals as well. This is popular throughout North America, though it has not yet made the jump to Europe.
* [[Indoor field hockey]] is an indoor variation of field hockey.
* [[Bandy]] is played with a ball on a [[football (soccer)|football]]-sized ice arena, typically outdoors. It is in many ways field hockey played on ice.
* [[Floorball]] is played in sport halls.
* [[Roller Hockey|Roller hockey]] is a variant of ice hockey that is played on concrete, asphalt or (ideally) a roller rink using inline roller skates, and is often played by ice hockey players for training purposes when ice is not available. Roller hockey is also known as [[rink hockey]] and [[inline hockey|Inline hockey]].
* [[Shinny]] is an informal version of ice hockey.
* [[Air hockey]] and [[table hockey]] are played on tables indoors.
* [[Underwater hockey]] is played on the bottom of a swimming pool.
* [[Street hockey]] is a version of ice hockey played (most typically) on residential streets with or without inline skates, on bare pavement. Games are usually informal with no referee and no set teams. Because the game is played in the middle of the road, it is often interrupted by traffic, at which point someone will yell "car" and players stand to the side of the road to allow the vehicle to pass.
* [[Ringette]] is an ice hockey variant that was designed for female players; it uses a straight stick and a rubber ring in place of a puck.
* [[Broomball]] is played on an ice hockey rink, but with a ball instead of a puck and a "broom" (actually a stick with a small plastic implement on the end) in place of the ice hockey stick. Instead of using skates, special shoes are used that have very soft rubbery soles to maximize grip while running around.
* [[Spongee]] is a cross between ice hockey and broomball and is most popular in [[Manitoba, Canada]]. A stick and puck are used as in hockey (the puck is a softer version called a "sponge puck"), and the same soft-soled shoes used in broomball are worn. The rules are basically the same as ice hockey, but one variation has an extra player on the ice called a "rover".
* [[Shinty]] is a [[Scottish Highlands]] game
* [[Hurling]] is an [[Ireland|Irish]] game
* [[Gym Hockey]] is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium. It uses a plastic puck and plastic sticks.
* [[Sled Hockey]] is a form of ice hockey played by the disabled. The players sit on sleds, and push themselves up and down the ice with picks on the butt end of their shortened hockey sticks. The game is played with many of the same rules as regular ice hockey.
* [[Floor Hockey]] is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium using a plastic puck and plastic sticks.
* [[Foot Hockey]] is played using a bald tennis ball and using only the feet. It is popular at elementary schools in the winter. It was created by Dexter Neufeld of Canada.
[[Category:Hockey|*]]
[[ca:Hoquei]]
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[[ja:ホッケー]]
[[pl:Hokej]]
[[pt:Hóquei]]
[[ru:Хоккей]]
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[[ta:ஹாக்கி]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holocaust revisionism</title>
<id>13982</id>
<restrictions>move=sysop:edit=sysop</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>21746036</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-24T19:22:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SlimVirgin</username>
<id>129409</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved tag</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Holocaust denial]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawick</title>
<id>13983</id>
<revision>
<id>40458494</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:32:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.44.205.26</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ba game */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Scotland place|
|Place= Hawick
|Population = 14,801
|GridReference= NT505155
|Council=
|
gue that the threat of communism to Chile was very real. The worst case was probably that of General [[Suharto]] in [[Indonesia]] who, using the excuse of foiling a failed Communist coup d'etat attempt, seized executive power and killed about 500,000 people in his mass purges arresting more than 200,000 other people on merely being suspected of being involved with the coup. Most communists, alleged communists and so-called "enemies of the state" were sentenced to death (although some of the executions were delayed to 1990). The alleged or demonstrated complicity of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] with these regimes seriously discredited anticommunism and the pretense of the US to represent a "Free World" in the eyes of critics. Others, however, have argued that extreme measures were needed to prevent the spread of communism during the height of its expansion.
==Criticisms of Anti-Communism==
Proponents of communism in capitalist countries tend to challenge the accuracy of anti-communist claims. A common rebuttal of anti-communism is that communist countries had created a new, non-proletarian ruling class and thus were not in fact communist. This is a view first put forward by [[left communism|left communists]] in the twenties and [[Trotskyists]] in the 1930s, and today it is accepted by the majority of western communists. Indeed, most modern communists do acknowledge failings on the part of communist governments, saying that [[Marxism]] is clearly against these dictators' practices.
Anti-communists respond to these claims by saying that they believe communist states are totalitarian by nature, and that in Marxist theory too much power is given to the state. They point out that several communist governments have existed, but none have been considered democracies. Anti-communists also question if a classless communist society can truly be achieved.
Some anti-communists, particularly those with [[Libertarian]] leanings, extend their criticisms well beyond Soviet-style communism, associating it with any state-run activity beyond the most minimal. People who support a [[mixed economy]] where some services are supplied by government-run institutions, such as what takes place in [[Social democracy|social-democrat]] countries, resent the association with communism.
Some writers and historians object to anti-communists' comparisons of communism to fascism (under the blanket term "[[totalitarianism]]", which they believe to be incorrect). They cite historical evidence, such as the fact that the [[Soviet Union]] fought against [[Adolf Hitler]] during [[World War II]] and said that fascism was the enemy of communism (a view that was shared by Hitler himself, who was one of the most virulent anti-communists of the time), while many anti-communists in occupied Europe took the side of [[Nazi Germany]]. Others, however, placed anti-fascism or national independence above their dislike of communism.
Yet another objection to anti-communism which became more widely advanced in the [[1970s]] was that in pursuit of anti-communism, the [[United States]] was conducting a [[foreign policy]] in which it supported people and governments that sometimes egregiously violated [[human rights]], which it saw as lesser evils than communism. In order to justify these actions, U.S. Ambassador to the [[United Nations]] [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]] stated the [[Kirkpatrick doctrine]] which argued there was a difference between [[totalitarian]] regimes and [[authoritarian]] regimes.
Many staunchly anti-communist regimes have been dictatorial and guilty of egregious human rights abuses, oppression, and sometimes [[genocide]]. These may include Nazis, secular Middle Eastern dictatorships in [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], [[Egypt]], and the [[Sudan]], right-wing military juntas in [[Latin America]], the [[apartheid]] regime in [[South Africa]], anticommunists regimes in the Far East as [[Suharto]]'s [[Indonesia]]. Citing governments like these as evidence, communists claim that much Cold War policy was driven by simple anti-communism and a disregard for problems in nations ruled by anti-communist but undemocratic governments.
Various Western countries, the United States first and foremost, are also often accused of denial of political or labour rights, racism, oppression and violence, support for governments which presided over mass killings, torture and detention of political opponents, or engagement with regimes (usually on the basis of their shared anti-communism) which practised genocide or racial segregation. In [[Italy]], the use of the [[Strategy of tension]] in the 1970's has been widely criticized.
Nevertheless, anti-communists generally believe such claims to be of an "[[Slogan:And you are lynching negroes|and you are lynching negroes]]" variety. They argue that while capitalist governments may have some faults, Communist ones are worse. Many also state that they disapprove of some actions undertaken by anti-Communist leaders, the defeat of communism and Soviet influence during the Cold War was a top priority. Some also believe that it is easier for countries previously ruled by an authoritarian, anti-Communist government to transition into a democracy, while it is more difficult for a totalitarian Communist nation to do so.
The communists take the other side in claiming which government is more flawed, stating that while communist governments may have had some faults, capitalist ones are worse. They also claim that in some former Communist countries, conditions were better before its collapse. An example used in this argument is Russia, which has faced a bumpy transition to capitalism and has a 25% poverty rate.
Ironically, many anti-communists were too focused on the perceived challenges of communism to notice its internal problems, and few anti-communists were able to predict the fall of the Soviet Union even as late as the mid-1980s.
==Notable Anti-Communists==
This section lists a number of significant intellectual, political, and military opponents of communism. Note that there is a certain overlap between the listed categories. For example, many prominent political [[dissidents]] in the former communist countries, like [[Vaclav Havel]], are also renowned for challenging the theory and practice of communist regimes in their writings.
The persons listed are not classified by their own ideological positions from which they opposed communism, and clashes between their views were often no less severe than their opposition to communism. For example, [[neo-liberal]] thinkers like [[Friedrich Hayek]] harshly criticized [[socialism|socialists]] like [[George Orwell]], and vice versa, despite their common opposition to communism. Most anti-communists in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] were also staunch opponents of fascism; however, during the [[Cold War]], anti-communism did lead some people who had previously criticised fascism to support other anti-communist dictators.
==Contemporary anticommunism==
===Objections to Communist theory===
The central part of [[Karl Marx]]'s communist theory is [[historical materialism]], a methodology for studying history using dialectical reasoning which concludes that human society has grown or evolved through several historical stages due to the contradictions inherent in each stage, with each transition to the next stage involving the overthrow of the existing socioeconomic order. This idea was first theorized by [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], but Marx used it to justify his beliefs. Using this method, Marxists conclude that capitalism will be followed by socialism, just as [[feudalism]] was followed by capitalism. Marxists then suppose that socialism would be followed by communism, which Marx claimed would not be able to be improved upon as it has no contradictions of its own.
Most anti-communists reject the entire concept of historical materialism, or at least do not believe that socialism and communism must follow after capitalism. Some anti-communists question how and why the state is supposed to wither away into a true communist society.
Many critics also see a key error in communist economic theory, which predicts that in capitalist societies, the bourgeoisie will accumulate ever-increasing capital and wealth, while the lower classes become more dependent on the ruling class for survival, selling their [[labor power]] for the most minimal of salaries. Anti-communists, claiming that this argument is equivalent to the statement that "the rich will get richer and the poor will get poorer", point to the overall rise in the average standard of living in the industrialized West as proof that contrary to Marx's prediction as, they assert, both the rich and poor have steadily gotten richer. Communists reply that even during periods of great prosperity, the rich get rich much faster than the poor, and posit that such periods of prosperity are historical abberations and will be wiped out by future crises of production.
Another reply to this criticism is that the nations who most endorse capitalism today, such as the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]], had a long history of bountiful natural resources, strategic geography, military victory, and technology long before many capitalist intricacies, giving them these benefits today. Similarly, they claim nations such as [[Russia]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Cuba]] had long histories of military defeats, brutal environments, strict dictatorships, and undereveloped economies throughout their histories, making living conditions harsher even after socialist revolutions.
Communists also argue that the industrialized West profits immensely from the [[exploitation]] of the [[Third World]] through [[globalization]], that the gap between rich and poor capitalist countries (sometimes called the ''North-South Gap'') has widened greatly over the past hundred years, and that poor capitalist countries
|
avy still maintains two [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa''-class]] [[battleship]]s, and could reactivate one or both if necessary. These ships are maintained as a political necessity, and not likely to ever be reactivated (one, ''[[USS Iowa (BB-61)|Iowa]]'', has never-repaired explosion damage to her center turret).
==References==
* "''Kaigun'': Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941", David C. Evans, Mark R.Peattie, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland ISBN 0870211927
* "The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War", Christopher Howe, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226354857
* "The Atlantic Campaign", Dan van der Vat.
* "DD-963 Spruance-class" http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/dd-963.htm
==External links==
*[http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/stc0644.htm The Japanese 1887 Kotaka (Japanese)]
*[http://www.historialago.com/av_0110_d_destructor_tribal.htm The Spanish 1886 Destructor (Spanish)]
[[Category:Ship types]]
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[[cs:Torpédoborec]]
[[da:Destroyer]]
[[de:Zerstörer]]
[[es:Destructor]]
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[[he:משחתת]]
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[[nl:Torpedobootjager]]
[[ja:駆逐艦]]
[[no:Jager]]
[[pl:Niszczyciel]]
[[pt:Contratorpedeiro]]
[[ru:Эскадренный миноносец]]
[[sl:Rušilec]]
[[sr:Разарач]]
[[fi:Hävittäjä (laiva)]]
[[sv:Jagare]]
[[zh:驱逐舰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Debian GNU/Hurd</title>
<id>8780</id>
<revision>
<id>40005391</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T12:55:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.35.162</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Debian GNU/Hurd''' is the [[Debian|Debian Project's]] distribution of the [[GNU]] [[operating system]] with the [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]] as its [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]].
Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development for years, but still has not been officially released. Roughly half of the software packaged for [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]] has been ported to [[GNU/Hurd]]. However, the [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]] itself remains under development, and as such is not ready for use in production systems. Accordingly, most Debian users run stable distributions based on the Linux kernel.
The GNU/Hurd operating system can be tried out using a [[LiveCD]] (see external links).
==See also==
*[[Debian GNU/Linux]]
*[[Debian GNU/NetBSD]]
*[[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]]
==External links==
* [http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/ GNU Hurd homepage]
* [http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/ Debian GNU/Hurd home page]
* [http://hurd.gnufans.org/ Hurd Wiki at GNUfans.org]
* [http://superunprivileged.org/ Superunprivileged.org] &mdash; provides a GNU/Hurd LiveCD
* [http://people.debian.org/~neal/FOSDEM-2005/ FOSDEM 2005 Hurd Developers' Mini-Symposium]
[[Category:Debian|GNU/Hurd]]
[[Category:Free software operating systems]]
[[fr:Debian GNU/Hurd]]
[[pt:Debian GNU/Hurd]]
[[ru:Debian GNU/Hurd]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dorothy Parker</title>
<id>8781</id>
<revision>
<id>41987511</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:39:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.205.126.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early life */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = Dorothy Parker |
image_name = Dorothy75.jpg |
image_caption = |
date_of_birth = [[22 August]] [[1893]] |
place_of_birth = [[Long Branch, New Jersey|Long Branch]], [[New Jersey]] |
date_of_death = [[7 June]] [[1967]] |
place_of_death = [[New York City|New York]], [[New York]]
}}
'''Dorothy Parker''' ([[August 22]] [[1893]] &ndash; [[June 7]] [[1967]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[poet]] best known for her caustic [[wit]], wisecracks, and sharp eye for [[20th century]] urban foibles. Also known as '''Dot''' or '''Dottie''', Parker was born '''Dorothy Rothschild''' in the West End district of [[Long Branch, New Jersey]].
==Early life==
She grew up in springville [[Upper West Side]]. Young Dorothy Rothschild attended Blessed Sacrament Convent school, even though Dorothy's father was [[Jewish]] and her mother [[Protestant]]. She later went to a finishing school in [[Morristown, New Jersey]]. Her formal education ended when she was 13.
Dorothy lost her mother when she was four years old and her stepmother at nine. Her uncle, Martin Rothschild, went down with the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] in [[1912]]. A year later her father died.
Young Dorothy earned money by playing piano at a dancing school, among other things. She first sold a poem to ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' magazine in [[1916]], and at the same time was hired as an editorial assistant for its sister magazine ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''; she moved to ''Vanity Fair'' the next year. In [[1917]] she met and married a Wall Street broker, Edwin Pond Parker II; they were almost immediately separated by [[World War I]]. Her family was not part of the Rothschilds banking dynasty; she joked that she married to escape her name.
==The Round Table years==
In [[1919]] her career took off while writing theatre criticism for ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'', initially as a stand-in for the vacationing [[P.G. Wodehouse]]. At the magazine she met [[Robert Benchley]], who became a close friend, and [[Robert E. Sherwood]]. They began lunching at the [[Algonquin Hotel]], among the founding members of the [[Algonquin Round Table]]. They were soon joined by [[Franklin Pierce Adams]] and [[Alexander Woollcott]], both newspaper columnists who helped publicize Parker's witticisms, [[Harold Ross]], and many others.
She was fired from ''Vanity Fair'' in [[1920]]-- Benchley and Sherwood resigned in protest-- and began earning a living as a freelance writer. She separated from her husband, and had affairs with reporter-turned-playwright [[Charles MacArthur]] and with the publisher [[Seward Collins]]. When [[Harold Ross]] founded ''[[The New Yorker]]'' in [[1925]], she and [[Robert Benchley]] were considered part of the staff, though at first they contributed little to the magazine.
Parker became famous for her short, viciously humorous poems, many about the perceived ludicrousness of her many (largely unsuccessful) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide. She never considered these poems as her most important works.
{{listen|filename=ParkerD-Men.ogg|title=Men|description=A 30 second except of Dorothy Parker's ''Men'' ([http://floozy.com/allison/rilke/dp.index.html#men.html Text of poem])}}
Her greatest period of productivity and success came in the next decade and a half; she published seven volumes of short stories and poetry: ''Enough Rope'', ''Sunset Gun'', ''Laments for the Living'', ''Death and Taxes'', ''After Such Pleasures'', ''Not So Deep as a Well'' (collected poems), and ''Here Lies''. After her death, the critic [[Brendan Gill]] noted that these titles "amounted to a capsule autobiography." Some of this work was originally published in the ''New Yorker'', to which she also contributed acerbic book reviews, under the byline "Constant Reader"; these were widely read and later published in a collection under that name. She wrote or co-wrote several plays as well, some well-reviewed, though none of lasting note.
Her best-known story, published in [[Bookman Magazine]] under the title "Big Blonde", was awarded the [[O. Henry Award]] as the most outstanding short story of [[1929]]. Her short stories, though often witty, were also spare and incisive, and more bittersweet than comic.
Her friends found her both a source of fun and of tragedy; at least twice she attempted suicide.
==Hollywood and later life==
She married Alan Campbell, an actor with hopes to be a screenwriter, in [[1934]]. (He was reputed to be bisexual-- indeed, Parker did some of the reputing-- but there is no substantial evidence for this.) She and Campbell moved to Hollywood and worked on more than fifteen films (on a salary of $5200 a week-- an enormous sum during the Depression). With Robert Carson and Campbell, she wrote the script for the [[1937]] film ''[[A Star Is Born (1937 film)|A Star is Born]]'', which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing - Screenplay. Her marriage with Campbell was tempestuous; they divorced in [[1947]], remarried in [[1950]], and remained together on and off until his death in [[1963]] in [[West Hollywood]].
During the 1930s she became involved in left-wing politics, helping to found the Anti-Nazi League in Hollywood, and drifted away from some of her Round Table friends. She was named as a [[communist]] by the [[Red Channels]] publication in 1950 and was investigated by the [[FBI]] for her suspected involvement in communism during the [[Joseph McCarthy|McCarthy]] era. As a result, she was placed on the [[Hollywood blacklist]] by the [[movie studio]] bosses.
From [[1957]] to [[1962]] she wrote book reviews for ''Esquire'', though these were increasingly erratic due to her problems with alcohol. She died of a heart attack at the age of 73 in [[1967]] at the Volney Apartments in New York. In her will, she bequeathed her estate to the Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] foundation. Following King's death, her estate was passed on to the [[NAACP]]. Her executor, [[Lillian Hellman]], bitterly but unsuccessfully contested this disposition...
==Parker in culture==
At the height of her fame, George Oppenheimer wrote a play based on Parker, ''Here Today'' ([[1932]]); the character based on her was portrayed by [[Ruth Gordon]].
Her life was the subject of the [[1987]] film <cite>[[Dorothy And Alan At Norma Place]]</cite> and the [[1994 in film|1994]] [[film]] <cite>[[Mrs
|
] and [[geologic fault|faulting]]. However, they seemed to be older than most of the [[sedimentary rocks]] farther east. Murchison documented the presence of a distinctive set of fossils, one in which very few fish were found, but that included numerous different types of [[trilobites]], [[brachiopods]], and other such fossils. Murchison named the system of rocks containing such fossils the [[Silurian]], after the Silures, a Celtic tribe living in the Welsh Borderlands at the time of the Romans. Sedgwick, who had been working in central Wales, proposed the existence of a separate system below the Silurian, which he named the [[Cambrian]] -- after Cambria, the Latin name for Wales. The two presented a joint paper in [[1835]], entitled "On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, exhibiting the order in which the older sedimentary strata succeed each other in England and Wales."
Sedgwick's upper "Cambrian" overlapped with the lower part of Murchison's "Silurian." Sedgwick had defined his "Cambrian" using physical characters of the rocks, which were unique to Wales, and had not relied extensively on fossils, which could be found everywhere. Murchison, who had used fossils extensively in defining the Silurian, claimed at first that the upper Cambrian, and then the entire Cambrian, were really parts of the Silurian. The resulting quarrel between the two men left them permanently estranged and took years to resolve. There was more than a simple matter of names involved. Both geologists wanted the honour of describing the rocks that recorded the beginning of life on Earth, for no fossils were known that were older than those of the Cambrian. Murchison felt that the fossils of Sedgwick's "Cambrian" were not different enough from his "Silurian" forms to merit the naming of a geologic time period, and it was some time before truly distinctive Cambrian fossils were documented. Today, following the solution worked out in 1879 by Sedgwick's colleague [[Charles Lapworth]], geologists use both time periods, with a third one -- the [[Ordovician]], also named for a Celtic tribe in Wales -- between the Cambrian and the Silurian, equivalent to the disputed "upper Cambrian-lower Silurian" beds. Each one of these is now known to be characterized by distinct fossil assemblages.
==Disagreement with Darwin==
For one summer of his work in Wales which was to lead to this controversy, Sedgwick made a fateful choice of field assistant: a young Cambridge graduate named [[Charles Darwin]]. Darwin had passed his examinations for the [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in January 1831, and began attending Sedgwick's geology lectures, which he found fascinating. That summer, the two men explored the rocks of north Wales; Darwin got a "crash course" in field geology from Sedgwick, an experience that would stand him in good stead over the next five years, on the round-the-world voyage of [[HMS Beagle]]. During this voyage, Darwin sent rocks and fossils from [[South America]] back to Sedgwick, as well as descriptions of the geology of South America. These impressed Sedgwick, who wrote in a letter to Darwin's family:
He is doing admirably in S. America & has already sent home a Collection above all praise. -- It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery...
In November 1835, before Darwin had returned to England, Sedgwick read some of Darwin's work on South American geology to the Geological Society of London. This greatly improved Darwin's reputation as a scientist; he was inducted into the Society shortly after his return. The two stayed friends until Sedgwick's death, but Sedgwick was upset and disappointed by Darwin's theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. After reading [[The Origin of Species]], Sedgwick candidly wrote to Darwin on [[November 24]], [[1859]]:
"If I did not think you a good tempered & truth loving man I should not tell you that. . . I have read your book with more pain than pleasure. Parts of it I admired greatly; parts I laughed at till my sides were almost sore; other parts I read with absolute sorrow; because I think them utterly false & grievously mischievous-- You have deserted-- after a start in that tram-road of all solid physical truth-- the true method of induction. . . "
However despite this difference of opinion, the two men remained friendly until Sedgwick's death.
==Flawed opinions==
Sedgwick's own geological views were generally catastrophic -- he believed that the history of the [[Earth]] had been marked by a series of cataclysmic events which had destroyed much of the Earth's life. In this belief he followed Cuvier, and he was opposed to Charles Lyell's models of slow, gradual geological change and a more or less steady-state Earth. However, Sedgwick was interested in the possibility that at least some of the "catastrophic" changes implied by the rock record might be shown to be gradual. He originally followed his colleague [[William Buckland]] in believing that the uppermost [[Pleistocene]] deposits had been laid down by the Biblical Flood, but retracted this belief after many of these deposits turned out to have been formed by glaciers, not floods. Sedgwick also did not object to evolution, or "development" as such theories were called then, in the broad sense -- to the fact that the life on Earth had changed over time. Nor was he a young-Earth creationist; he believed that the Earth must be extremely old. As Darwin wrote of Sedgwick's lectures, "What a capital hand is Sedgewick [sic] for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!"
However, Sedgwick believed in the Divine creation of life over long periods of time, by "a power I cannot imitate or comprehend -- but in which I believe, by a legitimate conclusion of sound reason drawn from the laws of harmonies of nature." What Sedgwick objected to was the apparent amoral and materialist nature of Darwin's proposed mechanism, natural selection, which he thought degrading to humanity's spiritual aspirations. His letter of November 24 went on to state:
This view of nature you have stated admirably; tho' admitted by all naturalists & denied by no one of common sense. We all admit development as a fact of history; but how came it about? Here, in language, & still more in logic, we are point blank at issue-- There is a moral or metaphysical part of nature as well as a physical. A man who denies this is deep in the mire of folly. Tis the crown & glory of organic science that it does thro' final cause, link material to moral. . . You have ignored this link; &, if I do not mistake your meaning, you have done your best in one or two pregnant cases to break it. Were it possible (which thank God it is not) to break it, humanity in my mind, would suffer a damage that might brutalize it--& sink the human race into a lower grade of degradation than any into which it has fallen since its written records tell us of its history.
==External links==
*[http://www.sedgwickmuseum.org/ Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge]
*[http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/SedgwickClub/ Sedgwick Club, Cambridge]
*[http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/ University of Cambridge Department of Earth Sciences]
[[Category:1785 births|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:1873 deaths|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:British geologists|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:Natives of Cumbria|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[de:Adam Sedgwick]]
[[fr:Adam Sedgwick]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aa River</title>
<id>696</id>
<revision>
<id>41989325</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:53:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zhaladshar</username>
<id>302064</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Wikisource1911Enc}} - EB1911 article refers to a collection of European rivers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aa}}
'''Aa River''' may refer to:
*The [[Aa River (France)]], in the north of France
*The [[Aabach (Greifensee)]] river in Switzerland
*The [[Aabach (Afte)]] river in Germany, a tributary of the Afte River
*The [[Lielupe]] river (called "Kurländische Aa" in German) in Latvia
*The [[Gauja]] river (called "Livländische Aa" in German) in Latvia
<!--
* Aa is also an English noun, beloved of Scrabble players, meaning a [[stream]].
-->
<!--
*The [[Sarner Aa]] river in Switzerland
*The [[Engelberger Aa]] river in Switzerland
*The [[Westfälische Aa]] river in the Westphalia region of Germany
*The [[Münstersche Aa]] river in the Münster region of Germany
*The [[Great Aa]] (Große Aa) river in Germany
*in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]:
**Aa, a river in [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], and joining the [[Kleine Nete]] at [[Grobbendonk]].
**Drentse Aa, a small river in the [[Drenthe]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] provinces that also flows through [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] city.
**Aa, a river in [[Noord-Brabant]], flowing through [[Helmond]] and [['s-Hertogenbosch]].
**Aa or Weerijs, also in [[Noord-Brabant]], a small river near [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]], rising at [[Wuustwezel]], Belgium, joint by the Kleine Aa, rising at [[Brecht]], Belgium.
**several small rivers and canals in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] province, such as Pekel Aa, Ruiten Aa, Mussel Aa.
-->
{{disambig}}
[[de:Liste der Gewässer mit Aa]]
[[et:Aa jõgi]]
[[fr:Aa (fleuve)]]
[[ga:Aa (abhainn)]]
[[nl:Aa (waternaam)]]
[[zh:阿河]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Koestler</title>
<id>697</id>
<revision>
<id>41390660</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T00:44:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koavf</username>
<id>205121</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text x
|
nconstitutionality of public racial segregation laws.
==Miscellaneous==
The usual [[plural]] of bus is "buses". "Busses" is sometimes used, but is also the plural of "buss", a [[dialect]]al word for "kiss" or a type of boat.
==See also==
*[[Public transport]]
*[[Bus rapid transit]]
*[[Busway]]
*[[Bus stop]]
*[[Bus spotting]]
*[[Night bus]]
*[[Streetcar]]
*[[Training bus]]
*[[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]]
*[[Colectivo]] (Historically improvised buses of Buenos Aires)
==External links==
{{commons|bus}}
*[http://busbusbus.com complete bus buyers guide, compare makes and models, conversion issues, repair histories]
*[http://www.busesintl.com/May_2003.htm Busway programs in the Netherlands, bi-articulated bus]
*[http://www.quinion.com/words/articles/omnibus.htm "A word for all: the odd history of "omnibus""]
*[http://www.public-transport.net Buses in Europe]
*[http://www.barraclou.com/bus Barraclou.com - Bus]
*[http://busimages.blogspot.com Bus Bus Bus PhotoBlog]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Bus transport]]
[[Category:Passenger equipment]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kong-chhia]]
[[bg:Автобус]]
[[cs:Autobus]]
[[da:Bus]]
[[de:Omnibus]]
[[es:Autobús]]
[[eo:Aŭtobuso]]
[[fr:Autobus]]
[[ko:버스]]
[[id:Bus]]
[[it:Autobus]]
[[he:אוטובוס]]
[[la:Omnibus]]
[[lt:Autobusas]]
[[hu:Autóbusz]]
[[nl:Autobus]]
[[ja:バス (交通機関)]]
[[no:Buss]]
[[pl:Autobus]]
[[pt:Autocarro]]
[[ru:Автобус]]
[[simple:Bus]]
[[sk:Autobus]]
[[fi:Linja-auto]]
[[sv:Buss]]
[[zh:公共汽車]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bali</title>
<id>4147</id>
<revision>
<id>42094620</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:11:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Agnihoma</username>
<id>1024980</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Bali, the Indonesian island. For other uses, see [[Bali (disambiguation)]].''
{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="200px" align="right" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<font size="+1">'''Bali'''</font>
|-
|align="center" colspan=2|[[Image:topengtua.jpg|center|thumb|194px|Topeng Tua is a masked dance portraying an old man recalling younger times]]
|-
|align="center" colspan=2|[[Image:Bali_emblem.jpg|204px|Bali Emblem]]
|-
|align="center" colspan=2 |<small>''[[Motto]]: Bali Dwipa Jaya<br>("Prosperous Bali Island")''</small>
|-
|align=center colspan=2| [[Image:IndonesiaBali.png|204px|Map showing Bali within Indonesia]]
|-
|'''[[Language]]''' || [[Balinese language|Balinese]], [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]]
|-
|'''[[Religion]]''' || [[Hindu]] (93.18%), [[Muslim]] (4.79%), [[Christian]] (0.72%), [[Protestant]] (0.66%), [[Buddhist]] (0.64%)
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[Denpasar]]
|-
|'''Government'''<br>&nbsp;-&nbsp;[[Governor]]<br>&nbsp;-&nbsp;Vice&nbsp;governor
|<br>[[Dewa Made Beratha]]<br>[[Kesuma Kelakan]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;- Total
|<br>5,632.86 km&sup2;
|-
|'''Population'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;-&nbsp;Total&nbsp;(2000)<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;-&nbsp;[[Density]]
|<br>3,150,000<br>559/km&sup2;
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +8 ([[WITA]])
|-
|'''Coordinates'''<br>&nbsp;- Latitude<br>&nbsp;- Longitude
|<br>8&deg;03'40"S to 8&deg;50'48"S<br>114&deg;25'53"E to 115&deg;42'40"E
|-
|'''Elevation'''<br>&nbsp;- Highest point<br>&nbsp;- Lowest point
|<br>3,142 m ([[Mount Agung]])<br>0 m
|-
|'''Web site'''
|[http://www.bali.go.id/default_e.asp www.bali.go.id]
|-
|}
'''Bali''' is an [[Indonesia]]n [[island]] located at {{coor dms|8|25|23|S|115|14|55|E|}}, and one of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. It is in a chain with [[Java (island)|Java]] to the west and [[Lombok]] to the east. It is a popular [[tourism|tourist]] destination and, along with Java, known for its highly developed arts, including dance, sculpture, painting, leather and metalworking, and [[music]], especially that played on the [[gamelan]].
==Geography==
Bali lies 3.2 km east of Java and about 8 degrees south of the [[equator]]. It is 153 km long and 112 km wide (95 by 69 miles). Its surface area is [[1 E9 m²|5,633 km&sup2;]]. The highest point is [[Mount Agung]], 3,142 m high (10,308 feet), an active [[volcano]] that last erupted in March [[1963]]. Mountains range from the central to the eastern side, Mount Agung being the easternmost peak. [[Mount Batur]], or what remains of it, is also still active. About 30,000 years ago it experienced a massive catastrophic eruption &mdash; one of the largest known volcanic events on [[Earth]].
The principal cities are the northern port of [[Singaraja]] and the capital, [[Denpasar]], near the southern coast. The town of [[Ubud]] (north of Denpasar), with its art market, [[museum]]s and galleries, is regarded as the cultural center of Bali.
In the south the land descends to form an [[alluvial plain]], watered by shallow rivers, dry in the [[dry season]] and overflowing during periods of heavy rains.
Its population of over 3 million is mainly (about 93%) [[Hinduism|Hindu]], but a very small part is [[Muslim]] (mostly coastal fishermen).
The main tourist locations are the town of [[Kuta]] (along with its accompanying beach), [[Sanur]], [[Jimbaran]], [[Seminyak]] and the newer development of [[Nusa Dua]]. The [[Ngurah Rai Airport|Ngurah Rai International Airport]] is located near Jimbaran, on the [[isthmus]] joining the southernmost part of the island to the main part of the island.
There are major coastal roads and roads that cross the island mainly north-south. Due to the mountainous terrain in the island's center, the roads tend to follow the crests of the ridges across the mountains. There are no railway lines.
The island is surrounded by [[coral reefs]]. [[Beach]]es in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west [[black sand]]. The beach town of [[Padangbai]] in the north east has both: the main beach and the ''secret beach'' have white sand and the south beach and the ''blue lagoon'' have much darker sand.
Pasut Beach (Tabanan), near Sungai Ho and Pura Segara, is a quiet beach 14 km southwest of Tabanan. The Ho River is navigable by small [[sampan]]. Facing a revitalizing landscape of strong waves, the coast around Pasut is a perfect escape from the crowds. Beautiful black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are now being developed for tourism, but apart from the famous seaside temple of Tanah Lot, this is not yet a tourist area.
Most of the [[Balinese people]] are involved in [[agriculture]], primarily [[rice]] cultivation. Crops grown in smaller amounts include fruits, vegetables and other [[cash crop]]s. A significant number of Balinese are also fishermen. Bali is also famous for its [[artisan]]s who produce [[batik]] and [[ikat]] cloth and clothing, [[Woodworking|wooden carvings]], stone carvings and silverware.
==History==
Balinese people are descendants of a prehistoric race who [[migration|migrated]] through mainland [[Asia]] to the [[Indonesian archipelago]], presumably first settling around [[2500 BC]].
The end of the prehistoric period in [[Indonesia]] was marked by the arrival of Hindu people from [[India]] around [[100 BC]] as determined by [[Brahmi]] inscriptions on [[potsherd]]s. The name [[Balidwipa]] has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the [[Blanjong]] charter issued by [[Sri Kesari Warmadewa]] in [[913]] AD and mentioning [[Walidwipa]]. The Hindu [[Majapahit Empire]] ([[1293]]&ndash;[[1520]] AD) on Eastern [[Java (island)|Java island]] founded a Balinese [[colony]] in [[1343]]. The empire collapsed slightly before [[1500]] due to assaults, causing an exodus to Bali.
{| align=right style="clear:right;"
|[[Image:PIA04950_lrg_Topography_of_Bali.jpg|thumb|200px|Topography]]
|-
|[[Image:Gunung_Kawi_Rice_Terrace_Tampaksiring_1.jpg|thumb|200px|Rice terraces at entrance to [[Gunung Kawi]] Temple]]
|-
|[[Image:DewiSri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Dewi Shri|Dewi Sri]] &mdash; Ubud, Bali]]
|-
|[[Image:Jan30244.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Young Balinese dancers perform the Legong Keraton, created in the 18th century and based on a 13th century legend of the King of Lasem]]
|-
|[[Image:bali.starling.arp.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Bali Starling]] lives only on Bali. As few as six may exist in the wild]]
|}
[[Europeans]] first discovered Bali when [[Netherlands|Dutch]] explorer [[Cornelis de Houtman]] arrived in [[1597]], though a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ship had foundered off the coast of [[Bukit]] as early as [[1585]]. The Dutch soon established a trade post, and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) started trading from early [[17th century]]. Dutch control of the island was firmly established after a series of colonial wars ([[1846]]&ndash;[[1849]]). These wars were so fierce (with the entire royal court of the [[Raja]], women and children, plunged into battle armed with [[kris]] and spears, prefering to kill each-other on the battlefield rather than be taken captive) that afterwards the Dutch governors exercised relatively little influence over the island, generally allowing local control over religion and culture to remain intact.
International tourism started in the [[1920s]]. <!-- This is not history-related: Bali's beaches are famous worldwide. Its arts and crafts are also popular. Balinese dance is highly developed, and considered by many to be one of the world's finest artistic traditions. "[[Pendet]]","[[Legong]]" and "[[Baris (dan
|
iolate the Constitution's [[double jeopardy]] clause. In Halper, the defendant overcharged Medicare by $9.00 on each of 65 claims he submitted--$585.00 total. He was subsequently convicted of violating 18 U.S.C. § 287, the criminal false claims statute and sentenced to two years in jail and fined $5,000. The government then sued him under the FCA attempting to hold him liable for a further $130,000. In that case, the Supreme Court affirmed a federal district court decision which held that the FCA penalty violated the double jeopardy clause given Halper's criminal conviction.
In rejecting Hudson, Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]], writing for the majority, stated that "we believe that Halper's deviation from longstanding double jeopardy principles was ill considered." The Supreme Court held that the Fifth Amendment's double jeopardy clause "protects only against the imposition of multiple criminal punishments for the same offense ... and then only when such occurs in successive proceedings." The court stated that "the ills at which Halper was directed are addressed by other constitutional provisions. The Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses already protect individuals from sanctions which are downright irrational."
== Settling a ''qui tam''/FCA lawsuit ==
The settlement agreement in U.S. ex rel. Wagner v. Allied Clinical Laboratories provides an example of a fairly typical settlement agreement. In that case Allied falsely submitted claims to Medicare to induce improper payment for tests and improperly collected Medicare payments.
In summary the agreement provided that:
* Allied would repay to the United States $4,900,000 of which $833,458 was paid directly to the relators;
* That Allied was released from any civil or administrative monetary claims under the FCA, the [[Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act]], 31 U.S.C. § 3801 et seq.; the Civil Monetary Penalties Law, 42 U.S.C. § 1320a-7a; or the common law for the conduct described in the Civil Action;
* That Allied was released from civil or administrative monetary penalties under the above categories from liability for all acts Allied voluntarily disclosed following an internal audit of all its billing practices;
* The United States does not release Allied or any other entity or individual from any criminal liability arising from the conduct described in the Civil Action.
* That Allied will take "all reasonable and necessary steps" not to resubmit any false claims;
* That Allied will abide by a Corporate Integrity Agreement for five years;
In that case, the Corporate Integrity Agreement required that Allied implement a Corporate Integrity Program (CIP) covering all company directors, officers, employees, and independent contractors associated with Allied's sales, performance, or billings for lab services. In brief, this program consisted of:
* The formation of a CIP Management Committee consisting of the regional general managers of the corporation;
* The designation of a Corporate Compliance Officer;
* The submission by the Committee of quarterly reports to the Board of Directors with copies sent to HHS;
* The development of written "Standards of Conduct" to be distributed to "all persons covered by the CIP."
* A requirement to develop an ongoing training and education program for all present and future employees to ensure future compliance with the law;
* Removal of all employees involved in the matters described in the Civil Action.
* A requirement to make "reasonable inquiries" to determine whether or not any present and future employees, agents, or contractors has ever been convicted of a criminal offense related to health care or is otherwise ineligible to participate in federal programs and, if so, to terminate the relationship;
* Instituting an "annual review of its billing policies, procedures and practices" to ensure appropriate billing;
* Taking immediate corrective action when future violations occur including restitution and reporting to HHS;
* Annual reporting to HHS of, among other things:
<ul>
a) all actions taken to comply with the Agreement<br>
b) a list of all documents dealing with compliance<br>
c) verification of compliance training<br>
d) a summary of all internal investigations and,<br>
e) certification of compliance with the Agreement;
</ul>
* Prior notification of HHS whenever the corporation acquires or sells or changes the name of any entities; and
* Maintenance of all records for a period of six years.
The settlement agreement also required that, upon reasonable notice, HHS have access to records and employees without a corporate representative present. Were Allied to breech the agreement it could face exclusion or suspension from federal programs.
Defendant's negotiating a settlement agreement should also be aware that government attorney's have often insisted on waiver of the attorney-client privilege and waiver of the work-product doctrine. Nevertheless, some settlements have not included such waivers. Furthermore, the government usually tries to limit releases to the behavior described in the complaint. Therefore, a defendant should attempt to negotiate a release of 1) all claims related to the subject matter, 2) a release for individuals for the same monetary damages and penalties for which the organization has already paid once, and 3) a catch-all release for claims under any statutory or regulatory provisions of the federal programs that could potentially cover the subject matter of the complaint.
== Preventing FCA lawsuits ==
Medical providers need to be aware that "all employees, sub-contractors, agents, representatives, shareholders, vendors, competitors, clients and the like are potential relators." Furthermore, the harsh provisions of settlement agreements and other costs involved in defending an FCA lawsuit call for corporate medical providers to take preventive action simply to meet their fiduciary duty to stockholders.
To reduce their exposure to qui tam lawsuits, medical providers should develop internal mechanisms to ensure compliance with complex and constantly changing Medicare and Medicaid regulations. The benefits of an internal fraud detection program include early detection of problems, subversion of employees' ability and inclination to bring a qui tam lawsuit, and the opportunity to voluntarily disclose fraud or mistakes thereby reducing penalties to double damages and also reducing fines.
== The Act's future ==
{{POV-because|Reads like an essay, and needs sources for some parts}}
There is annual pressure on Congress to revise the False Claims Act. The [[American Hospital Association]] (AHA) has made weakening the False Claims Act its top priority. In particular, the AHA seeks to raise the intent level required to prove a false claim and to raise the burden of proof from a preponderance of the evidence standard to a clear and convincing standard.
Ultimately, if medical providers have their way with Congress, the power of the FCA and its qui tam provisions may be fleeting. The AMA and the AHA are jointly spending millions on Capitol Hill lobbying efforts and in court battles to diminish the FCA's power. Their efforts may stifle a dawning awareness of the FCA's utility in fraud fighting efforts in many other sectors of our society.
However, if the FCA remains in its current form, an inventive citizenry will begin to more broadly use this powerful tool to hold public officials, corporations, and individuals entrusted with the expenditure of trillions of taxpayer dollars to their word.
[[Category:United States law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fantastic Four</title>
<id>11664</id>
<revision>
<id>41547371</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:59:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.123.78.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Parodies and references */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses|The Fantastic Four}}
{{Superteambox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics-->
image=[[Image:FF509.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Cover art of '''''The Fantastic Four''''' #509<br>By [[Mike Wieringo]]
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|team_name=The Fantastic Four
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''The Fantastic Four'' Vol. 1, #1 (Nov. 1961)
|creators=[[Stan Lee]] & [[Jack Kirby]] <!--on same line helps give them equal weight-->
|status=Active
|base=[[Baxter Building]] (current)<br>Four Freedoms Plaza<br>Pier Four
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|current_members=[[Mister Fantastic]] (leader)<br/>[[Invisible Woman]]<br/>[[Human Torch (Johnny Storm)|Human Torch]]<br/>[[Thing (comics)|The Thing]]
|former_members=[[Crystal (comics)|Crystal]]<br/>[[Luke Cage]]<br>[[She-Hulk]]<br>[[Medusa]]<br>[[Ms. Marvel]]<br>(''See also [[List of Fantastic Four members]]'')
|}}
'''The Fantastic Four''' is [[Marvel Comics]]' flagship [[superhero]] team, created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]] and debuting in ''The Fantastic Four'' #1 (Nov. 1961).
Although the group's membership has occasionally changed temporarily, it almost always consists of these four core friends and family-members, who gained superpowers after being exposed to [[cosmic rays]] during an [[outer space]] [[science]] mission:
:* '''[[Mister Fantastic]]''' (Reed Richards), the leader of the group, a scientist who can stretch his body.
:* The '''[[Invisible Woman]]''' (Susan Richards, née Storm; originally the '''Invisible Girl'''), Reed Richard's wife, and the team's [[second-in-command]], who can become invisible at will and create invisible force fields.
:* The '''[[Human Torch]]''' (Johnny Storm), Sue's brother, who can surround himself in flames and fly.
:* The '''[[Thing (comics)|Thing]]''' (Ben Grimm), thei
|
ker]]
*[[Glenn Hoddle]]
*[[Mark Hughes]]
*[[Erland Johnsen]]
*[[Tommy Law]]
*[[Tommy Lawton]]
*[[Frank Leboeuf]]
|width="25"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*[[Graeme Le Saux]]
*[[Colin Lee]]
*[[Eddie McCreadie]]
*[[Eddie Niedzwiecki]]
*[[Robert McRoberts]]
*[[Tommy Meehan]]
*[[John McNichol]]
*[[Nils Middelboe]]
*[[GR Mills]]
*[[George Mills]]
*[[Adrian Mutu]]
*[[Pat Nevin]]
*[[Peter Osgood]]
*[[Eric Parsons]]
*[[Dan Petrescu]]
*[[Gustavo Poyet]]
*[[Ken Shellito]]
*[[Peter Sillett]]
*[[Willi Steffen]]
|width="25"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*[[Nigel Spackman]]
*[[David Speedie]]
*[[Bobby Tambling]]
*[[John Tait Robertson]]
*[[Jack Townrow]]
*[[Bob Turnbull]]
*[[Terry Venables]]
*[[Gianluca Vialli]]
*[[Ben Warren]]
*[[George Weah]]
*[[Sam Weaver]]
*[[Clive Walker]]
*[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
*[[Ray Wilkins]]
*[[Robert Whittingham]]
*[[Andrew Wilson (footballer)|Andrew Wilson]]
*[[Dennis Wise]]
*[[Vic Woodley]]
*[[Gianfranco Zola]]
|}
==Chelsea player of the year (1967-2005)==
{|
|valign="top"|
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Winner
|-
|1967||[[Peter Bonetti]]
|-
|1968||[[Charlie Cooke (footballer) |Charlie Cooke]]
|-
|1969||[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
|-
|1970||[[John Hollins]]
|-
|1971||[[John Hollins]]
|-
|1972||[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
|-
|1973||[[Peter Osgood]]
|-
|1974||[[Gary Locke]]
|-
|1975||[[Charlie Cooke (footballer) |Charlie Cooke]]
|-
|1976||[[Ray Wilkins]]
|-
|1977||[[Ray Wilkins]]
|-
|1978||[[Micky Droy]]
|-
|1979||[[Tommy Langley]]
|-
|1980||[[Clive Walker]]
|-
|1981||[[Peter Borota]]
|-
|1982||[[Mike Fillery]]
|-
|1983||[[Joey Jones]]
|-
|1984||[[Pat Nevin]]
|-
|1985||[[David Speedie]]
|-
|1986||[[Eddie Niedzwiecki]]
|}
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Winner
|-
|1987||[[Pat Nevin]]
|-
|1988||[[Tony Dorigo]]
|-
|1989||[[Graham Roberts (footballer)|Graham Roberts]]
|-
|1990||[[Ken Monkou]]
|-
|1991||[[Andy Townsend]]
|-
|1992||[[Paul Elliott]]
|-
|1993||[[Frank Sinclair]]
|-
|1994||[[Steve Clarke]]
|-
|1995||[[Erland Johnsen]]
|-
|1996||[[Ruud Gullit]]
|-
|1997||[[Mark Hughes]]
|-
|1998||[[Dennis Wise]]
|-
|1999||[[Gianfranco Zola]]
|-
|2000||[[Dennis Wise]]
|-
|2001||[[John Terry]]
|-
|2002||[[Carlo Cudicini]]
|-
|2003||[[Gianfranco Zola]]
|-
|2004||[[Frank Lampard]]
|-
|2005||[[Frank Lampard]]
|}
|}
== Managers ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Period
|-
|[[John Tait Robertson]]
|[[1905]] - [[1907]]
|-
|[[David Calderhead]]
|[[1907]] - [[1933]]
|-
|[[Leslie Knighton]]
|[[1933]] - [[1939]]
|-
|[[Billy Birrell]]
|[[1939]] - [[1952]]
|-
|[[Ted Drake]]
|[[1952]] - [[1961]]
|-
|[[Tommy Docherty]]
|[[1962]] - [[1967]]
|-
|[[Dave Sexton]]
|[[1967]] - [[1974]]
|-
|[[Ron Suart]]
|[[1974]] - [[1975]]
|-
|[[Eddie McCreadie]]
|[[1975]] - [[1977]]
|-
|[[Ken Shellito]]
|[[1977]] - [[1978]]
|-
|[[Danny Blanchflower]]
|[[1978]] - [[1979]]
|-
|[[Geoff Hurst]]
|[[1979]] - [[1981]]
|-
|[[John Neal (footballer)|John Neal]]
|[[1981]] - [[1985]]
|-
|[[John Hollins]]
|[[1985]] - [[1988]]
|-
|[[Bobby Campbell (footballer)|Bobby Campbell]]
|[[1988]] - [[1991]]
|-
|[[Ian Porterfield]]
|[[1991]] - [[1993]]
|-
|[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
|[[1993]]
|-
|[[Glenn Hoddle]]
|[[1993]] - [[1996]]
|-
|[[Ruud Gullit]]
|[[1996]] - [[1998]]
|-
|[[Gianluca Vialli]]
|[[1998]] - [[2000]]
|-
|[[Claudio Ranieri]]
|[[2000]] - [[2004]]
|-
|[[José Mourinho]]
|[[2004]] -
|-
|}
==Honours==
*'''[[FA Premier League|League Championship]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1955, 2005
*'''[[Football League Second Division|2nd Division]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1984, 1989
*'''[[FA Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1970, 1997, 2000
*'''[[League Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1965, 1998, 2005
*'''[[FA Charity Shield]]/[[FA Community Shield|Community Shield]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1956, 2000, 2005
*'''[[Full Members Cup|Full Members' Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1986, 1990
*'''[[Cup Winners' Cup|UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1971, 1998
*'''[[European Super Cup|UEFA Super Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1998
*'''[[FA Youth Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1960, 1961
==Club Records==
*'''Record League Victory:''' 9-2 v [[Glossop North End A.F.C.|Glossop]], [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], [[1 September]], [[1906]]
*'''Record Cup Victory:''' 13-0 v Jeunesse Hautcharage, [[Cup Winners' Cup]], 1st Round 2nd Leg, [[29 September]] [[1971]]
*'''Record Defeat:''' 1-8 v [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[26 September]] [[1953]]
*'''Record Cup Defeat:''' 0-6 v [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]], [[FA Cup|FA Cup Round 2 Replay]], [[5 February]] [[1913]]
*'''Most League Points (2 for a win):''' 57, [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], 1906-1907
*'''Most League Points (3 for a win):''' 99, [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], 1988-1989
*'''Most League Goals:''' 98, [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], 1960-1961
*'''Highest League Scorer in Season:''' [[Jimmy Greaves]], 41, 1960-1961
*'''Most League Goals in Total Aggregate:''' [[Bobby Tambling]], 164, 1958-1970
*'''Most League Goals in One Match:'''
**5, [[George Hilsdon]] v [[Glossop North End A.F.C.|Glossop]], [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], [[1 September]], [[1906]]
**5, [[Jimmy Greaves]] v [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[30 August]], [[1958]]
**5, [[Jimmy Greaves]] v [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[19 December]], [[1959]]
**5, [[Jimmy Greaves]] v [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[3 December]], [[1960]]
**5, [[Bobby Tambling]] v [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[17 September]], [[1966]]
**5, [[Gordon Durie]] v [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]], [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], [[4 February]], [[1989]]
*'''All-time top goalscorers:'''
**202, [[Bobby Tambling]] (1958-70)
**193, [[Kerry Dixon]] (1983-92)
**150, [[Roy Bentley]] (1948-56)
**150, [[Peter Osgood]] (1964-74 & 1978-9)
**132, [[Jimmy Greaves]] (1957-61)
**123, [[George Mills]] (1929-43)
**107, [[George Hilsdon]] (1906-12)
*'''Most Capped Player:''' [[Marcel Desailly]], 67 (116), [[France national football team|France]]
*'''Most League Appearances:''' [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]], 655, (1962-80)
*'''Most Appearances in Total:'''
**795, [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]], (1962-1980)
**729, [[Peter Bonetti]] (1959-79)
**592, [[John Hollins]] (1963-75 & 1983-84)
**445, [[Dennis Wise]] (1990-01)
**421, [[Steve Clarke]] (1987-98)
*'''Youngest League Player:''' [[Ian Hamilton (footballer)|Ian Hamilton]], 16 years 138 days v [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], [[18 March]] [[1967]]
*'''Record Transfer Fee Received:''' £12,000,000 from [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] for [[Tore André Flo]], [[November]] [[2000]]
*'''Record Transfer Fee Paid:''' £24,400,000 to [[Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon]] for [[Michael Essien]], [[August]] [[2005]]
*'''Longest Sequence of League Wins:''' 10, [[19 November]] [[2005]] - [[15 January]] [[2006]]
*'''Longest Sequence of League Defeats:''' 7, [[1 November]] [[1952]] - [[20 December]] [[1952]]
*'''Longest Sequence of League Draws:''' 6, [[20 August]] [[1969]] - [[13 September]] [[1969]]
*'''Longest Sequence of Unbeaten League Matches:''' 40, [[23 October]] [[2004]] - [[29 October]] [[2005]]
*'''Longest Sequence Without a League Win:''' 21, [[3 November]] [[1987]] - [[2 April]] [[1988]]
*'''Successive scoring Runs:''' 27 from [[29 October]] [[1988]]
*'''Successive Non-scoring runs:''' 9 from [[14 March]] [[1981]]
*'''Highest home attendance:''' 82,905 v [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[12 October]], [[1935]] (an estimated crowd of 100,000 attended a friendly match against [[FC Dynamo Moscow|Dynamo Moscow]], [[13 November]], [[1945]])
==Trivia==
*Chelsea gained admission to the Football League in [[1905]] despite having never played a competitive fixture.
*Chelsea, along with [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], were the first club to play with shirt numbers on [[25 August]] [[1928]] in their match against [[Swansea Town F.C.|Swansea Town]].
*Chelsea's highest attendance - 82,905 - in a home match against Arsenal on [[12 October]], [[1935]] is also the highest ever for an [[England|English]] [[Football League]] match.
*Chelsea's points [[ratio]] in their [[1954-55 in English football|1954-55]] title-winning season (1.71 per game) is the lowest ever for an English Championship-winning side. Conversely, their points total of 95 for their [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] title-winning season is the highest.
*Chelsea were the first English side to travel by [[aeroplane]] to an away match, when they visited [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] on [[19 April]] [[1957]].
*Chelsea were the first [[Football League First Division|First Division]] side to play a match on a [[Sunday]], when they faced [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] on [[27 January]] [[1974]].
*On [[Boxing Day]] [[1999]], Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign (non-[[United Kingdom|UK]]) line-up in a [[Premier League]] match against [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]].
*In their 69 seasons in the top-flight, Chelsea have finished in every position (1st to 22nd) at least once:
<pre>
1st: 2 5th: 5 9th: 2 13th: 5 17th: 1 21st: 2
2nd: 1 6th: 7 10th: 1 14th: 4 18th: 6 22nd: 2
3rd: 4 7th: 1 11th: 6 15th: 1 19th: 6
4th: 2 8th: 3 12th: 5 16th: 2 20th: 2
</pre>
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
#{{note|euro}} There was at the time an ambivalent and somewhat arrogant attitude towards foreign competitions among the English football authorities, best demonstrated b
|
While Thompson did not write an [[autobiography]], his letters can serve as one. Since his early days in the [[US Air Force]], which he claimed discharged him as "totally unclassifiable", Thompson's letters contained comic "asides" to "his biographers" that would presumably be "reading-in" on his collected letters. Some of these letters were already bundled into Thompson's ''Kingdom of Fear'', though it is not considered an autobiography. Three [[biography|biographies]] have been written about him.
===Accolades and direct influence===
A [[new journalism|new-journalism]] contemporary of Thompson’s, [[Tom Wolfe]], has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century.
Hunter Thompson lives on as [[Uncle Duke]] in ''[[Doonesbury]]'', the [[Garry Trudeau]] comic strip. (Raoul Duke was a [[pseudonym]] used by Thompson.) When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested vociferously, although he supposedly took a liking to the character in later years. Between [[7 March]] [[2005]] (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide) and [[12 March]] [[2005]], the strip ran what was referred to as a tribute to the late Doctor, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his "inspiration." The first of these strips [http://www.doonesbury.com/strip/dailydose/index.html?uc_full_date=20050307] featured a panel with artwork similar to that of [[Ralph Steadman]], and later strips featured various [[Non sequitur (absurdism)|non sequitur]]s (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, and shrinking to the size of an empty drinking glass) which seemed to mirror some the effects of hallucinatory drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.
Similarly, [[Spider Jerusalem]], the gonzo journalist [[protagonist]] of [[Warren Ellis]]'s ''[[Transmetropolitan]],'' is based on Thompson.
Columnist [[Ed Anger]] of the ''[[Weekly World News]]'' shows a clear Thompson influence.
===Political Beliefs===
Although letters from Thompson to his friends note that he had taken an early interest in [[Ayn Rand]]'s school of [[Objectivist philosophy]], he eventually drifted away from Rand's version of anti-establishment politics into his own field. While distinctly embracing the notion of [[democracy]] and its virtues as evidenced in his political writings in both the [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]] elections, Thompson was acutely aware of the flaws in such a system and regularly advocated radical approaches to politics that veered between [[libertarian]], [[anarchist]], and elements of [[socialism]]. In the documentary "[[Breakfast With Hunter]]", Thompson can be seen in several scenes wearing different [[Che Guevara]] t-shirts, while his son Juan Thompson acknowledges that his father had '''a perverse resistance to security and predictability, and a deliberate disregard for propriety''.'
Thompson's official biographer and longtime friend [[Douglas Brinkley]] said:
:"He’s both a kind of old-fashioned believer in democratic virtues, but also an anarchist. There’s always that unpredictable element with him. In any given situation, as soon as he feels there’s a system closing in, he’ll destroy it."<!-- precise cite? -->
Regarding contemporary politics, in [[2004]] Thompson wrote: "Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for&mdash;but if he were running for president this year against the evil [[George W. Bush|Bush]]-[[Dick Cheney|Cheney]] gang, I would happily vote for him." ([http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/_/id/6562575 Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004, ''Rolling Stone''])
===Movies===
The film ''[[Where the Buffalo Roam]]'' ([[1980]]) depicts Thompson's attempts at writing stories for both the [[Super Bowl]] and the [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972 U.S. presidential election]]. It stars [[Bill Murray]] as Thompson and [[Peter Boyle]] as Thompson's attorney Oscar Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Laslow, Esq.
The [[1998]] film adaptation of ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' was directed by [[Monty Python]] veteran [[Terry Gilliam]], and starred [[Johnny Depp]] (who moved into Hunter's basement to 'study' Thompson's persona before assuming his role in the film) as [[Raoul Duke]] and [[Benicio Del Toro]] as [[Dr. Gonzo]]. Thompson appeared in the scene at the club "The Matrix", sitting at a table. The film has achieved something of a [[cult film|cult following]].
The film ''[[Breakfast With Hunter]]'' ([[2003]]) was directed and edited by [[Wayne Ewing]]. It documents Thompson's work on the movie ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'', his arrest for [[drunk driving]], and his subsequent fight with the court system.
"[[When I Die]]," ([[2005]]), also by [[Wayne Ewing]], is a video chronicle of making Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality and the great send-off itself.
A new film is in production [[as of 2005]], based upon Thompson's novel ''[[The Rum Diary]]''. Both Depp and Del Toro will be starring in this new Thompson film. Del Toro was supposed to have directed, but he withdrew in [[January 2004]]; [[Bruce Robinson (writer)|Bruce Robinson]] is directing instead.
Thompson was long rumored to have appeared on the early 90's [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] TV series, [[The Adventures of Pete and Pete]], in the episode "New Years Pete." However, the creators have since debunked this in several interviews, explaining that the "Man on the Street" was simply an extra who, coincidentally, happened to be named Hunter Thompson. [http://www.ugo.com/channels/dvd/features/peteandpete/interview.asp]
==Articles==
*'''''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'''''
**''The Motorcycle Gangs: Losers and Outsiders'' &mdash; May [[1965]] [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml%3Fi=19650517&s=thompson]
*'''''[[Scanlan's Monthly]]'''''
**''[[The Temptations of Jean-Claude Killy]]'' &mdash; [[1970]]
**''[[The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved]]'' &mdash; [[1970]]
*'''''[[Playboy]]'''''
**''The Great Shark Hunt'' &mdash; [[1974]]
*'''''[[Rolling Stone]]'''''
**''[[Freak Power in the Rockies]]'' &mdash; [[1970]]
**''[[Strange Rumblings in Aztlan]]'' &mdash; [[1971]]
**''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' &mdash; [[1971]]
**''The Banshee Screams for Buffalo Meat'' &mdash; [[1972]]
**''Memo from the Sports Desk & Rude Notes from a Decompression Chamber'' &mdash; [[1973]]
**''Fear and Loathing at the Watergate'' &mdash; [[1973]]
**''Fear and Loathing at the Superbowl'' &mdash; [[1974]]
**''[[Jimmy Carter and the Great Leap of Faith, An Endorsement With Fear and Loathing by Hunter S. Thompson]]'' &mdash; [[1976]]
**''A Dog Took My Place'' &mdash; [[1983]]
**''Fear and Loathing in Elko'' &mdash; [[1992]]
**''He was a Crook'' &mdash; June [[1994]] [http://teaching.arts.usyd.edu.au/history/hsty3080/StudentWebSites/Nixon%20Obits/source9] [http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/index.php?id=1507]
**''Polo Is My Life'' &mdash; (RS 697) [[1995]]?
**''Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004'' &mdash; [[2004]] [http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/_/id/6562575?rnd=1099009920793&has-player=true]
*'''''[[Cycle World]]'''''
**''Song of the Sausage Creature'' &mdash; March [[1995]]
==Bibliography==
*''The Rum Diary: The Long Lost Novel'' (1959; Simon & Schuster, 1999, ISBN 0684856476)
*''[[Hells Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs|Hells Angels: A Strange and Terrible Saga]]'' (New York, Random House, 1966; Ballantine Books, 1996, ISBN 0345410084)
*''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas|Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream]]''. (New York, Random House, 1971; Vintage, 1989, ISBN 0679724192; Vintage, 1998, ISBN 0679785892)
*''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail 1972|Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail '72]]''. (San Francisco, Straight Arrow Books, 1973; Warner Books, 1985, ISBN 0446313645)
*''[[The Great Shark Hunt|Gonzo Papers, Vol. 1: The Great Shark Hunt: Strange Tales from a Strange Time]]''. (New York, Summit Books, 1979; Simon & Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743250451)
*''The Curse of Lono'', illustrated by [[Ralph Steadman]]. (Bantam Books, 1983)
*''Gonzo Papers, Vol. 2: Generation of Swine: Tales of Shame and Degradation in the '80s''. (New York, Summit Books, 1988; Vintage, 1989, ISBN 0679722378; Simon & Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743250443)
*''Gonzo Papers, Vol. 3: Songs of the Doomed: More Notes on the Death of the American Dream''. (New York, Summit Books, 1990; Pocket, 1991, ISBN 0671743260; Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 2002, ISBN 0743240995)
*''Screwjack and Other Stories''. (Santa Barbara, Neville Press, 1991; Simon & Schuster, 2000, ISBN 0684873214)
*''Gonzo Papers, Vol. 4: Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie''. (New York, Random House, 1994; Ballantine Books, 1995, ISBN 0345396359)
*''The Fear and Loathing Letters, Vol. 1: The Proud Highway: The Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman 1955&ndash;1967''. (New York, Random House, 1997; Ballantine Books, 1998, ISBN 0345377966)
*''Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist 1968&ndash;1976''. (Collection of Papers first appeared in Time magazine, 1997; Simon & Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0684873168)
*''Kingdom of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of a Star-Crossed Child in the Final Days of the American Century''. (Simon & Schuster; 1st Simon edition, November 1, 2003, ISBN 0684873249)
*''Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness Modern History from the Sports Desk''. (Simon & Schuster, August 11, 2004, ISBN 0684873192)
==References==
*{{fnb|1}}Observations regarding Virginia Thompson, and the relationship of Hunter and his br
|
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:28:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Svencb</username>
<id>261323</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Commons|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = '''Alessandro Volta'''
| image = Alex_volta.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[February 18]], [[1745]]
| birth_place = [[Como]], [[Lombardy]],[[Italy]]
| death_date = [[March 5]], [[1827]]
| death_place = [[Como]], [[Lombardy]],[[Italy]]
| occupation = [[Physics|Physicist]]
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta''' ([[February 18]], [[1745]] - [[March 5]], [[1827]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Physics|physicist]] known especially for the development of the [[battery (electricity)|electric battery]] in 1800. Late in life, he received the title of [[Count]].
==Biography==
Volta was born and educated in [[Como]], [[Lombardy]] ([[Italy]]), where he became [[professor]] of [[physics]] at the Royal School in [[1774]]. His passion had always been the study of electricity, and still a young student he had even written a poem in [[Latin]] on this fascinating new discovery. ''De vi attractiva ignis electrici ac phaenomenis inde pendentibus'' is his first scientific paper.
[[Image:Alevoltafoto02.jpg|143px|thumb|left|De vi attractiva ...]]
In [[1775]] he devised the [[electrophorus]], a device that produced a static electric charge. In [[1776]]-[[1777|77]] he studied the [[chemistry]] of [[gas]]es, discovered [[methane]], and devised experiments such as the [[ignition]] of gases by an electric [[spark]] in a closed vessel. In [[1779]] he became professor of physics at the University of [[Pavia]], a chair he occupied for 25 years. In [[1794]] Volta married Teresa Peregrini, daughter of Count Ludovico Peregrini; the couple had three sons.
In [[1800]], as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by [[Luigi Galvani]], he developed the so-called [[voltaic pile]], a forerunner of the electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was [[zinc]] and [[silver]]. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The electric pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine. (The number of cells, and thus the voltage it could produce, was limited by the pressure, exerted by the upper cells, that would squeeze all of the brine out of the cardboard of the bottom cell.)
[[Image:alessandro_volta2.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta portrait.]]
==Honors==
In honor of his work in the field of [[electricity]], [[Napoleon]] made him a [[count]] in [[1810]]; in [[1815]] the [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]] named him a professor of [[philosophy]] at [[Padova]].
Volta is buried in the city of [[Como]] in [[Italy]]; the '''Tempio Voltiano''' near [[Lake Como]] is a museum devoted to explaining his work; his original instruments and papers are on display there. The building appeared, along with his portrait, on Italian 10.000 [[Italian lira|lira]] banknote, before the introduction of the [[euro]].
In [[1881]] an important electrical [[SI derived unit|unit]], the [[volt]], was named in his honor. [[Volta (crater)|Volta crater]], on the [[Moon]], is also named after him.
==Interesting facts==
Toyota Motor Corp has created a concept vehicle with the name [[Toyota Alessandro Volta|Alessandro Volta]].
== Weblinks ==
{{Commons|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta}}
[[Category:1745 births|Volta]]
[[Category:1827 deaths|Volta]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Volta]]
[[Category:History of neuroscience|Volta]]
[[Category:Natives of Como|Volta]]
[[ar:ألسندرو فولتا]]
[[bs:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ca:Alessandro Volta]]
[[cs:Alessandro Volta]]
[[de:Alessandro Volta]]
[[et:Alessandro Volta]]
[[es:Alessandro Volta]]
[[eo:Alessandro VOLTA]]
[[fr:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ko:알레산드로 볼타]]
[[hr:Alessandro Volta]]
[[it:Alessandro Volta]]
[[he:אלסנדרו וולטה]]
[[nl:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ja:アレッサンドロ・ボルタ]]
[[no:Alessandro Volta]]
[[nn:Alessandro Volta]]
[[pl:Alessandro Volta]]
[[pt:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ro:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ru:Вольта, Алессандро]]
[[sk:Alessandro Volta]]
[[sl:Alessandro Volta]]
[[sr:Алесандро Волта]]
[[fi:Alessandro Volta]]
[[sv:Alessandro Volta]]
[[tr:Alessandro Volta]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argo Navis</title>
<id>1924</id>
<revision>
<id>32802159</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T21:47:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Argo-hevelius.jpg|thumb|250px|The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690]]
'''Argo Navis''' (or simply '''Argo''') was a large southern [[constellation]] representing the ''[[Argo]]'', the ship used by [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]] in [[Greek mythology]]. The abbreviation was "Arg" and the genitive was "Argūs".
It is the only one of [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations that is no longer officially recognised as a constellation, having been broken up by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] into [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]] (the keel of the ship), [[Puppis]] (the poop) and [[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] (the sails). Were it still considered a single constellation, it would be the largest of all, being larger than [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]].
When Argo Navis was split, its [[Bayer designation]]s were also split. Carina has the &alpha; and &beta;, Vela has &gamma; and &delta;, Carina has &epsilon;, Puppis has &zeta;, and so on.
The constellation [[Pyxis]] (the compass) occupies an area which in antiquity was considered part of Argo's mast. But Pyxis is not usually considered part of Argo Navis, and in particular its Bayer designations are separate from those of Carina, Puppis and Vela.
==See also==
[[Asterism (astronomy)]]
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
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[[th:กลุ่มดาวเรืออาร์โก]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Andromeda (mythology)</title>
<id>1925</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-15T20:44:54Z</timestamp>
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<comment>suggested mergefrom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Boast of Cassiopeia}}
{{mergefrom|Boast of Cassiopeia}}
:''See [[Andromeda (disambiguation)]] for other uses of "Andromeda".''
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Andromeda''' ("ruler of men") was the daughter of [[Cepheus]] and [[Boast of Cassiopeia|Cassiopeia]], king and queen of the [[Ethiopia|Ethiopians]].
[[Image:Paul_Gustave_Dore_Andromeda.jpg|thumb|[[Gustave Doré|Paul Gustave Doré]] painted Andromeda exposed to the sea-monster.]]
Cassiopeia, having boasted herself equal in beauty to the [[Nereids]], drew down the vengeance of [[Poseidon]], who sent an inundation on the land and a sea-monster, which destroyed man and beast. The [[oracle]] of [[Ammon]] announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andromeda to the monster, so she was fastened to a rock on the shore.
[[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]], returning from having slain the [[Gorgon]], found Andromeda, slew the monster, set her free, and married her in spite of [[Phineus]], to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of the Gorgon's head ([[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' v. 1).
Andromeda followed her husband to [[Tiryns]] in [[Argos]], and became the ancestress of the family of the [[Perseidae]] through Perseus' and Andromeda's son, [[Perses]]. Perseus and Andromeda had six sons ([[Perseides]]): [[Perses]], [[Alcaeus]], [[Heleus]], [[Mestor]], [[Sthenelus]], and [[Electryon]], and one daughter, [[Gorgophone]]. Their descendants ruled Mycenae from [[Electryon]] down to [[Eurystheus]], after whom [[Atreus]] got the kingdom, and include the great hero [[Heracles]]. According to this mythology, Perses is the ancestor of the [[Persians]].
After her death she was placed by [[Athena]] amongst the [[constellation|constellations]] in the northern sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]] (and in more modern times [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]]) made the story the subject of tragedies. The tale is represented in numerous ancient works of art.
Andromeda is represented in the northern sky by the [[constellation]] [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]] which contains the [[Andromeda Galaxy]].
This event was depicted in a modified version in the [[1981]] [[Film|movie]] ''[[Clash of the Titans]]''.
==Sources==
*[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' II, iv, 3-5
*[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' IV, 668-764.
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[ca:Andròmeda (mitologia)]]
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[[ko:안드로메다]]
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[[ru:Андромеда (мифологи
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hao.com/trivia.html A site compiling information on currency and currency-related world records]
[[Category:Currency| ]]
[[Category:Foreign exchange market]]
[[ar:عملة]]
[[be:Валюта]]
[[bg:Валута]]
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[[nn:Valuta]]
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[[zh:流通貨幣]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Central bank</title>
<id>5666</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:26:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Reserve-Bank-of-India.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Reserve Bank of India]] in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].]]
A '''central bank''', '''reserve bank''' or '''monetary authority''', is an entity responsible for the [[monetary policy]] of its [[country]] or of its group of member states, such as in the [[European Union]]. Its primary responsibility is to maintain the stability of the national [[currency]] and [[money supply]], but more active duties include controlling subsidized [[loan]] [[interest rates]], and acting as a "bailout" [[lender of last resort]] to the [[bank|banking sector]] during times of financial [[crisis]] (private banks often being integral to the national financial system).
It may also have supervisory powers to ensure that banks and other financial institutions do not behave recklessly or fraudulently. A central bank is usually headed by a Governor, President in the case of the European Central Bank or Chief Executive/Managing Director in the case of Hong Kong Monetary Authority and Monetary Authority of Singapore.
In most countries the central bank is state-owned and has a minimal degree of autonomy, which allows for the possibility of [[government]] intervening in monetary policy. An "independent central bank" is one which operates under rules designed to prevent political interference; examples include the [[United_States|US]] [[Federal Reserve]], the [[Bank of England]] (since 1997), [[Reserve Bank of India]] ([[1935]]), the [[Deutsche Bundesbank]], the [[Bank of Canada]] and the [[European Central Bank]].
==Activities and responsibilities==
Functions of a central bank (not all functions carried out by all banks):
* monopoly on the issue of banknotes
* the Government's banker and the bankers' bank ("Lender of Last Resort")
* manages the country's foreign exchange and gold reserves and the Government's stock register;
* regulation and supervision of the banking industry;
* setting the official interest rate - used to manage both [[inflation]] and the country's [[exchange rate]].
The central bank's main responsibility is the management of monetary policy to ensure a stable economy, including a stable currency. It aims to manage [[inflation]] (rising average prices) as well as [[deflation]] (falling prices). It is the lender of last resort, and will (at a price) assist banks in cases of financial distress (see also [[bank run]]s).
Furthermore, it will hold [[foreign exchange reserves]] (usually in the form of [[government bond]]s) and [[official gold reserves]], and will often have some influence over [[exchange rate]]s. Some exchange rates are managed, some are market based (free float) and many are somewhere in between ("managed float" or "dirty float").
Typically a central bank controls certain types of short-term [[interest rate]]s. These influence the [[stock market|stock-]] and [[bond market]]s as well as [[mortgage]] and other interest rates. The [[European Central Bank]] for example announces its interest rate at the meeting of its Governing Council (in the case of the [[Federal Reserve]], the [[Board of Governors]]).
Both the Federal Reserve and the ECB are composed of one or more central bodies that are responsible for the main decisions about interest rates and the size and type of open market operations, and several branches to execute its policies. In the case of the Fed, they are the local Federal Reserve Banks, for the ECB they are the national central banks.
==Instruments of monetary policy==
===Open Market Operations===
Through [[open market operation]]s, a central bank influences the money supply in an economy directly. Each time it buys [[security (finance)|securities]], exchanging money for the security, it raises the money supply. Conversely, selling of securities lowers the money supply. Buying of securities thus amounts to printing new money while lowering supply of the specific security.
The main open market operations are:
* Temporary lending of money for [[collateral]] securities ("Reverse Operations"). These operations are carried out on a regular basis, where fixed [[maturity]] loans (of 1 week and 1 month for the ECB) are auctioned off.
* Buying or selling securities ("Direct Operations") on ad-hoc basis.
* [[Foreign exchange]] operations such as [[forex swap]]s.
All of these interventions can also influence the [[foreign exchange]] market and thus the exchange rate. For example the [[People's Bank of China]] and the [[Bank of Japan]] have on occasion bought several hundred billions of [[Treasury security|U.S. Treasuries]], presumably in order to stop the decline of the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] versus the [[Renminbi]] and the [[Yen]].
===Interest rates===
A central bank has several [[interest rate]]s it can set to influence markets.
*'''Marginal Lending Rate''' (currently 3% in the Eurozone) A fixed rate for institutions to borrow money from the CB.
*'''Main Refinancing Rate''' (2% in the Eurozone) This is the publicly visible interest rate the central bank announces. It is also known as ''Minimum Bid Rate'' and serves as a bidding floor for refinancing loans (In the US this is called the [[Discount rate]]).
*'''Deposit Rate''' (1% in the Eurozone) The rate parties receive for deposits at the CB.
These rates directly affect the rates in the [[money market]], the market for short term loans.
===Reserve requirements===
Many banks are required to delegate a percentage of their deposits as [[reserves]]. Such legal [[reserve requirements]] were introduced in the nineteenth century to reduce the risk of banks overextending themselves and suffering from [[bank run]]s, as this could lead to knock-on effects on other banks. See also [[money multiplier]].
===Capital Requirements===
Reserve requirements have now largely been replaced as a tool by [[capital requirements]]. Rather than x% of liabilities being held as [[cash]], banks are these days required to hold y% of their assets as capital. For international banks, the threshold is 8% (see the [[Basel Capital Accords]].
This acts similarly to a deposit requirement in that it prevents indefinite lending: when at the threshold, a bank cannot extend another loan without acquiring further capital on its balance sheet.
==Banking supervision and other activities==
In some countries a central bank through its subsidiaries controls and monitors the banking sector. In other countries banking supervision is carried out by a government department such as The Ministry of Finance, or an independent government agency (eg UK's [[Financial Services Authority]]). It examines the banks' [[balance sheet]]s and behaviour and policies toward [[consumers]]. Apart from refinancing, it also provides banks with services such as transfer of funds, [[bank notes]] and [[coin]]s or foreign currency. Thus it is often described as the "bank of banks".
==Independence==
Advocates of central bank independence argue that a central bank which is too susceptible to political direction or pressure may encourage economic cycles ("[[boom and bust]]"), as politicians may be tempted to boost the economy in advance of an election, to the detriment of the long-term health of the economy. In addition, it is argued that an independent central bank can run a more [[credible]] monetary policy, making market [[expectation]]s more responsive to signals from the central bank. Recently, both the Bank of England and the European Central Bank have been made independent and follow a set of published [[inflation targetting|inflation targets]] so that markets know what to expect.
Governments generally have some degree of influence over even "independent" central banks; the aim of independence is primarily to prevent short-term interference. For example, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank is appointed by the [[President of the U.S.]], and his choice must be confirmed by the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]].
==History==
The oldest central bank in the world is the [[Bank of Sweden]], which was opened in [[1668]] with help from [[Dutch]] businessmen. This was followed in [[1694]] by the [[Bank of England]], created by a businessman in the [[City of London]] at the request of the [[English]] government to help pay for a war. The [[US Federal Reserve]] was created by the [[U.S. Congress]] through the passing of the [[Glass-Owen Bill]], signed by President [[Woodrow Wilson]] on [[December 23]], [[1913]].
==See also==
*[[List of central banks]]
*[[National bank]]
*[[Currency board]]
*[[Global financial system]]
*[[Macroeconomics]]
*[[Monetary policy of central banks]]
*[[Repurchase agreement]]
*[[Irish Property Bubble]]
*[[Central Bank and Financial Services Authority of Ireland]]
*[[Free banking]]
==External links==
*[http://www.federalreserve.gov/ Federal Reserve Board]
*[http://www.ecb.int European Cent
|
e and reply: "Are you going to be putting any alcohol in your drinks today? That might be a pleasant change." If Bacall was with Bogart, Romanoff might turn to her and say: "I see that you are still dating the same aging actor."
==Later career==
===''The African Queen''===
[[Image:Bogart stamp.jpg|thumb|Humphrey Bogart on a United States stamp]]
In [[1951 in film|1951]], Bogart starred in the movie ''[[The African Queen]]'', with [[Katharine Hepburn]], again directed by his friend John Huston. It was a difficult shoot, on location in [[Africa]]; one day, the eponymous boat even sank (Lauren Bacall recalled: "The natives had been told to watch it and they did&#8212;they watched it sink").
John Huston recalled:
:"Bogie didn't particularly care for the Charlie Alnutt role when he started, but I slowly got him into it, showing him by expression and gesture what I thought Alnutt should be like. He first imitated me, then all at once he got under the skin of that wretched, sleazy, absurd, brave little man. He realized he was on to something new and good. He said to me, 'John, don't let me lose it.'"
Hepburn's proper spinster character scolded Bogart's Charlie Alnutt: "Nature, Mr. Alnutt, is what we are put in this world to rise above." Bogart had a famous put down too: "You crazy, psalm-singing, skinny old maid!"
The role of Charlie Alnutt won Bogart his first [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]] in [[1952]]. He had vowed to friends that if he won, his speech would break the convention of thanking everyone in sight. He would say instead: "I don't owe anything to anyone! I earned this award by hard work and paying attention to my craft." But when Bogart won the Academy Award, he thanked John Huston, Katharine Hepburn, the cast and crew of the movie. He had always felt Hollywood people did not like him much, and he was deeply moved to find himself so popular now.
===Final roles===
Also in 1951, Bogart and Bacall co-starred in the syndicated radio drama [[Bold Venture]], for which he was paid a reported $4000 a week. He played a character very much like Steve in ''To Have and Have Not'', and she played his "ward". He called her "Sailor".
Bogart relied on his standing with his fellow actors to organize a delegation who went to [[Washington, D.C.]], during the height of [[McCarthyism]], to protest the [[House Unamerican Activities Committee]]'s harassment of Hollywood writers and actors. Bogart was not, however, prepared to deal with the industry pressure to abandon this campaign; within a year he disavowed his activities, retreating to his role as actor and apologizing for speaking out on politics.
''[[The Caine Mutiny]]'' was Bogart's last major movie. He dropped his asking price to get the role of Captain Queeg, then griped with some of his old bitterness about it. ("This never happens to [[Gary Cooper|Cooper]] or [[Cary Grant|Grant]] or [[Clark Gable|Gable]], but always to me. Why does it happen to me?")
Bogart gave a bravura performance as Captain Queeg. Queeg was in many ways an extension of the character he had played in ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'', ''Casablanca'', and ''[[The Big Sleep]]''&#8212;the wary loner who trusts no one&#8212;but with none of the warmth or humor that made those characters so appealing. Like his portrayal of Fred C. Dobbs in [[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]], Bogart played&#8212;but did not overplay&#8212;a paranoid, self-pitying character whose small-mindedness eventually destroyed him.
[[Image:Humphrey Bogart - 1955 - The Left Hand of God.jpg|thumb|171px|Bogart appeared in ''The Left Hand of God'' ([[1955 in film|1955]]) shortly before his death.]]
In [[1955 in film|1955]], he made three movies: ''[[The Desperate Hours]]'', ''The Left Hand of God'', and ''We're No Angels''. Each movie had a special satisfaction. ''The Desperate Hours'' gave him a third chance to play a hostage drama. During ''The Left Hand of God'', Bogart was able to befriend [[Gene Tierney]], and encourage her to get the psychiatric help he thought she badly needed. In ''We're No Angels'', he got a starring role for [[Joan Bennett]], who'd been out of work for three years after a family scandal.
==Death==
By the late 1950s, Bogart's health was failing. He had always treated his body poorly, and often drank heavily when not working. (Typically contrary, the one night he refused to get drunk was New Year's Eve.) He smoked unfiltered Chesterfields. Once, after signing a long-term deal with Warner Bros., Bogart predicted with glee that his teeth and hair would fall out before the contract ended. That sent a fuming Jack Warner to his lawyers.
Bogart eventually contracted [[cancer]] of the [[esophagus]]. He almost never spoke of it and refused to see a doctor until January of 1956, and by then removal of his [[esophagus]], two [[lymph node]]s and a rib was too little, too late.
Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy came to see him. Bogart was too weak to walk up and down stairs. He tried to joke about it: "Put me in the dumbwaiter and I'll ride down to the first floor in style. Come on&#8212;I'm a little guy&#8212;I'll fit."
Hepburn has described the last time she and Spencer Tracy saw Bogart: "Spence patted him on the shoulder and said, 'Goodnight, Bogie.' Bogie turned his eyes to Spence very quietly and with a sweet smile covered Spence's hand with his own and said, 'Goodbye, Spence.' Spence's heart stood still. He understood."
Bogart had just turned 57 and weighed only 80 pounds (36 kg) when he died on [[January 14]], [[1957]] after falling into a coma. He died in [[Hollywood]]. His funeral was held at All Saints Episcopal Church with musical selections played from Bogart's favorite composers, [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Claude Debussy]]. Bacall had asked Spencer Tracy to give the eulogy but Tracy was too upset. John Huston gave the eulogy instead, and reminded the gathered mourners that while Bogart's life had ended far too soon, it had been a rich one. Huston said: "He is quite irreplaceable. There will never be another like him."
Huston also noted of Bogart:
:"Himself, he never took too seriously&#8212;his work most seriously. He regarded the somewhat gaudy figure of Bogart, the star, with an amused cynicism; Bogart, the actor, he held in deep respect&hellip;In each of the fountains at [[Versailles]] there is a [[Esox|pike]] which keeps all the carp active; otherwise they would grow overfat and die. Bogie took rare delight in performing a similar duty in the fountains of Hollywood. Yet his victims seldom bore him any malice, and when they did, not for long. His shafts were fashioned only to stick into the outer layer of complacency, and not to penetrate through to the regions of the spirit where real injuries are done."
Katharine Hepburn said:
:"He was one of the biggest guys I ever met. He walked straight down the center of the road. No maybes. Yes or no. He liked to drink. He drank. He liked to sail a boat. He sailed a boat. He was an actor. He was happy and proud to be an actor. He'd say to me, 'Are you comfortable? Everything okay?' He was looking out for me."
His cremated remains are interred in [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]], [[Glendale, California]]. Buried with him is a small gold whistle, which he had given to his future wife, Lauren Bacall, before they married. In reference to their first movie together, it was inscribed: "If you want anything, just whistle."
Humphrey Bogart's hand and foot prints are immortalized in the forecourt of [[Grauman's Chinese Theater]] and he has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6322 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]].
After his death, the "Bogie Cult" formed at the [[Brattle Theatre]] which contributed to his spike in popularity in the late 50's and 60's.
== Quotes ==
=== Attributed ===
{{wikiquote}}
* "I can't say I ever loved my mother, I admired her."
* "My parents fought. We kids would pull the covers over our ears to keep out the sound of fighting. Our home was kept together for the sake of the children as well as for the sake of propriety."
*"I don't approve of the [[John Wayne]]s and the [[Gary Cooper]]s saying 'Shucks, I ain't no actor&#8212;I'm just a bridge builder or a gas station attendant.' If they aren't actors, what the hell are they getting paid for? I have respect for my profession. I worked hard at it."
*His last words were, "I never should have switched from scotch to martinis."
=== Famous movie quotes ===
==== Casablanca ====
* "I stick my neck out for nobody."
* "There are certain sections of New York, Major, that I wouldn't advise you to try to invade." ''[to Major Strasser]''
* "Of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine."
* "You played it for her, you can play it for me! . . . If she can stand it, I can! Play it!"
* "Here's looking at you, kid."
* "Tell me, who was it you left me for? Was it Laszlo, or were there others in between? Or — aren't you the kind that tells?"
* "Don't you sometimes wonder if it's worth all this? I mean what you're fighting for."
* "If that plane leaves the ground and you're not with him, you'll regret it. Maybe not today, maybe not tomorrow, but soon &mdash; and for the rest of your life."
* "I'm no good at being noble, but it doesn't take much to see that the problems of three little people don't amount to a hill of beans in this crazy world. Someday you'll understand that."
* "Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship."
* "We'll always have Paris."
== F
|
eras were premiered. Handel gave up operatic management entirely in [[1740]], after he had lost a fortune in the business. In [[1751]] he became blind, and died some eight years later in [[London]]. He was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].
He never married. His personal life was very private.
<h2 style="clear: left;">Works</h2>
[[Image:Georg_Friedrich_Haendel.jpg|thumb|210px|George Frideric Handel]] Handel's compositions include some fifty operas, twenty-three oratorios, and a large amount of church music, not to speak of his superb instrumental pieces, such as the [[organ concerto|organ concerti]], the Opus 6 [[Concerti Grossi]], the ''[[Water_Music_(Handel)|Water Music]]'', and the ''[[Fireworks Music]]''.
After his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, save the odd fragment, such as the ubiquitous aria from ''[[Serse]]'', "[[Ombra mai fu]]"; his reputation throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the anglophone countries, rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by enormous choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions. These include ''[[Esther (oratorio)|Esther]]'' ([[1720]]); ''[[Saul (oratorio)|Saul]]'' ([[1739]]); ''[[Israel in Egypt (oratorio)|Israel in Egypt]]'' ([[1739]]); [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']] (1742); ''[[Samson (oratorio)|Samson]]'' (1743); ''[[Judas Maccabaeus (oratorio)|Judas Maccabaeus]]'' ([[1747]]); ''[[King Solomon|Solomon]]'' (1748), and ''[[Jephtha (oratorio)|Jephtha]]'' ([[1752]]).
Since the [[1960s]], with the revival of interest in baroque music and [[Authentic_performance|original instrument]] playing styles, interest has revived in Handel's Italian operas, and many have been recorded and performed onstage. Of the fifty he wrote between [[1705]] and [[1738]], ''[[Alcina]]'' (1735), ''[[Ariodante]]'' (1735), ''[[Orlando (opera)|Orlando]]'' ([[1733]]), ''[[Rinaldo (opera)|Rinaldo]]'' (1711, 1731), ''[[Rodelinda]]'' ([[1725]]), and ''Serse'' (also known as ''Xerxes'') ([[1738]]) stand out and are now performed regularly in opera houses and concert halls. Arguably the finest, however, is ''[[Giulio Cesare]]'' (1724) which, thanks to its superb orchestral and vocal writing, has entered the mainstream opera repertoire.
Also revived in recent years are a number of secular [[cantata]]s and what one might call ''secular oratorios'' or ''concert operas'', Of the former, ''[[Ode for St. Cecilia's Day]]'' ([[1739]]) (set to texts of [[John Dryden]]) and ''[[Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne]]'' (1713) are particularly noteworthy. For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as ''Acis and Galatea'' ([[1719]]) ''[[Hercules (oratorio)|Hercules]]'' ([[1745]]), and ''[[Semele (oratorio)|Semele]]'' (1744). In terms of musical style, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts, these works have close kinship with the above-mentioned sacred oratorios, but they also share something of the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas. As such, they are sometimes performed onstage by small chamber ensembles.
With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists.
[[Image:London Handel House.jpg|thumb|left|Handel House at 25 Brook Street, London]]
Handel adopted the spelling "George Frideric Handel" on his naturalization as a British citizen. His name is spelled "Händel" in Germany and elsewhere, and "Haendel" in France, which causes no small grief to cataloguers everywhere. There was another composer with a similar name, Handl, who was a [[Slovenian]] (without [[umlaut]]; so not Händel). He was usually known as [[Jacobus Gallus]].
Handel's works were edited by [[S. Arnold]] (40 vols., London, [[1786]]), and by [[F. Chrysander]], for the German [[Händel-Gesellschaft]] (100 vols., Leipzig, [[1859]]-[[1894]]).
Handel lived at 25 [[Brook Street]], [[London]] from [[1723]] until his death in [[1759]]. It was here that he composed [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']], ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'', and ''Fireworks Music''. In [[2000]] the upper stories of 25 Brook Street were leased to the [[Handel House Trust]], and, after an extensive restoration program, the [[Handel House Museum]] opened to the public on [[8 November]] [[2001]].
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
<h2 style="clear: left;">List of works</h2>
===Operas===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
!bgcolor=ececec|HWV
!bgcolor=ececec|Title
!bgcolor=ececec|Premiere
!bgcolor=ececec|Venue
!bgcolor=ececec|Notes
|-
|1
|[[Almira (Handel)|Almira]]
|align="right"|[[8 January]] [[1705]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|
|-
|2
|Nero
|align="right"|[[25 February]] [[1705]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|Music lost
|-
|3
|Florindo
|align="right"|[[1708]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|Music lost
|-
|4
|Daphne
|align="right"|[[1708]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|Music lost
|-
|5
|[[Rodrigo (Handel)|Rodrigo]]
|align="right"|[[1707]]
|[[Florence]]
|
|-
|6
|[[Agrippina (Handel)|Agrippina]]
|align="right"|Late [[1709]]/Early [[1710]]
|Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo, [[Venice]]
|
|-
|7a/b
|[[Rinaldo]]
|align="right"|[[24 February]] [[1711]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|Queen's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|8a/b/c
|[[Il pastor fido]]
|align="right"|[[22 November]] [[1712]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|Queen's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|9
|[[Teseo]]
|align="right"|[[10 January]] [[1713]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|Queen's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|10
|Lucio Cornelio Silla
|align="right"|June [[1713]]?
|[[London]]?
|Music reused in ''Amadigi''
|-
|11
|[[Amadigi]]
|align="right"|[[25 May]] [[1715]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|12a/b
|[[Radamisto]]
|align="right"|[[27 April]] [[1720]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|13
|[[Muzio Scevola]]
|align="right"|[[15 April]] [[1721]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|only Act 3 by Handel
|-
|14
|[[Floridante]]
|align="right"|[[9 December]] [[1721]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|15
|[[Ottone]]
|align="right"|[[12 January]] [[1723]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|16
|[[Flavio (Handel)|Flavio]]
|align="right"|[[14 May]] [[1723]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|17
|[[Giulio Cesare]]
|align="right"|[[20 February]] [[1724]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|18
|[[Tamerlano]]
|align="right"|[[31 October]] [[1724]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|19
|[[Rodelinda]]
|align="right"|[[13 February]] [[1725]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|20
|[[Scipione]]
|align="right"|[[12 March]] [[1726]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|21
|[[Alessandro (Handel)|Alessandro]]
|align="right"|[[5 May]] [[1726]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|22
|[[Admeto]]
|align="right"|[[31 January]] [[1727]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|23
|[[Riccardo Primo]]
|align="right"|[[11 November]] [[1727]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|24
|[[Siroe]]
|align="right"|[[17 February]] [[1728]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|25
|[[Tolomeo]]
|align="right"|[[30 April]] [[1728]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|26
|[[Lotario]]
|align="right"|[[2 December]] [[1729]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|27
|[[Partenope]]
|align="right"|[[24 February]] [[1730]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|28
|[[Poro]]
|align="right"|[[2 February]] [[1731]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|29
|[[Ezio]]
|align="right"|[[15 January]] [[1732]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|30
|[[Sosarme]]
|align="right"|[[15 February]] [[1732]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|31
|[[Orlando (Handel)|Orlando]]
|align="right"|[[27 January]] [[1733]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|32
|[[Arianna (Handel)|Arianna]]
|align="right"|[[26 January]] [[1734]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|33
|[[Ariodante]]
|align="right"|[[8 January]] [[1735]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|34
|[[Alcina]]
|align="right"|[[16 April]] [[1735]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|35
|[[Atalanta (Handel)|Atalanta]]
|align="right"|[[12 May]] [[1736]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|36
|[[Arminio]]
|align="right"|[[12 January]] [[1737]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|37
|[[Giustino]]
|align="right"|[[16 February]] [[1737]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|38
|[[Berenice]]
|align="right"|[[18 May]] [[1737]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|39
|[[Faramondo]]
|align="right"|[[3 January]] [[1738]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|40
|[[Serse]]
|align="right"|[[15 April]] [[1738]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|A 14
|[[Giove in Argo]] ([[Pasticcio (Musik)|Pasticcio]])
|align="right"|[[1
|
IQ tests are popular, but they are at best rough approximations. The tests are not expert certified and notable limitations include a small number of questions and a lack of the time limit.
==IQ score distribution==
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" ALIGN="right"
|+ '''IQ score distribution'''
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
!IQ Range !! Percentile Range
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|Below 30 || 0 &ndash; 0.0002
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|30 to 50 || 0.0002 &ndash; 0.04
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|50 to 60 || 0.04 &ndash; 0.4
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|60 to 74 || 0.4 &ndash; 4
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|74 to 89 || 4 &ndash; 23
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|89 to 100 || 23 &ndash; 50
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|100 to 111 || 50 &ndash; 77
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|111 to 120 || 77 &ndash; 91
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|120 to 125 || 91 &ndash; 95
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|125 to 132 || 95 &ndash; 98
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|132 to 137 || 98 &ndash; 99.3
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|137 to 150 || 99.3 &ndash; 99.96
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|above 150 || 99.96 &ndash; 100
|}
IQ scores are expressed as a number normalized so that the average IQ in an age group is 100. In other words, an individual scoring 115 is above average when compared to people in the same age group. It is common practice to standardize so that the [[standard deviation]] (&sigma;) of scores is 15, although some IQ tests use difference scales (for example, the Stanford Binet IQ test uses a standard deviation of 16, and the [[Cattell IIIB]] test uses a standard deviation of 24). Tests are designed so that the distribution of IQ scores is [[normal distribution|Gaussian]]; that is, it follows a [[bell curve]]. A difference has been documented between the IQ score distributions of left-handed and right-handed test subjects; the distribution in left-handed people tends to cluster at the two extremes of the IQ scale.<!--ref-->
(The following numbers apply to IQ scales standard deviation σ = 15.) Roughly 68% of the population has an IQ between 85 and 115. The "normal" range, or range between &minus;2 and +2 standard deviations from the mean, is between 70 and 130, and contains about 95% of the population. An accurate score below 70 may indicate [[mental retardation]], and a score above 130 may indicate [[gifted|intellectual giftedness]]. Retardation may result from normal variation or from a genetic or developmental malady; analogously, some otherwise normal people are very short, and others have [[dwarfism]]. Giftedness appears to be normal variation; [[autistic savant|autistic savants]] have often astonishing cognitive powers but below-average IQ's.
It has been observed that scores outside the range 55 to 145 must be cautiously interpreted because there are smaller numbers of respondents with which to make comparisons in those ranges. Moreover, at such extreme values, the normal distribution is a less accurate estimate of the true IQ distribution.
In actuality there is a higher percentage of the population measured at 3 or more standard deviation levels on the test than the probabilities of the normal distribution would predict([[Lewis Terman]], ''Genetic Studies of Genius'', 1959). Some IQ scoring procedures may attempt to integrate such clusters of statistical outliers into the curve by adjusting the scores so that they better represent actual probabilities (according to Silverman) and in these cases, scores around 145 and above may actually have been notably higher, were they not so adjusted.
Most IQ tests in the [[United States]] tend to use a SD-15 or SD-16 scale, meaning that one standard deviation corresponds to +/- 16 points on the IQ scale. However, European IQ tests tend to use a SD-24 or SD-25 scale, resulting in discrepancies. Therefore, an IQ of 130 (+2 standard deviations) in the U.S. might correspond to an IQ of 148-150 in Europe. Due to these differences, percentiles are more accurate measurements than IQ numbers.
==IQ and General Intelligence Factor''==
{{main|General intelligence factor}}
Modern IQ tests produce scores for different areas (e.g., language fluency, three-dimensional thinking, etc.), with the summary score calculated from subtest scores. Individual subtest scores tend to [[correlation|correlate]] with one another, even when seemingly disparate in content. Analyses of an individual's scores on the subtests of a single IQ test or the scores from a variety of different IQ tests (e.g., [[Stanford-Binet]], [[WISC-R]], [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]] and others) will reveal that they all measure a single common factor and various factors that are specific to each test. This kind of [[factor analysis]] has led to the theory that underlying these disparate cognitive tasks is a single factor, termed the [[general intelligence factor]] (or ''g''), that corresponds with the common-sense concept of intelligence. In the normal population, ''g'' and IQ are roughly 90% correlated and are often used interchangeably.
==Genetics vs environment==
The role of genes and environment (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin ''et al.'' (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called [[heritability]]. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. [[Twin study|Twins studies]] and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in children. These studies yield an estimate of heritability of 0.5; that is, half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remaining half was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. A heritability of 0.5 implies that IQ is "substantially" heritable. Studies with adults show that they have a higher heritability of IQ than children do and that heritability could be as high as 0.8, though it is probably not this high. The [[American Psychological Association]]'s 1995 task force on "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" concluded that within the White population the heritability of IQ is “around .75” (p. 85).[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]
Considerable research has focused on biological correlates of ''g''; see [[General intelligence factor]] and the section on brain size below. For example, general intelligence and [[MRI]] brain volume measurements are correlated, and the effect is primarily determined by genetic factors.
===Environment===
Environmental factors play a large role in determining IQ in situations where environmental conditions are variable. <!-- this is almost a tautology. Can we say "... in third world countries" to make it concrete? --> Proper childhood [[nutrition]] appears critical for [[cognitive development]]; [[malnutrition]] can lower IQ. Other research indicates environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to [[toxin]]s, duration of [[breastfeeding]], and [[micronutrient]] deficiency can affect IQ. However, in the developed world, none of these effects are sufficiently pronounced to be important. <!-- would rather say "... explain variance..." or something like that, but maybe it's too technical -->
In the developed world, there is some environmental effect on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, by adulthood, this correlation disappears, so that the cognitive ability of adults living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world is highly heritable.
Nearly all [[personality]] traits show that, contrary to expectations, environmental effects actually cause adoptive siblings raised in the same family to be as different as children raised in different families (Harris, 1998; Plomin & Daniels, 1987). Put another way, shared environmental variation for personality is zero, and all environmental effects are nonshared. Intelligence is actually an exception to this rule, at least among children. The IQs of adoptive siblings, who share no genetic relation but do share a common family environment, are correlated at .32. Despite attempts to isolate them, the factors that cause adoptive siblings to be similar have not been identified, though it could be related to parents choosing the type of children they will adopt. However, as explained below, shared family effects on IQ disappear after adolescence.
Active genotype-environment correlation, also called the "nature of nurture", is observed for IQ. This phenomenon is measured similarly to heritability; but instead of measuring variation in IQ due to genes, variation in environment due to genes is determined. One study found that 40% of variation in measures of home environment are accounted for by genetic variation. This suggests that the way human beings craft their environment is due in part to genetic influences.
===Development===
It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as we gain experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20%, around 40% in middle childhood, and as high as 80% in adulthood.
Shared family effects also seem to disappear by adulthood. Adoption studies show that, after adolescence, adopted siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: [[twin|monozygotic (identical) twins]] raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.86), more so than [[Twin|dizygotic (fraternal) twins]] raised together (0.6) and much more than adopted siblings (~0.0).
Most of the IQ studies described above were conduct
|
t populous city, with 900,198 residents, according to the [[United States Census Bureau]]'s 2004 estimate. This is half the population the city boasted at its peak in the [[1950s]], and Detroit leads the nation in terms of declining urban population. Residents are generally known as "Detroiters." "Detroit" is also sometimes used as shorthand for the [[Metro Detroit]] region, which is also unofficially referred to as "Southeast Michigan."
==History==
{{main|History of Detroit, Michigan}}
[[Image:DSCN4750 sieurdecadillaclanding e.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue of Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac commemorating his landing along the Detroit River]]
[[France|French]] officer [[Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac]] founded a fort and settlement at the site of Detroit in 1701. The settlement was originally called ''[[Fort Detroit|Fort Pontchartrain d'Étroit]]'' after [[Louis Phélypeaux]], the [[comte de Pontchartrain]], minister of marine under [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] and for the river that connects [[Lake Saint Clair, North America|Lakes St. Clair]] and [[Lake Erie|Erie]]. The [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] gained control of the area in 1760 following the [[French and Indian War]] and thwarted [[siege of Fort Detroit|an Indian attack]] three years later during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]]. In 1796, Detroit and its surrounding areas passed to the [[United States]], and from 1805 to 1847 Detroit was the territorial and [[Michigan State Capitol|state capitol of Michigan]]. Though Detroit fell to the British for a short time during the [[War of 1812]] (''see [[Siege of Detroit]]''), it was recaptured by General [[William Henry Harrison]] in 1813. Detroit was incorporated as a city in 1815.
Situated strategically on a strait along the [[Great Lakes]] waterway, Detroit emerged as a key transportation center. The city grew steadily during the [[1830s]], and subsequent decades saw substantial growth in the shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing industries. A thriving carriage trade set the stage for the work of [[Henry Ford]], who in 1896 built his first [[automobile]]. Ford's first plant was a rented workshop on Mack Avenue in Detroit; this was soon outgrown, and the first factory built and owned by Ford was constructed in 1904 on Piquette Avenue. The famous [[Model T]] Ford was conceived in this plant. By 1909, the Model T's success outstripped the Piquette plant's capabilities, and production was moved to [[Highland Park, Michigan|Highland Park]], an independent city within Detroit. Ford's manufacturing innovations as well as significant contributions from many other automotive pioneers such as [[William C. Durant]], the [[Dodge]] brothers, and [[Louis Chevrolet]] solidified Detroit's status as the world's car capital, and the blossoming industry spurred the city's spectacular growth during the first half of the 20th century, drawing many new residents from the southern United States.
[[Image:woodward.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
[[Image:4a22542r.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A photograph of the Detroit Cadillac plant on Clifford Avenue, circa 1910.]]
With the factories came high-profile labor strife, climaxing in the [[1930s]] as the [[United Auto Workers]] initiated bitter battles with Detroit's auto manufacturers. The labor activism established during those years, which brought fame and notoriety to hometown union leaders such as [[Jimmy Hoffa]] and [[Walter Reuther]], remains a key feature on the city's cultural and political landscape.
Detroit has endured a painful decline during the past several decades, and is often held up as a symbol of [[Rust Belt]] urban blight. The city's population has plummeted since the [[1950s]] as residents moved to the suburbs, particularly following the [[12th Street Riot]] in 1967. [[Desegregation busing|Court ordered busing]] accelerated the "[[white flight]]" from the city. Large numbers of buildings and homes were abandoned, with many remaining for years in states of decay. The percentage of black residents increased rapidly and the first black mayor, [[Coleman Young]], was elected in 1973. Young's style during his record four terms in office was not well received by many white Detroiters.
Injecting [[heroin]] grew in popularity in Detroit during the [[1960s]]. Though use of the drug leveled off as the population declined, the Detroit gang [[Young Boys Inc.]] was formed. The [[1980s]] introduced the widespread use of [[crack cocaine]] and produced collateral property crime as addicts stole to finance their purchases. Violence was common as competing drug dealers fought for territory. Ongoing urban renewal efforts have led to the razing of abandoned homes as well as the demolition or renovation of some abandoned skyscrapers and large buildings for new housing developments. An expedited process was implemented to remove abandoned homes near schools. With the large number of homes razed, sizeable tracts have reverted back to nature to become a form [[urban prairie]]. Wild animals have been spotted migrating from their destroyed former habitat in the suburbs to the city.[http://www.detroitblog.org/?p=287]
"Renaissance" has been a perennial buzzword among generations of city leaders since the 1967 riots, coined with the construction of the [[Renaissance Center]] in the early 1970s. One of the city's high schools is named [[Renaissance High School]]. It was not until the [[1990s]] that Detroit enjoyed somewhat of a bona fide revival, much of it centered downtown. A 1996 state referendum brought three casinos&mdash;[[MGM Grand Detroit]], [[Motor City Casino]], and [[Greektown Casino]]&mdash;with the goal of increasing tourism and stemming the flow of gambling dollars to the nearby [[Windsor, Ontario]] casino.
In 2000, amid some controversy, [[Comerica Park]] replaced historic [[Tiger Stadium]] as the home of the [[Detroit Tigers]]. And in 2002 [[Ford Field]] brought the [[NFL]]'s [[Detroit Lions]] back into Detroit from [[Pontiac, Michigan|Pontiac]]. The 2004 opening of the [[Compuware|Compuware Center]] gave downtown Detroit its first significant new office building in a decade. Significant landmarks such as the [[Fox Theatre (Detroit)|Fox Theatre]], [[Detroit Opera House]], and the Gem Theater have been restored and now host concerts, musicals, and plays. Many downtown centers such as Greektown, [[Campus Martius Park]] and the Eastern Market, as well as the Michigan State Fairgrounds on the northern border, draw patrons and host activities.
==Geography and climate==
[[image:Large Detroit Landsat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A simulated-color satellite image of Detroit taken on NASA's Landsat 7 satellite.]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 142.9 [[square mile]]s (370.2 [[square kilometre|km²]]). 138.8 square miles (359.4 km²) of it is land and 4.2 square miles (10.8 km²) of it is water. The total area is 2.92% water. The elevation at the [[Coleman A. Young International Airport]] in northeastern Detroit is 626 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (190.8 [[metre|m]]).
Sitting atop a large [[salt]] mine [http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=17&category=business], Detroit is located on the north bank of the [[Detroit River]], between [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Saint Clair, North America|Lake St. Clair]], in southeastern Michigan. It lies north of [[Windsor, Ontario]], which is often referred to by residents of the city as their "neighbor to the south." Detroit features two border crossings: the privately-owned [[Ambassador Bridge]] and the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]] that has motor vehicle and railroad access to and from Canada.
Detroit completely encircles the cities of [[Hamtramck, Michigan|Hamtramck]] and [[Highland Park, Michigan|Highland Park]]. In its northeast corner are [[Harper Woods, Michigan|Harper Woods]] and the four cities and single village that make up the [[Grosse Pointe]]s. Detroit has for years been culturally divided into [[East Side Detroit|East Side]] and [[West Side Detroit|West Side]], with [[Woodward Avenue]] as the dividing line. The city is criss-crossed by three systems of roads: the original French roads running perpendicular to the river, radial roads from a Washington, D.C.-inspired system and true north-south roads from the [[Northwest Ordinance]] township system.
[[Image:DSCN4745 detroitofficebuildings e.jpg|175px|left|thumb|Downtown Detroit buildings, the historic [[Art Deco]] [[Guardian Building]] is on the left]]
Detroit contains an eclectic combination of architectural styles. [[Art Deco]] buildings from the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] are intermixed with more modern structures, notably in the downtown area and in the [[New Center, Detroit|New Center]] adjacent to [[Wayne State University]] north of the downtown. Smaller commercial areas are interspersed amongst single-family homes and apartment complexes. The Eastern Market farmer’s market is the largest open-air wholesale/retail market of its kind in the United States with more than 150 businesses. Despite these commercial and residential areas, abandoned buildings and large tracts of empty land remain throughout the city &mdash; notably in the downtown area. In recent years, the city has undertaken efforts to demolish abandoned buildings to remove suspected criminal elements using the structures and to revitalize the city.
Detroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a typically [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[temperate]] seasonal climate, which is influenced by the [[Great Lakes]]. Winters are cold with moderate [[snowfall]] while summers can be warm and somewhat humid.[http://www.michiganvacations.com/regions/Detroit-Michigan.html] The average high temperature in July is 85&nbsp;&deg;[[fahrenheit|F]] (29&nbsp;&deg;[[celsius|C]]) and in January highs average 33&nbsp;&deg;F (1&nbsp;&deg;C). Summer temperatures can top
|
July 31]], [[1971]], 00:16:49 UTC
*'''End Stand Up EVA''': [[July 31]], 00:49:56 UTC
*'''Duration''': 33 minutes, 07 seconds
* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 1
*'''EVA 1 Start''': [[July 31]], [[1971]], 13:12:17 UTC
*'''EVA 1 End''': [[July 31]], 19:45:59 UTC
*'''Duration''': 6 hours, 32 minutes, 42 seconds
* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 2
*'''EVA 2 Start''': [[August 1]], [[1971]], 11:48:48 UTC
*'''EVA 2 End''': [[August 1]], 19:01:02 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 12 minutes, 14 seconds
* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 3
*'''EVA 3 Start''': [[August 2]], [[1971]], 08:52:14 UTC
*'''EVA 3 End''': [[August 2]], 13:42:04 UTC
*'''Duration''': 4 hours, 49 minutes, 50 seconds
* ''''' Worden ''''' - Transearth EVA 4
*'''EVA 4 Start''': [[August 5]], [[1971]], 15:31:12 UTC
*'''EVA 4 End''': [[August 5]], 16:10:19 UTC
*'''Duration''': 39 minutes, 07 seconds
=== See also ===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]
==Mission Highlights==
===Incident===
Shortly after stage 1 separation, the instrumentation on stage 1 went dead. This was traced to the exhaust of stage 2 striking the stage and burning out the electronics. This had never happened before; and was traced to a reduction in the number of retrofire charges from 8 to 4. It was discovered that the two stages were in fact uncomfortably close, due to the slow thrust decay of the F-1 engines, and failure of any one charge could have caused a collision. Later flights had the original retrofire configuration.
===Planning and training===
The crew for ''Apollo 15'' had previously served as the backup crew for ''Apollo 12''. There had been a friendly rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all [[United States Navy|Navy]], and the backup all [[United States Air Force|Air Force]].
Originally ''Apollo 15'' would have been an H mission, like Apollos ''[[Apollo 12|12]]'', ''[[Apollo 13|13]]'', ''[[Apollo 14|14]]''. But on [[September 2]], [[1970]], [[NASA]] announced it was cancelling what were to be the current incarnations of the ''Apollo 15'' and ''[[Cancelled Apollo missions|Apollo 19]]'' missions. To maximize the return from the remaining mission, ''Apollo 15'' would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first Lunar Rover.
One of the major changes in the training for ''15'' was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had been trained in field geology, for the first time ''15'' would make it a high priority. Scott and Irwin would train with [[Lee Silver]], a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the [[Precambrian]]. Silver had been suggested by [[Harrison Schmitt]] as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of [[uranium]] into [[lead]] in the late 1950s.
At first Silver would take the prime and backup crews to various geological sites as if it was just a normal field geology lesson, but as the time of launch began to approach, these trips became more and more realistic. The crews would begin to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry and communicate using [[walkie-talkie]]s to a CapCom in a tent (during a mission the Capsule Communicators, CapComs, were the only people who would normally speak to the crew). With the CapCom would be a group of geologists who did not know the area and would have to rely on the astronauts descriptions to interpret the area.
The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites &mdash; Hadley Rille or the crater [[Marius (crater)|Marius]], near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To Dave Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being "exploration at its finest".
Command Module Pilot Al Worden also undertook geology training, but of a different kind. Working with an [[Egypt]]ian, [[Farouk El-Baz]], he would fly over areas in an [[airplane]] simulating the speed at which terrain would pass below him while in the CSM in orbit. He became quite adept at making observations as the object traveled below.
===Hardware===
[[image:Apollo 15 commander Dave Scott geology training.jpg|thumb|250px|Commander Dave Scott during geology training in [[New Mexico]] on [[March 19]], [[1971]].]]
The Lunar Roving Vehicle, or the Rover, had been in development since May 1969, with the contract awarded to [[Boeing]] (who also were the lead contractors for the [[S-II]] second stage of the [[Saturn V]]). It could be folded into a space 5 ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded it weighed 460 lb (209 kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500 lb (700 kg). Each wheel was independently driven by 1/4 [[horsepower]] (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the Commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6 to 8 mph (10 to 12 km/h), it meant that for the first time the astronauts could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some serious science.
The Saturn V that launched ''Apollo 15'' was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. ''Apollo 15'' used [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] CSM-112, which was given the callsign ''Endeavour'', named after the [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']] and [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] LM-10, callsign ''Falcon'', named after the [[United States Air Force Academy]] [[mascot]]. If ''Apollo 15'' had flown as an H mission it would with CSM-111 and LM-9. The CSM was used by the [[Apollo Soyuz Test Project]] and the Lunar Module was unused and is now on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center]].
As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to its launch trajectory and Saturn V itself. The rocket was launched in a more southerly direction (80&ndash;100 degrees [[azimuth]]) and the Earth parking orbit lowered to 166 km (90 nautical miles) above the Earth's surface. These two changes meant 1100 pounds (500 kg) more could be launched. The [[propellant]] reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the [[S-IC]] first stage reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer before being shutdown (see [[Saturn V]] for more information on the launch sequence). Changes were made to the [[S-II]] second stage to stop [[pogo oscillation]]s.
On the Lunar Module, the [[fuel]] and [[oxidizer]] tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages and the [[engine bell]] on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and [[solar cell]]s were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the Lunar Module to 36,000 pounds (16,330 kilograms), 4000 pounds (1800 kg) heavier than previous models.
The astronauts themselves wore new spacesuits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of threes. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the "A7L-B," have the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), from the right shoulder to the left hip, allowed the inclusion of a new waist joint, allowing the astronauts to bend completely over, and even to sit on the rover. Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks, and the command module pilot, who wore a suit with three connectors, would wear a five-connector version of the old moon suit--the liquid cooling water connector being removed, as the command module pilot would make a "deep-space EVA" to retrieve film cartridges on the flight home.
[[Image:Apollo_15_SIM_bay.jpg|thumb|Apollo 15 SM SIM bay (NASA)]]
Technicians at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] had many problems with the SIM bay. It was the first time it had flown and experienced problems from the start. Problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in zero gravity, but had to be tested in the 1 [[gee]] on the surface of the Earth. As such things like the 7.5 m booms for the [[Mass spectrometry|mass]] and [[gamma-ray spectrometer]]s could only be tested using railings that tried to mimic the space environment, though never worked particularly well. When the technicians tried to integrate the entire bay into the rest of the spacecraft, [[data stream]]s would not synchronize and lead investigators of the instruments would want to make last minute checks and changes. When it came time to test the operation of the gamma-ray spectrometer it was necessary to stop every engine within 10 miles (16 km) of the test site.
Once all the various components had been installed on the Saturn V, it was moved to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Mobile Service Structure were struck by [[lightning]] at least four times. All was well however, with only minor damage suffered.
:''The following is a brief overview of the ''Apollo 15'' mission. For more in-depth information, see each the main article for each section.''
===Outward journey===
{{Apollo15series}}
{{main|Apollo 15, Outward journey}}
Launching at 9:34:00 am EDT on [[July 26]], [[1971]], ''Apollo 15'' would take four days to reach the Moon. After spending two hours in orbit around the Earth, the [[S-IVB]] third stage of the [[Saturn V]] was reignited to send them to the Moon.
During the retrieval of the LM from its stowed position below the CSM, a light came on the control panel that indicated the valves of the Service Pr
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self as a valuable asset, even single-handedly taking out the [[Ultimates]] once with a gigantic ice wall (''see [[Ultimate War]]''), as well as single handedly halting an invasion by Colonel Wraith and Weapon X; Only to be stopped by Rogue who was in temporary possession of Marvel Girl's telepathy.
During the World Tour arc, Bobby was greatly injured by Proteus, which resulted in a lawsuit issued by his parents against Xavier. Luckily, Bobby rebelled against his parents and returned to the X-Men not a moment too soon.
He has dated both [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]], for a longer time and [[Shadowcat (comics)|Shadowcat]], who he recently broke up with. When Rogue returned to the school after her escapade with Gambit, causing her to absorb his powers, they fell in love again. Rogue was now due to Gambit's powers mixing over her own able to touch and kiss anyone she wanted, and Bobby and Marian made love to each other while the other X-Men were away.
===[[Age of Apocalypse]]===
In the [[Age of Apocalypse]] it was not [[Professor X]] who trained the [[X-Men]], but [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]]. He was much harder on his students and pushed them to levels in their abilities that had been unheard of. Because he was pushed so hard, he lacks his characteristic sense of humor and became very cold and inhuman, making his teammates feel uncomfortable. In addition to his normal abilities, Bobby was capable of breaking down his body and merging it with another body of water to travel great distances in a matter of seconds. He could bring others along as well through a process that he called "[[moisture]] [[molecular]] [[inversion]]", although it was a painful process for the passengers. In addition to this he could also reconstitute his body from broken pieces.
===[[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]]===
In the alternate reality known as the [[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]] universe, Robert Drake had been the victim of misfortune. The [[Norse mythology| Asgardian]] god [[Loki (comics)|Loki]] amplified Bobby's powers to a dangerous level, leaving him unable to make contact with any organic thing for fear of killing it. In the [[Earth 616| main Marvel universe]] [[Iron Man| Tony Stark]] was able to create a device that helped Bobby regulate his abilities, but no such thing was invented in this universe. Bobby, going by Rob and calling himself [[Ice-Man (comics)|Ice-Man]], became very bitter from his circumstances.
===[[Earth X]]===
During the series '''Earth X''' Bobby had become trapped in his ice form, making him vulnerable to melting. He moved to the [[Arctic]] regions and made an ice city for himself and the [[Inuit| Inuits]] that lived there with him. Due to a series of events where the mass of the planet changed and the orbital path moved, Bobby was able to return to the [[United States]] to aid in the battle against the [[demon]] [[Mephisto (comics)|Mephisto]].
==Appearances in other media==
[[Image:Iceman3.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Shawn Ashmore as Iceman]]
Iceman was one of the three leads in the [[animated television series]] ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]'', in which he was voiced by [[Frank Welker]].
He also appeared in the ''X-Men'' [[X-Men (animated series)|animated series]] voiced by [[Dennis Akayama]] in the episode "Cold Comfort" where he gets Jubilee's help to rescue his girlfriend Lorna Dane (not called Polaris here) from a government facility which is housing the X-Factor led by the modern day [[Forge (comics)|Forge]].
He had also appeared in the ''X-Men: Evolution'' animated series played by [[Andrew Francis]].
[[Image:Iceman.gif|right|thumb|130px|Iceman in [[Marvel vs. Capcom 2]]]]
In the movies ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', ''[[X2 (film)|X2]]'' and the upcoming ''[[X-Men: The Last Stand|X-Men 3]]'' movie he is played by [[Shawn Ashmore]]. Bobby Drake has a dating relationship with [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]] and is a bit jealous over her, evidenced with his interactions with a returning [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]], who Rogue shows a bit of affection for. He is also shown to have an uneasy friendship with [[Pyro (comics)|Pyro]], who, ironically, has power of fire. In [[X-Men 3]], rumours have suggested he may have a relationship with [[Kitty Pryde]].
Iceman has appeared in various video game adaptations, such as ''[[X-Men: Children of the Atom (arcade game)|X-Men: Children of the Atom]],'' the subsequent ''[[Marvel vs. Capcom 2]]'' and the more recent ''[[X-Men Legends]]'' and its sequel ''[[X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse]]''. In both of the ''Legends'' games, he is one of the quickest characters to become extremely powerful in melee combat. A cursor of his ability to add his icy damage to his melee attacks and to his own defense.
Iceman will also be one of the 3 playble characters in the forthcoming game ''[[X-Men: The Official Movie Game]]'' which will fill in the gap between ''[[X2: X-Men United]]'' and ''[[X3: The Last Stand]]''
In the [[Capcom]] games, he is especially notorious for his ability to take little to no blocking damage from projectile and beam attacks, special attacks in general, which combined with his powerful ice beam attacks make him an excellent defensive character. In the competitive scene, he fell out of use as [[Cable (comics)|Cable]] players evolved; Iceman's special attacks are vulnerable to Cable's instant super attacks.
{{wikibooks|Fighting Game Moves/Capcom/Iceman}}
==External links==
* [http://www.freewebs.com/xboyscerebro/iceman.htm Iceman at X-Boys8 Central]
* [http://www.uncannyxmen.net/db/spotlight/showquestion.asp?faq=10&fldAuto=55 Spotlight On... Iceman at UncannyXmen.Net]
[[Category:Defenders members]]
[[Category:Fictional elementals]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics mutants]]
[[Category:X-Factor members]]
[[Category:X-Men members]]
[[Category:Fictional Americans]]
[[Category: The 198 Files]]
[[Category:Jewish superheroes]]
[[es:Hombre de Hielo]]
[[fi:Jäämies]]
[[fr:Iceberg (X-Men)]]
[[sv:Iceman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isidore of Seville</title>
<id>15506</id>
<revision>
<id>41736035</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:04:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FourthAve</username>
<id>323450</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Last native speaker of Latin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Isidro}}
[[Image:Isidor von Sevilla.jpeg|thumb|right|Isidore, depicted by [[ Bartolomé Esteban Murillo|Murillo]]]]
'''Saint Isidore of Seville''' ([[560]] - [[April 4]], [[636]]) was [[Archbishop]] of [[Seville]] for more than three decades and has the reputation of being one of the great scholars of the early [[middle ages]]. All the later medieval history-writing of [[Spain]] was based on Isidore's histories.
Isidore was born in [[Cartagena, Spain]], to an influential family who were instrumental in the political-religious maneuvering that converted the Visigothic kings from [[Arianism]] to Catholicism, and were all awarded sainthoods: his brother [[Leander of Seville|Leander]] immediately preceded him as Catholic bishop of [[Seville]], the opponent of king [[Liuvigild]], his younger brother was also awarded a [[bishop]]ric at the start of the new reign of Catholic [[Reccared]], and their sister was an [[abbess]] in charge of forty convents.
Isidore's Latin was affected by local Visigothic traditions and contains hundreds of recognizably Spanish words; his 18th-century editor [[Faustino Arévalo]] identified 1,640 of them: Isidore can possibly be characterized as the world's last native speaker of [[Latin]] and perhaps the world's first native speaker of [[Spanish]].
At a time of disintegration of classical culture, and aristocratic violence and illiteracy, he assisted [[Leander]] in the conversion of the royal [[Visigoth]] [[Arianism|Arians]] to Catholicism and carried the conversion forward after his brother's death, for example in presiding over the (second) synod of Seville (November 618 or 619), which the bishops of Gaul and Narbonne attended, as well as the Spanish prelates. In the Council's Acts the nature of Christ is fully set forth, countering Arian conceptions. At an advanced age he also presided over the Fourth Council of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[633]]), which required all bishops to establish seminaries, on the pattern of the one at Seville associated with Isidore. The council probably expressed with tolerable accuracy the mind and influence of Isidore. The position and deference granted to the king is remarkable. The church is free and independent, yet bound in solemn allegiance to the acknowledged king: nothing is said of allegiance to the [[Papacy|bishop of Rome]].
Isidore's most important work was the first [[encyclopedia]] known to be compiled in western civilization, the ''[[Etymologiae]]''. The work takes its title from the method he used in the transcription of his era's knowledge. The encyclopedia was a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 volumes, devoted to transmitting the epitome of the learning of antiquity. The depository of classical culture in Isidore's compendium was so highly regarded that it superseded the use of many individual works of the classics themselves, which were not recopied and have been lost. The book was the most popular compendium in [[medieval]] libraries. It was printed in at least 10 editions between [[1470]] and [[1530]], showing Isidore's continued popularity in the [[Renaissance]]. Until the 12th century brought translations from Arabic sources, Isidore transmitted what western Europeans remembered of the works of [[Aristotle]] and other Greeks, although he understood only a limited amount of Greek. The ''Etymologiae'' was much copied, particularly into medieval [[bestiary|bestiaries]].
His other works include his ''Chronica Majora'' (a universal history), ''De differentiis verborum'', which amounts to brief theological treatise on the doctrine of the Trinity, t
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vention for a certain period of time (typically 20 years from the filing date of a patent application).
*A [[trademark]] is a distinctive [[sign (semiotics)|sign]] which is used to distinguish the products or services of one [[business]] from those of another business.
*An [[industrial design right]] protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object (eg. spare parts, furniture or textiles).
*A [[trade secret]] (also known as "confidential information") is an item of [[confidentiality|confidential]] information concerning the commercial practices or [[proprietary]] knowledge of a business.
Patents, trademarks and designs fall into a particular subset of intellectual property known as [[industrial property]].
Like other forms of property, intellectual property (or rather the exclusive rights which subsist in the IP) can be transferred ([[consideration|with]] or [[gift|without]] consideration) or [[license]]d to third parties. In some jurisdictions it may also be possible to use intellectual property as [[security (finance)|security]] for a loan.
====Controversy====
The basic [[public policy]] rationale for the protection of intellectual property is that IP laws facilitate and encourage disclosure of [[innovation]] into the [[public domain]] for the [[common good]], by granting authors and inventors exclusive rights to exploit their works and invention for a limited period.
However, various schools of thought are critical of the very concept of intellectual property, and some characterise IP as ''intellectual [[protectionism]]''. There is ongoing debate as to whether IP laws truly operate to confer the stated public benefits, and whether the protection they are said to provide is appropriate in the context of innovation derived from such things as [[traditional knowledge]] and folklore, and patents for [[software patent|software]] and [[business method patent|business methods]]. Manifestations of this [[controversy]] can be seen in the way different [[jurisdiction]]s decide whether to grant intellectual property protection in relation to subject matter of this kind, and the [[North-South divide]] on issues of the role and scope of intellectual property laws.
==Exclusive rights==
The exclusive rights granted by intellectual property laws are generally [[negative and positive rights|positive]] in nature, and therefore only grant the holder of IP the exclusive ability to take certain action, rather than the ability to exclude a third party from taking that action. For example, the owner of a registered trademark has an exclusive right to use their mark in relation to certain products or services, but generally no right to exclude others from using that mark in relation to unrelated products or services (sometimes marks which are recognised as "famous" or "well known" are deemed to have developed sufficient goodwill and reputation to be protected across unrelated classes of products and services).
The exclusive rights conferred by intellectual property laws can generally be transferred (with or without [[consideration]]), [[license]]d (or rented), or [[mortgage]]d to third parties.
Exclusive rights are generally divided into two categories: those that grant exclusive rights only on copying/reproduction of the item or act protected (eg. copyright) and those that grant a right to prevent others from doing something. The difference between these is that a copyright would prevent someone from copying the material form of expression of an idea, but could not stop them from expressing the same idea in a different form, nor from using the same form of expression if they had no knowledge of the original held by the copyright holder. Patents and trade marks on the other hand, can be used to prevent that second person from making the same design even if they had never heard of or seen the claimed "property". Those rights must be applied for or registered and are more expensive to enforce.
There are also more specialized varieties of "[[sui generis]]" exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called [[mask work]] rights in USA law, protected under the [[Integrated Circuit Topography Act]] in Canadian law, and in [[EC Law|European Community Law]] by Directive 87/54/EEC of [[16 December]] [[1986]] on the legal protection of topographies of semiconductor products), [[plant breeders' rights]], [[plant variety rights]], [[industrial design rights]], [[supplementary protection certificate]]s for pharmaceutical products and [[database rights]] (in [[EC Law|European law]]).
Exclusive rights may be analyzed in terms of their subject matter, the actions they regulate in respect of the subject matter, the duration of particular rights, and the limitations on these rights. Exclusive rights policies are conventionally categorized according to subject matter: inventions, artistic expression, secrets, semiconductor designs, and so on.
Generally, the activity regulated by exclusive rights is unauthorized reproduction or commercial exploitation. However, as indicated above, some rights go beyond this to grant a full suite of exclusive rights on a particular idea or product. Generally, it is true to say that exclusive rights grant the holder the ability to stop others doing something (ie. a negative right.), but not necessarily a right to do it themselves (ie. a positive right). For example, the holder of a patent on a pharmaceutical product may be able to prevent others selling it, but (in most countries) cannot sell it themselves without a separate license from a regulatory authority.
Most exclusive rights are nothing more than the right to sue an infringer, which has the effect that people will approach the rightsholder for permission to perform the acts to which the rightsholder has exclusive right. The granting of this permission is termed licensing, and exclusive rights licenses stipulate the extent of the licensee's ability to perform the acts the rightsholder may control. Other kinds of licenses attempt to establish additional conditions beyond the acts the rightsholder may control, and these licenses are governed by general contract principles. In many jurisdictions the law places limits on what restrictions the licensor (the person granting the licence) can impose. In the [[European Union]], for example, [[competition law]] has a strong influence on how licences are granted by large companies.
Copyright licenses grant permission to do something. A patent license is a declaration not to do some things, under certain conditions. Exclusive rights policies in certain countries provide for certain activities which do not require any license, such as reproduction of small amounts of texts, sometimes termed [[fair use]]. Many countries' legal systems afford [[Compulsory license|compulsory licenses]] for particular activities, especially in the area of [[patent]] law.
Most exclusive rights are awarded by a government for a limited period of time. Economic theory typically suggests that a free market with no exclusive rights will lead to too little production of intellectual works relative to an [[pareto efficiency|efficient]] outcome. Thus by increasing rewards for authors, inventors and other producers of intellectual works, overall efficiency might be improved. On the other hand, "intellectual property" law could in some circumstances lead to increased [[transaction costs]] that outweigh these gains (see [[Coase's Penguin]]). Another consideration is that restricting the free reuse of information and ideas will also have costs, where the use of the best available technique for a given task or the creation of a new derived work is prevented.
==History==
===Development of specific laws===
{{expandsect}}
The [[Patent#Early_history_of_patents|early history of patents]] dates from the 15th century in England and Venice.
Copyright was not invented until after the advent of the printing press and wider public literacy. In [[England]] the King was concerned by the unfair copying of books and used the [[royal prerogative]] to pass the Licensing Act [[1662]] which established a register of licensed books and required a copy to be deposited with the Stationers Company. The [[Statute of Anne]] was the first real act of copyright, and gave the author rights for a fixed period. Internationally, the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] in the late [[1800s]] set out the scope of copyright protection and is still in force to this day.
Design rights started in England in [[1787]] with the Designing & Printing of Linen Act and have expanded from there.
===History of the term===
As the words indicate, intellectual property is an asset product of the creativeness of the human mind, or intellect. The earliest use of the term appears to be from an [[October]], [[1845]] Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case ''Davoll et. al v. Brown.'' Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote in that decision, "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." (''Woodury & Minot, CCD Mass. 7 F. Cas. 197, 1845''). The term also appears in Europe during the [[19th century]]. [[France|French]] author A. Nion mentions "''propriété intellectuelle''" in his ''Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs'', published in [[1846]], and there may well have been earlier uses of the term.
The use of the term to describe these statutorily granted rights has increased markedly in recent times, though it was rarely used without [[scare quotes]] until about the time of the passage of the [[Bayh-Dole Act]] in 1980 [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=582602 Paper by Mark A. Lemley, "Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"
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ater the [[Mughal empire|Mughal dynasty]], who gradually expanded their reign to much of the Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms flourished, especially in the relatively sheltered south, one of which was the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].
During mid-second millennium AD, several [[Europe]]an countries, including [[Portugal]], [[Netherlands]], [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], who initially wanted to trade with India, took advantage of the fractured kingdoms fighting each other, to establish [[colony|colonies]] in the country. An 1857 insurrection against the [[British East India Company]] failed, known locally as the [[Sepoy Mutiny|First War of Indian Independence]], and in British and some Western literature as the Indian Mutiny, Sepoy Mutiny or Sepoy Rebellion. After it was put down, much of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the [[British Empire]].
In 1918, India was severly struck by the [[Spanish flu pandemic]],
suffering an estimated death toll of 17 million (a mortality rate of around 5% of the population).
In the early twentieth century, the prolonged, non-violent [[Indian independence movement|struggle for independence]] was led by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], widely regarded as the "Father Of The Nation." The struggle culminated on [[1947-08-15]], when India gained full independence from British rule, and became a [[republic]] on [[1950-01-26]].
As a [[ethnic|multi-ethnic]] and multi-religious nation, India has had some sectarian violence and [[insurgency|insurgencies]] in various parts of the country, but has stayed together as a vibrant [[democracy]]. It has unresolved border disputes with [[People's Republic of China|China]] (which escalated into the brief [[Sino-Indian War]] in 1962), and with [[Pakistan]], which resulted in wars in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]] and in 1999 in [[Kargil]] (at the northern fringe of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] State). India is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[United Nations]]. In 1974, India conducted an underground [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test]], making it an unofficial member of the "[[nuclear club]]". This was followed by a series of [[Operation Shakti|five more]] tests in in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, and added to its global and regional clout. Today India is considered as one of the [[major powers]] and also as one of the [[Superpower#Potential Superpowers|emerging future superpowers]].
{{see also|History of South India|Military history of India|Timeline of Indian history}}
==Government==
{{main|Government of India}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 1em; padding: 1em; width: 220px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right"
|+ National symbols of India
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Flag'''
| [[Tiranga]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Emblem'''
| [[Emblem of India|Sarnath Lion]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Anthem'''
| [[Jana Gana Mana]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Song'''
| [[Vande Mataram|Vand&#275; M&#257;taram]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Animal'''
| [[Bengal Tiger|Royal Bengal Tiger]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Bird'''
| [[Indian Peacock]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Flower'''
| [[Image:Nelumbo nucifera1.jpg|30px]] [[Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Tree'''
| [[Banyan]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Fruit'''
| [[Mango]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Sport'''
| [[Field Hockey]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1em;" | '''Calendar'''
| [[Indian National Calendar|Saka]]
|
|}
India is a [[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[socialist]], [[secular]], [[democratic]] [[republic]]. India has a quasi-federal form of government and a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] operating under a [[Westminster System|Westminster-style]] parliamentary system. It has a three branches of governance: the [[Legislature]], [[Executive]] and [[Judiciary]].
The [[President of India|President]] is the [[head of state]], and has a largely ceremonial role, including interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action and issuing pardons. He is also the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of [[Indian military|India's armed forces]]. The President and the [[Vice-President of India|Vice President]] are elected indirectly by an [[electoral college]] for five-year terms. The [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and has most executive powers. He or she is elected by legislators of the political party or [[coalition]] commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term, with re-election. The constitution does not explicitly provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time.
The legislature of India is the bicameral [[Indian Parliament|Parliament]], which consists of the upper house called the ''[[Rajya Sabha]]'' (Council of States), and the lower house called the ''[[Lok Sabha]]'' (House of the People). The 245-member ''Rajya Sabha'' is chosen indirectly through an electoral college, and has a staggered six-year term. The 545-member ''Lok Sabha'' is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above age 18 are eligible to vote.
The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]), headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature.
India's independent judiciary consists of the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]], headed by the [[Chief Justice of India]]. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are 18 appellate High Courts, each having jurisdiction over a state or a group of smaller states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.
==Politics==
{{main|Politics of India}}
[[image:IndiaMap2.PNG|thumb|270px|Map of India.{{mn|LoC|2}}]]
For most of its independent history, India has been ruled by the [[Indian National Congress Party]] (INC). Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, the INC, usually led by a member of the [[Nehru]]-[[Indira Gandhi|Gandhi]] family, dominated national politics for over four decades. In 1975, the government led by Indira Gandhi imposed ''[[Indian Emergency|Emergency Rule]]'' across the nation. After emergency was lifted in 1977, and fresh elections were called, a united opposition, under the banner of the [[Janata Party]] won the elections and formed a non-Congress government for a short period. In 1996, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), a [[political party]] with a [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established, for the first time, a serious opposition to the largely left-centered Congress. But power was ''de facto'' held by two successive coalition governments, with the active support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) along with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-Congress government to sustain a full five-year tenure. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by a state of political flux, with seven separate governments formed within that period.
In the [[Indian general elections, 2004|2004 Indian elections]] the INC returned to power after winning the largest number of seats. It formed a government in alliance with several regional parties, known as the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA), with the outside support of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single party claiming a majority, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.
{{see also|List of recognised political parties in India|Indian election process|Parliament of India|Foreign relations of India}}
==States and union territories==
{{main|States and territories of India}}
India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into [[districts of India|districts]]), six [[union territories|Union Territories]] and the [[national capital territory|National Capital Territory]] of [[Delhi]]. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the Union Government, though some have elected governments.
{{India states}}
India has had two scientific bases in [[Antarctica]] &ndash; the [[Dakshin Gangotri]] and [[Maitri]], but has made no territorial claims so far.
{{see also|List of states of India by population|List of cities in India}}
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of India}}
[[Image:Yumthanghimalayas.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Himalaya]] stretch from [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the north to [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]]
India's northern and northeastern states are partially situated in the [[Himalaya|Himalayan Mountain Range]]. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile [[Indo-Gangetic plain]]. In the west, bordering southeast [[Pakistan]], lies the [[Thar Desert]]. The southern Indian Peninsula is almost entirely composed of the [[Deccan|Deccan plateau]], which is flanked
|
="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"| [[Image:Apollo-8-patch.jpg|center|200px]]
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 8
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Apollo 8''
|-
|'''Number of crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[December 21]], [[1968]]<br />12:51:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar orbit:'''||Dec 24 09:59:20 UTC –<br />Dec 25 06:10:16 UTC
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[December 27]], [[1968]]<br />15:51:42 UTC<br /> {{coor dm|8|6|N|165|1|W|}}
|-
|'''Duration:'''||6 d 3 h 0 min 42 s
|-
|'''Number of lunar orbits:'''||10
|-
|'''Time in lunar orbit:'''||20 h 10 min 13.0 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,817 kg;<br />LTA 9,026 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Ap8-s68-50265HR.jpg|275px|Apollo 8 crew portrait (L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman)]]<br><small>''Apollo 8'' crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman)</small>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 8 crew
|}
'''''Apollo 8''''' was the second [[Human spaceflight|manned mission]] of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo space program]], in which Commander [[Frank Borman]], Command Module Pilot [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] and Lunar Module Pilot [[William Anders]] became the first humans to leave [[Low Earth orbit|Earth orbit]] and to orbit around the [[Moon]]. It was also the first manned launch of the [[Saturn V]] [[rocket]].
NASA prepared for the mission in only four months. The hardware involved had only been used a few times—the Saturn V had launched only twice before, and the Apollo spacecraft had only just finished its first manned mission, ''[[Apollo 7]]''. However, the success of the mission paved the way for the successful completion of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s goal of landing on the Moon before the end of the decade.
After launching on [[December 21]], [[1968]], the crew took three days to travel to the Moon, which they orbited for 20 hours. While in lunar orbit they made a [[Christmas Eve]] television broadcast. This was one of the most watched broadcasts of all time.
==Planning==
On [[December 22]], [[1966]], [[NASA]] announced the crew for the third manned Apollo flight: Frank Borman, [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] and Bill Anders. Collins was replaced by his backup Jim Lovell, in July 1968, after Collins had to have surgery as he was suffering cervical intervertebral disc herniation — an [[intervertebral disc]] had slipped into the [[spinal cavity]] and required two [[vertebra]]e to be fused together. Collins recovered and went on to be the Command Module Pilot for ''[[Apollo 11]]''.
In September 1967, the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]] in [[Houston, Texas]], proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks; each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were:
'''A''' - Unmanned [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) test</br>
'''B''' - Unmanned [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) test</br>
'''C''' - Manned CSM in [[low Earth orbit]]</br>
'''D''' - Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit</br>
'''E''' - Manned CSM and LM in an [[ellipse|elliptical]] Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600&nbsp;mi (7400&nbsp;km)</br>
'''F''' - Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit</br>
'''G''' - Manned lunar landing
Of all the components of the Apollo system, the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM), which would eventually be used to land on the Moon, presented the most problems. It was behind schedule and when the first model was shipped to [[Cape Canaveral]] in June 1968, over 101 separate defects were discovered. [[Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation]], which was the lead contractor for the LM, predicted that the first mannable LM, to be used for the D mission, would not be ready until at least February 1969, delaying the entire sequence.
[[Image:Apollo-linedrawing.png|thumb|Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)]]
[[George Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August. Since the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, they could fly a CSM-only mission in [[December]] [[1968]]. But instead of just repeating the flight of ''[[Apollo 7]]'', the C mission that would fly the CSM in Earth orbit, they could send the CSM all the way to the Moon and maybe even enter into orbit. This mission was dubbed the "C-Prime" mission. This new mission would allow [[NASA]] to test procedures that would be used on the manned lunar landings that would otherwise have to wait until ''[[Apollo 10]]'', the F mission. There were also concerns from the [[CIA]] that the [[Soviets]] were planning their own circumlunar flight for December to upstage the Americans once again (see [[Zond]] program).
[[Image:Ap8-68-HC-70.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the VAB on [[February 1]], [[1968]].]]
Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission. The only person who needed some convincing was [[James E. Webb]], the NASA administrator. However, outvoted by the rest of the agency, he gave his approval. After leading the agency for eight years, he would resign just four days before the launch of ''Apollo 7'', the first manned Apollo flight.
[[Deke Slayton]], the Director of Flight Crew Operations, decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. [[James McDivitt]], the original commander of the D mission, has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight but would probably have turned it down, as he wanted to fly the lunar module. Borman, on the other hand, jumped at the chance: his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight, except in a higher orbit. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft — Borman's crew would now use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104.
In the end, the E mission was canceled as most its objectives had been covered by the ''Apollo 8'' and ''Apollo 9'' flights. Mission managers were also confident that ''[[Apollo 10]]'' would also cover the remaining objectives with its lunar orbit flight.
On [[September 9]], the crew entered the [[Space flight simulator|simulators]] to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained for all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the [[Atmospheric reentry|re-entry]]. Lovell was trained on [[Celestial navigation|navigating]] the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking the spacecraft was in working order.
It was not until [[November 12]] that a public announcement was made about the change of mission for ''Apollo 8''. Previous to this [[Thomas O. Paine]], the deputy Administrator of NASA, had made a fleeting remark that all options were being considered.
Borman's main concern during the four months leading up to the launch was keeping the flight plan as simple as possible, not accepting any addition that went beyond the simple objectives of performing the first manned Saturn V launch, going to the Moon and orbiting it. He made sure that they stayed in lunar orbit only as long as necessary — 10 orbits.
The crew, now living in the crew quarters at [[Kennedy Space Center]], received a visit from [[Charles Lindbergh]] the night before the launch. They talked about how before his flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from [[New York]] to [[Paris]] on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second.
==The Saturn V==
{{main|Saturn V}}
[[Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg|thumb|300px|The ''Apollo 8'' Saturn V being rolled out to [[Pad 39A]].]]
The Saturn V rocket used by ''Apollo 8'' was designated SA-503, the third flight model. When it was erected in the [[Vertical Assembly Building]] <!-- Editor's Note: At that time it was called the Vertical Assembly Building -->on [[20 December]], [[1967]], it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned test flight carrying a [[boilerplate]] Command/Service Module. Although ''[[Apollo 6]]'' had suffered several major problems (it suffered severe [[pogo oscillation]] during its first stage and two second stage engines shutdown early), [[Marshall Space Flight Center]], in charge of the Saturn V, was confident that it could solve all the issues without the need for another unmanned test flight. The SA-503 mission was thus changed to a manned one.
However, NASA managers did impose some restrictions on a manned flight taking place: the [[S-II]] second stage had to undergo [[cryogenic]] testing at the [[Mississippi Test Facility]] and other changes were to be made to "man-rate" the vehicle. So on [[April 30]], the Saturn V was unstacked and the [[S-II|S-II second stage]] shipped by barge to the test site. The spark igniters on the second and third stage engines were also modified. In May 1968 a leak was found in a first stage engine, requiring it to be replaced.
With only two launches of the Saturn V under its belt, the ground crew at [[Kennedy Space Center]] (KSC) was having problems keeping to the schedule. The Grumman crew was also having issues with the lunar
|
br>''ships by type:''
bulk 11, cargo 9, chemical tanker 8, container 2, liquified gas 2, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 4, roll-on/roll-off 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
370 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
62
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
6
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
6
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
20
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
20
<br>''under 914 m:''
10 (1999 est.)
[[Arturo Merino Benitez International Airport]], located in [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]], is Chile's largest aviation facility.
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
308
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
4
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
12
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
68
<br>''under 914 m:''
223 (1999 est.)
'''National Airline:''' [[LAN (airline)|LAN Airlines]] (formerly LanChile)
== See also ==
* [[Chile]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Chile| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Chile</title>
<id>5497</id>
<revision>
<id>41597012</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T11:26:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melromero</username>
<id>122225</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Chile]]'s [[armed forces]]''' are subject to [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense.
'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
<br>''note:''
normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military
'''Army.''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Juan Emilio Cheyre. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.
'''Navy.''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
The navy is to receive three second-hand, but modern, [[Royal Navy|British]] [[Type 23 frigate|Type 23]] [[frigate|frigates]] in 2008.
'''Air Force.''' Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago,_Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
The Chilean police are comprised of a national, uniformed force (Carabineros) and a smaller, plainclothes investigations force. After the military [[coup]] in September [[1973]], the Chilean national police were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Alberto Cienfuegos, who directs the national police force of 30,000, is responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 18-49:''
3,815,761 (2005 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 18-49:''
3,123,281 (2005 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
140,084 (2005 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.42 billion (2004)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.8% (2004)
'' To put this number in perspective, this includes the expenditures of Carabineros and Investigaciones, the only police forces in the country''
== External links ==
*[http://www.ejercito.cl/ Ejército de Chile website]
*[http://www.armada.cl/ Armada de Chile website]
*[http://www.fach.cl/ Fuerza Aérea de Chile website]
*[http://www.carabinerosdechile.cl/ Carabineros de Chile website]
{{South America in topic|Military of}}
[[Category:Militaries|Chile]]
[[Category:Military of Chile]]
[[Category:Chilean generals| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Chile</title>
<id>5498</id>
<revision>
<id>42112311</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:23:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.119.253.123</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chile}}
Since its return to democracy in [[1990]], Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile assumed a 2-year non-permanent position on the [[UN Security Council]] in January [[2003]] and is an active member of the UN family of agencies, serving as a member of the [[Commission on Human Rights]] and participating in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the second [[Summit of the Americas]] in [[1998]], was the chair of the [[Rio Group]] in [[2001]], hosted the [[Defense Ministerial of the Americas]] in [[2002]], and the [[APEC]] summit and related meetings in [[2004]]. In [[2005]] hosted the [[Community of Democracies]] ministerial conference. An associate member of [[Mercosur]] and a full member of APEC, Chile and has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.
The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with [[Argentina]] during the [[1990s]], although the border between both countries in the Southern Ice Field is still officially undefined.
Chile and [[Bolivia]] have severed and resumed diplomatic relations various times throughout history. Most recently, Generals [[Augusto Pinochet|Pinochet]] and [[Hugo Banzer|Banzer]] resumed diplomatic relatins and attempted to settle territorial disputes. They met in the small, border town of Charaña and Pinochet agrreed to give Bolvia a small strip of land between the Chilean city of [[Arica]] and the Peruvian border. However, treaties between Peru and Chile specified that Chile must consult Peru before granting any land to a third party in the area of [[Tarapaca Region|Tarapacá]]. Peru's leftist ruler, [[Juan Velasco Alvarado|General Juan Velasco]], was, however, and ideological enemy of the rightists Pinochet and Banzer. Additionally the man who Pinochet deposed, [[Salvador Allende]], had been a close friend of Velasco. Therefore, Peru did not accept the Charaña proposal and instead drafted its own proposal, in which numerous land and sea areas would be shared between the three nations. Pinochet did not agree, and ties with Bolivia were once again severed on [[1978]]. The two countries maintain consular relations.
{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Government of Chile]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Chile]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Himno Nacional de Chile</title>
<id>5499</id>
<revision>
<id>38914182</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T13:43:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jclerman</username>
<id>442129</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Himno Nacional de Chile''' is the [[National Anthem]] of [[Chile]]. It is also known as ''Canción Nacional'' (National Song). It has a history of two lyrics and two melodies that made up three different versions. It was composed by [[Eusebio Lillo]] and [[Ramón Carnicer]] and has six parts plus the chorus.
==First National Anthem==
The first Chilean National Anthem dates back to 1819, when the government called for, on the 19th of July, the creation of music and lyrics for this purpose.
The composer Manuel Robles and the poet Bernardo de Vera y Pintado fulfilled this mandate and their "National Song" debuted on the 20th of August, 1820 in the Domingo Arteaga theater, although other historians claim that it was played and sung during the festivities of September 1819.
In the beginning, everyone would stand for the song. O'Higgins and Freire listened to it with respect and full of emotion, for they had marched to victory to its tune more than once.
The custom of always singing it at the theater slowly disappeared, until it was ordered that it only be sung at the aniversary of the country.
The doctor Bernardo Vera, known in the history of the independence, was the author of the verses that were sung to Robles' music.
This first hymn was sung until 1828, when it was replaced with what is sung today.
==Second National Anthem==
The second Chilean National Anthem was composed by the Spanish composer Ramón Carnicer, when he was exiled in England because of his liberal ideas. Mariano Egaña, Chilean Minister in London, acting on the criticism that Robles' song was receiving, asked Carnicer to compose a new hymn with Bernardo de Vera's original text.
The Spanish musician probably wrote the work by 1827, the date he returned to Barcelona, and his hymn debuted in Santiago, in the Arteaga theater, the 23rd of December 1828.
Years later, in 1847, the Chilean government entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spain poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus ("Dulce patria, recibe los votos...).
During the dictatorial military government (1973-1990) of Augusto Pinochet, the Verse III was officialy incorporated because of his praise of the militaries. Once again in democracy, it was eliminated from the anthem and only sung in military events as part of the full song. Supporters from the former
|
a. She described many parallels between [[Egypt]] and [[India]] in her works. After the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation [[Gottfried de Purucker]] remarked (referring to ''Secret Doctrine'', vol.2, p.417): ''A highly advanced urban civilization of [[Mohenjo Daro]] has been discovered on the [[Indus]] "between Attock and Sind," exactly the location mentioned in [[The Secret Doctrine]] as the abode of the Aethiopians.''(Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary).
==Dravidian tradition and Hinduism==
Interestingly, the original Indo-Aryan gods like [[Indra]], [[Agni]], [[Vayu]] etc. are not the principal gods of present day Hindus. Those Indo-Aryan gods have equivalents in other [[Indo-European religion|Indo-European gods]] worshipped by other Indo-European speaking peoples. Those gods occupied the highest position until the advent of Christianity in those societies, with little discernable trace remaining of the Pre-Indo-European deities and traditions. However in India the traditions of native groups such as the Dravidians seem to have mingled more fluently with those of the migrants. One view is that this unique mingling is what resulted in modern Hinduism.
One scenario would place the migration of the Indo-Aryans in a specifically Indian context requiring the merging of Dravidian priestly classes with Indo-Aryan priestly classes, creating a proto-caste system somewhere in the North-West of the Indian subcontinent. This would also explain the ability of Dravidians in South India to adopt the caste system, as it was partly based on Dravidian societal distinctions in the first place.
==Prominent Dravidian groups==
* [[Brahui]]s : Brahuis belong to North-Dravidian linguistic family. They are found in [[Baluchistan]] province of [[Pakistan]]. Brahuis are exclusively muslims.
* [[Kannadiga]]s : These people belong to South-Dravidian language family. Mostly found in [[Karnataka]]. Majority of them belong to either Brahmanical Hinduism or [[Saivism]]. There are small populations of Christians and Jains. Almost all of Karnataka Muslims are Indo-Aryans.
* [[Telugu people|Telugu]]s : These people belong to Central-Dravidian linguistic family. Mostly found in [[Andra Pradesh]]. Brahmanical Hinduism is the main religion. There are small population of Christians. Like Karnataka, Muslims in Andhra Pradesh are Indo-Aryans(or speak Indo-Aryan [[Urdu]]).
* [[Tamil people|Tamil]]s : These people belong to South-Dravidian linguistic family. Mostly found in [[Tamil Nadu]]. The major religions are Brahmanical Hinduism, Saivism. Christianity is also practiced. The muslim population of Tamil Nadu is divided between Indo-Aryans and Dravidians.
* [[Malayalee]]s : The people of [[Kerala]] belong to South-Dravidian linguistic family. Except for a small percentage of Muslims all religious groups be it, Hindus, Christians or Muslims speak Malayalam as their mother tongue.
Many Dravidians also profess atheism.
== References ==
* {{cite book | first=Edwin | last=Bryant | authorlink=Edwin Bryant | title=[[The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195137779}}
==External links==
*[http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/ancient/aryan/aryan_frawley_1.html The Aryan-Dravidian Controversy] Article by David Frawley
*[http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/tamilculture.html Vedic roots of early Tamil culture by Michel Danino]
*[http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/reviews/atlantis.html An Atlantis in the Indian Ocean - Tamil Kumarikhandam]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Dravidian people]]
[[fr:Dravidiens]]
[[ja:ドラヴィダ人]]
[[pl:Drawidowie]]
[[sv:Dravidfolk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daisy Duck</title>
<id>9020</id>
<revision>
<id>35772196</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T04:06:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.250.95.47</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Daisyduck.gif|thumb|right|190px|Daisy Duck]]'''Daisy Duck''' is one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[cartoon]] and [[comic book]] characters. She was created as a female counterpart and [[girlfriend]] to [[Donald Duck]], and first appeared in the cartoon "[[Don Donald]]" in 1936. However, it wasn't until the cartoon "[[Mr. Duck Steps Out]]" in 1940 that she received her name and own speaking voice (she was previously played by the same person who did Donald).
Daisy has Donald's temper but has far greater control of it, and tends to be more sophisticated than her boyfriend.
Daisy replaced an earlier, short-lived character named [[Donna Duck]]. In the various Disney comics, Donna exists as Daisy's sister, and the mother of triplets [[April, May, and June Duck]], who serve as Huey, Dewey, and Louie's female counterparts.
In some appearances, Daisy is presented as a close friend of [[Minnie Mouse]].
==Animation==
Daisy made various appearances alongside Donald in Donald's various theatrical shorts. Her last appearance in the "classic era" was ''Donald's Diary'', in which she played the role of a young lady who manages to start a long-term relationship with Donald. But after having a nightmare about the anxieties that would come with being married to her, Donald runs out on her and joins the [[Foreign Legion]].
Daisy's return to animation came in [[1983]]'s ''[[Mickey's Christmas Carol]]'', where she was cast as Isabelle, [[Ebenezer Scrooge|Scrooge]]'s one-time romantic partner. And as with most Disney characters, she was given a small [[cameo]] in [[1988]]'s ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]''.
Curiously, Daisy never appeared on ''[[DuckTales]]'', but she was in its spin-off. In the [[1996]] television series ''[[Quack Pack]]'', Daisy was presented as a much more assertive and liberated woman than in her previous appearances, where she was employed as a television station reporter, with Donald as her cameraman.
Daisy also has appeared in the later television series ''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' and ''[[House of Mouse]]'' as a regular character. She has also appeared in the direct-to-video films ''[[Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas]]'', ''[[Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas]]'', and ''[[The Three Musketeers]]''.
==Comics==
According to the various comics written by [[Carl Barks]] and [[Don Rosa]], Daisy was "born" in [[1920]]. According to Rosa, Daisy is the sister of Donald's brother-in-law &mdash; Daisy's brother had married Donald's twin sister, [[Della Thelma Duck]], and together, the two became the parents of [[Huey, Dewey and Louie|Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck]].
Occasionally Daisy also dates Donald's cousin, [[Gladstone Gander]].
In the comics, Daisy is also a member of a local gossip group called the "Chit-Chat Society," which plays bridge and sponsors [[charity]] fundraisers. The core membership seems to consist of [[Clarabelle Cow]], [[Clara Cluck]] and a character named "Dora," though occasionally some other unnamed characters appear.
Since the early [[1970s]], Daisy has been featured as a crimefighter in [[Italy|Italian]] Disney comics. The character of "Super Daisy" (''"Paperinika"'' in Italian) was designed as a female counterpart to "Super Donald" (''"[[Paperinik]]"'' in Italian). While the character of Super Donald was originally created to place Donald into situations where he was finally a "winner" (versus his usual portrayal as a "loser"), when Super Daisy appeared in the same story as Super Donald, she then became the "winner" and Donald was once more relagated to the role of "loser." This upset some children, who complained to the comics' editors, which resulted in the Italian comics ceasing to use Super Daisy, though the [[Brazil]] Disney comics continue to make use of Daisy's [[superhero]] alter ego.
As Super Daisy, Daisy has no superpowers, but instead uses devices created by high society fashion designer Genialina Edy Son. Genialia personally designed Daisy's costume, as well as supplying her with crimefighting gear such as sleeping pills and a [[James Bond]]-esque sports car. Very frequently, Super Daisy will both fight along side and against Super Donald. In the Brazilian stories, Super Daisy often teams up with other Disney comic superheroes, such as "[[Super Goof]]" ([[Goofy]]) , "Super Gilly" ("[[Gilbert]]"), the "Red Bat" ([[Fethry Duck]]), etc.
==In other media==
In the ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' video game series, Daisy appeared as a countess in Disney Castle. Her relations to Donald remain intact, especially in Kingdom Hearts 2 when she was seen scolding him.
==Voice actors==
*[[Clarence Nash]] (Early Daisy)
*[[Ruth Peterson]]
*[[Gloria Bondell]]
*[[Patricia Parris]] (''[[Mickey's Christmas Carol]]'')
*[[Kath Soucie]] (''[[Quack Pack]]'')
*[[Tress MacNeille]] (1999 - Present)
*[[Mika Doi]] (Japanese dubbings)
[[Category:Disney characters|Duck, Daisy]]
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Daisy]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Daisy]]
[[category:Kingdom Hearts characters|Duck, Daisy]]
[[Category:Donald Duck universe characters]]
[[da:Andersine And]]
[[de:Bewohner von Entenhausen#Daisy Duck]]
[[es:Daisy]]
[[fr:Daisy Duck]]
[[hu:Dézi Kacsa]]
[[it:Paperina]]
[[ja:デイジーダック]]
[[nl:Katrien Duck]]
[[no:Dolly Duck]]
[[pt:Margarida (banda desenhada)]]
[[fi:Iines Ankka]]
[[sv:Kajsa Anka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dot-com</title>
<id>9021</id>
<revision>
<id>42128121</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:26:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Removed spam.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dot-com''' (also '''dotcom''' or redundantly '''dot.com''') '''companies''' were the collection of [[Star
|
, which was at a later time the country of the ''kasdim''&mdash; the "Chaldeans", or just possibly the "[[Kassites]]". The toponymy is that of the Neo-Babylonian period of the Torah editors, not that of the supposed time of the original patriarch of the Hebrew people himself.
The 11th dynasty of the [[Kings of Babylon]] ([[6th century BC]]) is conventionally known to historians as the [[Chaldean Dynasty]]. Their kingdom in the southern portion of [[Babylonia]] lay chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of Mesopotamia, Chaldea proper was the vast plain in the south formed by the deposits of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]], extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.
==People==
The '''Chaldeans''' settled in southern Mesopotamia in the early part of the first millennium BC. Their language was [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and they settled much further to the south than the [[Arameans]], who settled in northern Mesopotamia and [[Aramea|Aram]]. They were one of the later tribes to leave the [[Arabian Peninsula|"Arabian" Peninsula]] and to settle in the [[Fertile Crescent]].
In modern times, there are several hundred thousands members of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]] (in [[Assyrians in Iraq|Iraq]], [[Assyrians in Iran|Iran]] and in the [[Assyrian diaspora|diaspora]], whose name was given by the Pope in the 16th century. Some of them claim descent from the ancient Chaldeans, others from the ancient Assyrians, and a majority of their parties and other organisartions agreed in 2003 to be called Chaldo-assyrians (see also ''[[Assyrian people]]'').
==Politics==
The Chaldean influence was felt in Babylonian politics. Several 9th and 8th century BC Babylonian kings were of Chaldean origin. The Chaldeans formed some of the strongest resistance to Assyrian rule. King [[Marduk-apal-iddina II]] resisted the Assyrians in the times of [[Sargon II]] and the early years of [[Sennacherib]]. King [[Mushezib-Marduk]] was king just before Sennacherib's sack of Babylon in [[689 BC]].
When Babylonia finally reestablished its independence, it was under the [[Chaldean Dynasty]] of king [[Nabopolassar]]. After the conquest of Babylonia by the [[Persians]], the Chaldeans disappear as an independent nation.
=="Chaldean" Astrologers and Magicians==
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and later authors used the name Chaldeans in particular for [[astrology|astrologers]] and [[mathematics|mathematicians]] from Babylonia.
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Aramaeans]]
[[Category:Chaldeans]]
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[de:Chaldäer]]
[[es:Caldea]]
[[fr:Chaldée]]
[[it:Caldei]]
[[ja:新バビロニア]]
[[pt:Caldéia]]
[[sv:Kaldeen]]
[[zh:新巴比倫王國]]
==External links and References==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=336&letter=C&search=chaldea Jewish Encyclopedia: Chaldea]
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9022273?tocId=9022273 Encyclopedia Britannica: Chaldea]
*[http://www.studylight.org/lex/heb/view.cgi?number=03778 Study Light: Kasidy]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Currying</title>
<id>6600</id>
<revision>
<id>40941219</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T00:38:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fleminra</username>
<id>44454</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ C++ STL/Boost currying</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], '''currying''' is the technique of transforming a [[function (programming)|function]] taking multiple [[parameter (computer science)|argument]]s into a function that takes a single argument (the first of the arguments to the original function) and returns a new function that takes the remainder of the arguments and returns the result. The technique was named by [[Christopher Strachey]] after logician [[Haskell Curry]], though it was invented by [[Moses Schönfinkel]] and [[Gottlob Frege]].
Intuitively, currying says "if you fix some [[parameter (computer science)|argument]]s, you get a function of the remaining arguments". So if you take the function in <em>two</em> variables <math>y^x</math>, and <em>fix</em> <math>y=2</math>, then you get the function in <em>one</em> variable <math>2^x</math>.
In [[theoretical computer science]], currying provides a way to study functions with multiple arguments in very simple theoretical models such as the [[lambda calculus]] in which functions only take a single argument.
The practical motivation for currying is that very often the functions you get by supplying some but not all of the arguments to a curried function are useful; for example, many languages have a function or operator similar to <code>plus_one</code>. Currying makes it easy to define these functions.
Some [[programming language]]s have [[syntactic sugar]] for currying, notably [[ML programming language|ML]] and [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]]. Any language that supports functions as [[first-class object]]s, including [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and [[JavaScript]] can be used to write curried functions.
==Examples==
Suppose that <code>plus</code> is a function taking two arguments <code>x</code> and <code>y</code> and returning <code>x + y</code>. In the [[ML programming language]] we would define it as follows:
plus = fn(x, y) => x + y
and <code>plus(1, 2)</code> returns <code>3</code> as we expect.
The '''curried''' version of <code>plus</code> takes a single argument <code>x</code> and returns a new function which takes a single argument <code>y</code> and returns <code>x + y</code>. In ML we would define it as follows:
curried_plus = fn(x) => fn(y) => x + y
and now when we call <code>curried_plus(1)</code> we get a new function that adds 1 to its argument:
plus_one = curried_plus(1)
and now <code>plus_one(2)</code> returns <code>3</code> and <code>plus_one(7)</code> returns <code>8</code>.
When declaring functions in the strictly-typed [[OCaml programming language]], the type returned by a function shows the Curried form of the function. Typing the function into the OCaml [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] displays the type immediately:
# let plus x y = x + y ;;
val plus : int -> int -> int = <fun>
===C++===
Currying may be achieved in [[C++]] using the [[Standard Template Library]] function object adapters (<code>binder1st</code> and <code>binder2nd</code>), and more generically using the [[Boost library|Boost]] <code>bind</code> mechanism.
Here is another way to do currying in C++ (from [http://www.codepost.org/view/103#comment350 this comment] on codepost.org):
The plus function:
int plus(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
The '''curried''' version of <code>plus</code>:
class curried_plus {
private:
int x;
public:
curried_plus(int _x) : x(_x) { ; }
int operator () (int y) const {
return plus(x, y);
}
};
and the usage:
curried_plus plus_one(1);
now <code>plus_one(2)</code> returns <code>3</code>.
==Mathematical view==
When viewed in a set-theoretic light, currying becomes the [[theorem]] that the set
<math>A^{B\times C}</math> of functions from
<math>B\times C</math> to <math>A</math>, and the set <math>(A^B)^C</math> of functions from
<math>C</math> to the set of functions from <math>B</math> to <math>A</math>,
are [[isomorphic]].
In other words, currying is the statement that product and Hom are [[adjoint functors]];
this is the key property of being a [[Cartesian closed category]].
==See also==
*[[Lazy evaluation]]
*[[Closure (computer science)]]
*[[S-m-n theorem]]
[[Category:Functional programming]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
[[Category:Lambda calculus]]
[[de:Currying]]
[[fr:Curryfication]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyrus (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6601</id>
<revision>
<id>42026694</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:15:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fastifex</username>
<id>411070</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Cyrus II (Pahlavi); Cyrus of Alexandria</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Cyrus''' (or '''Kourosh''' in [[Persian language | Persian]], '''Kyros''' in Greek) may refer to:
Persian rulers and princes:
* [[Cyrus I of Anshan]], [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] around 650 [[Anno Domini|BC]]
* [[Cyrus II of Persia | Cyrus II the Great]], Achaemenid [[List of kings of Persia|King of Kings of Persia]] 559 BC - 529 BC &mdash; See also [[Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]] and [[Cyrus the Great in the Quran]]
* [[Cyrus the Younger]], brother to the Persian King of kings [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes]] &mdash; died 401 BC
*[[Cyrus Reza II Pahlavi]], pretender to the modern Iranian imperial throne, 'succeeded' his father Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in exile
Furthermore:
* [[Cyrus of Alexandria]], a Melchite Patriarch and co-founder of [[Monothelism]]
* [[Cyrus (Chrono Trigger)|Cyrus]] is the name of a character in the video game ''[[Chrono Trigger]]''
* [[Cyrus (imapd)]] &mdash; a mail server meant to be run on a sealed system.
* [[Cyrus Poncha]] &mdash; National [[Squash Coach]] India
* [[Don Callis]] &mdash; a [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] who competed as '''Cy
|
t a public meeting in [[Bristol]] in 1833, and was incorporated by [[Act of Parliament]] in 1835. Isambard made two controversial decisions: to use a [[broad gauge]] of 7&nbsp;ft (actually 7&nbsp;ft 0.25&nbsp;[[inch|in]] or 2140&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]]) for the track, which he believed would offer superior running at high speeds; and to take a route which passed north of the [[Marlborough Downs]], an area with no significant towns, though it did offer potential connections to [[Oxford, England|Oxford]] and [[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]] and then to follow the [[Thames|Thames Valley]] into London. His decision to use the broad gauge for the line was controversial in that almost all British railways to date had used the {{standard gauge}} [[standard gauge]]. Brunel said that this was nothing more than a carry-over from the mine railways that [[George Stephenson]] had worked on prior to making the world's first passenger railway. Brunel worked out through mathematics and a series of trials that his broader gauge was the optimum railway size for providing stability and a comfortable ride to passengers (in addition to allowing for bigger carriages and more freight capacity).<ref>Oliivier, J. ''The Broad Gauge the Banc of the Great Western Railway Company'', 1846</ref> He surveyed the entire length of the route between London and Bristol himself.
The initial group of locomotives ordered by Brunel to his own specifications proved unsatisfactory, apart from the [[GWR Star Class|North Star locomotive]], and 20-year-old [[Daniel Gooch]] (later Sir) was appointed as Superintendent of [[Locomotive]]s. Brunel and Gooch chose to locate their [[Swindon railway works|locomotive works]] at the village of [[Swindon]], at the point where the gradual ascent from London turned into the steeper descent to the [[River Avon, Bristol|Avon]] valley at [[Bath]]. Drawing on his experience with the Thames Tunnel, the Great Western contained a series of impressive achievements – soaring viaducts, specially designed stations, and vast tunnels including the famous [[Box Tunnel]], which was the longest railway tunnel in the world at that time.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref> Brunel's achievements ignited the imagination of the technically minded Britons of the age, and he soon became one of the most famous men in the country on the back of this interest.
There is an anecdote which states that Box Tunnel is placed such that the sun shines all the way through it on Brunel's birthday. For more information, see the entry on the tunnel.<ref>Williams, Archibald. ''The Romance of Modern Locomotion'', C. A. Pearson Ltd., 1904.</ref>
After Brunel's death the decision was taken that the [[standard gauge]] should be used for all railways in the country. Despite the Great Western's claim of proof that its broad gauge was the better (disputed by at least one Brunel historian), the decision was made to go with Stephenson's narrow gauge – mainly because this had already covered a far greater amount of the country. In any event, by May 1892 (when the broad gauge was abolished) the Great Western had already been relaid to "[[dual gauge]]" (both broad and narrow) and so the transition was a relatively painless one.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
== Brunel's "atmospheric caper" ==
[[Image:Brunel's_Atmospheric_Railway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The remains of Brunel's atmospheric railway at [[Didcot Railway Centre]]]]
Another of Brunel's interesting though ultimately unsuccessful technical innovations was the [[atmospheric railway]], the extension of the GWR southward from Exeter towards [[Plymouth, England|Plymouth]] (technically the South Devon Railway (SDR), though supported by the GWR). Instead of using [[locomotive]]s, the trains were moved by Clegg and Samuda's patented system of atmospheric ([[vacuum]]) traction, whereby [[piston|pistons]] sucked air from the tunnel. The section from Exeter to Newton (now [[Newton Abbot]]) was completed on this principle, with pistons spaced every two miles, and trains ran at approximately 20&nbsp;[[miles per hour]] (32&nbsp;[[km/h]]).<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>. Fifteen-inch (381&nbsp;mm) pipes were used on the level portions, and 22-inch (559&nbsp;mm) pipes were intended for the steeper gradients. Unfortunately, the technology required the use of leather flaps to seal the vacuum pipes. The leather had to be kept supple by the use of [[tallow]], and tallow is attractive to [[rat]]s; the result was inevitable – the flaps were eaten, and air-powered vacuum service lasted less than a year, from 1847 (experimental services began in September; operationally from February 1848) to September 10, 1848.<ref>Parkin, Jim. ''Engineering Judgement and Risk'', Thomas Telford (publishers), 2000. ISBN 0727728733</ref> The accounts of the SDR for 1848 suggest that the atmospheric traction cost 3s 1d per mile (£0.10/km) compared to 1s 4d (£0.04/km) for conventional steam power. The pumping station at [[Starcross]], on the estuary of the [[River Exe]], remains a striking landmark, and a reminder of the atmospheric railway – which is also commemorated as the name of the village [[pub]]. A section of the pipe, without the leather covers, is preserved in [http://www.didcotrailwaycentre.org.uk/ Didcot Railway Centre].
==Transatlantic shipping==
[[Image:Great eastern launch attempt.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SS ''Great Eastern'' shortly before its launching, 1858.]]
Even before the Great Western Railway was opened, Brunel was moving on to his next project – [[transatlantic]] shipping. He used his prestige to convince his railway company employers to build the ''[[SS Great Western|Great Western]]'', at the time by far the largest steamship in the world. She first sailed in 1837. She was 236&nbsp;ft (72&nbsp;m) long, built of wood, and powered by sail and paddlewheels. Her first return trip to [[New York]] took just 29&nbsp;days, compared to two months for an average sail ship. In total, 74&nbsp;crossings to New York were made. The ''[[SS Great Britain|Great Britain]]'' followed in 1843; much larger at 322&nbsp;ft (98&nbsp;m) long, it was the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref>Lienhard, John H. ''The Engines of Our Ingenuity'', Oxford University Press US, 2003. ISBN 0195167317</ref>
Building on these successes, Brunel turned to a third ship in 1852, even larger than both of its predecessors, and intended for voyages to India and Australia. The ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]'' (originally dubbed ''[[Leviathan]]'') was cutting-edge technology for its time: almost 700 ft (213 m) long, fitted out with the most luxurious appointments and capable of carrying over 4,000 passengers. It was the first ship that was able to cruise under it's own power non-stop from London to New York, and it remained the largest ship built until the turn of the century. Like many of Brunel's ambitious projects, the ship soon ran over budget and behind schedule in the face of a series of momentous technical problems.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
The ship has been portrayed as a [[white elephant]], but it can be argued that in this case Brunel's failure was principally one of economics – his ships were simply years ahead of their time. His vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, screw-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry. Though a failure at its original purpose of passenger travel, it eventually found a role as an oceanic telegraph cable-layer, and the ''Great Eastern'' remains one of the most important vessels in the history of shipbuilding - the [[Trans-Atlantic cable]] had been laid, which meant that Europe and America now had a [[telecommunications]] link.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
==Illnesses and death of Brunel==
[[Image:Isambard Kingdom Brunel - Bronze - Temple - London.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bronze statue of Brunel at [[Temple]] in London.]]
In 1843, while performing a [[conjuring trick]] for the amusement of his children, Brunel accidentally inhaled a [[half-sovereign]] coin which became lodged in his windpipe. A special pair of [[forceps]] failed to remove it, as did a machine to shake it loose devised by Brunel himself. Eventually, at the suggestion of Sir Marc, Isambard was strapped to a board and turned upside-down, and the coin was jerked free.<ref>Dyer, T.F. Thiselton. ''Strange Pages from Family Papers 1900'', Kessinger Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0766153460</ref>
Brunel suffered a [[stroke]] in 1859, just before the ''Great Eastern'' made its first voyage to [[New York]]. He died ten days later at the age of 53 and was buried, like his father, at [[Kensal Green Cemetery]] in London.<ref>Kempton, A; Rennison, Robert William; CoxHumphreys, Rob. ''Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland v. 1 1500-1830'', Thomas Telford (publishers), 2002. ISBN 072772939X</ref> He left behind his wife, Mary; and son [[Henri Marc Brunel]], who also enjoyed some success as a [[civil engineer]].
==Legacy==
Many monuments to Brunel exist, from the statue at [[Temple]] in [[London]] (pictured) and a further statue at the capital's [[Paddington station]], to the flagpole of the Great Eastern at the entrance to [[Liverpool FC]]. Contemporary locations
|
plex motion determined by many cycles of short to very long periods. Due to [[nutation]] the tilt oscillates over 9" (about 280 [[metre|m]] on the surface) over a period of 18.6 years. The main long-term cycle has a period of 41000 years and an amplitude of about 0.68°, or 76 km on the surface. Currently the tilt is decreasing by about 0.47" per year, so the Arctic Circle is moving north by about 14 m per year. Also see [[precession]].
Countries which have significant territory within the Arctic Circle are:
* [[Russia]]
* [[Canada]]
* [[Denmark]] ([[Greenland]])
* [[United States of America]] ([[Alaska]])
* [[Norway]]
* [[Sweden]]
* [[Finland]]
The country of [[Iceland]] also has territory within the Arctic Circle, but less than 1 sq km. This area is on a few small islets, of which only [[Grímsey]] (which lies directly on the Arctic Circle) is inhabited.
==See also==
*[[Antarctic Circle]]
*[[Circumpolar arctic]]
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://groups.msn.com/965172qg02rbm4ek3a6e7udur5/_whatsnew.msnw Santa`s Lapland and Christmas Club] &mdash; Lapland and Arctic Circle
*[http://www.bugbog.com/images/maps/arctic_circle_map.jpg Topographical map of Arctic Circle, centered about North Pole]
*[http://www.world-maps.co.uk/maps/600-arctic.jpg Map of Arctic Circle (dotted line), showing major population areas]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/GE_P3_5_EN.html Terra Incognita: Exploration of the Canadian Arctic] &mdash; Historical essay about early expeditions to the Canadian arctic, illustrated with maps, photographs and drawings
[[Category:Arctic]]
[[Category:Geography of Nunavut]]
[[Category:Geography of the Northwest Territories]]
[[Category:Lines of latitude]]
[[cs:Severní polární kruh]]
[[de:Polarkreis]]
[[el:Αρκτικός Κύκλος]]
[[eo:Arkta Cirklo]]
[[es:Círculo polar ártico]]
[[fr:Cercle Arctique]]
[[no:Den nordlige polarsirkel]]
[[pl:Ko&#322;o podbiegunowe]]
[[pt:Círculo polar ártico]]
[[sv:Polcirkeln]]
[[wa:Ceke polaire artike]]
[[zh:&#21271;&#26997;&#22280;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Assault rifle</title>
<id>719</id>
<revision>
<id>40563851</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:27:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>United Kingdom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Usarmy m16a2.jpg|right|thumb|[[M16A2]] ([[United States|U.S.]]). This version was adopted in 1982]]
An '''assault rifle''' is a type of [[automatic rifle]] generally defined as a [[selective fire]] [[rifle]] or [[carbine]] (depending on the particular [[firearm]]'s size), using intermediate-powered ammunition. They are categorized between the larger and heavier [[light machine gun]] and the weaker [[submachine gun]]. Assault rifles are the standard [[Small arms|small arm]] in most modern [[Army|armies]], having largely replaced or suplemented the larger, more powerful rifles of the past.
The name is a literal translation of the German term ''Sturmgewehr'' or "storm weapon", first applied to the [[Sturmgewehr 44]], developed during [[World War II]]. It gradually became a popular term for this type of firearm. The term has since been retro-actively applied to earlier weapons with similar traits.
==History==
===1900s to the 1930s: Light automatic rifles using rifle cartridges===
[[Image:Avtomat Fedorova 1916.jpg|right|thumb|]]Federov Avtomat (Russia). The weapon fired the Japanese rifle [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge.]]
''These automatic firearms tended to use used pre-existing rifle cartridges, [[kinetic energy]] ranged between 3,000&ndash;5,000 [[Joule|J]] (2,200&ndash;3,700 foot-pounds), velocites of 750&ndash;900 [[m/s]] (2,460&ndash;2,950 ft/s) and bullets of 9 to 13 [[Gram|g]] (139&ndash;200 grains).''
The first true assault rifle was probably the [[Italy|Italian]]-made [[Cei-Rigotti]], which was developed in the 1890s and finished around 1900, at the beginning of the 20th century; it never entered military service, however. The first service assault rifle was the [[Russia]]n [[Federov Avtomat]] of 1916, chambered for the [[Japan]]ese [[Arisaka]] 6.5 × 50 mm rifle [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]], which was only used in small numbers due to supply problems.
The [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] (BAR) was a [[World War I]]-era weapon that used a full-power round. It was an [[automatic rifle]] by today's definition, and designed for single accurate shots and suppressive automatic fire. The weight of roughly 15 pounds (7 kg) meant that it was rather cumbersome for closer quarters. Later developments added heavier [[Gun barrel|barrels]] and [[bipod]]s that lent it to being used as more like today's light machine gun or [[squad automatic weapon]], though it did help establish the doctrine of use for light selective fire rifles. The BAR was produced in large numbers, widely adopted, and served into the 1960s with the U.S. military and other nations. While it did not use an intermediate cartridge, it was an intermediate weapon between the newly adopted submachine guns and heavier [[machine gun]]s such as the [[Lewis Gun]].
During WWI, a few weaker submachine guns also entered service, such as the [[Villar Perosa]], the [[Berretta 1918]] and the [[MP18]]. These weapons fired rounds based of pistols — [[9 mm Glisenti]] and [[9 mm Bergmann]]. The 9 mm Bergman was based on the [[9 mm Parabellum]], with reduced charge to reduce recoil in the MP18. The developers of the [[Thompson submachine gun]] (also developed during the 1910s) originally intended to use rifle-powered rounds. However, a mechanical system that could handle their power was not found and it ended up using the [[.45 ACP]] cartridge. These firearms are considered part of the [[submachine gun]] class, but were an important part in the development of the assault rifles.
===1930s: Automatic intermediate weapons===
''Some of these automatic and [[semi-automatic]] firearms used new intermediate cartridges; others used pre-existing rounds.''
An attempt to provide soldiers with a rifle with intermediate-power ammunition that was heavier than a [[submachine gun]] (too weak, with short range due to the [[pistol]] ammunition), but lighter than a long rifle (uncomfortable to fire, and difficult to control on [[fully-automatic]] mode due to the powerful ammunition; more expensive to design and manufacture), by the [[Italy|Italian]] arms company [[Beretta]] resulted in the MAB 38 (''Moschetto Automatico Beretta 1938''). The MAB 38 used a [[Fiocchi]] ''9M38'' cartridge and a higher-powered 9 mm Parabellum cartridge, which could provide longer range fire. The effective range was about 200 m, although it was declared to be effective up to 500 m. The MAB 38 was a multipurpose weapon.
[[Image:M1 Carbine.jpg|thumb|[[M1 Carbine]] (U.S.). Unlike the M1, the later M2 and M3 were [[Automatic fire|fully-automatic]]]]
In 1938, prior to World War II, the United States introduced the [[M1 Carbine]], which was an intermediate power weapon chambered for the [[.30 Carbine]] cartridge. The M1 Carbine was originally planned to have automatic fire, but this was dropped from the first version, although later in the war, selective fire variants were made (M2 and M3 Carbines). The weapon had higher [[stopping power]] than [[submachine gun]]s, but was not as powerful as full-size automatic rifles such as the BAR. The longer barrel (18-inch) provided the carbine with higher [[muzzle velocity]] than pistols and submachine guns chambered for the same .30 round.
The M1 Carbine series was designed for close quarters engagements, a concept that would be re-applied later. It marked the first time in which such an intermediate weapon would be mass-produced in such large numbers &mdash; it became the most produced American weapon of the war, with millions made. The M1 Carbine series would remain in service with the U.S. military until replaced by the [[M16 (rifle)|M16 rifle]] in the 1960s; it continued to be used in other nations.
===1940s and 1950s: Maschinenkarabiner, Sturmgewehr, & the AK-47===
[[Image:Sturmgewehr 44.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sturmgewehr 44]] (Germany). Its development began in earnest with the Maschinenkarabiner project]]
''Some of these automatic firearms used pre-existing rounds; others used new intermediate cartridges. Kinetic energy ranged between 1,400&ndash;2,100 J (1,033&ndash;1,550 foot-pounds), muzzle velocities of 600&ndash;800m/s (1,970&ndash;2,625 ft/s) and bullets of 7&ndash;9g (108&ndash;139 grains).''
Germany, like other countries, had studied the problem since [[World War I]], and their factories made a variety of non-standard cartridges, therefore having less incentive to retain their existing calibers. The 7.92 × 30 mm cartridge was an example of these experiments; in 1941, it was improved to [[7.92 x 33 mm|7.92 × 33 mm]] ''Infanterie Kurz Patrone'' ("Infantry Short Standard"). In 1942, it was again improved as ''Maschinenkarabiner Patrone S'', and in 1943, ''Pistolen Patrone 43mE''; then, finally, ''Infanterie Kurz Patrone 43''. It is just a coincidence, but the intermediate cartridge developed by Winchester for the M1 Carbine, developed slightly before, also measured 33 mm.
In 1942, [[Walther]] presented the ''Maschinenkarabiner'' ("automatic carbine", abbr. MKb), named MKb42(W). In the same year, [[Haenel]] presented the MKb42(H), designed by [[Hugo Schmeisser]] as a result of this program. Rheinmetall-Borsig (some said Krieghoff) presented its [[FG 42]] (''Fallschirmjaeger Gewehr 42'', sponsored by [[Hermann Göring]]) though this was in a different role, and using a heavy [[8 mm Mauser|8 × 57 mm]] (8 mm Mauser) cartridge, which was not an intermediate round. War-time tests in [[Russia]] indicated the MKb42(H) performed better than the other two. Schmeisser developed it
|
ost of the larger IRC networks]
*[http://irc.netsplit.de/ Andreas Gelhausen's extensive IRC statistics]
*[http://irc.alien.net.au/chanmodes.html List of channel modes that various IRC Daemons use]
*[http://www.irchelp.org Large archive of IRC-related documents, somewhat EFNet biased]
*[http://searchirc.com/whois/ cross network whois search] at [http://searchirc.com/ ''Search IRC'', an IRC search engine]
*[http://www.efnet.org/ EFnet IRC] The Original IRC Network
*[http://www.ircimages.com/ Raw images spidered from IRC channels]
*[http://www.irc-junkie.org/ ''IRC Junkie'' - IRC news]
*[http://www.irchelp.org/ ''IRC Help'' - Learning the basics of IRC, including netiquette]
*[http://www.ircbeginner.com/ IRC beginner].
*[http://irc.alien.net.au/ An extensive list of different ''numerics'' and modes used by various IRC networks]
*RFC 1459 - Technical Information about the IRC Protocol]
*[http://www.fredlwm.hpg.ig.com.br/documentation/IRC-mini-HOWTO/ Linux IRC mini-HOWTO]
*[http://www.reseaux-irc.com/ Reseaux-IRC.com - French non-profit IRC monitoring project]
*[http://www.xchat.org/ XCHAT.org - Popular client for *nix and more recently, Windows.]
*[http://www.linuxirc.com/ LinuxIRC.com - Linux IRC]
*[http://www.wyldryde.org/chat/getchat.php WyldRyde.org - Add an IRC chatroom to any web site]
[[Category:IRC|*]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]
[[ar:IRC]]
[[bg:IRC]]
[[ca:IRC]]
[[cs:IRC]]
[[da:IRC]]
[[de:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[eo:IRC]]
[[es:IRC]]
[[fa:آی.آر.سی]]
[[fi:IRC]]
[[fr:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[gl:IRC]]
[[he:IRC]]
[[hr:IRC]]
[[hu:Irc]]
[[ia:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[id:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[io:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[is:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[it:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[ja:インターネット・リレー・チャット]]
[[ko:IRC]]
[[lt:IRC]]
[[lv:IRC]]
[[ms:IRC]]
[[nl:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[nn:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[no:IRC]]
[[pl:IRC]]
[[pt:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[ro:IRC]]
[[ru:IRC]]
[[simple:IRC]]
[[sk:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[sl:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[sq:IRC]]
[[sr:ИРЦ]]
[[sv:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[sw:IRC]]
[[th:ไออาร์ซี]]
[[tr:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[uk:IRC]]
[[vi:IRC]]
[[zh:IRC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ideogram</title>
<id>14731</id>
<revision>
<id>41179871</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:10:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ideograms''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&iota;&delta;&epsilon;&alpha;'' '''''idea''''' "idea" + ''&gamma;&rho;&alpha;&phi;&omega;'' '''''grapho''''' "to write") are [[Graphic Design|graphical]] [[symbol]]s that represent [[idea]]s.
Ideographs in the strictest sense do not constitute a complete [[writing system]], as any writing system must be able to refer directly to a language in order to faithfully represent that language, but are often used in [[wayfinding]] and sign systems, especially in [[airports]] and other environments where many people may not be familiar with the language of the place they are in.
"Ideograms" is commonly used to describe [[logogram|logographic writing systems]] such as Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters. However, symbols in logographic systems generally represent [[word]]s or [[morpheme]]s rather than pure ideas.
The term "ideogram" or "ideograph" is also used to describe two of the six ways in which Chinese characters were designed. See [[Chinese character classification]] for more information.
There is no single way to read an ideographic system, because there is no one-to-one correspondence between symbol and language. In some cases, only the author of a text can read it with any certainty, and it may be said that they are ''interpreted'' rather than read. Such scripts often work best as mnemonic aids for oral texts, or as outlines that will be fleshed out in speech.
Examples of ideographic systems:
*'''[[Aztec writing|Aztec]]''' — [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]]
*'''[[Dongba script|Dongba]]''' — [[Naxi]]
*'''[[Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing|Mi'kmaq]]''' — [[Mi'kmaq]]
The Dongba script is the only extant ideographic system.
==See also==
* [[Logotype]]
* [[Icon]]
* [[Sona language]]
* [[Blissymbolics]]
* [[Lexigram]]
* [[Electronic circuit language]]
* [[Energy Systems Language]]
==References==
*DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824810686
*Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 082481892X (paperback); ISBN 0824818423 (hardcover)
*Unger, J. Marshall. 2003. ''Ideogram: Chinese Characters and the Myth of Disembodied Meaning''. ISBN 0824827600 (trade paperback), ISBN 0824826566 (hardcover)
==External links==
*[http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/ideographic_myth.html The Ideographic Myth] (an extract from DeFrancis' book)
*[http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm?ContentAlias=symbolsigns AIGA Symbol Signs] (common US ideograms).
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[Category:Symbols]]
[[da:Ideogram]]
[[de:Schriftzeichen#Ideogramm]]
[[eo:Ideogramo]]
[[fr:Idéogramme]]
[[gl:Ideograma]]
[[ko:표의 문자]]
[[it:Ideogramma]]
[[nl:Ideogram]]
[[ja:表意文字]]
[[pl:Pismo ideograficzne]]
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[[sv:Ideogram]]
[[zh:形意文字]]
[[ru:Идеограмма]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish Republican Army</title>
<id>14732</id>
<revision>
<id>42056245</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:27:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.131.164.42</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article primarily deals with the organisation recognised by [[Dáil Éireann]] in 1919 as the legitimate army of the [[Irish Republic]] (1919&mdash;1922). For Irish paramilitary organisations after 1922 that claim or have claimed the to be the linear descendant of that army and have called themselves "Irish Republican Army" see [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]], [[Official Irish Republican Army]] (1969- ), [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] (1969- ), [[Continuity Irish Republican Army]] (1986- ), and [[Real Irish Republican Army]] (1997- ).''
[[Image:Flyingcolumn westcork-DB668.JPG|300px|right|thumb|The [[West Cork Flying Column]]<br><small>during the War of Independence.</small>]]
The '''Irish Republican Army''' ('''IRA'''), sometimes known later as the '''Old IRA''', was a military organisation descended from the [[Irish Volunteers]] which was recognised in [[1919]] by Dáil Éireann as the legitimate army of the [[unilateral declaration of independence|UDI]] [[Irish Republic]], the Irish state proclaimed in the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1916]] and reaffirmed by the Dáil in January [[1919]]. In [[Irish language|Irish]], it was referred to as '''Óglaigh na hÉireann''' ([[Óglaigh na hÉireann|see here]] for more).
Though a series of organisations later claimed to be a continuation of the IRA from the 1920s to today, most Irish people disagree with these claims. After the signature of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] in 1921, members of the IRA who supported the Treaty formed the nucleus of the [[Irish Defence Forces|National Army]] founded by IRA leader [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] in [[1922]]. While the anti-Treaty IRA continued to exist after its defeat in the [[Irish Civil War]], by the late 1930s it had lost most of the legitimacy with which most supporters of the Republican side initially regarded it. A small minority of Irish people accepts later claimants to the name as the political heirs of the original Irish Republican Army, though none had their claims accepted by Dáil Éireann.
To distinguish between the army of the Irish Republic, and later claimants to the name, the original army recognised by Dáil is sometimes called the '''Old IRA'''.
==Origins==
[[Physical force Irish republicanism]] as an ideology had a long history, from the [[United Irishmen]] of the [[1798 rebellion|1798]] and [[1803 rebellion|1803]] rebellions, to the [[Young Ireland]]er rebellion of [[1848]] and the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] of [[1867]]. One of the key leaders of the IRB was [[Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa]]. His funeral in [[1915]] became a major national event and brought together many of the key leaders of early 20th century nationalism, from [[Padraig Pearse]] to [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]]. In addition, the methods of the IRA were to some extent inspired by the traditions of militant agrarian Irish secret societies like the [[Defenders (Ireland)|Defenders]] and the [[Ribbonmen]].
The acronym '''IRA''' was first used by the IRB organization in America (also known as the [[Fenian Brotherhood]]). This "Irish Republican Army" of the 1860s comprised the American Fenians' paramilitary forces, organized into a number of regiments. Fenian soldiers wearing IRA insignia fought at the [[Battle of Ridgeway]] ([[June 2]], [[1866]]). However the term ''Irish Republican Army'' in its modern sense was first used in the second decade of the [[20th century]] from the merger of the [[Irish Volunteers]] and the [[Irish Citizens Army]] after the [[Easter Rising]].
===Political background===
The ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1914]]'', more generally known as the '''''Third Home Rule Act''''', was an [[Act of Parliament]] passed by the [[British Parliament]] in May [[1914]] which sought to give [[Ireland]] regional self-government within the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Although it received the [[Royal Assent]] in September 1914, its implementation was postponed until after the [[First World War]] (at that stage expected to last only a matter of months), amid fears that opposition to home rule by [[Irish Unionist]]s and illegal gun-running by the [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] would lead to an Irish civil war.
However the outbreak of the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1916]],
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stems|Boeing]] proposing the [[Boeing YC-14|YC-14]], and [[McDonnell Douglas]] proposing the [[McDonnell Douglas YC-15|YC-15]]. The AMST competition was cancelled before a winner had been selected.
By the early-1980s, the USAF found itself with a very large, but aging fleet of [[C-141 Starlifter]]s. Some of the C-141s had major structural problems as a result of heavy use. Compounding matters, USAF historically never possessed sufficient strategic airlift capabilities to fulfill its airlift requirements. In response, McDonnell Douglas elected to develop the YC-15 as the basis for a new aircraft. This aircraft, by then designated the C-17A Globemaster III, was ordered in August 1981. The new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines. This would allow it to perform all work performed by the C-141, but to also fulfill some of the duties of the [[C-5 Galaxy]], so that the C-5 fleet would be freed up for larger, more outsize cargo.
Development continued until December, 1985 when a full-scale production contract was signed. Its maiden flight was on [[September 15]], [[1991]] from the McDonnell-Douglas west coast plant in [[Long Beach, California]]. This aircraft (T-1) and five more production models (P1-P5) participated in extensive flight testing and evaluation at [[Edwards AFB]]. Soon after the C-17 reached production, McDonnell Douglas was acquired by its former competitor, Boeing.
===USAF background===
The first production model was delivered to Charleston Air Force Base, S.C., on [[July 14]], [[1993]]. The first squadron of C-17s, the [[17th Airlift Squadron]], was declared operationally ready on [[January 17]], [[1995]].
[[Image:globemaster_tactical.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Seventeen USAF C-17 Globemaster III on a low level tactical training mission.]]
The Air Force originally programmed to buy a total of 120 C-17s, with the last one being scheduled for delivery in November 2004. The fiscal 2000 budget funded another 14 aircraft for [[United States Special Operations Command|Special Operations Command]]. Basing of the original 120 C-17s is planned for [[Charleston AFB, South Carolina|Charleston AFB]]; [[McChord Air Force Base|McChord AFB]] (first aircraft arrived in July 1999); [[Altus AFB, Oklahoma|Altus AFB]]; and at an Air National Guard unit in Jackson, Miss. Basing of the additional 14 aircraft to McGuire AFB NJ Elemendorf AK Hickham HI Dover AFB DE and Travis AFB CA. An additional 60 units were ordered in May of 2002. The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] is considering an additional 42 aircraft. Depending upon the fate of the C-5 Galaxy, there may be further orders.
USAF originally intended to acquire about 350 units, though this was reduced at the end of the [[Cold War]]. However, USAF has been so pleased and amazed with the aircraft that it is entirely possible that the C-17 will be ordered in greater quantities than originally envisioned, with current orders standing at 180<!-- or is it 194? -->, and likely to reach 222<!--or 236? --> in the near future.
===RAF background===
Boeing has actively marketed the C-17 to many European nations including [[Belgium]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]], and [[Spain]]. Of these, Britain was always seen as the most likely customer given its increasingly expeditionary military strategy and global commitments. The [[Royal Air Force]] has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the [[United States Air Force]]. The UK's 1998 [[Strategic Defence Review]] identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter following the protracted procurement of the European airlifter, the [[Airbus]] [[Airbus A400M|A400M]]. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift (STSA) competition commenced in September of that year. The UK cancelled the competition in August 1999 recognizing that the C-17 was the only aircraft that met its demanding specifications.
The UK [[Secretary of State for Defence|Defence Secretary]], [[Geoff Hoon]], announced in May 2000 that the RAF would lease four C-17s from Boeing for an initial seven years with an optional two year extension. At this point the RAF would have the option to buy the aircraft or return them to Boeing. The UK committed to upgrading the C-17s in line with the USAF so that in the event of them being returned to Boeing the USAF could adopt them.
The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on [[May 17]], [[2001]] and flown to [[RAF Brize Norton]] by [[No. 99 Squadron RAF|No. 99 Squadron]] which had previously trained with USAF crews to gain competence on the type. The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on [[August 24]], [[2001]]. The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new centre wing fuel tank.
The RAF declared itself delighted with the C-17 and reports began to emerge that they wished to retain the aircraft regardless of the [[A400M]]'s progress. Although the C-17 fleet was to be a fallback for the A400M, the UK announced on [[July 21]], [[2004]] that they have elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, even though the A400M is moving towards production. They will also be placing a follow-on order for one aircraft, though there may be additional purchases later.{{ref|gdr_2003}} While the A400M is described as a "strategic" airlifter, the C-17 gives the RAF true strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of 77,000 kg compared to the Airbus' 37,000 kg. The fifth aircraft will be ordered when the USAF places its expected order for 42, in early 2005.
In RAF service the C-17 has not been given an official designation (e.g. C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5) due to its leased status, but is referred to simply as the C-17. Following the end of the lease period the four aircraft will assume an RAF designation, most likely "Globemaster C1." Presumably, should the additional aircraft enter service prior to this, it alone will carry the C1 designation for a time.
=== Luftwaffe background ===
The [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] and resultant [[tsunami]]s placed a strain on the global strategic airlifter pool. The impressive performance of the C-17 in USAF and RAF service have persuaded [[Germany]] to consider acquiring 2-4 C-17s for the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' in a [[dry lease]] arrangement, at least until the A400M is available in 2009. German [[Foreign Minister]] [[Joschka Fischer]] stated in the German news magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' that the government needed its own organic strategic transport capability to be able to respond to disasters in a better manner than it was able to for this incident. During the tsunami relief effort, Germany tried to acquire transport through its usual method of [[wet lease|wet leasing]] [[Antonov]] airlifters via private companies, but found to its dismay that there were no available aircraft. While the stated goal of a C-17 lease would be to last until the A400M's arrival, it is always possible that the ''Luftwaffe'' may undergo an experience similar to that of the RAF, and elect to retain them.{{ref|expatica_bdr}}
=== RAAF background ===
The [[Royal Australian Air Force]] was revealed in late [[2005 in aviation|2005]] to be considering four C-17s or eight A400Ms for strategic transport. [[Minister for Defence (Australia)|Minister for Defence]] [[Robert Hill (Australian politician)|Robert Hill]] stated that the [[Australian Defence Force]] was considering such aircraft given inavailability of aircraft from partner nations and air freight companies. The C-17 is considered to be the favorite, due to being a "proven aircraft," as well as having earlier availability. Though unstated, commonality with USAF and the RAF would likely be of benefit as well. The service later announced on [[March 2]], [[2006]], that they were purchasing three or four examples, with an [[entry into service]] date of 2006.{{ref|raaf_pr}}{{ref|wsj_aussie_c17}}
==Wartime usage==
The C-17 was used to deliver [[military]] goods and [[humanitarian aid]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] as well as [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] in [[Iraq]] by both services. On [[March 26]], [[2003]], fifteen USAF C-17s participated in the biggest combat airdrop since [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]] in December, 1989. The night-time airdrop of 1,000 soldiers occurred over Bashur, [[Iraq]]. It opened the northern front to combat operations and constituted the largest formation airdrop since [[D-Day]] in [[World War II]].
==Units using the C-17==
[[image:C-17 5.jpg|thumb|300px|The C-17 Globemaster III (P-45 is shown) releasing a [[flare_(pyrotechnic)|flare]].]]
===United States Air Force===
Inventory: 71 C-17, 67 C-17ER (+42 C-17ER on order) (as of [[July 25]], [[2005]])
*[[Altus AFB, Oklahoma|Altus AFB]]
**[[97th Air Mobility Wing]]
***[[58th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[Charleston AFB, South Carolina|Charleston AFB]]
**[[315th Airlift Wing]]
***[[300th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[317th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[701st Airlift Squadron]]
**[[437th Airlift Wing]]
***[[14th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[15th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[16th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[17th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[March ARB, California|March ARB]]
*[[McChord Air Force Base|McChord AFB]]
**[[62nd Airlift Wing]]
***[[4th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[7th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[8th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[10th Airlift Squadron]]
**[[446th Airlift Wing]]
***[[97th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[313th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[728th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[McGuire Air Force Base|McGuire AFB]]
**[[6th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB, Mississippi|Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB]]
**[[172nd Airlift Wing]]
***[[183rd Airlift Squadron]]
===Royal Air Force===
Inventory: 4 C-17ER (+1 C-17ER on order)
*[[RAF Brize Norton]]
**[[No. 99 Squadron RAF|No. 99 Squadron]]
===Royal Australian Air Force===
|
ber of other groups. After years of being limited in his contributions to the Beatles, he released a large number of the songs he had stockpiled in the first major solo work released after the breakup, ''[[All Things Must Pass]]'', the first triple album by a single artist in rock history. It included the number one hit single "[[My Sweet Lord]]", although Harrison was later sued for [[copyright infringement]] over the supposed similarities to the 1963 [[The Chiffons|Chiffons]] single "[[He's So Fine]]". Harrison denied deliberately stealing the song, but he did lose in court during 1976; in the ruling, the court accepted the possibility that Harrison had "unconsciously copied" the Chiffons melody as the basis for his own song. Disputes over damages dragged on into the 1990s, with manager [[Allen Klein]] changing sides by buying [[Bright Tunes]], which published "He's So Fine", and continuing the suit after parting with Harrison, and Harrison ultimately winding up as the owner of both songs.
[[Image:BanglaDeshCover.jpg|right|thumb|The Concert for Bangaldesh]]
Harrison was probably the first modern musician to organize a major [[charity]] concert. His [[Concert for Bangladesh]] on [[August 1]], [[1971]], drew over 40,000 people to two shows in [[New York City|New York's]] [[Madison Square Garden]] with the intention of aiding the starving refugees from the war in [[Bangladesh]]. [[Ravi Shankar (musician)|Ravi Shankar]] opened the proceedings, which included other popular musicians such as [[Bob Dylan]] (who rarely appeared live in the early 1970s), [[Eric Clapton]] who made his first public appearance in months (due to a heroin addiction, begun as [[Derek and the Dominos]] broke up), [[Leon Russell]], [[Badfinger]], [[Billy Preston]] and fellow Beatle [[Ringo Starr]]. Unfortunately, tax troubles and questionable expenses tied up many of the concert's proceeds. ([http://www.theconcertforbangladesh.com/ Apple Corps] recently released a newly arranged concert DVD and CD on October 25, 2005 in the USA, and October 24 in the rest of the world. The DVD and CD contains additional material (such as previously unreleased rehearsal footage of "If Not For You" featuring Harrison and Dylan), and all artists' sales royalties continue to go to [[UNICEF]].)
In addition to his own works, during this time Harrison wrote and/or produced several hits for Ringo Starr ("It Don't Come Easy", "Photograph") and also appeared on tracks by John Lennon ("How Do You Sleep?"), [[Harry Nilsson]] ("You're Breakin' My Heart"), [[Badfinger]] ("Day After Day"), [[Billy Preston]] ("That's The Way God Planned It") and [[Cheech & Chong]] ("Basketball Jones").
Harrison's next album was ''[[Living in the Material World]]'' in 1973. "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)" was a big hit, and "[[Sue Me Sue You Blues]]" was a window into the former Beatles' miserable legal travails, but overall the record was seen as too overtly religious.
In 1974 Harrison released ''[[Dark Horse (album)|Dark Horse]]'' and at the same time launched a major tour of the United States which was subsequently criticised for its long opening act of Ravi Shankar & Friends, Harrison's hoarse voice, and his frequent preaching to the audience. It was during this period while in LA preparing for the 1974 tour that he also opened offices for his new [[Dark Horse Records]] on the [[A&M Records]] lot on La Brea Avenue in Los Angeles. It was in those offices that he met a beautiful young woman by the name of Olivia Trinidad Arias who was assigned to work at his label with [[Terry Doran]] from Apple and Jack Oliver who came over from London to run Dark Horse Records. The relationship progressed during the rehearsals and Olivia joined George on his 1974 tour during which their relationship blossomed into something more resulting in her permanent relocation to [[Friar Park]] in [[Henley-on-Thames]], England, George's home.
Subsequent to the 1974 tour he returned to his home in the UK and commuted between there and Los Angeles for the next few years while Dark Horse issued a small number of records by performers such as [[Splinter (band)|Splinter]], [[Attitudes]] and Ravi Shankar. He also planned to issue his own records through Dark Horse after his contract with [[EMI]] expired.
Amidst a music media rife with Beatle-reunion speculation, Harrison was probably the least accommodating of these theories, telling the press in 1974 that while he wouldn't mind working with John Lennon and Ringo Starr again, he could not see himself being involved in a band with Paul McCartney, who was limiting his contributions in Beatles.
His final album for EMI (and Apple Records) was ''[[Extra Texture|Extra Texture (Read All About It)]]'', featuring a textured cover. The album spawned two singles, "You" and "[[This Guitar (Can't Keep From Crying)]]", which became Apple's final single release in 1975.
Following the former Beatles' release from Capitol at the beginning of that year, the record company was in a position to license releases featuring Beatles and post-Beatles work on the same album, and used Harrison for this unfortunate experiment. ''[[The Best of George Harrison]]'' combined the musician's best Beatle songs with a slim selection of his best solo Apple work, doing neither era a favor.
Business and personal troubles took their toll on Harrison over during 1976, and when his first Dark Horse album (''[[Thirty Three & 1/3]]'', his age at the time) was due, Harrison was suffering from [[hepatitis]] and couldn't complete the production. After A&M threatened to take him to court, [[Warner Brothers Records]] stepped in, buying out Harrison's Dark Horse contract with A&M, and allowing him time to regain his health.
''Thirty Three & 1/3'' was his most successful late-1970s album, and featured the hits "[[This Song]]" (a satire of the "[[My Sweet Lord]]" ruling) and "[[Crackerbox Palace]]" (a humourous and surrealistic number, looking back on his life to date; the title was the name of comedian [[Lord Buckley]]'s former small home in Hollywood, California, which Harrison visited, and 'Mr. Grief' in the song had been Buckley's manager).
After his second marriage and the birth of son [[Dhani Harrison]], Harrison's next album was self-titled: 1979s ''[[George Harrison (album)|George Harrison]]'' included the hits "[[Blow Away]]", "[[Love Comes To Everyone]]" and "Faster". "Blow Away" featured a memorable electric-[[slide guitar]] introduction, and became a much-loved single at the end of the Seventies.
==1980s==
In 1980 Harrison became the only ex-Beatle to write an autobiography, ''I Me Mine''. Former Beatles publicist [[Derek Taylor]] helped with the book, which was initially released in a high-priced limited edition. The book said little about the Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, such as [[gardening]] and [[Formula One]] auto racing. It also included the lyrics to his songs and many rare photographs.
Immediately following the December 1980 murder of his friend and former bandmate John Lennon, Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Ringo Starr to make it a tribute song to Lennon, "[[All Those Years Ago]]", which found substantial radio airplay and continues to be a staple of "[[classic rock]]" radio. All the three remaining Beatles performed on it, although it was expressly a Harrison single. "Teardrops" was issued as a follow-up single, but wasn't nearly as successful. Both singles were pulled from the album ''[[Somewhere in England]]'', released in 1981. The album was originally slated for release in late 1980, but Warner Brothers rejected it, and ordered Harrison to replace some of the tracks, and apparently change the album cover (!) as well. This was another professional humiliation for an artist who had already been sued successfully for his most famous post-Beatles song, "[[My Sweet Lord]]".
Aside from a song on the ''[[Porky's Revenge]]'' [[soundtrack]] in 1984, his version of a little-known [[Bob Dylan]] song, ''[[I Don't Want To Do It]]'', Harrison released no new records for five years after 1982s ''[[Gone Troppo]]'' was met with apparent indifference. He returned in 1987 with the highly successful album ''[[Cloud Nine (George Harrison album)|Cloud Nine]]'', co-produced with [[Jeff Lynne]] of [[Electric Light Orchestra]], and enjoyed a hit (#1 in the U.S.; #2 in the U.K) when his cover version of [[James Ray (musician)|James Ray]]'s early 1960s number "[[Got My Mind Set on You]]" was released as a single; another single, "[[When We Was Fab]]", was also a minor hit. MTV regularly played the two videos, and elevated George's public profile as a relevant 80's artist. The album got to #8.
During the late 1980s, he was instrumental in forming the [[Traveling Wilburys]] with [[Roy Orbison]], [[Jeff Lynne]], [[Bob Dylan]], and [[Tom Petty]] when they gathered in Dylan's garage to quickly record an additional track for a projected Harrison European single release. The record company realised the track ("[[Handle With Care (song)|Handle With Care]]") was too good for its original purpose as a single B-side and asked for a separate album. This had to be completed within two weeks, as Dylan was scheduled to start a tour. Released in October 1988, and recorded under [[pseudonym]]s as half-brothers (supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury, Sr.), ''[[Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1]]'' was dubbed as one of the top 100 albums of all time by [[Rolling Stone]] magazine.
One of Harrison's most successful ventures during this period was his involvement in film production through his company [[Handmade Films]]. Since childhood The Beatles ha
|
g their first title.
Arizona won the first two games at home handily, but New York won the next three in close contests in Yankee Stadium, including two dramatic ninth-inning comebacks against Arizona closer [[Byung-Hyun Kim]]. Arizona won the sixth game behind [[Randy Johnson]], who then came in to pitch in relief of Schilling in game 7. The Diamondbacks won the game 3-2, with [[Jay Bell]] scoring the winning run on a bloop single by [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]], in the bottom of the ninth inning off the Yankees' ace closer, [[Mariano Rivera]].
It is notable that the home team won every game in the Series. This had only happened twice before, in [[1987 World Series|1987]] and [[1991 World Series|1991]]; both times, the [[Minnesota Twins]] won the Series. This Series was also the subject of an [[HBO]] documentary ''Nine Innings From Ground Zero'' in [[2004]]. [http://www.hbo.com/sports/nineinnings/]
==September 11 and the Month of November==
Due to the postponement of games in September as a result of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|'''September 11''', 2001 Terrorist Attacks]], the World Series began Saturday, [[October 27]], [[2001]], the latest start date ever for a World Series. The Series went seven games, the last three of which were the first major-league games (other than exhibitions) played in the month of '''November'''.
==The Series==
===Game 1===
''Saturday, [[October 27]], 2001'' at [[Chase Field|Bank One Ballpark]]
Arizona showed no opening day jitters and chased Yankee's starter [[Mike Mussina]] after just three innings. The Yankees gave up 5 unearned runs and the Diamondbacks rode Curt Schilling's seven strong innings to a 9-1 rout. [[Craig Counsell]] homered off Mussina in the first and [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] homered in the third, drove in two runs, and scored twice.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="425" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="28%" | Team
! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | New York || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''1''' || '''3''' || '''2'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''Arizona''' || 1 || 0 || 4 || 4
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || x || '''9''' || '''10''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Curt Schilling]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Mike Mussina]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''HR''': '''ARI''' &ndash; [[Craig Counsell]] (1), [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] (1)</small>
|}
===Game 2===
''Sunday, [[October 28]], 2001'' at Bank One Ballpark
Arizona continued to take control of the series behind the arm of [[Randy Johnson]]. The Big Unit pitched a complete game shutout, allowing only four baserunners while striking out 11 Yankees. [[Matt Williams (baseball)|Matt Williams]] hit a three-run homer in the seventh off Yankee starter [[Andy Pettitte]]. Arizona won 4-0 and took a commanding two games to none lead as the series headed to New York City.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="425" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="28%" | Team
! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | New York || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''0''' || '''3''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''Arizona''' || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 3 || 0 || x || '''4''' || '''5''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Randy Johnson]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Andy Pettitte]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''HR''': '''ARI''' &ndash; [[Matt Williams (baseball)|Matt Williams]] (1)</small>
|}
===Game 3===
[[Image:2001 World Series first pitch.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Donning a bullet-proof vest, President Bush tosses out the ceremonial first pitch.]]
''Tuesday, [[October 30]], 2001'' at [[Yankee Stadium]]
The series was opened in New York by [[George W. Bush|President Bush]], who memorably threw out the ceremonial first pitch, a strike to Yankees backup catcher Todd Greene. Bush became the first sitting President to throw out a World Series first pitch since [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in [[1956 World Series|1956]]. Yankees starter [[Roger Clemens]] allowed only three hits and struck out nine in seven innings of work. Yankees closer [[Mariano Rivera]] pitched two innings for the save. [[Scott Brosius]] broke a sixth inning tie with an RBI single to left. The Diamondbacks wasted a great outing from starter [[Brian Anderson]] by committing three crucial errors and running themselves out of the first inning.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="425" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="28%" | Team
! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | Arizona || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''1''' || '''3''' || '''3'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''New York''' || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || x || '''2''' || '''7''' || '''1'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''W''': [[Roger Clemens]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Brian Anderson]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;'''S''': [[Mariano Rivera]] (1)</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=13|<small>'''HR''': '''NYY''' &ndash; [[Jorge Posada]] (1)</small>
|}
===[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/baseballs_best/mlb_bb_gamepage.jsp?story_page=bb_01ws_gm4_arinyy Game 4]===
''Wednesday, [[October 31]], 2001'' at Yankee Stadium
Arizona manager [[Bob Brenly]] decided to gamble and start [[Curt Schilling]] on three days' rest. The gamble worked: Schilling pitched seven strong innings and left the game with a 1-1 tie. The Diamondbacks took a 3-1 lead in the top of the eighth on an [[Erubiel Durazo]] double and a fielder's choice, which prompted Brenly to bring in closer [[Byung-Hyun Kim]] for a two inning save.
Kim struck out the side in the eighth. However, in the ninth the Yankees began their comeback. With one out, [[Paul O'Neill (baseball player)|Paul O'Neill]] lined an opposite-field single in front of left fielder Luis Gonzalez. After [[Bernie Williams (born 1968)|Bernie Williams]] struck out, [[Tino Martinez]] drove the first pitch he saw from Kim over the wall in right-center field to tie the game at 3-3. Brenly stuck with his closer as the game headed into extra innings. As the clock in New York struck midnight, and with two outs in the tenth on a 3-2 pitch, [[Derek Jeter]] completed the comeback with a walk-off solo homerun to right, earning the title "Mr. November". The Yankees won 4-3 and evened up the series at two games apiece.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="425" style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
! align="left" width="22%" | Team
! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | 10
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | Arizona || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || '''3''' || '''6''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left" | '''New York''' || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 1 || '''4''' || '''7''' || '''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=14|<small>'''W''': [[Mariano Rivera]] (1-0) &nbsp;&nbsp;'''L''': [[Byung-Hyun Kim]] (0-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;</small>
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=14|<small>'''HR''': '''ARI''' &ndash; [[Mark Grace]] (1) &nbsp;&nbsp; '''NYY''' &ndash; [[Shane Spencer]] (1), [[Tino Martinez]] (1), [[Derek Jeter]] (1)</small>
|}
===Game 5===
''Thursday, [[November 1]], 2001'' at Yankee Stadium
For game five, Brenly started [[Miguel Batista]], who pitched a strong seven and two-thirds scoreless innings. Mussina bounced back from his poor game one start, but allowed solo home runs to [[Steve Finley]] and [[Rod Barajas]] in the fifth. With the Diamondbacks leading 2-0 in the ninth, Brenly again went to his closer and again the Yankees dramatically came back. [[Jorge Posada]] doubled to open the inning, but Kim retired the next two batters. Then, with two outs in the bottom of the ninth, [[Scott Brosius]] knocked the 1-0 pitch out for a home run to tie the game at 2-2. For the second night in a row, the Yankees had improbably tied the game with a two-run homerun in the bottom of the 9th, with two outs. The game went into extra innings and the Yankees won it in the 12th when [[Alfonso Soriano]] knocked in [[Chuck Knoblauch]] with a base hit off [[Albie Lopez]]. New York went ahead three games to two in the series as the teams headed back to Arizona.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width="50
|
resentatives|Representative]] [[James Michael Curley]] vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and Kennedy ran for that seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was reelected twice, but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and the rest of the Democratic Party.
<!-- no source
[[Image:jfkatbcin56.jpg|right|thumb|Kennedy gives his [[Jesuit Ivy]] address at the 1956 [[Boston College]] commencement.]] -->
Kennedy married [[Jacqueline Lee Bouvier]] on [[September 12]], [[1953]]. He underwent several spinal operations in the two following years, nearly dying (receiving the Catholic faith's [[Anointing of the Sick|"last rites"]] four times during his life), and was often absent from the Senate. During this period, he published ''[[Profiles in Courage]]'', highlighting eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by standing by their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the 1957 [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Biography.
==McCarthy's support from the Kennedy family==
After 1950, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] was the nation's most prominent [[Irish-American]] along with the [[Kennedy family]]. Even before becoming famous, McCarthy forged a close friendship with [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], who contributed thousands of dollars to McCarthy, and became one of his major supporters. Joseph Kennedy often brought him to Hyannis Port as a weekend house guest in the late 1940s. McCarthy at one point dated Patricia Kennedy, JFK's sister. In the Senate race of 1952, Joseph allegedly worked a deal so that McCarthy, a Republican, would not make campaign speeches for the GOP ticket in Massachusetts. In return, John F. Kennedy would not give any anti-McCarthy speeches that his liberal supporters wanted to hear. In 1953, at the father's urging, McCarthy hired [[Robert Kennedy]] (age 27) as a senior staff member. In 1954, when the Senate was threatening to condemn McCarthy, Senator Kennedy faced a dilemma. "How could I demand that Joe McCarthy be censured for things he did when my own brother was on his staff?" asked Kennedy. By 1954, however, Robert Kennedy and McCarthy's chief aide, [[Roy Cohn]], had had a falling out and Robert no longer worked for McCarthy. John Kennedy had a speech drafted calling for the censure of McCarthy, but he never delivered it. When the Senate voted to censure McCarthy on December 2, 1954, Senator Kennedy was in the hospital and never indicated then or later how he would vote.
==Senator, 1953-60==
In [[U.S. Senate election, 1952|1952]], Kennedy ran for the [[United States Senate|Senate]] with the slogan "Kennedy will do more for Massachusetts." In an [[upset]] victory, he defeated Republican incumbent [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]] by a margin of about 70,000 votes.
In 1956, Kennedy campaigned for the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] nomination at the [[Democratic National Convention]], but convention delegates selected [[Tennessee]] Senator [[Estes Kefauver]] instead. However, Kennedy's efforts helped bolster his reputation within the party.
An example of Kennedy's political suppleness prior to the 1960 campaign was his handling of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]]. He voted for final passage, while earlier voting for the "jury trial amendment", which some people feel rendered the Act toothless. He was able to say to both sides that he supported them.
In 1958, Kennedy published the first edition of his book ''[[A Nation of Immigrants]]'', closely following his involvement in the Displaced Persons Act and the 1957 bill to bring families together.
==[[1960 presidential election]]==
[[Image:Jfknixon.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Kennedy and Richard Nixon shake hands before one of the 1960 televised debates.]]
In 1960, Kennedy declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic [[primary election]], he faced challenges from Senator [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] of [[Minnesota]], Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] of [[Texas]], and [[Adlai Stevenson]], the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956 who was not officially running but was a favorite write-in candidate. Kennedy won key primaries like [[Wisconsin]] and [[West Virginia]]. In the latter state, Kennedy made a visit to a coal mine, and talked to the mine workers to win their support, as most people in that [[conservative]], mostly [[Protestant]] state were deeply suspicious about Kennedy being a Catholic. Kennedy emerged as a universally acceptable candidate for the party after that victory.
On [[July 13]], [[1960]] the Democratic Party nominated Kennedy as its candidate for president. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite clashes between the two during the primary elections. He needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, [[Cuba]], and whether or not both the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To allay fears that his Roman Catholicism would impact his decision making, he said in a famous speech in [[Houston, Texas]] (to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association), on [[September 12]], [[1960]], "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who happens also to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters and the Church does not speak for me." [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedyhoustonministerialspeech.html] {{seealso|Alfred E. Smith}}
In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] in the first televised [[U.S. presidential election debates|US presidential debates]]. During the debates, Nixon looked tense, sweaty, and unshaven compared to Kennedy's composure and handsomeness, leading many to deem Kennedy the winner, although historians consider the two evenly matched as orators. Interestingly, many who listened on radio thought Nixon more impressive in the debate. [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm] The debates are considered a political landmark: the point at which the medium of [[television]] played an important role in politics and looking presentable on camera became one of the important considerations for presidential and other political candidates.
In the general [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|election]] on [[November 8]], [[1960]], Kennedy beat Nixon in a very close race. There were serious allegations that [[Electoral fraud|vote fraud]] in [[Texas]] and [[Illinois]] had cost Nixon the presidency[http://www.leanleft.com/archives/cat_reviews.html]. There were unusually large margins in [[Richard J. Daley|Richard Daley]]'s Chicago &mdash; which were announced after the rest of the vote in Illinois. The only change after the official recount was a win for Kennedy in [[Hawaii]].
==Presidency 1961-1963 ==
[[Image:Jfkspeech.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Kennedy gives his memorable [[inauguration address]]]]
===Policies===
Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th [[President]] on [[January 20]], [[1961]]. In his [[inaugural address]] he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens. "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country", he said. He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: [[tyranny]], [[poverty]], [[disease]], and [[war]] itself." [http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/jfk-inaug.htm]
===Foreign policies===
On [[April 17]], [[1961]], Kennedy gave orders allowing a previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. With support from the [[CIA]], in what is known as the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], 1,500 U.S.trained Cuban exiles, called "Brigade 2506" returned to the island in the hope of deposing [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], but the [[CIA]] had underestimated popular support for Castro, made several mistakes in devising and carrying out the plan, and the exiles did not rally the Cuban people as expected. By [[April 19]] Castro's government had killed or captured most of the invading exiles and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. After 20 months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident was a major embarrassment for Kennedy, but he took full responsibility. Historians in 2006 ranked the debacle as the #8 worst presidential mistake ever made.[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060218/presidential_errors_060218/20060218?hub=World]
On [[August 13]], [[1961]], the [[East German]] government began construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] separating East Berlin from the Western sector of the city, due to the American military presence in [[West Berlin]]. Kennedy claimed this action was in violation of the "[[Four Powers]]" agreements. Kennedy initiated no action to have it dismantled, and did little to reverse or halt the eventual extension of this barrier to a length of 155 km.
[[Image:Zahir_shah_and_kenedy.gif|thumb|King of [[Afghanistan]] [[Zahir Shah]] (right) and US President John F. Kennedy (left)]]
The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] began on [[October 14]], [[1962]] when American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] [[spy plane]]s took photographs of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] intermediate range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. Kennedy faced a dire dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites it might have led to [[nuclear war]] with the [[U.S.S.R.]] If the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the perpetual threat of nuclear weapons within its region, in such close proximity as to make retaliation for a preemptive launch very unlikely. Another fear was
|
rocedure overloading
interface swap
module procedure swap_Integer, swap_Real
end interface swap
interface GetLastError !This adds one more procedure to the generic procedure GetLastError
module procedure GetLastError_GlobalModule
end interface GetLastError
!Operator overloading
interface operator(+)
module procedure add_ijk
end interface
!Prototype for external procedure
interface
real function GaussSparse(NumIter, Tol, b, A, X)
integer, intent(in) :: NumIter
real, intent(in) :: Tol
real, intent(in), dimension(1:) :: b
real, intent(in), dimension(1:,1:) :: A
real, intent(inout), dimension(1:) :: X
end function GaussSparse
end interface
!Procedures included in the module
contains
!Internal function
function add_ijk(ijk_1, ijk_2)
type(ijk) add_ijk, ijk_1, ijk_2
intent(in) :: ijk_1, ijk_2
add_ijk = ijk(ijk_1%i + ijk_2%i, ijk_1%j + ijk_2%j, ijk_1%k + ijk_2%k)
end function add_ijk
!Include external files
include 'Swap_Integer.f90' !Comments SHOULDN'T be added here
include 'Swap_Real.f90'
end module GlobalModule
</pre>
===Pointers And Targets===
<p>In Fortran the concept of [[pointer]] differs from that one conceived in C-like languages in that it does not store the memory address of any other variable (unless it is defined as an integer, and a compiler-supplied function is used to do so, or the compiler provides a C-pointer feature). Instead, it serves whether as an alias for another variable (or part of it), or as an ordinary dynamically allocated variable. If an alias, it is said that its status is associated, and the variable to which it ''points'' must have either the pointer or target attribute. The following example illustrates the concept:
<p>
<pre>
program Test
!NOTE: Variable expressions in format statements (e.g., <m> or <n>), are compiler-dependant,
! whereas array notation (e.g., [1,2,3]) is a Fortran 2003 feature; for Fortran 95 use
! (/1,2,3/) instead.
use FunctionsModule, only: DoSomething => A !This function performs any operation on the integer
!input and returns its integer result.
implicit none
integer, parameter :: m = 3, n = 3
integer, pointer :: p(:)=>null(), q(:,:)=>null()
integer, allocatable, target :: A(:,:)
integer ios = 0
allocate(A(1:m, 1:n), q(1:m, 1:n), stat = ios)
if (ios /= 0) stop 'Error during allocation of A and q'
!Assign the matrix
!A = [[1 4 7]
! [2 5 8]
! [3 6 9]]
A = reshape([(i, i = 1, m*n)], [m, n])
q = A
!p will be associated with the first column of A
p => A(:, 1)
!This operation on p has a direct effect on matrix A
p = p ** 2
!This will end the association between p and the first column of A
nullify(p)
!Matrix A becomes:
!A = [[1 4 7 ]
! [4 5 8 ]
! [9 6 9 ]]
write(*, '("Matrix A becomes:",/,"A = [",<m>("[",<n>(i1,2x),"]",/,)"]")') ((A(i, j), j = 1, n), i = 1, m)
!Perform some array operation
q = q + A
!Matrix q becomes:
!q = [[ 2 8 14 ]
! [ 6 10 16 ]
! [12 12 18 ]]
write(*, '("Matrix q becomes:",/,"q = [",<m>("[",<n>(i2,2x),"]",/,)"]")') ((q(i, j), j = 1, n), i = 1, m)
!Use p as an ordinary array
allocate (p(1:m*n), stat = ios)
if (ios /= 0) stop 'Error during allocation of p'
!Perform some array operation
p = [((DoSomething(a(i, j) + b(i, j)), i = 1, m), j = 1, n)]
write(*, '(<m*n>(i1,4x,"p[",i1,"] = ",i5))') (i, p(i), i = 1, m * n)
deallocate(A, p, q, stat = ios)
if (ios /= 0) stop 'Error during deallocation'
end program Test
</pre>
== The standard FORTRAN joke ==
"GOD is REAL (unless declared INTEGER)." The joke works because, in the absence of an IMPLICIT INTEGER declaration (setting the letter range of integers) or an explicit declaration of a variable giving its type, variables beginning with the letters '''I''' through '''N''' were automatically considered to be [[integer]]s, while '''A''' through '''H''' and '''O''' through '''Z''' were considered to be [[real number]]s.
Another joke circa 1980 following the definition of FORTRAN 77 was "What will the language of the year 2000 look like? ... Nobody knows but it will be called FORTRAN."
==References==
General:
*{{cite book
| first = Daniel D.
| last = McCracken
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1961
| title = A Guide to Fortran Programming
| publisher = Wiley
| id =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Daniel D.
| last = McCracken
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1965
| title = A Guide to Fortran IV Programming
| publisher = Wiley
| id =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Michael
| last = Metcalf
| authorlink =
| coauthors = John Reid, Malcolm Cohen
| year = 2004
| title = Fortran 95/2003 Explained
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| id =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Larry
| last = Nyhoff
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Sanford Leestma
| year = 1995
| title = FORTRAN 77 for Engineers and Scientists with an Introduction to FORTRAN 90
| edition = 4th Edition
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| id = ISBN 013363003X
}}
Standards documents:
* ANSI X3.198-1992 (R1997). Title: ''Programming Language "Fortran" Extended''. Informally known as Fortran 90. Published by [[ANSI]].
* ISO/IEC 1539-1:1997. Title: ''Information technology - Programming languages - Fortran - Part 1: Base language''. Informally known as Fortran 95. There are a further two parts to this standard. Part 1 has been formally adopted by ANSI.
* ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004. Title: ''Information technology -- Programming languages -- Fortran -- Part 1: Base language''. Informally known as Fortran 2003.
==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.fh-jena.de/~kleine/history/ Early Fortran Manuals]
*[http://community.computerhistory.org/scc/projects/FORTRAN/ ''History of FORTRAN and FORTRAN II'' at the Computer History Museum website]
*[http://www.fortran.com The Fortran Company: compilers, books, tutorials, consulting]
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Fortran/ Fortran Open Directory category]
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/comp.lang.fortran Usenet forum: comp.lang.fortran]
*[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/kis/support/cit/fortran/f90home.html Fortran 90, 95 and 2003 information]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/languages/fortran/unfp.html USER NOTES ON FORTRAN PROGRAMMING (UNFP)]
*[http://www.aspire.cs.uah.edu/textbook/index_f77.html Unit 7.1 FORTRAN 77] &ndash; Part of [http://www.aspire.cs.uah.edu/ ASPIRE]'s textbook in Computational Science
*[http://www.aspire.cs.uah.edu/textbook/index_f90.html Unit 7.2 FORTRAN 90] &ndash; Ditto
*[http://acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=271 How Not to Write FORTRAN in Any Language] There are characteristics of good coding that transcend all programming languages.
*[http://www.allinea.com/?page=48 Debugging tool for FORTRAN and its derivatives.]
*[http://rsusu1.rnd.runnet.ru/develop/fortran/prof77/prof77.html Professional Programmer's Guide to Fortran77]
* [http://csit1cwe.fsu.edu/extra_link/xlhpf/xlflrm03.htm IBM Fortran language reference]
* [http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/real.programmers.html The Fortran vs. Pascal "Real Programmers Don't Use Pascal" article]
===Program repositories===
*[http://www.nag.co.uk/nagware/Examples.asp Fortran 90 Software Repository]
*[http://www.nhse.org/ National HPCC software repository]
*[http://www.netlib.org/ Netlib Repository]
*[http://crd.lbl.gov/~dhbailey/mpdist/index.html High-Precision Software Directory]
===Proprietary compilers===
*[http://www.absoft.com Absoft]
*[http://www.cray.com/ Cray]
*[http://www.fr.fse.fujitsu.com/devuk/solaris.shtml Fujitsu]
*[http://h18009.www1.hp.com/fortran HP]
*[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/fortran IBM]
*[http://www.intel.com/software/products/compilers Intel]
*[http://www.lahey.com Lahey]
*[http://www.nasoftware.co.uk/fortran-plus/index.html NA Software]
*[http://www.nag.co.uk/nagware/NP.asp NAG]
*[http://www.pathscale.com/products.html PathScale]
*[http://www.pgroup.com Portland Group]
*[http://www.silverfrost.com/11/ftn95/overview.asp Salford]
*[http://developers.sun.com/prodtech/cc/compilers_index.html Sun]
===Free software compilers===
*[http://www.g95.org/ g95 -- Fortran 95 (under development)]
*[http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/GFortran Gfortran -- Fortran 95 (under development)]
*[http://www.openwatcom.org/ Open Watcom -- Fortran 77 and C/C++]
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/fortran/fortran.html g77 -- Fortran 77]
===Online books===
*[http://home.casema.nl/fam.engelberts/ Fortran Documentation] - Fortran Documentation (particularly Fortran 77).
{{Major programming languages small}}
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</revision>
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<page>
<title>Fortaleza</title>
<id>11169</id>
<revision>
|
anifestations of the seizures, known as "semiology."
# By the location in the brain where the seizures originate.
# As a part of discrete, identifiable medical [[syndrome]]s.
# By the event that triggers the seizures, as in [[primary reading epilepsy]].
==Causes==
All the causes (or [[etiology|etiologies]]) of epilepsy are not known, but many predisposing factors have been identified, including brain damage resulting from malformations of brain development, [[head trauma]], neurosurgical operations, other penetrating wounds of the brain, [[brain tumor]], high [[fever]], bacterial or viral [[encephalitis]], [[stroke]], [[intoxication]], or acute or inborn disturbances of [[metabolism]]. [[Hereditary]] or [[genetics|genetic]] factors also play a role.
Seizures may occur in any person under certain circumstances, including acute illness and [[drug overdose]]s, but these provoked seizures are not part of the definition of epilepsy. Epilepsy connotes that an individual has unprovoked seizures which recur over time. In about 50% of all cases, there is no cause for epilepsy that is currently detectable even with state of the art investigations. In about 50% of cases, evidence of a brain injury, scar or malformation is found, to which the epilepsy is attributed. In many, but not all cases, abnormal electrical activity can be detected in the brain with an [[electroencephalogram]] (EEG), either during or in between seizures.
The most common ages of [[incidence]] are under the age of 18 and over the age of 65. It has been estimated that about 1% of the population meets the diagnostic criteria for epilepsy at any given time, but some theorize that the [[prevalence]] may be much higher in fact.
A significant and measurable decline in [[cognitive]] function is known to be associated with epilepsy, although it has not been entirely clear to what extent this is due to the epilepsy itself or to the drugs used to treat it. [[Phenobarbital]], in particular, has been shown to decrease [[IQ]] and classroom performance when used to treat epilepsy in children; the effects persist after the phenobarbital is stopped. Some newer anti-epileptic drugs are considered by some to have less severe cognitive effects than older drugs. On an individual level, a person's reaction to epileptic seizures and/or anti-epileptic drugs may be idiosyncratic, so it is difficult to predict how a particular person might be affected.
[[Mutation]]s in several [[gene]]s have been linked to some types of epilepsy. Several genes that code for [[protein]] subunits of [[voltage-gated ion channel|voltage-gated]] and [[ligand-gated ion channel|ligand-gated]] [[ion channel]]s have been associated with forms of generalized epilepsy and infantile seizure syndromes{{ref|genes}}. Several ligand-gated ion channels have been linked to some types of frontal and generalized epilepsies. Epilepsy-related mutations in some non-ion channel genes have also been identified.
One interesting finding in animals is that repeated low-level electrical stimulation to some brain sites can lead to permanent increases in seizure susceptibility: in other words, a permanent decrease in seizure "threshold." This phenomenon, known as [[kindling]] (by analogy with the use of burning twigs to start a larger fire) was discovered by Dr. [[Graham Goddard]] in 1967. Chemical stimulation can also induce seizures; repeated exposures to some pesticides have been shown to induce seizures in both humans and animals. One mechanism proposed for this is called [[excitotoxicity]]. The roles of kindling and excitotoxicity, if any, in human epilepsy are currently hotly debated.
==="Normal" provocants===
Some people with epilepsy have certain triggers or provocants that will reliably produce a seizure. If the provocant can reasonably considered to be part of normal daily life, and yet it causes a seizure, the seizures are considered 'unprovoked' for the purpose of diagnosing the person with epilepsy. Examples of these "normal provocants" include reading, hot water on the head, [[hyperventilation]] and flashing or flickering lights. This last provocant is a special type of [[reflex epilepsy]] called [[photosensitive epilepsy]].
==Types of seizure==
Epileptic seizures are classified both by their patterns of activity in the [[brain]] and their effects on behaviour.
In terms of their pattern of activity, seizures may be described as either ''partial'' (focal) or ''generalised''. Partial seizures only involve a localised part of the brain, whereas generalised seizures involve the entire [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]]. The term 'secondary generalisation' may be used to describe a partial seizure that later spreads to the whole of the cortex and becomes generalised.
Partial seizures may be further subdivided into both ''simple'' and ''complex'' seizures. This refers to the effect of such a seizure on [[consciousness]]; simple seizures cause no interruption to consciousness (although they may cause sensory distortions or other sensations), whereas complex seizures interrupt consciousness to varying degrees. This does not necessarily mean that the person experiencing this sort of seizure will fall unconscious (like fainting). For example, a [[complex partial seizure]] may involve the unconscious repetition of simple actions, gestures or verbal utterances, or simply a blank stare and apparent unawareness of the occurrence of the seizure, followed by no memory of the seizure. Other patients may report a feeling of tunnel vision or dissociation, which represents a diminishment of awareness without full loss of consciousness. Still other patients can perform complicated actions, such as travel or shopping, while in the midst of a complex partial seizure.
The effects of partial seizures can be quite dependent on the area of the brain in which they are active. For example, a partial seizure in areas involved in perception may cause a particular sensory experience (for example, the perception of a scent, music or flashes of light) whereas, when centred in the [[motor cortex]], a partial seizure might cause movement in particular groups of [[muscle]]s. This type of seizure may also produce particular thoughts or internal visual images or even experiences which may be distinct but not easily described. Seizures centred on the [[temporal lobe]]s are known to produce [[mysticism|mystical]] or [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] experiences in some people. These may result in a misdiagnosis of [[psychosis]] or even [[schizophrenia]], if other symptoms of seizure are disregarded and other tests are not performed. Unfortunately for those with epilepsy, [[anti-psychotic]] medications prescribed without [[anti-convulsant]]s in this case can actually lower the seizure threshold further and worsen the symptoms.
When the effects of a partial seizure appear as a 'warning sign' before a more serious seizure, they are known as an [[aura (symptom)|aura]]: it is frequently the case that a partial seizure will spread to other parts of the brain and eventually become generalized, resulting in a tonic-clonic convulsion. The subjective experience of an aura, like other partial seizures, will tend to reflect the function of the affected part of the brain.
Generalised seizures can be sub-classified into a number of categories, depending on their behavioural effects:
* ''[[Absence seizure]]s'' (sometimes referred to as ''petit mal'' seizures) involve an interruption to consciousness where the person experiencing the seizure seems to become vacant and unresponsive for a short period of time (usually up to 30 seconds). Slight muscle twitching may occur.
* ''[[Tonic-clonic seizure]]s'' (sometimes referred to as ''grand mal'' seizures), involve an initial contraction of the [[muscle]]s (''tonic phase'') which may involve [[tongue]] biting, [[urinary incontinence]] and the absence of [[breathing]]. This is followed by rhythmic muscle contractions (''clonic phase''). This type of seizure is usually what is referred to when the term 'epileptic fit' is used colloquially.
* ''[[Myoclonic seizure]]s'' involve sporadic muscle contraction and can result in jerky movements of muscles or muscle groups.
* ''[[Atonic seizure]]s'' involve the loss of muscle tone, causing the person to fall to the ground. These are sometimes called 'drop attacks' but should be distinguished from similar looking attacks that may occur in [[narcolepsy]] or [[cataplexy]].
* ''[[Status epilepticus]]'' refers to continuous seizure activity with no recovery between successive tonic-clonic seizures. This is a life-threatening condition and emergency medical assistance should be called immediately if this is suspected. A tonic-clonic seizure lasting longer than 5 minutes (or two minutes longer than a given person's usual seizures) is usually considered grounds for calling the emergency services.
* ''[[Epilepsia partialis continua]]'' is a rare type of focal motor seizure ([[hand]]s and [[face]]) which recurs every few seconds or minutes for extended periods (days or years). It is usually due to strokes in adults and focal cortical inflammatory processes in children ([[Rasmussen's encephalitis]]), possibly caused by chronic [[viral infection]]s or [[autoimmune]] processes.
==Seizure syndromes==
There are many different epilepsy syndromes, each presenting with its own unique combination of seizure type, typical age of onset, EEG findings, treatment, and prognosis. Below are some common seizure syndromes:
* ''[[Infantile spasms]] ([[West syndrome]])'' is associated with brain development abnormalities, [[tuberous sclerosis]], and perinatal insults to the brain. It affects infants (as implied by its name), which by definition is between 30 days to 1 year of life. It carries a poor prognosis such that only 5-10% of children with infantile spasms will develop normal to near-normal function, while more than two-thirds will have sev
|
t appears to be a natural geographic boundary, had groups that otherwise shared a [[language]], [[culture]] or other similarity who resided on both sides. The division of the land between [[Belgium]] and [[France]] along the river isolated these groups from each other. Those who lived in Saharan or [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and traded across the continent for centuries often found themselves crossing "borders" that existed only on European maps.
In nations that had substantial European populations, for example [[Rhodesia]] and [[South Africa]], systems of second-class citizenship were often set up in order to give Europeans [[political power]] far in excess of their numbers. However, the lines were not often drawn strictly across racial lines. In [[Liberia]], the citizens who were descendants of American slaves managed to have a political system for over 100 years that gave ex-slaves and natives to the area roughly equal [[legislative power]] despite the fact the ex-slaves were outnumbered ten to one in the general population. The inspiration for this system was the [[United States Senate]], which had balanced the power of free and slave states despite the much larger population of the former.
Europeans often changed the balance of power, created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist, and introduced a cultural dichotomy detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled. For example, in what is now [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]], two ethnic groups [[Hutus]] and [[Tutsis]] had merged into one culture by the time Belgian colonists had taken control of the region in the 19th century. No longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling, inter-marriage, and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide, the Belgians instituted a policy of racial categorization, upon taking control of the region, as racial based categorization and philosophies was a fixture of the European culture of that time. The term [[Hutu]] originally referred to the agricultural-based Bantu speaking tribes that moved into present day Rwandan and Burundi from the West, and the term [[Tutsi]] referred to North Eastern cattle-based tribes that migrated into the region later. The terms to the indigenous peoples eventually came to describe a person's economic class. Those individuals who owned roughly 10 or more cattle were considered Tutsi, and those with fewer were considered Hutu, regardless of ancestral history. This was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb, and one could move from Hutu to Tutsi and vice versa.
The Belgians introduced a racialised system. Those individuals who had characteristics the Europeans admired - fairer skin, ample height, narrow noses, etc. - were given power amongst the colonized peoples. The Belgians determined these features were more ideally [[Hamitic]], Hamitic in turn being more ideally European and belonged to those people closest to Tutsi in ancestry. They instituted a policy of issuing identity cards based on this philosophy. Those closest to this ideal were proclaimed Tutsi and those not were proclaimed Hutu.
===Post-colonial Africa===
Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and [[authoritarianism]]. The vast majority of African nations are [[republic]]s that operate under some form of the [[presidential system]] of rule. Few nations in Africa have been able to sustain [[Democracy|democratic]] governments, instead cycling through a series of brutal [[Coup d'état|coup]]s and [[military dictatorship]]s.
A number of Africa's post-colonial political leaders were poorly educated and ignorant on matters of governance; great instability, however, was mainly the result of marginalization of other ethnic groups and graft under these leaders.
As well, many used the positions of power to ignite ethnic conflicts that had been exacerbated, or even created, under colonial rule. In many countries, the [[Armed force|military]] was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order and ruled most nations in Africa during the [[1970s|70s]] and early [[1980s|80s]].
During the period from the early [[1960s]] to the late 1980s Africa had over 70 coups and 13 presidential [[assassination]]s.
[[Cold War]] conflicts between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] also played a role in the instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two [[superpower]]s. Many countries in [[Northern Africa]] received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the [[United States]] and/or [[France]]. The 1970s saw an escalation as newly independent [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] aligned themselves with the [[Soviet Union]] and the West and [[South Africa]] sought to contain Soviet influence.
Border and territorial disputes have also been common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.
Failed government policies and political corruption have also resulted in many widespread [[famine]]s, and significant portions of Africa remain with distribution systems unable to disseminate enough food or water for the population to survive. The spread of [[disease]] is also rampant, especially the spread of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV) and the associated [[Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS), which has become a deadly [[epidemic]] on the continent.
Despite numerous hardships, there have been some signs the continent has hope for the future. [[Democracy|Democratic government]]s seem to be spreading, though are not yet the majority (National Geographic claims 13 African nations can be considered truly democratic). As well, many nations have at least nominally recognized basic [[human right]]s for all [[citizen]]s, though in practice these are not always recognized, and have created reasonably independent [[judiciary|judiciaries]].
There are clear signs of increased networking among African organisations and states. In the civil war in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (former [[Zaire]]), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, about half-a-dozen neighbouring African countries got involved (see also [[Second Congo War]]). The death toll has been estimated by some to be 3.5 million since the conflict began in 1998. This might play a role similar to that of [[World War II]] for Europe, after which the people in the neighbouring countries decide to integrate their societies in such a way that war between them becomes as unthinkable as a war between, say, [[France]] and [[Germany]] would be today.
Political associations such as the [[African Union]] are also offering hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries.
Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often times as a 'side-effect' of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]].
===Modern Africa===
Most western countries place limitations on aid to African nations, especially the United States. These limitations are often used to control the governments of these African nations; as a result, these nations are turning to non-traditional sources of financial aid. [[China]] has increasingly provided financial aid to Africa in order to secure contracts on [[Natural resource|natural resources]], such as [[petroleum|oil]], [[gold]], and [[diamonds]]. There usually is no political prescription. Countries the Chinese are investing in include:
Central African Republic (plantations), Nigeria ([[petroleum|oil]] & [[gas]]), Sierra Leone ([[tourism]]), Gabon ([[petroleum|oil]]), Congo-Brazzaville ([[petroleum|oil]] & wood-industry), Congo ([[copper]] & [[cobalt]]), Angola ([[railroad]]-system), Libya ([[petroleum|oil]]), Sudan ([[petroleum|oil]]), Uganda ([[coffee]] & [[fishing]]-industry), Kenya ([[Telecommunication|communications]]-network), Rwanda (public works), Burundi ([[Nickel]]), Zimbabwe (infrastructure), South Africa ([[coal]] & [[gold]]).
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Africa]]''
Africa is the world's poorest inhabited continent: the [[United Nation]]s' [http://hdr.undp.org/ Human Development Report] [[2003]] (of 175 countries) found that positions 151 ([[Gambia]]) to 175 ([[Sierra Leone]]) were taken up entirely by African nations.
It has had (and in some ways is still having) a shaky and uncertain transition from [[colonialism]], with increases in [[political corruption|corruption]] and [[despotism]] being major contributing factors to its poor economic situation. While rapid growth in [[China]] and now [[India]], and moderate growth in [[Latin America]], has lifted millions beyond subsistence living, Africa has gone backwards in terms of foreign [[trade]], [[investment]], and [[per capita]] [[income]]. This [[poverty]] has widespread effects, including lower [[life expectancy]], [[violence]], and [[instability]] - factors intertwined with the continent's poverty.
Major economic successes are [[Botswana]] and [[South Africa]], which is developed to the extent that it has its own mature [[Johannesburg Stock Exchange|stock exchange]]. This is partly due to its wealth of [[natural resource]]s, being the world's leading producer of both [[gold]] and [[diamond]]s, and partly due to its well-established legal system. South Africa also has access to financial capital, numerous markets and skilled labor. Other African countries are making comparable progress, such as [[Ghana]], and some, like Egypt, have a longer history of commercial and economic success.
[[Nigeria]] sits on one of t
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ot; in the former case, and an [[objective]] thinker in the latter.
The obvious problem is that, through [[introspection]], or our experience of [[consciousness]], we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, [[verification]] of which would require a thought necessarily impossible, being, as Descartes is, bound to the evidence of his own consciousness alone.
==References==
*Quotations from Descartes' work use the standard form: first a reference to the twelve-volume edition of Descartes' works by Adam and Tannery (abbreviated "AT"), followed by a reference to the three-volume English edition translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and (in vol. III) Anthony Kenny (abbreviated "CSM" for volumes I and II, "CSMK" for volume III).
==Further reading==
* W.E. Abraham, "Disentangling the Cogito", ''Mind'' 83:329 (1974)
* Z. Boufoy-Bastick, "[http://zach.securitymeltdown.com/papers/Attainable-Knowledge-Boufoy-Bastick,Z.pdf Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge]", ''Sophia Journal of Philosophy'', VIII (2005), pp 39&ndash;52.
* R. Descartes (translated by John Cottingham), ''Meditations on First Philosophy'', in ''The Philosophical Writings of Descartes'' vol. II (edited Cottngham, Stoothoff, and Murdoch; Cambridge University Press, 1984) ISBN 0-521-28808-9
* G. Hatfield, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Descartes and the Meditations'' (Routledge, 2003)
* B. Williams, ''Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry'' (Penguin, 1978)
==External links==
* [http://www.framingbusiness.net/descarteslanguage.htm Descartes and Language: What is the Cogito?]
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Latin philosophical phrases]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Carl Barks</title>
<id>7345</id>
<revision>
<id>41633537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:52:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CarlBarksWithDuck.jpg|thumb|300px|Carl Barks in 1942]]
'''Carl Barks''' ([[March 27]], [[1901]] &ndash; [[August 25]], [[2000]]) was a famous [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney Studio]] illustrator and [[comic book]] creator, who invented [[Duckburg]] and many of its inhabitants, such as [[Scrooge McDuck]] (1947), [[Gladstone Gander]] (1948), the [[Beagle Boys]] (1951) and [[Gyro Gearloose]] (1952). The quality of his scripts and drawings earned him the nick names ''The Duck Man'' and ''The Good Duck Artist''. He has been called the [[Hans Christian Andersen]] of the 20th century.
==Biography==
Barks was born in [[Merrill, Oregon]] to William Barks and his wife Arminta Johnson. He had an older brother named Clyde. His paternal grandfather was named David Barks and his maternal grandparents were Carl Johnson and his wife Suzanna Massey, but little else is known about his ancestors.
===Childhood===
According to Carl's description of his childhood, he was a rather lonely child. His parents owned one square mile (2.6&nbsp;km&sup2;) of land that served as their farm. The nearest neighbor lived half a mile (800 m) away, but he was more an acquaintance to Barks' parents than a friend. The closest school was about two miles (3 km) away and Carl had to walk that distance every day. The rural area had few children, though, and Barks later remembered that his school had only about eight or ten students including him.
The lessons lasted from nine o'clock in the morning to four o'clock in the afternoon and then he had to return to the farm. There he remembered not having anybody to talk to, as his parents were busy and he had little in common with his brother.
In 1908, William Barks (in an attempt to increase the family income) moved with his family to [[Midland, Oregon]], some miles north of Merril, to be closer to the railway lines that were new at the time. He established a new stock-breeding farm and sold his produce to the local slaughterhouses.
Nine-year-old Clyde and seven-year-old Carl worked long hours there. But Carl later remembered that the crowd which gathered at Midland's market place made a strong impression on him. This was expected, as he wasn't used to crowds up until then. According to Carl, his attention was mostly drawn to the [[cowboy]]s that frequented the market with their [[revolver]]s, strange nicknames for each other and sense of humor.
By 1911, they had been successful enough to move to [[Santa Rosa, California]]. There they started cultivating vegetables and set up some orchards. Unfortunately, the profits were not as high as William expected and they started having financial difficulties. William's anxiety over them was probably what caused his first nervous break down.
As soon as William recovered, he made the decision to move back to Merrill. The year was 1913, and Carl was already twelve years old; but, due to the constant moving, he had not yet managed to complete grade school. He resumed his education at this point and finally managed to graduate in 1916.
1916 served as a turning point in Carl's life for various reasons. First, Arminta, his mother, died in this year. Secondly, his hearing problems, which had already appeared earlier, had at the time become severe enough for him to have difficulties listening to his teachers talking. His hearing would continue to get worse later, but at that point he had not yet acquired a hearing aid. Later in life, he couldn't do without one. Third, the closest high school to their farm was five miles (8 km) away and even if he did enlist in it, his bad hearing was likely to contribute to his learning problems. He had to decide to stop his school education, much to his disappointment. At the time he was a rather shy, melancholic, introverted and gangly teenager. He wouldn't be much different later in life.
===From job to job===
Barks started taking various jobs but had little success in such occupations as a farmer, woodcutter, turner, mule driver, cowboy and printer. At the same time he interacted with colleagues, fellow breadwinners who had satirical disposition towards even their worst troubles. Carl later said he was sure that if not for a little humor in their troubled lives, they would certainly go insane. It was an attitude towards life that Carl would adopt. Later he would say it was natural for him to satirize the secret yearnings and desires, the pompous style and the disappointments of his characters. According to Carl this period of his life would later influence his best known [[fictional character]]s: [[Donald Duck]] and [[Scrooge McDuck]].
Donald's drifting from job to job was reportedly inspired by Carl's own experiences. So was his usual lack of success. And even in those that he was successful this would be temporary, just until a mistake or chance event caused another failure, another disappointment for the frustrated duck. Carl also reported that this was another thing he was familiar with.
Scrooge's main difference to Donald, according to Carl, was that he too had faced the same difficulties in his past but through intelligence, determination and hard work, he was able to overcome them. Or as Scrooge himself would say to [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]]: by being "tougher than the toughies and sharper than the sharpies." Even in the present of his stories Scrooge would work to solve his many problems, even though the stories would often point out that his constant efforts seemed futile at the end. In addition, Scrooge was quite similar to his creator in appearing often to be as melancholic, introspective and secretive as he was.
Through both characters Carl would often exhibit his rather sarcastic sense of humor. It seems that this difficult period for the artist helped shape many of his later views in life that were expressed through his characters.
===Professional artist===
At the same time Carl had started thinking about turning a hobby that he always enjoyed into a profession: that of drawing. Since his early childhood he spent his free time by drawing on any material he could find. He had attempted to improve his style by copying the drawings of his favorite [[comic strip]] artists from the newspapers where he could find them. As he later said, he wanted to create his own facial expressions, figures and comical situations in his drawings but wanted to study the master comic artists' use of the pen and their use of color and shading.
Among his early favorites were [[Winsor McCay]] (mostly known for ''[[Little Nemo]]'') and [[Frederick Burr Opper]] (mostly known for ''[[Happy Hooligan]]'') but he would later study any style that managed to draw his attention.
At sixteen he was mostly self-taught but at this point he decided to take some lessons through correspondence. He only followed the first four lessons and then had to stop because his working left him with little free time. But as he later said, the lessons proved very useful in improving his style.
By December 1918, he left his father's home to attempt to find a job in [[San Francisco, California]]. He worked for a while in a small publishing house while attempting to sell his drawings to newspapers and other printed material with little success.
===First marriage===
While he continued drifting through various jobs, he met Pearle Turner (1904 to 1987). In 1921 they married and had two children:
*Peggy Barks, born in 1923.
*Dorothy Barks, born in 1924.
In 1923 he returned to his paternal farm in Merrill in an attempt to return to the life of a farmer, but that ended soon. He continued searching for a job while attempting to sell hi
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is an example of [[lexicographic ordering]].
=== Rounding floating-point numbers ===
The IEEE standard has four different rounding modes.
* '''Unbiased''' which rounds to the nearest value, if the number falls midway it is rounded to the nearest value with an even (zero) least significant bit. This mode is required to be default.
* '''Towards zero'''
* '''Towards positive infinity'''
* '''Towards negative infinity'''
==References==
*[http://www.opencores.org/projects.cgi/web/fpu100/fpu_v2.pdf Floating Point Unit] by Jidan Al-Eryani
== Revision of the standard ==
Note that the IEEE 754 standard is currently (2004) under revision. See: [[IEEE 754r]]
== See also ==
*[[-0]] (negative zero)
== External links ==
*[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754references.html IEEE 754 references]
*[http://www.d6.com/users/checker/pdfs/gdmfp.pdf Let's Get To The (Floating) Point by Chris Hecker]
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic by David Goldberg] - a good introduction and explanation.
* [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/854mins.html IEEE 854-1987] History and minutes
* [http://dfp.sourceforge.net/ieee.html Differences between IEEE 854 and 754]
*[http://www.h-schmidt.net/FloatApplet/IEEE754.html Converter]
*[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754.html Another Converter]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[Category:IEEE standards]]
[[de:IEEE 754]]
[[es:IEEE punto flotante]]
[[fr:IEEE 754]]
[[ko:IEEE 754]]
[[it:IEEE 754]]
[[ja:IEEE754]]
[[pl:IEEE 754]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel 80186</title>
<id>15190</id>
<revision>
<id>40606934</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T20:06:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.156.93.114</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: Intel 80186.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80186 Microprocessor]]
[[Image:80186_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 80186 architecture.]]
The '''80186''' is a [[microprocessor]] that was developed by [[Intel]] circa [[1982]]. The 80186 was an improvement on the [[Intel 8086]] and [[Intel 8088]]. As with the 8086, it had a [[16-bit]] external bus and was also available as the [[Intel 80188]], with an [[8-bit]] external [[data bus]]. The initial clock rate of the 80186 and 80188 was 6 [[Megahertz|MHz]]. They were generally used as [[embedded processor]]s (roughly comparable to [[microcontroller]]s). They were not used in many [[personal computer|personal computers]], but there were some notable exceptions: the [[Mindset computer|Mindset]], the [[Siemens PC-D]] (the first DOS PC line of Siemens, with MSDOS v2.11), the [[Compis]] (a [[Sweden|Swedish]] school computer), the [[Research Machines|RM Nimbus]] (a British school computer), the [[Unisys ICON]] (a Canadian school computer), the HP 200lx, and the [[Tandy 2000]] desktop (a somewhat PC-compatible workstation featuring particularly sharp graphics for its day). Acorn (another British computer manufacturer) also created a plugin Second Processor that contained the 80186 chip along with assorted support chips and 512k of RAM - hence the Master 512 system.
One major function of the 80186/80188 series was to reduce the number of chips required by including features such as a [[Direct memory access|DMA]] controller, interrupt controller, timers, and [[chip select]] logic.
New instructions were introduced as follows:
ENTER Make stack frame for procedure parameters
LEAVE High-level procedure exit
PUSHA Push all general registers
POPA Pop all general registers
BOUND Check array index against bounds
IMUL Signed (integer) multiply
INS Input from port to string
OUTS Output string to port
==External links==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=80186/188 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
{{Intel processors}}
{{Intel controllers}}
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 186]]
[[de:Intel 80186]]
[[es:Intel 80186 y 80188]]
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[[it:Intel 80186]]
[[nl:80186 (processor)]]
[[ja:Intel 80186]]
[[fi:Intel 80186]]
[[zh:Intel 80186]]
[[ru:Intel 80186]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inquisition</title>
<id>15191</id>
<revision>
<id>42075036</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:28:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Delta x</username>
<id>974625</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ lk to vatican secret archives</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article deals with Catholic history between 1134 and 1834. For other uses see [[Inquisition (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:inquisition2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Artistic representation of an [[Auto de fe]], during the [[Spanish Inquisition]] ([[1475]]).]]
The term '''Inquisition''' ([[Latin]]: ''Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis Sanctum Officium'') refers broadly to a number of historical movements surrounding the suppression of [[heresy]] by the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]. There were four major movements, starting with the [[Medieval Inquisition]] in [[1184]] and ending with the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in [[1834]].
==Origin==
The Inquisition was an institution within the Roman Catholic Church, charged with the eradication of heresy, sometimes by violent means.
Heresies (from Greek ''haeresis'', sect, school of belief) were a problem to the Church and the Faith. Biblical lore [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15 recounts the convening of a [[Jerusalem Council|council in Jerusalem]] to deal with the heresy of the [[Judaizers]], who had contended with the Jerusalem faction in [[Asia Minor|Asia]] and especially [[Galatia]]. In the subsequent centuries there were the [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Manichaeism|Manicheans]]; in the [[Middle Ages]] there were the [[Cathars|Cathari]] and [[Waldensians|Waldenses]]; and in the [[Renaissance]] there were the [[Hussite|Hussites]], [[Lutheran Church|Lutherans]], [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], and [[Rosicrucian|Rosicrucians]]. Efforts to suppress heresies were initially ''[[ad hoc]]'', but in the [[Middle Ages]] a permanent structure came into being to combat heresies. The Church deemed it according to the public good to remove these heretics from the public, or at least to correct them, as the Church held that the eternal good of one's soul depends on it's adherence to the teachings of the Magisterium of the Church. Although it was originally the state who began the reprimanding of heretics, it eventually fell in the hands of the Church in the late middle ages.
==History==
There were four Inquisitions; in chronological order, they were the [[Medieval Inquisition]], the [[Spanish Inquisition]], the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] and the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|Roman Inquisition]]. One would however be incorrect to presume that these were totally unrelated to each other and that the inquisition was limited to these discrete events.
===Medieval Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Medieval Inquisition]]''
The first of the Medieval Inquisitions is called the '''Episcopal Inquisition''' and was established in the year [[1184]] by a [[papal bull]], an official letter from the Pope, entitled ''Ad abolendam''; "For the purpose of doing away with". The Inquisition was in response to the growing [[Cathars|Catharist]] heresy in southern [[France]]. It is called the "episcopal" because it was administered by local [[bishop]]s, which in Greek is ''episcopos''. The Episcopal Inquisition was not very effective for many reasons (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).
The '''Papal Inquisition''' in the [[1230s]] was in response to the failures of the Episcopal Inquisition and was staffed by professionals, trained specifically for the job as decreed by the Pope. Individuals were chosen from different orders and secular clergy, but primarily they came from the [[Dominican Order]] who had a number of traits that made them suitable (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).
===Spanish Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Spanish Inquisition]]''
The Spanish Inquisition was founded in [[1478]] in Spain under [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile]]. It was to a large extent under the control of the Spanish monarch, with only the Inquisitor General appointed by Rome. In its dealings with converted Muslims and Jews and also [[illuminist]]s, the Spanish Inquisition, with its "[[auto de fe]]", represents a particularly notorious period in the history of the Inquisition. This inquisition also gave rise to the [[Peruvian Inquisition]] during the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] which ended with its Independence on [[July]] [[28]], and also the [[Mexican Inquisition]], which continued in the Americas until Mexican Independence.
It was abolished in [[1834]].
===Roman Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Roman Inquisition]]''
[[Pope Paul III]] established, in [[1542]], a permanent congregation staffed with [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] and other officials, whose task it was to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines. This body, the Congregation of the Holy Office, now called the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], part of the [[Roman Curia]], became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Pope appoints one of the cardinals to preside over the meetings. There are usually ten other cardinals on the Congregation, as well as a [[prelate]] and two assistants all chosen from the [[Dominican Order]]. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars of theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions. In [[1616]] these consultants gave their assessment of the propositions that the Sun is immobile and at the center of the universe and that the Earth moves around it, judging both to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy," and the first to be
|
e:Braille M.svg|[[M]]
Image:Braille N.svg|[[N]]
Image:Braille O.svg|[[O]]
Image:Braille P.svg|[[P]]
Image:Braille Q.svg|[[Q]]
Image:Braille R.svg|[[R]]
Image:Braille S.svg|[[S]]
Image:Braille T.svg|[[T]]
Image:Braille U.svg|[[U]]
Image:Braille V.svg|[[V]]
Image:Braille W.svg|[[W]]
Image:Braille X.svg|[[X]]
Image:Braille Y.svg|[[Y]]
Image:Braille Z.svg|[[Z]]
</gallery>
===Other symbols===
<gallery>
Image:Braille CapitalSign.svg|Capital letter follows
Image:Braille NumberSign.svg|Number follows
Image:Braille Period.svg|[[Full stop]]/period
Image:Braille Comma.svg|[[Comma]]
Image:Braille Semicolon.svg|[[Semicolon]]
Image:Braille ExclamationPoint.svg|[[Exclamation point]]
Image:Braille QuoteOpen.svg|Opening [[quotation mark]]
Image:Braille QuoteClose.svg|Closing [[quotation mark]]
Image:Braille Bracket.svg|[[Bracket (punctuation)|Parenthesis]] (opening and closing)
Image:Braille Hyphen.svg|[[Hyphen]]
</gallery>
The question mark is dots 2,3,6 which you may notice is the same as the opening quotation mark. Therefore the placement of the dots -before a word or after a word- will determine which symbol it is.
Opening and closing parentheses are shown with the same symbol. Therefore, the placement context will determine whether the parentheses is opening or closing.
===Unicode rendering table===
The Unicode standard encodes 8-dot Braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following the alphabetic order of any particular convention.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Braille
! Letter
! Braille
! Letter
|-
| &#x2801; || A 1 || &#x281E; || T
|-
| &#x2803; || B 2 || &#x2825; || U
|-
| &#x2809; || C 3 || &#x2827; || V
|-
| &#x2819; || D 4 || &#x283A; || W
|-
| &#x2811; || E 5 || &#x282D; || X
|-
| &#x280B; || F 6 || &#x283D; || Y
|-
| &#x281B; || G 7 || &#x2835; || Z
|-
| &#x2813; || H 8 || &#x2820; || Capital sign
|-
| &#x280A; || I 9 || &#x283C; || Number sign
|-
| &#x281A; || J 0 || &#x2832; || Period
|-
| &#x2805; || K || &#x2802; || Comma
|-
| &#x2807; || L || &#x2826; || Question mark
|-
| &#x280D; || M || &#x2806; || Semicolon
|-
| &#x281D; || N || &#x2816; || Exclamation mark
|-
| &#x2815; || O || &#x2826; || Opening quote
|-
| &#x280F; || P || &#x2834; || Closing quote
|-
| &#x281F; || Q || &#x2836; || Bracket
|-
| &#x2817; || R || &#x2824; || Hyphen
|-
| &#x280E; || S || &#160; || &#160;
|}
==Braille transcription==
[[Image:Braille Writer.jpg|thumb|Braille Writer]]
Although it is possible to transcribe braille by simply substituting the equivalent braille character for its printed equivalent, such a character-by-character transcription (known as ''Grade 1 Braille'') is used only by beginners.
Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11" by 11" (28 cm &times; 28 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 40 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed, virtually all braille books are transcribed in what is known as ''Grade 2 Braille,'' which uses a system of contractions to reduce space and speed the process of reading. As with most human linguistic activities, Grade 2 Braille embodies a complex system of customs, styles, and practices. The Library of Congress's ''Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing'' runs to nearly 200 pages. Braille transcription is skilled work, and braille transcribers need to pass certification tests.
In English, the system of Grade 2 Braille contractions begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word ''but'' is contracted to the single letter ''b,'' ''can'' to ''c'', ''do'' to ''d'', and so on. Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, ''d'' is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb ''do;'' the noun ''do'' representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out.
Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f" lowered in the braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word "to" although the character is written in braille with no space following it. At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.
The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are not to be used when their use would alter the usual braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added. And some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgement of the transcriber. Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation."
''Grade 3 Braille'' is a system that includes many additional contractions, almost a shorthand; it is not used for publication, but is used mostly for individuals for their personal convenience.
The current series of [[Canadian dollar|Canadian banknotes]] have raised dots on the banknotes that indicate the denomination and can be easily identified by visually impaired people; this [[Canadian currency tactile feature|'tactile feature']] does not use standard braille but, instead, a system developed in consultation with blind and visually impaired Canadians after research indicated that not all potential users read braille.
Though braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported 2 million visually impaired population, it is estimated that only around 15-20 thousand people use Braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers instead; a more portable communication method that they can also use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.
==Braille for other scripts==
There are many extensions of Braille for additional letters with [[diacritic]]s, such as ''ç, ô, é''.
When braille is adapted to languages which do not use the [[Latin alphabet]], the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet, and the alphabetic order of the national script (and therefore the natural order of Latin braille) is disregarded. Such is the case with Russian, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for example, ''gamma'' is written as Latin ''g'', despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of ''c''; Hebrew ''beth'', the second letter of the alphabet and [[cognate]] with the Latin letter ''b'', is instead written ''v'', as it is commonly pronounced; Russian ''ts'' is written as ''c'', which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic ''f'' is written as ''f'', despite being historically ''p'', and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic ''o'' and ''q''). [[Esperanto]] letters with circumflexes, ''ĉ'', ''ĝ'', ''ĥ'', ''ĵ'' and ''ŝ'', are written as those letters without circumflexes with a filled sixth dot. The ''ŭ'', used in Esperanto too, is as the u but the first dot is moved to the second place.
Greater differences occur in Chinese braille. In the case of [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] Braille, which is based on [[Zhuyin]] rather than the Latin [[Pinyin]] alphabet, the traditional Latin braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels. However, there are additional blocks for the tones, diphthongs, and vowel + consonant combinations. [[Cantonese Braille]] is also based on Latin braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels (based on Romanizations of a century ago), but the blocks pull double duty, with different values depending on whether they're placed in syllable-initial or syllable-final position. For instance, the block for Latin ''k'' represents old-style Cantonese ''k'' (''g'' in [[Yale Romanization|Yale]] and other modern Romanizations) when initial, but ''aak'' when final, while Latin ''j'' represents Cantonese initial ''j'' but final ''oei''.
However, at least two adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks. These are:
* [[Japanese Braille]]
* [[Korean Braille]]
In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are combined into a single syllabic block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different syllable-initial and syllable-final forms. These modifications made Braille much more compatible with Japanese [[kana]] and Korean [[hangul]], but meant that the Latin sound values could not be maintained.
==Braille in Pokemon==
Braille was incorporated into Pokemon Ruby, Sapphire, and Emerald for the [[Gameboy Advance]]. In this, the player had to read the braille and solve the requirements before encountering three legendary pokemon: [[Regirock]]; [[Registeel]]; and [[Regice]]. Out of all the modern games, this is the only one that uses the system effectively.
==See also==
* [[Braille terminal]]
* [[Moon type]]
* [[Unified English Braille Code]]
==External links==
*[http://www.afb.org/braille.asp Braille - American Foundation for the Blind]
*[http://www.afb.org/braillebug/ Braille Bug - an educational site for kids, from the American Foundation for the Blind]
*[http://www.rnib.org.uk Royal National Institute For The Blind]
*[http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/braille.html Braille for various scripts]
*[http://www.braillevirtual.fe.usp.br On-line Braille Course of University of São Paulo]
*[http://www.unicode.o
|
s (hypothetical)</td>
<td>appr. 50</td>
<td>5000 – 3000 BC</td>
<td>''higi, huul, koib, kõrv, kube, külg, liha, lõug, nahk, rind, selg; mägi, mets, neem, nõmm, oja, org, saar, soo; ahven, haug, koger, koha, rääbis, siig, vimb; jänes, konn; helmes''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Indo-European and Indo-Iranic loans</td>
<td>20 - 45</td>
<td>3000 – 1000 BC</td>
<td>''mesi, sool, osa, sada, põrsas, varss, sarv, puhas, vasar''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Proto-Baltic and Baltic loans</td>
<td>100 - 150</td>
<td>1500 – 500 BC</td>
<td>''hammas, hani, hein, hernes, hõim, oinas, puder, põrgu, ratas, seeme, sein, mets, luht, sõber, tuhat, vagu, regi, vill, veel, kael, kirves, laisk''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Proto-Germanic and Germanic loans</td>
<td>380</td>
<td>2000 BC – 13th century</td>
<td>''agan, ader, humal, kana, kaer, rukis, lammas, leib, põld; aer, mõrd, laev, noot, puri; : kuld, raud, tina; sukk, katel, küünal, taigen; kuningas, laen, luna, raha, rikas, vald; kalju, kallas, rand; armas, taud, kaunis, ja''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Old Slavic loans</td>
<td>50-75</td>
<td>10th – 13th century</td>
<td>''aken, sahk, sirp, turg, teng(elpung), pagan, papp, raamat, rist, kasukas''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Proto-Latvian loans</td>
<td>40</td>
<td>6th- 7th century</td>
<td>''kanep, lääts, magun, udras, kõuts, palakas, lupard, harima, kukkel, vanik, laabuma, kauss, mulk, pastel''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Low German loans</td>
<td>750</td>
<td>12th – 16th century</td>
<td>''kool, neer, ribi; kruus, torm; kõrvits, peet, salat, petersell, münt, köömen, loorber, palm, tamm, roos, ploom; hunt, köök, kruubid, kringel, pannkook, pekk, prantssai, sült, vorst, õli, tärklis, pruukost, kruus, pann, pütt, korv, lähker, toober, tiik, tuli, lamp, lühter; käärid, teljed, vokk, lõuend, samet, siid, vilt, kuub, kört, loor, müts, muda, mantel, püksid, vammus, nööp; hoov, häärber, kelder, kemmerg, korsten, ruum, saal, tall, haamer, hing, höövel, kellu, kapp, pink, tool, trepp, vall, võlv; jaht, jääger, kants, kütt, laager, lahing, piir, püss, poiss, tääk, vaht; altar, ingel, jünger, psalm, prohvet, salm, preester, troost, pihtima, vöörmünder, piiskop, sant; preili, memm, mats, härra, proua, kelm, narr, naaber, kuller, laat, selts, krahv, saks, arst, plaaster; hangeldama, küürima, tingima, kortel, matt, toll, vaagima, viht, üür, paar, piik, tosin, veerand; näärid, reede, tund, vastlad; ankur, kiil, tüür, praam, madrus, pootsman, kotermann, loots, kipper; kaart, kool, kunst, maaler, maalima, paber, trükkima, uurima, trumm, tantsima, piip, vilepill, pasun; just, topelt, väärt''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Swedish loans</td>
<td>140</td>
<td>13th – 17th century</td>
<td>''kratt, kroonu, kuunar, julla, pagar, näkk, plasku, plika, solk, tasku, räim, tünder, moor, puldan, tont''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Russian loans</td>
<td>350</td>
<td>14th – 20th century</td>
<td>''kapsas, tatar, puravik, riisikas, sihvka, kiisu, suslik, kulu, prussakas, tarakan, naarits, soobel, uss; noos, moiva, vobla, mutt; kamorka, putka, sara, lobudik, trahter, koiku, nari, pruss, tökat; hõlst, kamass, kirsa, kombinesoon, kott, puhvaika, marli, pintsak, retuusid, trussikud; kiisel, pontšik, rosolje, rupskid, borš, uhhaa, morss, samagon; batoon, kissell, plombiir, povidlo, šašlõkk, uhhaa; plotski, mahorka, pabeross; mannerg, kopsik; nuut, kantsik, piits, tupik, relss, jaam; kabi, knopka; kasakas, kasarmu, karauul, katelok, kiiver, munder, nekrut, pagun, polk, ranits, sinel, tentsik, utsitama, timukas, rajoon, türm, pops, artell; palakas, haltuura, parseldama, parisnik, siva, tolk, tots, pujään, kitt, tuur, ladna, prosta, sutike; kaanima, kostitama, kruttima, kupeldama''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>(High) German loans</td>
<td>500</td>
<td>16th – 20th century</td>
<td>''larhv, lokk, seitel; kastan, pappel, kirss, jasmiin, jorjen, kartul, tulp, vihk; ahv, auster, kalkun, siisike, miisu, mops, taks, kits, vau, viidikas, nepp, pistrik; klimp, klops, kotlet, kompvek, supp, tort, viiner, soust, vahvel, vürts, vein; jope, kittel, kampsun, kleit, vest, lips, värvel, sall, pluus; kamin, pliit, käär(kamber), sahver, latter, kabel, palat; pult, sohva, leen, kummut, kardin, sahtel; uur, klade, klamber, latern, sihverplaat, silt; opman, oober, tisler, tudeng, velsker, virtin, antvärk, aadlik, kärner, kilter, kutsar, lärm, oksjon, krempel, klatš; krehvtine, hull, liiderlik, napp, noobel, ontlik, plass, tumm, trammis; kleepima, klantsima, mehkeldama, sehkendama, rehkendama, trimpama, pummeldama, praalima, turnima; ahoi, proosit, hurraa, hopp, hallo''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Finnish loans</td>
<td>90</td>
<td>19th – 20th century</td>
<td>''aare, sangar, harras, jenka, julm, jäik, sünge, tehas, uljas, vaist, vihjama, säilima, kuvama, haihtuma, anastama''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Hebrew loans</td>
<td>< 5</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>''jaana(lind), tohuvabohu''</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>Roma loans</td>
<td><5</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>''manguma''</td>
</tr>
</table>
==Orthography==
Like Finnish, Estonian employs the [[Latin alphabet]], in addition to which the [[Estonian alphabet]] contains letters ''š'', ''ž'', ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'', and ''õ''. The letters ''c'', ''q'', ''w'', ''x'' and ''y'' are limited to [[proper names]] of foreign origin, and ''f'', ''z'', ''š'', and ''ž'' appear in loanwords and foreign names only. ''Ä'', ''ö'', and ''ü'' are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in German, the language from which they were originally borrowed. The letter ''õ'' denotes [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɤ/}}, unrounded {{IPA|/o/}}, or a mid, back, unrounded vowel. (It has a different sound from the same letter in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. It is similar to the [[Russian language|Russian]] [[Yery|ы]] and the [[Vietnamese_language|Vietnamese]] [[ơ]].)
Estonian orthography is essentially phonemic with each phoneme of the language represented by exactly one grapheme. Exceptions to this derive from historical agreements: for example the initial letter 'h' in words, preservation of the morpheme in [[declension]] of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'. Also, ''š'' and ''ž'' are substituted with ''sh'' and ''zh'' in some written texts.
Modern Estonian orthography is based on the ''Newer Orthography'' created by [[Eduard Ahrens]] in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish Orthography. The ''Older Orthography'' it replaced was created in the 17th century by [[Bengt Gottfried Forselius]] and [[Johann Hornung]] based on [[German language|standard German]] orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on [[Latin]] and [[Middle Low German]] orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography - for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s.
==Grammar==
Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an [[agglutinating language]] to an [[inflected language]]. Over the course of Estonian history, [[German language|German]] has exercised a strong influence on Estonian, both in vocabulary and syntax.
In Estonian nouns and pronouns do not have [[grammatical gender]], but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[partitive]], [[illative]], [[inessive]], [[elative]], [[allative]], [[adessive]], [[ablative]], [[translative]], [[terminative]], [[essive]], [[abessive]], and [[comitative]], with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for "a yellow house" (''kollane maja'') — "into a yellow house" is (''kollasesse majja'').
The direct object of the verb appears either in the [[Accusative case|accusative]] (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The case accusative looks exactly like the genitive. Genitive vs. partitive case opposition of [[Object (grammar)|object]] used with transitive verbs creates a [[telicity]] contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfect vs. imperfect aspect opposition.
The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] (the "impersonal").
==Language example==
'''NURMEKUNNA HÜMN'''
:Karjatades kundikarju,
:Süües musti hooramarju,
:Leidsin eilse Nurmekunna ma.
:Veel ei olnud otsas mõdu,
:Veel ei olnud sündind sõdu,
:Lembitut, kes liitis Maavalla.
:Hingel hakkab veidi valus.
:Kuskil laanes, kuskil talus,
:Kostab vaikselt vilepilli hääl.
:Kuskil nurmel lõhnab mesi.
:Tuul toob kokku inimesi,
:Hõbedased sõled rinna pääl.
:Kostab, justkui löödaks lokku –
:Juuaks karudega kokku.
:Nurmel mängib vaikselt vilepill.
:Karukujud hõbemärgis,
:Tuleb tüdruk valges särgis.
:Juustesse on põimit rukkilill.
:Aga ükskord joodi mõdu,
:Mäletati muistseid sõdu,
:Lembitut, kes liitis Maavalla.
:Hiiekünkal kasvas tamme.
:Kuulsin tuleviku samme –
:Leidsin homse Nurmekunna ma.
:Kõik, mis on ilus, on eilsesse läev.
:Jällegi eilseks saab tänane päev.
:Kõik, mis siin
|
ng include ''The Prelude to Bolshevism'' (1919), ''The Catastrophe'' (1927), ''The Crucifixion of Liberty'' (1934) and ''Russia and History's Turning Point'' (1966).
Kerensky died at his home in New York in 1970, one of the last surviving major participants in the turbulent events of 1917. The local [[Russian Orthodox Church]]es in New York refused to grant Kerensky burial, seeing him as being largely responsible for Russia falling to the Bolsheviks. A [[Serbian Orthodox church]] also refused. Kerensky's body was then flown to [[London]] where he was buried at a non-denominational [[cemetery]].
==References==
R. Abraham; "Kerensky - First Love of the Revolution" - Columbia University Press 1987
==External links==
*[http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2001/janfeb/features/kerensky.html An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Georgy Evgenyevich Lvov]] | title = [[Prime Minister of Russia]] | years = [[July 21]] [[1917]]&mdash;[[November 8]] [[1917]] | after = Position dissolved}}
{{succession box | before = [[Georgy Evgenyevich Lvov]] | title = [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|President of the Russian Provisional Government of 1917]] | years = [[July 21]] [[1917]] &mdash; [[November 8]] [[1917]] | after = [[Vladimir Lenin]] (as [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union|Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars]])}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1881 births|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:1970 deaths|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Russia|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution people|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Imperial Russian politicians|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Russian people in the United States|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Socialists|Kerensky, Alexander]]
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[cs:Alexandr Fjodorovič Kerenskij]]
[[de:Alexander Fjodorowitsch Kerenski]]
[[et:Aleksandr Kerenski]]
[[es:Alexander Kerensky]]
[[fr:Alexandre Fedorovitch Kerensky]]
[[ko:알렉산드르 케렌스키]]
[[id:Alexander Kerensky]]
[[it:Alexander Fedorovich Kerensky]]
[[he:אלכסנדר קרנסקי]]
[[nl:Alexander Kerenski]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル・ケレンスキー]]
[[pl:Aleksander Kiereński]]
[[pt:Alexander Kerenski]]
[[ro:Alexandr Kerenski]]
[[ru:Керенский, Александр Фёдорович]]
[[fi:Aleksandr Kerenski]]
[[sv:Aleksandr Kerenskij]]
[[uk:Керенський Олександр Федорович]]
[[zh:亚历山大·克伦斯基]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ansgar</title>
<id>2544</id>
<revision>
<id>41938681</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:32:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.82.9.64</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ansgar.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ansgar, etching by Hugo Hamilton (1830)]]
Saint '''Ansgar''', '''Anskar''' or '''Oscar''', ([[September 8]]?, [[801]]&ndash;[[February 3]], [[865]]) was an [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen]]. The see of Hamburg was designated a "Mission to bring Christianity to the [[Northern Europe|North]]", and Ansgar became known as the "Apostle of the North".
Ansgar was born in [[Amiens]]. He had for a period resided with the baptized [[Denmark|Danish]] king [[Harald Klak]] and when [[Louis the Pious]] at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in [[829]] was requested by two representatives from [[Sweden]] and the Swedish king [[Björn at Hauge]], he appointed Ansgar missionary. The representatives had claimed that the several [[Swedes]] were willing to convert to Christendom. Ansgar arrived at [[Birka]] in 829, with his aide friar Witmar, and a small congregation was formed in [[831]], which included the king's own steward Hergeir, as the most prominent member.
He died 865 in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. His life story was written by his successor as archbishop, [[Rimbert]], in [[Vita Ansgari]].
Statues dedicated to him stand in Hamburg and Copenhagen as well as a stone cross at Birka. A [[Impact crater|crater]] on the [[Moon]], [[Ansgarius (crater)|Ansgarius]], has been named for him. Ansgar is the patron saint of Denmark. His [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] is [[3 february]].
==External links==
*[http://www.skolinternet.telia.se/TIS/birka/texteng/hist.htm Ansgar at Birka History of Birka]
*[[Vita Ansgari]], English translation from [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Medieval sourcebook]
*[http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/subject/hd/fak7/hist/c1/de/gen/gen/grmnhist/log.started920201/mail-16.html German History Forum]
[[Category:801 births|Ansgar]]
[[Category:865 deaths|Ansgar]]
[[Category:Saints|Ansgar]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[cs:Ansgar]]
[[da:Ansgar]]
[[de:Ansgar von Bremen]]
[[nn:Den heilage Ansgar]]
[[fi:Ansgar]]
[[sv:Ansgar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automated theorem proving</title>
<id>2546</id>
<revision>
<id>41913114</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:00:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Qwertyus</username>
<id>196471</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Popular techniques */ add lean theorem proving</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Automated theorem proving''' (currently the most important subfield of ''[[automated reasoning]]'') is the [[mathematical proof|proving]] of mathematical [[theorem]]s by a computer program. Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a theorem varies from trivial to impossible. For the frequent case of [[propositional logic]], the problem is decidable but [[NP-complete]], and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proving tasks. For [[first-order logic]] it is [[recursively enumerable]], i.e., given unbounded resources, any valid theorem can eventually be proven. Invalid statements, i.e. formulas that are ''not'' entailed by a given theory, cannot always be recognized. In these cases, a first-order theorem prover may fail to terminate while searching for a proof. Despite these theoretical limits, practical theorem provers can solve many hard problems in these logics.
A simpler, but related problem is [[proof verification]], where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a [[primitive recursive function]] or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.
''Interactive theorem provers'' require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have by now proven a number of interesting and hard theorems, including some that have eluded human mathematicians for a long time. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.
Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference.
Other techniques would include [[model checking]], which is equivalent to brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).
There are hybrid theorem proving systems which use model checking as an inference rule.
There are also programs which were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true.
A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the [[four color theorem]], which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof which was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs).
Another example would be the proof that the game [[Connect Four]] is a win for the first player.
Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification. Since the [[Pentium FDIV bug]], the complicated [[floating point unit]]s of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. In the latest processors from [[AMD]], [[Intel]], and others, automated theorem proving has been used to verify that the divide and other operations are correct.
==First-order theorem proving==
[[First-order logic|First-order]] theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling ''fully'' automated systems. The quality of implemented system has benefited by the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples (the [[TPTP]]), as well as by the [[Conference on Automated Deduction|CADE]] ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.
Some important system (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.
* [[E equational theorem prover|E]] is a high-performance prover built on a [[purely equational calculus]], developed primarily in the automated reasoning group of [[Technical University of Munich]].
* [[Otter theorem prover|Otter]], developed at the [[Argonne National Laboratory]], is the first widely used high-performance theorem prover. It is based on [[first-order resolution]] and [[paramodulation]].
* [[SETHEO]] is a high-performance system
|
t the young [[Maurice Ravel]] for the first time, Satie's style emerging in the first compositions of the youngster. One of Satie's own compositions of that period, the ''[[Vexations]]'', was to remain undisclosed until after his death. By the end of the year he had founded the [[Eglise Métropolitaine d'Art de Jésus Conducteur]] (the Metropolitan Church of Art of the Leading Christ). As its only member, in the role of "Parcier et Maître de Chapelle" he started to compose a ''Grande Messe'' (later to become known as the ''[[Messe des Pauvres]]''), and wrote a flood of letters, articles and pamphlets showing off his self-assuredness in religious and artistic matters. To give an example: he applied for membership of the [[Académie Française]] twice, leaving no doubt in the application letter that the board of that organisation (presided by [[Camille Saint-Saëns]]) as much as owed him such membership. Such proceedings without doubt rather helped to wreck his popularity in the cultural [[The Establishment|establishment]]. In [[1895]] he inherited some money, allowing him to have some more of his writings printed, and to change from wearing a priest-like habit to being the "[[:fr:Image:ErikSatie.jpeg|Velvet Gentleman]]".
===Early years in Arcueil, cabaret compositions, Schola Cantorum===
By mid-[[1896]] all his financial means had vanished, and he had to move to cheaper lodgings, first at the Rue Cortot, to a room not much bigger than a cupboard, and two years later (after he'd composed the two first sets of ''[[Pièces froides]]'' in [[1897]]), to [[Arcueil]], a suburb some ten kilometers from the centre of Paris (in the [[Val-de-Marne]] district of the [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France ]]).
At this period he re-established contact with his brother Conrad (in much the way [[Vincent Van Gogh]] had with his brother Theo) for numerous practical and financial matters, disclosing some of his inner feelings in the process. For example, from his letters to his brother it's clear that he had set aside any religious ideas (which were not to return until the last months of his life); Satie used humour as he was often to do: to indicate a change of mind concerning subjects about which he had had strong views.
From the winter of [[1898]]&ndash;[[1899]], Satie could be seen, as a daily routine, leaving his apartment in the Parisian suburb of Arcueil to walk across Paris to either Montmartre or [[Montparnasse]], before walking back again in the evening.
From 1899 on he started making money as a cabaret pianist (mostly accompanying [[Vincent Hyspa]], later also [[Paulette Darty]]), adapting over a hundred compositions of popular music for piano (or piano and voice), adding some of his own. The most popular of these were ''[[Je te veux]]'' (text by Henry Pacory), ''Tendrement'' (text by Vincent Hyspa), ''Poudre d'or'' (a waltz), ''La Diva de l'"Empire"'' (text by Dominique Bonnaud/Numa Blès), ''Le Picadilly'' (A March), ''Légende Californienne'' (text by Contamine de Latour lost, but the music later reappears in ''[[La Belle Excentrique]]''), and many more (probably even more have been lost). In his later years Satie would reject all his cabaret music as vile and against his nature, although he revived some of the fun of it in his [[1920]] ''Belle excentrique''. But for the time being, it was an income.
Only a few compositions that Satie himself took seriously remain from this period: ''[[Jack-in-the-box (composition)|Jack-in-the-box]]'', music to a [[pantomime]] by Jules Dépaquit (called a "clownerie" by Satie), ''[[Geneviève de Brabant]]'', a short comic opera (?shadowy play) on a serious theme, text by [[Lord Cheminot]], ''[[The Dreamy Fish]]'', piano music to accompany a lost tale by Lord Cheminot, and a few others (mostly incomplete, hardly any of them staged, and none of them published at the time).
Both ''Geneviève de Brabant'' and ''The Dreamy Fish'' have been analysed (e.g. by [[Ornella Volta]]) as containing elements of competition with [[Claude Debussy]], of which Debussy was probably not aware (Satie not making this music public). Meanwhile, Debussy was having one of his first major successes with ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' in [[1902]], leading a few years later to ‘who-was-precursor-to-whom’ debates between the two composers (in which [[Maurice Ravel]] would also get involved).
In October [[1905]] Satie enrolled in [[Vincent d'Indy]]'s [[Schola Cantorum]] to study classical [[counterpoint]] (while still continuing his cabaret work). Most of his friends were as dumbfounded as the professors at the Schola when they heard about his new plan to return to the classrooms (especially as d'Indy was an admiring pupil of [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]], not particularly favoured by Satie). As for Satie's motivation for this step, there were probably two main reasons: first, he was tired of being told that the [[harmony|harmonisation]] of his compositions was erratic (a criticism he could not very well counter while not having completed any studies in music), and secondly, he was developing the idea that one of the most typical characteristics of [[France|French]] music was clarity (which could better be achieved with a good background knowledge of how traditional harmony was perceived). Satie would follow these courses at the Schola, as a respected pupil, for more than five years, receiving a first (intermediate) diploma in 1908.
Some of his classroom counterpoint-exercises would, after his death, be published (e.g., the ''[[Désespoir agréable]]''), but he probably saw the ''[[En Habit de Cheval]]'' (published in [[1911]] as the result of "eight years hard work to come to a new, modern fugue") as the culmination of the Schola episode. Another summary, of the period prior to the Schola, also appeared in [[1911]]: the ''[[Trois Morceaux en forme de poire]]'', which was a kind of compilation of the best of what he had written up to [[1903]].
Something that becomes clear through these published compilations is that maybe he did not so much reject [[Romanticism]] (and its exponents like [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]) as a whole (he has become more moderate in a way), as that he rejected certain aspects of it: musically the thing he rejected most consequently, from his very first composition to his very last, was the idea of [[Musical development|development]], certainly in the more strict definition of this term: the intertwining of different themes in a development section of a [[sonata form]]: naturally this makes his contrapuntal (and other works) very short: e.g. the "new, modern" [[Fugue]]s do not extend further than the exposition of the theme(s). Generally he would say that he didn't think it permitted that a composer would take more time from his public than strictly necessary, certainly avoiding being boring in any way. Also [[Melodrama]], in its historical meaning of the then popular romantic genre of "spoken words to a background of music", was something Satie appears to have succeeded quite well in staying clear of (although his [[1913]] ''[[Le Piège de Méduse|Piège de Méduse]]'' could be seen as an absurdistic spoof of that genre).
[[Image:Bustoerik.jpg|frame|right|Selfportrait of Erik Satie. The text reads (translated from French): Project for a bust of Mr. Erik Satie (painted by the same), with a thought: "I came into the world very young, in an age that was very old"]]
In the meanwhile some other changes had also taken place: he had become a member of a radical ([[socialism|socialist]]) party, had socialised with the Arcueil community (amongst other things, he'd been involved in the "Patronage Laïque" work for children), and he had changed his appearance to that of the 'bourgeois functionary' (with bowler hat, umbrella, etc.). Also, instead of involving himself again in any kind of [[medievalism|medievalist]] [[sect]], he channelled these interests into a peculiar secret [[hobby]]: in a filing cabinet he maintained a collection of imaginary buildings (most of them described as being made out of some kind of metal), which he drew on little cards. Occasionally, extending the game, he would publish anonymous small announcements in local journals, offering some of these buildings (e.g., a "castle in lead") for sale or rent.
===Riding the waves===
From this point, things started to move very quickly for Satie. First, there was, starting in [[1912]], the success of his new short, humorous piano pieces; he was to write and publish many of these over the next few years (most of them premiered by the pianist [[Ricardo Viñes]]): the ''[[Véritables Préludes flasques (pour un chien)]]'' ("Genuine Flabby Preludes (for a dog)"), the ''[[Vieux sequins et vieilles cuirasses]]'' ("Old Sequins and Old Breastplates"), the ''[[Embryons desséchés]]'' ("Dried up Embryos"), the ''[[Descriptions Automatiques]]'', and the ''[[Sonatine Bureaucratique]]'' (a [[Muzio Clementi]] spoof), etc., all date from this period. His habit of accompanying the scores of his compositions with all kinds of written remarks was now well established (so that a few years later he had to insist that these not be read out during performances<!--avoiding "Melodrama" genre!-->). He had mostly stopped using barlines by this time. In some ways these compositions were very reminiscent of [[Gioacchino Rossini|Rossini]]'s compositions from the final years of his life, grouped under the name [http://www.rossinigesellschaft.de/data/pdvd.html Péchés de Vieillesse]; Rossini also wrote short, humorous piano pieces like ''Mon prélude hygiénique du matin'' or ''Dried figs'', etc., and would dedicate such pieces to his dog every year on its birthday. These pieces had been performed in the Rossinis' exclusive salon in Paris some decades earlier. In all probability, however, Satie hadn'
|
ankton]]. Iron is an important nutrient for [[phytoplankton]], usually made available via upwelling along the [[continental shelves]], inflows from rivers and streams, as well as deposition of dust suspended in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Natural sources of ocean iron have been declining in recent decades, contributing to an overall decline in ocean productivity (NASA, 2003). Yet in the presence of iron nutrients plankton populations quickly grow, or 'bloom', expanding the base of [[biomass]] productivity throughout the region and removing significant quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere via [[photosynthesis]]. A test in 2002 in the [[Southern Ocean]] around [[Antarctica]] suggests that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are sunk for each iron atom added to the water. More recent work in Germany (2005) suggests that any biomass carbon in the oceans, whether exported to depth or recycled in the [[euphotic zone]], represents long term storage of carbon. This means that application of iron nutrients in select parts of the oceans, at appropriate scales, could have the combined effect of restoring ocean productivity while at the same time mitigating the effects of human caused emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Those skeptical of this approach argue that the effect of periodic small scale phytoplankton blooms on ocean ecosystems is unclear, and that more studies would be advantageous. For example, it's known that phytoplankton have a complex effect on cloud formation via the release of substances such as [[dimethyl sulfide]] ([[DMS]]) which are converted to sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere providing [[cloud condensation nuclei]], or CCN. But the effect of small scale plankton blooms on overall DMS production is unknown.
=== Soils ===
The carbon sequestration potential of [[soil]]s (by increasing [[soil organic matter]]) is substantial; below ground organic carbon storage is more than twice above-ground storage. Soils' organic carbon levels in many agricultural areas have been severely depleted. Improving the [[humus]] levels of these soils would both improve soil quality and increase the amount of carbon sequestered in these soils.
Grasslands contribute huge quantities of soil organic matter over time, mostly in the form of roots, and much of this organic matter can remain unoxidized for long periods. Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. [[No-till farming|No-till agricultural systems]] can increase the amount of carbon stored in soil, and conversion to pastureland, particularly with good management of grazing, can sequester even more carbon in the soil.
Mechanisms to enhance carbon sequestration in soil include [[no-till farming|conservation tilling]], [[cover crop]]ping, and [[crop rotation]].
==Artificial sequestration==
For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured. Thereafter it can be stored in a variety of ways.
[[Natural gas]] purification plants often already have to remove carbon dioxide, either to avoid [[dry ice]] clogging gas tankers or to prevent carbon dioxide concentrations exceeding the 3% maximum permitted on the natural gas distribution grid.
Beyond this, one of the most likely early applications of carbon capture is the capture of carbon dioxide from [[flue gas]]es at [[power station]]s (in the case of coal, this is known as "[[clean coal]]"). A typical new 1000-MW coal-fired power station produces around 6m tons of carbon dioxide annually. Adding carbon capture to existing plants can add significantly to the costs of energy production; scrubbing costs aside, a 1000-MW coal plant will require the storage of about 50 million [[barrel]]s of carbon dioxide a year. However, scrubbing is relatively affordable when added to new plants based on coal gasification technology, where it is estimated to raise energy costs for households in the United States using only coal-fired electricity sources from 10 cents per kWh to 12. {{Ref|SciAmJuly05}}.
===Carbon capture===
:''Main article:[[Carbon Capture and Storage]]''
Currently, capture of carbon dioxide is performed on a large scale by absorption of carbon dioxide onto various amine based solvents. Other techniques are currently being investigated such as pressure and temperature swing absorption, gas separation membranes and cryogenics.
In coal-fired power stations, the main alternatives to retro-fitting amine-based absorbers to existing power stations are two new technologies - [[coal gasification]] combined-cycle and [[oxyfuel combustion]]. Gasification first produces a "[[syngas]]" primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is burned, with carbon dioxide filtered from the flue gas. Oxyfuel combustion burns the coal in [[oxygen]] instead of air, producing only carbon dioxide and water vapour, which are relatively easily separated. Oxyfuel combustion, however, produces very high temperatures, and the materials to withstand its temperatures are still being developed.
Another long term option is carbon capture directly from the air using hydroxides. The air would literally be scrubbed of its co2 content. This idea offers an alternative to non-carbon based fuels for the transportation sector.
===Oceans===
Another proposed form of carbon sequestration in the ocean is direct injection. In this method, carbon dioxide is pumped directly into the water at depth, and expected to form "lakes" of liquid CO<sub>2</sub> at the bottom. Experiments carried out in moderate to deep waters (350 - 3600 meters) indicate that the liquid CO<sub>2</sub> reacts to form solid CO<sub>2</sub> [[clathrate hydrate]]s which gradually dissolve in the surrounding waters.
This method, too, has potentially dangerous environmental consequences. The carbon dioxide does react with the water to form [[carbonic acid]], H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>; however, most (as much as 99%) remains as dissolved molecular CO<sub>2</sub>. The equilibrium would no doubt be quite different under the high pressure conditions in the deep ocean. The resulting environmental effects on [[benthic]] life forms of the [[bathypelagic]], [[abyssopelagic]] and [[hadopelagic]] zones are unknown. Even though life appears to be rather sparse in the deep ocean basins, energy and chemical effects in these deep basins could have far reaching implications. Much more work is needed here to define the extent of the potential problems.
It is not clear whether carbon storage in or under oceans is compatible with the [[London Convention]] (''Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter'') [http://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2005-07-04.7044.h].
An additional method of long term ocean based sequestration is to gather crop residue such as corn stalks or excess hay into large weighted bales of biomass and deposit it in the [[alluvial fan]] areas of the deep ocean basin. Dropping these residues in alluvial fans would cause the residues to be quickly buried in silt on the sea floor, sequestering the biomass for very long time spans. Alluvial fans exist in all of the world's oceans and seas where river deltas fall off the edge of the continental shelf such as the Mississippi alluvial fan in the gulf of Mexico and the Nile alluvial fan in the Mediterranean Sea.
=== Geological sequestration ===
Also known as ''geo-sequestration'' or ''geological storage'', this method involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground geological formations. Declining [[oil field]]s, saline [[aquifer]]s, and unminable [[coal seam]]s have been suggested as storage sites. Caverns and old mines, that are commonly used to store natural gas are not considered, because of a lack of storage safety.
CO<sub>2<sub> has been injected into declining oil fields for more than 30 years, to increase oil recovery. This option is attractive because the storage cost are offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Further benefits are the existing infrastructure, and the geophysical and geological information about the oil field that is available from the oil exploration. All oil fields have a geological barrier preventing upward migration of buoyant fluids (oil in the past, CO<sub>2<sub> in the future).
Disadvantages of old oil fields are their geographic distribution and their limited capacity.
Unminable coal seams can be used to store CO<sub>2<sub>, because CO<sub>2<sub> adsorbs to the coal surface, ensuring safe long term storage. In the process it releases methane, that was previously adsorbed to the coal surface, and that may be recovered. Again the sale of the methane can be used to offset the cost of the CO<sub>2<sub> storage.
Saline aquifers contain highly mineralized brines, and have so far been considered of no benefit to humans. Saline aquifers have been used for storage of chemical waste in a few cases. The main advantage of saline aquifers is their large potential storage volume and their common occurrence. This will reduce the distances over which CO<sub>2<sub> has to be transported. The major disadvantage of saline aquifers is that relatively little is known about them, compared to oil fields. To keep the cost of storage acceptable the geophysical exploration may be limited, resulting in larger uncertainty about the aquifer structure. Unlike storage in oil fields or coal beds no side product will offset the storage cost. Leakage of CO<sub>2<sub> back into the atmosphere, may be a problem in saline aquifer storage. However, current research shows that several ''trapping mechanisms'' immobilize the CO<sub>2<su
|
al Council]], was chiefly concerned with Nestorianism, which emphasized the distinction between the humanity and divinity of Jesus and taught that, in giving birth to Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary could not be spoken of as giving birth to God. This Council rejected Nestorianism and affirmed that, as humanity and divinity are inseparable in the one person of Jesus Christ, his mother, the Virgin Mary, is thus [[Theotokos]], God-bearer, Mother of God. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council. Those who refused to accept the Council's ruling were largely [[Iran|Persian]] and are represented today by the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] and related Churches, which, however, do not now hold a "Nestorian" theology. They are often called Ancient Oriental Churches.
The next major break was after the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]). This Council repudiated [[Monophysitism|Eutychian Monophysitism]] which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation" and thus is both fully God and fully human. The Alexandrian Church rejected the terms adopted by this Council, and the Christian Churches that follow the tradition of non-acceptance of the Council - they are not Monophysite in doctrine - are referred to as Pre-Chalcedonian or [[Oriental Orthodoxy#Oriental Orthodox Communion|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches.
The next great rift within Christianity was in the [[11th century]]. Doctrinal disputes, as well as conflicts between methods of Church government, and the evolution of separate rites and practices, precipitated a split in [[1054]] that divided the Church, this time between a "West" and an "East". [[England]], [[France]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Scandinavia]], and Western [[Europe]] in general were in the Western camp, and [[Greece]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]] and many of other Slavic lands, [[Anatolia]], and the Christians in [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] who accepted the Council of Chalcedon made up the Eastern camp. This division is called the [[East-West Schism]].
The fourth major division in the Church occurred in the [[16th century]] with the [[Protestant Reformation]], after which many parts of the Western Church either entirely rejected the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and became known as "[[Reformed]]" or "[[Protestantism|Protestant]]", or else repudiated Roman papal authority and accepted decisions by the civil ruler in religious matters.
A much less extensive rupture occurred when, after the Roman Catholic Church's [[First Vatican Council]], in which it officially proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility, clusters of Catholics in the Netherlands and in German-speaking countries formed the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholic (Altkatholische) Church]] and other [[Independent Catholic Churches]].
All of the preceding groups, excluding some Protestants, consider themselves fully and completely Catholic, either as part of the Catholic Church or as the one and only Catholic Church.
== The Roman Catholic Church ==
{{Main|Roman Catholic Church}}
"The Catholic Church", when used not of an abstract invisible entity, but of a visible concrete body of Christians, usually refers to what is also called "the Roman Catholic Church".
This Church does not often use the name "Roman Catholic Church" for itself, except in its relations with other Christian groups. Even in those relations, "Catholic Church" may also appear, as in some documents drawn up in common with the [[Lutheran World Federation]] and the Assyrian Church of the East. On the other hand, the Church has in fact applied the adjective "Roman" to itself in its entirety even in some internal documents, such as the Dogmatic Constitution ''de fide catholica'' of the [[First Vatican Council]], which was attended by Eastern as well as Western bishops. When it does apply the adjective "Roman" to itself, it understands this word only as pointing to the centrality for it of the see of [[Rome]], with which all its members, laity and clergy alike, are necessarily in [[full communion]]. Outsiders, in contrast, considering the use of the name "Catholic Church" by this Church to be contentious, use the term "Roman Catholic Church" to imply that it is only the "Roman" section of some larger, perhaps abstract, entity that they call the Catholic Church and that, in their view, also includes other sections not in communion with Rome, a usage that members of the Church in question in turn see as contentious.
Frequently enough, some members of this Church, especially those of [[Eastern Rite]], apply the term "Roman Catholic Church" not, as in the Church's official documents, to the Church as a whole, but only to its [[Latin Rite]] component. Unlike the outsiders just mentioned, these consider communion with the see of Rome essential for all members of the Catholic Church.
== Other Catholics ==
In Western Christianity the principal groups that regard themselves as "Catholic" without [[full communion]] with the Pope are the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]] and some elements of [[Anglican|Anglicanism]] ("High Church Anglicans" or "[[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]]"). Smaller groups include the [[Old Catholic]]s, the [[Aglipayans]] ([[Philippine Independent Church]]), and the [[Polish National Catholic Church]] of America. Their spiritual beliefs and practices are similar to those of Catholics of the [[Latin Rite]], from which they emerged, but they reject the [[Pope]]'s claimed status and authority.
The [[Anglican Communion]] is in practice divided into two wings of unequal size, "[[High Church|High Church Anglicans]]", also called the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], said to be the great majority in most Anglican/Episcopal Churches, and "[[Low Church|Low Church Anglicans]]", also known as the [[evangelism|Evangelical]] wing. Though all elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Low Church Anglicans regard the word ''Catholic'' in the ideal sense given above, while High Church Anglicans treat it as a name of an identifiable Church which they consider to embrace themselves together with the Catholic, Old-Catholic, and several Eastern Churches.
Anglo-Catholicism has no official fixed tenets, other than rejection of Roman "[[Ultramontanism]]," but maintains similarities to both Roman Catholicism and Eastern/Oriental Orthodoxy, as well as to related spirituality, including a belief in seven sacraments, devotion to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] and [[saint]]s, and emphasize the description of their ordained clergy as "priests", addressed as "Father"(or, in the case of women priests, "Mother"). They have re-emphasized the wearing of vestments and the use of candles and incense and other ceremonial elements in church liturgy, sometimes describing their [[Eucharist]]ic celebrations with the Latin-derived word "Mass". Some Anglo-Catholics believe in [[Transubstantiation]], as opposed to [[Consubstantiation]], or in other ideas of [[metousiosis]] or [[Real Presence]]. The development of the Anglo-Catholic wing as a distinct party occurred largely in the [[nineteenth century]], and is strongly associated with the [[Oxford Movement]]. Two of its leading lights, [[John Henry Cardinal Newman|John Henry Newman]] and [[Henry Edward Manning]], both ordained Anglican priests, ended up joining the Catholic Church, becoming [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s. The parallel "party" among Lutherans, High Church Lutheranism, developed a movement known as [[Neo-Lutheranism]].
The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches, as well as the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], each consider themselves to be the universal and true Catholic Church. In various permutations, these bodies typically regard other and Western Catholics as heretical and as having thus left the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. The [[patriarch]]s of these Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[bishop|hierarchs]], which roughly means that each is independent of the direct oversight of another bishop, although still subject, according to their distinct traditions, either to the [[synod]] of bishops of each one&rsquo;s jurisdiction, or only to a common decision of the patriarchs of their own communion. They are willing to concede a primacy of honor to the Roman See, but not of authority, nor do they accept its claim to universal and immediate jurisdiction. This is similar to the position taken by the [[Lutheran World Federation]], the [[Anglican Communion]], and the [[Old Catholic Church]].
== Distinctive beliefs and practices ==
=== Beliefs ===
Catholic Churches share certain essential distinctive beliefs and practices (though some Anglicans and Lutherans differ in regard to emphasis and particular pieties):
* [[Papal Infallibility]]
*Direct and continuous organizational descent from the original church founded by Jesus (see e.g. [[Gospel of Matthew|Mt]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=47&ch=016&l=18 16:18]).
*Possession of the "threefold ordained ministry" of [[Bishop]]s, [[Priest]]s and [[Deacon]]s.
*All ministers are ordained by, and subject to, Bishops, who pass down sacramental authority by the "laying-on of hands", having themselves been ordained in a direct line of succession from the Apostles (see [[Apostolic Succession]]).
*Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles from which the Sc
|
he Vertical Color of Sound'' (Da Capo Press, 1995) ISBN 0306806495
* Eno, Brian "A Year with Swollen Appendices: The Diary of Brian Eno" (Faber & Faber, 1996) ISBN 0571179959
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.enoshop.co.uk/ EnoShop] &ndash; Brian Eno Recordings and Products Online
*[http://www.allsaintsrecords.com/ All Saints Records] &ndash; All Saints Records
*[http://www.enoweb.co.uk/ EnoWeb] &ndash; unofficial fan site
*[http://listen.to/brianeno More Dark Than Shark] unofficial fan site
*[http://www.synthtopia.com/artists/BrianEno.html Brian Eno] profile with discography and reviews of his work.
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.01/eno.html The Revenge of the Intuitive] &ndash; Essay by Brian Eno
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&uid=SEARCH&sql=Bjg8gtq8ztu48 Allmusic.com entry]
*{{imdb name|id=0006061|name=Brian Eno}}
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/music/profiles/enobrian.shtml BBC Music &ndash; ''Brian Eno'']
*[http://launch.yahoo.com/ar-314165---Brian-Eno Yahoo! Music &ndash; ''Brian Eno'']
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317828/us317855/us270530/us1174256/us1174515/us314629/ LookSmart &ndash; ''Brian Eno''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/E/Eno,_Brian/ Open Directory Project &ndash; ''Brian Eno''] directory category
*[http://www.bl3nder.com/music/rhapsody/playlists/BrianEno_on_rhapsody.rpl Brian Eno on Rhapsody]
*[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/1996/06/02/PK70006.DTL San Francisco Chronicle] Q and A With Brian Eno, June 2, 1996.
{{Roxy Music}}
[[Category:1948 births|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Brian Eno|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Ambient musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Electronic musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Electronic music pioneers|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:New Age musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:U2|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:British musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:British record producers|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Natives of Suffolk|Eno, Brian]]
[[ca:Brian Eno]]
[[de:Brian Eno]]
[[es:Brian Eno]]
[[fi:Brian Eno]]
[[fr:Brian Eno]]
[[it:Brian Eno]]
[[ja:ブライアン・イーノ]]
[[nl:Brian Eno]]
[[no:Brian Eno]]
[[pl:Brian Eno]]
[[pt:Brian Eno]]
[[ru:Ино, Браян]]
[[sv:Brian Eno]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ball</title>
<id>3928</id>
<revision>
<id>41808098</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:03:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.225.105.202</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''ball''' is a round or [[spherical]] object that is used most often in [[sport]]s and [[game]]s. In most games using balls, the [[play]] of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, [[kick]]ed, or [[throw]]n by players. Balls are often used in [[ball dropping]] functions such as in the famous [[Times Square]] [[New Year's Eve]] ceremony.
Balls were used in ancient times by the early [[Egypt]]ians, the [[ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and the [[Aztec]]s and earlier [[Mesoamerica]]n peoples.
==Popular ball games==
There are many popular games or sports involving some type of ball or similar object. These games can be grouped by the general objective of the game, sometimes indicating a common origin either of a game itself or of its basic idea:
*Bat-and-ball games, such as cricket and baseball.
*Trillion-goal games, such as basketball and most forms of football and hockey.
*Volleying games, such as volleyball and tennis.
*"Target" games, such as bowling
*and so on
Popular ball games around the world include:
*[[Baseball]]
*[[Basketball]]
*[[Billiards]] (including [[snooker]], [[eight ball]] and pool variations)
*[[Blitzball]] (fictional game)
*[[Bocce]]
*[[Boules]]
*[[Bowling]]
*[[Bowls]]
*[[Calvinball]] (see [[Calvin and Hobbes]])
*[[Canoe polo]]
*[[Cricket]] (see [[cricket ball]])
*[[Crockey]]
*[[Croquet]]
*[[Dodgeball]]
*[[Floorball]]
*[[Football]]:
**[[American football]]
**[[Australian rules football]]
**[[Gaelic Football]]
**[[International Rules Football]]
**[[Football (soccer)|Soccer]]
**[[Rugby Football]]
*[[Footbag]]
*[[Four square]]
*[[Golf]] (see [[golf ball]])
*[[Handball (disambiguation)|Handball]]:
**[[American handball]]
**[[Team handball]]
*Hockey:
**[[Field hockey]]
**[[Ice hockey]]
**[[Rink hockey]]
*[[Hurling]]
*[[Jai alai]]
*[[Juggling]]
*[[Korfball]]
*[[Lacrosse]]
*[[Mesoamerican ballgame]]
*[[Native American Stickball (Toli)]]
*[[Netball]]
*[[Pétanque]]
*[[Polo]]
*[[Shinty]]
*[[Skeet ball]]
*[[Squash (sport)|Squash]]
*[[Stickball]]
*[[Tee Ball]]
*[[Tetherball]]
*[[Tennis]] (see [[tennis ball]])
*[[Tennis Polo/Soccer]]
*[[Ulama game]]
*[[Volleyball]]
*[[Water polo]]
[[Category:Sporting goods]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[cs:Míč]]
[[de:Ball_%28Sportger%C3%A4t%29]]
[[el:&#924;&#960;&#940;&#955;&#945;]]
[[eo:Pilko]]
[[es:pelota]]
[[fa:توپ]]
[[he:&#1499;&#1491;&#1493;&#1512; (&#1502;&#1513;&#1495;&#1511;)]]
[[ja:&#12508;&#12540;&#12523;]]
[[nl:Bal (voorwerp)]]
[[pl:pi&#322;ka]]
[[pt:Bola]]
[[ru:Мяч]]
[[sv:boll]]
[[simple:Ball]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BITNET</title>
<id>3929</id>
<revision>
<id>40125157</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T08:44:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lightdarkness</username>
<id>130135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BITNET''' was a cooperative U.S. university network founded in 1981 under the aegis of Ira Fuchs at the [[City University of New York]] (CUNY) and Greydon Freeman at [[Yale University]]. The first network link was between CUNY and Yale.
The requirements for a college or university to join BITNET were simple:
* Lease a data circuit (phone line) from your site to an existing BITNET node.
* Buy modems for each end of the data circuit, sending one to the connecting point site.
* Allow other institutions to connect to your site.
From a technical point of view, BITNET differed from the [[Internet]] in that it was a point-to-point "[[store and forward]]" network. That is, e-mail messages and files were transmitted in their entirety from one server to the next until reaching their destination. From this perspective, BITNET was more like [[Usenet]].
BITNET came to mean "Because It's Time Network", although the original meaning was "Because It's There Network".
Bitnet's [[network protocol]]s were used for a huge [[IBM]] internal network, which was larger than other networks such as [[ARPANET|ARPAnet]] for quite a while. BITNET links originally ran at 9600 [[baud]]. The BITNET [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]]s were eventually ported to non IBM mainframe [[operating system]]s.
At its zenith around 1991, BITNET extended to almost 500 organizations and 3,000 nodes, all educational institutions. With the advent of [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] systems and the [[Internet]] in the early 1990s, BITNET's popularity and use diminished quickly.
BITNET featured [[e-mail]] and the [[Listserv]] software, but predated the [[World Wide Web]], [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] and [[Gopher protocol|Gopher]]. It also supported interactive sending of files and messages to other users. [[Bitnet Relay Chat|BITNET Relay Chat]] was created with the networks messaging feature. BITNET's first electronic magazine, VM/COM, began as a [[University of Maine]] newsletter and surfaced broadly in early 1984. Nine years later, a University of Maine student would also publish the first WWW magazine.
==See also==
* [[History of the Internet]]
==External links==
* [http://csdl.computer.org/comp/mags/an/2000/02/a2032abs.htm A Social History of Bitnet and Listserv, 1985&#8211;1991]
* [http://livinginternet.com/u/ui_bitnet.htm Living Internet - BITNET]
* [http://nethistory.dumbentia.com NetHistory - Archive of BITNET newsletters and stories]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]
[[de:Because It's Time NETwork]]
[[fr:Bitnet]]
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[[ru:BITNET]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Binary relation</title>
<id>3931</id>
<revision>
<id>41797165</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:40:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbtfz</username>
<id>762819</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Relations over a set */ extendable relations AKA "serial"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''binary relation''' (or a '''dyadic relation''') is an arbitrary association of elements of one [[set (mathematics)|set]] with elements of another (perhaps the same) set.
An example is the "divides" relation between the set of [[prime number]]s '''P''' and the set of [[integer]]s '''Z''', in which every prime ''p'' is associated to every integer ''z'' that is a [[divisibility|multiple]] of ''p''. In this relation, for instance, the prime 2 is associated to -4, 0, 6, 10, but not with 1 or 9; and the prime 3 is associated with 0, 6, and 9, but not with 4 or 13.
Binary relations are used in many branches of mathematics to model concepts like "is greater than", "is equal to", and "divides" in [[arithmetic]], "is congruent to" in [[geometry]], "is adjacent to" in [[graph theory]], and many more. The all-important concept of [[function (mathematics)|function]] is defined as a special case of binary relation. Binary relations are also heavily used in computer science, especially within the [[relational model]] for [[database]]s.
A binary relation is a special case of a [[relation (mathematics)|''k''-ary relation]], that is, a set of ''k''-tuples where the ''j''<sup>th</sup> component of each ''k''-tuple
|
y of democratic transition amid increasing [[information blockade]] and ever-increasing numbers of people seeking [[Urban culture|urban]] life over an [[Agriculture|agrarian economy]].
The alleged version of Generation X in the developing world is the following:
* its need to redefine [[social norms]] to newer socio-economic systems
* the sheer pace at which they need to adapt to new social influences along with the need to integrate them to their native cultural context
* the constant aspiration for a more egalitarian society in cultures that were long colonised and have an even longer history of hierarchical [[social structure]].
The aspects that bind Generation X across economic levels and cultures are the defining points of the 1970s: the [[Bretton Woods system]] and its subsequent failure, the impact of the [[contraceptive pill]] on social-interactional dynamics, and the [[oil shock]] of [[1973]].
Gen X's attitude towards technology can be summarized by noticing that most were either born after the [[Apollo 11|1969 moon landing]], or were very young at that time. Therefore, to Gen Xers, "anything is possible", as long as you're willing to throw enough money at it. Thus for Gen X, success is much less a matter of ''if'' one can accomplish something; and more a matter of ''should'' one accomplish something: a "so what" factor. Gen X may be all about choosing one's priorities (and then maintaining the will and discipline to follow through with them) rather than dreaming of the Possible (especially false [[utopia]]s, per ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' and other literature in Gen X required school reading). Gen X knows we landed on the moon, from reading the history books; but didn't live through and feel the national pride; it's a "so what".
Other common global influences defining Generation X across the world include: increasingly flexible and varied gender roles for women contrasted with even more rigid [[gender roles]] for men, the unprecedented socio-economic impact of an ever increasing number of women entering the non-agrarian economic workforce, and the sweeping cultural-religious impact of the [[Iranian revolution]] towards the end of the 1970s in [[1979]].
The global experience of a cultural transition like Generation X, although in various forms, revealed the inter-dependence of economies since World War II in [[1945]], and showed the huge impact of American economic policies on the [[world]].
Generation X grew up during the end of the [[Cold War]] and the [[Ronald Reagan]]/[[Margaret Thatcher]]/[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] eras but as they transitioned into adulthood watched the [[Soviet Union]] collapse and America become the only superpower. As Gen X transitions into parenthood, they've compared the Boomer media and college professor versions of history with their own concurring or differing perceptions.
==Beginnings==
The generation was traditionally begun at [[1965]], when North American [[birth rate]]s had dropped into what is frequently called the "[[Baby Busters|Baby Bust]]" that followed the Baby Boom span of [[1946]]&ndash;[[1964]], but since many notable people who are normally thought of as clearly Gen-X, such as [[Courtney Love]], [[Janeane Garofalo]] and [[Eddie Vedder]], were born in 1964, this year is often cited as the beginning of Generation X.
In the book ''[[Generations (book)|Generations]]'' [[William Strauss]] and [[Neil Howe]] called this generation the "13th Generation" because the tag, like this generation, is a little [[Friday the 13th|Halloweenish]], and it is the thirteenth to know the flag of the [[United States]] (counting back to the peers of [[Benjamin Franklin]]). Strauss and Howe defined the birth years of the 13th Generation as [[1961]] to [[1981]].{{ref|strausshowe}}
In continental Europe, the generation is often known as Generation E, or simply known as the Nineties Generation, along the lines of such other European generation names as "Generation of 1968" and "Generation of 1914". In France, the term ''[[Génération Bof]]'' is in use, with "bof" being a French word for "whatever", considered by some French people to be the defining Gen-X saying. In Iran, they are called the [[Burnt Generation]]. In some Latin American countries the name "[[Crisis Generation]]" is sometimes used due to the recurring financial crisis in the region during those years. In the Communist bloc, these Gen-Xers are often known to show a deeper dislike of the Communist system than their parents since they grew in an era of political and economic stagnation, and were among the first that embraced the ideals of [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]], which they tend to be called the [[Glasnost-Perestroika Generation]].
In the USA, this generation's parents are the [[Silent Generation]] and the early Baby Boomers (post-WWII). Generation X's typical grandparents are from the [[G.I. Generation]] (the World War II generation), but sometimes from the Silent Generation. Generation X's children will be or have been born in the late [[1980s]] and into the[[1990s]], forming [[Generation Y]] and the [[Generation Z|following generation (Generation Z)]]. Assuming the average person has their children somewhere in his or her 20's, this means Generation X's children will be born between [[1984]] and [[2004]]. Its typical grandchildren will be born from [[2005]] to about [[2025]].
In Western countries, Generation X consists of far fewer people than the baby boom generation and has had correspondingly less impact on [[popular culture]], but it came into its own during the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]]. As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the previous generation. A fashion for grunge music exemplified by the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]] expressed the frustrations of a generation forever doomed to live in the shadow of its elders. Others point out that grunge derived its stance and musical values from [[1970s]] [[punk music|punk]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], and thus was simply part of the wave of 1970s nostalgia that swept college campuses in the early 1990s. European music experienced a renaissance in the form of many kinds of electronic dance music such as [[Acid House]], [[Rave]] etc pioneered by groups such as [[The Shamen]] which were less beholden to 1970s nostalgia, and more clearly descended from 1980s American club "house" music. The electronic dance scene in Europe would experience great notoriety thanks to a number of highly publicised [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]] related deaths.
==Outlook==
{{Generations}}
Despite their generational attitude against collectivism, Generation Xers take some group pride in their generation. In math, "X" stands for 'substitute anything', and Gen X takes some collective pride in their own tolerance, diversity and inability to be labeled. Previous generations may have overly claimed to be "liberal", e.g. for civil and feminist rights while in result providing special results that inevitably became overt reverse discrimination. The Boomer generation became viewed as secular -- pro-choice, against the Christian Coalition, perhaps even anti-family -- to the extent that the 'liberals' wanted to legally impose equity and acceptance of many moral lifestyles choice on others. Meanwhile, Gen X quietly practices their tolerance, as shown by the increase in inter-racial marriages and adoptions, experimenting with alternative lifestyles such as living together before marriage, while not yet showing a desire to impose their personal individual choices on society via legalisms. Gen Xers moving into marriage and parenting are expressing a stronger desire to maintain the nuclear family. Some Gen Xers delayed marriage in order to more carefully choose/find a mate for a lifetime. If the marriage does end in divorce, both parents stay involved with the children via joint custody.
While Gen X childhood was filled with Brady Bunch/Happy Days/Eight-is-Enough, their teen/college years included "Married With Children", an internally-competitive family yet a unified team/unit if the family was threatened. This is one example of a new Gen X paradigm: individual competitiveness yet loyalty as compatible and healthy societal concepts. Economically, Gen X saw their parents go through the 1970s corporate downsizing; therefore, internalizing an awareness of a lack of societal safety nets and a need to be individually competitive rather than become 'comfortable' and complacent. Gen X watched Schoolhouse Rock's America Rock (1973-1985) celebrate U.S. history, especially Independence era songs, correlated with Superfriends Justice League (1973-). Gen X economic values can be observed in their 'free agent' attitude: competitive and hard-working entrepreneurs (as owners or as employees willing to change projects and/or companies), coupled with a risk-reward awareness. What values Gen X internalized politically may become discernable about 2008; after enough four-year Presidential elections for values to solidify and enough non-incumbent elections for issue patterns to finally (potentially) become identifiable.
In parenting, one theory is that Gen X is rejecting the [[Dr. Spock]] 'self-esteem' bromide for standards and a recognition that there is "good" and "bad" (and there is religious good/evil and war heroes/villians); although the mix of factors is the educational debate (e.g. Gen X and Boomer parents, emerging Gen Y parents, the Boomer-dominated Teacher's Unions, political party power plays, etc) make assertions here difficult to verify with data.
Some have suggested Xer's generational pride translates into active rebellion against what Gen X believed was the shallow, misguided and self-serving (and hypoc
|
which emphasized initiation. Some see Christianity, with its initiation ritual of baptism, as a mystery religion.
After Christianity became the state religion of Rome, dissident Christian groups became persecuted as traitors to the state. Also, pagan groups came to be suppressed as well. The terms "[[Gnosticism]]" and "[[Gnosis]]" have been challenged as coherent categories, but refer to a family of ancient Jewish, Christian, and pagan religious movements which often did claim to possess secret teachings relating to the spirit world, as opposed to the ordinary world which they tended to denigrate. Another important movement from the ancient world was [[Hermeticism]], sometimes called [[Hermetism]] to distinguish it from post-Renaissance appropriations of it. Separately, ancient Babylon provided the basis for Western [[astrology]].
During the Middle Ages such things as [[astrology]], [[alchemy]], and magic were not distinct from the standard subjects of the curriculum of an educated man. While some people assume esotericism to be opposed to the Bible or Christianity, as a historical matter this tension did not arise until later. Indeed, Christianity contributed its own esoteric imagery, notably the [[Holy Grail]] from [[Arthurian literature]].
The institutional danger of esotericism is its potential as an alternative source of doctrine or authority. In [[Gershom Scholem]]'s view, normative Judaism distanced itself from [[Kaballah]] in the wake of [[Shabbatai Zevi]]'s use of it to bolster his messianic pretentions. Similarly, [[Roman Catholic]] theologians seem to have shied away from esoteric subjects at about the same time that certain elements within the [[Protestant Reformation]] were celebrating them. An example would be the initial wave of [[Rosicrucian]] manifestoes. [[Protestant Reformation#Reformation begins 16th century | Magisterial]] Protestants themselves grew suspicious of esoteric traditions as they began to be invoked by [[pietist]] inspired figures such as [[Swedenborg]].
Hence esotericism's inherently marginal or fringe status in the modern West. Nevertheless, esotericism of one type or another has influenced [[Descartes]], [[Leibniz]], [[Newton]], [[Shakespeare]], [[Goethe]], [[Kant]], and [[William Blake]], to name just a few exemplary figures.
While many esoteric subjects have a history reaching back thousands of years, these have generally not survived as continuous traditions. Rather, they have benefitted from various antiquarian revival movements. During the Italian [[Renaissance]], for example, translators such as [[Ficino]] and [[Pico della Mirandola]] turned their attention to the classical literature of [[neo-Platonism]], and what was thought to be the pre-Mosaic tradition of [[Hermeticism]]. Nineteenth-century writers turned their attention to earlier traditions of magic and witchcraft, often in conjunction with the various nationalisms of the day. [[Nazi mysticism]] is an extreme example.
Nineteenth-century esoteric writers came to be deeply influenced by various Eastern religions, which they typically saw as partaking of the same divine truth. Thus [[Madame Blavatsky]] could combine Indian philosophy with various Western esoteric traditions. In her view, the saints and mystics of all countries and ages (many of them otherwise unknown) cooperate in a common fraternity which resembles the lodges of [[Freemasonry]] as well as the original [[Rosicrucians]], who were said to be "invisible." (Rosicrucianism was another tradition which enjoyed a nineteenth-century revival.)
Perhaps the most important twentieth-century development was a certain psychological turn, in which esoteric subjects acquired new subjective interpretations more in accord with prevailing scientific opinion. If alchemy turned out to be a dead end when taken literally, i.e. as a search for artificial gold or the elixir of life, then it might find new life as a symbol for the workings of the unconscious, as [[Carl Jung]] would have it. The intersection of esotericism with mysticism and religious pluralism is another important emphasis of this period, and is represented in the writings of [[Rene Guenon]]. The influence of [[post-modernism]] remains to be digested.
==Esoteric themes==
What, in a nutshell, does "esotericism" teach? No possible answer could do justice to the myriad groups which are subsumed under this name. However, we may venture some representative examples:
*[[Deconstruction | Deconstructionism]] takes classical philosophical writings and concepts that once seemed clear, and dissects them bit by bit, concentrating on language and syntax, to arrive at new variants that are intended to reveal new insights, though the process and the result are esoteric.
*[[Kabbalah]] preserves traditions describing the origin and destiny of humanity and the universe, as well as practices aimed at restoring ourselves and the world to our true stations. These are of course typical religious concerns, which in this case parallel or amplify the teachings and practices of mainstream Judaism.
*[[Gnosticism]] teaches that this world is not our true home--that by seeing through the illusion and realizing our true nature, we can escape, returning to the world of spirit.
*[[Hermeticism]], including [[astrology]], is based on the assumption that the soul and the cosmos are mysteriously and fundamentally linked. "As above, so below."
*[[Freemasonry]] and some forms of [[alchemy]] use symbolic means to aid the practitioner in his individual betterment, with the aim of increasing virtue and drawing closer to the divine.
*[[Theosophy]] and its offshoots teach the existence of hidden masters, who are charged with guiding earth's spiritual evolution. We may choose to actively cooperate with these efforts.
*[[Spiritualism]] emphasizes the comfort of direct experience of the afterlife by means of communion with ghosts.
*The [[Gurdjieff]] work teaches that people normally function like automatons, but can be taught to "wake up" via special practices which shake us out of our normal, mind-numbing habits.
*[[Jungian psychology]] seeks to integrate the various dualities and contraries within a patient's psyche through involvement with myths, dreams, and visions.
*[[Taoism]] seeks to preserve the thoughts of ancient chinese, and aimed to achieved balance ([[yin]]/[[yang]]) with nature. Classic works includes [[Daodejing]] which strongly influenced a lot of east Asian esotericism. Taoist commentators have been very impressed by the opening lines of the ancient Daodejing, which can be translated:
The way which can be uttered, is not the eternal Way.
The name which can be named, is not the eternal Name. <br>
(The original words are
道可道，非常道。
名可名，非常名。
In Chinese, "道" or "Dao", when used as a noun, it means "way" or "path"; but when it is used as a verb, it means "to utter" or "to speak it out".)
As important a part of esotericism as any of these answers, is the spirit of quest which has encouraged seekers throughout the ages to search the world, and their own souls, for deeper meaning and ultimately salvation.
==Traditions==
Many groups or schools of thought embrace an esoteric tradition or philosophy:
*[[Alchemy]]
*[[Anthroposophy]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Esoteric Buddhism]]
*[[Esoteric Christianity]]
*[[Freemasonry]]
*[[Fourth Way]]
*[[Gnosticism]]
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Illuminati]]
*[[Kabbalah | Kabbalists]]
*[[Nazi mysticism]]
*[[Occultism]]
*[[OTO]]
*[[Rosicrucian]]s
*[[Shamanism]]
*[[Sufism]] (Esoteric Islam)
*[[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]]
*[[Thelema]]
*[[Theosophy]]
*[[Traditionalist School|Traditionalism]] ([[Rene Guenon]] etc)
*[[Vajrayana]] (Esoteric [[Buddhism]])
*[[Western mystery tradition]]
*[[Wicca]]
*[[Yoga]]
==Esotericism in popular culture==
*[[Paulo Coelho]]'s novel ''[[The Alchemist (book)|The Alchemist]]'' involves a spiritual interpretation of alchemy.
*[[Umberto Eco]] has written fiction with esoteric themes, notably the satirical novel ''[[Foucault's Pendulum]]''.
*The plot of [[Dan Brown]]'s ''[[Da Vinci Code]]'' involves a centuries-old secret society called the [[Priory of Sion]], charged with preserving certain secrets relating to Jesus Christ and the Merovingian kings.
*On an episode of the animated series [[Family Guy]], [[Lois Griffin|Lois]] asks [[Peter Griffin|Peter]] if he thinks his float in the town parade (The episode of [[Who's the Boss?]] where Tony sees Angela naked in the shower) is esoteric. We then see a group of men inside Peter's head discussing what 'esoteric' means. One of the men suggests that esoteric means delicious.
==See also==
{{portalpar|1=Spirituality|2=EndlessKnot03d.png}}
* [[Esoteric cosmology]]
* [[Exoteric]]
* [[Gnosis]]
* [[Karma]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[List of Masonic organizations]]
* [[List of spirituality-related topics]]
* [[List of symbols#Religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols|List of religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols]]
* [[Mystery religion]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[New Age]]
* [[Numerology]]
* [[Occult]]
* [[Odic force]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[Plane (cosmology)|Planes of existence]]
* [[Reincarnation]]
* [[Spiritual evolution]]
* [[Western mystery tradition]]
[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]
[[Category:Esotericism| ]]
[[Category:Mysticism]]
[[Category:Occult]]
[[af:Esoterie]]
[[bg:Езотеризъм]]
[[da:Esoterisme]]
[[de:Esoterik]]
[[et:Esoteerika]]
[[es:Esoterismo]]
[[eo:Esoterismo]]
[[fr:Ésotérisme]]
[[it:Esoterismo]]
[[hu:Ezoterika]]
[[nl:Esoterie]]
[[pl:Ezoteryka]]
[[pt:Esoterismo]]
[[ru:Эзотерика]]
[[sv:Esoterik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor of Japan</title>
<id>10110</id>
<revision>
<id>41932871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:45:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>156.99.30.174</ip>
</contributor>
<commen
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ents of memory and determine the source of the problem.
The Windows debugger is available as a free download from Microsoft. [http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/devtools/debugging/default.mspx]
Windows includes a feature that can be used to manually cause a blue screen. To enable it, the user must add a value to the [[Windows registry]]. After that, a BSoD will appear when the user presses the SCROLL LOCK key twice while holding the right CTRL key. [http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;244139] This feature is primarily useful for obtaining a memory dump of the computer while it is in a given state. As such, it is generally used to aid in troubleshooting system hangs.
A BSoD can also be caused by a critical boot loader error, where the operating system is unable to access the boot partition due to incorrect storage drivers or similar problems. The error code in this situation is STOP 0x0000007B (INACCESSIBLE_BOOT_DEVICE). In such cases, there is no memory dump saved. Since the system is unable to boot in this situation, correction of the problem may require booting with the Microsoft Windows CD. After booting to the CD, it may be possible to correct the problem by performing a repair install or by using the Recovery Console (with [[CHKDSK]]).
===ReactOS===
[[ReactOS]], an attempt at creating [[open-source]] implementation of Windows NT-compatible [[operating system]], also features its own BSoD similar to the Windows NT one (see the gallery below).
===Windows 9x/Me===
[[Image:Windows_9X_BSOD.png|thumb|right|Windows 9x]]
The blue screen of death also occurs in Microsoft's home desktop operating systems [[Windows 95]], [[Windows 98|98]], and [[Windows Me|Me]]. Here it is less serious, but more common. In these operating systems, the BSoD is the main way for [[VxD|virtual device drivers]] to report errors to the user. It is internally referred to by the name of "_VWIN32_FaultPopup". A Windows 9x/Me BSoD gives the user the option to either restart or continue. However, VxDs do not display BSoDs frivolously—they usually indicate a problem which cannot be fixed without restarting the computer, and hence after a BSoD is displayed the system is usually unstable or unresponsive.
The most common reason for BSoD'ing is problems with incompatible versions of [[dynamically linked library|DLL]]s. This cause is sometimes referred to as [[DLL hell]]. Windows loads these DLLs into memory when they are needed by application programs; if versions are changed, the next time an application loads the DLL it may be different from what the application expects. These incompatibilities increase over time as more new software is installed, and is one of the main reasons why a freshly-installed copy of Windows is more stable than an "old" one.
In Windows 95 and 98, a BSoD occurs when the system attempts to access the file "c:\con\con". This is often inserted on websites to crash users' machines. Microsoft has released a patch for this. [http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/ms00-017.mspx]
The BSoD can appear if a user ejects a [[removeable media|removable medium]] while it is being read on 9x/ME. This is particularly common while using [[Microsoft Office]], if a user simply wants to view a document, he might eject a floppy disk before exiting the program. Since Microsoft Office always creates a temporary file in the same directory, it will trigger a BSoD upon exiting because it will attempt to delete the file on the disk that is no longer in the drive.
This type of blue screen is no longer seen in Windows NT, 2000, and XP. In the case of these less serious software errors, the program may still crash, but it will not take down the entire operating system with it due to better [[memory management]] and decreased [[legacy support]]. In these systems, the "true" BSoD is seen only in cases where the entire operating system crashes.
==Display==
By default, the display is white ([[Enhanced Graphics Adapter|EGA]] color 0x0F; [[HTML]] color #FFFFFF) lettering on a blue (EGA color 0x01; HTML color #0000AA) background, with information about current memory values and register values. For visually impaired users, Microsoft has added a utility that allows the user to change a setting in <code>system.ini</code> that controls the colors that the BSoD code uses to any of the 16 EGA colors.
Windows 95, 98 and Me use 80x25 text mode. The font is identical to [[Fixedsys]]. The Windows NT BSoD uses 80x50 text mode. The screen resolution is 720x400. The XP BSoD uses font [[Lucida Console]].
===Windows XP===
The following is a re-creation of a Windows XP BSoD:
<div style="display:block;width:640px;height:480px;background:#000082;color:white;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px/14px Lucida Console,fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace; direction: ltr; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><br> A problem has been detected and Windows has been shut down to prevent damage<br> to your computer.<br><br>PFN_LIST_CORRUPT<br><br>If this is the first time you've seen this error screen,<br>restart your computer. If this screen appears again, follow<br>these steps:<br><br>Check to make sure any new hardware or software is properly installed.<br>If this is a new installation, ask your hardware or software manufacturer<br>for any Windows updates you might need.<br><br>If problems continue, disable or remove any newly installed hardware<br>or software. Disable BIOS memory options such as caching or shadowing.<br>If you need to use Safe Mode to remove or disable components, restart<br>your computer, press F8 to select Advanced Startup Options, and then<br>select Safe Mode.<br><br><br>Technical information:<br><br><nowiki>***</nowiki> STOP: 0x0000004e (0x00000099, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000)<br><br><br>Beginning dump of physical memory<br>Physical memory dump complete.<br>Contact your system administrator or technical support group for further<br>assistance.
</div>
Second example:
<div style="display:block;width:640px;height:480px;background:#000082;color:white;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px/14px Lucida Console,fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace; direction: ltr; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;"><br> A problem has been detected and Windows has been shut down to prevent damage<br> to your computer.<br><br>An attempt was made to write to read-only memory.<br><br>If this is the first time you've seen this error screen,<br>restart your computer. If this screen appears again, follow<br>these steps:<br><br>Check to make sure any new hardware or software is properly installed.<br>If this is a new installation, ask your hardware or software manufacturer<br>for any Windows updates you might need.<br><br>If problems continue, disable or remove any newly installed hardware<br>or software. Disable BIOS memory options such as caching or shadowing.<br>If you need to use Safe Mode to remove or disable components, restart<br>your computer, press F8 to select Advanced Startup Options, and then<br>select Safe Mode.<br><br><br>Technical information:<br><br><nowiki>***</nowiki> STOP: 0X000000BE (0XF90A0905, 0X01CD5121, 0X8055616C, 0X0000000A)<br><br>*** NDIS.sys – Address F90A0905 base at F9083000, Datestamp 41107ec3<br><br><br>Beginning dump of physical memory<br>Physical memory dump complete.<br>Contact your system administrator or technical support group for further<br>assistance.
</div>
===Windows 2000===
The Windows 2000 BSoD looks like this:
<div style="display:block;width:640px;height:480px;background:#000082;color:#fff;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace;"><br>STOP: c000026c {Unable to Load Device Driver}<br>\SystemRoot\System32\Drivers\Fdc.SYS device driver could not be loaded.<br>Error Status was 0xc000012f<br><br>If this is the first time you've seen this Stop error screen,<br>restart your computer. If this screen appears again, follow<br>these steps:<br><br>Check to make sure any new hardware or software is properly installed.<br>If this is a new installation, ask your hardware or software manufacturer<br>for any Windows 2000 updates you might need.<br><br>If problems continue, disable or remove any newly installed hardware<br>or software. Disable BIOS memory options such as caching or shadowing.<br>If you need to use Safe Mode to remove or disable components, restart<br>your computer, press F8 to select Advanced Startup Options, and then<br>select Safe Mode.<br><br>Refer to your Getting Started manual for more information on<br>troubleshooting Stop errors.<br>
</div>
===Windows NT3/4===
The Windows NT3/4 BSoD looks like this:
<div style="display:block;width:640px;Height:680px;background:#00a;color:#fff;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace;"><br>*** STOP: 0x0000000A (0x00000000, 0x00000002, 0x00000000, 8038c510)<br>IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL*** Address 8038c510 has base at 8038c000 - Ntfs.sys<br><br>CPUID:AuthenticAMD irq1:1f SYSVER 0xf0000565<br><br>Dll Base DateStmp - Name&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Dll Base DateStmp - Name<br>80100000 336546bf - ntoskrnl.e
|
tion of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.{{ref|AxisRule1944-1}}
Lemkin's original genocide definition was narrow, as it addressed only crimes against "national groups" rather than "groups" in general. Interestingly, it was broad at the same time as it included not only physical genocide, but also acts aimed at destroying the culture and livelihood of the group.
==Genocide as a crime under international law==
In the wake of the [[Nazi]] perpetrated [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of [[international law|international laws]], defining and forbidding genocide. This was achieved in 1948, with the promulgation of the ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide''.
The CPPCG was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on [[9 December]] [[1948]] and came into effect on [[12 January]] [[1951]] (Resolution 260 (III)). It contains an internationally-recognized definition of genocide which was incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was also adopted by the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]], the treaty that established the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC). The Convention (in article 2) defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:"
:(a) Killing members of the group;
:(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
:(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
:(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
:(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
The first draft of the Convention included political killings but the [[USSR]] did not accept that actions against groups identified as holding similar [[politics|political opinion]] or [[social status]], that would constitute genocide if carried out against an ethnic group, was genocide. So they were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise.
After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on [[12 January]] [[1951]]. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the treaty: [[France]] and the [[Republic of China]]. Eventually the [[Soviet Union]] ratified in 1954, the [[United Kingdom]] in 1970, the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the [[United States]] in 1988. This long delay in support for the Genocide Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced.
===Criticisms of the CPPCG===
Much debate about genocides revolves around the proper definition of the word "genocide". The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in this legal definition has been criticized. <!-- By whom? This needs a source --> Some historians and sociologists when discussing genocide include actions against such groups. Most generally, genocide is the deliberate destruction of a [[social identity]].{{fact}}
A major criticism of the international community's response to the Rwandan Genocide was that it was reactive, not proactive. The international community has developed a mechanism for prosecuting the perpetrators of genocide but has not developed the will or the mechanisms for intervening in a genocide as it happens. Critics point to the [[Darfur conflict]] and suggest that if anyone is found guilty of genocide after the conflict either by prosecutions brought in the International Criminal Court or in an ''ad hoc'' International Criminal Tribunal, this will confirm this perception.{{fact}}
{{sectstub}}
====Rummel's criticism====
According to [[R. J. Rummel]], genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnical, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide''. This also includes nonkillings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term [[democide]] for the third meaning.{{ref|Rummel}}
===International prosecution of genocide===
All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories &mdash; namely, [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], the [[United States]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], and [[Yugoslavia]] &mdash; signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the [[International Court of Justice]] without their consent{{ref|treaty1gen}}. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably [[Cyprus]] and [[Norway]]) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the [[immunity (legal)|immunity]] from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by Yugoslavia following the 1999 [[Kosovo War]].
It is commonly accepted that, at least since [[World War II]], genocide has been illegal under [[custom (law)|customary international law]] as a [[peremptory norm]], as well as under [[treaty|conventional international law]]. Acts of genocide are generally difficult to establish, for prosecution, since intent, demonstrating a chain of accountability, has to be established. International criminal courts and tribunals function primarily because the states involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes of this magnitude themselves.
To date all international prosecutions for genocide have been brought in specially convened international tribunals. Since [[2002]], the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states. Due to the United States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened international tribunals for such investigations and potential prosecutions{{ref|ICC}}
====Nuremberg Trials====
:''Main article [[The Holocaust]]
The [[Nuremberg Trials]] is the general name for two sets of trials of [[Nazi]]s involved in [[World War II]] and [[the Holocaust]]. The trials were held in the [[Germany|German]] city of [[Nuremberg]] from 1945 to 1949 at the [[Nuremberg Palace of Justice]] . The first and more famous of these trials was the '''Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal''' or IMT, which tried 24 of the most important captured (or still believed to be alive) leaders of Nazi Germany. It was held from [[November 20]], [[1945]] to [[October 1]], [[1946]].
====Former Yugoslavia====
:''Main article [[Bosnian Genocide]]
The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) is a court under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] for the prosecution of genocide and certain other types of crime committed in former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] since 1991. The tribunal functions as an ad-hoc court and is located in [[The Hague]]. It was established by [[UN Security Council Resolution 827|Resolution 827]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which was passed on [[May 25]], [[1993]].
Some of those found guilty of Genocide or crimes against humanity are:
* [[Milan Babic]], [[RSK|Krajina]] Serb , prime minister of [[Republika Srpska Krajina]] (Serb self proclaimed entity in Croatia); sentenced to thirteen years for his part in ethnic cleansing.
* [[Vidoje Blagojevic]], Bosnian Serb, a Bosnian Serb Army officer, sentenced to 18 years for involvement in the [[Srebrenica massacre]].
* [[Dragan Jokic]], Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 9 years for involvement in Srebrenica massacre.
* [[Radislav Krstic]], Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general; sentenced to thirty-five years (originally forty-six years) for genocide, crimes against humanity and violations of the laws or customs of war.
====Rwanda====
:''Main article [[Rwandan Genocide]]
The [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] ('''ICTR''') is a court under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] for the prosecution of offenses committed in [[Rwanda]] during the [[Rwandan genocide|genocide which occurred there]] during April, 1994, commencing on [[April 6]]. The ICTR was created on [[November 8]], [[1994]] by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of g
|
e
; 1025 [[December 25]] : Coronation of [[Mieszko II of Poland|Mieszko II Lambert]]
; [[1034]] [[May 10]] : Death of Mieszko II Lambert
; 1034-[[1039]] : People's rebellion and invasion of the Czech prince, Brzetyslav
; [[1076]] : Boleslaus II the Generous becomes King of Poland
; [[1079]] : Martyrdom of St. [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów]]
==12th century==
; [[1102]]-[[1138]] : Reign of prince [[Boleslaus III of Poland|Boleslav the Wrymouthed]] (Bolesław Krzywousty)
; [[1106]]-[[1107]] : War between Boleslav the Wrymouthed and his brother Zbigniew
; [[1138]] : Death of Boleslaus III the Wrymouth
; [[1146]]-[[1173]] : [[Boleslaus IV of Poland|Boleslav the Curly]] is the senior prince in [[Kraków]]
; [[1182]] : The first [[Sejm]]
==13th century==
; [[1226]] : [[Konrad I of Masovia]] invites the [[Teutonic Knights]] to Prussia
; [[1227]] : Assassination of Leszek I the White
; [[1241]] [[April 9]] : Death of Henry II the Pious in the [[Battle of Legnica]]
; [[1252]] : [[Lubusz Land]] lost to [[Brandenburg]]
; [[1264]] [[September 8]] : Issuance of [[Statute of Kalisz]]
; [[1295]] : Coronation of [[Przemysł II of Poland|Przemysł II]] for the king of Poland in Gniezno; shortly after, he is murdered in a bathhouse.
==14th century==
; [[1300]] : Coronation of [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia|Wacław II]], king of Bohemia, as the king of Poland
; [[1305]] : Death of Wacław II, his son [[Wenceslaus III of Bohemia|Wacław III]] becomes the king of Poland
; [[1306]] [[August 4]] : Assassination of Wenceslaus III
; [[1308]]-[[1309]] : The [[Teutonic Knights]] drive out the Brandenburgians who captured [[Gdańsk]], but hold the city for themselves. Władysław the Elbow High, caught up with the situation in Little Poland, particularly the conspiracy led by Albert, the mayor of [[Kraków]], cannot intervene.
; [[1320]] : Coronation of Władysław the Elbow High and reunion of most of the Polish lands
; [[1327]]-[[1332]] : War against the Teutonic Order
; [[1333]] : Death of Wladislaus I the Elbow-high; [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III the Great]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1335]] : Congress of [[Visegrád]]
; [[1343]] : [[Treaty of Kalisz]]
; [[1364]] : Founding of [[Jagiellonian University]]
; [[1370]] : Death of Casimir III the Great; [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis of Hungary]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1382]] : Death of Louis of Hungary; [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1385]] [[August 14]] : Signing of the [[Union of Krewo]]
; [[1386]] : [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Wladislaus II Jagiełło]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1387]] : Formal christianization of Lithuania
; [[1399]] [[July 17]] : Death of Jadwiga
==15th century==
; [[1401]] : [[Union of Vilnius and Radom]]
; [[1409]] : [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409-1411)|Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War]] begins
; [[1410]] [[July 15]] : Victory at the [[Battle of Grunwald]]
; [[1411]] [[February 1]] : Signing of the [[Peace of Toruń 1411|Peace of Toruń]] concludes the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War
; [[1413]] [[October 2]] : Signing of the [[Union of Horodło]]
; [[1432]] : Signing of the [[Union of Grodno]]
; [[1434]] : Death of Wladislaus II Jagiełło; [[Wladislaus III of Poland|Wladislaus III of Varna]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1444]] [[November 10]] : Death of Wladislaus III of Varna in the [[Battle of Varna]]
; [[1447]] : [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV the Jagiellonian]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1454]] : [[Thirteen Years' War]] begins
; 1454 : [[Nieszawa Statutes]]
; [[1466]] [[October 19]] : Signing of the [[Peace of Toruń 1466|Peace of Toruń]] concludes the Thirteen Years' War
; [[1473]] : [[Almanach Cracoviense ad annum 1474]] published
; [[1492]] : Death of Casimir IV the Jagiellonian; [[John I of Poland|John I Olbracht]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1496]] : [[Piotrków Statutes]]
; [[1499]] : [[Union of Vilnius]]
==16th century==
; [[1501]] : Death of John I Olbracht; [[Alexander of Poland|Alexander the Jagiellonian]] becomes King of Poland
; 1501 [[October 3]] : [[Union of Mielnik]]
; [[1506]] : Death of Alexander the Jagiellonian; [[Sigismund I the Old]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1513]] : [[Hortulus Animae, polonice]] published
; [[1525]] : [[Prussian Homage]]
; [[1543]] : [[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]] published
; [[1548]] : Death of Sigismund I the Old; [[Sigismund II of Poland|Sigismund II Augustus]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1558]] : [[Livonian War]] begins
; [[1563]] : [[Northern Seven Years' War]] begins
; [[1569]] [[July 1]] : Signing of the [[Union of Lublin]]
; [[1570]] [[December 13]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Stettin]] concludes the Northern Seven Years' War
; [[1572]] [[July 7]] : Death of Sigismund II Augustus
; [[1573]] [[January 28]] : Signing of the [[Warsaw Confederation]]
; [[1573]] : Election of [[Henry III of France|Henry of Valois]] as King of Poland
; [[1574]] [[June 18]] : Flight of Henry Valois
; [[1575]] [[December 9]] : Election of [[Stephen Bathory, King of Poland|Stephen Báthory]]
; [[1576]] [[May 1]] : Coronation of Stephen Báthory and [[Anna the Jagiellonian]]
; [[1579]] : Founding of [[Vilnius University]]
; [[1582]] : Signing of the [[Peace of Jam Zapolski]]
; [[1586]] [[December 12]] : Death of Stephen Báthory
; [[1587]] [[September 18]] : Election of [[Sigismund III of Poland|Sigismund III Vasa]]
; 1587 [[December 27]] : Coronation of Sigismund III Vasa
; [[1596]] : Transfer of capital from [[Kraków]] to [[Warsaw]]
; 1596 : [[Union of Brest]] concludes
; 1596 [[September 9]] : Death of Anna the Jagiellonian
==17th century==
; [[1605]] : [[Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618)|Polish-Muscovite War]] begins
; [[1618]] : Signing of the [[Truce of Deulino]] concludes the Polish-Muscovite War
; [[1620]] : War with the [[Ottoman Empire]]
; [[1632]] : Death of Sigismund III Vasa; [[Wladislaus IV of Poland|Wladislaus IV Vasa]] becomes King of Poland
; 1632 : [[Smolensk War]] begins
; [[1633]] [[February 6]] : Coronation of Wladislaus IV Vasa
; 1633 : [[Polish-Ottoman War (1633-1634)|Polish-Ottoman War]] begins
; [[1634]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Polanów]] concludes the Smolensk War
; 1634 : Polish-Ottoman War ends
; [[1648]] [[May 20]] : Death of Wladislaus IV Vasa
; 1648 : [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] begins
; [[1651]] [[September 28]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Bila Tserkva]]
; 1654 : Chmielnicki Uprising ends
; [[1655]]-[[1660]] : Invasion of Poland by the Army of [[Charles X of Sweden]] in the [[Northern Wars]], known in Poland as "[[the Deluge]]"
; 1655 : Signing of the [[Union of Kėdainiai]]
; [[1657]] [[September 9]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Welawa]]
; 1657 [[November 6]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Bydgoszcz]]
; [[1658]] [[September 16]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Hadiach]]
; [[1660]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Oliwa]]
; [[1667]] [[January 30]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Andrusovo]]
; [[1668]] [[September 16]] : Abdication of John II Casimir
; [[1669]] [[June 19]] : Election of [[Michał Wiśniowiecki, King of Poland|Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki]]
; 1669 [[September 29]] : Coronation of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki
; [[1673]] [[November 10]] : Death of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki
; [[1674]] [[May 21]] : Election of [[John III Sobieski, King of Poland|John III Sobieski]]
; [[1676]] [[February 2]] : Coronation of John III Sobieski
; [[1683]] [[September 12]] : Victory at the [[Battle of Vienna]]
; [[1686]] : Signing of the [[Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686|Eternal Peace Treaty]]
; [[1696]] [[June 17]] : Death of [[John III Sobieski, King of Poland|John III Sobieski]]
; [[1697]] : [[Augustus II of Poland|Augustus II the Strong]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1699]] [[January 26]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] concludes the [[Great Turkish War]]
==18th century==
; [[1706]] [[September 24]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Altranstadt]]
; [[1717]] [[February 1]] : [[Silent Sejm]]
; [[1733]] [[February 1]] : Death of Augustus II the Strong
; [[1763]] [[October 5]] : Death of [[Augustus III of Poland|Augustus III]]
; [[1764]] [[September 7]] : Election of [[Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski, King of Poland|Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski]]
; 1764 [[November 25]] : Coronation of Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
; [[1768]] [[February 29]] : Signing of the [[Bar Confederation]]
; 1768 : [[Koliyivschyna]]
; 1768 : [[Massacre of Uman]]
; [[1772]] : [[First Partition of Poland]]
; [[1773]] [[October 14]] : Creation of [[Komisja Edukacji Narodowej|Commission of National Education]]
; [[1788]] : Inauguration of the [[Sejm Wielki|Great Sejm]]
; [[1791]] [[May 3]] : Adoption of [[Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791|Constitution of May 3]]
; [[1792]] [[May 14]] : Signing of [[Targowica Confederation]]
; 1792
|
they need to contain an &alpha; an a &gamma; subunit, where the benzodiazepine binds. Once bound, the benzodiazepine locks the [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptor into a conformation where the neurotransmitter [[GABA]] has much higher affinity for the [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptor, increasing the frequency of opening of the associated Chloride ion channel and hyperpolarising the membrane. This potentiates the inhibitory effect of the available [[GABA]] leading to sedatory and anxiolytic effects. As mentioned, different benzodiazepines can have different affinities for [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptors made up of different collection of subunits. For instance, benzodiazepines with high activity at the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> are associated with sedation whereas those with higher affinity for [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] receptors containing &alpha;<sub>2</sub> and/or &alpha;<sub>3</sub> subunits have good anti-anxiety activity.
==References==
* Atack JR. Anxioselective compounds acting at the GABA(A) receptor benzodiazepine binding site. Current drug targets. CNS and neurological disorders. 2003 Aug;2(4):213-32.
* Gerada C, Ashworth M. ABC of mental health. Addiction and dependence--I: Illicit drugs. [[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] 1997;315:297-300. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/315/7103/297 Fulltext]. PMID 9274553.
* Sternbach LH. ''The discovery of librium.'' Agents Actions 1972;2:193-6. PMID 4557348
==External links==
* [http://www.benzo.org.uk/ Benzo.org.uk - Benzodiazepine addiction and withdrawal]
* [http://www.drugs.com/cons/benzodiazepines_systemic.html Drugs.com - Benzodiazepines (advanced consumer information)]
{{Benzodiazepines}}
[[Category:Benzodiazepines|*]]
[[Category:Sedatives]]
[[Category:Hypnotics]]
[[Category:Anticonvulsants]]
[[Category:Muscle relaxants]]
[[Category:Anxiolytics]]
[[Category:Schedule IV controlled substances]]
[[da:Benzodiazepin]]
[[de:Benzodiazepine]]
[[es:Benzodiazepina]]
[[fr:Benzodiazépine]]
[[nl:Benzodiazepine]]
[[ja:ベンゾジアゼピン]]
[[no:Benzodiazepin]]
[[nn:Benzodiazepin]]
[[pl:Benzodiazepiny]]
[[pt:Benzodiazepina]]
[[sv:Bensodiazepiner]]
[[zh:苯二氮䓬类药物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bell Curve</title>
<id>4784</id>
<revision>
<id>15903037</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-16T23:00:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting to the [[bell curve]] disambiguation page.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bell curve]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balloons</title>
<id>4785</id>
<revision>
<id>15903038</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Balloon]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balloon</title>
<id>4786</id>
<revision>
<id>41767146</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:27:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/134.53.41.19|134.53.41.19]] ([[User talk:134.53.41.19|Talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">::''For the [[impedance]] converter, '''see''' the article on'' [[balun]].
[[Image:Mylar balloons.jpg|right|thumb|Balloons, like [[greeting card]]s or [[flower]]s, are given for special occasions.]]
A '''balloon''' is a flexible bag normally filled with gas. Some balloons are purely decorative, others are used for specific purposes. Early balloons were made of dried animal [[urinary bladder|bladder]]s. Modern balloons can be made from materials such as [[rubber]], [[latex]], [[chloroprene]] or a [[nylon]] fabric. The modern balloon was invented by [[Michael Faraday]] in the 1800's, but mass production didn't occur until the 1930's.
== Usage of balloons ==
*small balloons (volume of a few [[litre]]s)
**[[toy balloon]]
**decoration
**[[solar balloon]]
**[[balloon mail]] as part of a [[balloon flight competition]] or to spread information
**[[Balloon helicopter]]
**Demonstration of rocket propulsion by letting the gas stream away ([[balloon rocket]])
**[[Ceiling balloon]]
*medium balloons (volume of hundreds to thousands of litres)
**transport of bombs (in World War II, FUGU-Balloon)
**transport of propaganda (in World War II and in the Cold War)
**[[Ceiling balloon]]
**[[Weather balloon]] used with a [[Radiosonde]]
*as fixed balloon
**for carrying advertising signs
**to carry antennae for LF and VLF
**[[party balloon]]
*large balloons (volume up to 12000 [[cubic metre]]s)
**fixed balloon
***as manned observation post (before World War II)
***[[barrage balloon]]
***[[observation balloon]] for military reconnaissance
***positioning atomic bombs for bomb tests in the atmosphere
**free flying balloons
***lifting people, usually with a [[hot air balloon]]
***[[airship]] actually a buoyant aircraft rather than a balloon
***[[research balloon]] with instrumentation, also to carry telescopes
***[[rockoon]]
***[[balloon satellite]] for space research.
***[[espionage balloon]] for military reconnaissance
Also, you may or may not know this, but clowns have the ability to blow up balloons and bend them into many different shapes, such as dogs, cats, hats, swords and other neat things!
[[image:yellow.balloon.inflation.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|| A [[hot air balloon]] is inflated at Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England]]
== Balloons as flying machines ==
Large balloons filled with hot air or buoyant gas have been used as flying machines since the 18th century. See [[Balloon (aircraft)]] and [[Hot air balloon]]
Such balloons, which lift a payload using buoyancy, should not be confused with balloons in space, launched with a [[rocket]], which are simply large deployable structures.
Balloons are sometimes used in form of a [[rockoon]] as carrier for rockets.
Examples:
*[[Echo satellite]]
*[[Decoy]]s accompanying [[ICBM]]s in midcourse, see also [[countermeasure]]
== Balloons as decoration or entertainment ==
[[Image:Balloons-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|left|Party balloons]]
'''Party balloons''' are mostly made of natural [[latex]] tapped from [[rubber tree]]s and can be filled with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[helium]], [[water]], or any other suitable liquid or gas. The rubber makes the volume adjustable.
Filling with air is done with the mouth or with a [[pump]].
When rubber balloons are filled with helium so that they float (restrained by ribbons or strings) they can hold their shape for only a few hours. The enclosed air or helium escapes through small [[pore]]s in the rubber. If helium is used the gas escapes quicker than in the case of air because the helium atoms are much smaller than the nitrogen and oxygen molecules in air.
Even a perfect rubber membrane eventually loses the gas to the outside, and its contents are contaminated by oxygen and nitrogen migrating inward from the outside. The gases in question actually dissolve in the rubber on one side and are released from solution on the other. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called [[diffusion]]. The inside of balloons can be treated with a special gel (e.g. "Hi Float" brand) which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage, thus increasing float time. Latex rubber balloons are completely biodegradable, but cannot safely be released into the environment: they are a serious hazard to birds and wetland animals that confuse the balloons for food.
[[Image:Balloonsanimals.jpg|thumb|right|Metallized nylon animal-shaped baloons]]
Beginning in the early [[1990s]], some more expensive (and longer-lasting) helium balloons have been made of thin, unstretchable, impermeable metallized [[nylon]] films. These balloons are often mistakenly called [[Mylar]] balloons. These balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with colour pictures and patterns. The most important attributes of metallized nylon for balloons are its light weight, increasing buoyancy and its ability to keep the helium gas from escaping for several weeks. However, there has been some environmental concern, since the metallized nylon does not [[biodegrade]] or shred as a rubber balloon does, and a helium balloon released into the atmosphere can travel a long way before finally bursting or deflating. Release of these types of balloons into the atmosphere is harmful to the environment.
Partygoers sometimes entertain each other by untying a balloon and inhaling the helium. Because the [[speed of sound]] in helium is about twice that in air, the helium causes the vocal tract to become more responsive to high-pitched sounds and less responsive to lower ones. The result is a voice that sounds high-[[pitch (music)|pitch]]ed (and usually very funny).
[[Balloon modelling|Balloon artists]] are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures (see also [[balloon animal]]). The balloons used for balloon sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is [[inversely proportional]] to the diameter of the balloon, these tiny tubular balloons are extremely hard to inflate initially. A pump is usually used to inflate these balloons.
Decorators may use dozens of helium balloons to create balloon sculptures. Usually the round shape of the balloon restricts these to simple arches or walls, but on occasion more ambitious
|
st]] with the links proceeding from the latest (most recently) defined word to oldest, until a sentinel, usually a NULL pointer, is found.
A defined word generally consists of ''head'' and ''body'' with the head consisting of the ''name field'' (NF) and the ''link field'' (LF) and body consisting of the ''code field'' (CF) and the ''parameter field'' (PF).
Head and body of a dictionary entry are treated separately because they may not be contiguous. For example, when a Forth program is recompiled for a new platform, the head may remain on the compiling computer, while the body goes to the new platform. In some environments (such as [[embedded system]]s) the heads occupy memory unnecessarily. However, some cross-compilers may put heads in the target if the target itself is expected to support an interactive Forth.
===Dictionary Entry===
The exact format of a dictionary entry is not prescribed, and implementations vary. However, certain components are almost always present though the exact size and order may vary. Described as a C language structure, a dictionary entry might look this way:
struct forthword {
byte _flag; /* 3bit flags + length of word's name. */
char name[]; /* name's runtime length isn't known at compile time in C. */
struct forthword *previous; /* backward ptr to previous word. */
struct forthword *codeword; /* ptr to the code to execute this word. */
byte parameterfield[]; /* unknown length of data, words, or opcodes. */
};
The name field starts with a prefix giving the length of the word's name (typically up to 32 bytes), and several bits for flags. The character representation of the word's name then follows the prefix. Depending on the particular implementation of Forth, there may be one or more NUL ('\0') bytes for alignment.
The link field contains a pointer to the previously defined word. The pointer may be a relative displacement or an absolute address that points to the next oldest sibling.
The code field pointer will be either the address of the word which will execute the code or data in the parameter field or the beginning of machine code that the processor will execute directly. For colon defined words, the code field pointer points to the word that will save the current Forth instruction pointer (IP) on the return stack, and load the IP with the new address from which to continue execution of words. This is the same as what a processor's call/return instructions does.
===Structure of the Compiler===
The compiler itself consists of Forth words. This gives the programmer considerable control of the compiler, and a programmer can change the compiler's words for special purposes.
The "compile time" flag in the name field is set for words with "compile time" behavior. Most simple words execute the same code whether they are typed on a command line, or embedded in code. When compiling these, the compiler simply places code or a threaded pointer to the word.
Compile-time words are actually executed by the compiler. The classic examples of compile-time words are the control-structures such as IF and WHILE. All of Forth's control structures, and almost all of its compiler are implemented as compile-time words.
The assembler (see above) is a special dialect of the compiler.
===Structure of Code===
In most Forth systems, the body of a code definition consists of either [[machine language]], or some form of [[threaded code]]. Traditionally, indirect-threaded code was used, but direct-threaded and subroutine threaded Forths have also been popular. The fastest modern Forths use subroutine threading, insert simple words as macros, and perform [[peephole optimization]] or other optimizing strategies to make the code smaller and faster.
===Data Objects===
When a word is a variable or other data object, the CF points to the runtime code associated with the defining word that created it. A defining word has a characteristic "defining behavior" (creating a dictionary entry plus possibly allocating and initializing data space) and also specifies the behavior of an instance of the class of words constructed by this defining word. Examples include:
* VARIABLE -- Names an uninitialized, one-cell memory location. Instance behavior of a VARIABLE returns its address on the stack.
* CONSTANT -- Names a value (specified as an argument to CONSTANT). Instance behavior returns the value.
* CREATE -- Names a location; space may be allocated at this location, or it can be set to contain a string or other initialized value. Instance behavior returns the address of the beginning of this space.
Forth also provides a facility by which a programmer can define new application-specific defining words, specifying both a custom defining behavior and instance behavior. Some examples include circular buffers, named bits on an I/O port, and automatically-indexed arrays.
Data objects defined by these and similar words are global in scope. The function provided by local variables in other languages is provided by the data stack in Forth. Forth programming style uses very few named data objects compared with other languages; typically such data objects are used to contain data which is used by a number of words or tasks (in a multitasked implementation).
Forth does not enforce consistency of data type usage; it is the programmer's responsibility to use appropriate operators to fetch and store values or perform other operations on data.
== Computer programs in Forth ==
Words written in Forth are compiled into an executable form. The classical "indirect threaded" implementations compile lists of addresses of words to be executed in turn; many modern systems generate actual machine code (including calls to some external words and code for others expanded in place). Some systems feature sophisticated optimizing compilers. Generally speaking, a Forth program is saved as the memory image of the compiled program with a single command (e.g., RUN) that is executed when the compiled version is loaded.
During development, the programmer uses the interpreter to execute and test each little piece as it is developed.
Most Forth programmers therefore advocate a loose top-down design, and bottom-up development with continuous testing and integration.
The top-down design is usually separation of the program into "vocabularies" that are then used as high-level sets of tools to write the final program. A well-designed Forth program reads like natural language, and implements not just a single solution, but also sets of tools to attack related problems.
The tool-box approach is one of the reasons that Forth is so difficult to master. While learning the syntax is easy, mastering the tools delivered with a professional Forth system can take several months, working full-time. The task is actually more difficult than rewriting one's own Forth system from scratch. Unfortunately, a rewrite also loses the experience accumulated in a typical professional Forth toolbox.
== Implementation of a Forth System ==
Forth uses two stacks for each executing task. The stacks are the same width as the index register of the computer, so that they can be used to fetch and store addresses. The parameter or data stack (commonly referred to as the ''stack'') is used to pass data to words. The linkage or return stack (commonly referred to as the ''rstack'') is used store return addresses when words are nested (the equivalent of a [[Subroutine#Low-level_implementation|subroutine call]], and store local variables. There are standard words to move data between the stacks, and to load and store variables on the stack.
The Forth interpreter looks up words one at a time in the dictionary, and executes their code. The basic algorithm is to search a line of characters for a non-blank, non-control-character string. If this string is in the dictionary, and it is not a compile-time word (marked in the flag byte), the code is executed. If it is not in the dictionary, it may be a number. If it converts to a number, the number is pushed onto the parameter stack. If it does not convert, then the interpreter prints an error message; for example, the string followed by a question mark. The interpreter then throws away the rest of the input.
A Forth compiler produces dictionary entries. Other than that, it tries to simulate the same effect that would be produced by typing the text into the interpreter.
The great secret to implementing Forth is natively compiling it, so that it compiles itself. The basic scheme is to have the compiler defined in terms of a few words that access a code area. Then, one definition of the words may compile to the normal area of memory while another definition compiles to disk, or to some special memory area. The compiler is adapted by recompiling it with the new definitions. Some systems have defined low-level words to communicate with a debugger on a different computer, building up the Forth system in a different computer.
==Hello world==
''For an explanation of the tradition of programming "Hello World", see [[Hello world program]].''
One possible implementation:
: HELLO ( -- ) ." Hello, world!" CR ;
HELLO
A standard Forth system is also an [[interpreter]], and the same output can be obtained by typing into the Forth console (note parentheses instead of quotes):
.( Hello, world!) CR
== Online Forth interpreter ==
There's a Forth implementation in [[JavaScript]] online, which you can use to try out Forth.
The interactive terminal emulation works best with browsers like [[Firefox]], [[Mozilla]], and [[Netscape]].
Tutorial material is provided there as well:
http://forthfreak.net/jsforth.html
Another implementation accessible by Telnet is at:
telnet://d14-435-04.rtc.ru:3333
==See also ==
*[[Threaded code]]
*[[Jupiter ACE]] &ndash; The British home computer with ROM-resid
|
anufacturers such as [[Toyota]], [[Honda]], [[Nissan]], [[Mitsubishi]], [[Mazda]], [[Sony]], [[Matsushita]], [[Toshiba]], [[Suzuki]] and [[Hitachi,_Ltd.|Hitachi]], as well as household names like [[Nintendo]] and [[Nikon Corporation]]. Japan also holds a large market share in high-technology industries such as [[semiconductor]]s, industrial chemicals, machine tools, and (in recent years) [[Aerospace engineering|aerospace]]. [[Construction]] has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. [[Robot|Robotics]] constitutes a key long-term economic strength.
===Service sector===
Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. [[Bank|Banking]], [[insurance]], [[real estate]], [[Retailer|retail]]ing, [[transportation in Japan|transportation]], and [[telecommunication]]s are all major industries. The [[Junichiro Koizumi|Koizumi]] government is attempting to privatize [[Japan Post and Postal Services Agency|Japan Post]], one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services, by 2007.
{{seealso|List of Japanese companies}}
==Society==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Japan}}
Japanese society is [[ethnic]]ally and [[Linguistics|linguistically]] homogeneous, with small populations of primarily [[Ryukyuans]] (1.5 million), North and South [[Koreans]] (1 million), [[China|Chinese]] and [[Taiwan]]ese (0.5 million), [[Philippines|Filipino]]s (0.5 million), and [[Brazil]]ians &mdash; mostly of [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]] descent &mdash; (250,000), as well as the indigenous [[Ainu_people|Ainu]] minority in [[Hokkaido]]. About 99% of the population speaks [[Japanese language|Japanese]] as their first language.
Japanese [[citizenship]] is conferred on an infant when a family member registers the infant's birth in the family registry held by a neighborhood ward office. Simply being born in Japan does not assure citizenship. Monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. People of Japanese heritage returning from overseas have citizenship if their birth in a foreign country was registered in Japan on their behalf by a family member. Sometimes these returnees are not considered truly Japanese and suspected of being descendants of the [[Burakumin]] [[caste]] of feudal times.
The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war [[Post-WW2_baby_boom|baby boom]] followed by a decrease in births as the country modernized in the latter part of the 20th century (notable aspects including the shift from agricultural to urban lifestyles and the increasing tendency for women to remain in the workplace). Japan has the highest [[life expectancy]] in the world (85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002 [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm]). By 2007, over 20% of the population will be over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the [[pension|public pension plan]].
The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 128 million would decline to 100 million in 2050, and to 64 million in 2100. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher dependency ratio (nonworking young and old compared to working ages.) Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[http://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/socsec/ogawa.html]. [[Immigration]] and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased [[crime]] rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.
===Religion===
[[Image:Toshodaiji.jpg|thumb|251px|right|The [[Toshodaiji]] Buddhist temple, part of a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]].]]
{{main articles|[[Religion in Japan]] and [[Japanese mythology]]}}
The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to [[mythology]], [[traditions]], and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes [[Confucianism]], or even [[Taoism]], tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. When asked to identify their religion, most would profess to believe in either [[Shintoism]] (54%) or [[Buddhism]] (40%), for simple reasons like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. Nonetheless, most of the people are not [[atheist]]s, and the tendency is often identified with [[syncretism]], [[secularism]], and even [[irreligion]]. This results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating [[Shinto]] rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a [[Christian]] church and funerals being held at [[Buddhist]] temples. A minority profess to [[Christianity]] (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like [[shamanism]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism in Japan|Hinduism]]. Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called [[Shinkosyukyo]], and later [[shinshukyo]], emerged.
===Education===
{{main|Education in Japan}}
Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the [[Meiji Restoration]]. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of [[elementary school]] and [[middle school]], which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior [[high school]], and 96% of high school graduates attend a [[university]], [[junior college]], trade school, or other post-secondary institution.
===Language===
{{main|Japanese Language}}
Japanese language is an [[agglutinative]] language that belongs in the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]] family. It is distinguished by a system of [[Japanese honorifics|honorifics]] reflecting the [[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener.
Modern Japanese is written with a mix of [[Chinese character|Chinese characters]] ([[kanji]]) and a modified [[syllabary]] ([[kana]]), also originally based on Chinese characters. Japanese texts may also include [[Romanization of Japanese|rōmaji]] (letters from the Latin alphabet) as well as various special symbols. [[Japanese writing system|Written Japanese]] has been heavily influenced by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] although the latter belongs to a different language family. Much vocabulary also has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.
The oldest surviving book written in Japan is the [[Kojiki]] ([[712]]). It was written in a mixture of Chinese, used both ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese meanings. The oldest surviving Japanese book written in [[hiragana]] is the ''Tosa Diary'' ([[935]]) by [[Ki no Tsurayuki]]. [[Japanese literature]] reached a high point during the 11th century with the ''Genji Monogatari'' (''[[The Tale of Genji]]'') by Lady [[Murasaki Shikibu]]. Many other Japanese literary works were also written by women.
===Culture===
[[Image:Japanese traditional dancer cropped.jpg|thumb|A Japanese traditional dancer]]
{{main|Culture of Japan}}
Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original [[Jomon]] culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines a number of influences from Asia, Europe, and America.
Historically, China and Korea have been the most influential starting with the development of the [[Yayoi]] culture from around 300&nbsp;BC and culminating with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, the [[Chinese written language|Chinese writing system]], and [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]] by the 7th century AD. In the pre-modern era, Japan developed a distinct culture, in its [[Japanese Art|arts]]: ([[ikebana]], [[origami]], [[ukiyo-e]]), [[Japanese crafts|crafts]] ([[Japanese traditional dolls|dolls]], [[Lacquer|lacquerware]], [[Japanese pottery|pottery]]), performances ([[bunraku]], [[Japanese traditional dance|dance]], [[kabuki]], [[noh]], [[rakugo]]), traditions ([[List of Japanese games|games]], [[onsen]], [[sento]], [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]], [[Japanese architecture|architecture]], [[Japanese garden|gardens]], [[Katana|swords]]), and [[Cuisine of Japan|cuisine]].
From the mid-19th century onward, Western influence prevailed, with American influence becoming especially predominant following the end of [[World War II]]. This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950-onward, American influences in its [[fashion]], [[Cinema of Japan|films]], [[Japanese literature|literature]], [[Japanese television programs|television]], [[Computer and video games|video games]], and [[Music of Japan|music]]. Also, the Japanese are the largest spenders of money on luxury goods in the world. Today, Japan is a major exporter of such culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in the other countries of East Asia. Especially notable contributions of modern Japan to the rest of the world include [[anime|animation (anime)]] and [[manga|graphic novels (manga)]]. Japanese culture has attracted many devotees in Europe and North America as well.
{{seealso|Japanese clothing|Etiquette of Japan|Japanese festivals|Japanese New Year|Japanese sports|Tourism in Japan|J
|
Rail Quarry]] in [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]], and restore the surface of [[Spectacle Island, Massachusetts|Spectacle Island]] in the [[Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area]].
The [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]], designed by Swiss designer [[Christian Menn]], represents the terminus of the project, connecting the underground highway with I-93 and US 1. A distinctive [[cable-stayed bridge]], the crossing is supported by two forked towers, which are connected to the span by cables and girders.
Similar issues occurred with the Leverett Circle Connector, a companion bridge to the Zakim that carries traffic from [[Interstate 93]] to Storrow Drive along the Charles River. The project had been under consideration for many years, opposed largely by the residents of Boston's wealthy Beacon Hill neighborhood, and finally came to fruition as a way to funnel the traffic bound for Storrow Drive and the northern part of downtown Boston away from the mainline roadway. Ultimately the Leverett Connector wound up using a pair of ramps originally constructed for [[Interstate 695 (Massachusetts)|Interstate 695]], ironically making it possible for the mainline I-93 to carry more of the through traffic that<!--typo for than?--> was supposed to use I-695 in the original Master Plan.
At the time construction began, the whole project (including the Charles River crossing) was projected to cost $5.8 billion. Eventual cost overruns were so high that the chairman of the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] Authority, [[James Kerasiotes]], was fired in [[2000]] and his replacement had to commit to a cap in federal contributions of $8.549 billion. Total expenses to date have surpassed $15 billion.
==The project today==
[[Image:Tunnel-large.jpg|thumb|right|Interstate I-93 Tunnel]]
On [[January 17]], [[2003]], the opening ceremony was held for the I-90 Connector Tunnel, extending the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] ([[Interstate 90]]) east into the [[Ted Williams Tunnel]], and onwards to Logan Airport. (The Williams tunnel had been completed and in limited use for commercial traffic and [[high-occupancy vehicle]]s since late [[1995]].) The westbound lanes opened on the afternoon of [[January 18]] and the eastbound lanes on [[January 19]].
The next phase, moving the elevated [[Interstate 93]] underground, was completed in two stages: northbound lanes opened in March 2003 and southbound lanes (in a temporary configuration) on [[December 20]], 2003. A tunnel underneath Leverett Circle connecting eastbound Storrow Drive to I-93 North and the Tobin Bridge opened [[December 19]], [[2004]], easing congestion at the circle. All southbound lanes of I-93 opened to traffic on [[March 5]], [[2005]], including the left lane of the Zakim Bridge, and all of the refurbished [[Dewey Square Tunnel]].
By the end of December 2004, 95% of the Big Dig was completed. Major construction remained on the surface, including construction of final ramp configurations in the [[North End, Boston, Massachusetts|North End]] and in the [[South Bay, Boston, Massachusetts|South Bay]] interchange, and reconstruction of the surface streets. Many impact-mitigation projects (transit, pedestrian, bicycle, and parks) also remain, but some are in danger of cancellation due to cost overruns on the rest of the project.
In late [[2004]], leaks sprouted in the tunnel. Minor ones resulted from gaps in the roof of the tunnel; major ones from structural weaknesses in the tunnel walls, which lie below the [[water table]]. Many of the leaks are a result of [[Modern Continental]] and other subcontractors failing to remove gravel or other debris before pouring concrete. [[Bechtel]]/Parsons Brinkerhoff is blamed for failing to detect and fix the problem during construction. The two companies are responsible for finding and repairing the leaks, mostly at their own expense, and this work is ongoing.
On [[August 11]], [[2005]], it was announced that the [[Massachusetts State Police]] searched the offices of the Big Dig's largest concrete supplier in June and found evidence of faked records that hid the poor quality of concrete delivered for highway project. However, it is not believed that the low-quality concrete is connected to the hundreds of leaks discovered in the tunnels that take vehicles under Boston.
The final ramp downtown - exit 20B from I-93 south to [[Albany Street (Boston)|Albany Street]] - opened [[January 13]], [[2006]].<ref>Casey Ross, [http://news.bostonherald.com/localRegional/view.bg?articleid=121276 Hallelujah Hub drivers! Last Big Dig ramp done], [[Boston Globe]] [[January 14]], [[2006]]</ref>
The Big Dig has led to a marked reduction in [[gridlock]]. The combination of the Mass Pike extension to the Ted Williams Tunnel and the extensive use of feeder roads to remove interchange traffic from the mainline has drastically reduced the headaches of Boston highway traffic.
==Trivia==
* The total amount of earth excavated is 15 million cubic yards (11 million m&sup3; or 540,000 truckloads of dirt).
* Enough steel (25,800 m&sup3;) was used in the project to make a one-inch steel bar long enough to wrap around the earth (24900 miles). <!-- This metric conversion assumes that a one-by-one steel bar was meant, but in the absence of a source I can't check this, and the quantity should really be measured in units of mass, i.e., kilograms. -->
* The [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] has seven main-line travel lanes, plus a two-lane entrance ramp cantilevered off the east side, making it the widest cable-stayed bridge in the world.
==References==
<references/>
== External links ==
*[http://www.masspike.com/bigdig/index.html Official site]
*[http://libraries.mit.edu/rotch/artery/ Boston CA/T Project History at MIT Rotch Library]
*[http://www.bostonroads.com Steve Anderson's BostonRoads.com]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/wonder/structure/central_artery.html PBS.org] &ndash; Central Artery
[[Category:Tunnels in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Transportation in Boston]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Books of Chronicles</title>
<id>4319</id>
<revision>
<id>37936673</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T01:59:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.242.162.151</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>blank line</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''("Book of Chronicles" is also an alternate name for the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]] of [[1493]])''
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Chronicles''' is a book in the [[Hebrew Bible]] (also see [[Old Testament]]). It was originally written as one book, but in the Septuagint (LXX), the book appears in two parts, and in the fifteenth century, it began appearing in two parts in Hebrew Bibles. This division into two parts may be in accordance with more manageable [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]] sizes, and thus in Christian bibles it is usually published in two parts, ''I Chronicles'' and ''II Chronicles''.
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] the title of this book is ''Divre Hayyamim'', i.e., "History of the Days." [[Jerome]], in his [[Latin]] translation of the Bible ([[Vulgate]]), titled this book ''Chronicon''; in English this word translates as "Chronicles."
In the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] the book is also divided into two parts; here it bears the title ''Paraleipomêna'', i.e., "things omitted," or "supplements," because it contains details not found in the [[Books of Samuel]] and the [[Books of Kings]]. In the [[Douai Bible]] translation the books are accordingly styled the "Books of Paralipomenon."
Some divide the book into four parts:
#The first nine chapters of Book I contain a list of [[genealogy|genealogies]] in the line of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] down to the time of King [[David]].
#The remainder of the first book contains a history of the reign of David.
#The first nine chapters of Book II contain the history of the reign of King [[Solomon]].
#The remaining chapters of the second book contain the history of the separate [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the time of the return from [[Babylonian exile]].
Others, though, divide the book into three parts, combining the sections treating David and Solomon since they represented rule over all the tribes of Israel.
The time of the composition of the Chronicles is believed to have been subsequent to the Babylonian Captivity, probably between [[450 BC|450]] and [[435 BC|435 B.C.]]. The contents of this twofold book, both as to matter and form, correspond closely with this idea. The close of the book records the proclamation of [[Cyrus the Great]] permitting the [[Jew]]s to return to their own land, and this forms the opening passage of the [[Book of Ezra]], which is viewed as a continuation of the Chronicles, together with the [[Book of Nehemiah]]. The peculiar form of the language, being Hebrew in vocabulary but Aramaean in its general character, harmonizes also with that of the other books which were written after the Exile. The author was likely contemporary with [[Zerubbabel]], details of whose family history are given (1 Chronicles 3:19).
According to Jewish tradition, [[Ezra]] the scribe was regarded as the author of Chronicles. There are many points of resemblance between Chronicles and the Book of Ezra which seem to confirm this opinion. The conclusion of the one and the beginning of the other are almost identical in expression.
In their general scope and design these books are not so much historical as didactic. The principal aim of the writer appears to be to present moral and religious truth. He does not give prominence to political occurrences, as is done in [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Kings|Kings]], but to religious institutions, such as the details of the temple service. "The genealogies, so uninteresting to most modern readers, were really an important part
|
projects further; he began to paint, an activity which is reflected in his next major story ''Klingsor's Last Summer'', published in 1920. In 1922, Hesse's Indian novel ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]'' appeared, which showed the love for Indian culture and Asian wisdom, which had already developed at his parent's house. In 1924, Hesse married the singer [[Ruth Wenger]], the daughter of the Swiss writer [[Lisa Wenger]] and aunt of [[Meret Oppenheim]]. This marriage was doomed to failure from the start and never attained any true stability.
In this year, Hesse received Swiss citizenship. His next major works, ''Kurgast'' from 1925 and ''The Nuremberg Trip'' from 1927, were autobiographical narratives with ironic undertones, and which foreshadow Hesse's following novel, ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'', which was published in 1927. In the year of his 50th birthday, the first biography of Hesse appeared, written by his friend [[Hugo Ball]]. Shortly after his new successful novel, he turned away from the solitude of Steppenwolf and married [[Ninon Dolbin Ausländer]]. This change to companionship was reflected in the novel ''[[Narcissus and Goldmund]]'', appearing in 1930.
In 1931, Hesse left the Casa Camuzzi and moved with Ninon to a large house (Casa Hesse) near Montagnola, which was built according to his wishes.
===The Glass Bead Game===
In 1931, Hesse began planning what would become his last major work, ''[[The Glass Bead Game]]''. In 1932 as a preliminary study, he released the novella, ''[[Journey to the East]]''. Hesse observed the rise to power of [[Nazism|National Socialism]] in Germany with great concern. In 1933, [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Thomas Mann]] made their travels in exile, and in both cases, were aided by Hesse. In this way, Hesse attempted to work against the developments in Germany.
Since the 1910s, he had published book reviews in the German press, and now he spoke publicly in support of Jewish artists and others pursued by the [[Nazis]]. After the middle of the 1930s, no German journal dared to publish articles from Hesse. As spiritual refuge from these political conflicts and later from the horror of the [[Second World War]], he worked on the novel ''The Glass Bead Game'' which was printed in 1943 in Switzerland. For this work among his others, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1946.
After the Second World War, Hesse's productivity declined. He wrote short stories and poems, but no more novels. He occupied himself with the steady stream of letters he received as a result of the prize and as a new generation of German readers explored his work. He died on August 9, 1962 and was buried in the cemetery at San Abbondio in Montagnola, where Hugo Ball is also buried.
==Works==
* [[1898]] - ''Romantische Lieder'' (''[[Romantic Songs]]'')
* [[1899]] - ''Eine Stunde hinter Mitternacht'' (''[[One Hour After Midnight]]'')
* [[1904]] - ''[[Peter Camenzind]]''
* [[1906]] - ''Unterm Rad'' (''[[Beneath the Wheel]]'')
* [[1908]] - ''Freunde'' (''Friends'')
* [[1910]] - ''Gertrud'' (''[[Gertrud (novel)|Gertrude]]'')
* [[1914]] - ''[[Rosshalde]]''
* [[1915]] - ''[[Knulp]]''
* [[1919]] - ''[[Demian]]''
* [[1919]] - ''Klein und Wagner'' (''[[Klein and Wagner]]'')
* [[1919]] - ''Märchen'' (''[[Strange News from Another Star]]'', short stories)
* [[1920]] - ''Blick ins Chaos'' (''In Sight of Chaos,'' essays)
* [[1920]] - ''Klingsors letzter Sommer'' (''[[Klingsor's Last Summer]]'', three novellas)
* [[1922]] - ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]''
* [[1927]] - ''[[Die Nürnberger Reise]]''
* [[1927]] - ''Der Steppenwolf'' (''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'')
* [[1930]] - ''Narziss und Goldmund'' (''[[Narcissus and Goldmund]]'')
* [[1932]] - ''Die Morgenlandfahrt'' (''[[Journey to the East]]'')
* [[1937]] - ''Gedenkblätter'' (''[[Autobiographical Writings (Hesse)|Autobiographical Writings]]'')
* [[1942]] - ''Die Gedichte'' (''[[Poems (Hesse)|Poems]]'')
* [[1943]] - ''Das Glasperlenspiel'' (''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'', also published as ''Magister Ludi'')
* [[1946]] - ''Krieg und Frieden'' (''[[If the War Goes On ...]]'')
* [[1976]] - ''[[My Belief: Essays on Life and Art]]''
* [[1995]] - ''The Complete Fairy Tales of Hermann Hesse''
==Awards==
[[Image:Hermann Hesse Bueste.JPG|thumb|Statue in Calw]]
* [[1906]] - [[Bauernfeld-Preis]]
* [[1928]] - Mejstrik-Preis der Wiener Schiller-Stiftung
* [[1936]] - [[Gottfried-Keller-Preis]]
* [[1946]] - [[Goethepreis der Stadt Frankfurt]]
* [[1946]] - [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]
* [[1947]] - Honorary Doctorate from the [[University of Bern]]
* [[1950]] - [[Wilhelm-Raabe-Preis]]
* [[1954]] - [[Orden Pour le mérite für Wissenschaft und Künste]]
* [[1955]] - [[Peace Prize of the German Book Trade]]
Hesse received honorary citizenship from his home city of Calw, and additionally, throughout Germany many schools are named after him. In 1964, the [http://www.hermann-hesse.de/eng/stiftung/framestiftung.shtml Calwer Hermann-Hesse-Preis] was founded, which is awarded every two years, alternately to a German-language literary journal or to the translator of Hesse's work to a foreign language. There is also a [http://www4.karlsruhe.de/kultur/kulturprojekte/kulturpreise/literatur/hesse-preis05 Hermann-Hesse-Preis] that is associated with the city of Karlsruhe.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Gabriela Mistral]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years = 1946 | after = [[André Gide]]
}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|de|Hermann Hesse|Hermann Hesse}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hermann+Hesse | name=Hermann Hesse}}
*[http://www.gss.ucsb.edu/projects/hesse/ Hermann Hesse Page] - in German and English, maintained by Professor Gunther Gottschalk
* [http://www.hermann-hesse.de/eng/ Hermann Hesse Portal]
* [http://www.hhesse.de/start.php Community of the Journeyer to the Easy] - in German and English
*[http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/paschons/language_http/essays/hesse.html Concise Biography] - originally published by the Germanic American Institute, by Paul A. Schons
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hhesse.htm Article] at 'Books and Writers'
[[Category:1877 births|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:German novelists|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:German poets|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Natives of Württemberg|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Swiss novelists|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Swiss poets|Hesse, Hermann]]
{{Link FA|de}}
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{{Link FA|vi}}
[[bg:Херман Хесе]]
[[ca:Hermann Hesse]]
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[[he:הרמן הסה]]
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[[zh:赫尔曼·黑塞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunebeds</title>
<id>13579</id>
<revision>
<id>15911177</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-27T08:32:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Benc</username>
<id>33718</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dolmen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrodynamics</title>
<id>13580</id>
<revision>
<id>41533105</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:06:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.222.126.92</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ Removed vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydrodynamics''' (literally, "water motion") is [[fluid dynamics]] applied to [[liquid]]s, such as [[water]], [[alcohol]], [[petroleum|oil]], and [[blood]]. (However, this distinction from fluid dynamics as a whole is not always fully observed).
[[Blaise Pascal]] in the [[1600s]] contributed some of the initial theory to this field. The term originates from the work of [[Daniel Bernoulli]], based on the title of his work called ''Hydrodynamica'' ([[1738]]). He and [[Leonhard Euler]] established the general equations of hydrodynamics.
The practice was continued by [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] ([[1736]]-[[1813]]) with the Euler-Lagrange system, [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] ([[1717]]-[[1783]]) discovered the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]], [[Pierre Simon Laplace]] ([[1749]]-[[1827]]) with the governing equation in the [[potential flow]] named after him, [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz]] ([[1821]]-[[1894]]) and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]], Lord Kelvin ([[1824]]-[[1907]]) with [[Kelvin-Helmholtz instability]] (see also Rayleigh-Taylor and Richtmyer-Meshkov) and Helmholtz's work on vortices.
==See also==
* [[fluid dynamics]],
* [[dissolution rate]],
* [[convective diffusion theory]],
* [[Reynolds number]],
* [[boundary layer]],
* [[Ludwig Prandtl]],
* [[Benjamin Levich]],
* [[Osborne Reynolds]],
* [[Poiseuille's law]],
* [[potential flow]].
* [[plume (hydrodynamics)]]
* [[entrainment (hydrodynamics)]]
[[cs:Hydrodynamika]]
[[de:Hydrodynamik]]
[[nl:Hydrodynamica]]
[[pl:Hydrodynamika]]
[[ru:Гидродинамика]]
[[sv:Hydrodynamik]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H2G2</title>
<id>13581</id>
<revision>
<id>41908375</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:14:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CHawke</username>
<id>491463</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Terms and Conditions */ tidy up. BTW last edits were me, d
|
of Western Asia, including Israel.
==Rebuilding the Temple==
*[[530s BCE|537 BCE]]. Cyrus allowed [[Sheshbazzar]], a prince from the tribe of Judah, to bring the Jews from Babylon back to Jerusalem. Jews were allowed to return with the Temple vessels that the Babylonians had taken. Construction of the [[Second Temple]] began.[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ec1.htm][http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/return.html]
*[[520s BCE|520]]-[[510s BCE|515 BCE]]. Under the spiritual leadership of the Prophets [[Haggai]] and [[Zechariah]], the Second Temple was completed. At this time the Holy Land is a subdistrict of a Persian ''satrapy'' (province).
<!-- (Section on Greece before Alexander commented out; not really necessary for this article) *[[480s BCE|480]]-[[320s BCE|323 BCE]]. Classical Greek period. [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian War]], [[Peloponnesian War]].[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/thucydes.htm][http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/sophists.htm]
During this time period, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the Near and Middle East. [http://www.wallop.demon.co.uk/alexander/]
Development of early [[democracy]]. Height of [[History of Athens|Athenian]] culture. [http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/07democracy.html]-->
*[[440s BCE|444 BCE]]. The reformation of Israel was led by the Jewish scribes [[Nehemiah]] and [[Ezra]]. Ezra instituted [[synagogue]] and prayer services, and canonized the [[Torah]] by reading it publicly to the Great Assembly that he set up in Jerusalem. Ezra and Nehemiah flourished around this era. [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap25.html][http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq/usenet/judaism/FAQ/03-Torah-Halacha/faq-doc-8.html] (This was the Classical period in Greece)
==The legacy of Alexander the Great and the dawn of Rabbinic Judaism==
*[[331 BCE]]. The Persian Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great. The Empire of Alexander the Great included Israel.[http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/09alexander.html] However, it is said that he did not attack Jerusalem directly, after a delegation of Jews met him and assured him of their loyalty by showing him certain prophecies contained in their writings.
*[[323 BCE]]. [[Alexander the Great]] died. In the power struggle after Alexander's death, the part of his empire that included Israel changed hands at least five times in just over twenty years. Babylonia and Syria were ruled by the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]], and Egypt by the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]].
*[[301 BCE]]. [[Ptolemy I of Egypt|Ptolemy I Soter]] became the first Ptolemaic ruler of Israel.
*[[250 BCE]]. The beginning of the [[Pharisees]] party (rabbinic, or modern, Jews), and other Jewish sects such as the [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]]. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Temple.html]
*[[198 BCE]]. Armies of the Seleucid King [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]] (Antiochus the Great) ousted [[Ptolemy V of Egypt|Ptolemy V]] from Judea and Samaria.
*[[180 BCE|180]]-[[142 BCE]]. The [[Maccabees|Maccabee]] Rebellion, [[Hanukkah]] and the [[Hasmonean]] Kingdom [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Maccabees.html]
*[[160 BCE]]-[[60 BCE]] Somewhere around this time, the community at [[Qumran]] began. From whom came the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].
==Roman conquests==
In [[63 BCE]], [[Pompey]] conquered the region and made it a client kingdom of Rome. In [[6]] CE, [[Caesar Augustus]] made it a [[Roman province]] under a [[promagistrate|procurator]].
From [[40 BCE]] - [[4 BCE]], [[Herod the Great]] is King of Judea.
In [[20 BCE]], [[Herod Antipas]], son of [[Herod the Great]] is born.
In [[4 BCE]] - [[4]], [[Jesus]] is said to have been born.
From [[4 BCE]] - [[6]],[[Herod Archelaus]] is Ethnarch.
From [[26]] to [[36]] [[Pontius Pilate]] was the governor of the Roman province of Judea.
In [[66]], the [[Great Jewish Revolt]] broke out, lasting until [[73]]. In [[67]], Vespasian and his forces landed in the north of Israel, where they received the submission of Jews from Ptolemais to Sepphoris. The Jewish garrison at Yodfat (Jodeptah) was massacred after a two month siege. By the end of this year, Jewish resistance in the north had been crushed.
In [[69]], [[Vespasian]] seized the throne after a civil war. By [[70]], the Romans had occupied Jerusalem. [[Titus]], son of the Roman Emperor, destroyed the Second Temple on the 9th of ''Av'', ie. ''Tisha B'Av'' (656 years to the day after the destruction of the First Temple in 587 BCE). Over 100,000 Jews died during the siege, and nearly 100,000 were taken to Rome as slaves. Many Jews fled to Mesopotamia (Iraq), and to other countries around the Mediterranean.
After [[70]] the Romans, seeking to suppress the name "Judaea", reorganized it as part of the province of [[Syria-Palestine]]. The Latin name, ''Palaestina'', was chosen in honour of the [[Philistines]], who had occupied the coastline much earlier and whom the Romans identified as the worst enemies of the Jews in history.{{fact}} From then on the region was known as Palestine.
Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai escaped from Jerusalem. He obtained permission from the Roman general to establish a center of Jewish learning and the seat of the [[Sanhedrin]] in the outlying town of Yavneh. Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem through this new center. The Sanhedrin became the supreme religious, political and judicial body for Jews worldwide until [[425|425 CE]], when it was forcibly disbanded by the Roman government, by then officially dominated by the [[Christian Church]]. [http://www.shamash.org/jb/bk950804/comm2.htm]
In [[73]] the last Jewish resistance was crushed by Rome at the mountain fortress of [[Masada]]; the last 900 defenders committed suicide rather than be captured and sold into slavery.
In [[132]] [[Simon bar Kokhba]] led a revolt and declared an independent state in Israel. By [[135]] this revolt was crushed by Rome.
[[200 BCE]]- [[100]] CE. At some point during this period the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]], [[Old Testament]]) was canonized.
==See also==
=== Notable people ===
*[[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]], [[Benjamin]], [[Moses]], [[Joshua]]
===Partial list of kings of Israel===
*[[Saul the King|Saul]] [[1020s BCE|1020]]&ndash;[[1000s BCE|1005 BCE]]
*[[David]] [[1000s BCE|1005]]&ndash;[[960s BCE|965 BCE]]
*[[Solomon]] [[960s BCE|965]]&ndash;[[920s BCE|926 BCE]]
*[[Jeroboam]] [[920s BCE|926]]&ndash;[[900s BCE|909 BCE]]
*[[Omri]]
*[[Ahab]] [[870s BCE|875 BCE]]
*[[Jehoash]]
*[[Jeroboam II]] [[820s BCE|825]]&ndash;[[780s BCE|784 BCE]]
===Partial list of kings of Judah===
*[[Rehoboam]] [[920s BCE|926 BCE]]&ndash;
*[[Abijah]]
*[[Amaziah]]
*[[Uzziah]]
*[[Jehoshaphat]]
*[[Hezekiah]]
*[[Josiah]]
===Notable places===
*[[Bethlehem]], [[Chaldea]], [[Galilee]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Nazareth]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Sidon]], [[Tyre]]
===Religious places and objects===
*The [[Temple in Jerusalem]], the [[Ark of the covenant]]
==See also==
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical archaeology]]
*[[Documentary hypothesis]] (a discussion of how modern critics view Bible studies.)
*[[Hebrew Bible]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Levant]]
*[[Israelite]]
*[[Old Testament]]
*[[Tanakh]]
*[[Torah]]
== References ==
* ''[[Ancient Judaism (book)|Ancient Judaism]]'', [[Max Weber]], Free Press, 1967, ISBN 0029341302
[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[es:Historia del antiguo reino de Israel]]
[[pl:Starożytny Izrael]]</text>
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<page>
<title>List of kings of Persia</title>
<id>13877</id>
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<revision>
<id>42025693</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:03:31Z</timestamp>
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<username>Fastifex</username>
<id>411070</id>
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<comment>/* [[Pahlavi dynasty]], [[1925]]–[[1979]] and in exile*/ Cyrus Reza II</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Iran}}
The following is a comprehensive list of all [[Persian Empire]]s and their rulers:
{{History Timeline of Iran}}
==Early realms in Iran==
===[[Elam|Elamite Kingdom]], [[3000 BC|3000]]–[[660 BC]]===
The Elamites were a people located in [[Susa]], in what is now [[Khuzestan]] province. Their language was neither [[Semitic]] nor [[Indo-European]], and they were the geographic precursors of the Persian/Median empire that later appeared. Some have offered evidence for a linguistic kinship between Elamite and the modern [[Dravidian languages]] of Southern [[India]] (see "[[Elamo-Dravidian languages]]") but this is not universally accepted. The ''proto-Elamites'' lived even as far back as 7,500 years ago in [[Iran]]. See remains [[Sialk|here]].
'''Avan Dynasty (precise dates unknown)'''
*Peli (fl. c. [[2500 BC]])
*Tata (precise dates unknown)
*Ukku-Takhesh (precise dates unknown)
*Khishur (precise dates unknown)
*Shushun-Tarana (precise dates unknown)
*Napil-Khush (precise dates unknown)
*Kikku-Sive-Temti (precise dates unknown)
*Lukh-Ishshan (fl. c. [[24th century BC|24th century]])
*Khelu (fl. c. [[24th century BC|24th century]])
*Khita (fl. c. [[23rd century BC|23rd century]])
*Kutik-Inshushinnak (fl. c. [[23rd century BC|2240]])
'''Simash Dynasty (precise dates unknown)'''
*Gir-Namme (fl. c. [[2030s BC|2030]])
*Enpi-Luhhan (fl. c. [[2010s BC|2010]])
*Khutran-Temtt (precise dates unknown)
*Kindattu (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Inshushinnak I (precise dates unknown)
*Tan-Rukhurater (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Inshushinnak II (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Napir (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Tempt (precise dates unknown)
'''Eparti Dynasty (precise dates unknown)'''
*Eparti I (precise dates unknown)
*Eparti II (precise dates unknown)
*Eparti III (fl. c. [[19th century BC|1850]])
*Shilkhakha (precise dates unknown)
*Attakhushu (fl. c. [[19
|
carbon can be produced within stars, thus making life possible. (See [[triple-alpha process]] and [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]]).
The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is beryllium-13 which decays through [[neutron emission]]. It has a half-life of 2.7&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;10<sup>-21</sup> seconds. Be-6 also is also very short-lived with a half-life of 5.0&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;10<sup>-21</sup> seconds.
== Precautions ==
[[Image:Beryllium_OreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Beryllium ore]]
Beryllium and its salts are [[toxic]] substances and potentially [[carcinogen]]ic. Chronic [[berylliosis]] is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing [[fluorescent lamp]]s in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles [[sarcoidosis]] in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult.
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust ([[lung cancer]] is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).
This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.
==Health effects==
Beryllium can be harmful if inhaled. The effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 1000 µg/m&sup3;), an acute condition can result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage. Long term exposure to beryllium can increase the risk of developing lung cancer.
Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction in the respiratory system. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.2 µg/m&sup3;). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, and can cause difficulty in breathing. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m&sup3;).
Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause [[rash]]es or ulcers.
The [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS) and the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) have determined that beryllium is a human carcinogen. The U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has determined that beryllium is a probable human carcinogen. The EPA has estimated that lifetime exposure to 0.04 µg/m&sup3; beryllium can result in a one in a thousand chance of developing cancer.
There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium. It is likely that the health effects seen in children exposed to beryllium will be similar to the effects seen in adults. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is [[teratogenic]].
Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. Another blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD.
Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of 0.01 µg/m&sup3;, averaged over a 30-day period, or 2 µg/m&sup3; of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift.
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/4.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Beryllium]
== External links==
{{Commons|Beryllium}}
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Beryllium Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele004.html It's Elemental &ndash; Beryllium]
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol58/mono58-1.htm IARC Monograph "Beryllium and Beryllium Compounds"]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/13.html National Pollutant Inventory - Beryllium and compounds]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Be/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Beryllium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
[[af:Berillium]]
[[ar:بيريليوم]]
[[bg:Берилий]]
[[bs:Berilijum]]
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[[cs:Beryllium]]
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[[el:Βηρύλλιο]]
[[es:Berilio]]
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[[ko:베릴륨]]
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[[he:בריליום]]
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[[mk:Берилиум]]
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[[uk:Берилій]]
[[zh:铍]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Brilliant prose</title>
<id>3379</id>
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<timestamp>2004-01-21T12:16:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gentgeen</username>
<id>25065</id>
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<comment>[[Wikipedia:Brilliant prose]] --> [[Wikipedia:Featured articles]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Featured articles]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Brooke Burke</title>
<id>3381</id>
<revision>
<id>41876567</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:09:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JackO'Lantern</username>
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</contributor>
<comment>re-formatted</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Playboy May 2001.jpg|thumb|Burke on the cover of [[Playboy]], May 2001]]
'''Brooke Burke''' (born [[September 8]], [[1971]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[television]] personality and [[Model (person)|model]].
==Early life==
Burke was born as the 4th of 7 children in [[Hartford, Connecticut]] and raised in [[Tucson, Arizona]]; her father, George Burke, is of [[Irish American|Irish]] and [[French American|French]] descent and her mother, Donna, is [[Jewish American|Jewish]]. Her parents divorced and her mother re-married to Armen Hatounian. She studied broadcast journalism at [[UCLA]], but was quickly signed to top agencies, including the renowned [[Ford Models]] Agency. She did prominent television commercials for Bally Fitness clubs, [[Coca-Cola]], and [[Discover Card]].
==Career==
From 1999-2002, she was the host of ''[[Wild On!]]'', a popular travel series on the [[E! Entertainment Television channel]]. She appeared [[nude]] in the May 2001 and November 2004 issues of [[Playboy]]. She has also appeared numerous times in [[lad mags]] such as [[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]] and [[FHM]].
[[E! Entertainment Television channel|E! network]] was looking for a replacement for popular host [[Jules Asner]] and found Brooke to be perfect for the role. She travelled the world extensively, profiling many popular travel destinations across the globe. Burke was replaced as host in 2002 by model [[Cindy Taylor]].
She has voiced "Rachel" in [[Electronic Arts]]' [[Computer and video games|video game]] ''[[Need for Speed: Underground 2]]'', and asks the "People and Places" questions in the new video game, [[Trivial Pursuit]] Unhinged. Burke was also the host of the [[CBS]] reality show ''[[Rock Star: INXS]]''.
==Private life==
In July 2005, Brooke and her husband Dr. Garth Fisher announced they were separating. The couple, who have been married since 2001, have 2 daughters, Neriah, born March 2000, and Sierra Sky, born April 2002.
==External links==
*[http://www.brookeburke.com/ Official site for Brooke Burke]
*{{imdb name|id=1036361|name=Brooke Burke}}
[[Category:1971 births|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Adult models|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:American models|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Jewish American models|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Living people|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Burke, Brooke]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Britney Spears</title>
<id>3382</id>
<revision
|
al languages have begun to emphasize speed as well as correctness; as a result, the performance of functional languages and imperative languages has begun to converge. For programs which perform intensive numerical computations, some functional languages (such as [[OCaml programming language|OCaml]] and [[Clean (programming language)|Clean]]) can approach the speed of [[C (programming language)|C]], while for programs that handle large matrices and multidimensional databases, [[Array programming|array]] functional languages (such as [[J programming language|J]] and [[K programming language|K]]) are usually faster than most non-optimized C programs{{fact}}. However, purely functional languages can be considerably slower when manipulating large data structures, due to less efficient memory usage.
Memory usage can be improved in some functional programs by using [[persistent data structure]]s; these data structures allow part or all of their data to be shared with other values, making copying and modifying relatively inexpensive. This can be done safely because these data structures are immutable, so the usual problems with pointer aliasing in imperative data structures do not arise. Among the commonly used persistent data structures are linked lists and binary trees.
The use of persistent data structures for data that is discarded increases the amount of garbage collection that must occur and decreases the available memory between collection cycles; for this reason, some programs achieve faster performance using mutable data structures. Because modifying memory addresses may be more efficient than allocating new data structures, implementations of "pure" languages often also contain monads for mutable data structures.
The competitive performance of modern (impure) functional programming languages such as OCaml and SML has resulted in their adoption in conventionally Fortran-dominated areas of scientific computation. Thanks to the brevity, expressiveness and availability of sophisticated data structures and algorithms, functional languages are now used in a wide range of scientific applications, from numerical analysis to visualisation{{fact}}.
==Functional languages==
The first computer-based functional programming language was [[Information_Processing_Language|Information Processing Language (IPL)]] from the RAND corporation.
Another very old functional language is [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], though neither the original LISP nor
modern Lisps such as [[Common Lisp]] are pure-functional. Some Lisp variants include [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]], [[Dylan programming language|Dylan]], and [[Logo programming language|Logo]] (though Logo is an imperative language). The modern canonical examples are [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]] and members of the [[ML programming language|ML]] family including [[SML programming language|SML]] and [[OCaml]]. Others include [[Erlang programming language|Erlang]], [[Clean programming language|Clean]], and [[Miranda programming language|Miranda]]. A third type of a commonly used functional language is [[XSLT]]. Another subset is the mathematics languages [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]] and [[Mathematica]].
Some computer languages, for example [[Tcl]], [[Perl]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]] & [[Ruby_programming_language|Ruby]], can also be used in a functional style, since they have higher-order functions, abstractions and such.
Efforts are underway to develop functional programming languages for [[quantum computing]]. For examples, see [[quantum programming]].
[[:Category:Functional languages]] provides a more complete list of functional languages.
==See also==
* [[Eager evaluation]]
* [[Lazy evaluation]]
* [[Purely functional]]
* [[List of functional programming topics]]
* [[Function-level programming]] (compare and contrast)
* [[Procedural programming]] (contrast)
* [[Imperative programming]] (contrast)
* [[Logic programming]](contrast)
* [[Programming paradigm]]
* [[Nested function]]
==References==
*Cousineau, Guy and Michel Mauny. ''The Functional Approach to Programming''. Cambridge, UK: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1998.
*Felleisen, Matthias, Robert Findler, Matthew Flatt, and Shriram Krishnamurthi. ''How to Design Programs'' [[HTDP]]. MIT Press. 2001. [http://www.htdp.org on-line]
*Graham, Paul. ''ANSI Common LISP''. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: [[Prentice Hall]], 1996.
*Hudak, Paul. "Conception, Evolution, and Application of Functional Programming Languages." ''ACM Computing Surveys'' '''21''', no. 3 (1989): 359-411.
*Pratt, Terrence, W. and Marvin V. Zelkowitz. ''Programming Languages: Design and Implementation''. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: [[Prentice Hall]], 1996.
*Salus, Peter H. ''Functional and Logic Programming Languages''. Vol. 4 of Handbook of Programming Languages. Indianapolis, Indiana: [[Macmillan Technical Publishing]], 1998.
*Thompson, Simon. ''Haskell: The Craft of Functional Programming''. Harlow, England: [[Addison-Wesley Longman Limited]], 1996.
*Harrop, Jon. ''Objective CAML for Scientists''. Cambridge, England: [http://www.ffconsultancy.com/products/ocaml_for_scientists/ Flying Frog Consultancy], 2005.
==External links==
* [http://www.math.chalmers.se/~rjmh/Papers/whyfp.html Why Functional Programming Matters] by [[John Hughes]]
* [ftp://ftp.aw.com/cseng/authors/finkel/apld/finkel04.pdf "Functional Programming"]-- Chapter 4 of ''Advanced Programming Language Design'' by [[Raphael Finkel]], an introductory explanation of functional programming
* ''Functional programming in Python'' (by [[David Mertz]]): [http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_13.html part 1], [http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_16.html part 2], [http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_19.html part 3]
----
This article includes parts of an [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Functional+Programming/ earlier version] ([http://www.nupedia.com/article/677/ stable link]) posted on [[19 June]] [[2001]] on [[Nupedia]];
reviewed and approved by the Computers group; editor, [[Michael Witbrock]] ; lead reviewer, [[Nancy Tinkham]]; lead copyeditors, [[Ruth Ifcher]]. and [[Larry Sanger]].
[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
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<title>Functional programming language</title>
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<username>The Anome</username>
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<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Functional programming]]</text>
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<title>February 29</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:46:42Z</timestamp>
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<username>HereToHelp</username>
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'''[[February 29]]''' is the 60th day of a ''[[leap year]]'' in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 306 days remaining. A year which has a February 29 is, by definition, a ''leap year''. This date only occurs approximately every four years, in years evenly divisible by 4, such as 1992, 1996, or 2004, with some exceptions in century years.
A century year, that is, a year which ends in two zeros (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.), is not a leap year unless it is also evenly [[divisible]] by 400. To correct a slight inaccuracy that remains in the Gregorian Calendar, it has been proposed that years evenly divisible by 4000 should not be leap years, but this has yet to be officially adopted. This means that the year 2000 was a leap year and 2400 and 2800 will also be, but 1800 and 1900 were not leap years, and the years 2100, 2200, and 2300 will not be leap years either. The years 4000 and 8000 will not be leap years.
Because of this, a leap day is more likely to fall on a Monday than on a Sunday. If, for example, February 29 falls on a Sunday, you would expect it to fall on Sunday again after 28 years, but if there's a century year in these 28 years, the pattern can become disrupted. The [[Gregorian calendar]] repeats itself every 400 years, and 400 years have 97 leap days, which is not divisible by seven, so these days can never be distributed evenly. A leap day on a Sunday occurs 13 times in these 400 years, so approximately every 30.8 years, a Monday however occurs 15 times, which is roughly every 26.7 years. The concepts of the leap year and 'leap day' are distinct from the [[leap second]], which is necessitated by changes in the Earth's rotational speed.
Those who are born on this day usually celebrate their birthdays on [[February 28]] or [[March 1]] during non-leap years. In the comic musical ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'', Frederic, born on February 29, was [[apprentice]]d to a band of [[pirate]]s until his 21st [[birthday]], in theory until he was 88 years old (as his lifetime included a non-leap centennial year).
This day may be colloquially termed a ''leap day'', though in the [[Roman calendar]] it was [[February 24]] in a leap year which was added, giving the name of "bissextile" day or extra sixth day in the lead up to the 'Calends' of March. The Romans, realizing the need for an extra day, chose [[February 24]] in particular only because it followed the last day of their year, which at that poi
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fabrics, textures, lighting, various floor treatments, as well as adhere to aesthetic concepts such as feng-shui.
===Urban life===
Nearly half of mankind lives in cities; although it represents a lofty goal, [[Urban planning|planning]] and achieving urban aesthetics ([[beautification]]) involves a good deal of historical luck, happenstance, and indirect gestalt. Nevertheless aesthetically pleasing cities share certain traits: ethnic and cultural variety, numerous microclimates that promote a diversity of vegetation, sufficient public transportation, a range of build-out (or zoning) that creates both densely and sparsely populated areas, sanitation to foster clean streets and graffiti removal, scenic neighboring geography (oceans or mountains), public spaces and events such as parks and parades, musical variety through local radio or street musicians, and enforcement of laws that abate noise, crime, and pollution.
===Landscape design===
[[Landscape architecture|Landscape designers]] draw upon design elements such as axis, line, landform, horizontal and vertical planes, texture, and scale to create aesthetic variation within the landscape. They may additionally make use of aesthetic elements such as pools or fountains of water, plants, seasonal variance, stonework, fragrance, exterior lighting, statues, and lawns.
==Schools of aesthetics==
Different schools of philosophy have different aesthetics from each other. Some of them are:
* [[Cool (African philosophy)]]
* Japanese [[Iki (aesthetic ideal)]]
*[[Humanistic Aestheticism]]
==References==
*[[Władysław Tatarkiewicz]], ''History of Aesthetics'', 3 vols. (1-2, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.
:*''A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics'', The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980.
==See also==
* [[History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century)]]
* [[Neuroesthetics]]
* [[Taste (aesthetics)]]
* [[List of aestheticians]]
* [[List of topics in philosophical aesthetics]]
* [[Aesthetic relativism]]
==External links==
*Art education
**[http://daphne.palomar.edu/design/contents.html Saw: Design Notes]
**[http://www.madison.k12.wi.us/whitehorse/art.htm Krouth: Art Curriculum]
**[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/art.htm Hagaman: Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation]
*Aesthetics in specific arts
**Music
***[http://www.wwnorton.com/enjoy/index/materials/materials.htm Norton: Musical Materials]
***[http://www.uwgb.edu/malloyk/music_outline.htm Malloy: Music Outline]
**Architecture
***[http://www.catholic.net/beauty_and_truth/template_article.phtml?article_id=400&channel_id=4 Lee/Stroik: Christian Architecture]
***[http://www.math.utsa.edu/sphere/salingar/LifeandComp.html Salingaros: Life and Complexity in Architecture]
**Performing arts
***[http://www.artsalive.ca/en/eth/design/costume.html Poddubiuk: Costume Design]
***[http://www.costumepage.org/tcpinfo4.html#drama Sardo: Theatrical Costume]
***[http://www.nt-online.org/?lid=2393 Morden: Storytelling]
**Culinary aesthetics
***[http://www.foodproductdesign.com/archive/1998/0698CS.html Susheela Uhl: Ethnic Entrees]
***[http://www.chronogram.com/backIssues/1998/07july/articles/english.html Leslie English: To Eat is Human]
**Information technology
***[http://softwareaesthetics.com/ Software Aesthetics]
***[http://www.cise.ufl.edu/~fishwick/aescomputing/ Aesthetic Computing]
***[http://www.paulgraham.com/hp.html Hackers and Painters]
***[http://www.digra.org/dl/db/05164.55410 The Pleasure of the Playable Text: Towards an Aesthetic Theory of Computer Games] (pdf)
**Digital aesthetics
***[http://www.digitalthinktank.org/dictionary.php# DigitalThinkTank.Org]
**Mathematics
***[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/manifesto/beauty.shtml Is Mathematics Beautiful?]
***[http://www.madras.fife.sch.uk/maths/linksbeauty.html Links Concerning Beauty and Mathematics]
*History of aesthetics
**[http://www.kunstbewegung.info/kultur/de/Revised_interpretation_of_founding%27s_and_concepts_through_an_history_of_aesthetics Revised interpretation of founding's and concepts through an history of aesthetics]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
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<page>
<title>Ara Pacis Augustae</title>
<id>2132</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2003-02-23T16:31:25Z</timestamp>
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<comment>merging this article with [[Ara Pacis]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Ark of the Covenant</title>
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<id>42083871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:44:46Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ark_of_the_Covenant.png|thumb|246px|right|A late 19th-century artist's conception of the Ark of the Covenant, employing a Renaissance [[cassone]] for the Ark and [[cherubim]] as latter-day Christian [[angel]]s]]
The '''Ark of the Covenant''' (ארון הברית in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''aron habrit'') is described in the [[Hebrew Bible]] as a sacred container built at the command of [[Moses]], wherein rested the [[stone tablets]] containing the [[Ten Commandments]]. The Ark and its sanctuary were "the beauty of Israel" ([[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] 2:1).
During the journeys of the Israelites, the Ark was carried by the priests in advance of the host ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 4:5, 6; 10:33-36; [[Psalms]] 68:1; 132:8). The Ark was borne by priests into the bed of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]], which separated, opening a pathway for the whole of the host to pass over ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 3:15, 16; 4:7, 10, 11, 17, 18). The Ark was moreover borne in the procession round [[Jericho]] (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8, 11, 12). When carried, the Ark was always wrapped in a veil, in badger skins, a blue cloth, and was carefully concealed, even from the eyes of the [[Levite]]s who carried it.
==Terminology==
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word ''aron'' is used in the Bible to designate any type of ark, chest or coffer, for any purpose ([[Genesis]] 50:26; [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 12:9, 10). The Ark of the Covenant is distinguished from all others by such titles as "Ark of God" ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 3:3), "Ark of the Covenant" (Josh. 3:6; [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 9:4), "Ark of the Testimony" (Ex. 25:22).
The Ark is referred to by several names in the Bible. The following is a list of common references to the Ark:
*The Ark
*The Ark of the [[Testimony]]
*The Ark of the [[Covenant (Israel)|Covenant]]
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord
*The Ark wherein is the Covenant of the Lord, which he made with our fathers, when he brought them out of the [[Egypt|Land of Egypt]]
*The Ark wherein is the Covenant of the Lord, that he made with the [[Children of Israel]]
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord of all the Earth
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord of Hosts, who dwelleth between the [[cherubim]]
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord your God
*The Ark of the Covenant of God
*The Ark of the Lord
*The Ark of the Lord, the Lord of all the Earth
*The Ark of the Lord God
*The Ark of the Lord God of Israel
*The Ark of the Lord your God
*The Ark of God
*The Ark of our God
*The Ark of the God of Israel
*The Ark of God which is called by the Name, the name of the Lord of hosts who dwelleth between the cherubim
*The Ark of God, the Lord, who dwelleth between the cherubim, which is called the Name
*The Holy Ark
*The Ark of thy God's strength
==Description==
[[Image:arkofthecovenantatkingtutstomb.jpg|thumb|191px|The ''Ark of the Covenant'' may have looked similar to this chest (found in the [[Tutankhamun|Tomb of Tutankhamun]]).]]
The Bible describes the Ark as made of [[acacia]] or [[shittah-tree]] wood. It was a [[cubit]] and a half broad and high and two cubits long (about 130 × 80 × 80 cm). The Ark was covered all over with the purest [[gold]]. Its upper surface or lid, the [[mercy seat]], was surrounded with a rim of gold.
On each of the two sides were two gold rings, wherein were placed [[Staff (stick)|two wooden poles]] (with a decorative sheathing of gold), with which the ark could be carried (Num. 7:9; 10:21; 4:5,19, 20; 1 Kings 8:3, 6). Over the Ark, at the two extremities, were two [[cherubim]], with their faces turned toward one another ([[Leviticus]] 16:2; Num. 7:89). Their outspread wings over the top of the ark formed the throne of God, while the ark itself was his footstool (Ex. 25:10-22; 37:1-9). The Ark was deposited in the "[[Most Holy Place|Holy of Holies]]," and was placed so that one end of the carrying poles touched the veil separating the two compartments of the tabernacle (1 Kings 8:8).
===Contents===
According to the Bible, the two tablets of stone constituting the "testimony" or evidence of God's [[covenant]] with the people ([[Deuteronomy]] 31:26) were kept within the Ark itself. The [[Tanakh]] states in I Kings 8:9 that there "was nothing in the ark save the two tables of stone". Some see this as contradictory with other verses, claiming the presence of the "pot of manna" (Ex. 16:34), and "[[Aaron]]'s rod that budded" before the Ark (Heb. 9:4 - in the Ark). The items were place
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al Études]]'' and Schumann's ''[[Symphonic Etudes|Symphonic Études]]''. The early [[Alexander Scriabin]] was also influenced by Chopin, his 24 Preludes op.11 are inspired by Chopin's Op.28.
Jeremy Siepmann, in his biography of the composer, named a list of pianists he believed to have made recordings of works by Chopin generally acknowledged to be among the greatest Chopin performances ever preserved: [[Vladimir de Pachmann]], [[Raoul Pugno]], [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]], [[Moriz Rosenthal]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], [[Alfred Cortot]], [[Ignaz Friedman]], [[Raul Koczalski]], [[Arthur Rubinstein]], [[Mieczysław Horszowski]], [[Claudio Arrau]], [[Vlado Perlemuter]], [[Vladimir Horowitz]], [[Dinu Lipatti]], [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]], [[Martha Argerich]], [[Maurizio Pollini]], [[Murray Perahia]], [[Krystian Zimerman]], [[Evgeny Kissin]].
Rubinstein said the following about Chopin's music and its universality:
:''Chopin was a genius of universal appeal. His music conquers the most diverse audiences. When the first notes of Chopin sound through the concert hall there is a happy sigh of recognition. All over the world men and women know his music. They love it. They are moved by it. Yet it is not "Romantic music" in the [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]]ic sense. It does not tell stories or paint pictures. It is expressive and personal, but still a pure art. Even in this abstract atomic age, where emotion is not fashionable, Chopin endures. His music is the universal language of human communication. When I play Chopin I know I speak directly to the hearts of people!'' <!-- Reference? -->
===Style===
Although Chopin lived in the 1800s, he was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Muzio Clementi|Clementi]]; he even used Clementi's piano method with his own students. He was also influenced by Hummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique. One of his students, [[Friederike Muller]], wrote the following in her diary about Chopin's playing style:
:''His playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang, whether in full forte or softest piano. He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this legato, cantabile style of playing. His most severe criticism was "He&mdash;or she&mdash;does not know how to join two notes together." He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm. He hated all lingering and dragging, misplaced rubatos, as well as exaggerated ritardandos ... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works.''
===Chopin and [[Romanticism]]===
Chopin regarded the Romantic movement with indifference, if not distaste, and rarely associated himself with it directly. Even so, today Chopin's music is considered to be the paragon of the Romantic style.
However, his music has less of the expected trappings of Romanticism: There is a classical purity and discretion in his music, with little Romantic exhibitionism, personified by his reverence of Bach and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] (Chopin based the structure of his preludes on the [[Well-tempered Clavier]] of Bach). Chopin also never indulged in 'scene painting' in his music or affixing to his works fanciful or descriptive titles, unlike his contemporary [[Robert Schumann]]. Also, unlike his flamboyant contemporary [[Franz Liszt]], Chopin was withdrawn from public life.
==Works==
: ''See also [[list of compositions by Frédéric Chopin]] and category [[:Category:Compositions by Frédéric Chopin|compositions by Frédéric Chopin]]
All of Chopin's works involve the piano, whether solo or accompanied. They are predominantly for solo piano but include a small number of piano ensembles with instruments including a second piano, violin, cello, voice, and orchestra.
His larger scale works such as the four [[ballade]]s, the four [[scherzo]]s, the barcarolle, and [[piano sonata|sonatas]] have cemented a solid place within the repertoire, as well as shorter works like his [[impromptu]]s, [[mazurka]]s, [[nocturne]]s, [[waltz]]es and [[polonaise]]s. Two important collections are the 24 [[Preludes Op. 28 (Chopin)|Preludes Op. 28]], based loosely on [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s ''[[Well-Tempered Clavier]]'', and the [[étude]]s Op. 10 and Op. 25, which are a staple of that genre for pianists.
Chopin composed two of the romantic [[piano concerto]] repertoire's most often-performed examples, his Opp. [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin)|11]] and [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin)|21]]. In addition, he wrote several [[song]] settings of [[Polish language|Polish]] texts, and chamber pieces including a [[piano trio]] and a [[sonata (music)|sonata]] for [[cello]] and [[piano]].
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin Nocturne.ogg|title=Nocturne Op 15 No 2|description=In F sharp major|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Fantasie-Impromptu -- Frederic Chopin.ogg|title=Fantaisie-Impromptu in C-sharp minor Op. 66|description=Most of this piano solo features 4:3 [[polyrhythm]]|format=[[ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin Liszt Zyczenie (The Maiden's Wish) Brian E Young.ogg|title="Zyczenie" ("The Maiden's Wish") Op. 74, No. 1 from Polish Songs|description=Chopin originally wrote this piece for piano and voice, arranged for solo piano by [[Franz Liszt]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin_Waltz_Op_69_No_1_Brian_E_Young.ogg|title=Waltz Op 69 No 1 "L'Adieu"|description=Posthumous|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin-Berceuse.ogg|title=Berceuse|description=Opus 57, Performed by Veronica van der Knaap|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
== Other ==
In commemoration of the genius of Frédéric Chopin, the [[International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition]] is held in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] every five years.
===Eponyms===
The following have been named after the composer:
* [[3784 Chopin|Asteroid 3784 Chopin]]
* [[Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport]] (also known as Frederic Chopin International Airport)
== Chopin in fiction ==
Chopin and Sand's illustrious relationship is embroidered in the film ''[[Impromptu (1991 movie)|Impromptu]]'' which stars Hugh Grant as Chopin and Judy Davis as George Sand.
==See also==
* [[Frédéric Chopin Piano Competition|Piano competitions named after Chopin]]
* [[Great Emigration]]
* [[Hôtel Lambert]]
* [[Carl Mikuli]], student, teaching assistant and editor of Chopin.
* ''[[Chopin: Desire for Love]]'', movie
* [[Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski]], cousin of Chopin
* ''[[A Song to Remember]]'', movie
==References==
*Samson, Jim (1996). ''Chopin''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816495-5.
*Siepmann, Jeremy (1995). ''Chopin: The Reluctant Romantic''. London: Victor Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-05692-4
*Bastet, Frédéric L. (1997). ''Helse liefde: Biografisch essay over Marie d'Agoult, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, George Sand'' [in Dutch]. Amsterdam: Querido. ISBN 90-214-5157-3.
==External links==
*[http://www.chopin.pl/biografia/index_en.html Chopin's Page]
{{Commons|Frédéric Chopin}}
* [http://chopin.nifc.pl/icich/source.php?m=8&type=6&cat=1&subcat=2&lng=_en ''Chopinian Bibliography''] The largest electronic database containing bibliographical records (currently 11.000+)
* [http://chopin.lib.uchicago.edu/ ''Chopin Early Editions''] A collection of over 400 first and early printed editions of musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin published before 1881.
* [http://www.imslp.org/index.php?title=Category:Chopin%2C_Frederic IMSLP] - International Music Score Library Project's Chopin page.
* [http://www.valldemossa.com/museoin.htm Valldemossa monastery, Majorca]
* The [http://www.chopin.pl/spis_tresci/index_en.html Frederick Chopin Society] in [[Warsaw]]. Contains a biography, an outline of Chopin's works and musical style and pictures of original handwritten manuscripts.
* [http://chopin.nifc.pl/icich/index.php?lng=_en Internet Chopin Information Centre] - Chopin portal with calendar, catalogues, and other information about Chopin, also pianists' biographical notes, Chopin in the Web and more.
* [http://www.chopinmusic.net ChopinMusic] - Chopin website with recordings, sheet music, photo galleries, a forum and more.
* [http://www.carolinaclassical.com/articles/chopin.html Fryderyk Chopin: Poet of the Piano]
* [http://www.pianoparadise.com/chopin.html Chopin biographical resources] - A concise biography of the famous composer Chopin, with recordings and sheet music.
* Biographies ([[Project Gutenberg]] e-texts):
** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4386 ''Life of Chopin'', by Franz Liszt]
** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4973 ''Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician'', by Frederick Niecks]
** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4939 ''Chopin: The Man and his Music'', by James Huneker]
* [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=ChopinFF&preview=1 Chopin's partitions] from [[Mutopia Project]]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Chopin|name=Frédéric Chopin}}
* [http://www.classicalarchives.com/chopin.html Chopin's music collection on ''Classical Music Archives'']
* [http://www.konkurs.chopin.pl/index.php International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition]
* [http://www.chopinfiles.com Recordings, sheet music, and information on Chopin]
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=09ff1fe8-d61c-4b98-bb82-18487c74d7b7|name=Frédéric Chopin}}
*[http://www.pianosociety.com/index.php?id=9 Piano Society&nbsp;&mdash; Chopin]. Biography and free Chopin recordings.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Frederik+Chopin | name=Frédéric Chopin}}
*[http://www.ourchopin.com Chopin: the Poet of the Piano]
===Recordings===
*Free recordings of [http://innig.net/music/betts-chopin/ Chopin's music] performed by Donald Betts (3 ballades, 3 études, 2 nocturnes, 1 mazurka).
*[http://www.pianoparadise.com/downloadmp3/chopin.html PianoParadise &mdash; Chopin] &mdash; Free mp3 files of pieces composed by Chopi
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idon invents the first horse. Athena's gift is still chosen.
=== Arachne ===
A woman named Αράχνη ([[Arachne]]) once boasted that she was a superior weaver to Athena, the goddess of weaving. Athena appeared to her disguised as an old woman and told Arachne to repent for her [[hubris]] but Arachne instead challenged Athena to a contest. The old woman threw off her disguise and the contest began. Athena wove a depiction of the conflict with Poseidon over Athens, while Arachne wove a depiction of Zeus' many romantic exploits. Athena was furious at her skill (the contest was never decided) and her choice of subject. Enraged, she destroyed Arachne's work and struck the girl's head with the shuttle. As she could not bear to endure the pain, Arachne unsuccessfully tried to [[hanging|hang]] herself, but was transformed by Athena into the first [[spider]], which forever weaves its [[silk]] for food.
===Perseus and Medusa===
Athena guided [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in eliminating [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]], a dangerous unreformed relic of the old pre-Olympian order, and she was awarded the grisly trophy that turned men to stone, for her shield.
=== Heracles ===
Athena instructed [[Heracles]] how to remove the skin from the [[Nemean Lion]], by using the lion's own claws to cut through its thick hide. The lion's hide became Heracles' signature garment, along with the olive-wood club he used in the battle. Athena also assisted Heracles on a few other labors.
She also helped Heracles defeat the [[Stymphalian Birds]], along with [[Hephaestus]].
=== [[Tiresias]] and [[Chariclo]] ===
Athena blinded [[Tiresias]] after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, [[Chariclo]], begged her to undo her curse, but Athena couldn't; she gave him prophecy instead.
== Miscellaneous ==
Athena (Minerva) is the subject of the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific [[commemorative coin]]. At 2.5 troy oz (78 g) gold, this is the largest (by [[weight]]) coin ever produced by the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]]. This was the first $50 coin issued by the U.S. Mint and no higher was produced until the production of the $100 platinum coins in [[1997]]. Of course, in terms of face-value in adjusted dollars, the [[1915]] is the highest denomination ever issued by the U.S. Mint.
A [[Parthenon (Nashville)|full-scale replica of the Parthenon]] has stood in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], which is known as the Athens of the South, for over a century. In [[1990]], a great [[Athena Parthenos|replica of Phidias' statue]] of the goddess was added, over 41 feet (12.5 m) tall and gilded.
Athena had a childhood friend named Pallas. During one of their outings, Athena accidentally shot Pallas with an arrow, fatally wounding her. Athena then decided to put Pallas's name before hers so that Pallas would always be remembered.
Athena is also featured prominently in various modern pop culture creations including a Japanese animation called [[Saint Seiya]]. Saint Seiya was originally created by Japanese manga artist [[Masami Kurumada]].
Athena had been given birth by Zeus "the father of gods" and Metis. Zeus had been told that any children he had by Metis would be very powerful and someday dethrone him.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Athena}}
*[http://fury.com/galleries/road_trip_2003/index-Pages/Image6.html Nashville's Athena statue]
*[http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/index.htm The Nashville Parthenon]
*[http://www.anistor.co.hol.gr/english/enback/e023 Minoan Origins of Athena] by Virginia Hicks
{{Greek myth (Olympian)2}}
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[[Category:Characters in the Iliad]]
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[[ko:아테나]]
[[id:Dewi Athena]]
[[it:Atena]]
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[[ru:Афина]]
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[[fi:Pallas Athene]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game</title>
<id>1183</id>
<revision>
<id>40025276</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T16:08:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Percy Snoodle</username>
<id>163840</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>return nbsps</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox RPG
|title= Amber&nbsp;Diceless&nbsp;Roleplaying&nbsp;Game
|image= [[Image:Amber_DRPG.jpg|200px]]
|caption= Cover of the main ''Amber DRPG'' rulebook
|designer= [[Erick Wujcik]]
|publisher= [[Phage Press]]<br>[[Guardians of Order]]
|date= 1991
|genre= [[Fantasy]]
|system= Custom (direct comparison of statistics without dice)
|footnotes=
}}
The '''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game''' is a [[role-playing game]] created and written by [[Erick Wujcik]], set in the [[fictional universe]] created by author [[Roger Zelazny]] for his [[Chronicles of Amber]]. The game is unusual in that no [[dice]] are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and [[gamemaster|game referee]], is used to determine how situations are resolved.
Amber DRPG was created in the [[1980s]], and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era. Most Amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the Amber [[multiverse]], and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings. This means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue.
==History==
The original 256-page game book was published in 1991 by [[Phage Press]], covering material from the first five novels (the "[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Corwin Cycle|Corwin Cycle]]") and some details - sorcery and the [[Logrus]] - from the remaining five novels (the "[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Merlin Cycle|Merlin Cycle]]"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice - for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which [[Merlin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Merlin]] says is impossible; and players' [[psychic]] abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.
[[Image:Shadow Knight.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cover of Shadow Knight]]
A 256-page companion volume, ''Shadow Knight'', was published in 1993. book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] but as an example of a [[Campaign (role-playing games)|roleplaying campaign]] with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a colection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story [[Amber Short Stories#The Salesman's Tale|The Salesman's Tale]], and some unpublished material from [[Prince of Chaos]], notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin.
A third book, ''Rebma'', was promised and pre-orders were taken, but it never arrived, leading to accusations that it was [[vaporware]]. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos[http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/sample.html?id=640]. However, the publishing rights to the Amber DRPG games were acquired in 2004 by [[Guardians of Order]], who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game, but since their restructuring no further news of the new edition has been forthcoming. The two existing books have been made available as [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] downloads (see [[#External links|External links]]).
==Setting==
{{main|The Chronicles of Amber}}
The game is set in the [[multiverse]] described in Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, [[The Courts of Chaos]], but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail. Briefly, the Amber multiverse consists of '''Amber''', a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found [[the Pattern]], the symbol of [[Order]]; The '''Courts of Chaos''', an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found [[the Logrus]], the manifestation of [[Chaos]], and the Abyss, the source of all reality; and '''Shadow''', the collection of all possible [[universe]]s (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow.
It is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books - the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites - or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death ''before'' the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presen
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t; with that title until he saw the film. He mentioned it was an honor to work with [[Clint Eastwood]], whom he praised for his professionalism. Wallach mentioned, however, that director [[Sergio Leone]] was notoriously careless in ensuring the safety of his actors during dangerous scenes. It was during filming that Wallach almost died when he accidentally drank from a bottle of acid that a film technician had carelessly placed next to his soda bottle. Wallach said that Eastwood sprang to his aid and washed his mouth out.
*He is the subject of the song "Eli Wallach", on the album ''(Methods of Getting Rid of) Hiccups'' by Australian singer/songwriter [[Darren Hanlon]].
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0908919|name=Eli Wallach}}
[[Category:1915 births|Wallach, Eli]]
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[[Category:American World War II veterans|Wallach, Eli]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Electronegative</title>
<id>10483</id>
<revision>
<id>39542934</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T04:41:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Postglock</username>
<id>282639</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv to original redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronegativity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electric Light Orchestra</title>
<id>10484</id>
<revision>
<id>41966690</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:58:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Afrayer</username>
<id>624623</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Closed parens.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ELO Logo.JPG|right|thumb|200px|The ELO Logo as seen on numerous music covers]]
'''Electric Light Orchestra''' ('''ELO''') was a successful [[Birmingham]] [[Rock (music)|rock music]] group of the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]].
== History ==
The band, formed by [[Jeff Lynne]] (of The [[Idle Race]]) with [[Roy Wood]] and [[Bev Bevan]] (the remaining members of [[The Move]]) in [[1971]], used [[cello]]s and [[violin]]s to give their music a "[[European classical music|classical]]" sound. Roy Wood left ELO shortly after the release of their eponymously-titled first album (which produced the UK hit "10538 Overture") and Jeff Lynne stepped up to lead the band (the first album was released with the mistaken title of ''No Answer'' in the [[United States|USA]], due to a mix-up with an uncompleted telephone call to the American label and subsequent secretarial message). [http://snopes.com/music/hidden/noanswer.asp]
The band went through a line-up change (as Wood took some musicians with him to form [[Wizzard]]), including a new [[Keyboard instrument|keyboardist]], [[Richard Tandy]], and released ''ELO II'' in [[1973]], from which came their first U.S. chart hit, a hugely elaborate cover of the [[Chuck Berry]] classic "Roll Over Beethoven". They also released ''On The Third Day'' in [[1973]], and ''Eldorado'' in [[1974]], scoring another U.S. Top 40 hit with "Can't Get It Out Of My Head".
In [[1975]], bassist and vocalist Kelly Groucutt joined, and ''Face The Music'' was released, from which the major singles were "Evil Woman" and "Strange Magic", marking a shift to a more "radio friendly" sound. From the same album, the instrumental "Fire on High," with its mix of strings and blazing acoustic guitars, saw heavy exposure as background music on [[CBS Sports Spectacular]] montages, though most viewers had no idea of the song's origins. The multi-[[Gold album|platinum]] album ''A New World Record'' was released in [[1976]] with hits such as "Livin' Thing" (remade by [[The Beautiful South]] in 2004), a re-release of The Move's "Do Ya", and "Telephone Line". The songs "Livin' Thing" and "Telephone Line" were prominently featured in the films ''[[Boogie Nights]]'' and ''[[Billy Madison]]'', respectively.
That was followed by the double album ''Out Of The Blue'', featuring the singles "Turn To Stone", "Sweet Talkin' Woman", and "Mr. Blue Sky". The band then set out on a world tour, with an enormous (and hugely expensive) space ship set in tow.
In [[1979]], Lynne set out to capitalize on the growing popularity of [[disco]] with the album ''Discovery'' (or "Disco very" as he has been quoted). The album generated their biggest hit "Don't Bring Me Down" (the first ELO track '''not''' to feature strings), along with "Shine A Little Love" (sampled in [[2005]] by [[Mark Hatfield(Lovefreekz)|Lovefreekz]]) and "Last Train To London" (sampled in [[2003]] by [[Atomic Kitten]] on their hit "Be With You"). Not long after this album, the violinist [[Mik Kaminski]] and the two cellists [[Hugh McDowell]] and [[Melvyn Gale]] were considered surplus to requirements and dismissed.
Soon after, ELO was enlisted to provide half of the soundtrack for the musical film ''[[Xanadu (film)|Xanadu]]'', the other half provided by [[Olivia Newton-John]], who starred in the movie along with [[Gene Kelly]]. The movie bombed but the soundtrack did very well, with hit singles from both Newton-John ("Magic", #1 in the U.S.) and ELO ("I'm Alive" and "All Over the World") as well as the title track to the movie, performed by Newton-John with ELO which reached #1 in the UK single charts and #8 on the U.S. Billboard top 40 chart.
In [[1981]], ELO's sound changed again, moving away from disco and into the [[1980s]], with the science-fiction concept album ''Time'' (single: "Hold On Tight","Twilight") on which synthesizers replaced classical strings. Following this, their popularity began to wane.
''Secret Messages'' was released in [[1983]], with a guest appearance by former ELO violinist Mik Kaminski on the track "Rock 'n' Roll Is King"; this was the only hit single taken from this album. ''Secret Messages'' was originally recorded as a double album; however, the record company had different ideas, citing that it would be too expensive. Some of the songs that didn't survive the hatchet job cropped up as single B-sides and on later box sets; however, the tribute song "Beatles Forever" is still unavailable. It has been reported that Jeff Lynne is embarrassed by this song, hence its unavailability. Shortly after this album Kelly Groucutt was dismissed from the band, and subsequently sued Jeff Lynne for royalty fees.
By [[1986]], ELO was reduced to a three-piece band. They released their final album, ''Balance Of Power'' (singles: "Calling America", "So Serious"), which was all synthesizers and no strings, before going their separate ways.
===Electric Light Orchestra, Part II===
Without Lynne's approval or permission, former ELO drummer Bev Bevan formed "Electric Light Orchestra, Part II" [[1990]], releasing an album that went straight to the bargain bins. Though offended by the unauthorized use of the band name, Lynne decided that the expense of a court battle was not worth the effort, and so Bevan's venture continued. A second album, ''Moment Of Truth'', was released in [[1994]]. The quality of music produced by Part II, compared with the original ELO, is a bone of contention amongst fans. Many fans conclude that without Jeff Lynne at the helm, it is not ELO.
It was revealed through later interviews that Jeff Lynne did not particularly enjoy touring and preferred the confines and experimental nature of studio production to capture a distinct sound. The touring ELO act of the 70's was a visual extravaganza due to the elaborate spaceship sets, but the music was weak, with taped backing tracks providing most of the orchestral riffs the band was famous for.
ELO Part II remedied this problem by playing with a full symphony orchestra on many dates providing the massive, undistorted "wall of sound" which was lost during the arena shows of ELO's heyday. While the two studio records produced by ELO Part II may fall short Lynne's pop genius, the live shows provided by the band far outshined the musicianship of the "spaceship" era ELO as best heard on the "One Night, Live in Australia" CD which has been remixed, remastered, and re-released under so many guises that the original CD may prove difficult to acquire.
ELO Part II first consisted of Bev Bevan, Pete Hancock, Neil Lockwood and Eric Troyer. These four were augmented on tour with former ELO members Hugh MacDowell (cello), Mik Kaminski (violin) and Louis Clark (orchestra and orchestral keyboards). Prior to their first live album, former bassist/vocalist Kelly Groucutt joined the band. After the first studio album and first live album, MacDowell, Hancock and Lockwood left the band. ELO Part 2 leader Bev Bevan recruited former labelmate Phil Bates (of "Trickster"). Bates remained with the band until the mid 1990's and was replaced by Parthenon Huxley. In November of 1999, Bev Bevan played his last show with the band at the Sands hotel in Atlantic City. The group reformed under the name "The Orchestra" with drummer Gordon Townsend.
In 2002, the Orchestra released an extremely limited amount of their CD "No Rewind" which was produced and released without involvement from a major record label. The album contains the Orchestra's best known n
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'Aquilegia formosa ''
* [[Graham's Columbine]] ''Aquilegia grahamii ''
* [[Jones's Columbine]] ''Aquilegia jonesii ''
* [[Laramie Columbine]] ''Aquilegia laramiensis ''
* [[Longspur Columbine]] ''Aquilegia longissima ''
* [[Mancos Columbine]] ''Aquilegia micrantha ''
* [[Sierra Columbine]] ''Aquilegia pubescens ''
* [[Rocky Mountain Columbine]] ''Aquilegia saximontana ''
* [[Blue Columbine]] Utah columbine ''Aquilegia scopulorum ''
* [[Chiricahua Mountain Columbine]] ''Aquilegia triternata ''
* [[European Columbine]] ''Aquilegia vulgaris ''
[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Ranunculales]]
[[da:Akeleje]]
[[de:Akeleien]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[eo:Akvilegio]]
[[fr:Ancolie]]
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[[ja:オダマキ]]
[[nl:Akelei]]
[[sv:Aklejor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cache</title>
<id>6829</id>
<revision>
<id>42122350</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lmendo</username>
<id>175297</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Cache (disambiguation)]] or [[caché]].''
{{wiktionarypar|cache}}
In [[computer science]], a '''cache''' is a collection of data duplicating original values stored elsewhere or computed earlier, where the original data is ''expensive'' (usually in terms of access time) to fetch or compute relative to reading the cache. Once the data is stored in the cache, future use can be made by accessing the cached copy rather than refetching or recomputing the original data, so that the average access time is lower.
Caches have proven extremely effective in many areas of computing because access patterns in typical computer applications have [[locality of reference]]. There are several sorts of locality, but we mainly mean that the same data are often used several times, with accesses that are close together in time, or that data near to each other are accessed close together in time.
==Operation==
[[Image:cache,basic.png|frame|Diagram of a CPU memory cache]]
A cache is a pool of entries. Each entry has a datum, which is a copy of the datum in some backing store. Each entry also has a tag, which specifies the identity of the datum in the backing store of which the entry is a copy.
When the cache client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) wishes to access a datum presumably in the backing store, it first checks the cache. If an entry can be found with a tag matching that of the desired datum, the datum in the entry is used instead. This situation is known as a '''cache hit'''. So, for example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL. In this example, the URL is the tag, and the contents of the web page is the datum. The percentage of accesses that result in cache hits is known as the '''hit rate''' or '''hit ratio''' of the cache.
The alternative situation, when the cache is consulted and found not to contain a datum with the desired tag, is known as a '''cache miss'''. The datum fetched from the backing store during miss handling is usually inserted into the cache, ready for the next access.
If the cache has limited storage, it may have to eject some other entry in order to make room. The [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic]] used to select the entry to eject is known as the '''replacement policy'''. One popular replacement policy, [[Cache algorithms|LRU]], replaces the least recently used entry.
When a datum is written to the cache, it must at some point be written to the backing store as well. The timing of this write is controlled by what is known as the '''write policy'''. In a '''write-through''' cache, every write to the cache causes a write to the backing store. Alternatively, in a '''write-back''' cache, writes are not immediately mirrored to the store. Instead, the cache tracks which of its locations have been written over (these locations are marked '''dirty'''). The data in these locations is written back to the backing store when that data is evicted from the cache. For this reason, a miss in a write-back cache will often require two memory accesses to service.
Data write-back may be triggered by other policies as well. The client may make many changes to a datum in the cache, and then explicitly notify the cache to write back the datum.
The data in the backing store may be changed by entities other than the cache, in which case the copy in the cache may become out-of-date or '''stale'''. Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of that data in other caches will become stale. Communication protocols between the cache managers which keep the data consistent are known as [[cache coherency|coherency protocols]].
==Applications==
===CPU caches===
''Main article: [[CPU cache]]''
Small memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, and modern general-purpose CPUs inside personal computers may have as many as half a dozen, each specialized to a different part of the problem of executing programs.
===Disk buffer===
(also known as ''disk cache'' or ''cache buffer'')
Hard disks have historically often been packaged with embedded computers used for control and interface protocols. Since the late 1980s, nearly all disks sold have these embedded computers and either an [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]], [[SCSI]], or [[Fibre Channel]] interface. The embedded computer usually has some small amount of memory which it uses to store the bits going to and coming from the disk platter.
The disk buffer is physically distinct from and is used differently than the
''[[page cache]]'' typically kept by the [[operating system]] in the computer's [[main memory]]. The disk buffer is controlled by the embedded computer in the disk drive, and the page cache is controlled by the computer to which that disk
is attached. The disk buffer is usually quite small, 2 to 8 MB, and the page
cache is generally all unused physical memory, which in a 2006 PC may be as much as 2GB. And while data in the page cache is reused multiple times, the
data in the disk buffer is typically never reused. In this sense, the phrases
disk cache and cache buffer are misnomers, and the embedded computer's memory is
more appropriately called the disk buffer.
The disk buffer has multiple uses:
* Readahead / readbehind: When executing a read from the disk, the disk arm moves the read/write head to (or near) the correct track, and after some settling time the read head begins to pick up bits. Usually, the first sectors to be read are not the ones that have been requested by the operating system. The disk's embedded computer typically saves these unrequested sectors in the disk buffer, in case the operating system requests them later.
* Speed matching: The speed of the disk's [[I/O interface]] to the computer almost never matches the speed at which the bits are transferred to and from the [[hard disk platter]]. The disk buffer is used so that both the I/O interface and the disk read/write head can operate at full speed.
* Write acceleration: The disk's embedded microcontroller may signal the main computer that a disk write is complete immediately after receiving the write data, before the data are actually written to the platter. This early signal allows the main computer to continue working even though the data has not actually been written yet. This can be somewhat dangerous, because if power is lost before the data are permanently fixed in the magnetic media, the data will be lost from the disk buffer, and the filesystem on the disk may be left in an inconsistent state. On some disks, this vulnerable period between signaling the write complete and fixing the data can be arbitrarily long, as the write can be deferred indefinitely by newly arriving requests. For this reason, the use of write acceleration can be controversial. Consistency can be maintained, however, by using a battery-backed memory system in the disk controller for caching data - although this is typically only found in high end [[redundant array of independent disks|RAID]] controllers. Alternately, the caching can simply be turned off when the integrity of data is deemed more important than write performance.
* [[Native command queueing|Command queueing]]: Newer [[SATA]] and most [[SCSI]] disks can accept multiple commands while any one command is in operation. These commands are stored by the disk's embedded computer until they are completed. Should a read reference the data at the destination of a queued write, the write's data will be returned. Command queueing is different from write acceleration in that the main computer's operating system is notified when data are actually written onto the magnetic media. The OS can use this information to keep the filesystem consistent through rescheduled writes.
===Other caches===
CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware. Other caches are managed by a variety of software. The cache of disk sectors in main memory is usually managed by the operating system [[kernel (computers)|kernel]] or [[File system|file system]]. The BIND [[Domain Name System|DNS]] daemon caches a mapping of domain names to IP addresses, as does a resolver library.
Write-through operation is common when operating over unreliable networks (like an ethernet LAN), because of the enormous complexity of the [[cache coherency|coherency protocol]] required between multiple write-back caches when communication is unreliable. For instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in [[Network File System|NFS]] or [[Server message block|SMB]]) are typically read-only or write-through specifically to keep the network protocol simple and reliable.
A cache
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es, Shivaji assumed defacto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Bijapuris and Mughals, gaining weapons, forts, and territories. During the war of succession, Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Bijapuri attack, and Shivaji personally killed the attacking general, [[Afzul Khan]]. With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Bijapuri and Mughal territory.
Following his coronation in [[1659]], Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle [[Shaista Khan]] to the Deccan to recover his lost forts. Shaista Khan drove into Marathi territory, and took up residence in [[Pune]]. In a daring raid, Shivaji retook Pune, even cutting off Shaista Khan's thumb as he fled. Once more the Marathis rallied to his leadership, taking back the territory.
Aurangzeb for the next few years ignored the rise of the Marathas. Shivaji led by inspiration, not by any official authority, and the Marathas continued to capture forts belonging to both Mughals and Bijapur. At last Aurangzeb sent his Jaipuri general [[Jai Singh]], a Hindu, to attack the Marathas.
Jai Singh's blistering attacks were so successful that he was able to persuade Shivaji to agree to peace by becoming a Mughal vassal. But when Shivaji and his son accompanied Jai Singh to Agra to meet Aurangzeb, confusion occurred, ending in an altercation at he fealty ceremony. As a result, Shivaji and his son [[Sambhaji]] were placed under house arrest in Agra, from which they managed to escape.
Shivaji returned to the Deccan, successfully drove out the Mughal armies, and was crowned [[Chhatrapati]] or king of the Maratha confederacy in [[1674]]. While Aurangzeb continued to send troops against him, Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in [[1680]].
Sambhaji succeeded in [[1681]]. Though he was less effective militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail.
Aurangzeb's son Akbar left the Mughal court and joined with Sambhaji, inspiring some Mughal forces to join the Marathas. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia.
Aurangzeb captured [[Sambhaji]] and publicly tortured and killed him in [[1688]]. His brother [[Rajaram]] succeeded, but the confederacy fell into disarray. Surprisingly, however, this collapse provided the Marathas with great military advantage. Maratha Sardars(commanders) raised individual battles against the Mughals, and territory changed hands again and again during years of endless warfare. Since there was no central authority in control, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and treasure. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory(notably conquering [[Satara]]), the Marathas expanded attacks eastward into Mughal lands, including Mughal-held [[Malwa]] and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]].
Aurangzeb waged continual war for more than two decades with no resolution. After Aurangzeb's death, new leadership arose among the Marathas, who soon became unified under the rule of the [[Peshwa]]s.
===Defiance of the Sikhs and the rise of the Khalsa===
Since its founding by [[Guru Nanak]] in the 1500s, [[Sikh]]ism grew in popularity throughout India, particularly in the Punjab. In the years following the persecution and death of the fifth [[Guru Arjan Dev]] by Aurangzeb's grandfather [[Jahangir]], the Sikhs had become increasingly militant and defiant.
Early in Aurangzeb's reign, various insurgent groups of Sikhs engaged Mughal troops in increasingly bloody battles. In 1670, the ninth [[Sikh]] Guru, [[Guru Tegh Bahadur|Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji]] encamped in Delhi, receiving large numbers of followers. Aurangzeb regarded this popularity as a potential threat, and determined to subdue it. But Mughal skirmishes with the increasingly militant Sikhs continued.
Sikhs and Kashmiri Pandits recount that in [[1675]] a group of Kashmiri brahmins, who were of the Hindu faith, were being pressured by Muslim authorities to convert to Islam and approached Guru Tegh Bahadur with their dilemma. To demonstrate a spirit of unity and tolerance, the Guru agreed to help the brahmins: He told them to inform Aurangzeb that the brahmins would convert only if Guru Tegh Bahadur himself was converted.
His response led to his death. <!-- The Guru and his diciples were tortured by various methods, boiled alive, burned alive, sawn in half and scalped. It is no suprise that there is such an animosity between Hindus and Sikhs with Muslims. --> At length Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested and beheaded, giving his life to protect the brahmins. His execution infuriated the Sikhs. In response, his son and successor, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] further militarized his followers. Sikhs engaged in numerous battles against the Mughals, and though often outnumbered, succeeded in gaining more and more territory.
Aurangzeb installed his son [[Bahadur Shah]] as governor of the northwest territories, including Sikh-controlled parts of Punjab. The new governor relaxed enforcement of Aurangzeb's edicts, and an uneasy peace ensued.But Gobind Singh had determined that the Sikhs should actively prepare to defend their territories and their faith. In 1699 he established the [[Khalsa]] a Sikh order of "saint-soldiers", ready to die for their cause.
This development alarmed not only the Mughals, but the nearby Rajputs. In a temporary alliance, both groups attacked Gobind Singh and his followers. Facing defeat, Gobind Singh asked Aurangzeb for safe passage from their fort in Andrapuhr. Aurangzeb agreed, but as the Sikhs fled, the Mughals attacked in betrayal of the agreement.
The Mughals killed all four of Gobind Singh's sons and decimated much of the Sikh army. Only Gobind Singh escaped. Gobind Singh sent Aurangzeb an eloquent yet defiant letter entitled the [[Zafarnama]] (''Notification of Victory''), accusing the emperor of treachery, and claiming a moral victory.
On receipt of this letter, Aurangzeb invited Gobind Singh to meet in Ahmednagar, but Aurangzeb died before Gobind Singh arrived.
==Legacy==
Aurangzeb's influence continues through the centuries, affecting not only India, but Asia, and the world.
He was the first ruler to attempt to impose Sharia law on a non-Muslim country. His critics, principally Sikhs, Buddhists and Hindus, decry this as intolerance. His supporters, mostly Muslims, applaud him, some calling him a [[pir]] or [[Caliph]].
He engaged in nearly perpetual war, justifying the ensuing death and destruction on moral and religious grounds. His one-pointed devotion to conquest and control based on his personal world-view has continuing resonance in our current world. Even now, political groups of all kinds point to his rule to justify their actions. Without much effort, one can follow a direct line from Aurangzeb to many of the political and religious conflicts of the present day. The influence of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri on future Islamic governments has been considerable.
Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury as a trust of the citizens of his empire and that it should not be used for his personal expenses. But his constant warfare drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy as much as the personal profligacy of earlier emperors had done.
Despite his success in imposing Sharia within his kingdom, he alienated many constituencies, not only non-Muslims, but also native Shias. This led to increased militancy by the Marathas, the Sikhs, and Rajputs, who along with other territories broke from the empire after his death, and to disputes among Indian Muslims. The destruction of Hindu temples remains a source of emotional debate.
He alienated many of his children and wives, driving some into exile and imprisoning others. At the ebb of his life, he expressed his loneliness, and perhaps, regret.
In contrast to his predecessors, Aurangzeb left few buildings. He created a modest mausoleum for his first wife, [[Bibi Ka Maqbara]], sometimes called the mini-Taj, in Aurangabad. He also built in [[Lahore]] what was at the time the largest mosque outside [[Mecca]]: the [[Badshahi Masjid]] ('Imperial' Mosque, sometimes called the 'Alamgiri' Mosque). He also added a small marble mosque known as the ''[[Moti Masjid]]'' (Pearl Mosque) to the [[Delhi Fort|Red Fort]] complex in Delhi.
Aurangzeb's personal piety is undeniable. He led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the [[Qur'an]]. He knitted [[haj]] caps and copied out the [[Qur'an]] throughout his life, and sold these works anonymously. He used the proceeds, and only these, to fund his modest resting place.
He ruled india with an iron fist, and during his rule none of his decendents dared conspire overthrowing him. He died in [[Ahmednagar]] in [[1707]] at the age of 90, having outlived many of his children. In conformance with his view of Islamic principles, his body rests in an open-air grave in [[Kuldabad]], near [[Aurangabad]].
After Aurangzeb's death, there were more than 100 claimants to throne due to his extended rule, and power struggle and infighting, which were characteristics of Mughal dynasty, followed. Eventually, his son [[Bahadur Shah I]] took the throne, but this infighting weakened the Mughal Empire. In addition, Auregzeb's religious intolerance had already alienated the non-Muslim majority, which found no reason to demonstrate allegiance to the Emperor. With hostile subjects, everyday conspiracies, and infighting, the Mughal Empire entered a long decline.
==References==
* ''Delhi'', Khushwant Singh, Penguin USA, Open Market Ed edition, February 5, 2000. ([[ISBN: 0140126198]])
* ''A Short History of Pakistan'', Dr. Ishtiaque Hussain Qureshi, University of Kar
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churches of [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] traditions that keep the faith of only the first three ecumenical councils — the [[First Council of Nicaea]], the [[First Council of Constantinople]] and the [[Council of Ephesus]] — and rejected the [[dogmatic definition]]s of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. Thus, "Oriental Orthodox" churches are distinct from the churches that collectively refer to themselves as "Eastern Orthodox". As well, there are the "[[Nestorianism|Nestorian]]" churches, which are Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople.
===The Great Schism===
In the 11th century the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] took place between [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]], which led to separation of the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, and the [[Eastern Christianity|Churches of the East]]. There were doctrinal issues like the [[filioque clause]] and the authority of the [[Pope]] involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences.
The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the sacking of Constantinople by the [[Fourth Crusade]] in [[1204]]. The sacking of the [[Hagia Sophia|Church of Holy Wisdom]] and establishment of the [[Latin Empire]] in [[1204]] is viewed with some rancor to the present day. In [[2004]], [[Pope John Paul II]] extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by [[Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople]]. Many things that were stolen during this time: relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Catholic churches in Western Europe.
In [[1453]], the [[Byzantine Empire|last of the Roman Empire (with its capital at Constantinople)]] fell to the [[Ottoman Empire]]. By this time [[Egypt]] had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia; and so [[Moscow]], called the [[New Rome|Third Rome]], became a major new center of the Church at that time.
===Conversion of East and South Slavs===
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into [[Eastern Europe]], including [[Kievan Rus']]. This work was made possible by the work of the Byzantine [[christian saint|saint]]s [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]]. When Rastislav, the king of Moravia, asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose these two brothers. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, Cyril and Methodius spoke the local [[Slavonic languages|Slavonic]] vernacular and translated the [[Bible]] and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language [[Old Church Slavonic]] was created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of [[Great Moravia]], Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD [[886]].
Some of the disciples, however, reached [[Bulgaria]] where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian [[Tsar]] [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]] who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] and the biblical texts and in AD [[893]], Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the [[Bulgarian language|Slavonic language]] as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East [[Slavic peoples]], most notably the [[Rus' (people) |Rus']], predecessors of [[Belarusians]], [[Russians]], and [[Ukrainians]].
The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than [[Latin]] as the Roman priests did, or [[Greek language|Greek]]. Today the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], in spite of being discouraged and sometimes persecuted by the [[secular]] government of the [[Soviet Union]], is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.
===The Church in North America===
[[Image:St Tikhons Monastery.jpg|left|thumb|300px|St. Tikhon's Russian Orthodox Monastery in [[South Canaan Township, Pennsylvania|South Canaan, Pennsylvania]]]]
The [[Russian Orthodox Church]] sent missionaries to [[Alaska]] beginning in the 18th century. Among the first was Saint [[Herman of Alaska]]. This established missionary precedence for the Russian Orthodox Church in the Americas, and Eastern Orthodox Christians were under the ''[[omophorion]]'' (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow. The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the [[Bolshevik Revolution]]. One side effect was the flood of refugees from Russia to the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Europe]]. Among those who came were Orthodox lay people, deacons, priests, and bishops. In [[1920]] [[Tikhon of Moscow|Patriarch Tikhon]] issued an ''[[ukase]]'' (decree) that Orthodox Christians under his leadership but outside of Russia should seek refuge with whatever Orthodox jurisdiction that would shield them from Communist control. The various national Orthodox communities thus were permitted as an emergency measure to look towards their immigrant homelands for ecclesiastic leadership rather than be tied to Russia. Some of the Russian Orthodox formed an independent [[synod]] that became the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. Some of the Russian Orthodox remained in communion with Moscow and were granted [[autocephaly]] in [[1970]] as the [[Orthodox Church in America]] (OCA, though rarely referred to as "TOCA"). However, recognition of this autocephalic status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the [http://www.goarch.org Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in [[Communion (Christian)|communion]] with the OCA.
Today there are many Orthodox churches in the United States and Canada that are still bound to the Greek, Antiochian, or other overseas jurisdictions; in some cases these different overseas jurisdictions will have churches in the same U.S. city. However, there are also many "pan-orthodox" activities and organizations, both formal and informal, among Orthdox believers of all jurisdictions. One such organization is the [[Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America]] (SCOBA), the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas, which comprises North American Orthodox bishops from nearly all jurisdictions. (See [[list of Orthodox jurisdictions in North America]].)
In June of 2002, the [[Antiochian Orthodox Church]] granted self-rule to the [[Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America]]. Some observers see this as a step towards greater organizational unity in North America.
During the past 50 years there have come into existence in North America a number of Western Rite Orthodox parishes. These are sometimes labelled "[[Western Orthodox Church]]es," but this term is not generally used by Orthodox Christians of Eastern or Western rite. These are Orthodox Christians who use the Western forms of liturgy yet are Orthodox in their theology. The Antiochian Orthodox Church and ROCOR both have Western Rite parishes.
Eastern Orthodoxy has had a history in [[Orthodoxy in China|China and East Asia]] as well.
===The Church today===
The various local churches within the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in [[full communion]] with one another, with exceptions such as lack of relations between the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (ROCOR) and the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Moscow Patriarchate]] (the Orthodox Church of Russia) dating from the 1920s and due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile [[Soviet Union|Soviet regime]]. However, attempts at reconciliation are being made between the ROCOR and the Moscow Patriarchate with the ultimate purpose of reunification. Further tensions exist in the philosophical differences between the New Calendarists and the Moderate Old Calendarists.
==Footnote==
# {{note|Macedoniafootnote}} A significant portion of the Former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]]'s population is Eastern Orthodox and previously was in the Serbian Orthodox Church. However, following the breakup of [[Yugoslavia]], Orthodox Slav-Macedonians are now generally members of the Slavic Macedonian Orthodox Church, an Eastern Orthodox church that presently is not in communion with any other Eastern Orthodox church. Macedonian Orthodox church divided form Serbian in 1960-s, during Tito's government.
==See also==
* [[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar|Orthodox liturgical calendar]]
* [[Monasticism]]
* [[Hesychasm]]
* [[Christianity]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defense of Christianity)
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[Orthodox]]
* [[SCOBA]]
* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[History of the Balkans]]
* [[History of Europe]]
* [[History of the Middle East]]
* [[Old Believers]]
== External links ==
{{wikisourcecat}}
{{Commonscat|Orthodox Church}}
===Informational and further reading===
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/ OrthodoxWiki]
* [http://orthodoxchristianity.orgfree.com/ Orthodox Christianity for Absolute Beginners]
* [http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/ Orthodox Research Institute]
* [http://www.hostkingdom.net/orthodox.html List of most patriarc
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the weak form of Newton's third law are often found for magnetic forces.
=== Energy ===
If a force '''F''' is applied to a particle that achieves a displacement &Delta;'''s''', the ''work done'' by the force is the scalar quantity
: <math> \Delta W = \mathbf{F} \cdot \Delta \mathbf{s} </math>.
If the mass of the particle is constant, and &Delta;''W''<sub>total</sub> is the total work done on the particle, obtained by summing the work done by each applied force, from Newton's second law:
: <math>\Delta W_{\rm total} = \Delta E_k \,\!</math>,
where ''E<sub>k</sub>'' is called the [[kinetic energy]]. For a point particle, it is defined as
: <math> E_k = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} mv^2 </math>.
For extended objects composed of many particles, the kinetic energy of the composite body is the sum of the kinetic energies of the particles.
A particular class of forces, known as ''conservative forces'', can be expressed as the [[gradient]] of a scalar function, known as the [[potential energy]] and denoted ''E<sub>p</sub>'':
: <math>\mathbf{F} = - \nabla E_p</math>.
If all the forces acting on a particle are conservative, and ''E<sub>p</sub>'' is the total potential energy, obtained by summing the potential energies corresponding to each force
{|
|
| <math>\mathbf{F} \cdot \Delta \mathbf{s} = - \nabla E_p \cdot \Delta \mathbf{s} = - \Delta E_p
\Rightarrow - \Delta E_p = \Delta E_k \Rightarrow \Delta (E_k + E_p) = 0 \,\!</math>.
|}
This result is known as ''conservation of energy'' and states that the total [[energy]],
: <math>\sum E = E_k + E_p \,\!</math>
is constant in time. It is often useful, because many commonly encountered forces are conservative.
=== Beyond Newton's Laws ===
Classical mechanics also includes descriptions of the complex motions of extended non-pointlike objects. The concepts of [[angular momentum]] rely on the same [[calculus]] used to describe one-dimensional motion.
There are two important alternative formulations of classical mechanics: [[Lagrangian mechanics]] and [[Hamiltonian mechanics]]. They are equivalent to Newtonian mechanics, but are often more useful for solving problems. These, and other modern formulations, usually bypass the concept of "force", instead referring to other physical quantities, such as energy, for describing mechanical systems.
=== Classical transformations ===
Consider two [[reference frames]] ''S'' and ''S' ''. For observers in each of the reference frames an event has space-time coordinates of (''x'',''y'',''z'',''t'') in frame ''S'' and (''x' '',''y' '',''z' '',''t' '') in frame ''S' ''. Assuming time is measured the same in all reference frames, and if we require ''x'' = ''x''' when ''t'' = 0, then the relation between the space-time coordinates of the same event observed from the reference frames ''S' '' and ''S'', which are moving at a relative velocity of ''u'' in the ''x'' direction is:
:''x''' = ''x'' - ''ut''
:''y''' = ''y''
:''z''' = ''z''
:''t''' = ''t''
This set of formulas defines a [[group transformation]] known as the [[Galilean transformation]] (informally, the ''Galilean transform''). This type of transformation is a limiting case of [[Special Relativity]] when the velocity u is very small compared to c, the [[speed of light]].
For some problems, it is convenient to use rotating coordinates (reference frames). This requires introducing the additional, one might say virtual, [[Centrifugal force]] and [[Coriolis force]] that do not exist in an inertial reference frame.
== History ==
''Main article:'' [[History of classical mechanics]]
The [[Greece|Greeks]], and [[Aristotle]] in particular, were the first to propose that there are abstract principles governing nature.
One of the first scientists who suggested abstract laws was [[Galileo Galilei]] who may have performed the famous experiment of dropping two cannon balls from the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa|tower of Pisa]]. (The theory and the practice showed that they both hit the ground at the same time.) Though the reality of this experiment is disputed, he did carry out quantitative experiments by rolling balls on an [[inclined plane]]; his correct theory of accelerated motion was apparently derived from the results of the experiments.
[[Sir Isaac Newton]] was the first to propose the three laws of motion (the law of inertia, his second law mentioned above, and the law of action and reaction), and to prove that these laws govern both everyday objects and celestial objects.
Newton and most of his contemporaries, with the notable exception of [[Christiaan Huygens]] hoped that classical mechanics would be able to explain all entities, including (in the form of geometric optics) light. When he discovered [[Newton's rings]], Newton's own explanation avoided wave principles and resembled more the explanation for the decay of the neutral [[Kaon]]s, K<sup>0</sup> and K<sup>0</sup> bar. That is, he supposed that the light particles were altered or excited by the glass and resonated.
Newton also developed the [[calculus]] which is necessary to perform the mathematical calculations involved in classical mechanics. However it was [[Gottfried Leibniz]] who developed the notation of the [[derivative]] and [[integral]] which are used to this day.
After Newton the field became more mathematical and more abstract.
Although classical mechanics is largely compatible with other "[[classical physics]]" theories such as classical [[electrodynamics]] and [[thermodynamics]], some difficulties were discovered in the late 19th century that could only be resolved by more modern physics. When combined with classical thermodynamics, classical mechanics leads to the [[Gibbs paradox]] in which [[entropy]] is not a well-defined quantity. As experiments reached the atomic level, classical mechanics failed to explain, even approximately, such basic things as the energy levels and sizes of atoms. The effort at resolving these problems led to the development of [[quantum mechanics]]. Similarly, the different behaviour of classical [[electromagnetism]] and classical mechanics under velocity transformations led to the [[theory of relativity]].
By the end of the 20th century, the place of classical mechanics in [[physics]] is no longer that of an independent theory. Along with classical [[electromagnetism]], it has become imbedded in [[relativistic]] [[quantum mechanics]] or [[quantum field theory]]{{ref|Lectures-2-10}}. It is the non-relativistic, non-quantum mechanical limit for massive particles.
== Limits of validity ==
=== The classical approximation to [[special relativity]] ===
Non-relativistic classical mechanics approximates the relativistic momentum <math>\frac{m_0 v}{ \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}</math> with <math>m_0 v</math>, so it is only valid when the velocity is much less than the speed of light.
For example, the relativistic cyclotron frequency of a [[cyclotron]], [[gyrotron]], or high voltage [[magnetron]] is given by <math>f=f_c\frac{m_0}{m_0+T/c^2}</math>, where
<math>f_c</math> is the classical frequency of an electron (or other charged particle) with kinetic energy <math>T</math> and (rest) mass <math>m_0</math> circling in a magnetic field.
The (rest) mass of an electron is 511 keV.
So the frequency correction is 1% for a magnetic vacuum tube with a 5.11 kV. direct current accelerating voltage.
=== The classical approximation to [[quantum mechanics]] ===
The ray approximation of classical mechanics breaks down when the [[De Broglie hypothesis|de Broglie]] wave length is not much smaller than other dimensions of the system. For non-relativistic particles, this wave length is
:<math>\lambda=\frac{2\pi\hbar}{p}</math>
where <math>\hbar</math> is [[Plank's constant]] divided by <math>2\pi</math> and <math>p</math> is the momentum.
Again, this happens with [[electrons]] before it happens with heavier particles. For example, the electrons used by [[Clinton Davisson]] and [[Lester Germer]] in 1927, accelerated by 54 volts, had a wave length of 0.167 nm, which was long enough to exhibit a single [[diffraction]] [[side lobe]] when reflecting from the face of a nickel [[crystal]] with atomic spacing of 0.215 nm.
With a larger [[vacuum chamber]], it would seem relatively easy to increase the [[angular resolution]] from around a radian to a milliradian and see quantum diffraction from the periodic patterns of [[integrated circuit]] computer memory.
More practical examples of the failure of classical mechanics on an engineering scale are conduction by [[quantum tunneling]] in [[tunnel diode]]s and very narrow [[transistor]] [[gate (transistor)|gate]]s in [[integrated circuit]]s.
Classical mechanics is the same extreme [[high frequency approximation]] as [[geometric optics]]. It is more often accurate because it describes particles and bodies with [[rest mass]]. These have more momentum and therefore shorter De Broglie wave lengths than massless particles, such as light, with the same kinetic energies.
== See also ==
* [[Celestial mechanics]]
* [[List of equations in classical mechanics]]
* [[List of publications in physics#Classical mechanics|List of publications in classical mechanics]]
== Notes ==
#{{note|MITlecture}} [http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Physics/8-01Physics-IFall2003/B4144452-A6DE-464D-A0FA-D4D057AA9222/0/binder1.pdf MIT physics 8.01 lecture notes (page 12)] (PDF)
#{{note|Lectures-2-10}} - Page 2-10 of the ''[[Feynman Lectures on Physics]]'' says "For already in classical mechanics there was indeterminability from a practical point of view." The past tense here implies that classical physics is no longer fundamental.
==References==
*{{cite book | auth
|
==
{{main|Economy of Australia}}
[[Image:Melbourne yarra afternoon.jpg|240px|thumb|right| [[Melbourne]]'s population is approximately 3.7 million, the second largest in Australia]]
Australia has a prosperous, Western-style [[mixed economy]], with a per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] slightly higher than those of the UK, [[Germany]] and [[France]]. The country was ranked third in the [[United Nations]]' 2005 [[Human Development Index]] and sixth in ''[[The Economist]]'' worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. In recent years, the Australian economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn. Rising output in the domestic economy has been offsetting the global slump, and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Australia's emphasis on economic reform is often claimed to be key factor behind the economy's strength. In the 1980s, the Labor Party, led by [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]] [[Paul Keating]], started the process of economic reform by [[Floating exchange rate|floating]] the [[Australian dollar]] in 1983, and deregulating the financial system.{{ref|Macfarlane1998}} Since 1996, the Howard government has continued the process of micro-economic reform, including the partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the [[Communications in Australia|telecommunications]] industry.{{ref|Parham2002}} Substantial reform of the indirect tax system was implemented in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|Goods and Services Tax]], which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that still characterises Australia's tax system.
The Australian economy has not suffered a [[recession]] since the early 1990s. As of January 2006, [[unemployment]] was 5.3% with 10,034,500 persons employed.{{ref|ABS6202}} The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69% of GDP.{{ref|DFAT}} [[Agriculture in Australia|Agriculture]] and natural-resources represent only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, but contribute substantially to Australia's export performance. Australia's largest export markets include [[Japan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], the United States, [[South Korea]] and New Zealand.{{ref|ABS2005}} Areas of concern to some economists include the chronically high [[current account deficit]] and also high levels of net foreign debt.
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Australia}}
[[Image:Sydney_opera_house_and_skyline.jpg|thumb|259px|right|Most Australians live in urban areas; [[Sydney]] is the most populous city in Australia.]]
Most of the estimated 20.4 million Australians are descended from 19th- and 20th-century immigrants, the majority from [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I {{ref|ABS}}, spurred by an ambitious [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] program. In 2001, the five largest groups of the 27.4% of Australians who were born overseas were from the United Kingdom, [[New Zealand]], [[Italy]], [[Vietnam]] and China.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|a}} Following the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]] in [[1973]], numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of [[multiculturalism]]{{ref|DIMIA}}. Australia’s population has increased by about 60 times since European settlement.
The self-declared indigenous population — including Torres Strait Islanders, who are of Melanesian descent — was 410,003 (2.2% of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from the 1977 census, which showed an indigenous population of 115,953.{{ref|ABS2001}} Indigenous Australians have higher rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education and life expectancies for males and females that are 17 years lower than those of other Australians.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|b}} Perceived racial inequality is an ongoing political and [[human rights in Australia|human rights]] issue for Australians.
[[Image:Tanunda.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Fewer than 15% of Australians live in rural areas. This picture shows the [[Barossa Valley]] wine producing region of [[South Australia]].]]
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002&ndash;03{{ref|PoA2005}}) live outside their home country. Australia has maintained one of the most active [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] programs in the world to boost population growth. Most immigrants are skilled; the quota includes categories for family members and [[refugee]]s.
[[English language|English]] is the [[official language]],{{ref|DIMIA2}} and is spoken and written in a distinct variety known as [[Australian English]]. According to the 2001 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.1%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.9%) and [[Greek language|Greek]] (1.4%). A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are [[Multilingual|bilingual]]. It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] at the time of first European contact. Only about 70 of these languages have survived, and all but 20 of these are now [[endangered languages|endangered]]. An indigenous language remains the main language for about 50,000 (0.02%) people. Australia has a [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]], which is the main language of about 6,500 [[deaf]] people.
Australia has no [[state religion]]. The 2001 census identified that 68% of Australians call themselves Christian: 27% identifying themselves as [[Roman Catholic Church in Australia|Roman Catholic]] and 21% as [[Anglican Church|Anglican]]. Australians that identify themselves as followers of non-Christian religions number 5%. A total of 16% were categorised as having "No Religion" (which includes non theistic beliefs such as [[secular humanism|Humanism]], [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]] and [[rationalism]]) and a further 12% declined to answer or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is about 1.5 million, about 7.5% of the population.{{ref|NCLSattsurvey}}
School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6&ndash;15 years (16 years in South Australia and Tasmania), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99%. Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities, and although several private universities have been established, the majority receive government funding. There is a state-based system of vocational training colleges, known as [[Technical and Further Education|TAFE Institutes]], and many trades conduct [[apprenticeship]]s for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58% of Australians between the ages of 25 and 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|c}}
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Australia}}
[[Image:Golden Summer Eaglemont Arthur Streeton.jpg|right|thumb|240px|''Golden Summer, Eaglemont'' ([[Eaglemont, Victoria]]) by [[Arthur Streeton]] (1889) is an early example of the rich tradition of Australian [[landscape painting]].]]
The primary basis of Australian culture up until the mid-20th century was [[Anglo-Celtic]], although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the environment and [[Australian Aborigine|indigenous]] culture. Over the past 50 years, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture (particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbours. The vigour and originality of the arts in Australia—films, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—are achieving international recognition.
Australia has a long history of visual arts, starting with the [[Cave painting|cave]] and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples. From the time of European settlement, a common theme in [[Art of Australia|Australian art]] has been the Australian landscape, seen in the works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Arthur Boyd]] and [[Albert Namatjira]], among others. The traditions of indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. [[Australian Aboriginal music]], dance and [[Australian Aboriginal art|art]] have a palpable influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. Australia has an active tradition of [[music]], [[ballet]] and [[theatre]]; many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government's [[The Australia Council|Australia Council]]. There is a [[Orchestra|symphony orchestra]] in each capital city, and a national [[opera]] company, [[Opera Australia]], first made prominent by the renowned diva [[Joan Sutherland|Dame Joan Sutherland]]; [[Music of Australia|Australian music]] includes classical, jazz, and many popular music genres.
[[Australian literature]] has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as [[Banjo Paterson]] and [[Henry Lawson]] captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as embodied in early literature, resonates with modern Australia and its perceived emphasis on [[egalitarianism]], mateship, and anti-authoritarianism. In 1973, [[Patrick White]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], the only Australian to have achieved this
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|-
|}
===Accent marks===
[[Vedic Sanskrit]] is written with [[pitch accent]] marks, ''[[svarita]]'' and ''[[udatta]]''.
===Numerals===
:''See also [[Indian numerals]].''
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"
|-
|+ '''Devanagari numerals'''
|- style="font-size:14pt;"
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४
| ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4
| 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
|}
</div>
See also: [[Brahmi numerals]], [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]].
== Devanagari in Unicode ==
The [[Unicode]] range for Devanagari is U+0900 .. U+097F.
Gray blocks indicate characters that are undefined.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="font-size: large; border-collapse:collapse;"
|- style="font-size: small; text-align:center;"
| &nbsp; || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || A || B || C || D || E || F
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+090x
| bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || ँ || ं || ः || ऄ || अ || आ || इ || ई || उ || ऊ || ऋ || ऌ || ऍ || ऎ || ए
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+091x
| ऐ || ऑ || ऒ || ओ || औ || क || ख || ग || घ || ङ || च || छ || ज || झ || ञ || ट
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+092x
| ठ || ड || ढ || ण || त || थ || द || ध || न || ऩ || प || फ || ब || भ || म || य
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+093x
| र || ऱ || ल || ळ || ऴ || व || श || ष || स || ह || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || ़ || ऽ || ा || ि
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+094x
| ी || ु || ू || ृ || ॄ || ॅ || ॆ || े || ै || ॉ || ॊ || ो || ौ || ् || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; ||bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+095x
| [[Aum|ॐ]] || ॑ || ॒ || ॓ || ॔ || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || क़ || ख़ || ग़ || ज़ || ड़ || ढ़ || फ़ || य़
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+096x
| ॠ || ॡ || ॢ || ॣ || । || ॥ || ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
| style="font-size: small;" | U+097x
| ॰ || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp;
|-
|}
==Devanagari Keyboard Layouts==
===INSCRIPT===
[[Image:Devanagari_INSCRIPT.png|frame|none|INSCRIPT Keyboard Layout (Windows, Solaris, Java)]]
===Typewriter===
[[Image:Hindi_typewriter.jpg|frame|none|Standard typewriter keyboard layout used in India]]
===Phonetic===
[[Image:Bolnagri map.png|frame|none|Bolnagri phonetic keyboard layout for Linux]]
See [http://www.indlinux.org/wiki/index.php/BolNagri| bolnagri home page]
==Software==
* [[Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging]] - Macintosh
* [[Graphite (Renderer)|Graphite]] - open source ([[SIL International|SIL]])
* [[Pango]] - open source ([[Gnome (linux)|Gnome]])
* [[Uniscribe]] - Windows
* [[WorldScript]] - Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above
== External links ==
{{book}}
* [http://www.mpp.org.np/downloads.php Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanagari]
* [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf The official Devanagri Document (pdf) from Govt. Of India.]
* [http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/column.asp?cid=305897 On history of Indian writing]
===Electronic resources===
* [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode Chhahari Syllabic Unicode Editor]
* [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request for a free hindi Fonts and devanagari Tools CD from the Government of India]
* [http://girish.co.in/projects/indian_languages.html Devanagari Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanagari Mail, Yahoo/Google Search & Devanagari Transliteration]
* [http://devanaagarii.net/ Devanagari : all about using Devanagari on computers]
* [http://www.ncst.ernet.in/projects/indix/ IndiX, Indian language support for Linux], a site by the Indian [[National Centre for Software Technology]]
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Unicode Chart for Devanagari]
* [http://www.geocities.com/matthewblackwell/hindiEditor.html Devanagari editor]
* [http://devanaagarii.net/ Resources for viewing and editing Devanagari]
* [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/devanagari.html Unicode support for Web browsers]
* [http://www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm Hindi/Devanagari Script Tutor]
* [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Devanagari transliterator]
* [http://lists.sarovar.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/devanaagarii-lipi Devanagari mailing list and discussion group]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/deonagari/ Discussion Group and email List Devanagari.]
[[Category:Abugida writing systems]]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[bg:Деванагари]]
[[br:Devanagari]]
[[ca:Devanagari]]
[[cs:Devanágarí]]
[[de:Devanagari]]
[[es:Devanagari]]
[[eo:Nagario]]
[[fr:Devanāgarī]]
[[gl:Devanāgarī]]
[[ko:데바나가리 문자]]
[[hi:देवनागरी]]
[[id:Aksara Devanagari]]
[[it:Devanagari]]
[[ks:देवनागरी]]
[[mr:देवनागरी]]
[[nl:Devanagari]]
[[ja:デーヴァナーガリー]]
[[no:Devanagari]]
[[pl:Pismo dewanagari]]
[[pt:Devanagari]]
[[ru:Деванагари]]
[[sa:देवनागरी]]
[[fi:Devanagari]]
[[sv:Devanagari]]
[[ta:தேவநாகரி]]
[[zh:天城文]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diplomatic mission</title>
<id>8970</id>
<revision>
<id>42049903</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:21:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>192.38.64.200</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Schild-Deutsche Botschaft.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Seal on the building of German Embassies. <br>Text: "Federal Republic of Germany - Embassy"]]
[[Image:Australias indonesian embassy.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Indonesian Embassy in Australia]]
A '''diplomatic mission''' is a group of people from one [[state]] present in another state to represent the sending state in the receiving state. In practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes the '''permanent mission''', namely the office of a country's diplomatic representatives in the [[capital]] city of another country. Under [[international law]], diplomatic missions enjoy an [[extraterritoriality|extraterritorial status]] and thus, although remaining part of the host country's territory, they are exempt from local law and in almost all respects treated as being part of the territory of the home country. They are also only required to pay taxes equal to their respective countries' guidelines.
==Naming==
A permanent diplomatic mission is usually known as an '''embassy''', and the head of the mission is known as an [[ambassador]]. Missions between [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries are known as '''High Commissions''' and their heads are [[High Commissioner]]s. All missions to the [[United Nations]] are known simply as '''Permanent Missions''', and the head of such a mission is typically both a ''Permanent Representative'' and an ambassador. Some countries have more idiosyncratic naming for their missions and staff: a [[Holy See|Vatican]] mission is headed by a [[Nuncio]] and consequently known as an ''Apostolic Nunciature'', while [[Libya]]'s missions were for a long time known as ''People's Bureaus'' and the head of the mission was a ''Secretary''. (Libya has since switched back to standard nomenclature.)
In the past a diplomatic mission headed by a lower ranking official (an ''envoy'' or ''minister resident'') was known as a '''legation'''. Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of ''legation'' is no longer used today. (See [[diplomatic rank]].)
In cases of dispute, it is not uncommon for a country to recall its head of mission as a sign of its displeasure. This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely, and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be headed by a [[chargé d'affaires]] who may have limited powers. Note that for the period of succession between two heads of missions, a ''chargé d'affaires per interim'' may be appointed as caretaker; this does not imply any hostility to the host country.
A [[Consul (representative)|Consulate]] is similar to (but not the same as) a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the [[Vienna Convention on Consular Relations]]. A Consulate is generally a representative of the Embassy in locales outside of the capital city. For instance, The British Embassy to the United States is in [[Washington, D.C.]], and there are Briti
|
Jermaine Dupri]], an Atlanta-born [[record producer]] and talent scout, had great success after discovering youthful pop stars [[Kris Kross]] (''[[Totally Krossed Out]]'', 1992) performing at a mall, and later masterminded a large roster of commercially successful acts on his So So Def label which although mostly weighted towards pop-rap & R&B, also included gangsta rap artists such as [[Da Brat]] (''[[Funkdafied]]'', 1994), and himself. Perhaps the most famous gangsta rapper from the South is [[Ludacris]] (''[[Word of Mouf]]'', 2001) who would become an enormously successful pop/gangsta-rap star for [[Def Jam]] in the 21st century.
[[Master P]]'s [[No Limit Records]] label, based out of [[New Orleans]], also became quite popular, though critical success was very scarce, with the exceptions of some later additions like [[Mystikal]] (''[[Ghetto Fabulous]]'', 1998). No Limit had begun its rise to fame with Master P's ''[[The Ghetto Is Trying to Kill Me!]]'' (1994, [[1994 in music]]), and subsequent hits by [[Rappin- 4-Tay]] (''[[Don't Fight the Feeling]]'', 1994), [[Silkk the Shocker]] (''[[Charge It 2 Da Game]]'', 1998) and [[C-Murder]] (''[[Life or Death]]'', 1998). [[Cash Money Records]], also based out of New Orleans, had enormous commercial success with a very similar musical style and quantity-over-quality business approach to [[No Limit]] but achieved even less critical acclaim and were widely ridiculed.
===The mainstream era===
Before the late nineties, gangsta rap and hip hop in general, while being extremely popular, had always been seen as a fringe genre that lay firmly outside of the pop mainstream. However, the rise of Bad Boy Records signaled a major stylistic change in gangsta rap, as it morphed into a new subgenre of hip hop which would become even more commercially successful and become completely absorbed into the mainstream musical fabric of America. Notorious B.I.G. is seen by many to have initiated gangsta rap's move towards conquering the pop charts, as he was the first hardcore gangsta rapper to produce albums with a calculated attempt to include both gritty gangsta narratives and polished, catchy, danceable pop productions entirely aimed at the clubs and at the mainstream pop charts. Between the release of Biggie's debut album [[Ready to Die]] in 1994 and his follow-up [[Life after Death]] in 1997, his sound changed from the darker, sample-heavy production of Ready to Die to a cleaner, more upbeat sound fashioned for popular consumption (though the references to guns, drug dealing and life as a thug on the street remained.) [[R&B]]-styled hooks and instantly recognizable samples of well-known [[soul music|soul]] and [[pop music|pop]] songs from the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] were the staples of this sound, which was showcased primarily in his latter-day work for [[The Notorious B.I.G.]] ("Mo Money, Mo Problems"), [[Ma$e]] ("Feels So Good"), and non Bad Boy artists such as [[Jay-Z]] ("Can I Get A...") and Nas ("Street Dreams"). Very little of this commercially minded music was met with acclaim from hip hop enthusiasts or critics, however - Puff Daddy's "loop it and leave it" style of sampling, which most of the time just consisted of rapping over someone else's instrumental, was criticized heavily. Generally, the era in which this sound prospered (called the "Shiny Suit Era" by some due to Puffy and Ma$e's tendacies to wear expensive clothing that would literally shine) is not fondly remembered, and it is no coincidence that its rise to prosperity was virtually paralleled by a surge of activity in underground and alternative hip hop scenes.
Also achieving similar levels of success with a similar sound at the same time as Bad Boy was [[Master P]] and his [[No Limit Records|No Limit]] label in [[New Orleans]], as well as the New Orleans upstart [[Cash Money Records|Cash Money]] label. A Cash Money artist, [[The B.G.]], popularized a [[catch phrase]] in [[1999]] that sums up what the majority of late-nineties mainstream hip hop focused on subject-wise: "[[bling-bling|Bling-Bling]]." Whereas much gangsta rap of the past had portrayed the rapper as being a victim of urban squalor, the persona of late-nineties mainstream gangsta rappers was far more weighted towards hedonism and showing off the best jewelry, clothes, [[liquor]], and women. Many of the artists who achieved such mainstream success in fact started out as straight gangsta rappers - artists such as Ma$e, Jay-Z and [[Cam'Ron]] are straight out of the mid-90s New York school of gritty gangsta rap, influenced by artists such as the Notorious B.I.G, Mobb Deep, and Nas. Ma$e, Jay-Z and Cam'Ron are also typical of the more relaxed, casual flow that became the pop-gangsta norm.
Pop-inflected gangsta rap continues to be successful into the 21st century, with many artists deftly straddling the divide between their hip hop audience and their pop audience, such as [[Ja Rule]] and [[Jay-Z]]. The influence of West Coast gangsta rapper [[2Pac]] on the East Coast gangsta rap scene has also become increasingly apparent in the new century.
But on march 1995 something tragic happened that changed the whole face of Gangsta Rap :
Eazy E , the godfather of Gangsta Rap died of AIDS .But even if he was the godfather of
Gangsta Rap , his dead was overshadowed by the drive-by shooting that both killed B.I.G and 2Pac a year later , thus letting Eazy E's legacy almost forgotten , nowadays only true fans remember him.....
===Hardcore East Coast gangsta rap after 1997===
Although the "softer" pop/R&B-inflected artists received the most commercial success, hardcore gangsta rap continued to thrive on the East Coast. [[Baltimore]]-born [[DMX_(rapper)|DMX]] is often credited with reviving New York's hardcore scene with ''[[It's Dark and Hell Is Hot]]'', his [[1998 in music|1998]] debut, which entered the charts at #1. DMX's work was clearly inspired by that of [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'', 1994), [[The Wu-Tang Clan]] (''[[Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)]]'', 1993), and 2Pac (''[[All Eyez On Me]]'', 1996). DMX's management company, [[Ruff Ryders Entertainment]], ran a record label by the same name which also featured [[Eve (rapper)|Eve]] (''[[Scorpion (album)|Scorpion]]'', 2001) and [[The Lox]], defectors from Bad Boy (''[[We Are the Streets]]'', 2000).
However, the biggest success for post-Bad Boy East Coast gangsta was [[50 Cent]], (Fiddy) who achieved worldwide superstardom after jointly signing with [[Eminem]]'s [[Shady Records]] and Dr. Dre's [[Aftermath Entertainment]] and releasing the album ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'', before launching numerous similarly styled affiliate artists such as [[Lloyd Banks]], [[Young Buck]] and [[Tony Yayo]]. 50 Cent's music was harder-edged than most artists who had achieved similar levels of success, though he made occasional concessions to a more mainstream sound, particularly in his single releases.
==See also==
*[[G-Funk]]
*[[Hip hop music]]
*[[History of hip hop music]]
*[[Rapping]]
{{hiphop}}
[[Category:Hip hop genres]]
[[Category:Moral panics]]
[[als:Gangster Rap]]
[[de:Gangsta Rap]]
[[es:Gangsta rap]]
[[fr:Gangsta rap]]
[[it:Gangsta rap]]
[[nl:Gangsta rap]]
[[sv:Gangstarap]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gleichschaltung</title>
<id>12213</id>
<revision>
<id>41934183</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:56:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hezaa</username>
<id>713267</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Specific measures. Revised sentence structure. */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[German language|German]] word '''''Gleichschaltung''''' {{Audio|De-Gleichschaltung-pronunciation.ogg|<small>listen</small>}} (literally "[[synchronising]]", synchronization) is used in a [[political]] sense to describe the process by which the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]] successively established a system of [[totalitarian]] control over the individual, and tight coordination over all aspects of society and commerce. Another possible translation is "making equal". One goal of this politics was to enforce a specific way of doctrine and thinking to everybody, eliminating individualism.
The [[Nazi party]]'s desire for total control required the elimination of all other forms of influence. The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of non-Nazi organizations that could potentially influence people, such as [[trade union]]s and [[political party|political parties]]. Those critical of Hitler's agenda, especially his close ties with the industry were suppressed or intimidated. The regime also assailed the influence of the [[church]]es, for example by instituting the [[Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs]] under [[Hanns Kerrl]]. Organizations that the administration could not eliminate, such as schools, came under its direct control.
The ''Gleichschaltung'' included also the formation of various organisations with compulsory membership for segments of the population, in particular the youth. Boys served as apprentices in the ''[[Hitlerjugend]]'' ("Hitler Youth") beginning at the age of six, and at age 10, entered the ''[[Jungvolk]]'' ("Young Folk") and served there until entering the Hitler Youth proper at age 14. Boys remained there until age 18, at which time they entered into the ''Arbeitsdienst'' ("Labor Service") and the armed forces. Girls became part of the ''[[Jungmädel]]'' ("Young Maidens") at age 10, and at age 14 were enrolled in the ''[[Bund Deutscher Mädel]]'' ("League of German Maidens"). Girls remained in the BDM until age 21 and, upon reaching the age of 18, were sent to serve their ''Landjahr'' &mdash; a year of labor on a farm. In 1938, membership in the Hitler Youth numb
|
econd highest percentage of [[Non-religious]] residents in Canada (after British Columbia).
The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormons]] of Alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province. There are [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]] in both Cardston and Edmonton. Many Alberta Mormons descend from [[Mormon pioneers]] who emigrated from [[Utah]] around the turn of the 20th century. Alberta also has a large [[Hutterite]] population, a communal [[Anabaptist]] sect similar to the [[Mennonites]], and a significant population of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] in and around the [[Lacombe]] area due to the presence of the [[Canadian University College]].
Many people of the [[Hindu]], [[Sikh]], and [[Muslim]] faiths also make Alberta their home; one of the largest [[Gurdwara|Sikh temples]] in Canada is located just outside of Edmonton.
'''Religion'''
*[[Protestant]]: 38.9%
*[[Roman Catholic]]: 26.7%
*[[Non-religious|No Affiliation]]: 23.6%
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Christian Orthodox]]: 1.5%
*other Christian: 4.1%
*Muslim: 1.5%
*Buddhist: 1.1%
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Alberta]]''
The present province of Alberta, as far north as about 53° north latitude, was a part of [[Rupert's Land]] from the time of the incorporation of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] ([[1670]]). After the arrival in the North-West of the French around 1731 they settled the prairies of the west, establishing communities such as Lac La Biche and Bonnyville. Fort La Jonquière was established near what is now Calgary in (1752). The [[North-West Company]] of Montreal occupied the northern part of Alberta territory before the Hudson's Bay Company arrived from Hudson Bay to take possession of it. The first explorer of the Athabasca region was [[Peter Pond]], who, on behalf of the North-West Company of Montreal, built [[Fort Athabasca]] on [[Lac La Biche, Alberta|Lac La Biche]] in 1778. [[Roderick Mackenzie]] built [[Fort Chipewyan]] on [[Lake Athabasca]] ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] followed the [[North Saskatchewan River]] to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the [[Athabasca River]], which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name -- the [[Mackenzie River]] -- which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to [[Lake Athabasca]], he followed the [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] upstream, eventually reaching the [[Pacific Ocean]], and so being the first white man to cross the North American continent north of [[Mexico]].
The district of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the district of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status.
==Fauna and flora==
===Fauna===
The three climatic regions ([[alpine]], [[forest]], and [[prairie]]) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the land of the bison, its grasses providing a great pasture and breeding ground for millions of [[American Bison|buffalo]]. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a strong comeback, and thrive on farms and in parks all over Alberta.
Alberta is home to many large [[carnivore]]s. Among them are the [[Grizzly bear|grizzly]] and [[american Black Bear|black bears]], which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the [[dog]] and [[Felidae|cat]] families include [[coyote]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]], [[lynx]], [[bobcat]] and [[mountain lion]] (cougar).
[[Image:Bighorn23.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Rocky Mountains]] Bighorn Sheep]]
[[Herbivorous]], or plant-eating animals, are found throughout the province. [[Moose]] and [[deer]] (both mule and white-tail [[variety (biology)|varieties]]) are found in the wooded regions, and [[pronghorn antelope]] can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. [[Bighorn sheep]] and [[mountain goat]]s live in the Rocky Mountains. [[Rabbit]]s, [[porcupine]]s, [[skunk]]s, [[squirrel]]s, and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is fortunate in that it is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the prairie [[rattlesnake]].
Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting-ground of the migratory birds. Vast numbers of [[duck]]s, [[goose|geese]], [[swan]]s, and [[pelican]]s arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. [[Eagle]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s, and [[crow]]s are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other [[temperate]] regions, is home to [[mosquito]]es, [[fly|flies]], [[wasp]]s, and [[bee]]s. Rivers and lakes are well stocked with [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[walleye]], [[white fish]], [[Rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Brook trout|speckled]], and [[Brown trout|brown]] [[trout]], and even [[sturgeon]]. [[Turtle]]s are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. [[Frog]]s and [[salamander]]s are a few of the [[amphibian]]s that make their homes in Alberta.
===Flora===
In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring brings the prairie anemone, the [[avens]], [[crocus]]es, and other early flowers. The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the [[sunflower]] family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and purple. The southern part of Alberta is covered by a short grass, very nutritive, but dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the [[buffalo bean]], [[fleabane]], and [[sage]]. Both yellow and purple [[clover]] fill the roadways and the ditches with their beauty and aromatic scents. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely [[deciduous]], typically [[birch]], [[poplar]], and [[tamarack]]. Many species of [[willow]] and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for hundreds of thousands of square kilometres. [[aspen|Aspen poplar]], [[balsam poplar]] (or [[cottonwood]]), and [[paper birch]] are the primary large deciduous species. [[Conifer]]s include [[Jack pine]], Rocky Mountain pine, [[Lodgepole pine]], both white and black [[spruce]], and the deciduous conifer [[tamarack]].
==See also==
[[Family Law Act]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gov.ab.ca/ Government of Alberta website]
*[http://www.travelalberta.com/ Travel Alberta]
*[http://www.albertasource.ca/ Alberta Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.albertafirst.com/ Alberta Community Profiles] (A site offering info on tax, census info, and economic development of large and small Albertan Communities)
*[http://www.alberta.demosphere.net Alberta Demosphere]
{{Canada}}
<br />
{{Alberta}}
[[Category:Alberta| ]]
{{Link FA|es}}
[[af:Alberta]]
[[bg:Алберта]]
[[zh-min-nan:Alberta]]
[[ca:Alberta]]
[[da:Alberta]]
[[de:Alberta (Kanada)]]
[[et:Alberta]]
[[es:Alberta]]
[[eo:Alberto]]
[[fa:آلبرتا]]
[[fr:Alberta]]
[[ko:앨버타 주]]
[[io:Alberta]]
[[id:Alberta]]
[[is:Alberta (fylki)]]
[[it:Alberta]]
[[he:אלברטה]]
[[ka:ალბერტა]]
[[la:Alberta]]
[[nl:Alberta]]
[[ja:アルバータ州]]
[[no:Alberta]]
[[pl:Alberta (prowincja Kanady)]]
[[pt:Alberta]]
[[ro:Alberta]]
[[ru:Альберта]]
[[simple:Alberta]]
[[sk:Alberta]]
[[fi:Alberta]]
[[sv:Alberta]]
[[vi:Alberta]]
[[tr:Alberta]]
[[uk:Альберта (Канада)]]
[[zh:阿尔伯达]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arctic Circle</title>
<id>718</id>
<revision>
<id>40865303</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:52:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Poulpy</username>
<id>400519</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fr:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the fast food restaurant chain, see [[Arctic Circle Restaurants]]''
[[Image:ARCTIC CIRCLE 021106.jpg|thumb|350px]]
[[Image:Arctic Circle sign.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A sign along the [[Dalton Highway]] marking the location of the Arctic Circle]]
The '''Arctic Circle''' is one of the five major [[circle of latitude|circles of latitude]] that mark maps of the [[Earth]]. This is the parallel of [[latitude]] that (in 2000) runs [[degree (angle)|66° 33' 39"]] north of the [[Equator]]. Everything north of this circle is known as the [[Arctic]], and the zone just to the south of this circle is the [[temperate|Northern Temperate Zone]].
The Arctic Circle marks the southern extremity of the [[polar day]] of the [[summer solstice]] in June and the [[polar night]] of the [[winter solstice]] in December. Within the Arctic Circle, the arctic [[Sun]] is above the [[horizon]] for at least 24 continuous [[hour]]s once per [[year]], in conjunction with the Arctic's [[Summer Solstice]] - this is often referred to in local [[wiktionary:Vernacular|vernacular]] as [[midnight sun]]. Likewise, in conjunction with the Arctic's [[Winter Solstice]], the Arctic sun will be below the horizon for at least 24 continuous hours.
(In fact, because of [[refraction]] and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen at the night of the summer solstice up to about 50' (90 km) south of the geometric arctic circle; similarly, at the day of the winter solstice part of the sun may be seen up to about 50' north of the geometric arctic circle. This is true at sea level; these limits increase with elevation above sea level, however in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the horizon.)
The position of the Arctic Circle is determined by the [[axial tilt]] (angle) of the polar axis of rotation of the Earth on the [[ecliptic]]. This angle is not constant, but has a com
|
widow.
==Death==
[[Image:Poe Grave at Westminster 1.jpg|thumb|right|Edgar Allan Poe's reburial celebration on [[November 17]], [[1875]] at Westminster graveyard]]
On [[October 3]], [[1849]] Poe was found on the streets of Baltimore, [[delirium|delirious]] and "in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance," according to the man who found him. He was taken to the Washington College Hospital, where he died early on the morning of October 7. Poe was never coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire condition, and wearing clothes that were not his own. Poe is said to have repeatedly called out the name "Reynolds" on the night before his death, though no one has ever been able to identify the person to whom he referred. One Poe scholar, W. T. Bandy, has suggested that he may instead have called for "Herring," (Poe's uncle was called Henry Herring). Some sources say Poe's final words were "It's all over now; write 'Eddy is no more'." referring to his tombstone. Others say his last words were "Lord, help my poor [[soul]]."
The precise cause of Poe's death is disputed. Dr. J. E. Snodgrass, an acquaintance of Poe who was among those who saw him in his last days, was convinced that Poe's death was a result of [[alcoholism]], and did a great deal to popularize this interpretation of the events. He was, however, a supporter of the temperance movement who found Poe a useful example in his work; later scholars have shown that his account of Poe's death distorts facts to support his theory.
Dr. John Moran, the physician who attended Poe, stated in his own [[1885]] account that "Edgar Allan Poe did not die under the effect of any intoxicant, nor was the smell of liquor upon his breath or person." This was, however, only one of several sometimes contradictory accounts of Poe's last days he published over the years, so his testimony cannot be considered entirely reliable.
Numerous other theories have been proposed over the years, including several forms of rare brain disease, diabetes, various types of enzyme deficiency, syphilis, the idea that Poe was [[Shanghaiing|shanghaied]], drugged, and used as a pawn in a ballot-box-stuffing scam during the election that was held on the day he was found, and more recently, rabies. The rabies death theory was proposed by Dr. R. Michael Benitez, and is based upon the fact that Poe's symptoms before death are similar to those displayed in a classic case of rabies.{{ref|umm}}
In the absence of contemporary documentation (all surviving accounts are either incomplete or published years after the event; even Poe's death certificate, if one was ever made out, has been lost), it is likely that the cause of Poe's death will never be known.
Poe is buried on the grounds of [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]]{{ref|cemetery}}, now part of the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore|University of Maryland School of Law]]{{ref|lawschool}} in Baltimore.
Even after death, however, Poe has created controversy and mystery. Because of his fame, school children collected money for a new burial spot closer to the front gate. He was reburied on [[October 1]], [[1875]]. A celebration was held at the dedication of the new tomb on [[November 17]]. Likely unknown to the reburial crew, however, the headstones on all the graves, previously facing to the east, were turned to face the West Gate in [[1864]].[http://www.nadn.navy.mil/EnglishDept/poeperplex/gravep.htm] Therefore, as it was described in a seemingly fitting turn of events:
:''In digging on what they erroneously thought to be the right of the General Poe the committee naturally first struck old Mrs. Poe who had been buried thirty-six years before Edgar's mother-in-law; they tried again and presumably struck Mrs. Clemm who had been buried in 1876 only four years earlier. Henry's Poe's brother foot stone, it there, was respected for they obviously skipped over him and settled for the next body, which was on the Mosher lot. Because of the excellent condition of the teeth, he would certainly seem to have been the remains of Philip Mosher Jr, of the Maryland Militia, age 19.''
Since Poe's death, his grave site has become a popular tourist attraction. Beginning in 1949, the grave has been visited every year in the early hours of Poe's birthday, January 19th, by a mystery man known endearingly as the [[Poe Toaster]]. It has been reported that a man draped in black with a silver-tipped cane, kneels at the grave for a toast of Martel [[cognac (drink)|Cognac]] and leaves the half-full bottle and three red roses. The three red roses supposedly are in memory of Poe himself, his mother-in-law and his wife Virginia.
=="Memoir" - Griswold's biography of Edgar Allan Poe==
The day Edgar Allan Poe was buried, a long [[obituary]] appeared in the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' signed "Ludwig". The piece began, "Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it."{{ref|obit}} It was reprinted in numerous papers across the country. "Ludwig" was soon identified as [[Rufus Griswold]], a minor editor and anthologist who had borne a grudge against Poe since 1842, when Poe wrote a review of one of Griswold's anthologies, a review that Griswold deemed to be full of false praise. Though they were coolly polite in person, an enmity developed between the two men as they clashed over various matters. Critics have seen this obituary as a way for Griswold to finally settle his score with Poe.
Griswold went on to assume the role of Poe's [[literary executor]], though no evidence exists that Poe had ever made the choice. He convinced Poe's destitute mother-in-law Maria Clemm to hand over a mass of letters and manuscripts (which were never returned) and allow him to prepare an edition of Poe's collected works. Griswold assured Clemm that she would receive significant royalties, but she received nothing but a few sets of the edition, which she had to sell herself to make any sort of profit.
Rufus Griswold wrote a biographical "Memoir" of Poe, which he included in an additional volume of the collected works. Griswold depicted Poe as a depraved, drunk, drug-addled madman. This biography presented a starkly different version of Poe's biography than any other at the time, and included items now believed to have been forged by Griswold to bolster his case. Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Edgar Allan Poe well; Griswold's account became a popularly accepted one, however, in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted, and in part because it seemed to accord with the narrative voice Poe used in much of his fiction.
No accurate biography of Poe appeared until John Ingram's of 1875. By then, however, Griswold's depiction of Poe was entrenched in the mind of the public, not only in America but around the world. Griswold's madman image of Poe is still existent in the modern perceptions of the man himself.
==Literary and artistic theory==
In his essay "[[The Poetic Principle]]", Poe argued that there is no such thing as a long poem, since the ultimate purpose of [[art]] is [[aesthetic]], that is, its purpose is the effect it has on its audience, and this effect can only be maintained for a brief period of time (the time it takes to read a lyric poem, or watch a drama performed, or view a painting, etc.). He argued that an [[Epic poetry|epic]], if it has any value at all, must be actually a series of smaller pieces, each geared towards a single effect or sentiment, which "elevates the soul".
Poe associated the aesthetic aspect of art with pure [[ideality]], claiming that the mood or sentiment created by a work of art elevates the soul, and is thus a spiritual experience. In many of his short stories, artistically inclined characters (especially Roderick Usher from "[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]") are able to achieve this ideal aesthetic through ''fixation'', and often exhibit obsessive personalities and reclusive tendencies. "[[The Oval Portrait]]" also examines fixation, but in this case the object of fixation is itself a work of art.
He championed [[art for art's sake]] (before the term itself was coined). He was consequentially an opponent of [[Didactic literature|didacticism]], arguing in his literary criticisms that the role of [[morality|moral]] or [[ethical]] instruction lies outside the realm of poetry and art, which should only focus on the production of a beautiful work of art. He criticized [[James Russell Lowell]] in a review for being excessively didactic and moralistic in his writings, and argued often that a poem should be written "for a poem's sake".
He was a proponent and supporter of [[magazine]] literature, and felt that short stories, or "tales" as they were called in the early nineteenth century, which were usually considered "vulgar" or "low art" along with the magazines that published them, were legitimate art forms on par with the novel or epic poem. His insistence on the artistic value of the short story was influential in the short story's rise to prominence in later generations.
Poe also focused the theme of each of his short stories on one human characteristic. In "[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]", he focused on [[guilt]], in "[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]", his focus was [[fear]], etc. He also once said how “[[allegory]] is an inferior form of literature, because it is designed to evoke interest in both the narrative and abstract ideas for which the story stands for and distracts the reader from the singleness effect”.
==Legacy and lore==
[[Image:Poe's_grave_Baltimore_MD.jpg|thumb|left|Edgar Allan Poe's grave, Baltimore MD.]]
Poe's works have had a broad influence on America
|
rn (genre)|Western]] sheriff (Tex Tucker) who is given four [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] feathers by Indian Chief Kalamakooya as a reward for saving the life of Makooya, the chief's son. Two of these feathers allow his guns to swivel and fire automatically and the other two allow his horse (Rocky) and his dog (Dusty) to speak [[English language|English]].
The show was made on a tight budget and could not afford sophisticated special effects. To achieve the effect of the guns' muzzle flashes, small specks of black paint were carefully applied to the [[35 mm film|35 mm]] negatives, so that they would appear as white flashes on the prints.
The series was the first to use an early version of Anderson's [[Supermarionation]] puppetry process, although the term wouldn't be coined until Anderson's next series, ''[[Supercar (television)|Supercar]]''.
[[Image:FourFeatherFalls.jpg|left]]
The series has not been repeated in Britain since the 1960s, although it was released on video there in the 1990s. In December 2004 it was announced that the rights had been acquired by [[Network Video]], which scheduled a Region 2 [[DVD]] for May 2005. It is the only Supermarionation series not yet released to DVD in [[North America]] as of January 2006.
After its cancellation Gerry Anderson was approached by [[Lew Grade]] to make puppet shows for [[Associated TeleVision|ATV]]. Had Anderson failed to accept, later series such as ''[[Thunderbirds (television)|Thunderbirds]]'' and ''[[Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons]]'' might never have been made. The rights to the series, and almost all future Anderson productions were sold to Grade's [[ITC Entertainment]]. Grade also part-owned Anderson's [[AP Films]] (which later became [[Century 21 Productions]].
* Producer: [[Gerry Anderson]]
* Voice Cast:
** [[Nicholas Parsons]]
** [[Denise Bryer]]
** [[Kenneth Connor]]
** [[David Graham (voice actor)|David Graham]]
Barry Gray, the show's inspirator, also composed the music for the series. The best known song to come out of the series was "Four Feather Falls", sung in some episodes by [[Michael Holliday]] in the style of [[Bing Crosby]]. This song is sometimes described as the theme song to the series, but it was not as another song referring to the Tex Tucker character actually opened the episodes. The closing theme song was "Two Gun Tex of Texas".
==External links==
*[http://www.fanderson.org.uk/fanderson.html FANDERSON] The official Gerry Anderson appreciation society site.
*[http://fabgearusa.com FABGear] The North American HQ for Gerry Anderson fans.
*[http://www.nostalgiacentral.com/tv/kids/fourfeatherfalls.htm Nostalgia Central].
*[http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/fourfeather.htm Television Heaven feature]
==See also==
*[[Supercar (television)|Supercar]]
*[[Fireball XL5]]
*[[Stingray (TV show)]]
*[[Thunderbirds (television)]]
*[[Captain Scarlet]]
*[[Joe 90]]
*[[The Secret Service]]
*[[UFO (TV series)]]
*[[The Protectors]]
*[[Terrahawks]]
[[ja:&#12469;&#12531;&#12480;&#12540;&#12496;&#12540;&#12489;]]
[[Category:ITV television programmes]]
[[Category:Western television series]]
[[Category:ITC Distributions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fly-by-wire</title>
<id>11522</id>
<revision>
<id>15909266</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-09T07:57:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fikri</username>
<id>37448</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aircraft flight control systems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Falklands War</title>
<id>11523</id>
<revision>
<id>42045849</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:35:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox" style="width: 20em;"
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:HMS Conqueror (S48).jpg|none|300px|]]<small><br> HMS ''Conqueror'' returning from the war</small>
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ffff99" |[[Military history of Argentina]]<BR>[[Military history of the United Kingdom]]
|- valign="top"
! Conflict: || '''Falklands War'''
|- valign="top"
! Date: || [[April 1]] - [[June 14]] [[1982]]
|- valign="top"
! Place: || [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]
|- valign="top"
! Result: || [[United Kingdom]] regains possession of the islands.
|-
|colspan=2|
{| border=0 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ffff99" |Combatants
|-
| width="50%" valign="top" style="text-align:center"|[[Argentina]]<br/>[[Image:Argentina_flag_large.png|100px|Flag of Argentina]]
| width="50%" valign="top" style="text-align:center"|[[United Kingdom]]<br/>[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|121px|Flag of the UK]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="ffff99" |Military Branches
|-
!colspan=2|Strength
|-
|Geographical advantage
|Tactical and experience advantage
|-
!colspan=2|Casualties
|-
|655 killed,
1,100 wounded,
11,313 prisoners
|255 killed,
746 wounded
|}
|}
The '''Falklands War''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Guerra de las Malvinas''), was a [[war]] between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] over the [[Falkland Islands]] (also known in Spanish as the ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], between March and June of [[1982]]. The Falklands consist of two large and many small [[island]]s in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] east of Argentina, whose ownership had long been disputed. ''(See [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] for the background of that dispute.)''
Argentina was in the midst of a devastating [[economics|economic]] crisis and large-scale [[civil unrest]] against the [[military government|military]] [[junta]] that was governing Argentina in the period leading up to the war. The Argentine government, headed by General [[Leopoldo Galtieri]], decided to play off long-standing [[nationalism|nationalistic]] sentiment by launching what it thought would be a quick and easy war to reclaim the Falkland Islands. The [[Background to the Falklands War|ongoing tension between the two countries]] over the islands increased on [[19 March]] when 50 Argentines landed on the British dependency of [[South Georgia]] and raised their [[Flag of Argentina|flag]], an act that is seen as the first offensive action in the war. On [[2 April]], Galtieri ordered the [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]], triggering the Falklands War.
Though initially surprised by the Argentine attack on the [[South Atlantic]] islands, Britain launched a naval [[task force]] to engage the [[Argentine Navy]] and [[Argentine Air Force|air force]], and retake the islands by amphibious assault. After heavy [[combat]], the British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control, although [[as of 2006]], Argentina has still not relinquished its claim to the Falkland Islands.
The political effects of the war were strong in both countries. The Argentine loss prompted even larger protests against the military government, which prompted its downfall, while a wave of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiment swept through the United Kingdom, bolstering the government of British [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]]. The war has played an important role in the culture of both countries, and has been the subject of several books, movies, and songs, although due to the low number of casualties on both sides it is not seen as a truly major event in the individual history of either country. Militarily, however, it remains important as the sole example of a major naval and amphibious operation between modern forces since the [[World War II|Second World War]].
==Lead up to the war==
===Build-up===
[[Image:Galtier.jpg|thumb|150px|Leopoldo Galtieri, President of Argentina during the Falklands War]]
President Galtieri, head of [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional]] - the military government of Argentina at the time - aimed to counterbalance public concern over economic and [[human rights]] issues with a speedy [[nationalism|nationalist]] victory over the Falklands. Argentina exerted pressure in the [[United Nations]] by raising subtle hints of a possible invasion, but the British either missed or ignored this threat and did not react. The Argentines interpreted the lack of British reaction as [[disengagement]] from the Falklands, and assumed that the British would not use force if the islands were invaded. This viewpoint was encouraged by the planned withdrawal of the last of the [[Royal Navy]] in [[1981]], which would have been included in a general downsizing of the [[fleet]] throughout British territory, and the [[British Nationality Act 1981|British Nationality Act of 1981]], which stripped Falkland Islanders of full [[citizenship]] rights.
The passionately anti-British head of the Argentine navy, [[Jorge Anaya|Admiral Jorge Anaya]], developed the plan to invade the Falklands. Following the failure of further diplomatic talks in January of [[1982]], the invasion plans were finalised and scheduled for April of the same year. The invasion of the populated areas of the Falkland Islands was preceded by the invasion of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]], located 1,390 [[kilometre]]s east of the Falklands. The invasion was carried out on [[19 March]] 1982 by a group of Argentinian [[civilian]]s who posed as [[scrap metal]] [[merchant]]s in order to establish a camp on [[South Georgia]] and raise the Argentine flag. The Royal Navy [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] patrol vessel [[HMS Endurance (1967)|HMS
|
bouring countries inhabited by the ethnic Hungarians (including parts of [[Slovakia]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]], etc.). The claim is based on historic criteria for some regions (such as [[Transylvania]], where Hungarians are a minority), and ethnic for other regions.
* [[Romanian]] irredentists before [[World War 1]] claimed the unification of areas where [[Romanians]] formed a majority into the national Romanian state. The goal was achieved in [[1918]], but [[Bessarabia]] was lost again in [[1940]], being transformed into the [[Moldavian SSR|Soviet Republic of Moldova]]. More recently, the goal of Romanian irredentism is the unification of Romania with the [[Republic of Moldova]].
* [[Greater Serbia|Serbian]] claims to large areas of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] and [[Croatia]] (on grounds of ethnic affiliation).
* [[Bosniak nationalism|Bosniak]] claims to [[Sandzak]].
* [[Albania]]n claims to [[Kosovo]] and to parts of [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Greece]] (on grounds of ethnic affiliation).
* The Soviet Union annexed parts of [[Finnish Karelia]] after World War II. This [[Karelian question in Finnish politics|question of the status of ceded Karelia]] was revived in Finland after the end of [[Cold War]].
* [[Iraq]]i claims to [[Kuwait]] before the [[Gulf War]]
* [[Morocco]]'s claims, initiated in [[1963]] by [[King Hassan II]], to a claimed "[[Greater Morocco]]" (an area comprising parts of [[Algeria]], [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], the Spanish cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]. This led to a border war with Algeria and the annexation of Western Sahara in 1976.
* [[Greece]]'s claims on areas of the Ottoman Empire after independence, leading to annexation of [[Thessaly]], a failed war against Turkey in 1897 and the [[Balkan Wars]]. After World War I Greece claimed what is now the Aegean coastline of [[Turkey]], because of the predominence there of Greek speakers since antiquity and former rule by the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Other Greek irredentist claims under the "Greater Greece" policy called ''[[Megali Idea]]'' included south [[Albania]] (North Epirus) and [[Cyprus]].
* [[Japan]]'s [[Kuril Islands Dispute]] with the former [[Soviet Union]] (now [[Russia]]), most recently over the loss of the southern four islands in the [[Kuril Islands]] chain in the closing days of [[World War II]] under the [[Treaty of San Francisco]]. The [[Ainu people|Ainu]], a people indigenous to Japan, had been the sole inhabitants of the islands for thousands of years until ethnic [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]] and [[Byelorussians]] began to settle there and displace them.
=="Triadic nexus" of irredenta conflict==
In his 1996 book, ''Nationalism Reframed'', [[Rogers Brubaker]] outlined a pattern to describe a common theme of irredentist conflict, referred to as the "triadic nexus". In this view, irredenta conflict is a conflict between three parties: a nationalizing state, a national movement representing an ethnic minority within that state, and an external national homeland, to which that minority is construed as ethnically belonging. Brubaker's triadic nexus is a visual representation of this, granting each party a corner of the triangle. The implication is that the national minority is caught between the nationalizing state within whose borders it exists, and the external homeland to which it is seen as belonging.
==Constitutional irredentism==
Some states formalize their irredentist claims by including them in their constitutional documents.
'''[[Argentina]]''' Part III, Section 1 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation states that ''"The Argentine Nation ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over the [[Malvinas]], [[South Georgia]] and [[South Sandwich Islands]] and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the national territory. The recovery of said territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respectful of the way of life of their inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, are a permanent and unrelinquished goal of the Argentine people."'' Section 35 mentions that the Argentine Nation is the modern name of the United Provinces of the River Plata, which included [[Uruguay]] as the Province of [[Montevideo]] until 1830.
'''[[China]]''' The preamble to the constitution of the [[People's Republic of China]] states ''"[[Taiwan]] is part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic of China. It is the lofty duty of the entire Chinese people, including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland."''
'''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' From [[1937]] until [[1999]] [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland]] claimed [[Northern Ireland]] as part of the state's "national territory".
'''[[Somalia]]''' Prior to its break-up as a functioning state, the Somali constitution contained paragraphs explicitly claiming adjacent territories.
In addition, [[Bolivia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]] have all at one point in their recent history inscribed territorial claims extending into other states in formal documents, such as constitution.
==See also==
*[[Fait accompli]]
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]
*[[Expansionism]]
*[[Identity politics]]
*[[Lebensraum]]
*[[Revanchism]]
*[[Status quo ante bellum]]
*[[Territorial dispute]]
[[Category:Irredentism| ]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[de:Irredentismus]]
[[fr:Irrédentisme]]
[[it:Irredentismo]]
[[nl:Irredentisme]]
[[sl:Iredentizem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inuit language</title>
<id>15227</id>
<revision>
<id>41152085</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T10:45:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.55.107.63</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Morphology and syntax */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The language of the [[Inuit]] people is traditionally spoken across the [[North America]]n [[Arctic]] and to some extent in the [[subarctic]] in [[Labrador]]. It was also to some degree spoken in far eastern [[Russia]], particularly the [[Diomede Islands]], but is almost certainly extinct in Russia today. The Inuit live primarily in three countries: [[Greenland]] (an autonomous province of [[Denmark]]), [[Canada]], and the [[United States of America|American]] state of [[Alaska]].
The total population of Inuit speaking their traditional language is difficult to assess with precision, since most counts rely on self-reported census data that may not accurately reflect usage or competence. [[Greenland]] census estimates place the number of speakers of Inuit dialects there at roughly 50,000, while Canadian estimates are at roughly 30,000. These two countries count the bulk of speakers of Inuit language variants, as usage in Alaska is increasingly moribund - roughly 3,000 Alaskans speak Inuit dialects out of a population of over 13,000 Inuit - and the language is almost certainly extinct in Russia. In addition, an estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in European Denmark, but this is the largest group outside of Canada and Greenland. So, the global population of speakers of Inuit language variants is on the order of 90,000 people.
==What is the Inuit language called?==
<!-- This section shouldn't have to be here, but I am tired of seeing people rename this article because they think they know what a language they don't know ought to be called. So, it stays. Don't rename this article "Inuktitut", or "Inuit languages", or anyhting with the word "eskimo" in it. In fact, don't rename it at all, okay? Everytime someone does so, it makes a lot of work for me, since so far I seem to be the only person with a clue of how this language works that contributes here. -->
The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other, and some people do not think of it as a single language but rather as a group of languages. However, there are no clear criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member tongues, since it forms a continuum of close dialects. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely their neighbours' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level.
As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for their own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating a great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it.
In Greenland, the official form of Inuit language, and one of the official languages of the state, is called ''[[Kalaallisut]]''. In other languages, it is often called ''Greenlandic'' or some cognate term. However, neither the words ''Kallaalisut'' nor ''Greenlandic'' are generally used to refer to the variants of Canada or Alaska. In Alaska, the language is called ''[[Inupiatun]]'', but the variants of the [[Seward Peninsula]] are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them ''[[Qawiaraq]]'', or for some dialects, ''[[Bering Straits]] Inupiatun''.
In Canada, the word ''[[Inuktitut]]'' is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of [[Nunavut]] and the [[Northwest Territories]]. However, one of the variants of western Nunavut is called ''[[Inuinnaqtun]]'' to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while the variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called ''[[Inuvialuktun]]'' and have in the past sometimes been called ''Inuktun''. In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as ''Inuktitun'' to reflect dialectical differences in pronunciat
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more concerned with art than with success (They were paid by the academy, and so money was not a critical issue). This contributed to the creation of a large number of more philosophical films. In keeping with Russian character, tragi-comedies were very popular. Soviet films tend to be rather culture-specific and are difficult for many foreigners to understand without having been exposed to the culture first.
Animation was a respected genre, with many directors experimenting with technique.
These decades were prominent in the production of the [[Ostern]] or Red Western.
Prominent studios included:
*[[Lenfilm]]
*[[Mosfilm]]
*[[Gorky Cinema Studio]] (Kinostudiya imeni Gorkogo)
*[[Odessa Cinema Studio]] (Odesskaya kinostudiya)
*[[Belarusfilm]]
*[[Minsk Cinema Studio]] (Minskaya kinostudiys)
and in the late 1980s:
*[[Pilot (cinema studio)|Pilot]]
In the year of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet cinema ([[1979]]), on [[April 25]], by the ''Decision of the Presidium of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of the [[USSR]]'', the commemorative ''Day of the Soviet cinema'' was established. It was then celebrated in the [[USSR]] each year on [[August 27]], the day, on which [[V. I. Lenin]] signed a decree on the nationalisation of the cinema and photo industries of the country.
==Recent history==
[[Image:Mikhalkov.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Nikita Mikhalkov]] in the [[2005]] [[Fandorin]]-movie ''[http://www.statskyfilm.ru The Councillor of State]''.]]
The collapse of the Soviet Union brought a virtual end to quality cinema (as well as literature) in Russia and the other republics.
Very few films of note were created for over a decade. These included ''[[Oblako-ray]] (Cloud-Paradise)'' and ''[[Utomlennye Solntsem]] (Tired of the Sun; released in English as Burnt by the Sun)''.
[[Sibirskiy tsiryulnik]] (Сибирский цирюльник, English title: The Barber of Siberia; [[1998]]) by [[Nikita Mikhalkov]] became very famous.
The new Russia's cinema is more profit-oriented, with artistic needs taking a backseat to more immediate desires. Much low-quality action, comedy and pornography has been filmed.
In [[2002]], [[Aleksandr Sokurov]] filmed ''[[Russian Ark]]'', the world's first unedited feature film: recorded in uncompressed high definition, shot in a single take and featuring the world's longest [[Steadicam]] shot. The film is 90 minutes long.
The thematically similar films, ''[[Vozvrashcheniye|The Return]]'' (''Vozvrashcheniye'') and ''[[The Road to Koktebel]]'', have also received critical acclaim in recent years. ''[[Vozvrashcheniye|The Return]]'' (''Vozvrashcheniye'') won two prestigious awards at the [[Venice Film Festival]].
==Notable filmmakers==
Early personalities in the development of the Russian cinema:
*[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
*[[Vsevolod Pudovkin]]
*[[Alexander Dovzhenko]]
*[[Dziga Vertov]]
*[[Lev Kuleshov]]
*[[Ivan Pyryev]]
*[[Grigori Aleksandrov]]
*[[Yakov Protazanov]]
Later personalities:
*[[Andrei Konchalovsky]]
*[[Nikita Mikhalkov]]
*[[Aleksandr Sokurov]]
*[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
*[[Eldar Ryazanov]]
*[[Leonid Gaidai]]
*[[Georgi Daneliya]]
*[[Kira Muratova]]
*[[Sergei Parajanov]]
*[[Andrey Zvyagintsev]]
== See also==
*[[History of Russian animation]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[List of Soviet movies of the year by ticket sales]]
==External links==
*[http://www.russiandvd.com/store/default.asp?lang=eng&aid=109570/ Russian Films on DVD @ RussianDVD.com]
*[http://www.alekhine.net/english/movies/ Best Russian Movies (Alekhine net)]
*[http://www.filmdailies.com/archives/review-the-return/ ''The Return'' (Возвращение) Review] at [http://www.filmdailies.com/ FilmDailies.com - a filmmaker's blog]
[[Category:Cinema of Russia]]
[[Category:Cinema of the Soviet Union]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Russische Filmgeschichte]]
[[fr:Cinéma russe]]
[[no:Sovjetisk montasjefilm]]
[[pt:Cinema da Rússia]]
[[sv:Film i Sovjetunionen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cinema of Italy</title>
<id>10787</id>
<revision>
<id>40363461</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
The history of '''[[Italy|Italian]] [[film|cinema]]''' began a just few months after the [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] had discovered the medium, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] was filmed for a few seconds in the act of blessing the camera.
==Early years==
The Italian film industry took shape between [[1903]] and [[1908]], led by three major companies - the [[Rome|Roman]] ''[[Cines]]'', the ''[[Ambrosio]]'' of [[Turin]] and ''[[Itala Film]]''. Other companies were soon to follow in [[Milan]] and [[Naples]]. In a short period of time, these early companies attained a respectable production quality and soon were selling films abroad as well as inside Italy.
One of the first Italian ''filoni'' (sub-genres) was the historical film: the first work in the genre was [[Filoteo Alberini]]'s ''[[La presa di Roma, 20 settembre 1870]]'' (The Capture of Rome, September 20, 1870), filmed in [[1905]]. Other films portrayed famous historical figures such as [[Nero]], [[Messalina]], [[Spartacus]], [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]]. [[Arturo Ambrosio]]'s ''[[Ultimi giorni di Pompei]]'' ([[1908]] - The Last Days of [[Pompeii]]) quickly became famous, so famous that it was remade by Mario Caserini in 1913. In the same year [[Enrico Guazzoni]] directed the widely appreciated ''[[Mark Antony]] and Cleopatra''.
Actresses [[Lyda Borelli]] and [[Francesca Bertini]] were the first ''"divas"'' (stars), specialising in passionate tragedies. [[Francesca Bertini]] became the first "star" of cinema, as well as the first [[Actor|actress]] to appear on film partly naked.
Other ''filoni'' featured social themes, often based on published literature. In [[1916]] the film ''[[Cenere]]'' (Ash) was based on [[Grazia Deledda]]'s book, and interpreted by the [[theatre]] actress [[Eleonora Duse]] (also famous as [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s lover).
==Introduction of sound==
Despite the introduction of sound, economic problems stemming from [[World War I]] caused the quality of Italian films to decline. It was only at the end of the [[1920s]] that the industry began to recover, with innovative films directed by [[Alessandro Blasetti]], [[Mario Camerini]] and his cousin [[Augusto Genina]].
Blasetti opened his long career with a vanguard project (''Sole'', [[1928]]) and in the following years directed the famous Italian comedian [[Ettore Petrolini]] in his comic ''Nero'' (an extremely sophisticated [[satire]] of [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] that, it is said, the [[dictator]] himself allowed to pass [[censorship]]).
Another burgeoning genre was ''[[Telefoni Bianchi]]'' (white telephones), so named because of the characteristic presence of these objects in scenes. The ''Telefoni Bianchi'' included films that illustrated high society, with a heavy dose of formal [[morality]] reflecting the culture of the age. These films, generally little thought-of, launched the careers of many stars, such as [[Vittorio De Sica]] and [[Alida Valli]].
==Cinecittà==
Meanwhile, [[fascism]] had created a board of judgment for popular culture. This administration suggested, with Mussolini's full approval, the creation of some important structures for Italian cinema. An area was founded in southeast Rome to build ''ex novo'' a town exclusively for cinema, dubbed the [[Cinecittà]]. The town was conceived in order to provide everything necessary for filmmaking: theatres, technical services, and even a cinematography school for younger apprentices. Even today, many films are shot entirely in Cinecittà. At the same time [[Vittorio Mussolini]], the son of the dictator, created a national production company and organised the work of the most gifted authors, directors and actors (including even some political opponents), thereby creating an interesting communication network among them, resulting in several famous friendships and, beyond that, stimulating cultural interaction. [[Roberto Rossellini]], [[Federico Fellini]] among many others.
==Neorealism==
{{main|Italian neorealism}}
Italian cinema had only a small price to pay for dictatorship. With the approaching [[World War II|war]], many works were produced for [[propaganda]] purposes, as is the case in many countries at-war. Nevertheless, in [[1942]] Blasetti produced his ''[[Quattro passi tra le nuvole]]'' (Four Steps in the Clouds), which is the story of a humble employee, considered by many as the first neorealist work.
[[Italian neorealism|Neorealism]] exploded soon after the war, with unforgettable works such as Rossellini's trilogy and with extraordinary actors such as [[Anna Magnani]], as an attempt to describe the difficult economic and moral conditions of Italy and the changes in public mentality in everyday life. Also, because Cinecittà was occupied by refugees, films were shot outdoors, on the devastated roads of a defeated country. This genre soon also became an important political tool, although in most cases directors were able to keep a distinguishing barrier between art and politics.
Poetry and cruelty of life were harmonically combined in the works that [[Vittorio De Sica]] wrote and directed together with screenwriter [[Cesare Zavattini]]: among them, ''[[Sciuscià]]'' (Shoeshine - [[1946]]), ''[[Ladri di Biciclette]]'' ([[The Bicycle Thief]], [[1948]]) and ''[[Miracolo a Milano]]'' (Miracle in Milan, [[1950]]). The sad, bitter '''[[Umberto D.]]''' ([[1952]]), the touching story of a poor old man with his little dog, who life forces to beg for alms against his dignity in the loneliness of the new society, is perhaps De Sica's masterpiece and one of the most important works in Italian cinema. Baptised with a heavy po
|
a rival of Mandy, Grim, and Billy, voiced by [[Rachael MacFarlane]]. In one such episode, she causes chaos to grip Grim, Billy, and Mandy by giving them "The Golden Apple of Chaos and Discord," a more elaborate title for the mythological [[Apple of Discord]]. See [[Eris (Billy and Mandy)]] for more information on the TV version. She is drawn to somewhat resemble pop star [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]].
She also appears as the [[antagonist]] in the film ''[[Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas]]''.
The classic [[fairy tale]] ''[[Sleeping Beauty]]'' is partly inspired by Eris's role in the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Like Eris, a malevolent [[fairy]] curses a princess after failing to be invited to the princess's [[christening]].
==Discordia in popular culture==
Discordia is frequently referenced in the latter volumes of Stephen King's ''[[The Dark Tower]]'' series, appearing in the story primarily as an abstract ideal rather than being personified as an actual character.
She also appeared on the television series "''[[Hercules: the Legendary Journeys]]''", under the name Discord. Strife also appears in the show as a totally separate, albeit male entity, often in the company of [[Ares]], though technically strife and discord are one and the same.
[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Trickster goddesses]]
[[Category:Discordianism]]
[[Category:War goddesses]]
[[ast:Eris]]
[[cs:Eris]]
[[da:Eris]]
[[de:Eris]]
[[el:Έρις (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Eris]]
[[fr:Éris]]
[[it:Eris]]
[[lt:Eridė]]
[[hu:Erisz]]
[[nl:Eris]]
[[pl:Eris]]
[[fi:Eris]]
[[sv:Eris]]
[[zh:厄里斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edna St. Vincent Millay</title>
<id>9824</id>
<revision>
<id>41241010</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T00:29:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.170.235.234</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ednastvincentmillay.jpeg|thumb|Edna St. Vincent Millay, photographed by [[Carl Van Vechten]], [[1933]]]]'''Edna St. Vincent Millay''' (used the [[pseudonym]] '''Nancy Boyd''') ([[February 22]], [[1892]] &ndash; [[October 19]], [[1950]]) was a lyrical poet and playwright and the first woman to receive the [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]]. She was also known for her unconventional and [[Bohemianism|Bohemian]] lifestyle and her many love affairs with both men and women.
She was born in [[Rockland, Maine]], [[United States|USA]], to Cora Lounella (Buzzelle), a nurse, and Henry Tollman Millay, a schoolteacher. Cora divorced Millay's father for financial irresponsibility in [[1900]], when Millay was about eight. Cora and her three daughters, Edna (who was called "Vincent" by her close friends and family), Norma, and Kathleen then moved to [[Camden, Maine]]. Millay rose to fame with her poem "Renascence" ([[1912]]), and on the strength of it was awarded a scholarship to [[Vassar College]]. After her graduation in [[1917]], she moved to [[New York City]].
In New York, she lived in [[Greenwich Village]]. It was at this time that she first attained great popularity in America. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in [[1923]], for ''The Harp-Weaver, and Other Poems''.
In 1923, she also married [[Eugene Jan Boissevain]], then the 43-year-old widower of [[Inez Milholland]]. Boissevain greatly supported her career and took primary care of domestic responsibilities. They lived in [[Austerlitz, New York]], at a farmhouse they called Steepletop. The marriage was an [[open marriage|open]] one; among her lovers was the poet [[George Dillon]], fourteen years her junior, for whom a number of her [[sonnet]]s were written.
Her reputation was damaged by poetry she wrote in support of the [[Allies of WWII|Allied]] war effort during [[World War II]]. Merle Rubin noted: "She seems to have caught more flak from the [[Literary criticism|literary critics]] for supporting [[Democracy|democracy]] than [[Ezra Pound]] did for championing [[Fascism|fascism]]."
Boissevain died in [[1949]] from [[lung cancer]]. Edna St. Vincent Millay died about a year later of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]]. She was found dead on the stairs of her house, a poem clutched in her hand.
Her best known poem might be "First Fig" ([[1920]]):
:My candle burns at both ends;
::It will not last the night;
:But ah, my foes, and oh, my friends--
::It gives a lovely light!
Mathematicians recognize her poem "[[Euclid]] Alone Has Looked on Beauty Bare" ([[1923]]) as an expression of mathematical [[beauty]], or an homage to the [[Geometry|geometer]] Euclid.
However, many consider "Renascence" and "The Ballad Of The Harp-Weaver" to be her finest poems.
[[Thomas Hardy]] once said that America had two great attractions: the [[skyscraper]] and the poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay.
==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Edna_St._Vincent_Millay|name=Edna St. Vincent Millay}}
*[http://www.bartleby.com/131/1.html "Renascence" at Bartleby]
*[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/millay/ballad/ballad.html "The Ballad Of The Harp-Weaver" at A Celebration of Women Writers]
[[Category:1892 births|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Millay]]
[[Category:Bisexual writers|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:American writers|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:American poets|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:Women poets|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[sv:Edna St. Vincent Millay]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enlightenment</title>
<id>9825</id>
<revision>
<id>40747233</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:29:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheNeon</username>
<id>785184</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Enlightenment''' may refer to:
*'''[[Enlightenment (concept)]]''', a concept in [[mysticism]], [[philosophy]] and [[psychology]]
**For the [[Hindu]] religious concept of enlightenment, see [[moksha]]
**For the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] religious concept, see [[Bodhi]], [[Satori]], [[Nirvana]], [[Great Perfection]]
**For the [[Yoga]] concept of enlightenment, see [[Yogic Enlightenment]]
* The '''[[Age of Enlightenment]]''', a period in [[Europe]]an history
**For the corresponding movement in the European Jewish community, see ''[[Haskalah]]''.
**For the corresponding movement in Scotland, see ''[[Scottish Enlightenment]]''
*[[Enlightenment (X window manager)]], an [[X Window System]] [[window manager]]
*[[Enlightenment (Doctor Who)]], a ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial
*[[Enlightenment (album)]], an album by [[Van Morrison]]
==See also==
* [[Illumination]]
* [[Self Realization]]
* [[Oneness]]
* [[Nonduality]].
{{disambig}}
[[ru:Просветление]]
[[de:Aufklärung]]
[[nl:Verlichting]]
[[pl:Oświecenie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eleftherios Venizelos airport</title>
<id>9826</id>
<revision>
<id>37040691</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T04:07:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zyxw</username>
<id>473593</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Athens International Airport, "Eleftherios Venizelos"]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethnocentrism</title>
<id>9827</id>
<revision>
<id>41749218</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:43:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.26.13.20</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Usage */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ethnocentricity''' is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own ethnic culture. Many claim that ethnocentrism occurs in every society; ironically, ethnocentrism may be something that all cultures have in common. People often feel this occurring during what some call [[culture shock]].
Various researchers study ethnocentricism as it pertains to their specialized fields. This article covers anthropology, political science and especially sociology.
This term was coined by [[William Graham Sumner]], a [[social evolution|social evolutionist]] and professor of Political and Social Science at [[Yale University]]. He defined it as the viewpoint that “one’s own group is the center of everything,” against which all other groups are judged. Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one's own race or ethnic group is the most important and/or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups. Within this ideology, individuals will judge other groups in relation to their own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to [[language]], behaviour, customs, and [[religion]]. These ethnic distinctions and sub-divisions serve to define each [[ethnicity]]'s unique [[cultural identity]].
[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] such as [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentrism of the scientist. Both urged anthropologists to conduct [[ethnography|ethnographic]] [[field work|fieldwork]] in order to overcome their ethnocentrism. Boas developed the principle of [[cultural relativism]] and Malinowski developed the theory of [[functionalism]] as tools for developing non-ethnocentric studies of different societies. The books ''[[The Sexual Life of Savages]]'', by Malinowski, ''[[Patterns of Culture]]'' by [[Ruth Benedict]] and ''[[Coming of Age in Samoa]]'' by [[Margaret Mead]] (two of Boas's students) are classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology.
==Usage==
In political science and public relations, not only have academics used the concept to explain [[nationalism]], but activists and politicians have used labels like ''ethnocentric'' and ''ethnocentrism'' to criticize national and ethnic groups as being unbearably selfish—or at best, culturally biased (see [[cultural bias]]). At the same tim
|
ian Netherlands]] &ndash; Belgium minus the [[East Cantons]] and [[Luxembourg]] &ndash; was given by the [[Congress of Vienna]] ([[1815]]) to the [[Kingdom of Holland]], a French [[Puppet state|puppet kingdom]] that succeeded the United Provinces. The [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] was born. The Protestant King of the Netherlands, [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] succeeded in rapidly starting the industrialisation of the Southern Netherlands, but failed to maintain good relations with the larger and rebellious [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] provinces. The Belgian [[bourgeoisie]] was not only Catholic, as opposed to the Protestant north, but they also spoke French, instead of Dutch. Resentment grew both among Catholics and among the powerful liberal bourgeoisie. It became a part of the Kingdom of Belgium in [[1831]] following the [[Belgian Revolution]] of the previous year.
===Kingdom of Belgium===
In [[1830]], the [[Belgian Revolution]] led to the splitting up of the two countries. Belgium was confirmed as an independent state by the [[Treaty of London, 1839|Treaty of London]] of [[1839]], but deprived of the eastern half of Limburg (now Dutch Limburg), and the Eastern half of Luxembourg (now the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg) . Sovereignty over Zeeuws Vlaanderen, south of the Westerscheldt river delta, was left with the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], who was allowed to levy a toll on all traffic to the Antwerp harbour until [[1863]].
====Rise of the Flemish Movement====
See [[Flemish movement]]
{{sectstub}}
====World War I and its consequences====
Flanders (and Belgium as a whole) saw some of the greatest losses of life of the [[World War I|First World War]] including the battles of [[Ypres]] and [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|the Somme]]. Due to the hundreds of thousands of casualties, the [[poppy|poppies]] that sprang up from the [[battlefield]] and that were immortalised in the [[poem]] [[In Flanders Fields]], have become an emblem of human life lost in war. It is perfectly normal for poppies to invade disturbed arable ground. More important for the course of [[history]] is the resentment some felt of being used as [[cannon fodder]], as a whole nation, and not as single soldiers.
Flemish feeling of identity and consciousness grew through the events and experiences of war. The German occupying authorities had taken several Flemish-friendly measures. More importantly the experiences of many Flemish speaking soldiers on the front lead by French speaking officers catalysed Flemish emancipation. Their suffering is still remembered by Flemish organizations during the yearly [[Ijzerbedevaart|Yser pilgrimage]] and [[Ijzerwake|Wake of the Yser]] in [[Diksmuide]] at the monument of [[Ijzertoren|The Yser tower]].
====Right-Wing Nationalism in the interbellum and World War II====
See [[VNV]], [[Verdinaso]], [[Dietsland]], [[Cyriel Verschaeve]]
{{sectstub}}
====Communautary quibbles and the Egmont pact====
See [[Egmont pact]], [[Vlaams Blok]], [[Voeren]], [[José Happart]], [[Brussel-Halle-Vilvoorde]]
{{sectstub}}
==The community: Flemish language and culture==
The standard language used in Flanders is the same as in [[the Netherlands]], ''i.e.'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. The Dutch dialects spoken in Belgium are often referred together as ''[[Flemish dialects|Flemish]]''. However, using ''Flemish'' to refer to a specific dialectic language may be confusing as there are many different Flemish dialects that are sometimes mutually incomprehensible.
At first sight, ''Flemish culture'' is defined by its [[language]] and its gourmandic mentality. Some claim [[Flemish Literature|Flemish literature]] does not exist, because it is said to be 'readable' by both the Dutchmen as well as Flemings, but this is a fallacy. A distinct Flemish literature already began in the 19th century, with writers and poets as [[Guido Gezelle]], whom not only explicitly referred to his writings as Flemish, but actually used it in many of his poems, and strongly defended it:
"Gij zegt dat ‘t vlaamsch te niet zal gaan:<br>
‘t en zal!<br>
dat ‘t waalsch gezwets zal boven slaan:<br>
‘t en zal!<br>
Dat hopen, dat begeren wij:<br>
dat zeggen en dat zweren wij:<br>
zoo lange als wij ons weren, wij:<br>
‘t en zal, ‘t en zal,<br>
‘t en zal!"<br>
("You say Flemish will disappear:<br>
It will not!<br>
that Walloonish rantings will prevail:<br>
It will not!<br>
This we hope, this we crave:<br>
this we say and this we swear:<br>
as long as we defend ourselves, we:<br>
It will not, It will not,<br>
It will not!") <br>
This distinction in literature is also made by experts, such as Kris Humbeeck, professor in Literature of the University of Antwerp, as can be noted [http://www.abc2004.be/login/components/public/main.php?action=getStatenItem&id=4&lang=1 here].
Some other famous writers representative of Flemish culture are [[Ernest Claes]], [[Stijn Streuvels]], and [[Felix Timmermans]].
==See also==
*[[Flemings]]
*[[Flemish Region]]
*[[Flemish Community]]
*[[Flemish Parliament]]
*[[List of Minister-Presidents of Flanders]]
*[[Count of Flanders]]
*[[VRT]], the Flemish publicly-funded broadcaster
*[[Flemish Primitives]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.flanders.be Flemish authorities] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse overheid''), in English
* [http://www.vlaanderen.be Flemish authorities] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse overheid''), in Dutch
* [http://www.vlaamsparlement.be/ Flemish Parliament] (Dutch: ''Vlaams Parlement'')
* [http://www.vlaanderen.be/regering/ Flemish government] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse regering'')
* [http://www.vgc.be/ Flemish Community Council in Brussels] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie (VGC)'')
* [http://www.vrt.be/ Public radio & television] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse radio en Televisie'')
* [http://www.flandersonline.org/en/flanders.php Flanders on line] (information in English, French, German and Dutch)
* [http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/dagvlaanderen/index.html Dag Vlaanderen]
* [http://www.toerismevlaanderen.be Toerisme Vlaanderen]
* [http://www.nordmag.com/nord_pas_de_calais/flandre/flandre.htm French Flanders] (only available in French)
* [http://roepstem.tripod.com/vlaanderen.html Frans-Vlaanderen (Dutch)]
* [http://aps.vlaanderen.be/statistiek/nieuws/demografie/2003-11_aantal.htm Flanders reaches 6 million inhabitants (Dutch)]
{{Belgium}}
[[Category:Flanders|*]]
[[af:Vlaandere]]
[[ca:Flandes]]
[[da:Flandern]]
[[de:Flandern]]
[[el:Φλάνδρα]]
[[es:Flandes]]
[[eo:Flandrio]]
[[fr:Flandre]]
[[gl:Flandes]]
[[ko:플란데런]]
[[hr:Flandrija]]
[[it:Fiandre]]
[[he:פלנדריה]]
[[li:Vlaandere (gewes)]]
[[nl:Vlaanderen]]
[[ja:フランドル]]
[[no:Flandern]]
[[oc:Flandra]]
[[pl:Flandria]]
[[pt:Flandres]]
[[ro:Flandra]]
[[ru:Фландрия]]
[[sv:Flandern]]
[[uk:Фландрія]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freud (disambiguation)</title>
<id>10879</id>
<revision>
<id>39636296</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T21:11:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slowmover</username>
<id>777454</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Freud''' is the surname of a number of people:
{{TOCright}}
==The Sigmund Freud family==
* [[Sigmund Freud]] (1856–1939), the inventor of [[psychoanalysis]], psychosexual stages, and personality theory of Ego, Superego and Id
* [[Anna Freud]], daughter of Sigmund Freud, famous for contributions to child psychology and developmental psychology
* [[Lucien Freud]], grandson of Sigmund Freud, painter
* [[Clement Freud]], grandson of Sigmund Freud, comedian and writer
* [[Emma Freud]], great grand-daughter of Sigmund Freud, journalist
* [[Bella Freud]], great grand-daughter of Sigmund Freud, fashion designer
* [[Matthew Freud]], great grand-son of Sigmund Freud, publicist
==Other meanings==
* ''[[Freud (film)|Freud]]'' is a [[1962 in film|1962]] film about the life of [[Sigmund Freud]], starring [[Montgomery Clift]] and directed by [[John Huston]].
* '''F.R.E.U.D''', a new age musical group
==See also==
*[[Freudian slip]]
[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Plurality voting system</title>
<id>10880</id>
<revision>
<id>41308019</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T12:42:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikereichold</username>
<id>566926</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv haha</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Plurality ballot.svg|thumb|right|An example of a plurality ballot.]]
The '''plurality voting system''' (also known as '''first past the post''') is a [[voting system]] used to elect a single winner in a given [[election]]. In [[political science]], the use of the plurality voting system alongside multiple, single-winner [[constituency|constituencies]] to elect a multi-member body is often referred to as '''single-member district plurality''' or '''SMDP'''. Plurality voting is also variously referred to as '''winner-take-all''' or '''relative majority''' voting; however, these terms can also refer to elections for multiple winners in a particular constituency using [[bloc voting]].
The term ''first past the post'' (abbreviated '''FPTP''' or '''FPP''') was coined as an [[analogy]] to [[horse racing]], where the winner of the race is the first to pass a particular point on the track (in this case a [[plurality]] of [[Voting|votes]]), after which all other runners automatically and completely lose (that is, the payoff is "winner-take-all"). There is, however, no "post" that the winning candidate must pass in order to win, as they are only required to receive the largest number of votes in their favor. This sometimes results in the alternate name "furthest past the post".
<!-- More on usage needed. -->
Plurality votin
|
t]], [[absolute infinite]] [[existence]], and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end, who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. ''Brahman'' (not to be confused with the deity ''[[Brahma|{{Unicode|Brahmā}}]]'') is seen as a pantheistic '''Cosmic Spirit'''. The personality behind Brahman is known as ''Parabrahman'' (The superior ''Brahman''). ''Brahman'' may be viewed as without personal attributes (''[[Nirguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Nirguṇa Brahman}}]]'') or with attributes (''[[Saguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Saguṇa Brahman}}]]'').
Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of '''God''' is '''''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]]''''' (lit. the '''Supreme Lord'''). In ''[[Advaita Vedanta|{{Unicode|Advaita Vedānta}}]]'' philosophy, ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon human mind. Thus, according to ''[[Smarta|{{Unicode|Smārta}}]]'' views, the Supreme Being can be with attributes, ''[[Saguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Saguṇa Brahman}}]]'', and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. For the Hindus, ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', who is one and only one, is full of innumerable auspicious qualities; He is omniscient, omnipotent, perfect, just, merciful, glorious, mysterious, and yet full of love. He is the Creator, the Ruler and the Destroyer of this universe. Some believe Him to be infinite and incorporeal. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, ''[[Saguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Saguṇa Brahman}}]]'' is viewed solely as ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'' or ''[[Shiva]]''—so their followers may attribute an anthropomorphic form to {{Unicode|Īshvara}}. {{Unicode|Īshvara}} is also called as ''[[Bhagavan|{{Unicode|Bhagavān}}]]'' in modern Hindi. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or ''[[Shakti]]''. However, the Divine and the divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the Divine and the actual heat ''[[Shakti]]''.
===The several deities===
The Hindu religion also believes in several celestial entities which are called ''[[Deva (deity)|Devas]]''. These '''''Devas''''' may variously be translated into English as gods (which is rather a mistranslation), or better, as demigods, deities, celestial spirits or angels. The feminine of ''deva'' is '''''{{Unicode|devī}}'''''. It is these ''devas'' that give the western world a picture that Hinduism is [[polytheism|polytheistic]]. The question who or what these ''devas'' are may be analyzed under the following three points:
# According to the philosophy of ''[[Advaita Vedanta|{{Unicode|Advaita Vedānta}}]]'', and many verses of ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'', the ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}'' and the ''Vedas'', all the ''devas'' are simply the more mundane manifestations of the Supreme Lord ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' upon the human mind, and hence, ultimately, the different manifestations of the One ''Brahman'' that the human mind conceives. In order to worship the formless ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', the devotee conceives an anthropomorphic form of God in his mind for the sake of worshipping Him with love and {{Unicode|Bhakti}}. A mention here could be made to one of the fundamental principles of Hinduism is depicted in the following words which have been widely accepted as true over numerous generations—''ekam sat {{Unicode|viprā bahudhā}} vadanti'' (''[[Rig Veda|{{Unicode|Ṛig Veda}}]]'' 1.164.46) meaning “The True God is '''one''', though the sages address him by multiple names”. Thus, most Hindus maintain that ''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]]'' is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'' or ''Shiva'' or the Mother Goddess—this view is especially true of the ''{{Unicode|Smārta}}'' denomination.
# According to the philosophies of ''[[Nyaya|{{Unicode|Nyāya}}]]'', ''[[Vaisheshika|{{Unicode|Vaisheṣhika}}]]'', ''[[Yoga]]'', certain verses from the ''Shrutis'' and certain Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts, the ''devas'' are those immortal celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', but are above human beings. Thus they are the [[angel]]s who preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world. For instance, the Yoga philosophy says that ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' is the father and ''[[guru]]'' of all the ''devas'' like ''{{Unicode|Prajāpati}}'' and ''Indra'', and of the ''[[rishi|{{Unicode|Ṛiṣhi}}]]s'' like ''[[Angiras|{{Unicode|Aṅgīras}}]]''. They all derive their power from God, under whose control they always work. Again note that the Vaishnavites and the Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}''.
# According to the philosophy of ''[[Mimamsa|{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsā}}]]'', all the ''devas'' and ''{{Unicode|devīs}}'' are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature and there is no one Supreme ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' as their Lord. To do a desired action, the humans must please each or several of these ''devas'' by worshipping them with proper rituals. This kind of view could be regarded as purely [[polytheism|polytheistic]]. Although the later ''{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsakās}}'' retracted this view and accepted ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', this view is still held today by a substantial populace of today's Hindus, especially the more illiterate and superstitious ones.
The terms ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' and ''devas'' must not be confused. ''Devas'' could be as numerous as [http://www.indhistory.com/hindu-god.html 330 million]. Thus, it is false to say that Hinduism has 330 million "Gods", which are more correctly ''[[devas]]'' or celestial beings; even the liberal ''[[Smarta|{{Unicode|Smārta}}]]'' denomination recognizes only six forms of God to be objects of worship; other denominations of Hinduism, such as [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]] follows a singular concept of God, or [[panentheistic]] [[monotheism]]. More precisely, the Hindu scriptures and most Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts regard the ''devas'' as a combination of the first two views; e.g., ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}]]'' is regarded as ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' to whom all the demigods are subservient, and simultaneously, all the demigods are seen as mundane manifestations of {{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}. The third view is not supported by the scriptures.
Whatever it is, the ''devas'' (also called ''{{Unicode|devatās}}'') are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. The 33 early Vedic ''devas'' included ''[[Indra]]'', ''[[Agni]]'', ''[[Soma]]'', ''[[Varuna|{{Unicode|Varuṇa}}]]'', ''[[Mitra]]'', ''[[Savitri|{{Unicode|Savitṛ}}]]'', ''[[Rudra]]'', ''[[Prajapati|{{Unicode|Prajāpati}}]]'', ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'', ''[[Aryaman]]'' and the ''[[Ashvin]]s''; important ''{{Unicode|devīs}}'' were ''[[Sarasvati|{{Unicode|Sarasvatī}}]]'', ''[[Ushas|{{Unicode|Ūṣhā}}]]'' and ''[[Prithvi|{{Unicode|Pṛithivī}}]]''. ''Indra'' is traditionally called the king of the demigods. The later {{Unicode|Purāṇas}} laud the Hindu Trinity of ''[[Brahma|{{Unicode|Brahmā}}]]'', ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'' and ''[[Shiva]]'', i.e., ''[[Trimurti|{{Unicode|Trimūrti}}]]'', signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Note that ''{{Unicode|Brahmā}}'', ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'' and ''Shiva'' are not regarded as ordinary ''devas'' but as '''''{{Unicode|Mahādevas}}'''''. The ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' also laud other ''devas'' and ''[[avatar|{{Unicode|avatāras}}]]'' such as ''[[Ganesha|{{Unicode|Gaṇesha}}]]'', ''[[Hanuman|Hanumān]]'', ''[[Rama|{{Unicode|Rāma}}]]'', ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}]]'', etc. ''{{Unicode|Devīs}}'', worshipped as the mother, include ''[[Lakshmi|{{Unicode|Lakṣhmī}}]]'' and most importantly, ''[[Durga|{{Unicode|Durgā}}]]'' and her forms such as ''[[Kali|{{Unicode|Kālī}}]]''. Though all the different paths of salvation are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of ''Brahman'' and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by ''{{Unicode|Smārta}}'' traditions, depicts an ''inclusively monotheistic (or monistic)'' religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.
== Denominations ==
{{main|Hindu denominations}}
Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share [[rituals]], [[beliefs]], traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (''[[Moksha|{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}]]'', salvation) and on their concept of God (''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]]''). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.
Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. The primary differences are between the sects of [[Vaishnavism]] which conceives God as ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'', and [[Shaivism]] which conceives God as ''[[Shiva]]''. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. [[Shaktism]] worships a female divine or goddess ''[[Devi|{{Unicode|Devī}}]]'' or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of ''Shiva'' personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a [[panentheism|pantheistic]] God. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami [[Dayananda Saraswati]]'s ''[[Arya Samaj|{{Unicode|Ārya Samāj}}]]'' which condemns [[iconolatry]], veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (''[[yagna|yajña]]'').
==== Vaishnavism ====
[[Image:Birlamandirdelhi.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The [[Birla Mandir]
|
Statistics Methodology, and was first published in 1976.
Drugs are divided into different groups according to the organ or system on which they act and/or their therapeutic and chemical characteristics.
== Classification ==
In the system drugs are classified into groups at 5 different levels:
=== First level ===
The first level of the code is based on a letter for the anatomical group and consists of one letter; there are 14 main groups:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| A
| [[ATC code A|Alimentary tract and metabolism]]
|-
| B
| [[ATC code B|Blood and blood forming organs]]
|-
| C
| [[ATC code C|Cardiovascular system]]
|-
| D || [[ATC code D|Dermatologicals]]
|-
| G
| [[ATC code G|Genito-urinary system and sex hormones]]
|-
| H
| [[ATC code H|Systemic hormonal preparations, excluding sex hormones and insulins]]
|-
| J
| [[ATC code J|Anti-infectives for systemic use]]
|-
| L
| [[ATC code L|Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents]]
|-
| M
| [[ATC code M|Musculo-skeletal system]]
|-
| N || [[ATC code N|Nervous system]]
|-
| P
| [[ATC code P|Antiparasitic products, insecticides and repellents]]
|-
| Q
| [[Veterinary drugs]]
|-
| R || [[ATC code R|Respiratory system]]
|-
| S || [[ATC code S|Sensory organs]]
|-
| V || [[ATC code V|Various]]
|}
=== Second level ===
The second level of the code is based on the therapeutic main group and consists of two digits.
=== Third level ===
The third level of the code is based on the therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.
=== Fourth level ===
The fourth level of the code is based on the chemical/therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.
=== Fifth level ===
The fifth level of the code is based on the chemical substance subgroup and consists of two digits.
=== Further notes ===
The actual drug name used is the [[International Nonproprietary Name]] (INN) when available.
The ATC/DDD system is the ATC system with the addition of a measure of the assumed average maintenance dose per day for a drug used for its main indication in adults (Defined Daily Doses).
Other ATC classifications are ATCvet (for veterinary medicinal products) and ATC herbal classification (for herbal remedies).
The ATC classification system was based on the Anatomical Classification (AC-system) developed by the [[European Pharmaceutical Market Research Association]] (EPhMRA) and the [[Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence and Research Group]] (PBIRG).
== External links ==
* [http://www.whocc.no/atcddd/ WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology]
[[Category:Pharmacologic agents]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]
[[da:Anatomisk terapeutisk kemisk klassifikation]]
[[de:Anatomisch Therapeutisch Chemisches Klassifikationssystem]]
[[es:Código ATC]]
[[fr:Classification anatomique, thérapeutique et chimique]]
[[hu:Anatómiai, gyógyászati és kémiai osztályozási rendszer]]
[[nl:ATC-code]]
[[no:Anatomisk terapeutisk kjemisk klassifikasjon]]
[[nn:Anatomisk-terapeutisk-kjemisk lækjemiddelklassifikasjon]]
[[pl:Klasyfikacja anatomiczno-terapeutyczno-chemiczna]]
[[pt:ATC]]
[[ru:Анатомо-терапевтическо-химическая классификация]]
[[th:ระบบจำแนกประเภทยาตามการรักษาทางกายวิภาคศาสตร์]]
[[zh:解剖学治疗学及化学分类系统]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Air conditioning</title>
<id>2771</id>
<revision>
<id>42131370</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:53:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bige1977</username>
<id>741343</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Home air conditioning systems around the world */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Single-room AC unit-external.jpg|thumb|right|The external section of a typical single-room air conditioning unit. For ease of installation, these are frequently placed in a window. This one was installed through a hole cut in the wall.]][[Image:Single-room AC unit-internal.jpg|thumb|right|The internal section of the same unit. The front panel swings down to reveal the controls.]]
:''Note: in the broadest sense, "air conditioning" can refer to any form of "[[HVAC|heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning]]." This article is specifically about the use of [[refrigeration]] for this purpose.''
:''The first album of the pop group [[Curved Air]] was called Airconditioning''
An '''air conditioner''' (often abbreviated to '''AC''' in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], and '''air-con''' in [[Australia]] and in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]) is an [[appliance]] or [[mechanism]] designed to extract heat from an area using a refrigeration cycle. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as [[HVAC]].
An [[badgir|earlier form]] of air conditioning was invented in [[Iran|Persia]] (Iran) thousands of years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof, which caught the wind and passed it through water and blew the cooled air into the building [http://www.metafilter.com/comments.mefi/26911].
The 19th century British scientist and inventor, [[Michael Faraday]] discovered that compressing and liquefying a certain gas could chill air when the liquified gas was allowed to evaporate. His idea remained largely theoretical.
One of the first uses of air conditioning for personal comfort was in 1902 when the [[New York Stock Exchange|New York Stock Exchange's]] new building was equipped with a central cooling as well as heating system. [[Alfred Wolff]], an engineer from [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] who is considered the forerunner in the quest to cool a working environment, helped design the new system, transferring this budding technology from textile mills to commercial buildings.
Later in 1902, the first modern, electrical air conditioning was [[invention|invented]] by [[Willis Haviland Carrier]] ([[1876]]&ndash;[[1950]]). His invention differed from Wolff's in that it controlled not only temperature, but also [[humidity]] for improved manufacturing process control for a printing plant in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]]. This specifically helped to provide low heat and humidity for consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and the Carrier Engineering Company, now called [[UTX|Carrier]] (a division of [[United Technologies Corporation]]), was formed in 1915 to meet the new demand. Later still, air conditioning use was expanded to improve comfort in homes and [[automobile]]s. Residential sales didn't take off until the 1950's. The [[Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]], is a Landmark Building in building engineering services (built in 1906) and lays claim to being the first “Air conditioned Building in the World”.
In 1906, [[Stuart Cramer]] first used the term "air conditioning" as he explored ways to add moisture to the air in his southern textile mill. He combined moisture with ventilation to actually "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants.
The first air conditioners and [[refrigerator]]s employed toxic gases like [[ammonia]] and [[methyl chloride]], which resulted in fatal accidents when they leaked. [[Thomas Midgley, Jr.]] created the first chlorofluorocarbon gas, dubbed [[Freon]] in [[1928]]. The refrigerant proved much safer for humans but is harmful to the atmosphere's ozone layer. "Freon" is a trade name of Dupont for any CFC, HCFC, or HFC refrigerant, the name of each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134). The blend most used in direct-expansion comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22, and is slated to be phased out for use in new equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems.
====Rating (SEER) ====
Air conditioners are usually rated of their efficiency by a system called the SEER ( Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio) rating system. A unit's SEER is calculated by dividing the total number of BTUs of heat removed from the air by the total amount of energy required by the unit. The higher the ratio, the more efficient the unit.
This system rates compressors and condensers on a scale from 1-15, based on their relative efficiency. Today, it is rare to locate any units that are rated below SEER 9, as people are becoming more and more attracted towards the higher efficiency units. An upgrade to a SEER 13 unit, from a SEER 9 system will usually propagate savings of around $300 per year, depending on your location (Compressors , and heat pumps that are used in AC's and Heaters usually work best at temperatures around 50-55 (best in the midwest); at temperatures below 40 Fahrenheit, they begin to reach a point called the balance point, where the unit just cannot pull any more heat out from the air; same around 120 degrees, when relatives outdoor coolness begins to exponentially drop). A common misconception held by people on the SEER rating system is that that it also applies to heating efficiency. This however is not true, as SEER rating testing is done only on Air Conditioning.
== Types of air conditioning ==
=== Refrigeration cycle ===
[[Image:Heatpump.svg|thumb|300px|A diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1)&nbsp;condensing coil, 2)&nbsp;expansion valve, 3)&nbsp;evaporator coil, 4)&nbsp;compressor.]]
In the [[refrigeration cycle]], a [[heat pump]] transfers heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning.
A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior into the room in which it stands.
This cycle takes advantage of the [[universal gas law]] ''PV'' = ''nRT'', where ''P'' is pressure, ''
|
REDIRECT [[Black russian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BRP</title>
<id>4914</id>
<revision>
<id>24622626</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-03T06:06:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hathawayc</username>
<id>221296</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>TLA-disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BRP''' can mean:
* [[Basic Role-Playing]]
* [[Bombardier Recreational Products]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bunnies and Burrows</title>
<id>4915</id>
<revision>
<id>40606762</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T20:04:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Genesis</username>
<id>72450</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added image to infobox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Bunnies and Burrows
|image=
|caption=
|designer= [[B. Dennis Sustare]], [[Scott Robinson]]
|publisher= [[Fantasy Games Unlimited]]
|date= 1976
|genre= ''unknown''
|system= Custom
|footnotes=
}}
'''Bunnies and Burrows''' (B&B) is a [[role-playing game]] (RPG) loosely (and unofficially) based upon the novel ''[[Watership Down]]'' about a group of talking rabbits seeking to found a new warren. Originally published by [[Fantasy Games Unlimited]] in 1976, only two years after the first RPG was published, it is now long out of print. It is notable in the history of role-playing games as the first to allow players to be a non-humanoid race, the first attempt at a detailed martial arts system (known as "Bunny Fu"), the first attempt at a non-combat skills system and the first RPG to appeal equally to women as men. While it has been far surpassed by advances in RPG mechanics in the past twenty years, at the time of its creation it was revolutionary.
While the players interact with many different animal species there is only one monster race - humans, whose thought processes and motivations are completely alien. B&B also had the advantage of offering players an intuitive grasp of relative dangers and appropriate actions not possible in game worlds that are substantially fictive. For example, a person playing a rabbit, when told that his character is confronted with a fox, has an immediate intuition on the amount of peril he or she is facing. Because players are substantially weaker than many of the dangers they face, the game is also notable for being one of the first to encourage problem solving and outwitting obstacles, rather than out-fighting them.
{{Infobox RPG
|title= GURPS Bunnies and Burrows
|image= [[Image:GURPS_Bunnies_and_Burrows.jpg]]
|caption= ''GURPS Bunnies and Burrows'' cover
|designer= [[Steffen O'sullivan]]
|publisher= [[Steve Jackson Games]]
|date= 1992
|genre= ''unknown''
|system= [[GURPS]]
|footnotes=
}}
B&B maintains a certain cult status among some older role-playing game enthusiasts. It was licensed by [[Steve Jackson Games]] in the early [[1990s]] and adapted to the [[GURPS]] rules, thus making it not only one of the oddest RPG settings ever, but also the first RPG to be licensed as a setting or expansion for another RPG. It has also been adapted to several rules-lite universal systems such as [[FUDGE]] and [[Risus]].
==External links==
*[http://www.panix.com/~sos/rpg/bunny.html Comments by Stefan O'Sullivan]
[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]
[[Category:GURPS|Bunnies and Burrows]]
[[Category:Fictional rabbits| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bundaberg Rum</title>
<id>4916</id>
<revision>
<id>40883270</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:22:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zoicon5</username>
<id>15789</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Proof]] to [[Alcoholic proof]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BundyRum.PNG|right|125px]]
'''Bundaberg Rum''' is a dark [[rum]] produced in [[Bundaberg, Queensland]], [[Australia]]. It is Australia's only well known, locally produced spirit and is known locally as ''Bundy''.
Bundaberg Rum came about in [[1888]] after some [[sugar]] millers proposed to use the [[molasses]] produced in the refinement of [[sugar cane]] to make rum.
Production ceased from [[1907]] to [[1914]] and from [[1936]] to [[1939]] after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby [[Burnett River]].
In [[1961]], the [[Polar Bear]] was the company's unusual choice for a [[mascot]], as it was thought to imply that the rum would ward off the coldest chill. The Bundaberg Distilling Company owns its own Cola producing company, which supplies the Cola in their ready-to-drink Bundaberg Rum&Cola products.
==Products==
There are currently a number of products available:
[[Image:Big_Bundy.jpg|thumb|200px|Bundaberg Rum Distillery]]
'''Bottles'''
*Bundaberg Rum UP - The original, 37.0% alcohol, 74 [[Alcoholic proof|proof]]
*Bundaberg Rum OP - an [[Alcoholic proof|overproof]] version of Bundaberg UP at 57.7% alcohol, 115.4 proof
*Bundaberg Rum Royal Liqueur - with [[coffee]] and [[chocolate]] - Only Available from the distillery
*Bundaberg Rum Distiller's No3 - a triple filtered blend replaced Bundy Black
*Bundaberg Rum Black Label - Not Made Anymore, Extremely Rare, 40.0% alcohol, 80 proof
[[Image:Bundy_TourHouse.jpg|thumb|200px|Bundaberg Rum Distillery]]
'''Pre-mix (RTD)'''
*Bundaberg Rum and [[Cola]] - can or stubby
*Bundaberg Dark and Stormy RTD - [[Aluminum can|can]] or [[bottle|stubby bottle]]
*Bundaberg Rum OP and Cola RTD - can only
*Bundy Dry and Lime - With dry ginger ale and lime. Can or stubby.
*Bundaberg Rum and Cola Mid 3.5
*Bundaberg Rum Bond 12 - Limited edition can only (4 packs) 6.0% alcohol
[[Image:Bundy Airport.jpg|thumb|200px|Bundy_Airport.jpg]]
'''Keg'''
*Bundaberg Rum and Cola Draught- Similar taste to Rum and Cola RTD, but served from a keg
==External links==
* [http://www.bundabergrum.com.au/ Bundaberg Rum] - official website
* [http://www.diageo.com/ Diageo] - parent company
[[Category:Rums]]
[[Category:Australian alcoholic beverages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ben Nevis</title>
<id>4917</id>
<revision>
<id>41195233</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:29:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Graptolite</username>
<id>990651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Mtnbox start norange|
Name=Ben Nevis|
Photo=BenNevis2005.jpg|
Caption=Ben Nevis viewed from [[Banavie]] to the north|
Location = [[Lochaber]], [[Scotland]]|
Elevation=1344&nbsp;[[metre|m]] (4409&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]])}}
{{Mtnbox prom|1344&nbsp;m}}
{{Mtnbox coor dms|56|47|49.150|N|5|0|17.222|W|}}
{{Mtnbox topo|[[Ordnance Survey|OS]] ''Landranger'' 41}}
{{Mtnbox UK|grid_ref=NN166713 |
listing=[[Munro]], [[Marilyn (hill)|Marilyn]], [[List of Scottish council areas by highest point|Council top]] ([[Highland]]), [[List of Scottish counties by highest point|County top]] ([[Inverness-shire]])|}}
{{Mtnbox language|translation=Venomous Peak |
language=[[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] |
pronunciation=&#98;&#603;&#110; &#110;&#603;&#118;&#618;&#115;|}}
{{Mtnbox finish}}
{{GBmap|Ben Nevis - Highland|NN166713}}
'''Ben Nevis''' is the highest [[mountain]] in the [[British Isles]]. It is situated in the west of [[Scotland]], close to the town of [[Fort William, Scotland|Fort William]]. It is one of 284 [[Munros]] (mountains in Scotland that reach an elevation of 3,000&nbsp;feet (914.4&nbsp;m) or more).
Ben Nevis is somewhat infamous for its inclement weather. The summit boasts the following statistics:
* 355 days a year cloud-covered, on average.{{ref|Miller}}
* 261 full [[gale]]s per year, on average.
* 4,350 [[millimetre|mm]] of rainfall per year, compared to only 2,050 mm in Fort William, just a few miles away.{{ref|Langmuir}}
The draw of ''the'' highest peak in the British Isles attracts over 100,000 ascents a year.{{ref|BBC}} A significant number of these visitors have little experience of mountains, and many are caught out each year by the quickly changing weather. Between 1990 and 1995 alone there were 13 fatalities on the mountain.{{ref|mcos}} (Eight of these were due to falls while [[climbing|rock climbing]].)
The origin of the name Ben Nevis is unclear. The word ''ben'' is certainly from ''beann'', the [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] word for "peak", and Ben Nevis is sometimes referred to as 'The Ben'. Possibilities for the meaning of ''nevis'' include 'venomous', 'burst' or 'flow' (from ''neb'') and 'brow of keen air' (from ''neamh'' meaning 'keeness of air' and ''bhathais'' meaning 'brow'). A locally popular suggestion that the name derives from ''naomh'' meaning 'heaven' is rejected by [[etymology|etymologists]].
Ben Nevis is one of three British mountains climbed as part of the [[National Three Peaks Challenge|(National) Three Peaks Challenge]].
==Popular routes==
[[Image:Ben Nevis Tourist Route.jpg|thumb|left|160px|On the 'Ben Path', steps are provided for some steeper sections]]
[[Image:Ben Nevis non-tourist.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The arête from Carn Mor Dearg is popular with strong walkers]]
There is a relatively simple route to the summit known as the 'Ben Path', but commonly referred to as the 'tourist route'. This begins at the Glen Nevis Visitor Centre about one [[mile]] (1.6&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]) from Fort William town centre, and a short distance up the mountain is joined by a path from the [[youth hostel]]. Another popular route is from Steal further up [[Glen Nevis]], it is shorter and steeper, and tends to be used by climbers with a modicum of experience. Navigating safely from the summit in poor visibility can be difficult.
The continuation round
|
ut the rate [[per capita]] and per mile travelled decreases steadily. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent [[disability]]. The highest accident figures are reported in China and India. The European Union has a rigid program to cut the death toll in the EU in half by 2010 and member states have started implementing measures.
==Current Production==
In 2005 63 million cars and light trucks were produced worldwide. The world's biggest car producer (including light trucks) is the European Union with 29% of the world's production. In non-EU Eastern Europe another 4% are produced. The second largest manufacturer is NAFTA with 25.8%, followed by Japan with 16.7%, China with 8.1%, MERCOSUR with 3.9%, India with 2.4% and the rest of the world with 10.1%. (vda-link)
Large free trade areas like EU, NAFTA and MERCOSUR attract manufacturers worldwide to produce their products within them and without currency risks or customs, additionally to being close to customers. Thus the production figures do not show the technological ability or business skill of the areas. In fact much if not most of the Third World car production is used western technology and car models (and sometimes even complete obsolete western factories shipped to the country), which is reflected in the patent statistic as well as the locations of the r&d centers.
The automobile industry is dominated by relatively few large corporations (not to be confused with the much more numerous brands), the biggest of which (by numbers of produced cars) are currently [[General Motors]], [[Toyota]] and [[Ford Motor Company]]. It is expected, that Toyota will reach the No.1 position in 2006. The most profitable per-unit carmaker of recent years has been Porsche due to their premium price tag.
The automotive industry at large still suffers from high under-utilization of its manufacturing potential.
==Future of the car==
In order to limit deaths, there has been a push for self-driving automobiles. Much of the drive for computer-driven vehicles has been led by [[DARPA]] with their [http://www.grandchallenge.org/ Grand Challenge] race.
A current and powerful invention was ESP by Bosch and many followers that reduces deaths by about 30% and is recommended by many lawmakers and carmakers to be a standard feature in all cars sold in the EU. ESP recognizes dangerous situations and corrects the drivers input for a short moment to stabilize the car.
The biggest threat to automobiles is the declining supply of oil, which does not completely stop car usage but makes it significantly more expensive. Beginning of 2006 a gallon of gas costs approx. 6 US$ in Germany and other European countries. If no cheap solution can be found in the relatively near future individual mobility might suffer a major setback. Nevertheless, individual mobility is highly prized in modern societies so the demand for automobiles will remain just with a different power source.
Looking at automotive technology some areas appear to have the most need of development. For example, both the rubber tires and the batteries currently used by most cars seem rather antiquated when compared to,say, modern-day engines and traction-control systems. These are like jets with cardboard wings or PCs with 10 KB hard drives respectively. While slow moving cars can control their wheels via ESP reasonably well, fast moving vehicles like a Bugatti Veyron need a special tire checkup before approaching 400 km/h. Also the existing batteries are barely fit to handle the cars electronics but are far off from the ability to store enough energy for moving the car unassisted.
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar2|car|automobile}}
*[[Carfree movement]]
*[[Effects of the automobile on societies]]
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
*[[List of recent automobile models by type]]
*[[U.S. Automobile Production Figures]]
*[[Car dealership]]
*[[Car handling]]
*[[Car safety]]
*''[[Unsafe at Any Speed]]'' by [[Ralph Nader]]
*[[Crash test dummy]]
*[[Car washing techniques]]
*[[List of automotive superlatives]], [[Lists of automobiles]] for a [[structured list]].
*[[List of automotive packages]] (cosmetic and functional features sold as a group)
*[[Road traffic accident]]
*[[hybrid cars]]
*[[Portal:Cars]]
==Major possible subsystems==
*[[engine]]
**[[carburetor]] or [[fuel injection]]
**[[fuel pump]]
**[[engine configuration]]: [[Wankel engine|Wankel]] or [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] ([[v engine|V]], [[inline engine|inline]], [[flat engine|flat]]).
**[[electronic control unit|engine management system]]s
**[[exhaust pipe|exhaust system]]
**[[ignition system]]
**[[Automobile self starter|self starter]]
**[[Automobile emissions control|emissions control]] devices
**[[turbocharger]]s and [[supercharger]]s
**[[front engine]]
**[[rear engine]]
**[[mid engine]]
*[[Automobile ancillary power|Ancillary power]] - mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, vacuum, air
*[[drivetrain]]
**[[transmission (automobile)|transmission]] ([[gearbox]])
***[[manual transmission]]
***[[semi-automatic transmission]]
***[[fully-automatic transmission]]
**Layout
***[[FF layout]]
***[[FR layout]]
***[[MR layout]]
***[[RR layout]]
**Drive Wheels
***[[2 wheel drive]]
***[[4 wheel drive]]
***[[Front wheel drive]]
***[[Rear wheel drive]]
***[[All wheel drive]]
**[[differential (mechanics)|differential]]
***[[limited slip differential]]
***[[locking differential]]
**[[axle]]
**[[Live axle]]
*[[brake]]s
**[[disc brake]]s
**[[drum brake]]s
**[[anti-lock braking system]]s (ABS)
*[[wheel]]s and [[tire]]s
**[[custom wheel]]s
*[[steering]]
**[[rack and pinion]]
**[[Ackermann steering geometry]]
**[[Caster angle]]
**[[Camber angle]]
**[[Kingpin]]
*[[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]]
**[[MacPherson strut]]
**[[wishbone suspension|wishbone]]
**[[double wishbone]]
**[[multi-link suspension|multi-link]]
**[[torsion beam suspension|torsion beam]]
**[[semi-trailing arm suspension|semi-trailing arm]]
**[[axle]]
*body
**[[crumple zone]]s
**[[monocoque]] (or unibody) construction
**[[:Category:Car doors]]
**[[Spoiler (automotive)|spoiler]]
**[[Japan Black]] (fore-runner of modern automotive finishes)
*interior equipment
**[[passive safety]]
***[[seat belt]]s
***[[airbag]]s
***[[child safety lock]]s
**[[dashboard]]
**[[shifter]] for selecting gear ratios
**[[wikt:ancillary|ancillary]] equipment such as [[car audio|stereos]], [[air conditioning]], [[cruise control]], [[car phone]]s, [[Global Positioning System|positioning system]]s, cup holders, etc.
*exterior equipment
**windows
***[[Power window]]
***[[windshield]]
***[[Daytime running lamp]]s
==External links==
{{cleanup-spam}}
{{commons|Automobile}}
*[http://www.dmv.org/ Department of Motor Vehicles]
*[http://www.autoweek.com/ Autoweek.com]
*[http://www.detnews.com/autosinsider/index.htm Auto Insider]
*[http://www.edmunds.com/ Edmunds.com]
*[http://www.kbb.com/ Kelley Blue Book]
*[http://www.hwysafety.org/ Insurance Institute for Highway Safety]
*[http://nhtsa.gov/ NHTSA.gov]
*[http://www.naftc.wvu.edu/ Alternative Fuel Vehicle Training]
*[http://www.becomeacardealer.com/ How To Become a Car Dealer]
*[http://www.vda.de/de/service/jahresbericht/auto2005/pdf_charts/2_32.pdf/ Worldwide car production]
*[http://www.topgear.com/ Top Gear cool automobile show from the BBC UK]
*[http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal]
[[Category:Automobiles|*]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
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[[fa:خودرو]]
[[fr:Automobile]]
[[gl:Automóbil]]
[[ko:자동차]]
[[hr:Automobil]]
[[id:Mobil]]
[[it:Autovettura]]
[[he:מכונית]]
[[la:Autocinetum]]
[[lt:Automobilis]]
[[mk:Автомобил]]
[[ms:Kereta]]
[[na:Auto]]
[[nv:Chidí]]
[[nl:Auto]]
[[ja:自動車]]
[[no:Bil]]
[[nn:Bil]]
[[os:Хæдтулгæ]]
[[pl:Samochód]]
[[pt:Automóvel]]
[[ro:Automobil]]
[[ru:Автомобиль]]
[[simple:Car]]
[[sk:Automobil]]
[[sl:Avtomobil]]
[[sr:Аутомобил]]
[[su:Otomotif]]
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[[th:รถยนต์]]
[[tr:Otomobil]]
[[uk:Автомобіль]]
[[zh:汽车]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Audi</title>
<id>848</id>
<revision>
<id>41903912</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:29:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mushin</username>
<id>271938</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */ rw</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Audi_logo.png|none|right|200px|Audi logo]]
'''Audi''' is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], and is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the [[Volkswagen Group]]. The company is headquartered in [[Ingolstadt]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]].
Audi's German [[tagline]] is "[[Vorsprung durch Technik]]". The [[tagline]] is used either in original or in its English translation "Progress through Technology".
==History==
[[Image:Audi NSU range (1969).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Press photograph of the then newly merged Audi NSU range, 1969.]]
===The origins of Audi===
The company traces its origins back to 1899 and [[August Horch]]. The first Horch automobile was produced in 1901 in [[Zwickau]], in former [[East Germany]]. In 1910, Horch was forced out of the company he had founded. He then started a new company in Zwickau and continued using the Horch brand. His former partners sued him for [[trademark]] infringement and a German court determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. August Horch was forced to refrain from using his own [[family name]] in his new car business. As the word "horch!" translates to "listen!" in [[German language|German]], August Horch settled on the [[Latin]] equivalent of his name - "audi!". It is also popularly believed that Audi is an acronym which stands for "Auto Union [[Germany|Deutschland]] [[Ingolstadt]]". Audi produces over 2 million vehicles annually at its main production site in [[Ingolstadt]]. Au
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of the cardinal virtues, and this is mine: I am one of the few honest people that I have ever known"
* "They are a rotten crowd," I shouted across the lawn. "You're worth the whole damn bunch put together."
* "Can't repeat the past?" he cried incredulously. "Why of course you can!"
* "The poor son of a bitch."
* "They were careless people, Tom and Daisy—they smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made . . . ."
* "Tomorrow we will run faster, stretch out our arms farther... And one fine morning——— So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past."
The Following quotation is from the short story ''[[Winter Dreams]]'':
* "He wanted not association with glittering things and glittering people &mdash; he wanted the glittering things themselves."
[[Ernest Hemingway]] once said of F. Scott Fitzgerald:
:"His talent was as natural as the pattern that was made by the dust on a butterfly's wings"
Hemingway is responsible for a famous misquotation of Fitzgerald's. According to the author, a conversation between him and Fitzgerald went:
:Fitzgerald: The rich are different than you and me.
:Hemingway: Yes, they have more money.
This never actually happened; it is a retelling of an actual encounter between Hemingway and [[Mary Colum]], which went as follows:
:Hemingway: I am getting to know the rich.
:Colum: I think you’ll find the only difference between the rich and other people is that the rich have more money.
The full quotation is found in Fitzgerald's words in his short story "The Rich Boy" (1926), paragraph 3: "Let me tell you about the very rich. They are different from you and me. They possess and enjoy early, and it does something to them, makes them soft, where we are hard, cynical where we are trustful, in a way that, unless you were born rich, it is very difficult to understand."
==Biography and criticism==
*The standard biographies of Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald are Arthur Mizener's ''The Far Side of Paradise'' (1951, 1965), and Matthew Bruccoli's ''Some Sort of Epic Grandeur'' (1981). Bruccoli's account is more readable and more accurate. Fitzgerald's letters have also been published in various editions such as ''Dear Scott, Dearest Zelda: The Love Letters of F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald'', ed. Jackson R. Bryer and Cathy W. Banks (2002); ''Correspondence of F. Scott Fitzgerald'', ed. Matthew Bruccoli and Margaret Duggan (1980), and ''F. Scott Fitzgerald: A Life in Letters'', ed. Matthew Bruccoli (1994).
*Zelda Fitzgerald published a novel, ''[[Save Me the Waltz]]'', in 1932.
*The film "[[Beloved Infidel]]" (1959) portrays Fitzgerald (played by [[Gregory Peck]]) during his final years as a Hollywood [[scenarist]]. Another movie called "[[Last Call]]" (2002) ([[Jeremy Irons]] plays the role of F. Scott Fitzgerald) describes the relationship with [[Frances Kroll]] during his last two years of life.
===See also===
*[[List of famous Minnesotans]] ''(Hidden Hometown Heroes)''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=F.+Scott+Fitzgerald | name=F. Scott Fitzgerald}}
[[Category:1896 births|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:1940 deaths|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:American novelists|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:College dropouts|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:People from Minnesota|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[bg:Франсис Скот Фицджералд]]
[[cs:Francis Scott Fitzgerald]]
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[[zh:佛兰西斯·史考特·基·费兹杰罗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First-class cricket</title>
<id>11040</id>
<revision>
<id>42074144</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:20:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Srikeit</username>
<id>759365</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Definition of first-class cricket */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''First-class [[cricket]]''' matches are those in which both teams have two innings each and which involve either international teams or the highest standard of domestic teams. Generally, matches are eleven players a side but there have been exceptions to this. Nowadays, all matches must be scheduled to have at least three days duration but, historically, matches were played to a finish with no pre-defined timespan.
== Point of Origin ==
The point of origin of first-class cricket is controversial and the issue has never been satisfactorily resolved. [[As of 2005]], members of the [[Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians]] (ACS) are striving to resolve the matter and the ACS committee has been asked to address the issue as a priority at the society's [[2006]] AGM.
At one time, some cricket historians held that [[1864]] marked the origin of first-class cricket because that was when [[overarm bowling]] was officially introduced. This date was rejected by other historians who argued that standards of play during the so-called "roundarm era" could not be termed "second-class". One prominent statistician then effectively challenged the 1864 date by producing a book of records that began in [[1815]], the year in which cricket began its recovery from the impact of the [[Napoleonic War]].
Although 1815 ensured that the whole of the roundarm era was included in the first-class records, roundarm did not begin in any real sense until [[1827]] and was not legalised until [[1835]]; and even then the Laws had to be reinforced in [[1845]] by removing the benefit of the doubt from the bowler in the matter of his hand’s height when delivering the ball. For most of the period from 1815 to 1845, underarm bowling continued to prevail and so 1815 as the point of origin was resisted by champions of the "underarm era" which had existed from time immemorial.
As a result, some statisticians began to include games from the [[18th Century]] in their first-class records. The main difficulty encountered by researchers before 1815 is the absence of match details and there are numerous matches in the 18th Century which are known about in name only, with no scores having survived. The ACS decided sometime since [[1980]] that the first-class records should include all [[Gentlemen v Players]] matches and these began in [[1806]] but for some unexplained reason, the ACS decided to "dump" the start date into the century convenient year of [[1801]] and then left it there "pending further research".
It is only in [[2005]] that the 1801 startpoint has been seriously challenged. Scorecards for matches prior to 1801 have been loaded into the ACS-supported [http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/ CricketArchive] database and there classified as major or minor pending an overall accord with the ACS, which is hoped to be achieved at the 2006 AGM as mentioned above.
There is a continuous though incomplete record from [[1772]] and there are surviving scorecards from a few earlier games, including two in [[1744]]. Some statisticians hold that the earlier games are too isolated for inclusion and that the first-class timespan should commence in 1772.
The [http://acscricket.com/Articles/3/3126.html latest view that has been published by the ACS] is that the point of origin is [[1660]]. Historical evidence points to this date, in the aftermath of the [[Restoration]] as the time when teams of "county strength" were first assembled. It is argued that 1660 should be the startpoint so as to encompass all matches that ultimately come to light.
No doubt the issue will continue to be discussed for some time to come.
== Conduct of a game of first-class cricket ==
The game is conducted similarly to [[Test cricket]], though usually of a maximum length of three or four days rather than the five of Test cricket (though a few are). (Technically, Test cricket is a form of first-class cricket. However, the term "first class" is usually used to refer to domestic competition only.) Around the world, these teams are usually representative of internal political divisions &mdash; for instance, Australia's domestic first-class competition is between state representative teams. Due to the time demands of such a competition, first-class cricketers are mostly paid professionals.
A first class match played domestically has the same rules as Test matches, except for the number of days of play. Normally, the matches are conducted over three or four days.
===The follow-on rule===
The follow-on minimum lead requirement in any two-innings cricket match is:
* Five or more days &mdash; 200 runs
* Three or four days &mdash; 150 runs
* Two days &mdash; 100 runs
* One day &mdash; 75 runs
If the whole first day of play is abandoned without a ball being bowled, then the number of days considered for the sake of calculating follow on are counted from the actual start of play. For example, if the first day of a four-day match is abandoned due to weather or other reasons, then the match is counted as a three-day one for the sake of determining follow on. (This would not make a difference if only one day is lost in a four-day match because the follow on requirem
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e for ill in a person, which lowers their level of functioning and leads to disease. Present medical training doesn't include any consideration of use, and the medical profession is limited in its ability to diagnose and treat illness.
Dr Wilfred Barlow commented "We can only marvel at the courage, clear-sightedness and perseverance which underlies this book". The book is quite readable and the first chapter gives a very valuable insight into the development of the principles of the technique. It would be worth reading this before ''Constructive Conscious Control'' as it will help you to see where Alexander is coming from.
===The universal constant in living===
''The universal constant in living''. (Manchester : Re-educational Publications, 1941.) With an appreciation by G. E. Coghill.
The universal constant in living is that: '''USE AFFECTS FUNCTION'''
That is to say that your manner of use of your self is a constant influence for good or ill on the level of function of your self. Much of this book is devoted to demonstrating that constant influence, and its consequences and practical considerations.
[[Frank Pierce Jones]] says that this book should be considered as a long appendix to the other books and it contains little organisation. However, he also points out that there is much in the book that makes it worth reading. When it covers the same ground as the previous books it adds new emphasis. The appreciation by [[G. E. Coghill]] is particularly significant. Coghill was a very eminent scientist who had worked in the areas of physiology and anatomy and had discovered something like Alexander's primary control in the lower vertebrates. Coghill ends his appreciation with: "I regard his methods as thoroughly scientific and educationally sound."
The Universal Constant in Living opens with a theme that was echoed by Rene Dubo in his book The Mirage of Health, although there is nothing to show that they were aware of each other's work. The book opens with:
"Few of us hitherto have given consideration to the question of the extent to which we are individually responsible for the ills that our flesh is heir to; this is because we have not come to a realisation of the faulty and often harmful manner in which we use ourselves in our daily activities and even during sleep, or of the misdirection strain and waste of energy due to this misuse."
To Alexander the individual is paramount. We cannot blame scientists, or the government, or any outside agency for our lack of health and happiness. It is our responsibility alone.
This book is in part a response to those followers of the technique who seemed to Alexander to be watering down the technique. He complains that they make no mention of any technique through which these concepts can be put into practice. This was all that Alexander had ever tried to do. He is emphasising the oneness of control of use and reaction, and stressing the importance of mind/body unity in practice.
There is a quality about this book that is not found in the others. It lacks the grandeur of ''Man's Supreme Inheritance'', the vision of ''Constructive Conscious Control'', or the practicality of ''Use of the Self''. One feels that at 72, Alexander is somewhat exasperated that people have not taken up his ideas to the extent he would have wished; the problems and solutions are so clear to him. This attitude is highlighted in the second to last chapter called 'Stupidity in Living'. Other writers tell us that to a great extent he brought this on himself, not trusting even his best and most faithful followers.
Sections of the book are highly critical of the people he obviously feels should know better, since he has explained it all to them. If only they could see that all their efforts are wasted since they continue to rely on habitual guidance and control etc. Alexander severely criticises the Report on Physical Education by the [[British Medical Association]] - they fail to come up with anything which was different in principle from that which had come before. He dismisses physiologists, since the use of those he had met was as bad as any person. From this he concludes that the study of physiology cannot and does not help a person to change their use for the better.
The ''Universal Constant in Living'' shows how Alexander's ideas have matured. It is perhaps best read after the other books, as [[Frank Pierce Jones]] has suggested, as an appendix.
==External links==
* [http://www.alexandertechnique.com The Complete Guide to the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.stat.org.uk UK Society of The Teachers of Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.isatt.net Irish Society of Teachers of Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.geocities.com/agarap/dewey John Dewey vs. the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.alexander-tech.com Useful information about how F.M. Alexander deveoped his Technique]
[[Category:1869 births|Alexander, F. Matthias]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Alexander, F. Matthias]]
[[de:Frederick Matthias Alexander]]
[[fr:Matthias Alexander]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Feudalism</title>
<id>11298</id>
<revision>
<id>41975917</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:09:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stbalbach</username>
<id>87883</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Lords, vassals and fiefs */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rolandfealty.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Roland]] pledges his [[fealty]] to [[Charlemagne]]; from a manuscript of a ''[[chanson de geste]]''.]]
'''Feudalism''' refers to a general set of reciprocal [[law|legal]] and [[military]] obligations among the warrior [[nobility]] of [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]], revolving around the three key concepts of [[lord]]s, [[vassal]]s, and [[fief]]s.
Defining feudalism requires many qualifiers because there is no broadly accepted agreement of what it means. In order to begin to understand feudalism, a working definition is desirable. The definition described in this article is the most senior and classic definition and is still subscribed to by many historians.
However, other definitions of feudalism exist. Since at least the [[1960s]] many [[medieval]] historians have included a broader social aspect, adding the [[peasant|peasantry]] bonds of [[Manorialism]], referred to as a "[[feudal society]]". Still others, since the [[1970s]], have re-examined the evidence and concluded that feudalism is an unworkable term and should be removed entirely from scholarly and educational discussion (see [[Feudalism#Revolt against the term feudalism|Revolt against the term feudalism]]), or at least only used with severe qualification and warning.
Outside of a European context, the concept of feudalism is normally only used by analogy (called '''semi-feudal'''), most often in discussions of [[Japan]] under the [[shogun]]s, and, sometimes, nineteenth-century [[Ethiopia]]. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing it in places as diverse as [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Parthia|Parthian empire]], [[Indian feudalism|India]], to the [[History of the Southern United States#Antebellum Era (1781-1860)|American South of the nineteenth century]]. [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/mh_017900_feudalism.htm]
==Etymology==
The word "feudalism" was invented in the seventeenth century, based on the [[Late Latin]] ''feudum'', which was borrowed from [[Old High German|Germanic]] ''*[[fehu]]'', a commonly used term in the [[Middle Ages]] for a [[fief]] (land held under certain obligations by ''feodati''). Even though the word components are from the Middle Ages, the concept of feudalism was not invented until the [[seventeenth century]], the modern era.
==What is feudalism?==
::''See also [[Feudal society]] and [[Feudalism (examples)]]''
Three elements existed and characterize the period: [[lord]]s, [[vassal]]s and [[fief]]s. Feudalism is defined by how these three elements fit together.
A [[lord]] was a noble who owned land. A [[vassal]] was a person who was granted land by the lord. The land was known as a [[fief]]. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal and fief form the basis of feudalism.
===Lords, vassals and fiefs===
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a [[commendation ceremony]] comprised of the two-part act of [[homage]] and oath of [[fealty]]. During homage, the vassal would promise to fight for the lord at his command. ''Fealty'' comes from the Latin ''fidelitas'', or faithfulness; the oath of fealty is thus a promise that the vassal will be faithful to the lord. Once the commendation was complete, the lord and vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one another.
The lord's principal obligation was to grant a fief, or its revenues, to the vassal; the fief is the primary reason the vassal chose to enter into the relationship. In addition, the lord sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the vassal and fief. One of those obligations was its maintenance. Since the lord had not given the land away, only loaned it, it was still the lord's responsibility to maintain the land, while the vassal had the right to collect revenues generated from it. Another obligation that the lord had to fulfill was to protect the land and the vassal from harm.
The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide "aid", or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feud
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anacharsis.jpg|frame|left|Anacharsis]]
:''"He marvelled that among the Greeks, those who were skillful in a thing vie in competition; those who have ''no'' skill, judge"'' &mdash;[[Diogenes Laertius]], of Anacharsis.
'''Anacharsis''' was a [[Scythian]] philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the [[Black Sea]] to Athens in the early [[6th century BCE]] and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken "[[barbarian]]," apparently a forerunner of the [[Skepticism|Skeptics]] and [[Cynics]], though none of his authentic works have survived.
Anacharsis was half Greek and the son of a Scythian chief, from a mixed Hellenistic culture, apparently in the region of the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]]. He cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a natural philosopher, not unlike the way the French took to [[Benjamin Franklin]]. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'.
Arriving in Athens about 589 BCE, he came to the house of [[Solon]] the philosopher and lawgiver, and told Solon's slave that Anacharsis was come to visit, desired to see Solon, and wanted to enter into hospitable relations. The servant returned with Solon's quintessentially Greek answer, "Men generally limit such hospitality to their own countrymen." Thereupon the Scythian stepped significantly across the threshold, and said that, now that he was in Solon's country, it would be quite suitable.
Anacharis was the first stranger who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned one of the [[Seven Sages of Athens]], and it is said that he was initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek.
His book paralleling the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks has been lost. It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small flies and allow wasps and hornets to escape.
He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness, the third, disgust. So he became a kind of [[emblem]] to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.' (Compare the philosophy of [[Epicurus]].)
His famous ''Letter to [[Croesus]]'', the proverbially rich king of [[Lydia]], is apocryphal, but typical of his quality:
:"Anarcharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours."
When he did return to the Scythians, he was killed, Herodotus (iv, 76) reported, by his own brother, for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess [[Cybele]], whose role was unwelcome among the patriarchal Scythians.
[[Strabo]] makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the [[anchor]] with two flukes.
==The revival of Anacharsis in the 18th century==
In [[1788]] [[Jean Jacques Barthelemy]] (1716-95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published ''The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece,'' a learned imaginary travel journal, one of the first [[historical novel]]s, which a modern scholar has called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th Century; it had a high impact on the growth of [[philhellenism]] in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek struggle for independence]] and spawned sequels and imitations through the [[19th century]].
==External links==
*[http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlanacharsis.htm Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of the Philosophers'' i, 101: brief entry gives many pithy but apocryphal remarks.]
*[http://www.whoosh.org/issue56/rich1.html A witty comparison of the Anacharsis cult with the modern cult of Xena, "Warrior Princess".] (See [[Xena: Warrior Princess|Xena]].)
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient philosophers]]
[[Category:Scythians]]
==Classical references==
*Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, ''Scytha''; Cicero, ''Tusc. Disp.'' v. 32; Diogenes Laertius i. 101.
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:As-anacreonte.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Anacreonte roman copy , Rome in Palazzo dei Conservatori]]
'''Anacreon''' (born ca. [[570 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[lyric poem|lyric]] [[poet]], notable for his drinking songs and hymns. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of [[nine lyric poets]].
== Life ==
He was born at [[Teos]], an [[Ionia]]n city on the coast of [[Asia Minor]]. Little more is known of his life, but it is likely that he shared the voluntary exile of the mass of his fellow-townsmen who sailed to [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]], where they founded a colony, rather than remaining behind to surrender their city to [[Harpagus]], one of [[Cyrus the Great]]'s generals. Cyrus was, at the time ([[545 BC]]), besieging the Greek cities of [[Asia Minor]]. Anacreon seems to have taken part in the fighting, in which, on his own admission, he did not distinguish himself.
From Thrace he removed to the court of [[Polycrates of Samos]]. He is said to have acted as [[tutor]] to Polycrates; that he enjoyed the [[tyrant]]'s confidence we learn on the authority of [[Herodotus]] (iii.121), who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chamber when audience was given to the [[Iran|Persia]]n herald. In return for his favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary [[ode]]s upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyric poet, [[Horace]], who was one of his great admirers, and in many respects a kindred spirit, Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of courts. On the death of Polycrates, [[Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)|Hipparchus]], who was then in power at [[Athens]] and inherited the literary tastes of his father [[Pisistratus|Peisistratus]], sent a special embassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became acquainted with the poet [[Simonides]], and other members of the brilliant circle which had gathered round Hipparchus. When this circle was broken up by the assassination of Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have returned to his native town of Teos, where, according to a metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and was buried. According to others, before returning to Teos, he accompanied Simonides to the court of [[Echecrates]], a [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] dynast of the house of the [[Aleuadae]]. [[Lucian]] mentions Anacreon amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, as having completed eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by [[Pliny the Elder]] (''Nat. Hist.'' vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a grape-stone, but the story has an air of mythical adaptation to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat [[apocryphal]].
Anacreon was for a long time popular at Athens, where his statue was to be seen on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]], together with that of his friend [[Xanthippus]], the father of [[Pericles]]. On several coins of Teos he is represented holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes sitting, sometimes standing. A marble statue found in [[1835]] in the [[Sabine]] district, and now in the [[Villa Borghese]], is said to represent Anacreon.
== Poetry ==
Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns, as well as of those [[bacchanalian]] and amatory lyrics - some of a [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic]] nature - which are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns to [[Artemis]] and [[Dionysus]], consisting of eight and eleven lines respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains, as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especially when addressed to such deities as [[Aphrodite]], [[Eros (god)|Eros]] and [[Dionysus]], are not so very unlike what we call "Anacreontic" poetry as to make the contrast of style as great as the word might seem to imply. The tone of Anacreon's lyric effusions has probably led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of the poet's personal character. The "triple worship" of the [[Muses]], Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an old Greek epigram (''Anthol.'' iii. 25, 51), may have been as purely professional in the two last cases as in the first, and his private character on such points was probably neither much better nor worse than that of his contemporaries. [[Athenaeus]] remarks acutely that he seems at least to have been sober when he wrote; and he himself strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal characteristics of intoxicat
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* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=HooverH Audio clips of Hoover's speeches]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/hh31.html White House Biography]
* [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/herberthoover/ American President.org Biography]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-1.html Herbert Hoover First State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-2.html Herbert Hoover Second State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-3.html Herbert Hoover Third State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-4.html Herbert Hoover Fourth State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/Herbert-Hoover-links.html Herbert Hoover Links]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g31.htm Medical and Health history of Herbert Hoover]
* [http://www.presidentsusa.net/hoover.html Brief Synapse of Herbert Hoover]
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<page>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hildegard.jpg|right|framed|A medieval illumination showing Hildegard von Bingen and the monk Volmar]]
'''Blessed Hildegard of Bingen''' (alternatively ''von Bingen'' or ''Bingensis'') ([[September 16]] [[1098]] &ndash; [[September 17]], [[1179]]) was a [[German people|German]] ''[[:wiktionary:magistra|magistra]]''{{fn|1}}, [[Monasticism|monastic]] leader, [[Mystics|mystic]], author, and composer of [[music]].
== Biography ==
A ''vita'' of Hildegard was written by two monks, Godefrid and Theodoric ([[Patrologia Latina|PL]] vol. 197).
Hildegard was born into a family of nobles in the service of the counts of Sponheim, close relatives of the [[Hohenstaufen]] emperors. Because she was a tenth child, and a sickly one from birth, at the age of eight Hildegard's parents sent her as a [[tithe]] to the church. Hildegard was put in the care of Jutta, the sister of Count Meinhard of Sponheim, just outside the [[Disibod]]enberg monastery in Germany. Jutta was enormously popular and acquired so many followers a small nunnery sprang up around her. Upon Jutta's death in [[1136]] Hildegard was chosen magistra of the community, and eventually moved the group to a new monastery on the Rupertsberg at [[Bingen]] on the [[Rhine]].
From the time she was very young, Hildegard claimed to have [[Vision (religion)|vision]]s. She received a prophetic call from God five years after her election as magistra in 1141 demanding of her, "Write what you see". At first she was hesitant about writing her visions, holding them inside. She was finally convinced to write by members of her order after falling physically ill from carrying the unspoken burden.
== The Awakening ==
During all these years Hildegard confided of her visions only to Jutta and another monk, named Volmar, who was to become her lifelong secretary. However, in [[1141]], Hildegard had a vision that changed the course of her life. A vision of [[God]] gave her instant understanding of the meaning of the religious texts, and commanded her to write down everything she would observe in her visions.
''"And it came to pass ... when I was 42 years and 7 months old, that the heavens were opened and a blinding light of exceptional brilliance flowed through my entire brain. And so it kindled my whole heart and breast like a flame, not burning but warming... and suddenly I understood of the meaning of expositions of the books..."'' Yet Hildegard was also overwhelmed by feelings of inadequacy and hesitated to act.
''"But although I heard and saw these things, because of doubt and low opinion of myself and because of diverse sayings of men, I refused for a long time a call to write, not out of stubbornness but out of humility, until weighed down by a scourge of god, I fell onto a bed of sickness."''
The [[12th century]] was also the time of schisms and religious foment, when someone preaching any outlandish doctrine could instantly attract a large following. Hildegard was critical of schismatics, indeed her whole life she preached against them, especially the [[Cathar|Cathars]]. She wanted her visions to be sanctioned, approved by the Catholic Church, though she herself never doubted the divine origins to her luminous visions.
She wrote to St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], seeking his blessings. Though his answer to her was rather perfunctory, he did bring it to the attention of [[Pope Eugenius III]] (1145-53), who exhorted Hildegard to finish her writings. To determine if her visions were divinely inspired he created a commission which came to visit Hildegard and they declared her to be a genuine mystic and not insane. With papal imprimatur, Hildegard was able to finish her first visionary work Scivias ("Know the Ways of the Lord") and her fame began to spread through the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and beyond.
== Works ==
[[Image:Sthildegard-manuscript.jpg|thumb|"Universal Man" illumination from Hildegard's ''Liber divinorum operum''.]]
Recent scholarly interest in women in the medieval church has led to a popularization of Hildegard - and particularly of her music. Approximately eighty compositions survive, which is a far larger repertoire than almost any other medieval composer. Among her better known works is the ''[[Ordo Virtutum]]'' ("Order of the Virtues" or "Play of the Virtues"), a type of early [[oratorio]] for women's voices, with one male part - that of the [[Devil]]. Much of her music was created with an evangelical purpose to be performed not only by the [[nun]]s of her [[convent]] but also by male communities as evidenced by her gift to the [[Cistercian]] Abbey at [[Villers]]. The text of her compositions uses a form of modified medieval [[Latin]] unique to Hildegard, for which she created some invented, conflated and abridged words, while the music itself is [[Texture (music)|monophonic]], there is still speculation as to whether or not limited instrumental accompaniment (such as the [[hurdy gurdy]] or [[Organ (music)|organ]]) would have been used. The use of various [[modes]] and [[vocal registers]] also seem to indicate that the music was not only intended for women's voices. In addition to music, Hildegard also wrote medical, botanical and geological treatises, and she even invented an [[constructed script|alternative alphabet]], the [[litterae ignotae]], which together with her "unknown language", the [[Lingua Ignota]] which consists of about 900 words, makes her a pioneer in the field of [[constructed language]]s.
Around 1150 Hildegard moved her growing convent from [[Disibodenberg]], where the nuns lived alongside the monks, to [[Bingen]] about 30 km north, on the banks of the [[Rhine]]. She later founded another convent, [[Eibingen]], across the river from Bingen. She was often referred to as [[abbess]] by the many who wrote to her, although she was never officially recognized as such by officials in her own [[archdiocese]].
Her remaining years were very productive. She wrote music and texts to her songs, mostly liturgical [[plainchant]] honoring saints and Virgin Mary for the holidays and feast days, and antiphons. There is some evidence that her music and moral play ''[[Ordo Virtutum]]'' ("Play of Virtues") were performed in her own convent. In addition to Scivias she wrote two other major works of visionary writing, ''[[Liber vitae meritorum]]'' (1150-63) (Book of Life's Merits) and ''[[Liber divinorum operum]]'' (1163) ("Book of Divine Works"), in which she further expounded on her theology of microcosm and macrocosm-man being the peak of God's creation, and man as a mirror through which the splendor of the macrocosm was reflected. Hildegard also authored ''[[Physica]]'' and ''[[Causae e
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R&#705;-ms-sw'' is known as "Rameses", meaning "[[Ra]] has Fashioned (lit. "Borne") Him".
==See also==
* [[Ancient Egyptian eschatology]]
* [[Ancient Egyptian Funerary Texts]]
** [[Book of the Dead]]
** [[Book of Gates]]
* [[Egyptian soul]]
* [[Egyptian iconography]]
* [[Sun mythology]]
* [[List of Egyptian mythology topics]] (which also lists the particular [[deities]]).
* [[Numbers in Egyptian Mythology]]
* [[Kemeticism]]
==Further reading==
* Schulz, R. and M. Seidel, "''Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs''". Könemann, Cologne 1998. ISBN 3895089133
* Budge, E. A. Wallis, "''Egyptian Religion: Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life'' (Library of the Mystic Arts)". Citadel Press. August 1, 1991. ISBN 0806512296
* Harris, Geraldine, John Sibbick, and David O'Connor, "''Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology''". Bedrick, 1992. ISBN 0872269078
* Hart, George, "''Egyptian Myths'' (Legendary Past Series)". University of Texas Press (1st edition), 1997. ISBN 0292720769
* Osman, Ahmed, ''Moses and Akhenaten. The Secret History of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus'', (December 2002, Inner Traditions International, Limited) ISBN 1591430046
* [[Mubabinge Bilolo|Bilolo, Mubabinge]], ''Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques d'Héliopolis et d'Hermopolis. Essai de thématisation et de systématisation'', (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 2), Kinshasa-Munich 1987; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2004.
* Bilolo, Mubabinge, "''Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques de l’Égypte Antique. Problématique, prémisses herméneutiques et problèmes majeurs'', (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 1)", Kinshasa-Munich 1986; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2003.
* Bilolo, Mubabinge, "''Métaphysique Pharaonique IIIème millénaire av. J.-C.'' (Academy of African Thought & C.A. Diop-Center for Egyptological Studies-INADEP, Sect. I, vol. 4)", Kinshasa-Munich 1995 ; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2003.
* Bilolo, Mubabinge, "''Le Créateur et la Création dans la pensée memphite et amarnienne. Approche synoptique du Document Philosophique de Memphis et du Grand Hymne Théologique d'Echnaton'', (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 2)", Kinshasa-Munich 1988; new ed., Munich-Paris, 2004.
* Pinch, Geraldine, "''Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt''". Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0195170245
==External links==
*[http://www.glyphdoctors.com Glyphdoctors: Study hieroglyphics and Egyptian mythology online].
*[http://touregypt.net/godsofegypt/ Egyptian Ministry of Tourism]'s extensive information on Egyptian Deities
* Hare, J.B., "''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/index.htm Ancient Egypt]''". (sacred-texts.com)
* "''Ancient Egyptian architecture: [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/art/temple.html temples]''". University College London.
* O'Brien, Alexandra A., "''[http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/ABZU/DEATH.HTML Death in Ancient Egypt]''".
* Telford, Mark Patrick, "''[http://www.the-telfords.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/egypt/afterlife.htm Death And The Afterlife]''".
* Crystal, Ellie, "''[http://www.crystalinks.com/egypt.html Ancient Egypt]''". Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science.
* "''[http://www.egyptianculture.net Ancient Egyptian Culture]
<b/>
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<comment>/* Careers in educational psychology */ that -> who</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Portalpar|Education|Nuvola apps bookcase.png}}
'''Educational psychology''' is the study of how humans learn in [[education|educational]] settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of [[school]]s as [[organization]]s. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[School psychologist|school psychologists]]. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment among the general population and sub-populations such as [[gifted]] children and those subject to specific [[disabilities]].
{{psychology}}
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2005).
==Social, moral and cognitive development==
[[Image:Kugleramme.jpg|right|thumb|250px| An [[abacus]] provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts.]]
To understand the characteristics of learners in [[child|childhood]], [[adolescence]], [[adulthood]], and [[old age]], educational psychology develops and applies theories of human [[developmental psychology|development]]. Often cast as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities ([[cognition]]), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.
For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of [[Cognitive Development|Jean Piaget's theory of development]], according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.
Piaget proposed a developmental theory of [[moral reasoning]] in which children progress from a naive understanding of [[morality]] based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by [[Lawrence Kohlberg|Kohlberg]] into a [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stage theory of moral development]]. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the [[social cognitive theory of morality]]) are required to explain [[bullying]].
Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity (Cano, 2005).
==Individual differences and disabilities==
[[Image:FiguralRelation.png|right|thumb|250px| An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test.]]
Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], [[creativity]], [[cognitive style]], [[motivation]], and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[learning disability]], [[dyslexia]], and [[speech disorder]]. Less common disabilities include [[mental retardation]], [[autism]], [[hearing impairment]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and [[blindness]].
Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since [[Plato]], intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can
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ack; only its individual active members may be targeted, and even if a small portion of them are removed the remaining peers on the network will still be able to function.
Concepts like [[leeching]] or [[hoarding]] come about where the one centralized person will collect files and later refuse to make those available to others. [[Trade]] and [[ratio]] systems evolved in order to reduce the impact of leeching. Under these systems, a person shares when he can expect to get something in return. [[KaZaA]], for instance, has a very simple rating system. The client calculates the user's priority and tells the sources what level of downloading priority they should give that user. Shortly afterward, however, hacked clients were released that told the sources that the user had one of the highest priority levels regardless of his actual sharing.
Another client which has a rating system is [[eMule]]. The eMule client, which uses [[Multisource_File_Transfer_Protocol | MFTP]] as its protocol, tracks how much downloading and uploading has been done from individual sources and if files are downloaded locally or if other peers download files. Sometimes it seems that this rating system does not have a big impact on the download speed. A reason could be the size of the upload queue and the chunk size. If there is a free upload slot, the client takes the peer on top, transferes 8 MB to it and moves it to the end of the [[queue]]. A peer with rating of x2 would have to wait to get an upload slot for only half of the amount of time of a peer with a rating of x1. Furthermore, after the client has received an 8 MB chunk, it should upload an 8 MB chunk to the other peer as soon as possible if there is a download pending for that user. Then the other client would upload one chunk to you and your download speed and the one from the other client will increase.
[[BitTorrent]] also has a very good share rating system. The download speed is slow if a client does not upload, but it can easily be the fastest protocol if the size of the swarm is large enough.
Today we are left with a slew of clients with functionality designed around making sharing files more effective, both in the real sense of uploading and downloading (like anti-leeching functions) and in the more ethereal sense of being bulletproof toward legal issues (as with [[anonymity]] and decentralization).
===Generational classification of peer-to-peer file sharing networks===
Some people describe peer-to-peer file sharing networks by their "generation". This taxonomy only concerns itself with the popular internet-based file sharing networks, not earlier research- and business-oriented peer-to-peer systems, which pre-date them.
==== First generation ====
The first generation of peer-to-peer file sharing networks had a centralized file list, like Napster. Courts in the [[United States]] ruled that whoever controlled this centralized file list, containing works whose [[copyright]] was being infringed upon, were responsible for any infringement.
Ultimately, Napster was held liable even if it used the most advanced technology available to identify works copyright holders had asked it to block, because no technology that can identify works with 100% certainty exists or can exist. Napster continues to operate today, but the company has taken a new direction, and is now legally distributing music under a subscription-based model.
In the centralized peer-to-peer model, a user would send a search to the centralized server of what they were looking for, i.e., song, video, movie. The server then sends back a list of which peers have the data and facilitates the connection and download.
==== Second generation ====
After Napster encountered legal troubles, [[Justin Frankel]] of Nullsoft set out to create a network without a central index server, and Gnutella was the result. Unfortunately, the Gnutella model of all nodes being equal quickly died from bottlenecks as the network grew from incoming Napster refugees. [[FastTrack]] solved the problem by having some nodes be 'more equal than others'.
By electing some nodes that had more capacity as indexing nodes, and having lower capacity nodes branching off from them, it allowed for a network that could scale to a much larger size. Gnutella quickly adopted this model, and most current peer-to-peer networks follow this model, as it allows for large and efficient networks without central servers.
Also included in the second generation are [[distributed hash table]]s (DHTs), which solve the scalability problem by electing various nodes to index certain hashes (which are used to identify files), allowing for fast and efficient searching for any instances of a file on the network. They are not without their own drawbacks; perhaps most significantly, DHTs do not directly support keyword searching (as opposed to exact-match searching).
==== Third generation ====
The third generation of peer-to-peer networks are those that have [[anonymity]] features built in. Examples of anonymous networks are [[Freenet]], [[I2P]], [[GNUnet]] and [[Entropy (anonymous data store)|Entropy]].
[[Friend-to-friend]] networks only allow already known users (a.k.a. "friends") to connect to your computer, then each [[node (networking)|node]] can forward requests and files anonymously between its own "friends" nodes; some of these networks are [[MUTE]], [[ANts P2P]], and [[WASTE]].
Third generation networks, however, have not reached mass usage for file sharing because of the overhead that anonymity features introduce, multiplying the bandwidth required to send a file with each intermediary used.
==Copyright issues==
File sharing (such as with the Gnutella and Napster networks) grew in popularity with the proliferation of high speed Internet connections and the (relatively) small file size and high-quality MP3 audio format. Although file sharing is a legal technology with legal uses, many users use it to download copyrighted materials without explicit permission. This has led to counterattacks against file sharing in general from some copyright owners.
There has been great discussion over perceived and actual legal issues surrounding file sharing. In circumstances where trading partners are in different countries with different legal codes, there are significant problems to contend with. What if a person in Canada wishes to share a piece of source code which, if compiled, has encryption capabilities? In some countries, a citizen may not request or receive such information without special permission.
Throughout the early 2000s, the entire file-sharing community has been in a state of flux. In the year 2000, there was speculation over how seriously record companies like the [[RIAA]] would strike the file-sharing community because of its limits compared to more traditional forms of media [http://web.archive.org/web/20031217191730/www.mp3newswire.net/stories/2000/buycd.html]. However, the communities suffered strain as record companies and the RIAA tried to shut down as much of it as possible. Even though they have forced Napster and Grokster into cooperating against copyright violations, they are fighting an uphill battle since the community has flourished and produced many different clients based on several different underlying protocols. The third generation of P2P protocols, such as [[Freenet]], are not as dependent as Napster is on a central server; and as they encrypt the shared data, it is much harder to shut down these systems through court actions. Another attempt (used by the maintainers of [[KaZaA]]) is to change the company's organization or country of origin so that it is impossible or useless to attack it legally.
The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] (EFF) is a donor-supported group which protects users' digital rights. It is one of the most influential online [[human rights]] organizations, and it is involved in legislation, court cases, and campaigns to make the public aware of their rights and to expand upon their current rights. The EFF has vocally opposed the RIAA in its onslaught of lawsuits against users of file sharing applications, and has also supported sharers as defendants in court cases. The foundation supports the idea that P2P file-sharing can exist while allowing users to compensate artists for their copyrighted material.
==Other issues==
Some file sharing software comes bundled with [[malware]] such as [[spyware]] or [[adware]]. Sometimes this malware remains installed on the system even if the original file sharing software is removed, and can be very difficult to eliminate. In many cases such malware can interfere with the correct operation of [[web browser]]s, [[anti-virus software]], anti-spyware and [[Firewall (networking)|software firewalls]], and can cause degraded performance on affected systems. Such malware is typically bundled with [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] software, and not those in [[open source]].
Some are also concerned about the use of file sharing systems to distribute [[pornography]] (including [[child pornography]]), [[Racism|racist]] literature, and other illegal or unpopular material. Novice users may find it difficult to obtain information on which networks are "safe" for them to use.
==See also==
* [[File sharing timeline]]
* [[File-sharing program]]
* [[Comparison of file sharing applications]]
* [[Compulsory license]]
* [[Open Music Model]]
* [[FairShare]]
* [[Spyware]]
== External links==
* [http://www.slyck.com Slyck] - A popular file sharing news site and community
* [http://www.zeropaid.com ZeroPaid] - Another popular file sharing news site and community
* [http://www.p2punited.com P2P United] - Pro-file sharing activism
* [http://www.mp3newswire.net MP3 Newswire]- Long-running digital music news site
===Canada's approach to P2P and copyright===
*''[http://news.com.com/2100-1027_3-5182641.html "Judge: File Sharing is Legal in C
|
ven Years War]] in [[1763]]. The Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule facilitated Dutch encroachment of the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils in war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in [[1581]], the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.
By the [[1590s]] a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of [[mercantilism]], in [[1602]] the companies united into a [[cartel]] and formed the [[Dutch East India Company]], and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the [[Cape of Good Hope]] eastward to the [[Strait of Magellan]].
In [[1605]] armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at [[Amboyna]] in the Moluccas, which was developed into the first secure base of the company. Over time the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. Control over the East Indies trading ports allowed the company to monopolize the world [[spice trade]] for decades. Their monpoloy over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from [[Malacca]] in [[1641]] and [[Ceylon]] in [[1658]].
Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh ([[Aceh]]), [[1667]]; [[Macassar]], [[1669]]; and [[Bantam]], [[1682]]. The company established its headquarters at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (today [[Jakarta]]) on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in Persia (now Iran), [[Bengal]] (now Bangladesh and part of India), Mauritius ([[1638]]-[[1658]]/[[1664]]-[[1710]]), [[Siam]] (now Thailand), [[Guangzhou]] (Canton, China), [[Taiwan]] ([[1624]]-[[1662]]), and southern India ([[1616]]-[[1795]]). In 1662, [[Zheng Chenggong]] (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan. (''see'' [[History of Taiwan]]) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on [[Dejima]] ([[1641]]- [[1857]]), an artificial island off the coast of [[Nagasaki]], was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.
In [[1652]], [[Jan van Riebeeck]] established an outpost at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in South Africa) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the [[Cape Colony]] ([[1652]]-[[1806]]). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad ([[Cape Town]]).
By [[1669]], the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.
===Decline of the Dutch in Asia and the rise of Britain===
The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the [[Amboyna Massacre]] in [[1623]]. During the 18th century, Dutch East India Company possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After the fourth war between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and England ([[1780]]–[[1784]]), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In [[1799]], the company was dissolved.
The East Indies were awarded to The [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] by the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. After the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the [[Dutch East Indies]] ([[Indonesia]]) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during the much of the Second World War. Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after T&#333;ky&#333; surrendered to the Allies in [[1945]].
==The British in India==
===Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600-1763)===
[[Image:Clive.jpg|thumb|Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive]]
The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the era of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. In [[1600]] Elizabeth incorporated the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]] (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In [[1639]] it acquired [[Madras]] on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading center on the subcontinent.
Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force on the subcontinent, and outrivaled its Portuguese, and French competitors. For more than one hundred years English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and by the middle of the 18th century competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] during the [[Seven Years War]] ([[1756]]-[[1763]]) marked the end of the French stake in the subcontinent.
===The collapse of Mughal India===
{{main article|[[Company rule in India]]}}
The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of the subcontinent in the century following the subjugation of [[Bengal]] at the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]]. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of a [[Mughal]] dynasty, seething with corruption, oppression, and revolt, that was crumbling under the despotic rule of [[Aurangzeb]] ([[1658]]-[[1707]]).
The reign of [[Shah Jahan]] ([[1628]]-[[1658]]) had marked the height of Mughal power. However, the reign of Aurangzeb, a ruthless and fanatical man who intended to rid [[India]] of all views alien to the Muslim faith, was disastrous. By [[1690]], when Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent, Aurangzeb's India encompassed the entire Indian peninsula. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the subcontinent increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until [[1858]], the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.
===From Company to Crown===
{{main article|[[British Raj]]}}
[[Image:21701760 5EastIndiaHouse.jpg|left|thumb|An 1825 painting of the British East India Company's [[East India House]], which opened in 1799]]
Aside from defeating the French, during the Seven Years' War, [[Robert Clive]], the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive [[Battle of Plassey]] ([[1757]]), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India.
The transition to formal imperialism, characterized by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] being crowned "Empress of India" in the [[1870s]] was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late [[18th century]]. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in [[1773]] and [[1784]] that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the [[governor-general]]. (This system of dual control lasted until [[1858]].) By [[1818]] the East India Company was master of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of the subcontinent were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.
Until [[1858]], however, much of the subcontinent was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie|James Dalhousie]] ([[1847]]-[[1856]]), who annexed the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] ([[1849]]) after victory in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second Sikh War]], annexed seven princely states on the basis of [[lapse]], annexed the key state of [[Oudh]] on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as [[Sati]]. The [[1857]] [[Indian_Mutiny|Sepoy Rebellion]], or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the Company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in [[1858]], after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in [[1859]]), appointed governor-general of India in [[1856]], became known as "Clemency Canning" as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during
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ad to flee for their lives, but they were all rounded up on [[January 12]], [[1944]]. Eventually everyone who was involved in the Solf Circle except Frau Solf and her daughter, the Countess [[Lagi Gräfin von Ballestrem]], were executed.
One of those executed was Otto Kiep, an official in the Foreign Office, who had friends in the Abwehr, among whom were [[Erich Vermehren]] and his wife, the former [[Countess Elizabeth von Plettenberg]], who were stationed as agents in [[Istanbul]]. Both were summoned to Berlin by the Gestapo in connection with the Kiep case. Fearing for their lives, they contacted the British and defected.
It was mistakenly believed in Berlin that the Vermehrens absconded with the Abwehr's secret codes and turned them over to the British. That proved to be the last straw for Hitler. Despite the efforts of the Abwehr to shift the blame to the SS or even to the Foreign Ministry, Hitler had had enough of Canaris and he told [[Heinrich Himmler|Himmler]] so twice. He summoned the chief of the Abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the Abwehr to "fall into bits". Canaris quietly agreed that it was "not surprising", as Germany was already losing the war.
Hitler fired Canaris on the spot, and on [[February 18]], [[1944]], Hitler signed a decree that abolished the Abwehr. Its functions were taken over by the [[RSHA]]. This action deprived the armed forces (and the anti-Nazi conspirators) of an intelligence service of its own and strengthened Himmler's control over the generals.
Canaris, by this time a [[vice admiral]], was cashiered and given the empty position of chief of the Office of Commercial and Economic Warfare. He was arrested on [[July 23]], [[1944]] in the aftermath of the [[July 20 Plot]] against Hitler and executed shortly before the end of the war, along with Oster his deputy. The functions of the Abwehr were then totally absorbed by the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'', a sub-office of the ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' (SS) security command, the [[RSHA]].
==Chiefs of the Abwehr==
* Col. [[Friedrich Gempp]] ([[1921]]&ndash;[[1927]])
* Major [[Günther Schwantes]] (1927&ndash;[[1929]])
* Lt. Col. [[Ferdinand von Bredow]] (1929&ndash;[[1932]])
* Rear Adm. [[Konrad Patzig]] (1932&ndash;[[1935]])
* Vice Adm. [[Wilhelm Canaris]] (1935&ndash;[[1944]])
==See also==
* [[Hans Oster]], Canaris' deputy
* [[Erwin Lahousen|Erwin von Lahousen]], chief of German sabotage
* [[Nikolaus Ritter]]
* [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* [[Oskar Schindler]], another Abwehr agent
[[Category:German intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Abwehr (Nachrichtendienst)]]
[[fr:Abwehr]]
[[he:אבווהר]]
[[nl:Abwehr]]
[[nb:Abwehr]]
[[pl:Abwehra]]
[[ru:Абвер]]
[[sr:Абвер]]
[[fi:Abwehr]]
[[sv:Abwehr]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancient Pueblo Peoples</title>
<id>1034</id>
<revision>
<id>42103531</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:22:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:mesaverde_cliffpalace_20030914.752.jpg|thumb|300px|Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park]]
'''Ancient Pueblo People''', or '''Ancestral Puebloans''' is a preferred term for the cultural group of people often known as '''Anasazi''' who are the ancestors of the modern [[Pueblo people]]s. The ancestral Puebloans were a [[prehistoric]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] civilization centered around the present-day [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]] area of the [[Southwest United States]]. [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] still debate when a distinct [[culture]] emerged, but the current consensus, based on terminology defined by the [[Pecos Classification]], suggests their emergence around [[12th century BC|1200 B.C.]], the [[Pecos Classification#Early Basketmaker II Era|Basketmaker II Era]].
The civilization is perhaps best-known for the [[jacal]], [[adobe]] and [[sandstone]] dwellings that they built along cliff walls, particularly during the [[Pecos Classification#Pueblo II Era|Pueblo II]] and [[Pecos Classification#Pueblo III Era|Pueblo III]] eras. The best-preserved examples of those dwellings are in [[National parks (United States)|parks]] such as [[Chaco Canyon|Chaco Culture National Historical Park]], [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Hovenweep National Monument]], [[Bandelier National Monument]], and [[Canyon de Chelly National Monument]]. These [[village]]s, called [[pueblo]]s by [[Mexico|Mexican]] settlers, were often only accessible by rope or through [[rock climbing]].
The Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their unique style of [[pottery]], today considered valuable for their rarity. They also created many [[petroglyph]]s and [[pictograph]]s.
The Ancestral Puebloans migrated from their ancient homeland for several complex reasons. These may include pressure from [[Numic]]-speaking peoples moving onto the Colorado Plateau as well as climate change which resulted in [[agriculture|agricultural]] failures. Confirming evidence for climatic change in North America is found in excavations of western regions in the Mississippi Valley between A.D. 1150 and 1350 which show long lasting patterns of warmer, wetter winters and cooler, dryer summers. Most modern Pueblo peoples (whether Keresans, Hopi, or Tanoans) and historians like James W. Loewen, in his book ''Lies Across America'', assert these people did not "vanish," as is commonly portrayed, but merged into the various pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in [[Arizona]] and [[New Mexico]]. This perspective is not new and was also presented in reports from early 20th century anthropologists, including [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]], [[J. Walter Fewkes]] and [[Alfred V. Kidder]]. Many modern Pueblo tribes trace their lineage from settlements in the Anasazi area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors, the [[Mogollon]]. For example, the San Ildefonso [[Pueblo people]] believe that their ancestors lived in both the [[Mesa Verde]] area and the current [[Bandelier National Monument|Bandelier]].
==Anasazi as a cultural label==
The term "Anasazi" was established in archaeological terminology through the Pecos Classification system in 1927. Archaeologist Linda Cordell discussed the word's etymology and use:
:"''The name "Anasazi" has come to mean "ancient people," although the word itself is [[Navajo language|Navajo]], meaning "enemy ancestors."'' [The Navajo word is ''anaasází'' (<''anaa-'' "enemy", ''sází'' "ancestor").] ''It is unfortunate that a non-Pueblo word has come to stand for a tradition that is certainly ancestral Pueblo. The term was first applied to ruins of the Mesa Verde by [[Richard Wetherill]], a rancher and trader who, in 1888-1889, was the first Anglo-American to explore the sites in that area. Wetherill knew and worked with Navajos and understood what the word meant. The name was further sanctioned in archaeology when it was adopted by Alfred V. Kidder, the acknowledged dean of Southwestern Archaeology. Kidder felt that is was less cumbersome than a more technical term he might have used. Subsequently some archaeologists who would try to change the term have worried that because the Pueblos speak different languages, there are different words for "ancestor," and using one might be offensive to people speaking other languages.''
Some modern Pueblo peoples object to the use of the term ''Anasazi'', although there is still controversy among them on a native alternative. The modern Hopi use the word "''Hisatsinom''" in preference to Anasazi. However, Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department (NNHPD) spokeman Ronald Maldonado has indicated the Navajo do not favor use of the term "Ancestral Puebloan." In fact, reports submitted for review by NNHPD are rejected if they include use of the term.
==Cultural divisions==
Archaeological cultural units such as "Anasazi", [[Hohokam]], [[Patayan]] or Mogollon are used by [[archaeologists]] to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric socio-cultural units which may be understood as equivalent to modern tribes, societies or peoples. The names and divisions are classificatory devices based on theoretical perspectives, analytical methods and data available at the time of analysis and publication. They are subject to change, not only on the basis of new information and discoveries, but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community. It should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio-political entity such as a ''tribe''.
When making use of modern cultural divisions in the American Southwest, it is important to understand three limitations in the current conventions:
*Archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people&#8217;s activities; fragments of pottery vessels, human remains, stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings. However, many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible. [[Language]]s spoken by these people and their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials. Cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist, and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relationships the ancient residents may have recognized. Modern cultures in this region, many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors, contain a striking range of diversity in lifestyles, social organization, language and religious beliefs. This suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest.
*The modern term &#8220;style&
|
method]], rejecting [[authoritarianism]] and [[Philosophical_skepticism|extreme skepticism]], and rendering [[faith]] an unacceptable basis for action. Likewise, humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on our best understanding of our individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental or arbitrarily local source.
=== Speciesism ===
Some have interpreted humanism to be a form of [[speciesism]], mostly because of the word itself, but this doesn't appear to be the case. Humanism does exalt human traits, but doesn't necessarily insist that no other species could or do have the same, or that other species have no rights just because they are not human. For these reasons, humanism appears to be neutral with regard to issues of [[animal rights]].
=== Optimism ===
Humanism features an optimistic attitude about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that each and every person is capable of living up to the humanist ideals of rationality and morality. If anything, there is the recognition that living up to our potential is hard work and requires the help of others. The ultimate goal is [[eudemonia|human flourishing]]; making life better for all of us. Even among humanists who do believe in some sort of an afterlife, the focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world better for those who come after us, not on suffering through life to be rewarded afterwards.
== History ==
Contemporary humanism can be traced back through the [[Renaissance]] to its ancient Greek roots.
<!-- This would be a great place for a historically-minded reader to add a detailed timeline. Any volunteers? -->
The evolution of the meaning of the word ''humanism'' is fully explored in [[Nicolas Walter|Nicolas Walter]] ''Humanism — What's in the Word''. {{fn|1}}
===Greek roots===
{{main_article|[[Greek philosophy]]}}
Sixth century B.C. panetheists [[Thales of Miletus]] and [[Xenophanes of Colophon]] prepared the way for later Greek humanist thought. Thales is credited with creating the maxium "Know thryself", and Xenophanes refused to recognize the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. Later [[Anaxagoras]] became the first freethinker and contributed to the development of science as a method of understanding the universe. [[Pericles]], a pupil of Anaxagoras, influenced the development of democracy, freedom of thought, and the exposure of superstitions. Although little of their work survives [[Protagoras]] and [[Democritus]] both espoused agnostism and a spiritual morality not based on the supernatural. The historian [[Thucydides]] is noted for his scientific and rational approach to history.
=== Renaissance ===
{{main_article|[[Renaissance humanism]]}}
Renaissance humanism was a broad movement that affected the social, cultural, literary and political landscapes of [[Europe]]. Beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, renaissance humanism revived the study of the Latin and Greek languages; and caused the resultant revival of the studies of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.
The "revival", or "re-birth", was based upon interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation upon the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and passivity, or "meekness". Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and "an essential element in the path towards God".
The crisis of Renaissance humanism came with the trial of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], which forced the choice between basing the authority of one's beliefs on one's observations, or upon religious teaching. The trial made the contradictions between humanism and traditional religion visibly apparent to all, and humanism was branded a "dangerous doctrine".
Renaissance humanists believed that the [[liberal arts]] (music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of wealth. They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.
=== The modern era ===
One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organizations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in [[1853]] in London. This early group was democratically organized, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts.
In 1929 [[Charles Francis Potter]] founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included [[Julian Huxley]], [[John Dewey]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Thomas Mann]]. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published ''[[Humanism: A New Religion]]''. Throughout the 1930s Potter was well known advocate of women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.
[[Raymond B. Bragg]], the associate editor of ''The New Humanist'', sought to consolidate the input of L. M. Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference. Bragg asked [[Roy Wood Sellars]] to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the ''[[Humanist Manifesto]]'' in 1933. The Manifesto and Potter's book became the cornerstones of modern Humanism. Both of these sources envision humanism as a religion.
== Modern humanist philosophies ==
There are many people who consider themselves humanists, and much variety in the exact type of humanism they believe in. There is some disagreement over terminology and definitions, with some people using narrower or broader interpretations. Not all people who call themselves humanists hold beliefs that are genuinely humanistic, and not all people who do hold humanistic beliefs apply the label of humanism to themselves.
All of this aside, humanism can be divided into secular and religious types.
=== Secular humanism ===
[[Secular humanism]] is the branch of humanism that rejects theistic religious belief and the existence of a supernatural. It is often associated with scientists and academics, although it is not at all limited to these groups. Secular humanists generally believe that following humanist principles naturally leads to [[secularism]], on the basis that religious views cannot be supported rationally. There are secular humanistic organizations, though these could not be accurately described as churches.
More often than not, secular humanism is what people are referring to when they speak of humanism in general, making it something of a default. Some secular humanists take this even further by denying that religious humanists qualify as genuine humanists. Others feel that the ethical side of humanism transcends the issue of religion, because being a good person is more important than supernatural beliefs.
Some non-secular people, particularly Christian [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalists]], use the term ''humanist'' to refer to all atheists, a usage whose accuracy is disputed.
Some secular humanists prefer the term ''[[Humanist (lifestance)|Humanist]]'' (capital H, and no adjective), as unanimously endorsed by General Assembly of the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] following universal endorsement of the [[Amsterdam Declaration 2002]].
=== Religious humanism ===
[[Religious humanism]] is the branch of humanism that considers itself religious (based on a functional definition of religion), or embraces some form of theism, deism, or supernaturalism, without necessarily being allied with organized religion, as such. It is often associated with artists, liberal Christians, and scholars in the liberal arts. Other types of people that may be considered religious humanists are those who, despite believing in a religion, don't consider it necessary to derive all their moral values from it. Some feel that, because their religious beliefs are moral, and therefore humane, they are humanists. In particular, it is not uncommon for religious humanitarians to be referred to as humanists, although the accuracy of this usage is disputed.
A number of religious humanists feel that secular humanism is too coldly logical and rejects the full emotional experience that makes us human. From this comes the notion that secular humanism is inadequate in meeting the human need for a socially fulfilling philosophy of life. Disagreements over things of this nature have resulted in friction between secular and religious humanists, despite their commonalities.
== Other forms of humanism ==
Humanism is also sometimes used to describe "humanities" scholars, (particularly scholars of the Greco-Roman classics). As mentioned above, it is sometimes used to mean humanitarianism. There is also a school of [[humanistic psychology]], and an educational method.
=== Educational humanism ===
Humanism, as a current in [[education]], began to dominate school systems in the 17th century. It held that the studies that develop our intellect are those that make us "most truly human". The practical basis for this was [[faculty psychology]], or the belief in distinct intellectual faculties, such as the analytical, the mathematical, the linguistic, etc. Strengthening one faculty was believed to benefit other faculties as well (transfer of training). A key player in the late 19th-century educational humanism was U.S. Commissioner of Education W.T. Harris, whose "Five Windows of the Soul" ([[mathematics]], [[geography]], [[history]], [[grammar]], and [[literature]]/[[art]]) were believed especially appropriate for "development of the faculties". Educational humanists believe that "the best stud
|
ceted Botswana agate]]
In [[Islam]], agates are deemed to be very precious stones. According to tradition, the wearer of an agate ring, for example, is believed to be protected from various mishaps and will enjoy longevity, among other benefits. In other traditions agate is believed to cure the stings of [[scorpion]]s and the bites of [[snake]]s, soothe the mind, prevent [[Disease|contagion]], still [[thunder]] and [[lightning]], promote [[eloquence]], secure the favour of the powerful, and bring victory over enemies. Persian [[magi]] are also known to have prized agate rings in their work and beliefs.
The [[Shia]] Book of collected prayers, ''Mafatih Al-janan'', quotes the fifth Shia saint Imam [[Muhammad al-Baqir]] on agates, as such:
''"Whosoever endures the night 'til sunrise wearing an agate ring on his/her right hand, before seeing or being seen by any human that morning, turns the agate ring toward the palm side of his/her hand, and while looking at the gem recites the 97th chapter of the Qur'an followed by this prayer [specified], then the God of the Universe shall grant him/her immunity on that day from any danger that falls from the sky, or rises up to it, or which disappears into the earth, or rises out of it, and he/she shall remain protected by the power of God and the agents of God until dusk."'' (p1212 of version by Haj Sheikh Abbas Qomi)
==See also==
*[[list of minerals]]
==Reference==
* [http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/collectors_corner/arc/silicanom.htm ''The Nomenclature of Silica'' by Gilbert Hart, American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pages 383-395, 1927]
[[Category:Minerals]]
[[Category:Quartz varieties]]
[[ar:عقيق]]
[[da:Agat]]
[[de:Achat]]
[[es:Ágata]]
[[eo:Agato]]
[[fr:Agate]]
[[nl:Agaat]]
[[ja:メノウ]]
[[pl:Agat]]
[[pt:Ágata]]
[[ru:Агат]]
[[sk:Achát]]
[[sl:Ahat]]
[[fi:Akaatti]]
[[sv:Agat]]
[[uk:Агат]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aspirin</title>
<id>1525</id>
<revision>
<id>42150395</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:46:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.199.235.201</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;"
! {{chembox header}}| '''{{PAGENAME}}'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" |
[[Image:Acetyl salicylic acid chemical structure.png|120px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>4</sub>
[[benzene ring|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>]]([[oxygen|O]][[acetyl|COCH<sub>3</sub>]])[[carboxylic acid|COOH]]
|-
| Synonyms
| 2-acetyloxybenzoic acid<br/>2-acetoxybenzoic acid<br/>acetylsalicylate<br/>acetylsalicylic acid<br/>O-acetylsalicylic acid
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 180.16 g/mol
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-78-2
|-
{{PubChem Row|2244}}
|-
| [[ATC code]]
| B01AC06
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.40 g/cm<sup>3</sup>
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 136°C (277°F)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| decomposes at 140°C (284°F)
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CC(=O)OC1=CC=CC=C1C(=O)O
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Aspirin''' or '''acetylsalicylic acid''' is a [[Medication|drug]] in the family of [[salicylate]]s, often used as an [[analgesic]] (against minor pains and aches), [[antipyretic]] (against [[fever]]), and anti-[[inflammation|inflammatory]]. It has also an [[anticoagulant]] (blood-thinning) effect and is used in long-term low-doses to prevent [[heart attack]]s.
Low-dose long-term aspirin irreversibly blocks formation of [[thromboxane]] A2 in [[platelet]]s, producing an inhibitory effect on [[platelet aggregation]], and this blood-thinning property makes it useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks. Aspirin produced for this purpose often comes in 75 or 81 [[Milligram|mg]] dispersible [[tablet]]s and is sometimes called "Junior aspirin." High doses of aspirin are also given immediately after an acute heart attack. These doses may also inhibit the synthesis of [[prothrombin]] and may therefore produce a second and different anticoagulant effect.
Several hundred fatal overdoses of aspirin occur annually, but the vast majority of its uses are beneficial. Its primary undesirable side effects, especially in stronger doses, are [[gastrointestinal]] distress (including [[gastric ulcer|ulcers]] and stomach bleeding) and [[tinnitus]]. Another side effect, due to its anticoagulant properties, is increased bleeding in [[menstruating]] women. Because there appears to be a connection between aspirin and [[Reye's syndrome]], aspirin is no longer used to control flu-like symptoms in minors.
Aspirin was the first discovered member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ([[NSAID]]s), not all of which are salicylates, though they all have similar effects and a similar action mechanism.
== ASPIRIN ==
The brand name ''Aspirin'' was coined by the [[Bayer]] company of [[Germany]]. In some countries the name is used as a [[genericized trademark|generic term]] for the drug rather than the manufacturer's [[trademark]]. In countries in which Aspirin remains a trademark, the [[initialism]] '''ASA''' is used as a generic term ('''ASS''' in German-language countries, for ''Acetylsalicylsäure''; '''AAS''' in Spanish- and Portuguese-language countries, for ''ácido acetilsalicílico'').
[[Image:Aspirin.jpg|thumb|Aspirin]]
The name "aspirin" is composed of ''a-'' (from the [[acetyl group]]) ''-spir-'' (from the ''[[spiraea]]'' flower) and ''-in'' (a common ending for drugs at the time). On [[March 6]], [[1899]][[Bayer]] registered it as a [[trademark]].
However, the German company lost the right to use the trademark in many countries as the [[Allies]] seized and resold its foreign assets after [[World War I]]. The right to use "Aspirin" in the United States (along with all other Bayer trademarks) was purchased from the U.S. government by Sterling Drug, Inc. in [[1918]]. Even before the [[patent]] for the drug expired in [[1917]], Bayer had been unable to stop competitors from copying the formula and using the name elsewhere, and so, with a flooded market, the public was unable to recognize "Aspirin" as coming from only one manufacturer. Sterling was subsequently unable to prevent "Aspirin" from being ruled a [[genericized trademark]] in a U.S. federal court in [[1921]]. Sterling was ultimately acquired by Bayer in 1994, but this did not restore the U.S. trademark. Other countries (such as [[Canada]]) still consider "Aspirin" a protected trademark.
== Discovery ==
[[Image:Acetylsalicylicacid.jpg|thumb|180px|Acetylsalicylic acid crystals]]
[[Hippocrates]], a [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] physician, wrote in the [[5th century BC]] about a bitter powder extracted from [[willow]] bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. This remedy is also mentioned in texts from ancient [[Sumeria]], [[Egypt]] and [[Assyria]]. Native Americans claim to have used it for headaches, fever, sore muscles, rheumatism, and chills. The Reverend [[Edward Stone]], a vicar from Chipping Norton in [[Oxfordshire]] [[England]], noted in [[1763]] that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever.
The active extract of the bark, called ''salicin'', after the [[Latin]] name for the White willow (''[[Salix alba]]''), was isolated to its crystalline form in [[1828]] by [[Henri Leroux]], a [[France|French]] pharmacist, and [[Raffaele Piria]], an [[Italy|Italian]] chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicin is highly acidic when in a saturated solution with water ([[pH]] = 2.4), and is called [[salicylic acid]] for that reason.
This chemical was also isolated from [[meadowsweet]] flowers (genus ''[[Filipendula]]'', formerly classified in ''[[Spiraea]]'') by German researchers in 1839. While their extract was somewhat effective, it also caused digestive problems such as irritated stomach and diarrhea, and even death when consumed in high doses. In 1853, a French chemist named Charles Frederic Gerhardt neutralized salicylic acid by buffering it with sodium (sodium salicylate) and acetyl chloride, creating acetosalicylic anhydride. Gerhardt's product worked, but he had no desire to market it and abandoned his discovery. In 1897, [[Felix Hoffmann]], a researcher at [[Bayer|Friedrich Bayer & Co.]] in [[Germany]], derivatized one of the [[hydroxy|hydroxyl]] [[functional group]]s in salicylic acid with an [[acetyl]] group (forming the acetyl [[ester]]), which greatly reduced the negative effects. This was the first synthetic drug, not a copy of something that existed in nature, and the start of the pharmaceuticals industry. Hoffmann
made some of the formula and gave it to his father, who was suffering from the pain of arthritis and could not stand the side effects of salicylic acid. With good results, he then convinced [[Bayer]] to market the new wonder drug. Aspirin was patented on March 6, 1899. It was marketed alongside another of Hoffmann's products, an acetylated synthetic of [[morphine]] called [[Heroin]]. Heroin was initially the more successful of the two painkillers, but, as Heroin's shortcoming of addictiveness became more obvious, Aspirin stepped to the forefront. Aspirin was originally sold as a powder and was an instant success; in 1915, Bayer introduced Aspirin tablets.
[[Image:BayerHeroin.png|thumb|right|150px|Advertisement for Aspirin, Heroin, Lycetol, Salophen]]
Several claims to invention of aspirin have arisen. Ac
|
egory:Dystopian novels]]
[[Category:English novels]]
[[Category:George Orwell books]]
[[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels]]
[[Category:Twentieth century British novels]]
[[da:Kammerat Napoleon]]
[[de:Farm der Tiere]]
[[es:Rebelión en la granja]]
[[fr:La Ferme des animaux]]
[[ko:동물 농장]]
[[it:La fattoria degli animali]]
[[he:חוות החיות]]
[[hu:Állatfarm]]
[[nl:Animal Farm]]
[[ja:動物農場]]
[[lv:Dzīvnieku ferma]]
[[no:Kamerat Napoleon]]
[[pl:Folwark zwierzęcy]]
[[pt:Animal Farm]]
[[fi:Eläinten vallankumous]]
[[sv:Djurfarmen]]
[[zh:动物庄园]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amphibian</title>
<id>621</id>
<revision>
<id>41645993</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:41:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>161.97.162.148</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History of amphibians */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Amphibians
| image = Caerulea3 crop.jpg
| image_width = 230px
| image_caption = [[White's Tree Frog]] (''Litoria caerulea'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrata]]
| classis = '''Amphibia'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision =
Subclass [[Labyrinthodontia]] - ''extinct''<br />
Subclass [[Lepospondyli]] - ''extinct''<br />
Subclass [[Lissamphibia]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Anura]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;[[salamander|Caudata]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;[[caecilian|Gymnophiona]]}}
'''Amphibians''' ([[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia''') are a [[taxon]] of [[animal]]s that include all [[tetrapod]]s (four-legged [[vertebrate]]s) that do not have [[amniotic sac|amniotic]] eggs. Amphibians (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''αμφις'' "both" and ''βιος'' "life") generally spend part of their time on land, but they do not have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial existence found in most other modern tetrapods ([[amniote]]s). There are about 5,950 described, living [[species]] of amphibians. The study of amphibians and [[reptile]]s is known as [[herpetology]].
== History of amphibians ==
[[Image:Salamandra salamandra CZ.JPG|thumb|226px|right|[[Fire Salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra'')]]Amphibians developed with the characteristics of pharyngeal slits/[[gills]], a [[dorsal nerve cord]], a [[notochord]], and a post-anal tail at different stages of their life. They have persisted since the dawn of tetrapods 390 million years ago in the [[Devonian]] period, when they were the first four-legged animals to develop [[lung]]s. During the following [[Carboniferous]] period they also developed the ability to walk on land to avoid aquatic competition and [[predation]] while allowing them to travel from water source to water source. As a group they maintained the status of the dominant animal for nearly 75 million years. Throughout their history they have ranged in size from the 3 foot (90cm) long Devonian [[Ichthyostega]], to the slightly larger 5 foot (150cm) long [[Permian]] [[Eryops]], and down to the tiny ''[[Brachycephalus didactylus]]'' (Brazilian Gold Frog) and ''[[Eleutherodactylus iberia]]'' from [[Cuba]], with a total length of 9.6-9.8 millimeters (0.4 inches). Amphibians have mastered almost every climate on earth from the hottest deserts to the frozen arctic.
== Classification ==
[[Image:Caecilian.jpg|226px|thumb|right|[[Caecilian]] from the [[San Antonio]] zoo]]
Traditionally the amphibians are taken to include all [[tetrapod]]s that are not [[amniote]]s. Recent amphibians all belong to a single subgroup of these, called the [[Lissamphibia]]. Recently there has been a tendency to restrict the class Amphibia to the Lissamphibia, i.e. to exclude tetrapods that are not more closely related to modern forms than they are to modern reptiles, birds, and mammals.
There are two [[ancient]], [[extinct]], [[Subclass (biology)|subclasses]]:
* Subclass [[Labyrinthodontia]] ([[paraphyletic]])
* Subclass [[Lepospondyli]]
Of the remaining modern subclass '''Lissamphibia''' there are three [[Order (biology)|order]]s:
* Order [[Anura]] ([[frog]]s and [[toad]]s) (in Superorder Salientia): 5,228 species
* Order [[Caudata]] or [[Urodela]] ([[salamander]]s): 552 species
* Order [[Gymnophiona]] or [[Apoda]] ([[caecilian]]s): 171 species
Authorities disagree on whether Salientia is a Superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. In effect Salientia includes all the Anura plus a single [[Triassic]] proto-frog species, ''[[Triadobatrachus massinoti]]''. Practical considerations seem to favour using the former arrangement now.
== Reproduction ==
For the purpose of [[reproduction]] most amphibians are bound to [[fresh water]]. A few tolerate [[brackish water]], but there are no true [[sea water]] amphibians. Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., [[Eleutherodactylus]], the Pacific Platymantines, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water whatsoever. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and [[evolution]]ary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet [[tropical rainforest]]s and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, bypassing the [[tadpole]] stage entirely. Several species have also adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, but most of them still need water to lay their eggs. [[Symbiosis]] with single celled [[algae]] that lives in the jelly-like layer of the eggs has evolved several times. The larvae (tadpoles or polliwogs) breathe with exterior [[gill]]s. After hatching, they start to transform gradually into the adult's appearance. This process is called [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]. Typically, the animals then leave the water and become terrestrial adults, but there are many interesting exceptions to this general way of reproduction.
The most obvious part of the amphibian metamorphosis is the formation of four legs in order to support the body on land. But there are several other changes:
* The gills are replaced by other [[Respiratory system|respiratory organ]]s, i.e. [[lung]]s.
* The skin changes and develops [[gland]]s to avoid [[dehydration]]
* The eyes get eyelids and adapt to vision outside the water
* An [[eardrum]] is developed to lock the middle [[ear]]
* In frogs and toads, the [[tail]] disappears
==Amphibian conservation==
{{main|decline in frog populations}}
[[Image:Bufo periglenes1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Golden toad]] of [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]] was among the first casualties of amphibian declines. Formerly abundant, it was last seen in 1989.]]
Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted in the past two decades from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived as one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]]. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, over-exploitation, [[pollution]], [[introduced species]], [[climate change]], and disease. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and amphibian declines are currently a topic of much ongoing research.
== See also ==
*[[Frog zoology]]
*[[Prehistoric amphibian]]
*[[Tetrapod]]
== References ==
*Duellman/Trueb, ''Biology of Amphibians''
*{{cite journal
| last = Pounds
| first = J. Alan
| title = Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming
| url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/nature04246.html
| journal = Nature
| volume = 439
| pages = 161-167
| year = 2006
| month = January
| id = {{doi|10.1038/nature04246}}
| coauthors = Martín R. Bustamante, Luis A. Coloma, Jamie A. Consuegra, Michael P. L. Fogden, Pru N. Foster, Enrique La Marca, Karen L. Masters, Andrés Merino-Viteri, Robert Puschendorf, Santiago R. Ron, G. Arturo Sánchez-Azofeifa, Christopher J. Still and Bruce E. Young
}}
*Solomon Berg Martin, ''Biology''
*{{cite journal
| last = Stuart
| first = Simon N.
| coauthors = Janice S. Chanson, Neil A. Cox, Bruce E. Young, Ana S. L. Rodrigues, Debra L. Fischman, Robert W. Waller
| title = Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1783
| journal = Science
| volume = 306
| issue = 5702
| pages = 1783-1786
| year = 2004
| month = December
| id = {{doi|10.1126/science.1103538}}
}}
== External links ==
{{Wikispecies|Amphibia}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Amphibia}}
* [http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/ American Museum of Natural History: Department of herpetology]
* [http://www.globalamphibians.org/ The Global Amphibian Assessment]
* [http://amphibiaweb.org/ AmphibiaWeb]
[[Category:Chordates]]
[[Category:Amphibians]]
[[bg:Земноводни]]
[[ca:Amfibi]]
[[cs:Obojživelníci]]
[[cy:Amffibiad]]
[[da:Padde]]
[[de:Amphibien]]
[[es:Amphibia]]
[[eo:Amfibioj]]
[[fr:Amphibia]]
[[ko:양서류]]
[[id:Amfibia]]
[[io:Amfibia]]
[[it:Amphibia]]
[[he:דו חיים]]
[[lt:Varliagyviai]]
[[li:Amfibieë]]
[[mk:Водоземци]]
[[ms:Amfibia]]
[[nl:Amfibieën]]
[[nds:Amphibia]]
[[ja:両生類]]
[[no:Amfibier]]
[[oc:Amphibia]]
[[pl:Płazy]]
[[pt:Amphibia]]
[[ru:Земноводные]]
[[simple:Amphibian]]
[[sl:Dvoživke]]
[[fi:Sammakkoeläimet]]
[[sr:Водоземци]]
[[sv:Groddjur]]
[[tr:İki yaşamlılar]]
[[uk:Земноводні]]
[[zh:两栖动物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Arnold Gore/Criticisms</title>
<id>622</id>
<revision>
<id>15899151</id>
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túcia)]]
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<title>Bertolt Brecht</title>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.7.176.133|202.7.176.133]] ([[User talk:202.7.176.133|Talk]]) to last version by PseudoSudo</comment>
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[[Image:Brecccht.jpg|thumb|right|Bertolt Brecht]]
'''Bertolt Brecht''' ([[February 10]], [[1898]] &ndash; [[August 14]], [[1956]]) was an influential [[Germany|German]] [[drama]]tist, [[Theatre director|stage director]], and [[poetry|poet]] of the [[20th century]].
== Life and career ==
Born in [[Augsburg]], [[Bavaria]], Brecht studied medicine and worked briefly as an orderly in a hospital in [[Munich]] during [[World War I]]. After the war he moved to [[Berlin]] where an influential critic, [[Herbert Ihering]], brought him to the attention of a public longing for modern theater. Brecht's first two plays, ''Baal'' and ''Drums in the Night'', had already had performances in Munich, and he got to know [[Erich Engel]], a director who worked with him off and on for the rest of his life. In Berlin, ''In the Jungle of the Cities'', starring [[Fritz Kortner]] and directed by Engel, became his first success. Brecht was also influenced by Asian theatre and its use of masks. This would later influence him to use "alienation" in his work.
During the postwar [[socialism|socialist]] governments and then the [[Weimar Republic]], Brecht met and began to work with [[Hanns Eisler]] &mdash; the composer with whom he shared the closest friendship throughout his life. He also met [[Helene Weigel]], who would become his second wife and accompany him through exile and for the rest of his life. His first book of poems, ''Hauspostille'', won a literary prize.
He married the opera singer and actress [[Marianne Zoff]] in [[1922]]. Their daughter, [[Hanne Hiob]], born in [[1923]], is a well-known German actress. One year later they had a son, Stefan. In [[1930]] Brecht married Weigel, and their daughter [[Barbara Brecht-Schall | Barbara]] was born soon after. She also became an actress and currently holds the copyrights to all of Brecht's work.
Brecht formed a writing collective which became prolific and very influential. [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]], [[Margarete Steffin]], [[Emil Burri]], [[Ruth Berlau]] and others worked with Brecht and produced the multiple ''Lehrstücke'' (teaching plays), which attempted a new dramaturgy for participants rather than passive audiences. These addressed themselves to the massive worker arts organisation that existed in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] in the [[1920s]]. So did Brecht's first great play, ''Saint Joan of the Stockyards'', which attempted to portray the drama in financial transactions. He also worked in the theaters of [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt]] and [[Erwin Piscator]].
This collective adapted [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'', with Brecht's songs set to music by [[Kurt Weill]]. Retitled ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' (<i>Die Dreigroschenoper</i>) it was the largest hit in Berlin of the 1920s and a renewing influence on the [[Musical theater|musical]] worldwide. One of its most famous lines underscored the hypocrisy of conventional morality imposed by the Church, working in conjunction with the established order, in the face of working-class hunger and deprivation:
{|
|
:''Erst kommt das Fressen''<br>
:''Dann kommt die Moral.''<br>
|
:First the grub (lit. "eating like animals, gorging")<br>
:Then the morality.
|}
The success of ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' was followed by the quickly thrown together ''Happy End''. It was a personal and a commercial failure. The book was then claimed to be by the mysterious Dorothy Lane (now known to be [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]], Brecht's secretary and close collaborator). Brecht only claimed authorship of the song texts. Brecht would later use elements of ''Happy End'' as the germ for his ''Saint Joan of the Stockyards'', a play that would never see the stage in Brecht's life-time. ''Happy End'''s most redeeming quality was its inspired score by Weill, producing many Brecht/Weill hits like 'Der Bilbao-Song' and 'Surabaya-Jonny'.
The masterpiece of the Brecht/Weill collaborations, ''[[Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny]] (Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny)'', premiered in 1930 in Leipzig with an uproar, having Nazis protesting the opera in the audience. The ''Mahagonny'' opera would premier later in Berlin in 1931 as a triumphant sensation.
Brecht spent his last years in Berlin (1930-1933) working with his ‘collective’ on the ''Lehrstücke''. These were a group of plays driven by morals, music and Brecht's budding Epic Theatre. The ''Lehrstücke'' often aimed at educating workers on Socialist issues. ''The Measures Taken'', by far the most popular and scandalous of this series, was scored by [[Hanns Eisler]]. In addition, Brecht worked on a script for a semi-documentary feature film about the human impact of mass unemployment, [[Kuhle Wampe]] (1932), which was directed by [[Slatan Dudow]]. This striking film is notable for its subversive humour, outstanding [[cinematography]] by [[Günther Krampf]], and Hanns Eisler's dynamic musical contribution. It still provides a vivid insight into Berlin during the last years of the [[Weimar Republic]].
By February 1933, Brecht’s work was eclipsed by the rise of [[Nazi]] ([[fascist]]) rule in Germany. Brecht would also have his work challenged again in later life by the U.S. [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] (HUAC) who believed he was under the influence of communism.
== Nazi Germany and World War II ==
After [[Adolf Hitler]] won the election in 1933, Brecht perceived a great danger to himself and left for exile&mdash;to [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Sweden]], [[England]], then [[Russia]] and finally in the [[United States]].
In his resistance toward the Nazi and Fascist movements, Brecht wrote his most famous plays: ''[[Galileo (play)|Galileo]]'', ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'', ''[[Mr Puntila and His Man Matti]]'', ''[[The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui]]'', ''[[Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'', ''[[The Good Person of Sezuan]]'', and many others.
Brecht also wrote poetry which continues to attract attention and respect. He worked on a few screenplays for [[Hollywood]], like ''[[Hangmen Also Die]]'', though he had no real success or pleasure in this.
== Cold War and East Germany ==
In the years of the [[Cold War]] and "[[red scare]]", the House Un-American Activities Committee hounded Brecht for his communist allegiances, and he was soon [[Hollywood blacklist|blacklisted]] by movie studio bosses. Brecht, along with about 30 other Hollywood writers, directors, actors and producers, was subpoenaed to appear before the HUAC in November of 1947. He had pledged not to testify but did so anyway. Unlike the ten others who went before him, he was not cited for contempt. He testified that he was not a member of the [[communist party]] there or abroad, and was thanked by the Vice Chairman [[Karl Mundt]] for cooperating. By this time, Brecht had left the US and was running the [[Berliner Ensemble]] theatre in [[East Berlin]]. After testifying, he left the US the next day for Europe. He had lived for many years in [[Moscow]] after [[1933]], but not in the other countries mentioned. In April of [[1941]], he acquired a visa at the US consulate in [[Finland]] to come to the US. He then traveled across the [[USSR]] by rail to [[Vladivostok]] during June. He was allowed to travel in the Soviet Union while officially an enemy alien from Germany when Germany attacked the USSR that same month. Citizens of the Soviet Union could not travel as freely. He arrived in the US in July of 1941 and took out papers to become a citizen in December, but never acted on them. He was regularly in touch with the Soviet Vice Counsel over the next seven years. His talent was as a playwright and poet and one would expect him to have worked in New York, but instead he stayed in Hollywood, where he had few notable accomplishments.
Leaving the United States for Europe, Brecht came to [[Switzerland]], where he adapted [[Sophocles]]' ''[[Antigone (Sophocles)|Antigone]]'', and then was invited to Berlin by [[East Germany]]. Horrified at the reinstatement of former Nazis into [[West Germany]]'s government, Brecht accepted the offer and made East Berlin his home.
While Brecht's communist sympathies were a bane in the United States, East German officials sought to make him their hero. Though he had not been a member of the communist party, he had been deeply schooled in [[Marxism]] by the dissident communist [[Karl Korsch]], and his communist allegiances were sincere. He claimed communism appeared to be the only reliable antidote to [[militarism|militarist]] [[fascism]] and spoke out against the remilitarization of the West and the [[division of Germany]].
But Brecht proved to be almost as uncomfortable for his East German hosts as for the West Germans across the [[iron curtain]]. Brecht did not keep up appearances &mdash; he was scruffily dressed and always had a stubbly, unshaven face. East German security guards once excluded him from a Berlin reception being given in his own honor.
He also found the experience of living in a [[Stalinist]] state far different from what he had imagined in exile, when he composed works such as ''Die Massnahme'' ("The Measure"), which glorified the self-denying infallible vanguard party, or, more concretely, in ''Die Massnahmen''
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this material for the maintenance of their fleets. According to some theories, the spirit of early [[capitalism]] in the tar-producing province of [[Pohjanmaa]] may have been the reason for the [[witch-hunt]] wave that happened in this region during the late 17th century. The people were developing more expectations and plans for the future, and when these were not realized, they were quick to blame witches - according to a belief system the [[Lutheran]] church had imported from [[Germany]].
In the religious sense, the 17th century was an era of very strict [[Lutheran]] orthodoxy.
In 1697-9, a famine caused by climate killed approximately 30 % of the Finnish population. Soon afterwards, another war determining Finland's fate began (the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700-21).
==The 18th century - the Age of Reason==
During the [[Great Northern War]] ([[1700]]&ndash;[[1721]]), Finland was occupied by the Russians, and the [[Old Finland|south-eastern part]], including the important town of [[Viipuri]], was annexed to [[Russia]] after the [[Peace of Nystad|peace of Uusikaupunki]]. The border with Russia came to lie roughly where it returned to after [[World War II]]. Sweden's status as a European [[great power]] was gone, and Russia was now the leading might of the North. The [[absolute monarchy]] was finished in Sweden. During this [[Sweden and the Great Northern War#The Age of Liberty|Age of Liberty]], the [[Riksdag of the Estates|Parliament]] ruled the country, and the two parties of [[Hats (party)|Hats]] and [[Caps (party)|Caps]] struggled for control leaving the lesser Court party, i.e. parliamentarians with close connections to the royal court, with little to no influence. The Caps wanted to have a peaceful relationship with Russia and were supported by many Finns, while other Finns longed for revenge and supported the Hats.
Finland by this time was no populous land. By the mid-18th century, the population was less than 470 000 according to official statistics (based on (Lutheran) church records, so a few Orthodox Christian parishes in Northern [[Finnish Karelia|Karelia]] are not included). However the population grew rapidly, and doubled before the turn of the century. 90% of the population are typically classified as "[[peasant]]s"; however most of them belonged to the class of free taxed yeomen. 45% of the male population were enfranchised with full political representation in the legislature &mdash; although clericals, nobles and townsfolk had their own chambers in the parliament, boosting their political influence and excluding the peasantry on matters of foreign policy.
The mid 18th century was a relatively good time, partly because life was now more peaceful. However, during the [[Lesser Wrath]] ([[1741]]&ndash;[[1742]]), Finland was again occupied by the Russians after the government, during a period of Hat party dominance, had made a [[Hats' Russian War|botched attempt to reconquer]] the lost provinces. Instead the result of the [[Peace of Åbo]] was that the Russian border was moved further to the west. During this time, Russian propaganda hinted at the possibility of creating a separate Finnish kingdom.
Both the ascending Russian Empire and pre-revolutionary France aspired to have Sweden as a client state. Parliamentarians and others with influence were susceptible to taking bribes which they made their best to push up. The integrity and the credibility of the political system waned, and in [[1771]] the young and charismatic king [[Gustav III]] staged a [[coup-d'état]], abolished [[parliamentarism]] and reinstated royal power in Sweden &mdash; more or less with the support of the parliament. In [[1788]], he started a new war against [[Russia]]. Despite a couple of [[Battle of Svensksund|victorious battles]], the war was fruitless, managing only to bring disturbance to the economic life of Finland. The popularity of King Gustav III waned considerably. During the war, a group of officers made the famous [[Anjala conspiracy|Anjala declaration]] demanding peace negotiations and calling of ''Riksdag'' (Parliament). An interesting sideline of this process was the conspiracy of some Finnish officers, who attempted to create an independent Finnish state with Russian support. After an initial shock, Gustav III crushed this opposition. In [[1789]], the new constitution of Sweden strengthened the royal power further, as well as improving the status of the peasantry. However, the continuing war had to be finished without conquests - and many Swedes now considered the king as a tyrant.
With the interruption of the war [[1788]]&ndash;[[1790]], the last decades of the 18th century had been an era of development in Finland. Trade increased and the peasantry was growing more affluent and self-conscious. The [[Age of Reason]]'s climate of broadened debate in the society on issues of politics, religion and morals would in due time highlight the problem that the overwhelming majority of Finns spoke only [[Finnish language|Finnish]], but the cascade of newspapers, belles-lettres and political leaflets was almost exclusively in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] &mdash; when not in [[French language|French]].
The two Russian occupations had been harsh and were not easily forgotten. These occupations were a seed of a feeling of separateness and otherness, that in a narrow circle of scholars and intellectuals at the university in [[Turku]] was forming a sense of a separate Finnish identity representing the eastern part of the realm. The shine of the Russian imperial capital [[Saint Petersburg]] was also much stronger in southern Finland than in other parts of Sweden, and contacts across the new border dispersed the worst fears for the fate of the educated and trading classes under a Russian régime. At the turn of the century, the Swedish speaking educated classes of officers, clerics and civil servants were mentally well prepared for a shift of allegiance to the strong [[Russian Empire]].
King Gustav III was assassinated in [[1792]], and his son [[Gustav IV Adolf]] assumed the crown after a period of [[Absolute Monarchy in Sweden#Reuterholm|regency]]. The new king was not a particularly talented ruler; at least not talented enough to steer his kingdom through the dangerous era of the [[French Revolution]] and [[Napoleonic wars]].
==Russian Grand Duchy==
{{main|Grand Duchy of Finland}}
During the [[Finnish War]] between Sweden and Russia, Finland was again conquered by the armies of Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]]. The [[Riksdag of the Estates|four Estates]] of occupied Finland were assembled at the [[Diet of Finland|Diet of Porvoo]] on [[March 29]], [[1809]] to pledge allegiance to [[Alexander I of Russia]]. Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of the [[Treaty of Fredrikshamn]] on [[September 17]], [[1809]], Finland remained an [[autonomous]] [[Grand Duchy]] in the [[Russian Empire]] until the end of [[1917]], with [[Finnish Karelia|Karelia]] handed back to Finland in [[1812]]. During the years of Russian rule the degree of autonomy varied. Periods of [[censorship]] and political prosecution occurred, particularly in the two last decades of Russian control, but the Finnish [[peasant]]ry remained free (unlike their Russian counterparts) as the old Swedish law remained effective (including the relevant parts from [[Gustav III]]'s [[ Constitution of 1772 (Finland)|Constitution of 1772]]). The old [[Riksdag of the Estates|four-chamber Diet]] was re-activated in the [[1860s]] agreeing to supplementary new legislation concerning internal affairs. [[Industrialisation]] begun during the [[19th century]] from [[forestry]] to industry, mining and machinery and laid the foundation of Finland's current day prosperity, even though agriculture employed a relatively large part of the population until the post-WWII era.
====Nationalism====
{{main|Finland's language strife}}
Particularly following Finland's incorporation into the Swedish central administration during the 16th and 17th centuries, [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]] had been the dominant language in administration and education. Before that, in medieval semi-anarchy, [[German Language|German]], [[Latin]] and Swedish were important languages beside native-spoken [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. Finnish recovered its predominance after a 19th-century resurgence of Finnish [[Nationalism]], and Russian controllers working to separate Finns from Sweden and to ensure the Finns' loyalty.
The publication in [[1835]] of the Finnish [[national epic]], the [[Kalevala]], a collection of traditional [[Mythology|myth]]s and [[legend]]s which is the [[folklore]] of the [[Karelian people]] (the [[Finnic]] [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] people who inhabit the [[Lake Ladoga]]-region of eastern Finland and present-day NW Russia), first stirred the [[nationalism]] that later led to Finland's [[independence]] from Russia. The Finnish national awakening in the mid-nineteenth century was the result of members of the Swedish-speaking upper classes deliberately choosing to promote Finnish culture and language as a means of [[nation building]], i.e. to establish a feeling of unity between all people in Finland including (and not of least importance) between the ruling [[elite]] and the ruled peasantry.
In 1863, Finnish gained a position in administration, and [[1892]] Finnish finally became an equal [[official language]] and gained a status comparable to that of Swedish. Within a generation Finnish clearly dominated in government and society.
====Russification====
{{main|Russification of Finland}}
In [[1906]], as a means to improve Russo-Finnish relations, the old [[Riksdag of the Estates|four-chamber Diet]] was replaced by a [[unicameral]] [[Parliament]] ''(the "[[Eduskunta]]"),'' which was elected by universal suffrage, with Finnish women being the first in Europe to be given the vote.
==Independence and Ci
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include a spring-loaded button-actuated slide that, when depressed, redirects the airflow.
The harmonica is commonly used in [[blues]] and [[folk music]], but also in [[jazz]], [[European classical music|classical music]], [[country music]], [[rock and roll]] and [[pop music]]. Increasingly, the harmonica is finding its place in more electronically generated music, such as [[dance]] and [[hip-hop]], as well as [[funk]] and [[acid]]. Harmonica seems to be an instrument that crosses ethnic, musical, and cultural divides in a manner that is not as well duplicated by many other instruments.
== Parts of the harmonica==
[[Image:Gaita partes1.jpg|thumb|Comb and two reedplates.]]
[[Image:Gaita_Palhetas2.jpg|thumb|left|Reedplate mounted on the comb of a diatonic harmonica.]]
[[Image:Gaita palhetas.jpg|thumb|Reed plate.]]
The basic parts of the harmonica are the comb, reed-plates and cover-plates. The comb is the term for the main body of the instrument. These are traditionally made of [[wood]], but [[plastic]] (ABS) and [[metal]] combs are perhaps more common today. The comb contains the air chambers which cover the reeds - the name [[comb]] comes from the fact that in simple harmonicas it does indeed resemble a hair-comb. In some designs, however, the comb is in fact very complex in arranging how the air is directed, particularly more modern and experimental designs. There is much debate about whether comb-material has an effect on the tone of the harmonica or not. While this has traditionally been the assumption, several recent attempts at blind testing have not been able to show that people can hear a difference when comb material is the only variable, and the only advantage one comb material truly have over another one is usually its durability. The choice of comb material is usually decided by the player, as the tonality of each material is only heard by the player of the "harp". Once the sound escapes the instrument, it is then subjected to the environmental changes and to the bias of a listener's ear.
Reed-plate is the term for a grouping of several free-reeds in a single housing (usually [[brass]], but occasionally [[steel]] and [[aluminium]] have been used, as well as plastics). These individual reeds are usually riveted to the reed-plate but they may also be welded or screwed in place (a notable exception is the all-plastic harmonicas designed by Finn Magnus in the [[1950s]], where the reed and reed-plate were molded out of a single piece of plastic). (Note: The choice of reed-plate material is expressly dependent upon the individual player's preference.) Depending upon whether the reeds are fixed on the inside (within the comb's air chamber) or the outside (in the open air) of the reed-plate, the reed responds to [[pressure]] ) reeds on the inside of the air chamber will respond to pressure while those on the outside will respond to suction. Most harmonicas are constructed with the reed-plates screwed to the comb or each other, however a few brands still use the traditional method of nailing the reed-plates to the comb. Again, the Magnus design had the reeds, reed-plates and comb all out of plastic and either molded together or permanently glued together. Some experimental and rare harmonicas also have the reed-plates held in place by tension, such as the WWII era All-American models.
The cover or cover-plates are usually made of metal, however wood and plastics have also been used. As pointed out previously, the choice of these is extremely personal. These go on the outside of the harmonica protecting the reed-plates and projecting the sound, and thus is the actual components, other than the reeds, that determine the tonal quality of the harmonica. There two types: the traditional open designs of stamped metal or plastic are simply there to be held, and the enclosed design (such as Hohner Meisterklass and Super 64, Suzuki Promaster and SCX) offered a louder tonal quality. From these two, a few modern designs are spawned, such as the [[Hohner]] CBH-2016 chromatic and the [[Suzuki]] Overdrive diatonic, which have complex covers which allow for specific functions not usually available in the traditional design. Similarly, it was not unusual in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th centuries]] to see harmonicas with special features on the covers such as [[Bell (instrument)|bells]] which could be rung by pushing a button and the like.
The windsavers, also known as valves, are typically found in Chromatic harmonicas, Chord harmonica as well as many Octave-tuned harmonicas, and occasionally in diatonic and other harmonicas as well. Windsavers tend to be very thin strips of plastic, but other materials such as knit paper, leather and teflon have been used as well, all cut into strips and glued on one end to cover the opening in the slot opposite the reed on the reed-plate. These appear most often on harmonicas where two reeds share a cell and leakage through the non-playing reed would be significant (primarily chromatic, octave and chord models), the valve is pressed into the slot blocking air from the reed not being sounded. Thus, when a draw note is played the valve on blow reed-slot is sucked against the slot and blocks air from leaking through that slot and around the in-active blow reed, vice-versa for draw reeds. An exception is the recent Hohner XB-40 where valves are placed not to isolate single reeds but rather to isolate entire chambers from being active.
Some harmonicas have other parts as well. The [[mouthpiece]] is an object which is placed between the air chambers of the instrument and the player's mouth. This can be made integral with the comb (the diatonic harmonicas, the Hohner Chrometta), as part of the cover (as in Hohner's CX-12) or as a separate unit entirely, secured by screws, which is typical of Chromatics. In many harmonicas the mouthpiece is purely an ergonomic aide designed to make playing more comfortable, but in the traditional slider-based chromatic harmonica it is essential to the functioning of the instrument, in that it provide groove for the slide.
It should also be noted that among players, the brand that one chooses usually is based on one's ability to play, the pliability of the reeds, sound of the instrument, and, surprisingly, price. For many, the best harmonicas are more expensively priced, though many also learned price does not equate to quality.
== Harmonica types ==
=== The diatonic harmonica ===
[[Image:Gaitas.jpg|thumb|Diatonic harmonicas]]
The diatonic harmonica is the most widely known type of harmonica. It has ten holes which offer the player 19 notes (10 holes times a draw and a blow for each hole minus one repeated note) in a three octave range. The standard diatonic harmonica is designed to allow a player to play chords and melody in a single key. Because they are only designed to be played in a single key at a time, diatonic harmonicas are available in all keys. Here is a standard diatonic harmonica's layout in the key of C (1 blow is middle C):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-----------------------------
blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |
draw: |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |
-----------------------------
See also: [[Media:BluesHarp Notes Layout.png|image of the above diagram]]
Note that although there are 3 octaves between 1 and 10 blow, there is only one full major scale available on the harmonica, between holes 4 and 7. The lower holes are designed around the tonic (C major) and dominant (G major) chords, allowing a player to play these chords underneath a melody by blocking or unblocking the lower holes with the tongue. The most important notes (the tonic triad C-E-G) are given the blow, and the secondary notes (D-B-F-A), the draw.
====Special tuned harmonicas====
A number of people have made specially tuned variants of the diatonic harmonica. For example, Lee Oskar Harmonicas makes a variety of harmonicas to help players used to a "Cross-harp" style to play in other styles. Cross-harp players usually base their play around a mixolydian scale starting on 2 draw and ending a 6 blow (with a bend needed to get the second tone of the scale; a full scale can be played from 6 blow to 9 blow). Lee-Oskar special tunes harmonicas to allow players to play a natural minor, harmonic minor, and major scale from 2 draw to 6 blow. Below are some sample layouts (notice that the key labels describe the scale from 2 draw to 6 blow, whereas traditional harmonicas are labelled according to the scale between 4 and 8 blow).
Country tune: Identical to standard Richter Tuning, except hole 5 draw is raised a semitone
Natural Minor (cross harp, 6 blow to 9 blow) / Dorian (straight harp, 4 blow to 7 blow):
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-----------------------------
blow: |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |
draw: |D |G |Bb|D |F |A |Bb|D |F |A |
-----------------------------
Harmonic Minor (straight harp, 4 blow to 7 blow)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-----------------------------
blow: |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |
draw: |D |G |B |D |F |Ab|B |D |F |Ab|
-----------------------------
Major (cross harp, 6 blow to 9 blow), Lee Oskar "Melody Maker" (Note that this will be labeled as "G": Melody Major's key indicate cross harp's key, starting from draw 2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-----------------------------
blow: |C |E |A |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |
draw: |D |G |B |D |F#|A |B |D |F#|A |
-----------------------------
The "Melody Maker" designed and marketed by Lee Oskar is a particularly interesting evolution of the harmonica, since it allows a player accustomed to playing "cross harp" (in mixolydian) to play in a major key (which is what the standard layout is designed for in the first place). Rather than providing the standard C major and G dominant chords, the Melody Mak
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the Prussians following the capture of Plancenoit. The last coherent French force consisted of two battalions of the Old Guard stationed around the inn called ''La Belle Alliance''. This was a final reserve and a personal bodyguard for Napoleon. For a time Napoleon hoped that if they held firm the French Army could rally behind them. But as the retreat turned into a rout, they were forced to form squares as protection against the leading elements of allied cavalry. They formed into two squares, one on either side of ''La Belle Alliance''. Until he was persuaded that the battle was lost and he should leave, Napoleon commanded the square which was formed on rising ground to the (Allied) right of the inn. The Prussians engaged the square to the left, and General Adam's Brigade charged the square on the right, forcing it to withdraw. As dusk fell both squares retreated away from the battlefield towards France in relatively good order but the French artillery, and everything else belonging to them, fell into the hands of the British and Prussians. The retreating Guards were surrounded by thousands of fleeing Frenchmen who were no longer part of any coherent unit. British and Allied cavalry harried the fleeing French until about 23:00 hours. The Prussians, led by [[August von Gneisenau|General von Gneisenau]], pursued them throughout the night.
== Conclusion ==
At around 21:00 Wellington and Blücher met at Napoleon's former headquarters ''La Belle Alliance'', signifying the end of the battle.
Waterloo cost the Anglo-allied forces around 15,000 dead and wounded, and the Prussians some 7000. Napoleon lost 25,000 dead and injured. 8000 of his troops were taken prisoner.
After the French defeat at Waterloo and the final battle of the Napoleonic Wars at the [[Battle of Wavre]], Napoleon was deposed and remained at large for some time in France before surrendering to the British. He was subsequently exiled to [[Saint Helena]], where he died in [[1821]].
==The battlefield today==
[[Image:Waterloo Lion.jpg|thumb|200px|Lion Monument at Waterloo, erected by the Dutch on the spot where it is believed the Prince of Orange was wounded. ]]
The current terrain of the battlefield is very different from what it would have been in 1815. In [[1820]], the Dutch King [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] ordered the construction of a monument on the spot where it was believed his son, the [[William II of the Netherlands|Prince of Orange]], had been wounded. A giant mound was constructed here, using 300,000 cubic meters of earth taken from other parts of the battlefield, including Wellington's sunken road. Wellington, when visiting the site years later, allegedly complained "they've spoiled my battlefield!"
==Waterloo in popular culture==
* The phrase ''to meet one's Waterloo'' (or similar) has entered the English language as a word signifying a great test with a final and decisive outcome- usually a negative one, in recognition of Napoleon's defeat; e.g. [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/election2001/story/0,9029,506043,00.html], [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/rugby.html?in_article_id=367609&in_page_id=1780].
* "The Adventures of Gerard" (1903) by Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] contains a chapter "How the Brigadier Bore Himself at Waterloo", about his fictional hero Brigadier [[Etienne Gerard]]. The chapter consists of two short stories which were originally published separately. [[Project Gutenberg]]:[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1644 The Adventures of Gerard] ([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8623 Audio Book])
* "Waterloo: Sharpe's Final Adventure Campaign" is a novel by [[Bernard Cornwell]], which sets his fictional hero [[Richard Sharpe (fictional character)|Richard Sharpe]] at the battle on the staff of the non-fictional [[William II of the Netherlands|Prince of Orange]]. The book was later adapted for television by the [[ITV]] and starred [[Sean Bean]] as Sharpe.
* ''[[Waterloo (movie)|Waterloo]]'' was an [[1970]] Italian-Russian film, directed by [[Sergei Bondarchuk]]. It was the story of the preliminary events and the battle, and is remembered for its lavish battle scenes.
* The band [[ABBA]] made a song titled ''[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]'' that won the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in 1974.
* The famous quote attributed to Wellington ("The battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton") was certainly an invention; unlike his older brother, Wellington got poor grades at Eton; on one of his rare visits back there, the only athletic activities he could remember were skipping across a brook, and fisticuffs with a fellow student.
* In the video game [[Psychonauts]], [[Characters in Psychonauts#Fred Bonaparte|Fred Bonaparte]], an insane asylum employee and descendant of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], loses his sanity after continuously losing a game of "Waterloo" with a patient, and develops a split personality between himself and his forefather.
* In [[Blackadder]] Back and Forth, Lord Blackadder travels back in time and accidently kills Wellington before the battle of Waterloo; when he returns to the future England is full of French culture, so he time-travels once again to ensure that the Duke lives.
*Waterloo is a song by American Metal Band Iced Earth about the battle at Waterloo on the Album [[The Glorious Burden]], however it is only available on the 2 Disc Special Edition in America
== References ==
* Wellington's Dispatches [[June 19]] [[1815]]
* [[Les Misérables#Other threads|Les Misérables]] by [[Victor Hugo]]
* [[The Charterhouse of Parma]] by [[Stendhal]]
* David Hamilton-Williams, ''The Fall of Napoleon, the final betrayal'', Arms and Armour, London, 1994, 352 p
* David Hamilton-Williams, ''Waterloo New perspectives the Great Battle Reappraised'', Arms and Armour, London, 1993, 416 p
==Further reading==
* Campaigns of Napoleon by David G. Chandler
* Napoleonic Wars by Michael Glover
* Waterloo Lectures, Colonel Charles C. Chesney
* 1815, The Waterloo Campaign by Peter Hofschroer
==Notes==
#{{note|Start}} [http://www.wtj.com/archives/wellington/1815_06f.htm Wellington's Dispatches June 19th, 1815]
#{{note|Cambronne}} The retort to a request to surrender may have been'''"La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!"''' "''The Guard dies, it does not surrender!''" or the response may have been the more earthy "Merde!", but Letters published in ''[[The Times]]'' in June [[1932]] record that Cambronne said neither, as he was already a prisoner, but that they may have been said by [[Claude-Etienne Michel|General Michel]] who was killed at Waterloo. [http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/miscellaneous/c_cambronne.html The Guard dies, it does not surrender. Cambronne surrenders, he does not die]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Battle of Waterloo|Battle of Waterloo}}
* [http://www.napoleonseries.org/reference/bibliographic/1815sources.cfm Reference Library of Bibliographic Sources - German Waterloo Sources]
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/135 Gutenberg: Les Miserables by Victor Hugo] [http://www.classicreader.com/read.php/sid.1/bookid.268/sec.71/ on line version in HTML]
* [http://news.mod.uk/news/press/news_press_notice.asp?newsItem_id=1782 British MOD "On this day" article]
* [http://home.iprimus.com.au/cpcook/indexLW.htm Eye witness accounts of Napoleonic warfare.]
* [http://hnn.us/roundup/comments/8630.html Waterloo's significance to the French and British - including proportions of soldiers by nation]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Waterloo_myths_2.html Waterloo - the German Victory]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Waterloo_Cowards.html Myths and Lies about the performance of Dutch and Belgian troops in 1815]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/trafalgar_waterloo/battle_waterloo_01.shtml BBC History - Waterloo]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/WATERLOO_GUARD_NAPOLEON.htm Napoleon's Guard at Waterloo 1815]
* [http://www.news-medical.net/?id=6440 Battle of Waterloo could help doctors fight death from multiple organ failure]
* [http://www.napoleonic-literature.com/Waterloo_OB/Allied.htm Anglo-Allied Order of Battle for the campaign]
* [http://www.napoleonic-literature.com/Waterloo_OB/French.htm French Order of Battle for the campaign (in French)]
* [http://www.napoleonic-literature.com/Waterloo_OB/Prussian.htm Prussian Order of Battle for the campaign (in German)]
[[Category:Battles of the Napoleonic Wars|Waterloo]]
[[Category:1815]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
[[ca:Batalla de Waterloo]]
[[da:Slaget ved Waterloo]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Waterloo]]
[[es:Batalla de Waterloo]]
[[eo:Batalo de Waterloo]]
[[fi:Waterloon taistelu]]
[[fr:Bataille de Waterloo]]
[[it:Battaglia di Waterloo]]
[[he:קרב ווטרלו]]
[[hu:Waterlooi csata]]
[[nl:Slag bij Waterloo]]
[[ja:ワーテルローの戦い]]
[[no:Slaget ved Waterloo]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Waterloo]]
[[pt:Batalha de Waterloo]]
[[ru:Битва при Ватерлоо]]
[[simple:Battle of Waterloo]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Waterloo]]
[[zh:滑铁卢战役]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of BBC television programming</title>
<id>4357</id>
<revision>
<id>41809411</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:12:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emb021</username>
<id>202812</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* P */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An incomplete '''list of popular [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] produced shows''' and shows originally produced for BBC [[Television|TV]]:
{{compactTOC}} __NOTOC__
==0-9==
*''[[2point4 children]]''
*''[[8:15 from Manchester]]''
==A==
*''[[A Picture of Britain]]''
*''[[Absolute Power (comedy)|Absolute Power]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[Absolutely Fabulous]]''
*''[[Ace Lightning]]''
*''[[Adam Adamant Lives!]]''
*''[[All About Me]]''
*''[['Allo 'Allo!]]''
*''[[Andy Pandy]]''
*''[[Angels (TV)|Angels]]''
*''[[Animal Hospital]]''
*''
|
ound among blacks throughout the country. Map based on Labov, Ash, and Boberg (2006: 48).]]
Most North American speech is [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]], as English was in most places in the 17th century. Rhoticity was further supported by [[Hiberno-English]], [[Scottish English]], and [[West Country dialects|West Country]] English. In most varieties of [[North American English]], the sound corresponding to the letter "R" is a [[retroflex]] [[semivowel]] rather than a trill or a tap. The loss of syllable-final ''r'' in North America is confined mostly to the accents of [[Boston accent|eastern New England]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York City]] and surrounding areas, South [[Philadelphia]], and the coastal portions of the [[Southern American English|South]]. Dropping of syllable-final ''r'' sometimes happens in natively rhotic dialects if ''r'' is located in unaccented syllables or words and the next syllable or word begins in a consonant. In England, lost 'r' was often changed into {{IPA|[ə]}} ([[schwa]]), giving rise to a new class of falling [[diphthong]]s. Furthermore, the 'er' sound of (stressed) ''fur'' or (unstressed) ''butter'', which is represented in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] as stressed {{IPA|[ɝ]}} or unstressed {{IPA|[ɚ]}} is realized in American English as a [[monophthong]]al [[r-colored vowel]]. This does not happen in the non-rhotic varieties of North American speech.
Some other British English changes in which most North American dialects do not participate:
* The shift of {{IPA|[æ]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the so-called "[[broad A]]") before {{IPA|[f], [s], [θ], [ð], [z], [v]}} alone or preceded by {{IPA|[n]}}. This is the difference between the British [[Received Pronunciation]] and American pronunciation of ''bath'' and ''dance''. In the United States, only linguistically conservative eastern-New-England speakers took up this innovation.
* The shift of intervocalic {{IPA|[t]}} to glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, as in {{IPA|/bɒʔəl/}} for ''bottle''. This change is not universal for British English (and in fact is not considered to be part of [[Received Pronunciation]]), but it does not occur in most North American dialects. [[Newfoundland English]] and the dialect of [[New Britain, Connecticut]] are notable exceptions.
On the other hand, North American English has undergone some sound changes not found in Britain, at least not in standard varieties. Many of these are instances of [[phonemic differentiation]] and include
* The [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Father-bother merger|merger of {{IPA|[ɑ]}} and {{IPA|[ɒ]}}]], making ''father'' and ''bother'' rhyme. This change is nearly universal in North American English, occurring almost everywhere except for parts of eastern New England, like the [[Boston accent]].
* The replacement of the lot vowel with the strut vowel in ''what'', ''was'', ''of'', ''from'', ''everybody'', ''nobody'', ''somebody'', ''anybody'', ''because'', and in some dialects ''want''.
* The merger of {{IPA|[ɒ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}}. This is the so-called [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Cot-caught merger|cot-caught merger]], where ''cot'' and ''caught'' are [[homophone]]s. This change has occurred in eastern New England, in [[Pittsburgh English|Pittsburgh]] and surrounding areas, and from the [[Great Plains]] westward.
* [[English-language vowel changes before historic r|Vowel merger]] before intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}}. Which (if any) vowels are affected varies between dialects.
* The merger of {{IPA|[ʊɹ]}} and {{IPA|[ɝ]}} after [[palatal consonant|palatals]] in some words, so that ''cure'', ''pure'', ''mature'' and ''sure'' rhyme with ''fir'' in some speech registers for some speakers.
* [[English consonant cluster reductions#Yod-dropping|Dropping]] of {{IPA|[j]}} after [[alveolar consonant]]s so that ''new'', ''duke'', ''Tuesday'', ''suit'', ''resume'', ''lute'' are pronounced {{IPA|/nuː/}}, {{IPA|/duːk/}}, {{IPA|/tuːzdeɪ/}}, {{IPA|/suːt/}}, {{IPA|/ɹɪzuːm/}}, {{IPA|/luːt/}}.
* [[Phonological history of English short A#æ-tensing|æ-tensing]] in environments that vary widely from accent to accent. In some accents, particularly those from [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] to [[New York City]], {{IPA|[æ]}} and {{IPA|[eə]}} can even contrast sometimes, as in ''Yes, I '''can''''' {{IPA|[kæn]}} vs. ''tin '''can''''' {{IPA|[keən]}}.
* Laxing of {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} to {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ʊ/}} before {{IPA|/ɹ/}}, causing pronunciations like {{IPA|[pɛɹ]}}, {{IPA|[pɪɹ]}} and {{IPA|[pjʊɹ]}} for ''pair'', ''peer'' and ''pure''.
* The [[flapping]] of intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} to [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} before reduced vowels. The words ''ladder'' and ''latter'' are mostly or entirely homophonous, possibly distinguished only by the length of preceding vowel. For some speakers, the merger is incomplete and 't' before a reduced vowel is sometimes not tapped following {{IPA|[eɪ]}} or {{IPA|[ɪ]}} when it represents underlying 't'; thus ''greater'' and ''grader'', and ''unbitten'' and ''unbidden'' are distinguished. Even among those words where {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are flapped, words that would otherwise be homophonous are, for some speakers, distinguished if the flapping is immediately preceded by the diphthongs {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}}; these speakers tend to pronounce ''writer'' with {{IPA|[əɪ]}} and ''rider'' with {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}}. This is called [[Canadian raising]]; it is general in [[Canadian English]], and occurs in some northerly versions of American English as well (often just applying to the diphthong {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}}, but not to {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}}).
* Both intervocalic {{IPA|/nt/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} may be realized as {{IPA|[n]}} or {{IPA|[ɾ̃]}}, making ''winter'' and ''winner'' homophones. This does not occur when the second syllable is stressed, as in ''entail''.
* The [[Phonological history of the high front vowels#Pin-pen merger|pin-pen merger]], by which {{IPA|[ɛ]}} is raised to {{IPA|[ɪ]}} before [[nasal consonant]]s, making pairs like ''pen''/''pin'' homophonous. This merger originated in [[Southern American English]] but is now widespread in the Midwest and West as well.
Some mergers found in most varieties of both American and British English include:
* The [[English-language vowel changes before historic r#Horse-hoarse merger|horse-hoarse merger]] of the vowels {{IPA|[ɔ]}} and {{IPA|[oʊ]}} before 'r', making pairs like ''horse/hoarse'', ''corps/core'', ''for/four'', ''morning/mourning'' etc. [[homophones]].
* The [[English consonant cluster reductions#Wine-whine merger|wine-whine merger]] making pairs like ''wine/whine'', ''wet/whet'', ''Wales/whales'', ''wear/where'' etc. [[homophone]]s, in most cases eliminating {{IPA|/ʍ/}}, the [[voiceless labiovelar fricative]]. Many older varieties of southern and western American English still keep these distinct, but the merger appears to be spreading.
==Differences in British English and American English==
''Main article'': [[American and British English differences]]
American English has both spelling and grammatical differences from [[British English]] (or [[Commonwealth English]]), some of which were made as part of an attempt to rationalize the English spelling used by British English at the time. Unlike many 20th century [[language reform]]s (for example, [[Turkey]]'s alphabet shift, [[Norway]]'s spelling reform) the American [[spelling]] changes were not driven by government, but by textbook writers and dictionary makers.
The first American dictionary was written by [[Noah Webster]] in [[1828]]. At the time the United States was a relatively new country and Webster's particular contribution was to show that the region spoke a different dialect from Britain, and so he wrote a dictionary with many spellings differing from the standard. Many of these changes were initiated unilaterally by Webster.
Webster also argued for many "simplifications" to the idiomatic spelling of the period. Somewhat ironically, many, although not all, of his simplifications fell into common usage alongside the original versions with simple spelling modifications.
Many words are shortened and differ from other versions of English. Spellings such as ''center'' are used instead of ''centre'' in other versions of English. Conversely, American English sometimes favors words that are [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] more complex, whereas British English uses clipped forms, such as AmE ''transportation'' and BrE ''transport'' or where the British form is a [[back-formation]], such as AmE ''burglarize'' and BrE ''burgle'' (from ''burglar'').
==English words that arose in the U.S.==
A number of words that arose in the United States have become common, to varying degrees, in English as it is spoken internationally. Although its origin is disputed, most etymologies of "[[Okay|OK]]" place its widespread usage in America of the early 19th century. Other American introductions include "belittle," "[[gerrymander]]" (from [[Elbridge Gerry]]), "[[blizzard]]", "[[teenager]]", and many more.
==English words obsolete outside the U.S.==
A number of words that originated in the English of the British Isles are still in everyday use in North America, but are no longer used in most varieties of British English. The most conspicuous of these words are ''[[autumn|fall]]'', the season; ''to quit'', as in "to cease an activity" (as opposed to "to leave a location" as still used in most other Anglophone countries); and ''gotten'' as a [[past participle]] of ''get''. Americans are more likely than Britons to name a [[stream]] a ''creek'' if its breadth or volume is judged insufficient for it to be a ''[[river]]''. The word ''[[diaper]]'' goes back at least to [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], and usage was maintained in the U.S. and Can
|
all.
==Period of conquests==
[[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|440px|Map of Alexander's empire.]]
===The fall of the Persian Empire===
Alexander's army had crossed the [[Hellespont]] with about 42,000 soldiers primarily Macedonians{{rf|2|MvsG2}} and Greeks, but also including some Thracians, [[Paionia]]ns and Illyrians. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the [[Battle of the Granicus|Battle of Granicus]], Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of [[Sardis]] and proceeded down the [[Ionia|Ionian]] coast. At [[Halicarnassus]], Alexander successfully waged the first of many [[siege]]s, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain [[Memnon of Rhodes]] and the Persian [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], [[Orontobates]], to withdraw by sea. Alexander left Caria in the hands of [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who was ruler of Caria before being deposed by her brother [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]]. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous [[Lycia]] and the [[Pamphylia]]n plain, asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy. From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved inland. At [[Termessus]], Alexander humbled but did not storm the [[Pisidia]]n city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of [[Gordium]], Alexander "undid" the tangled [[Gordian Knot|Gordian knot]], a feat said to await the future "king of [[Asia]]." According to the most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword. Another version claims that he did not use the sword, but actually figured out how to undo the knot.
[[Image:AlexMos.jpg|thumb|350px|Alexander battling Darius at the [[Battle of Issus]], Pompei mosaic.]]
Alexander's army crossed the [[Cilician Gates]], met and defeated the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the [[Battle of Issus]] in [[333 BC]]. Darius fled this battle in such a panic for his life that he left behind his wife, his children, his mother, and much of his personal treasure. [[Sisygambis]], the queen mother, never forgave Darius for abandoning her. She disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son instead. Proceeding down the [[Mediterranean]] coast, he took [[Tyre]] and [[Gaza]] after famous sieges (see [[Siege of Tyre]]). Alexander passed near but probably did not visit [[Jerusalem]].
In [[332 BC]] - [[331 BC]], Alexander was welcomed as a liberator in [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and was pronounced the son of Zeus by Egyptian priests of the god Ammon at the Oracle of the god at the [[Siwa Oasis]] in the [[Libya]]n desert. He founded [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic]] dynasty after his death. Leaving Egypt, Alexander marched eastward into [[Assyria]] (now northern [[Iraq]]) and defeated Darius and a third Persian army at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Darius was forced to flee the field after his charioteer was killed, and Alexander chased him as far as [[Arbela]]. While Darius fled over the mountains to [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]), Alexander marched to [[Babylon]].
[[Image:UrumqiSoldier.jpg|thumb|180px|Statuette of a Greek soldier, from a 4th - 3rd century BC burial site north of the [[Tian Shan]], at the maximum extent of Alexander's advance in the East ([[Ürümqi]], [[Xinjiang]] Museum, [[China]]) (drawing).]]
From Babylon, Alexander went to [[Susa]], one of the [[Achaemenid]] capitals, and captured its treasury. Sending the bulk of his army to [[Persepolis]], the Persian capital, by the [[Royal Road]], Alexander stormed and captured the Persian Gates (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]), then sprinted for [[Persepolis]] before its treasury could be looted. Alexander allowed the League forces to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes]] and spread to the rest of the city. It was not known if it was a drunken accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the [[Athenian Acropolis]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian War]]. The ''Book of Arda Wiraz'', a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century AD, also speaks of archives containing "all the [[Avesta]] and Zand, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink" that were destroyed; but it must be said that this statement is often treated by scholars with a certain measure of skepticism, because it is generally thought that for many centuries the Avesta was transmitted mainly orally by the [[Magians]].
He then set off in pursuit of Darius, who was kidnapped, and then murdered by followers of [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]]n satrap and kinsman. Bessus then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V and retreated into [[Central Asia]] to launch a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign against Alexander. With the death of Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance over, and released his Greek and other allies from service in the League campaign (although he allowed those that wished to re-enlist as [[mercenaries]] in his imperial army).
His three-year campaign against first Bessus and then the satrap of [[Sogdiana]], [[Spitamenes]], took him through [[Medes|Media]], [[Parthia]], [[Aria (place)|Aria]], [[Drangiana]], [[Arachosia]], [[Bactria]], and [[Scythia]]. In the process, he captured and refounded [[Herat]] and [[Samarkand|Maracanda]]. Moreover, he founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern [[Kandahar]] in [[Afghanistan]], and [[Alexandria Eschate]] ("The Furthest") in modern [[Tajikistan]]. In the end, both were betrayed by their men, Bessus in [[329 BC]] and Spitamenes the year after.
====Hostility toward Alexander====
During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''[[proskynesis]]'', a symbolic kissing of the hand that Persians paid to their social superiors, but a practice of which the Greeks disapproved. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the preserve of [[deities]] and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him much in the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Here, too, a plot against his life was revealed, and his [[Companion cavalry|companion]] [[Philotas]] was executed for treason for failing to bring the plot to his attention. [[Parmenion]], Philotas' father, who was at the head of an army at [[Ecbatana]], was assassinated by command of Alexander, who feared that Parmenion might attempt to avenge his son. Several other trials for treason followed, and many Macedonians were executed. Later on, in a drunken quarrel at [[Maracanda]], he also killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, [[Clitus the Black]]. Later in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life, this one by his own [[page (servant)|pages]], was revealed, and his official historian, [[Callisthenes]] of [[Olynthus]] (who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to introduce ''proskynesis''), was implicated on what many historians regard as trumped-up charges. However, the evidence is strong that Callisthenes, the teacher of the pages, must have been the one who persuaded them to assassinate the king.
===The invasion of India===
[[Image:AlexPorusCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Coin commemorating Alexander's campaigns in India, struck in [[Babylon]] around [[323 BC]].<br/>
'''Obv:''' Alexander standing, being crowned by [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], fully armed and holding [[Zeus]]' [[thunderbolt]].<br/>
'''Rev:''' Greek rider, possibly Alexander, attacking an Indian battle-elephant, possibly fleeing [[Porus]].]]
With the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to [[Roxana]] (Roshanak in [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, in [[326 BC]] Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to [[India]]. King [[Taxiles|Ambhi]], ruler of [[Taxila]], surrendered the city to Alexander. Many people had fled to a high fortress called [[Aornos]]. Alexander took Aornos by storm. Alexander fought an epic battle against [[Porus]], a ruler of a region in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the [[Battle of Hydaspes]] in ([[326 BC]]). After attaining victory, Alexander made an alliance with Porus and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom. Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of his noble mount who had brought him to India. Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the [[Indus River]].
East of Porus' kingdom, near the [[Ganges River]], was the powerful empire of [[Magadha]] ruled by the [[Nanda dynasty]]. Fearing the prospects of facing another powerful Indian army and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis]] (modern Beas), refusing to march further east. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, [[Coenus]], was convinced that it was better to return. Alexander was forced to turn south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Indian Ocean. He sent much of his army to [[Carmania]] (modern southern [[Iran]]) with his general [[Craterus]], and commissioned a fleet to explore the [[Persian Gulf]] shore under his admiral [[Nearchus]], while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the [[Gedrosia]] (present day [[Makran]] in southern [[Pakistan]]).
===After India===
[[Image:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|350px|''Alexander and [[Porus]]'' by [[Charles Le Brun]], [[1673]].]]
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed a number of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send those over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia under Craterus, but his troops misunderstood his i
|
inal Odyssey]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Trigger]]'' (1999, with [[Michael P. Kube-McDowell]])
* ''[[The Light of Other Days]]'' (2000, with [[Stephen Baxter]])
* ''[[Time's Eye]]'' (2004, with Stephen Baxter)
* ''[[Sunstorm (novel)|Sunstorm]]'' (2005, with Stephen Baxter)
* ''[[The Last Theorem]]'' (2005)
===Omnibus editions===
* ''[[Across the Sea of Stars]]'' (1959, including ''Childhood's End'', ''Earthlight'' and 18 short stories)
* ''[[From the Ocean, From the Stars]]'' (1962, including ''The City and the Stars'', ''The Deep Range'' and ''The Other Side of the Sky'')
* ''[[An Arthur C. Clarke Omnibus]]'' (1965, including ''Childhood's End'', ''Prelude to Space'' and ''Expedition to Earth'')
* ''[[Prelude to Mars]]'' (1965, including ''Prelude to Space'' and ''The Sands of Mars'')
* ''[[An Arthur C. Clarke Second Omnibus]]'' (1968, including ''A Fall of Moondust'', ''Earthlight'' and ''The Sands of Mars'')
* ''[[Four Great SF Novels]]'' (1978, including ''The City and the Stars'', ''The Deep Range'', ''A Fall of Moondust'', ''Rendezvous with Rama'')
* ''[[The Space Trilogy]]'' (2001, including ''Islands in the Sky'', ''Earthlight'' and ''The Sands of Mars'')
[[Image:Startling Stories.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Against the Fall of Night]]'' in ''[[Startling Stories]]''.]]
===Short story collections===
* ''[[Expedition to Earth]]'' (1953)
* ''[[Reach for Tomorrow]]'' (1956)
* ''[[Tales from the White Hart]]'' (1957)
* ''[[The Other Side of the Sky]]'' (1958)
* ''[[Tales of Ten Worlds]]'' (1962)
* ''[[The Nine Billion Names of God]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Of Time and Stars]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Wind from the Sun]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Best of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' (1973)
* ''[[The Sentinel (short story)|The Sentinel]]'' (1983)
* ''[[Tales From Planet Earth]]'' (1990)
* ''[[More Than One Universe]]'' (1991)
* ''[[The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' (2000)
===Non-fiction===
*''Profiles of the Future'' (1962, subtitled "An Enquiry into the Limits of the Possible")
*''[[The Snows of Olympus - A Garden on Mars]]'' (1994, picture album with comments]
*''[[Ascent to Orbit]]'' is what he calls his scientific autobiography
*''[[Astounding Days]]'' his science-fictional autobiography
*''[[The coming of the Space Age; famous accounts of man's probing of the universe]]'', selected and edited by Arthur C. Clarke.
*''[[The Coast of Coral]]'' with photographs by Mike Wilson and Arthur C. Clarke, volume 1 of the ''Blue planet trilogy''
*''[[How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village]]. A history and survey of the communications revolution published in 1992.
*''[[Greetings, carbon-based bipeds!]]'' collected essays, 1934-1998
*''[[Man and space]]''
*''[[Report on Planet Three and other speculations]]''
*''[[The promise of space]]''
==Themes, style, and influence==
Clarke's early published stories would usually feature the extrapolation of a technological innovation or scientific breakthrough that assists the resolution of a human dilemma. The first manned mission to the moon (''[[Prelude to Space]]''), the colonization of [[Mars]] (''[[The Sands of Mars]]'') and life aboard a space station (''[[Islands in the Sky]]'') were all genre SF mainstays. Clarke's background as a technical writer showed in the early novels as a deliberate documentary style, and his characters reflect Clarke's experience by being mostly military or civil service types. Despite this, Clarke's style was open to humour and a degree of whimsy which salted its propagandist tone regarding scientific advancement with a sting in the tail.
A recurring type of character is found in ''[[The Lion of Comarre]]'', ''[[The City and the Stars]]'', ''[[The Road to the Sea]]'', and other works. A young man in a superficially [[utopian]] society becomes dissatisfied and restless and seeks to expand his horizons, thereby discovering the underlying decadence of his own society.
''The Sentinel'' introduced a religious theme to Clarke's work. His interest in the paranormal was influenced by [[Charles Fort]] and embraced the belief that mankind may be the property of an ancient alien civilization. Surprisingly for a writer who is often held up as an example of hard science fiction's obsession with technology, three of Clarke's novels have this as a theme.
==The adapted screenplays of Arthur C. Clarke==
===''2001: A Space Odyssey''===
Clarke's first venture into film was the Stanley Kubrick-directed ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. Kubrick and Clarke had met in [[1964]] to discuss the possibility of a collaborative film project. As the idea developed, it was decided that the story for the film was to be loosely based on Clarke's short story "The Sentinel", written in [[1948]] as an entry in a BBC short story competition. Originally, Clarke was going to write the screenplay for the film, but this proved to be more tedious than he had estimated. Instead, Kubrick and Clarke decided it would be best to write a novel first and then adapt it for the film upon its completion. However, as Clarke was finishing the book, the screenplay was also being written simultaneously.
Due to the hectic schedule of the film's production, Kubrick and Clarke had difficulty collaborating on the book. Clarke completed a draft of the novel at the end of [[1964]] with the plan to publish the novel in [[1965]] in advance of the film's release in [[1966]]. After many delays the film was released in the spring of [[1968]], before the book was completed. It was credited to Clarke alone. Clarke later complained that this had the effect of making the book into a novelisation, that Kubrick had manipulated circumstances to downplay his authorship. For these and other reasons, the details of the story differ slightly from the book to the movie. The film is a bold artistic piece with little explanation for the events taking place. Clarke, on the other hand, wrote thorough explanations of "cause and effect" for the events in the novel. Despite their differences, both film and novel were well received. [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=2001.htm] [http://movies.go.com/moviesdynamic/movies/movie?id=479433] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index%3Ddvd%2526field-keywords%3Dspace%2520odyssey%2526results-process%3Ddefault%2526dispatch%3Dsearch/ref%3Dpd%5Fsl%5Fov%5Ftops-1%5Fdvd%5F4138659%5F1/104-5000595-8600727]
In [[1972]] Clarke published ''The Lost Worlds of 2001'', which included his account of the production and alternate versions of key scenes. The "special edition" of the novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)| A Space Odyssey]]'' (released in [[1999]]) contains an introduction by Clarke, documenting his account of the events leading to the release of the novel and film.
===''2010: The Year We Make Contact''===
In [[1982]] Clarke continued the ''2001'' epic with a sequel, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. This novel was also made into a film, ''[[2010: The Year We Make Contact]]'', directed by [[Peter Hyams]] for release in [[1984]]. Due to the political environment in America in the 1980s, the novel and film present a Cold War theme, with the looming tensions of nuclear war. The film was not considered to be as revolutionary or artistic as ''2001'', but the reviews were still positive and it has earned over 40 million dollars since its release in North America. [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=2010.htm]
Clarke's email correspondence with Hyams was published in 1984. Titled ''[[The Odyssey File: The Making of 2010]]'', and co-authored with Hyams, it illustrates his fascination with the then-pioneering medium and its use for them to communicate on an almost daily basis at the time of planning and production of the film. The book also includes [[Arthur C Clarke's List of the best Science-Fiction films of all time|Clarke's list of the best science-fiction films]] ever made.
===''Rendezvous with Rama''===
Early in the millennium, actor [[Morgan Freeman]] expressed his desire to produce a film based on Arthur C. Clarke's novel ''Rendezvous with Rama''. The film was to be produced by Freeman's production company, [[Revelations Entertainment]].[http://www.revelationsent.com/flash/index.html] Freeman has not given up on the project, but he states that funding for a movie of this type is hard to procure. A popular science-fiction web site (Sci Fi Wire) posted an interview with Freeman about his troubles with the production. [http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/art-main.html?2003-03/14/12.00.film]
==Essays and short stories==
Most of Clarke's essays (between [[1934]] to [[1998]]) can be found in the book ''[[Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!]]'' ([[2000]]). Most of his short stories can be found in the book ''[[The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' ([[2001]]). They make a good collection of Clarke's non-fiction and fiction works, even for those who already have most of his books. Another collection of early essays was published in ''[[The View from Serendip]]'' ([[1977]]), which also included one short piece of fiction, "[[When the Twerms Came]]". He has also written short stories under the pseudonyms of [[E. G. O'Brien]] and [[Charles Willis]].
==See also==
* [[Clarke's three laws]]
* [[science fiction]]: [[:Category:Science fiction writers|authors]] – [[:Category:Science fiction novels|novels]] – [[:Category:Science fiction short stories|short stories]] – [[:Category:Science fiction television series|television shows]]
* [[Arthur C Clarke's List of the best Science-Fiction films of all time]]
* [[Clarketech]]
* [[Spaceguard]]
* [[Religious ideas in science fiction]]
* [[:Category:Arthur_C._Clarke_books|Arthur C. Clarke books]]
* [[:Category:Arthur_C._Clarke_short_stories|Arthur C. Clarke short stories]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.kazlev.karoo.net/ Team ACC - Arthur C Clarke Fans] : an international [[Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing|BOINC]] community
|
Godfather Part III]]'' - [[Carmine Coppola]] - #12 "[[Promise Me You'll Remember]]"
==Filmography==
* 2006 ''[[Bug (2006 movie)|Bug]]''
* 2004 ''[[Mickey (2004 movie)|Mickey]]''
* 2003 ''[[Basic (movie)|Basic]]''
* 2001 ''[[Life Without Dick]]''
* 2000 ''[[The Simian Line]]''
* 2000 ''[[My Dog Skip]]''
* 1999 ''[[Wayward Son]]''
* 1999 ''[[The Iron Giant]]''
* 1998 ''[[Hope Floats]]''
* 1997 ''[[Excess Baggage]]''
* 1996 ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]''
* 1995 ''[[Copycat (movie)|Copycat]]''
* 1991 ''[[Little Man Tate]]''
* 1990 ''[[Memphis Belle (film)|Memphis Belle]]''
==Various==
* 2006 ''[[The Pajama Game]]'' ([[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] Musical)
* 2005 ''[[The Happy Elf]]'' ([[NBC]])
* 2004 ''[[Only You: In Concert]]'' ([[PBS]])
* 2003 ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'' ([[NBC]])
* 2002 ''[[Will & Grace]]'' (NBC 2002-2006)
* 2001 ''[[Thou Shalt Not (musical)|Thou Shalt Not]]'' (Broadway Musical) - composer
* 2001 ''[[Evening at Pops]]'' (PBS)
* 2001 ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' ([[American_Broadcasting_Company|ABC]])
* 1999 ''The Worlds of Harry Connick Jr.'' ([[Bravo (television network)|Bravo]])
* 1998 ''Harry Connick Jr.: Romance in Paris'' (PBS Special)
* 1993 ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas|The Harry Connick Jr. Christmas Special]]'' ([[CBS]])
* 1991 ''[[Cheers]]'' - TV show guest appearance
==Videography==
* 2005 ''[[A Duo Occasion]]''
* 2004 ''[[Only You: In Concert]]'' ([[Sony Music Entertainment|Sony Music]])
* 2003 ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'' ([[Columbia Records|Columbia]])
* 1994 ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas|The Harry Connick Jr. Christmas Special]]''
* 1993 ''[[The New York Big Band Concert]]'' (Sony Music)
* 1990 ''[[Swingin' Out Live]]'' (Sony Music)
* 1990 ''[[Singin' and Swingin']]'' (Sony Music)
==External links==
*[http://www.harryconnickjr.com/connick/index.cfm/ Harry Connick Jr. official website]
*[http://www.hconnickjr.com/ Harry Connick Jr. website on Sony Music]
*[http://www.connick.com/ connick.com - the original fan site]
*[http://www.connick.com/forum/ Harry Connick, Jr. Forum]
*{{imdb name|id=0001065|name=Harry Connick Jr.}}
*{{nndb name|id=/170/000023101|name=Harry Connick Jr.}}
*{{ibdb name|id=47302|name=Harry Connick Jr.}}
*[http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/harry_connick_jr_/artist.jhtml VH1 Harry Connick Jr. web page]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&uid=UIDMISS70311071654390588&sql=Bttduakok5m3k/ All Music Guide Harry Connick Jr, page]
*[http://www.harryconnickjr.com/connick/pbuild/linkbuilder.cfm?selection=doc.680/ Article on Connick's United States patent 6,348,648] for a "system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra."
[[Category:1967 births|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Living people|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American jazz singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American male singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American pop singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[category:Celebrities who have appeared on Sesame Street|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Harry Connick, Jr.|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American jazz pianists|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:New Orleanians|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Will & Grace actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[de:Harry Connick junior]]
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[[sv:Harry Connick Jr.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of humorists</title>
<id>13744</id>
<revision>
<id>40523405</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T04:57:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Realkyhick</username>
<id>392806</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''humorist''' is an [[author]] who specializes in short, humorous articles or essays.
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
Notable humorists:
* [[George Ade]]
* [[Cecil Adams]] (''The Straight Dope'')
* [[Scott Adams]] (''[[Dilbert]]'')
* [[Michael "Atters" Attree]]
* [[Linwood Barclay]]
* [[Dave Barry]]
* [[Robert Benchley]]
* [[Stefano Benni]]
* [[Josh Billings]]
* [[Erma Bombeck]]
* [[Art Buchwald]]
* [[Guy Wetmore Carryl]]
* [[Al Clouston]]
* [[William Combe]]
* [[Will Cuppy]]
* [[Will Ferguson]]
* [[Mike Fireball]]
* [[Ian Frazier]]
* [[Stephen Fry]]
* [[Veronica Geng]]
* [[Janey Godley]]
* [[Hugh Laurie]]
* [[Gary Lautens]]
* [[Stephen Leacock]]
* [[Stuart McLean]]
* [[John Bingham Morton]] ([[pen name]]: [[Beachcomber]])
* [[Ogden Nash]]
* [[Richard J. Needham]]
* [[Eric Nicol]]
* [[Dorothy Parker]]
* [[S. J. Perelman]]
* [[Boleslaw Prus|Boles&#322;aw Prus]]
* [[David Rakoff]]
* [[Bill Richardson (radio)|Bill Richardson]]
* [[Will Rogers]]
* [[David Sedaris]]
* [[Dr Seuss]]
* [[Herb Shriner]]
* [[Wil Shriner]]
* [[The 7th Level]]
* [[Richard A. Sherman]] ''aka'' [[Mr. Modem]]
* [[Sholom Aleichem]]
* [[Joey Slinger]]
* [[H. Allen Smith]]
* [[Ron Sparks]]
* [[James Thurber]]
* [[Calvin Trillin]]
* [[Mark Twain]]
* [[Orl Unho]]
* [[Artemus Ward]]
* [[Ellis Weiner]]
* [[P. G. Wodehouse]]
* [[Melvin Durai]]
* [[B. Thompson Stroud]]
* [[Ebrahim Nabavi]]
==See also==
*[[Comedian]]
[[bg:&#1057;&#1087;&#1080;&#1089;&#1098;&#1082; &#1085;&#1072; &#1093;&#1091;&#1084;&#1086;&#1088;&#1080;&#1089;&#1090;&#1080;]]
[[Category:Lists of writers|Humorists]]
[[Category:Humorists| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humprey Bogart</title>
<id>13745</id>
<revision>
<id>15911338</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Humphrey Bogart]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrostatic shock</title>
<id>13746</id>
<revision>
<id>39683244</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T03:31:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arrkhal</username>
<id>180834</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism by 130.207.180.212</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydrostatic shock''' is a theory of [[terminal ballistics]] that wounding effects are created by a shock wave in the tissues of the target. The term is meant to be a combination of [[hydrostatics]] with the (misnomer) effect of hydrodynamic shock. It is frequently used to argue in favor of low mass, high velocity bullets, especially in American [[shooting sports]] magazines.
==== Background ====
Hydrodynamic shock refers to a [[pressure wave]] that is created when liquid is suddenly displaced, such as by a [[high explosive]]. Although it is sometimes used by scientists (e.g. {{fn|(1)}}), the term is a misnomer because shock waves do not occur in incompressible fluids. Such pressure waves are known to cause extensive tissue damage to organisms that they pass through, and have been studied for use in meat tenderization and antibacterial applications.
Following the development of high explosives in the [[19th century]], it was discovered that setting off dynamite in water caused nearby fish to die ''en masse''. Although highly efficient, [[blast fishing|dynamite fishing]] was found to be extremely destructive to the environment and has been widely banned, although it is still illicitly practiced in some areas.{{fn|(2)}}
Proponents of hydrostatic shock argue that because tissue is composed largely of water, an analogous situation can occur in tissue where organs are damaged in the same manner as fish, more by the shock wave than the projectile itself.
==== A Failed Theory ====
The theory of hydrostatic shock has been conclusively disproven. The claim that tissue behaves like water is obviously false. Water is an incompressible fluid, while tissue is a compressible solid. Tissue has memory and will return to its original shape if stretched, and can dissipate energy as it stretches. What's more, even if tissue did behave like water, the speed of sound in water is approximately 1500 m/s, but no commonly used rifle bullet exceeds 1300 m/s.
Tissue does behave similarly enough to water that a sonic pressure wave can be created by a bullet impact, generating pressures in excess of 100 atmospheres. However, a device known as the lithotriptor, commonly used to break up kidney stones, produces sonic pressure waves of approximately 5 times the amplitude of those caused by bullets. Up to 2000 such pressure waves are used in a single treatment session, with no damage to soft tissues whatsoever.{{fn|(3)}}
From a study produced by the FBI, "Handgun Wounding Factors and Effectiveness"
:The reason is that most tissue in the human target is elastic in nature. Muscle, blood vessels, lung, bowels, all are capable of substantial stretching with minimal damage. Studies have shown that the outward velocity of the tissues in which the temporary cavity forms is no more than one tenth of the velocity of the projectile. This is well within the elasticity limits of tissue such as muscle, blood vessels, and lungs, Only inelastic tissue like liver, or the extremely fragile tissues of the brain, would show significant damage due to temporary cavitation.{{fn|(4)}}
Further, one study {{fn|(5)}} showed that projectiles which strike above the speed of sound in water do not produce any "extra" trauma which could not be explained by the increase in drag as velocity increases.
==References==
*{{fnb|(1)}} {{Web reference | title=Hydrodyne Process Research, Dr. James R. Claus | wor
|
15'' (1926)
*[[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.|Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr]]. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]].
*Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources
*Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953)
*Temin, Peter. ''The Jacksonian Economy'' (1969)
*Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)
*Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962)
* Wilentz, Sean. ''The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln'' (2005)
==External links==
{{commons|Andrew Jackson}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
* [http://www.expage.com/andrewjackson12 All About Andrew Jackson]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Jackson | name=Andrew Jackson}}
* {{CongBio|J000005}}
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/pol-gl.htm#F. American Political History Online]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj7.html White House Biography]
* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/jackson/ Andrew Jackson on the Web (resource directory)]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal]
* [http://www.bargeron.com/genealogy/gsb/f3802.html A genealogical profile of the President]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g07.htm Jackson's medical history]
* [http://www.wnpt.net/rachel/rachel_andrew/together.html PBS documentary on Rachel & Andrew's life together]
* [http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/CallBrevardPapers/ Andrew Jackson letters to Richard K. Call]
===Inaugural addresses===
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/jackson1.htm First Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/jackson2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
===[[State of the Union address]]es===
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-1.html First State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-2.html Second State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-3.html Third State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-4.html Fourth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-5.html Fifth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-6.html Sixth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-7.html Seventh State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-8.html Final State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
{{start box}}
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| title=[[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee At Large|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee At Large]]
| before=''(none)''
| after=[[William C. C. Claiborne]]
| years=1796 &ndash; 1797}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state=Tennessee
| class=1
| before=[[William Cocke]]
| after=[[Daniel Smith]]
| alongside=[[Joseph Anderson]]
| years=1797 &ndash; 1798}}
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| before=''(none)''
| after=[[William P. Duval]]<br>'''(Territorial Governor)
| years=1821}}
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| state=Tennessee
| class=2
| before=[[John Williams (Tennessee)|John Williams]]
| after=[[Hugh Lawson White]]
| alongside=[[John H. Eaton]]
| years=1823 &ndash; 1825}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[James Monroe]]
| after=''(none)''
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1824|1824]] (lost)<sup>(a)</sup>}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominee]]
| before=''(none)''
| after=[[Martin Van Buren]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1828|1828]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1832|1832]] (won)}}
{{succession box
| title=[[President of the United States|President of the United States]]
| before=[[John Quincy Adams]]
| after=[[Martin Van Buren]]
| years=[[March 4]] [[1829]] &ndash; [[March 3]] [[1837]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=<sup>(a)</sup>
| footnote=The [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] split in 1824, fielding four separate candidates: '''Andrew Jackson''', [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Henry Clay]], and [[William Harris Crawford]].}}
{{end box}}
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[[Category:1767 births|Jackson, Andrew]]
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[[Category:People from North Carolina|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Scots-Irish Americans|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[ar:أندرو جاكسون]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew Johnson</title>
<id>1624</id>
<revision>
<id>41558412</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:33:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjensen</username>
<id>313197</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=Andrew Johnson
| nationality=american
| image=President Andrew Johnson standing.jpg
| order=17<sup>th</sup> President
| vicepresident=none
| term_start=[[April 15]] [[1865]]
| term_end=[[March 3]] [[1869]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. -->
| predecessor=[[Abraham Lincoln]]
| successor=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| birth_date=[[December 29]] [[1808]]
| birth_place=[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]
| death_date=[[July 31]] [[1875]]
| death_place=[[Greeneville, Tennessee]]
| spouse=[[Eliza McCardle Johnson]]
| party=[[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] (elected on National Union ticket)
}}
{{Otherpeople|Andrew Johnson}}
'''Andrew Johnson''' ([[December 29]] [[1808]] – [[July 31]] [[1875]]) was the sixteenth [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] (1865) and the seventeenth [[President of the United States]] (1865–1869), succeeding to the presidency upon the assassination of [[Abraham Lincoln]].
Johnson presided over the [[Reconstruction]] of the United States following the [[American Civil War]], and his conciliatory policies towards the defeated rebels and his vetoes of [[civil rights]] bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with the Congressional Republicans, leading the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] to [[impeachment|impeach]] him in 1868; he was the first President to be impeached. He was subsequently acquitted by a single vote in the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
==Early life==
Johnson was born on [[December 29]], [[1808]], in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]], to Jacob Johnson and Mary McDonough. When Johnson was four his father died. At the age of 10 he was apprenticed to a tailor, but ran away to [[Greeneville, Tennessee]] in 1826, where he continued his employment as a tailor. He never attended any type of school; his wife, [[Eliza McCardle Johnson]], has historically been credited with teaching him to read and write.
==Early political career==
Johnson served as an [[alderman]] in [[Greeneville, Tennessee|Greeneville]] from 1828 to 1830 and mayor of Greeneville from 1830 to 1833. He was a member of the [[Tennessee House of Representatives|State House of Representatives]] from 1835 to 1837 and from 1839 to 1841. He was elected to the [[Tennessee Senate|State Senate]] in 1841, and elected as a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] to the Twenty-eighth and to the four succeeding Congresses ([[March 4]] [[1843]] to [[March 3]] [[1853]]). He was chairman of the [[U.S. House Committee on Public Expenditures]] (Thirty-first and Thirty-second Congresses).
==Political ascension==
Johnson did not seek renomination, having become a candidate for the governorship of [[Tennessee]]. He was Governor of Tennessee from 1853 to 1857, and was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate and served from [[October 8]] [[1857]] to [[March 4]] [[1862]], when he resigned. He was chairman of the [[Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense]] (Thirty-sixth Congress). At the time of [[secession]] of [[Confederate States of America|the Confederacy]], Johnson was the only Senator from the seceded states to continue participation in Congress. Johnson was then appointed by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] as Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862.
==Presidency 1865-1869==
===Assumption===
As a leading War Democrat and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was attractive to the Republicans in 1864 as they tried to enlarge their base to include War Democrats. He was elected [[Vice President of the United States]] on the National Union ticket headed by Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864 and was inaugurated [[March 4]] [[1865]]. A rather embarrassing incident occurred
|
to investigate, and he is greeted by arguably the most surreal sequence of [[scene]]s in [[science fiction film]] history.
===''2010: Odyssey Two'' (book) &amp; ''2010: The Year We Make Contact'' (film)===
In the end of the ''2001'' movie, David Bowman is led through a metamorphosis from a material, soul-bearing being to an energy-like being. This state, and David Bowman's incarnation of himself in this state, is referred to in the ''2010'' book as the ''Star Child''.
The visual representation of David Bowman's new state in the movie(s) is that of a variety of human David Bowman bodies at various ages (from embryo to elderly).
In the movie 2010, David Bowman attempts to communicate with the main character Dr. Heywood Floyd, by proxying messages through HAL's communication system. Dr Floyd at first assumes that HAL or another human crew member is playing a trick. Ultimately, David shows himself to the character, to warn him that the recovery team for ''Discovery'' that has traveled to Jupiter orbit aboard the ''Leonov'' must leave within only two days (before Jupiter is artificially turned into a new star, Lucifer).
Toward the end of the 2010 story, David returns to Earth, briefly meeting with his wife and then his mother.
In the book, David as the Star Child defuses an orbiting nuclear weapon, derailing the onset of a war.
===''2061: Odyssey Three'' and ''3001: The Final Odyssey''===
In ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'', Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.
In ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]'', we meet the merged forms of Dave Bowman and HAL. The two have merged into one entity called ''Halman'' after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying [[Discovery One]] spaceship towards the end of ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. Halman helps [[Frank Poole]] infect the monolith (which it once served) with a [[computer virus]]; as the primitive life in Jupiter's clouds were sacrificed to make Jupiter into a sun to warm Europa, it is feared that humanity would in turn be sacrificed for the new life on Europa.
==Etymological significance of David Bowman's name==
The following is a possible etymology of the name David Bowman. The first name "David" is believed to point to the biblical [[David/Biblical character|David]], who killed the much stronger [[Goliath]] through skill not power. The second name "Bowman" is assumed to be a reference to [[Odysseus|Ulysses]], whose skill with the bow is often described in the [[Odyssey]]. Ulysses also blinded the one-eyed [[Polyphemus]] with a trick, as Bowman deactivates one (camera) eyed HAL 9000 is quite clear. Hence a potential reason for the name of the film: "2001 A Space Odyssey".
David Bowman is also the name of an obscure American novelist. Bowman (born 1957) is the author of the novel, "Let the Dog Drive" and the novel, "Bunny Modern."
{{Spaceodyssey}}
[[Category:Characters in written science fiction|Bowman, David]]
[[Category:Fictional astronauts|Bowman, David]]
[[Category:Space Odyssey series|Bowman, David]]
[[es:David Bowman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diuretic</title>
<id>9078</id>
<revision>
<id>41843974</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:40:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>169.229.73.102</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="400px" align="right" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2" |
'''Classification of common diuretics and their mechanisms of action'''
|- align="center" style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray"
| agent
| mechanism
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[Potassium-sparing diuretic|Potassium-sparing diuretics]]''' (''e.g.'', [[spironolactone]], [[amiloride]], [[triamterene]])
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibition within collecting ducts of Na<sup>+</sup>-K<sup>+</sup> exchange: spironolactone inhibits aldosterone action; amiloride inhibits [[epithelial sodium channel]]s (ENaC)
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[water]]'''
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibits [[vasopressin]] secretion
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[ethanol]]'''
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibits vasopressin secretion
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''V<sub>2</sub> vasopressin receptor antagonists'''
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibit vasopressin's action on [[nephron]]'s collecting duct
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''Xanthines''' (''e.g.'', [[caffeine]], [[theophylline]])
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibit tubular reabsorption of Na<sup>+<sup>, increase [[glomular filtration rate]]
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''acidifying [[salt]]s''' (''e.g.'', CaCl<sub>2</sub>, NH<sub>4</sub>Cl)
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" |
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[carbonic anhydrase inhibitors]]''' (''e.g.'', [[acetazolamide]], [[dorzolamide]])
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibit H<sup>+</sup> secretion, resultant promotion of Na<sup>+</sup> and K<sup>+</sup> excretion
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[loop diuretic]]s''' (''e.g.'', [[furosemide]], [[bumetanide]], [[ethacrynic acid]])
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibit the cotransporter in the medullary thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[Thiazide]]s''' (''e.g.'', [[hydrochlorothiazide]], [[bendroflumethiazide]])
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | inhibit Na<sup>+</sup>/Cl<sup>-</sup> reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules of [[nephron]]s
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | '''[[Osmotic]] diuretics''' (''e.g.'', [[mannitol]], [[glucose]])
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | promote osmotic diuresis
|}
A '''diuretic''' is any [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug drug] that elevates the rate of bodily [[urine]] excretion ([[diuresis]]). Diuretics also decrease the [[extracellular fluid]] (ECF) volume, and are primarily used to produce a negative extracellular fluid balance. [[Caffeine]], [[cranberry juice]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]] are all weak diuretics.
In [[medicine]], diuretics are used to treat [[heart failure]], [[liver cirrhosis]], [[hypertension]] and certain [[kidney disease]]s. Diuretics alleviate the symptoms of these diseases by causing [[sodium]] and [[water]] loss through the urine. As urine is produced by the [[kidney]], sodium and water &ndash; which cause [[edema]] related to the disease &ndash; move into the [[blood]] to replace the volume lost as urine, thereby reducing the pathological edema. Some diuretics, such as [[acetazolamide]], help to make the [[urine]] more [[alkaline]] and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as [[aspirin]] in cases of [[drug overdose|overdose]] or poisoning.
It should be noted, however, that the antihypertensive actions of some diuretics ([[thiazide]]s and [[loop diuretic]]s in particular) are independent of their diuretic effect. That is, the reduction in blood pressure is not due to decreased blood volume resulting from increased urine production, but occurs through other mechanisms and at lower doses than that required to produce diuresis. [[Indapamide]] was specifically designed with this is mind, and has a larger therapeutic window for hypertension (without pronounced diuresis) than most other diuretics.
Chemically, diuretics are a diverse group of compounds that either stimulate or inhibit various [[hormone]]s that naturally occur in the body to regulate urine production by the kidneys.
[[Ethanol|Alcohol]] produces diuresis through modulation of the [[vasopressin]] system.
[[Category:Antihypertensive agents]]
[[Category:Diuretics|*]]
[[de:Diuretikum]]
[[fr:Diurétique]]
[[ja:利尿薬]]
[[nl:Diureticum]]
[[nn:Urindrivande lækjemiddel]]
[[pl:Leki moczop&#281;dne]]
[[pt:Diurético]]
[[th:ยาขับปัสสาวะ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drum kit</title>
<id>9079</id>
<revision>
<id>41862564</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:25:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>156.143.67.10</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Drum kit components}}
A '''drum kit''' (or '''drum set''' or '''trap set''' - the latter an old-fashioned term) is a collection of [[drum]]s, [[cymbal]]s and other [[percussion instrument]]s arranged for convenient playing by a sole percussionist ([[drummer]]), usually for [[jazz]], [[Rock and roll|rock]], or other types of [[contemporary music]].
== History ==
[[Image:Vue batteur grand.jpg|thumb|left|A drum kit from the player's perspective, showing a [[crash cymbal]], [[hi-hat]], high [[tom-tom]], [[ride cymbal]], [[snare drum]], floor tom-tom and [[bass drum]].]]
Developed primarily in the [[United States]], early drum kits were known as '''trap kits''' (short for ''contraption'') and are one of the most contemporary members of the membranophone family. They usually consisted of a [[bass drum]], a [[snare drum]] on a stand, a small [[cymbal]] and other small [[percussion instrument]]s mounted on the bass drum or a small table, all played with [[drum stick]]s or [[brush]]es except for the bass drum. The bass drum was sometimes kicked to produce a sound, and is occasionally still called a ''kick drum'', though bass drums are now nearly always pedal-operated, and sometimes even played with two pedals to allow for greater speed. ''Trap set'' survives in the term ''trap case'' still given to a case used by a kit drummer (or any percussionist) to transport stands, pedals, sticks, and miscellaneous percussion instruments other than drums and cymbals.
The hi-hat started out life in Dixieland drummi
|
eratosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Allognathosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Hispanochampsa]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Arambourgia]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Procaimanoidea]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Wannaganosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Alligator]]''
***** ''[[Alligator prenasalis]]'' (extinct)
***** ''[[Alligator mcgrewi]]'' (extinct)
***** ''[[Alligator olseni]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Chinese Alligator]], ''Alligator sinensis ''
***** ''[[Alligator mefferdi]]'' (extinct)
***** [[American Alligator]], ''Alligator mississippiensis ''
*** '''Subfamily Caimaninae'''
**** Genus ''[[Necrosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Eocaiman]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Paleosuchus]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman]], ''Paleosuchus palpebrosus''
***** [[Smooth-fronted Caiman]], ''Paleosuchus trigonatus''
**** Genus ''[[Parussaurus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Mourasuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Orthogenysuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Caiman]]''
***** [[Yacare Caiman]], ''Caiman yacare''
***** [[Spectacled Caiman]], ''Caiman crocodilus crocodilus ''
****** Rio Apaporis Caiman, ''C. c. apaporiensis ''
****** Brown Caiman, ''C. c. fuscus''
***** ''[[Caiman lutescans]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Broad-snouted Caiman]], ''Caiman latirostris ''
**** Genus ''[[Melanosuchus]]''
***** ''[[Melanosuchus fisheri]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Black Caiman]], ''Melanosuchus niger''
==Cultural aspects==
In [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[African American]] [[folklore]], the alligator is revered, especially the teeth, which can be worn as a charm against [[witchcraft]] and [[poison]].
Often, it is the butt of practical jokes by [[trickster]]s like [[Brer Rabbit]].
An [[urban legend]] states that people buy baby alligators after visiting [[Florida]] or other places where they are native and flush them down the toilet once they get big. The story goes that full grown alligators exist in the sewers of cities like [[New York City]]. This is impossible, however, because without UV rays from sunlight, alligators cannot properly metabolize calcium, resulting in metabolic bone disease and eventually death. Small released alligators and caimans, though, are occasionally found in northern lakes.
Alligator skin was once a highly prized [[leather]], and was farmed in some areas, as pictured in the panoramic image below. Alligator is sometimes eaten as an exotic meat.
[[image:Largealligatorfarm_panorama.jpg|thumb|400px|none|South Beach Alligator Farm ([http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/pan/6a03000/6a03500/6a03511u.tif 5MB uncompressed tif]).]]
==Pop culture references==
A top hit from [[1956 in music|1956]] was "[[See You Later Alligator]]", as sung by [[Bill Haley & His Comets]].
[[Category:Crocodiles]]
[[ca:Caiman]]
[[de:Alligatoren]]
[[es:Alligatoridae]]
[[fr:Alligatoridae]]
[[he:קיימן]]
[[la:Alligatoridae]]
[[nl:Alligators]]
[[pl:Aligatorowate]]
[[pt:Jacaré]]
[[sv:Alligatorer och kajmaner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aleutian Islands</title>
<id>1381</id>
<revision>
<id>40070885</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:46:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.188.116.5</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Aleutians_aerial.jpg|thumb|250px|Looking down the Aleutians from an airplane.]]
The '''Aleutian Islands''' (possibly from [[Chukchi language|Chukchi]] ''aliat'', "[[island]]") are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming an [[island arc]] situated in the Northern [[Pacific Ocean]], occupying an area of 6,821 sq mi (17,666 sq km) and extending about 1,200 mi (1,900 km) westward from the [[Alaska Peninsula]] toward the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]]. Crossing longitude 180°, they are the westernmost part of the [[United States]] (and technically also the easternmost; ''see [[Extreme points of the United States]]''). Nearly all of the [[archipelago]] is part of [[Alaska]] and usually considered as being in the "[[Alaskan Bush]]", but the extreme western end is in [[Russia]]. The islands with their 57 volcanoes are located in the northern part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Aleutians-space.jpg|thumb|250px|Aleutians seen from space]]
The islands, known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, comprise four groups&mdash; the [[Fox Islands|Fox]], [[Andreanof Islands|Andreanof]], [[Rat Islands|Rat]] and [[Near Islands]]. They are all located between 52 degrees and 55 degrees North latitude and 172 degrees East and 163 degrees West longitude.
The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near the 129th meridian its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of [[volcanic]] fissures which have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the [[Kuril Islands]], the [[Japan|Japanese]] chain and in the [[Philippines]]. All these island arcs are at the edge of the [[Pacific Plate]] and experience lots of [[seismic]] activity, but are still habitable; the Aleutians lie between the Pacific and North American [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]. The general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is really a western continuation of the [[Aleutian Range]] on the mainland.
[[Image:North-Pacific-air-routes.png|thumb|250px|left|Active Aleutian volcanoes]]
The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on the north side of the chain, some of them active; many of the islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain crystalline or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of [[lignite]]. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous, the land rising immediately from the coasts to steep, bold mountains.
The volcano [[Makushin]] (5691 ft/1,735 m) is visible from [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]], and the volcanic [[islet]]s [[Bogoslof]] and [[Grewingk]], which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 miles (48 km) west of the bay.
<br clear=both>
==Climate==
[[Image:AleutianIslands.jpg|thumb|310px|Aleutian Islands]]
The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall. Fogs are almost constant. The summers are much cooler than on the mainland at [[Sitka]], but the winter temperature of the islands and of the [[Alaska Panhandle]] is very nearly the same. The mean annual temperature for [[Unalaska]], the most populated island of the group, is about 38 degrees Fahrenheit (3.4 degrees Celsius), being about 30 °F (&minus;1.1 °C) for January and about 52 °F (11.1 °C) for August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded on the islands are 78 °F (26 °C) and 5 °F (&minus;15 °C), respectively. The average annual amount of rainfall is about 80 in (2,030 mm), and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days per year, is said to be the rainiest place within the territory of the [[United States]].
==Economy==
The growing season lasts about 135 days, from early in May till late in September, but agriculture is limited to the raising of a few vegetables. With the exception of some stunted [[willow]]s, the islands are practically destitute of trees, but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage, including [[Poaceae|grass]]es, [[sedge]]s and many flowering plants. On the less mountainous islands, the raising of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[reindeer]] was believed to be practicable.
People living in the Aleutian Islands developed fine skills in hunting and basketry. Hunters made their weapons and watercraft. The baskets are noted for being finely woven with carefully shredded stalks of [[beach rye]].
==Demographics==
The people refer to themselves as Unangan, and have been called "[[Aleut]]".
The [[Aleut language]] is one of the two main branches of the [[Eskimo-Aleut_languages|Eskimo-Aleut]] language family. This family is not known to be related to any others.
In the [[2000]] [[census]], there was a population of 8,162 on the islands, of which 4,283 were living in the main settlement of [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]].
==History==
Because of the location of the islands, stretching like a broken bridge from Asia to America, many anthropologists believe they were a route of the first human occupants of the Americas. The earliest known evidence of human occupation in the Americas is much further south, in [[New Mexico]] and [[Peru]]; the early human sites in Alaska have probably been submerged by rising waters during the current [[interglacial]] period.
Explorers, traders, colonists, and missionaries arrived from [[Russia]] beginning in [[1741]].
In 1741 the Russian government sent out [[Vitus Bering]], a [[Denmark|Dane]] in the service of Russia, and [[Alexei Ilyich Chirikov|Alexei Chirikov]], a Russian, in the ships ''[[Saint Peter (ship)|Saint Peter]]'' (''Swiatoj Pietr'') and ''[[Saint Paul (ship)|Saint Paul]]'' on a voyage of discovery in the Northern [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. After the ships were separated by a storm, Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the Aleutian group, and Bering discovered several of the western islands, finally being wrecked and losing his life on the island of the [[Komandorski Islands]] (Commander Islands) that now bears his name ([[Bering Island]]). The survivors of Bering's party reached the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] in a boat constructed from the wreckage of their ship, and reported that the islands were rich in fur-bearing animals.
Siberian fur hunters flocked to the Commander Islands and gradually moved eastward across the Aleutian Islands to the mainland. In this manner [[Russia]] gained a foothold on the northwestern coast of North America. The Aleutian Islands consequently b
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e and the ''Reasons Why a Protestant Should not Turn Papist'' (1687)." ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 55 (1994): 611-29.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deconstruction</title>
<id>8886</id>
<revision>
<id>41501902</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:18:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eelsdraeb</username>
<id>799034</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Lack of usefulness */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Deconstruction (disambiguation)]].''
The term '''''deconstruction''''' was coined by French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] in the 1960s and is used in contemporary [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]] to denote a philosophy of meaning that deals with the ''ways'' that [[meaning]] is constructed and understood by writers, texts, and readers. One way of understanding the term is that it involves discovering, recognizing, and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — assumptions, ideas, and frameworks that form the basis for thought and belief. It has various shades of meaning in different areas of study and discussion, and is, by its very nature, difficult to define without depending on "un-deconstructed" concepts.
{{Cleanup-rewrite}}
==The difficulty in defining deconstruction==
===The problems of definition===
The term ''deconstruction'' in the context of Western philosophy is highly resistant to formal definition. [[Martin Heidegger]] was perhaps the first to use the term (in contrast to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzschean]] demolition), although the form we recognize in English is an element in a series of translations (from Heidegger's ''Abbau'' and ''Destruktion'' to [[Jacques Derrida|Jacques Derrida's]] ''déconstruction''), and it has been explored by others, including [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]], [[Paul de Man]], [[Jonathan Culler]], [[Barbara Johnson]], [[J. Hillis Miller]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], and [[Geoffrey Bennington]].
These authors have resisted calls to define the word succinctly. When asked what deconstruction is, Derrida once stated, "I have no simple and formalizable response to this question. All my essays are attempts to have it out with this formidable question." (Derrida 1985, at 4.) There is a great deal of confusion as to what kind of thing deconstruction is — whether it is a school of thought (it is certainly not so in the singular), a method of reading (it has often been reduced to this by various attempts to define it formally), or, as some call it, a "textual event" (a characterization implied by the Derrida quote just given) — and determining what authority to accord to a particular attempt at delimiting it.
Many pages have been devoted to attempts to define deconstruction or to demonstrate why attempts at delimitation are misconceived. Most of these attempts (including those signed by critics who are considered deconstructionist) are difficult reading and resistant to summary. On the other hand, there is a [[cottage industry]] of writers of variably explicit sympathy or antipathy to deconstruction (however they understand it) who attempt to explain it to those who are reluctant to read the original deconstructive texts.
Surveying the deconstructive texts and the secondary literature, one is confronted with a bafflingly heterogeneous range of arguments. These include claims that deconstruction can sort out the Western tradition in its entirety, by highlighting and discrediting unjustified privileges accorded to white males and other hegemonists. On the other hand, some critics claim that deconstruction is a dangerous form of [[nihilism]] that wishes the utter destruction of Western scientific and ethical values. As a rule, deconstruction is ridiculed by members of the political right of just about any stripe. Its reception on the left is far more varied, ranging from hostility to co-optation:
*While there is no doubting that principal figures associated with deconstruction in France have been "leftist" in their political positions, Heidegger's place in deconstruction complicates matters considerably, as do the politics of Paul de Man in early adulthood. Heidegger assumed the rectorship of the University of Freiburg from 1933-1934 as a member of the National Socialist German Workers Party, while de Man worked, during the German occupation of Belgium, as a writer for a collaborationist newspaper, ''Le Soire''.
*From a racial-religious perspective, deconstruction has no clear sectarian identity. For example, Derrida's views on religion are anything but sectarian. As a Jew raised in a walled Jewish community in colonial Algeria, Derrida rejected what he regarded as the countersignature of anti-Semitism by Algerian Jewish institutions of the 1940s. He is almost certainly an atheist in terms of dogmatic theology, and has written about religion in terms of what was shared among the Mosaic monotheisms.
*Those writing sympathetically about deconstruction tend to use an "idiosyncratic" (sometimes in fact imitative) style with numerous neologisms, a bent toward playfulness and irony, and a massive amount of allusion across many corners of the [[Western canon]].
===What deconstruction is ''not''===
It is easier to explain what deconstruction is ''not'' than what it ''is''. According to Derrida, deconstruction is neither an analysis, a critique, a method, an act, nor an operation. (Derrida 1985, at 3.) In addition, deconstruction is not, properly speaking, a synonym for "destruction." Rather, according to [[Barbara Johnson]], it is a quite specific kind of analytical "reading":
:[Deconstruction] is in fact much closer to the original meaning of the word 'analysis' itself, which etymologically means "to undo"&mdash;a virtual synonym for "to de-construct." ... If anything is destroyed in a deconstructive reading, it is not the text, but the claim to unequivocal domination of one mode of signifying over another. A deconstructive reading is a reading which analyses the specificity of a text's critical difference from itself." (Johnson, 1981).
In addition, deconstruction is ''not'' the same as [[nihilism]] or [[relativism]]. It is not the abandonment of all meaning, but attempts to demonstrate that Western thought has not satisfied its quest for a "transcendental signifier" that will give meaning to all other signs. According to Derrida, "Deconstruction is not an enclosure in nothingness, but an openness to the other" (Derrida 1984, at 124), and an attempt "to discover the non-place or non-lieu which would be [that] 'other' of philosophy" (Id. at 112). Thus, meaning is "out there", but it cannot be located by Western metaphysics, because text gets in the way.
===Approaching a definition of deconstruction===
Part of the difficulty in defining ''deconstruction'' arises from the fact that the act of defining ''deconstruction'' in the language of Western metaphysics requires one to accept the very ideas of Western metaphysics that are thought to be the subject of deconstruction. Nevertheless, various authors have provided a number of rough definitions. The philosopher [[David B. Allison]] (an early translator of Derrida) stated:
:"[Deconstruction] signifies a project of critical thought whose task is to locate and 'take apart' those concepts which serve as the axioms or rules for a period of thought, those concepts which command the unfolding of an entire epoch of metaphysics. 'Deconstruction' is somewhat less negative than the Heideggerian or Nietzschean terms 'destruction' or 'reversal'; it suggests that certain foundational concepts of metaphysics will never be entirely eliminated...There is no simple 'overcoming' of metaphysics or the language of metaphysics." (Introduction by Allison, in Derrida, 1973, p. xxxii, n. 1.)
Another rough-but-concise explanation of deconstruction is by [[Paul de Man]], who explained, "It's possible, within text, to frame a question or to undo assertions made in the text, by means of elements which are in the text, which frequently would be precisely structures that play off the rhetorical against grammatical elements." (de Man, in Moynihan 1986, at 156.) Thus, viewed in this way, "the term 'deconstruction', refers in the first instance to the way in which the 'accidental' features of a text can be seen as betraying, subverting, its purportedly 'essential' message." (Rorty 1995) (The word ''accidental'' is usually interpreted here in the sense of ''incidental'').
In the context of religious studies Paul Ricoeur (1983) defines deconstruction as a way of uncovering the questions behind the answers of a text or tradition (Klein 1995).
==Logocentrism and the critique of binary oppositions==
Deconstruction's central concern is a radical critique of [[the Enlightenment]] project and of [[metaphysics]], including in particular the founding texts by such philosophers as [[Plato]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], and [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], but also other sorts of texts, including literature. Deconstruction identifies in the Western philosophical tradition a "logocentrism" or "[[metaphysics of presence]]" (also known as ''[[phallogocentrism]]'') which holds that speech-thought (the ''logos'') is a privileged, ideal, and self-present entity, through which all discourse and meaning are derived. This logocentrism is the primary target of deconstruction.
One typical form of deconstructive reading is the critique of binary oppositions, or the criticism of [[dichotomy|dichotomous]] thought. A central deconstructive argument holds that, in all the classic dualities of Western thought, one term is privileged or "central" over the other. The privileged, central term is the one most associated with the [[phallus]] and the
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fter futile attempts to locate and destroy IRA units, he stated that it "never bothered me a bit how many houses were burnt" (a reference to the government policy of burning the homes of suspected [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] and sympathisers). Despite this, he earned the respect of his enemies and the IRA officer [[Tom Barry]] said that he "behaved with great correctness". Montgomery increasingly came to see the conflict as one that could not be won, and withdrawal of British forces as the only feasible solution. In [[1923]], after most of Ireland had won independence and in the middle of the [[Irish Civil War]], Montgomery wrote that "the only way therefore was to give them (the Irish) some form of self-government and let them squash the rebellion themselves".
After the First World War ended, many promising young officers who had gained a higher acting rank during the war were reduced to their substantive ranks, and Montgomery returned to the 1st Royal Warwickshires in [[1925]] as a company commander, or [[captain]]. Montgomery now had to rise up the ranks once more. He married [[Elizabeth Carver]] in [[1927]] and eventually became Lieutenant-Colonel of the 1st Royal Warwickshires battalion in [[1931]], seeing service in [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Egypt]], and India. He was promoted to Colonel and became an instructor at the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] Staff College in [[Quetta]], India. Montgomery did, as was usual, maintain links with the Royal Warwickshires, taking up the honorary position of Colonel-of-the-Regiment in [[1947]]. He became commanding officer of the 9th Brigade in [[1937]]. The year also saw tragedy for him when his wife died from septicaemia. He was promoted to Major-General the following year, taking command of the [[British 8th Division|8th Division]] in Palestine.
==World War II==
Britain declared war on Germany on [[3 September]] 1939, two days after Hitler had [[Polish September Campaign|invaded Poland]]. At the time, Montgomery had only just recently taken command of the [[British 3rd Infantry Division|3rd Division]] and he and his division deployed to Belgium as part of the [[British Expeditionary Force]]. The Germans began their invasion of the [[Low Countries]] on [[8 May]] [[1940]] and the BEF eventually withdrew to [[Dunkirk, France|Dunkirk]] where [[Operation Dynamo]] -- the evacuation of the BEF and French forces to Britain -- began on [[26 May]]. Montgomery was placed in command of [[British II Corps|II Corps]] during the evacuation and he was part of over 330,000 British and French troops that were successfully evacuated from Dunkirk by the time the operation ended on [[4 June]].
===North Africa and Italy===
[[Image:Montgomery watches his tanks move up.jpg|thumb|200px|Montgomery in North Africa, November 1942. His aide (shown behind him looking through binoculars) was killed in action in 1945.]]
He was promoted to [[Lieutenant-General]] shortly after his return to Britain and was placed in command of the 5th Corps ([[July]] [[1940]]-[[April]] [[1941]]), the 12th Corps ([[April]] [[1941]]-[[December]][[1941]]) and the South-Eastern Army ([[December]] [[1941]]-[[August]] [[1942]]). During this time he demonstrated his belief in the importance of meticulous preparation and, above all, training to military operations. In [[August]] [[1942]], the Prime Minister, [[Winston Churchill]], was persuaded by [[Alan Brooke]] to appoint Montgomery commander of the [[British Eighth Army]] in the North African campaign after Churchill's own preferred candidate, [[William Gott|Gott]] was killed flying back to [[Cairo]].
Montgomery's peremptory assumption of command of Eighth Army was deeply resented by [[Claude Auchinleck|Auchinleck]] and his departing staff. Taking command two days earlier than authorised by Auchinleck, on [[13 August]] [[1942]], he ordered immediate reinforcements of the vital heights of [[Alam Halfa]] and joined the army and air headquarters together in a single operating unit. This step is often credited with bringing more unity of purpose to the air and ground effort.
Montgomery also managed to improve the morale of the 8th Army quickly, but at the expense of denigrating his predecessor, Auchinleck. Montgomery's dismissive and occasionally insulting attitude to others often soured opinions about his abilities and personality. He tended to appeal more to the common soldiers under his command than to many of the officers who had more direct dealings with him. Montgomery made a concerted effort to appear before troops as often as possible, frequently visiting various units and making himself known to the men. A criticism of the 8th Army up until this point had been that the consituent units tended to fight their own separate battles. Montgomery was determined that the Army should fight its battles in a unified, focused manner according to a detailed plan. His efforts to bring unity to the Army largely succeeded.
In the [[battle of Alam Halfa]], which began on [[31 August]] [[1942]], [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]] attempted to penetrate the British front line and encircle the Eighth Army. Forewarned by [[Ultra]] decryption of Rommel's plans, this was defeated in a defensive engagement and Rommel's attempted breakthrough was halted with very little gain. In the aftermath of this engagement, Montgomery was criticized for not attacking the retreating German forces. However, one of Montgomery's great strengths as a commander was his understanding of his forces' true capablilities. In his judgement, the 8th Army could not defeat the Germans in mobile, fluid mechanized battles. Choosing to engage in such a battle, therefore, would play to German strength.
Despite Churchill's dismissal of Auchinleck for being insufficiently aggressive, Montgomery demanded more time than Auchinleck had asked for to prepare for the offensive that started with the [[Second Battle of El Alamein|Battle of El Alamein]]. Prior to Montgomery taking command, the history of the campaign in North Africa had resembled a series of see-saws; both sides won battles but neither gained a decisive advantage. Montgomery had noted this and was determined not to fight until he could win a decisive victory. Montgomery put into action his beliefs in the detailed planning and training of his troops. He was also given more armour than Auchinleck had received so that by the time El Alamein began, the 8th Army had over 800 of the latest American-built tanks.
By [[23 October]], the largest British artillery barrage of the Second World War started, Montgomery was confident he would win — but by a ruthless battle of tactical surprise and then gradual mutual attrition, rather than by manoeuvre. Montgomery called this the "killing match". The battle was won through application of overwhelming firepower, while pinning German units in place. By [[2 November]], Rommel wanted to retreat, but [[Hitler]] ordered a 'victory or death' stand. It was ignored as German units fled, leaving more than 30,000 infantry to surrender. It was the first large-scale, decisive allied land victory of the war.
Montgomery was [[Order of the Bath|knighted]] and promoted to full [[general]]. Montgomery's subsequent slow and steady advance as the Germans retreated hundreds of miles towards their bases in [[Tunisia]] used the logistical and firepower advantages of the British Army while avoiding manoeuvre battles. It also gave the Allies an indication the tide of war had genuinely turned in North Africa. Montgomery kept the initiative, applying superior strength when it suited him, forcing Rommel out of each successive defensive position. When Montgomery encountered fiercer frontal opposition than he had anticipated at [[Mareth]], he was forced to switch his major effort into an outflanking inland pincer, backed by low-flying RAF fighter-bomber support in a demonstration of British [[blitzkrieg]]. This was a harbinger of what ground forces could achieve when working closely in tandem with co-operative airforces.
This campaign demonstrated the battle-winning ingredients of morale, co-operation of all arms including the air forces, first-class logistical back-up and clear-cut orders. This approach is Montgomery's legacy to modern field command.
The next major Allied attack was [[Operation Husky]], the invasion of [[Sicily]]. It was in Sicily that Montgomery's famous tensions with US commanders really began. Montgomery managed to recast plans for the Allied invasion, in general making the plan more cautious. Inter-allied tensions grew as the American commanders [[George S. Patton|Patton]], and [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]], took umbrage at what they perceived as Montgomery's attitudes and boastfulness. They resented him, while accepting his skills as a general.
Montgomery continued to command Eighth Army during the landings on the mainland of Italy itself. Shortly thereafter he was recalled to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] to take part in planning [[Operation Overlord]], the invasion of [[Normandy]]. Montgomery assumed command of [[British 21st Army Group|21st Army Group]] before the Normandy invasion and commanded that formation for the rest of the war in Europe.
===Normandy===
Montgomery's role in modifying the plans for [[Operation Overlord]] was crucial. He immediately recommended that the plan be expanded from a three-Division attack to a five-Division attack. As with his takeover of the 8th Army, Montgomery travelled frequently to his units, raising morale and ensuring training was progressing.
During the [[Battle of Normandy|D-Day invasion]], and for several months afterwards, Montgomery commanded all allied ground forces: British, Canadian and American. Allied troops became generally bogged down. The key to the battle was the French city of Caen. Caen had been an objective on D-Day, and Montgomery's original plan called for a steady Allied advance with a breakthro
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